STORY OF THE UNITED GORDY ')"■ ■'aaiLLixu Book._ L-L Cdyrightl^^ & ^ / CQEffilGHT DEPOSm I^J% /^^z^^^^^^>^^^^^^^ A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS BY WILBUR F. GORDY FORMERLY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFrELD. MASS.; AUTHOR OF "ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES." 'AMERICAN LEADERS AND HEROES," AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE," "STORIES OF AMERICAN! EXPLORERS," "COLONIAL DAYS," "STORIES OF EARLY AMERICAN HISTORY," "STORIES OF LATER AMERICAN HISTORY" WITH MANY ILLUSTRA TIONS AND MAPS NEW EDITION CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS KEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON \\\ PlCNNSYLVANIA (1609-1689), .... VII. Life Among the Indians VIII. Early Indian Wars, IX. French IOxrlorations X. The Last Frionch War, XL Life in 'ihe Colonies at the Close (jf 'ihi'I I'rknci AND Indian Wars, ...... XII. Growth toward Union in the C(jlonies. . 13 20 28 63 75 84 87 93 THE REVOLUTION, THE CONFEDERATION. AND THE Fi:Dr:RAL union XIII. The Revolution, 125 XIV. The Breakdown of the Confederation and 'the Formation of 'the Constitu'tion (i 781-1789), . 185 XV. The New Struoole for Polftical Independence AND the Growth of Na'tional Feeling (1789- 1829 194 CONTENTS XVI. Jacksonian Democracy and the West (1829-1841), XVII. The Slavery Question (1841-1850), XVIII. Secession and the Civil War (1860-1865), . PAGE 250 267 298 RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW UNION XIX. Reconstruction Days (1865-1871), XX. The New South (1877- ), . . . XXI. The New West (1865- ), . . . XXII. The New Union (1865) XXIII. The United States Now a World Power, XXIV. Some Industrial, Economic, Social, and Politicai Conditions and Pkohlkms of the Present, Topical Reviews in American History 356 365 37- 410 470 40 1 APPENDICES A. The Declaration of Independence, B. A Chart on the Constitution, . Constitution of the United States, C. Table of States and Territories, D. Presidents of the United States, INDEX, 501 505 506 5 -'I 523 5-'5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS erdinand and Isabella after his George Washington, . A Ship of the Norsemen, Christopher Columbus, The Nina, . The P inlay . The Santa HI aria, Sebastian Cabot, Columbus at the Court of Y New World, Americus Vespucius, . Cortez, Old Spanish Mission, New Mexico, Built 1604 Spanish Gateway, St. Augustine, Florida, . Balboa, ....... Fernando de Soto, 0 . . . . Queen Elizabeth, ..... Sir Walter Raleigh and Autograph, The Destruction of the Spanish Armada, Philippe II., King of Spain, 1 527-1598, An Indian Village at Roanoke, . Jlnglish Explorers Bartering^ with Indians for Rand, Queen Elizabeth's Signature, Signature of James I., Ruins of Old Church at Jamestown, Captain John Smith, . Tobacco-plant, .... A Wild Dash for Life, George Calvert (Lord Baltimore), A Maryland Shilling, . A Puritan, ..... Oliver Cromwell, The Mayflo7ver, .... A Chest which came over in the MayJlo7ver, Myles Standish, . Pilgrim Types, . , Myles Standish's Bill of Expenses after his Visit to the Indians, Front i. veturn from the facing page PACK \piect 2 3 4 4 5 8 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Hooker's Emigration to Connecticut, . . . , Gov. John Winthrop, ....... First Church at Salem, ...... Facsimile of Opening Lines of the Massachusetts Charter, Sir Edmund Andros, ....... The Charter Oak, ....... A Dutch Officer of the Seventeenth Century, A Group of Seventeenth Century Dutchmen, The Earliest Picture of New Amsterdam, . Henry Hudson's Half ]\Ioon on the Hudson, An Early Dutch Man of War William Penn, ........ Penn's Treaty with the Indians, ..... An Indian Camp, . . . Wampum received by Penn from the Indians, Indian Whip (Quirt), War-Club, and Hunting-Arrow, . Indian Snow-shoes and Pappoose-case Totem of the Five Nations, Totem of the Illinois, . Totem of the Sioux, Totem of the Hurons, Carved Pipes from an Indian Mound, Big Elephant Mound, Indians Carrying Canoes over a Portage, French Soldiers of the Time of the French Exploration, Samuel Champlain, ....... La Salle Claiming for France all the Territory through sippi and its Tributaries Flowed, Robert Cavalier De La Salle, ..... French Soldiers and Officers of the Time of tlie French War Quebec in 1730, ....... General Braddock's Troops in an Indian Ambuscade, Maj.-Gen. James Wolfe, Marquis de Montcalm, Puritans Going to Church, A Wanton Gospeller, . The Pillory, Colonial Relics, . Early New Amsterdam, Showing Costumes, Amusements ture, ......... Old Spinning-wheel, .... Title-page of "Poor Richard's Almanac," John Hancock House, Boston, Mass., lames Otis, ..... PAGE facing page 50 51 54 56-57 58 fum hich page the Missis facing page facing page and Architec I 14- 115 117 120 126 127 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii PAGE A Royal Stamp, . , •••...,... 128 Faneuil Hall, Boston, Mass., ......... 129 Old State House, Boston, Mass., . .130 Patrick Henry, . . • . . . . . , , , , , j-^j The "Boston Massacre," .......... 133 Old South Church, Boston, .......... 135 St. John's Church, Richmond, Va., ........ 137 The Fight on Lexington Common, April 19, 1775, • . facing page 138 Old North Church, Boston, Mass., 140 The Retreat from Concord, ....... facing page 140 The Battle of Bunker Hill, ....... facitig page 142 The Washington Elm at Cambridge, . . . .. . . . . 144 The Craigie House, Washington's Headquarters at Cambridge (afterward the residence of Longfellow), ......... 146 Samuel Adams, ............ 14^ Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pa. Chestnut Street Front, . . .150 Signing the Declaration of Independence, .... facing page 150 The Jumel Mansion, New York City, Washington's Headquarters, . . 153 John Burgoyne, ............ 15^ Lafayette, 160 Benjamin Franklin, . . . . . . . . . . ,162 The Attack on the Chew House, Germantown, . . . faicijig pa<^e 164 A Revolutionary Gun, ...'...... 168 A Revolutionary Flint-lock Pistol, . . . ... . . ^ i(;S Clark on the way to Kaskaskia, . . . . , . . .170 John Paul Jones, . . . . . . , . . . .172 'WvQ. Bonhomme Richard 2iVi^\\\ft Serapis, . . . . _ . .173 The Escape of Benedict Arnold, . . . . . . . , .178 Nathaniel Greene, •••........ 180 Washington Firing the First Gun at the Siege of Vorktown, fadf^g page 180 Nelson House, Yorktown, Va., ......... 182 Three Shilling Massachusetts Bill of 1 741, 186 Celebrating in New York the Adoption of the Constitution, .... 189 Washington's Mansion — South and West Fronts — Mt. Vernon, Va., . . 196 Washington's Bedroom, Mt. Vernon, Va., ....... 197 Servants' Quarters, Mt. Vernon, Va., ........ 198! A Mail Carrier, ............ 199 A Fast Mail — 1876 199 A Twentieth Century Flyer, . . . . , , . . .199 John Jay, ............. 200 How Washington Signed his Name at Various Ages, . .... 201 Alexander Hamilton, ........... 202 A Primitive Cotton-gin, 204 Whitney's First Cotton-gin, ......... 205 xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE John Adams, 209 School-house where Thomas Jefferson Received his Early Education, . .214 Monticello, the Home of Jefferson, 215 Thomas Jefferson, 216 A Pack-horse, 217 A Hand Corn-mill, 217 A Sweep-mill, 218 Breaking Flax, 218 An Ohio River Flatboat, . . . 219 Early Settlers Crossing the Plains, ..... facing page 220 Lewis's First Glimpse of the Rockies, facing page 222 James Madison, 228 American Seamen Boarding the Frolic, facing page 232 Old State House, where the Plartford Convention Met, . . . .237 James Monroe, 241 Henry Clay, "The Great Peacemaker," 244 John Quincy Adams, the Anti-slavery Statesman, . . . . . 246 Andrew Jackson, . , ' 251 John C. Calhoun, the Defender of Slavery and State Rights, . . . 253 Daniel Webster, 255 Robert Y. Hayne, 256 The Boston & Worcester Railroad in 1835, 258 The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 1830-35, 258 A Railway Coach of 1830, 261 Martin Van Buren, 262 William Henry Harrison, 268 John Tyler. 269 Facsimile of the Heading of Garrison's Paper, 272 James K. Polk, 275 The Storming of Chapul tepee, . 276 Sutter's Mill, where Gold was first found in California, . . . .279 Zachary Taylor, 280 Modes of travel in the West. An Old Stage-coach and Prairie Schooner, . 282 Millard Fillmore, 283 Fugitive Slave Advertisements, 284 Franklin Pierce, 286 Charles Sumner, 289 Old Plantation Days, 292 James Buchanan, 294 Engine House, Harper's Ferry, . . . 296 Abraham Lincoln, 2 300 Lincoln's Birthplace, 3or Jefferson Davis, 303 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIX Interior of Fort Sumter after the Bombardment in 1863 Long Bridge Across the Potomac at Washington, D. C George B. McClellan, Deck of the Monitor, .... The Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac, . . facing page Parapet at F'ortress Monroe, Grant's " Unconditional Surrender " Letter, A Mortar Battery in front of Vorktown, A Federal Battery in the Field, . Robert E. Lee, ...... Fugitive Negroes Fording the Rappahannock Thomas J. (" Stonewall ") Jackson, George G. Meade, ..... The First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamatio A Federal Cavalry Camp — Winter Quarters George H. Thomas, " the Rock of Chickamauga General Grant and Staff on Point Lookout, 1863 General U. S. Grant. .... Building a Pontoon Bridge, Philip H. Sheridan, . . ■. . Destroying a Railroad at Atlanta, Ga. , "William T. Sherman, .... David Glasgow FarrafTut, Farragut in Mobile Bay, ....... facin^ A Council of War at Massaponax Church, The Surrender of Lee to Grant at Appomattox, . . . f^^i^K A Sanitary Commission Lodge near Alexandria, Andrew Johnson, ..... A Ku-klux "Warning'' in INIississippi, Rutherford B. Hayes, Eads Bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis, A Cotton Press Yard, New Orleans, . A Sugar Plantation, ..... State Buildings, Atlanta, Ga., A Cripple Creek Mine, .... A Reaper, A Steam-Driven Gang-Plow, A Thresher, ...... Indian Warfare in the West, Artesian Well System, Riverside, Cal. An Aerator in An Irriojated Orange Grove, Riverside, Cal., A Midship View of the Great Eastern, showing one of the Paddle Whee and the Launching Gear, . Samuel F. B. Morse's Original Model of the Telegraph Instrument facing pagi foreground. ^ page pai^ PAGE 306 308 312 316 321 323 324 326 327 329 331 332 334 337 ZZ^ 339 340 341 343 344 347 348 351 357 362 366 368 369 370 374 375 376 Zll 378 379 380 383 384 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS in the World, facing page R. F. T, Allen's Original Model of the Typewriter, Alexander Graham Bell's Original Model of the Telephone Receiver and Transmitter, ...... Elias Howe's Original Model of the Sewing Machine, . Opening Day at the Philadelphia Centennial, 1876, , Samuel J. Tilden, James A. Garfield, Supreme Court Room, Capitol, Washington, D. C, . Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, ....... Brooklyn Bridge. One of the Largest Suspension Bridges The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor, . Senate Chamber, Washington, D. C, Hall of the House of Representatives, Washington, D. C, James G. Blaine, .... The New Battleship Maine, . Benjamin Harrison, At the World's Fair, William McKinley, The Inauguration of William IMcKinley, The Wreck of Cervera's Flagship Colon, W.S.Schley, .... George Dewey, .... Shipping and Docks, Pasig River, Manila, United States Troops Landing at Baiquiri, Cuba The Palace at Santiago on which the American Flag was Raised when the American Troops Took Possession, Theodore Roosevelt, ..... William T. Sampson, ..... Nelson A. Miles, Native Tagalo Children, ISIalabon, . Wireless Telegraph Station at Wellfleet, Cape Cod The Atlantic Fleet Starting on its Voyage Around the World, Dec Peace Palace, The Hague, Natural Forest Regions of the United States William H. Taft, The New Department of State Building,. "Woodrow Wilson, ..... American Troops Marching Through Vera Cruz, President Wilson Addressing Congress, April 2, 191 7, American Troops z\rriving in France, Children Promoting the Sale of "Liberty Loans," The Secretary of War and General Pershing Reviewing American Troops in France, .......... PAGE 1907, 464 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Launching a Ship and Immediately Laying the Keel of a New Vessel in the Same Dock, .......... General Pershing's Veterans Direct from the Trenches in France Arrive in New York City, . The Round-Up, . A Textile Mill, Anthracite Coal Mine, . Goods Awaiting Exportation, Transportation in a Large City, Showing Elevated Road, Surface Line, and Subway, ........ A Crowded Street in a Tenement District, New Steel Tower Bridge Across the East River, New York, Ralph Waldo Emerson, ....... John Greenleaf Whittier, ...... The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. One of the Bridges and Lagoons, with the Palace of Education The Capitol, Washington, D. C, . 466 468 470 471 473 476 478 480 481 483 483 484 485 LIST OF MAPS also The World as Known in t'ae Time of Columbus English and Spanish Explorers in America, Routes of Narvaez, De Soto, and Ponce de Leon, The United States as it was in 1650, Plymouth and London Grants, 1G06, England and Holland, .... New England, ....... Province Ruled over by Sir Edmund Andros. 1688 Colonies between Potomac and Hudson Rivers, Routes of Champlain, Marquette, and La Salle French and Spanish Claims, Quebec and Vicinity, ..... Results of the French and Indian War, Boston and Vicinity, ..... New York and Vicinity, .... Washington's Retreat across New Jersey, . Burgoyne's Invasion and Howe's Capture of Philadelpl War in the South and the Northwest Territory, Scene of Arnold's Treason, North America at the Close of the Revolution, Louisiana Purchase and Lewis and Clark Route War of 1812, ..... Oregon Country, .... Area in Dispute at Time of Mexican War, The Mexican Cession, Gadsden Purchase, etc Acquisition of Territory, The First and Second Secession Areas, Campaigns in the West, 1862-63. Virginia Campaigns and McClellan's Route The Battle of Gettysburg, Vicksburg and Vicinity, Chattanooga and Vicinity, Sherman's March to the Sea, Cuba, .... . . Porto Rico, ..... The United States in 1910, . Philippine Islands .... Trade Routes Canal, between fa^ FAGS 7 10 17 nd 29 29 45 53 59 . 71 English Possessions, betioeett pages 88 and 89 100 . 107 • 143 . 151 . 155 ia, . . . .161 . 171 • 177 bthveen pages 1 82 and 183 . 221 bi-hveeii pages 234 and 235 . 270 facing page 274 facing page 280 facing page 294 betzveen pages 304 and 305 . . 318 . 320 . 328 . 330 . 335 . 342 . 414 • 419 between pages 420 and 42 1 . 42a ,'ith Distances by Existing Lines and by the Panama . 444, 445 2XU A TOPICAL OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY* DISCOVERY OF AMERICA CHAPTER I DISCOVERY OF AMERICA EUROPEAN TRADE WITH ASIA IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. a. Silks, spices, and precious stones brought by ships and caravans to cities of Southern Europe. b. Genoa and Venice made rich by this trade. c. Turks capture Constantinople (1453), making Mediterranean Sea unsafe for European vessels. d. Europe looks for safer route to India. AIDS TO DISCOVERY. a. Gunpowder made easier the conquest of uncivilized peoples. b. Mariner's compass encoiu'aged sailors to venture far out into the c. The printing press spread abroad the knowledge of new-found lands. 3. PORTUGAL LEADS IN DISCOVERING AN EASTERN ROUTE. a. Portugal then a world power. 6. Portuguese sailors explored western coast of Africa and found Cape of Good Hope (1487). Discovered new route to India. 4. PLANS OF COLUMBUS. a. Decided eastern coast of Asia could be reached by sailing west- ward across the Atlantic. b. Difficulty in convincing others and acquiring enough money to equip a fleet. 5. FIRST VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS (1492). a. Queen Isabella of Spain aids Columbus. b. The three vessels. c. Columbus sets sail (August 3, 1492). d. The sailors in despair. «. Land discovered (October 12, 1492). • The topics in heavy type refer to related European history. xxiii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 6. OTHER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. a. Sailors now anxious to make voyage. b. Three other voyages made, but no spices, gold, etc., found. c. Last days of Columbus. 7. JOHN CABOT DISCOVERS THE MAINLAND OF NORTH AMERICA (1497^. a. Spain and Portugal apportion newly discovered lands. b. England sends John Cabot to find new westward route to India. c. He discovers the mainland of North America. S. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS AND THE NAMING OF AMERICA. 9. MAGELLAN PROVES AMERICA TO BE A CONTINENT. EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION CHAPTER II SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD 10. PRECIOUS METALS THE MAIN OBJECT OF THE SPANIARDS. 11. DE LEON DISCOVERS FLORIDA (1513). 12. DE SOTO EXPLORES FLORIDA AND DISCOVERS THE MIS- SISSIPPI. 13 THE SPANURDS DRIVE THE HUGUENOTS OUT OF FLORIDA. a. Huguenot settlements. b. Why Spain laid claim to Florida. c. The Spaniards destroy the Huguenot settlement in Florida. 14 TWO ADVANTAGES OF SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD. 15. REASONS FOR SPANISH FAILURE. NOTES Balboa Discovers the Pacific (1513). Cortez Conquers Mexico (1519-1521). Navarez Explores Florida (1528). Pizarro Conquers Peru (1531-1533). CHAPTER IH ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD TO RELATIONS BETWEEN SPAIN AND ENGLAND. a. Spain the leading naval power in Europe. b. Defeat of the Spanish Armada (,1588). OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 17. ENGLISH SEA-ROVERS AND EXPLORERS. a. Drake and Hawkins. 18. SIR WALTER RALEIGH'S ATTEMPT TO COLONIZE AMERICA (1584-1587)- a. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's scheme. b. Raleigh sends an exploring party to Virginia. c. Raleigh's first colony fails. d. Raleigh's second colony fails. e. Raleigh's lost colony. 19. ENGLAND'S NEED OF AMERICA. a. Large numbers of men thrown out of work in Englandt NOTES Sir Francis Drake (1577). Bartholomew Gosnold (1602). CHAPTER IV THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND (1607-1680) 20. LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COLONIES. a. The charter and common storehouse. 21. SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN (1607). a. The settlers and their sufferings. 22. THE SERVICES OF SMITH. 23. SMITH RETURNS TO ENGLAND; THE SUFFERING COL- ONISTS (1609-1610). a. "The starving time." 24 DALE'S GREAT REFORM: HE ESTABLISHES INDIVIDUAL OWNERSHIP OF LAND AND GOODS. a. Dale's severe measures. b. Dale abolishes the system of the common storehouse. 25. TOBACCO THE MAIN SOURCE OF WEALTH. 26. THE SECOND GREAT REFORM: SELF GOVERNMENT (1619). a. The new government. 27. GREAT NEED OF LABOR; LABOR SUPPLY. a. White servants sent to Virginia, b. The first cargo of negro slaves (1619). 88. TOBACCO ESTABLISHES RURAL LIFE. OUTLINE OF A.MERICAN HISTORY 29. BERKELEY AND THE PEOPLE. SO. BACON LEADS AN UPRISING OF THE PEOPLE (1676). 0. The Navigation Laws. h. Tyranny of Berkeley. c. Bacon's Rebellion. 31. LORD BALTIMORE AND THE CATHOLICS SETTLE MARYLAND (1634^- 32. LORD BALTIMORE'S PROPRIETARY RIGHTS. a. The liberal charter. b. A remarkable provision of the charter. S3,. DISPUTES ABOUT BOUNDARIES AND RELIGION. 34. PROSPERITY OF THE PEOPLE. a. Rural life of the people. NOTES North and South Carolina (1663-1729). Georgia (1733)- CHAPTER V THE PILGRIMS .\XD PURITANS IN MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT (1620-16S9) SB. ENGLAND UNDER THE STUARTS (1603-1649 and 1660-1688). a. The tyrannical Stuarts. b. No taxation without representation. c. James U driven from England. d. The Church of England and the Puritans. e. The Separatists. 36. PILGRIMS MIGRATE TO AMERICA (1620). a. The Pilgrims escape to Holland. b. Their aims and character. 37. VOYAGE AND FIRST WINTER. 38. THE COVENANT, DEMOCRACY, AND THE CHURCH. a. Pilgrim leaders. 30. RELATIONS WITH THE INDIANS. 40. THE PURITANS AND THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY U628-1630). a. Some Puritan leaders form a trading company. b. The Puritans secure a liberal charter. c. The Puritan settlements in 1630. 41. THE NEW ENGLAND TOWNSHIP. a. The meeting-house and the village, xxvi OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 42. CHURCH AND STATE. a. Puritans allow none but church members to vote. 43. MASSACHUSETTS GETS CONTROL OF THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY (1633-1636). a. The Dutch at Hartford. 44. MASSACHUSETTS SETTLE THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY (1635-1636). a. Settlement at Hartford. 45. THOMAS HOOKER AND DEMOCRACY. 46. THE CONNECTICUT CONSTITUTION (1639). a. Government by the people. b. New Haven colony. c. The Connecticut charter. 47. RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE IN MASSACHUSETTS LEADS TO THE SETTLEMENT OF RHODE ISLAND (1636). a. Roger Williams and his views. 1). Roger Williams driven out of Massachusetts. c. Anne Hutchinson. 48. THE NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERACY (1643). a. Enemies of the New England Colonies. 49. THE QUAKERS IN NEW ENGLAND. a. Punishment of the Quakers. b. Peculiar ideas of the Quakers. c. Why the Puritans persecuted the Quakers. 50. TROUBLE WITH MASSACHUSETTS AND LOSS OF THE MAS- SACHUSETTS CHARTER (1684). a. Independent attitude of Massachusetts. b. Enemies of Massachusetts. c. Complaints against Massachusetts. 51. ANDROS, THE STUART GOVERNOR IN NEW ENGLAND (1686- 1689). a. Tyranny of Andros in Massachusetts. b. Andros fails to secure the Connecticut charter. c. Andros sent back to England. 52. INDUSTRIES AND TRADE IN NEW ENGLAND. a. Comparison between soil and climate in New England and in Virginia. NOTE New Hampshire (1623). OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY CIL\PTER VI THE DUTCH IX NEW YORK AXD THE QUAKERS IN PENNSYLVANIA fi6og-l68o) 53. HENRY HUDSON SEEKS THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE (1609). a. Hudson discovers the Hudson River. b. He wins the good-will of the Indians for the Dutch. 54. DUTCH CLAIMS TO NEW NETHERLAND. a. Dutch settlements and forts 1,1623). 55. THE PATROOXS. a. Powers and duties of the patroons. k6. the dutch WIN THE FRIENDSHIP OF THE IROQUOIS IN- DIANS AND THUS SECURE AN EXTENSIVE FUR TRADE. a. Results of the friendship of the Iroquois for the Dutch. 57. NEW NETHERLAND UNDER DUTCH GOVERNORS (1623- 1664). a. The government. b. The four governors. c. The mixed population. 5S. NEW NETHERLAND BECOMES NEW YORK (1664^ a. Why England wished to get control of New Netherland. b. The Dutch yield to the EngUsh. c. Why the Dutch failed. 59- NEW YORK UNDER ENGLISH GOVERNORS. a. Leisler leads an uprising of the people against Andros. 60. THE QUAKERS IN ENGLAND. 61. WILLIAM PENN AND THE QUAKERS SETTLE PEXN- SYLVANIA (16S1). a. Penn becomes proprietor of Pennsylvania. 62. THE QUAKERS LIVE IN PEACE WITH THE INDIANS. 63. PENN'S LIBERAL GOVERNMENT. 64. GROWTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. a. Mixed character of the population. NOTES New Jersey (161S). Delaware (1638). OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER VII LIFE AMONG THE INDL\NS 6s to 76. (THIS CHAPTER SHOULD NOT BE ASSIGNED FOR MEMORIZING, BUT IT MAY BE READ AND DISCUSSED. THE SECTIONS HAVING THE MOST VALUE ARE 68, 69, AND 76.) CHAPTER VIII EARLY IXDL\X WARS 77. THE PEQUOT WAR. d. Leading causes of early Indian wars. b. Captain ^Mason's expedition against the Pequots. 78. KING PHILIP'S WAR (1675-167C). (J. King Philip's purpose. b. Results of King Philip's War. CHAPTER IX FRENCH EXPLORATIONS THE FRENCH DISCOVER AND EXPLORE THE ST. LAWRENCE. a. Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence 1,1534'^. b. Champlain makes the first permanent French settlement in Canada i,i6o8\ CHAMPLAIN AND THE IROQUOIS (1609). a. Champlain and Henry Hudson. b. Champlain makes the Iroquois enemies of the French. 81. THE FRENCH REACH THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. a. The three great water-ways. b. The Iroquois force the French to seek a long and difficult route. c. Important work of the Jesuit missionaries. 82. LA S\LLE PLANTS THE ARMS OF FRANCE AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI (16S2). a. La Salle sets out to explore the Mississippi. b. La Salle reaches the mouth of the Mississippi. 83. ATTEMPT TO PLANT A COLONY AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI. a. La Salle's two aims. b. What La Salle did. 84. ON ACCOUNT OF LA SALLE'S ENPLORATION THE MISSIS- SIPPI VALLEY BECOMES A PART OF NEW FRANCE. OUTLINE Of a:milRicax history CIL\PTER X THE LAST FRENCH W.\R 85. ENGLAND AND FRANCE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL EN AMERICA ^1689-1763 . a. Wars between England and France (,1689-1763). b. The Iroquois and the fur trade. c. The Intercolonial Wars. 86. CAUSES OF THE LAST FRENCH WAR i756-i763\ a. Reasons why France and England claimed the Mississippi Valley. 6. French forts and colonies. c. The Ohio Company. d. Washington's journey to the French forts. e. The fighting begins at Great Meadows, S7. FLAX OF THE WAR. SS. BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT ,1755^ a. General Braddock. b. The ambush and the battle. c. Dismal failure of Braddock's expedition. So. REMOVAL OF THE ACADL\NS. a. The Acadians take sides with the French. b. Their removal necessary. oc. MONTCALM AND FRENCH SUCCESSES. a. Weak English generals. b. A gloomy outlook for England. pi. WILLIAM PITT AND ENGLISH SUCCESSE3. ;:. WOLFE AND THE CAPTLTIE OF QUEBEC ,1759). a. General Wolfe. b. Quebec. c. The English climb the rocky heights. d. Wolfe's victory and death. c;. THE TREATY OF PEACE .1763 . a. The French driven out of North America. 94. OTHER RESULTS OF THE WAR. u. The English colonies have a growing sense of power and inde- pendence. NOTE * The Conspiracy of Pontiac (1763). OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XI LIFE IN THE COLONIES AT THE CLOSE OF THE FRENCH .\ND INDI.\N WARS 95. THE COLONIES IX GENER.\L. a. The three groups of colonies. b. Population and large towns. THE NEW ENGL.\ND GROUP OF COLONIES 96. OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE. a. The fisheries and the trade with the West India Islands. 97. RELIGION AND CHURCH WORSHIP. a. Church attendance. b. The tithing man. 98. THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT. 99. EDUCATION. a. A system of public education. b. Harvard and Yale established. 100. CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS. a. The stocks and the pillory. loi. LIFE AND MANNERS. a. The old-time fireplace. b. Amusements. c. The Thanksgiving reunion. d. Weddings and funerals. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES^ 102. OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE. a. The plantation and the planter. 103. EDUCATION. a. Berkeley opposes free schools. b. The cavaliers and political leaders in Virginia. 104. LIFE AND MANNERS. a. The mansion and the slave quarters. b. Manner of life of the planters. c. Christmas a festive occasion. THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 105. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR OCCUPATIONS. a. A mixed population in New York and Pennsylvania, b. Trade, agriculture, and manufacturing 106. EDUCATION. OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 107. CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS. 108. LIFE AND MANNERS AMONG THE DUTCH. a. The Dutch house. b. Neat housekeeping. c. Funeral customs. d. Life among the patroons. e. Social life of the people. MODES OF TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION 109. MODES OF TRAVEL. a. Travel on foot or horseback and by row-boats. b. The old stage-coach. c. Newspapers- CHAPTER XII GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES 1 10. COLONL\L GOVERNMENT. a. The governor, the council, and the assembly. b. The three kinds of colonies. 111. REPUBLICAN, PROPRIETARY, AND ROYAL COLONIES. a. Struggle between the royal and proprietary governors and the assembUes. b. No taxation without representation. c. Two results of the struggle. 112. NEED OF UNION AMONG THE COLONIES. a. How the colonies were drawn together. b. Why the royal governors wished union. c. Weakness from lack of union. d. Why the colonies sought union. e. Franklin's Plan of Union. /. Reasons for its failure. THE REVOLUTION CHAPTER XIII THE DEVOLUTION THE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 113. ENGLAND TRIES TO CONTROL AMERICAN COMMERCE. a. The Navigation Laws and Acts of Trade. b. These laws injure the colonies in four ways. OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 114. THE SUGAR ACT AND SMUGGLING (1733). a. Advantages of trading with the French West Indies. b. Smuggling or financial ruin. 115. JAMES OTIS DEFENDS NEW ENGLNAD MERCHANTS AGAINST WRITS OF ASSISTANCE. a. England issues Writs of Assistance. b. Otis declares that " Taxation without representation is tyranny." 116. PARLIAMENT PASSES THE STAMP ACT (1765). a. The colonies submit to indirect taxation for three reasons. b. Why the English Government decided to levy a direct tax upon them. c. The colonies to be required to help maintain a standing army in America. d. The colonies slow in paying taxes during the Intercolonial Wars. ii7. HOW THE STAMP ACT WAS RECEIVED IN AMERICA. a. The Stamp Act. b. Its effects upon the colonists. ti8. PATRICK HENRY INTRODUCES THE VIRGINIA RESOLU- TIONS. a. Patrick Henry's famous resolutions. b. His speed. £19. THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS (1765). a. England's Mistake in passing the Stamp Act. 120. REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT (1766). a. Effect of non-importation upon English merchants. b, William Pitt opposes the Stamp Act. 121. TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION IN AMERICA. a. The government in Kent and the government in Massachusetts. 122. TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION IN ENGLAND. a. The English people not fairly represented in Parliament. 123. GEORGE m. a. The views of George III. b. Why the king wished to tax the Americans. 124. THE NEW TAXES OF 1767. a. Purposes of the new taxes. b. Bitter opposition to the new taxes. c. Results. J2S. THE REDCOATS AND THE "BOSTON MASSACRE'* (1770). a. The British troops withdrawn from Boston. OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 126. COMMITTEES OF CORRESPONDENCE (1772-1774). a. Such Committees appointed in the Massachusetts towns. b. Such committees appointed for the various colonies. 127. SAMUEL ADAMS AND THE "BOSTON TEA PARTY" (1773)- a. George Third's trick in levying the tax on tea. b. Taxed tea sent to America. c. The " Boston Tea Party." 128. BOSTON PUNISHED FOR ITS TEA PARTY. 129. THE COLONIES UNITE IN SUPPORT OF MASSACHUSETTS. a. We must fight. b. The Continental Congress (1774). THE WAR BEGINS 130. BATTLES OF LEXINGTON AND CONCORD (April 19, 1775). a. The Provincial Congress and the "minute-men." b. English troops sent to Lexington and Concord. c. The troops in Concord. d. The fight at Concord Bridge. e. Retreat of the English to Boston. 131. THE COLONIES UNITE FOR RESISTANCE. a. The second meeting of the Continental Congress (1775). b. Americans capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 132. BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL (June, 17, i775). a. The Americans fortify Breed's Hill. b. General Howe attacks the Americans. c. Results of the battle of Bunker Hill. 133. WASHINGTON DRIVES THE BRITISH OUT OF BOSTON. a. Washington's army. b. The Americans seize Dorchester Heights. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE HUDSON RIVER AND THE MIDDLE STATES IN 1776 134. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE (July 4, 1776). a. Desire for independence grows rapidly. b. The colonies begin to realize need of united action. c. Adoption of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. 135. THE BRITISH DIRECT THEIR ATTENTION TO THE MIDDLE STATES AND THE HUDSON RIVER. a. Reasons why the English wished to secure the Hudson River and the Middle States. xxxiv I OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 136. WASHINGTON'S PLAN OF DEFENDING NEW YORK; BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND (1776). a. Washington makes ready the defences of New York. h. He escapes from Long Island. 137. WASHINGTON'S RETREAT FROM NEW YORK AND ACROSS NEW JERSEY. a. The British capture Forts Lee and Washington. b. Lee's disobedience and jealousy. c. Washington's army melting away. 138. BATTLE OF TRENTON (1776). a. Dark outlook for the Americans. b. Washington's plans. c. A glorious victory at Trenton. d. Battle of Princeton. 139. ROBERT MORRIS FURNISHES MONEY FOR THE ARMY. a. Great need of money for the soldiers. b. The noble task of Robert Morris. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE HUDSON RIVER AND THE MIDDLE STATES IN 1777. 140. THE BRITISH PLAN TO GET CONTROL OF THE HUDSON IN 1777. 141. BURGOYNE'S BRILLIANT BEGINNING. C42. SOME OF BURGOYNE'S DIFFICULTIES. 143. BURGOYNE'S INDIAN ALLIES. 144. BENNINGTON AND SUPPLIES. a. Burgoyne's need of supplies. b. Results of the British defeat at Bennington. 145. FAILURE OF ST. LEGER. a. St. Leger's hurried retreat, 146. WHY HOWE FAILED TO UNITE WITH BURGOYNE. a. The traitor Lee. b. Lee's advice to Howe. €47. HOWE'S ADVANCE TOWARD PHILADELPHIA. a. Howe's vain attempt to bring on a battle. b. He sails to Elkton. t48. BATTLE OF THE BRANDYWINE. a. Washington's skilful retreat. b. In delaying Howe, Washington made certain Burgoyne's cap- ture. OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 149. BURGOYNE'S SURRENDER (1777). a. Burgoyne's situation desperate. 150. BURGOYNE'S SURRENDER LEADS TO AID FROM FRANCE. a. Franklin's influence secures secret aid from France. h. Results of the American Treaty with France. 151. THE SUFFERING AT VALLEY FORGE. a. The army strengthened by drill. 152. THE CORMAY CABAL. a. Washington's enemies and their petty scheming. 153. THE BRITISH EVACUATE PHILADELPHIA (1778). a. Battle of iNlonmouth. WARFARE ON THE BORDER AND ON THE SEA 154. ENGLAND'S NUMEROUS WARS. 355. WEAKNESS AND DIFFICULTIES OF THE AMERICANS. a. The Continental Congress has little power. b. The Continental currency. 156- USE OF INDIANS BY THE ENGLISH. a. Importance of the struggle between the backwoodsmen and the Indians. b. What this struggle meant. 157. GEORGE ROGERS CLARK MARCHES AGAINST THE BRITISH POSTS NORTH OF THE OHIO. a. Hamilton's plans. b. Clark's expedition. 158. CLARK SECURES CONTROL OF THE NORTHWEST (1778- 1779)- a. Hamilton marches against Clark. b. Clark's expedition to Vincennes. c. Clark's heroic work. 159. THE AMERICAN NAVY. a. France aids us with her fleets. 160. AMERICAN PRIVATEERING. 161. PAUL JONES AND THE AMERICAN NAVY. a. Paul Jones in command of a small squadron. b. Desperate fight between the Richard and the Serapis (1779). c. A great victory for the Americans. OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY WAR IN THE SOUTH AND THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS (1780-1781) 162. REASONS WHY THE BRITISH TRIED TO CONQUER THE SOUTH. 163. FIRST SUCCESSES OF THE BRITISH. a. Lincoln surrenders to Clinton at Charleston. h. Defeat of Gates at Camden. c. Gates in disgrace. 164. BATTLE OF KING'S MOUNTAIN. 165. PARTISAN WARFARE IN THE SOUTH. a. Clinton's unwise proclamation. h. Marion the Swamp Fox. 166. ARNOLD IN PHILADELPHIA. a. Arnold heavily in debt. h. Arnold tried by court-martial. 167. ARNOLD BECOMES A TRAITOR. e68. ARNOLD FAILS, AND ANDRE IS HANGED AS A SPY (1780). a. The all-night interview. h. Andre's capture. c. Arnold's disgrace and death. 169. GREENE AND CORNWALLIS. a. Greene's difficulties. h. Morgan's brilliant victory at Cowpens. 170. GREENE'S RETREAT INTO VIRGINIA. a. Battle of Guilford Court House (1781). h. Cornwallis retires to Wilmington. c. Greene's skill as a general. 171. CORNWALLIS GOES TO VIRGINIA. a. Cornwallis tries to entrap La Fayette. h. Cornwallis goes to Yorktown. 172. CORNWALLIS, ENTRAPPED AT YORKTOWN, SURRENDERS (1781). a. Direct aid from France. h. Washington's brilliant movement. c. Cornwallis surrenders. 173. THE END OF THE WAR AND THE TREATY OF PEACE (1783). a. Cornwallis's surrender ends the war. b. George Rogers Clark and the West. c. George the Third fails to carry out his plans. xxxvii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XIV THE BREAKDOWN OF THE CONFEDERATION AND THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION (1781-1789) 174. CONGRESS DURING THE REVOLUTION. 175. WEAKNESS OF CONGRESS UNDER THE CONFEDERATION. a. What Congress could and could not do. h. The States control commerce. 176. ENGLAND AND AMERICAN COMMERCE. 177. COMMERCIAL WAR BETWEEN THE STATES. a. New York, New Jerse}', and Connecticut in trouble. b. Congress without power to regulate commerce. 178. FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES OF THE CONFEDERATION. 179. SHAYS'S REBELLION (1786-1787). a. Distress of farmers in western Massachusetts. b. The rebellion put down by the State militia. 180. CONFLICTING CLAIMS TO THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. a. Claims made by four States. b. Maryland objects to these claims. c. Results of common ownership. 181. THE ORDINANCE OF 17S7. 182. EVENTS LEADING TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION. a. The Confederation breaking down. b. The regulation of commerce. c. The conference at Annapolis. d. The Constitution ratified (1788). 183. SUPPORTERS AND OPPONENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION. a. The Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. b. The Constitution ratified. CHAPTER XV THE NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLlTIC.\L INDEPENDENCE AND THE GROWTH OF NATIONAL FEELING (1789-1S29J DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF NEW GOVERN- MENT 184. WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT (1789). a. The choice of all the people. b. The inauguration. xxxviii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 185. THE NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE PEOPLE. , a. Well-settled regions. b. Five principal commercial centres. 186. MODES OF TRAVEL. a. Simple conditions of life. b. The old stage-coach. 187. FERRIES. 188. THE MAILS. a. The post-rider. b. Lack of national patriotism. 789. WASHINGTON'S FORMALITY. a. Aristocratic feeling of the Federalists, b. Washington at public receptions. 100. THE NEW GOVERNMENT. a. The members of the cabinet. 191. HAMILTON AND JEFFERSON THE TWO GREAT POLITICAL LEADERS. a. Shal! the Federal or the State Government be supreme? 192. HAMILTON'S PLAN FOR ESTABLISHING CREDIT. a. Hamilton's financial policy. b. He recommends the payment of the State debts by the United States. c. Jefferson's followers oppose the payment of the State debts. d. Washington made the national capital. 193. A TARIFF LAID ON FOREIGN TRADE. a. The purpose of the tariff. b. A tax on spirituous liquors. 194. THE WHISKEY REBELLION (1794). 195. THE INVENTION OF THE COTTON-GIN (1793). a. Eli Whitney. b. Increase in the value of slave labor. c. Results of the inv^ention upon slave labor. FOREIGN RELATIONS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE NEW GOV- ERNMENT 196. A PERIOD OF TRIAL AND UNCERTAINTY FOR THE YOUNG REPUBLIC (1789-1815). a. Little national feeling in the United States. 6. War between France and England. c. From 1789 to 181 5 the Americans struggle for independence of Europe. OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 197. INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION UPON AMERICAN AFFAIRS. a. The French Revolution (1789). b. "Washington refuses to aid France. 198. CITIZEN GENET DEFIES WASHINGTON. 199. JAY'S FRUITLESS TREATY WITH ENGLAND. a. Our difficulties with England. b. Jay's treaty makes the Americans indignant. 200. POLITICAL PARTIES. 201. THE "XYZ PAPERS." a. The French angry about the Jay treaty. b. Peace with France on two conditions. c. Serious trouble with France. 202. ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS (1798). a. The Virginia and the Kentucky Resolutions (i 798-1 799). 203. CHIEF JUSTICE MARSHALL'S INFLUENCE IN STRENGTHEN- ING THE FEDERAL UNION. SETTLEMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 204. THOMAS JEFFERSON, THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN LEADER, BECOMES PRESIDENT (1801). 205. JEFFERSON'S "REPUBLICAN SIMPLICITY." a. Simple in dress and manner. b. Jefferson the idol of the masses. 206. PIONEERS IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY BEFORE THE REVOLUTION. a. The pack-horse and the forest-trail. 207. LIFE IN THE BACKWOODS OF KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE IN PIONEER DAYS. a. The cabin and its furniture. b. The settler. c. Amusements. 208. THE FLATBOAT AND THE OHIO RIVER. a. Westward emigration. 209. TWOFOLD USE OF RIVERS. a. The roundabout trip the settler must make in trading. 210. NAPOLEON'S SCHEME TO PLANT COLONIES IN THE MISSIS- SIPPI VALLEY. a. His plan to secure Louisiana. xl OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 211. FRANCE REGAINS LOUISIANA FROM SPAIN (1800). a. French army for Louisiana detained at San Domingo. 212. ALARM IN THE UNITED STATES. a. The indignant Westerners talk of war with Spain. 213. THE UNITED STATES PURCHASES LOUISIANA (1803). a. Results of the Purchase. b. Jefferson's bold action. 214. LEWIS AND CLARK'S EXPEDITION THROUGH THE LOUI- SIANA TERRITORY TO THE PACIFIC (1804-1806). a. Results of the expedition. 215. WAR WITH THE BARBARY STATES (1801-1815). a. War with Tripoli. b. Results of war with the Barbary States. 216. FULTON'S STEAMBOAT (1807) AND RIVER NAVIGATION. a. The Clermont. b. Use of the steamboat on Western rivers. 217. BURR'S CONSPIRACY. THE WAR OF 181 2, OR THE SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 218. ENGLAND CLAIMS THE RIGHT TO SEARCH AMERICAN VES- SELS AND IMPRESS AMERICAN SEAMEN. a. " Once an Englishman, always an Englishman." b. Fraudulent naturalization. c. More than four thousand Americans impressed. d. The Leopard fires upon the Chesapeake. e. Results. ^ig. ENGLAND AND FRANCE GREATLY INJURE AMERICAN COM- MERCE (1806-1807). a. England's " Orders in Council " and Napoleon's " Decrees." 220. JEFFERSON'S PEACE POLICY AND THE EMBARGO (1807), a. Disastrous results of the Embargo. b. Bitter dissatisfaction leads to the repeal of the Embargo. 221. TECUMSEH'S CONSPIRACY (1811). a. Tecumseh and his plans. b. Battle of Tippecanoe and its results. 222. CAUSES OF THE WAR OF 1812: POLITICAL PARTIES. a. Napoleon's trick. b. Increasing trouble with England. c. Attitude of the two political parties toward war v*^ith England. d. War declared. xli OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 1123. THE BRITISH AND AMERICAN NAVIES. ^24. FIGHT BETWEEN THE "CONSTITUTION" AND THE " GUIZR- RIERE" (1812). 225. SUPERIORITY OF AMERICANS IN NAVAL BATTLES. a. English war vessels blockade our coast. b. Privateers. 226. WAR IN THE NORTHWEST (1812-1813). 227. PERRY WINS A BRILLIANT VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE (1813). a. Perry's remarkable energy. b. His bravery. c. His victory. 228. THREE-FOLD ATTACK OF THE BRITISH IN 1814. 229. MCDONOUGH'S VICTORY ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 230. THE BRITISH CAPTURE WASHINGTON AND ATTACK BAL- TIMORE (1814). 231. WAR WITH THE CREEK INDIANS (1814). 232. BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS (1815). a. Andrew Jackson's preparations. b. Bloody repulse of the British. c. Result of the battle. 233. THE HARTFORD CONVENTION (December, 1814- January, 1815), a. New England dissatisfied. b. The people greatly excited. c. What the Hartford Convention did. 234. TREATY OF PEACE AND RESULTS OF THE WAR. DEVELOPMENT WEST OF THE ALLEGHANIES 235. PURCHASE OF FLORIDA (1819). a. The Seminole Indians protect runaway slaves. b. Jackson in Florida. 236. THE MONROE DOCTRINE (1823). a. Spain and the " Holy Alliance." b. The Monroe Doctrine. c. Results of the Monroe Doctrine. 237. THE NATIONAL ROAD. a. Two obstacles to westward migratloa. b. The steamboat and the Dack-horse slii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 238. THE NATURAL BOUNDARY-LINE BETWEEN FREEDOM AND SLAVERY. a. Slavery in the North and in the South. C39. THE QUESTION OF THE EXTENSION OF SLAVERY INTO THE LOUISIANA TERRITORY. a. The South eager to maintain an equality in the Senate. 240. THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE (1820). a. Attitude of the North and the South toward slavery in Missouri. h. Missouri and Maine. c. The two provisions of the Missouri Compromise. 241. THE ERIE CANAL (1825). a. Difficulties in building the canal. 242. RESULTS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ERIE CANAL. 243. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. a. Two ways of making internal improvements. h. The "Elastic Clause" of the Constitution. 244. NEW PROBLEMS AND A NEW POLITICAL PARTY. a. '.The era of good feeling. b. Three pressing questions. c. The National Republican party. CHAPTER XVI JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST ^829-1844) 245. CHARACTER OF ANDREW JACKSON. a. A man of the people. 246. THE SPOILS SYSTEM. a. Rotation in office. 247. "A TARIFF FOR REVENUE WITH INCIDENTAL PROTEC- TION." 24S. A PROTECTIVE TARIFF. a. English goods in American markets. 249. SOUTH CAROLINA OBJECTS TO A HIGH PROTECTIVE TARIFF. a. The high tariff of 1828. h. Slavery and the four great staples of the South. c. The South desires free trade, xliii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 250. CALHOUN AND NULLIFICATION (1831-1832). a. Calhoun believes in State rights and nullification. 251. NEW ENGLAND MANUFACTURERS AND THE PROTECTIVE TARIFF. 252. WEBSTER AND THE UNION. a. Webster believes the Union to be supreme over the States. 253. JACKSON'S FEELING TOWARD NULLIFICATION. a. Jackson's toast. 254. SOUTH CAROLINA AND STATE RIGHTS. a. South Carolina declares the tariff acts null and void. b. The compromise with South Carolina. 255. JACKSON A:-;D the united STATES BANK. 256. JACKSON'S REMOVAL OF DEPOSITS (1S33). 257. THE INTRODUCTION OF THE RAILROAD. a. The new problem. b. The first passenger railroad in the United States. 258. THE GROWTH AND RESULTS OF THE RAILROAD. 259. RAPID GROWTH OF THE WEST. 260. SPECULATION IN WESTERN LANDS. 261. WILD-CAT BANKING. 262. THE UNITED STATES FREE FROM DEBT. 263. STATE SPECULATION IN INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 264. THE SPECIE CIRCULAR. 265. THE FINANCIAL PANIC OF 1837. 266. THE INDEPENDENT TREASURY a. Repudiation of State debts. 267. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM AND THE NEWSPAPER. 268. OTHER AIDS TO PROGRESS. a. Value of ether discovered (1846). 269. THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT. a. The drinking habit during the years which followed the War of 1S12. b. Temperance societies increase in number and influence. xliv OUTLINE or AMl^RiCAN HISTORY CHAPTER XVII THE SLAVERY QUESTION (1841-1850) 270. MORSE AND THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH (1844). a. What the telegraph has done for the world. b. Horace Wells and anaesthetics. 271. " FIFTY-FOUR FORTY OR FIGHT " (1844). a. Conflicting claims to the Oregon country. 272. AMERICAN SETTLERS STRENGTHEN OUR CLAIMS TO OREGON. a. Reasons for our claims to Oregon. b. American emigration in 1843 ^-bd 1844, c. Oregon boundary dispute settled by treaty. 273. THE ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENT. a. The rights of the common people. 274. WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND "THE LIBERATOR." 275. SOUTHERN OPPOSITION. 276. NORTHERN OPPOSITION. 277. GROWTH OF THE ABOLITION MOVEMENT. 278. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS DEFENDS THE RIGHT OF PETITION. a. "Gag-law" in the House of Representative:. TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR 279. THE ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. c. The Texans declare their independence of Mexico. b. Why the South favored the annexation of Texas. 280. ATTITUDE OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH TOWARD THE MEXICAN WAR. 281. THE CAUSES OF THE MEXICAN WAR. a. General Taylor advances into the disputed territory. b. Congress declares war. 282. THE CHARACTER OF THE STRUGGLE. a. The battles all won by the Americans. 283. RESULTS OF THE WAR. 284. THE WILMOT PROVISO. xlv OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY THE MEXICAN CESSION AND THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 285. DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA AND ITS RESULTS (1848). a. Excitement of the people. b. The three routes to California. t. The dangers of the overland route. d. Results of the discovery of gold in California. 286. CALIFORNIA SEEKS ADMISSION INTO THE UNION AS A FREE STATE (1S49). 2S7. DIFFICULT SLAVERY QUESTIONS IN 1850. (7. Slavery in California and the District of Columbia. h. Threats of secession. 28S. THE COMPROMISE OF 1850. a. Henry Clay the "Peace Maker." b. The four essential clauses of the Omnibus Bill. 2S9. THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW AND ITS RESULTS IN THE NORTH. o. Indignation in the North. £90. PERSONAL LIBERTY BILLS AND THEIR RESULTS IN THE SOUTH. 291. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD 292. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN. 293. COMMODORE PERRY SECURES A TREATY WITH JAPAN (1854). 294. FILIBUSTERING EXPEDITIONS (1851-1S60); THE OSTEND MANIFESTO (1S54). a. The slaveholders eager for Cuba. THE FIGHT FOR SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES 295. THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL (1854). a. The South desires a further extension of slave territory. b. Results of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 296. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE CONTROL OF KANSAS. a. Emigrant aid societies in the North. b. Bloodshed in Kansas. 297. TRIUMPH OF THE FREE-STATE MEN. a. Two rival governments in Kansas. 298. ASSAULT ON CHARLES SUMNER (1856). a. Results of the assault. xlvi OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 209. NEW POLITICAL PARTIES (1854). a. The Whigs. b. The Republican Party. 300. IMMIGRATION FROM EUROPE. a. The reasons for the great increase in immigration from Europe. b. Why immigrants would not settle in the South. 301. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH. a. Reasons why the South fell behind the North in prosperity. 302. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN THE NORTH. 303. INFLUENCE OF THE WEST IN FAVOR OF NATIONALISM. a. The prairie and the railroad. • b. Friendly relations between the North and the West. c. National feeling in the West. 304. THE FINANCIAL PANIC OF 1857. a. Causes of the panic. 305. THE DRED SCOTT DECISION (1857). a. The principle of popular sovereignty applied to all the Territorieso b. Dred Scott. c. The decision far-reaching. 306. JOPIN BROWN'S RAID AT HARPER'S FERRY (1859). a. John Brown and his plan. b. Results of the raid. CHAPTER XVIII SECESSIOx^ AND THE CIVIL WAR ^1860-1865) 307. SLAVERY SPLIT THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY (i860). a. Slavery in the Territories. 30S. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. a. The boy and the man. b. Patient and persevering. 309. THE SOUTHERN POINT OF VIEW. a. The State first in the South. 310. THE NORTHERN POINT OF VIEW. a. The Union first in the North. 311. STEPS TOWARD THE CIVIL WAR. a.. The trouble over slavery. xlvii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 312. secession of the remaining cotton states and orga:^:ization of the confederacy ^1861). 3 13. advantages of the north. 314. advantages of the south. 315. the south seizes national property; the "star of THE WEST.** a. Southern men in the cabinet. b. Buchanan's indecision brings disaster upon the Union. 316. LINCOLN'S INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 317. THE CONFEDERATES CAPTURE FORT SUMTER. a. The brave little garrison makes a stubborn defence. b. Results of the attack on Fort Sumter. 31S. SECESSION OF FOUR MORE STATES. 319. BATTLE OF BULL RUN. a. The opposing forces. b. The Northern army, at first successful, retreats in a panic. 3.-0. RESULTS OF THE BATTLE OF BULL RUN. 321. THE "TRENT" AFFAIR {iS6i). 32 2. ENGLAND RESENTS THE CAPTURE OF MASON AND SLIDELL= a. England sends troops and war-vessels to Canada. b. President Lincoln gives up ^Mason and Slidell. THE NATION IN PERIL S23. UNION PLAN OF THE WAR. 324. ENGLAND AND KING COTTON. 32s. THE BLOCKADE. 326= The McrrinuK and the Monitor (1862). a. The Confederates make an iron-clad of the M err i mac. b. The Mcrrimac plays havoc with the blockading squadron. c. Consternation in the North. d. The Monitor arrives just in time. c. The sturdy little Monitor saves the Union. 327. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI. a. Why the North desired to get control of the Mississippi. 325. CAPTURE OF FORTS HENRY AND DONELSON (1S62). a. The Confederate line of defence, xlviii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 329. THE BATTLE OF PITTSBURG LANDING (OR SHILOH). a. General Grant waits for Buell. b. Grant wins a victory. 330. CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS. a. Confederate defences. b. Farragut runs by the forts. 331. THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN (1S62). a. McClellan creates a splendid army. b. ^McClellan objects to Lincoln's plan. c. jNIcDowell stationed at Fredericksburg. 332. McCLELLAN ADVANCES UP THE PENINSULA. a. McClellan stops for a month at Yorktown. b. Battle of Fair Oaks. SSS. "STONEWALL" JACKSON IN THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY; McCLELLAN CHANGES HIS BASE OF SUPPLIES. a. The "Seven Days' Battles." 334. LEE'S FIRST INVASION OF THE NORTH (1862). a. Second Battle of Bull Run. b. ^Maryland people loyal to the Union. 335. BATTLE OF ANTIETAM (September 17, 1862). a. Lee retreats into Virginia. b. Burnside, who supersedes McClellan, is defeated at Fredericks- burg. THE TIDE TURNS 336. LEE'S SECOND INVASION OF THE NORTH; BATTLE OF GET- TYSBURG (1863). a. Hooker's defeat at Chancellorsville. b. Lee's reasons for invading the North in 1863. c. Lee's advance. d. The two armies meet at Gettysburg. e. The first day. /. The second day. g. The furious cannonade. /;. Pickett's charge. i. Lee's defeat. 337. CAPTURE OF VICKSBURG (1863); OPENING OF THE MIS- SISSIPPI RIVER. a. Grant attacks Vicksburg from the south. b. The Confederates starved into surrender. xlix OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 338. SLAVERY AND THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION (January i, 1863). a. The slaves aid the cause of the South. 339. EMPLOYMENT OF EMANCIPATED BLACKS IN NORTHERN ARMY STOPS EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS. a. Blacks in the Union armies. 340. CONSCRIPTION IN THE NORTH; DRAFT RIOTS. 341. CONSCRIPTION IN THE SOUTH. 342. BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA (1863). a. The importance of Chattanooga. b. General Thomas saves the Union army from ruinous defeat. 343. SIEGE OF CHATTANOOGA. a. Critical situation of the Union army. 344. BATTLE OF CHATTANOOGA. a. Bragg's strong position. b. Two heroic charges by the Union troops. THE HAMMERING CAMPAIGN (1864). ^;45. THE UNION PLAN OF 1S64. a. General Grant in command of all the Union armies. b. Two great movements. 346. "ON TO RICHMOND." a. In the Wilderness. b. Grant transfers his army across the James. 347. EARLY'S RAID IN THE SHENANDOAH. a. Early threatens Washington and burns Chambersburg, 348. SHERIDAN IN THE SHENANDOAH. a. "Sheridan's Ride." b. He defeats Earl}-. \ »> 549. "ON TO ATLANTA. a. Importance of Atlanta and Georgia. b. Sherman's difl5culties. c. Capture of Atlanta. 350. "SHERMAN'S MARCH TO THE SEA."' a. A Christmas gift to President Lincoln. 351. CAPTURE OF MOBILE. a. The defence of ^lobile. b. A terrible struggle. OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 352. SYMPATHY OF ENGLISH WORKINGMEN WITH THE NORTH. 353. ENGLAND AND THE CONFEDERATE NAVY. a. Confederate cruisers. b. The Alabama. c. The Kcarsarge sinks the Alabama. d. The "Alabama Claims." 354. NAPOLEON III AND THE CONFEDERATE NAVY. a. Napoleon's desire to establish an empire in Mexico. b. Maximilian in Mexico. APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE 355. FALL OF RICHMOND. a. Lee fails to break through Grant's army. h. Lee retreats. 356. LEE'S SURRENDER (1865). a. Grant's delicacy of feeling. h. The generous attitude of the Government. 357. FLIGHT AND CAPTURE OF JEFFERSON DAVIS. 358. THE ASSASSINATION OF LINCOLN (1865). a. The aim of the conspirators. b. The grief of the people. c. The spirit of Lincoln's noble service. 359. THE SANITARY AND CHRISTIAN COMMISSIONS, a. The work of noble women. 360. THE RESULTS OF THE WAR. RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW UNION CHAPTER XIX RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 361. CONDITION OF THE SOUTH WHEN JOHNSON BECAME PRESIDENT. a. Perplexing questions. 362. ANDREW JOHNSON. 363. PRESIDENT JOHNSON'S PLAN OF RESTORING THE SE- CEDED STATES. 364. THE FREEDMEN AND SOUTHERN LEGISLATION. li OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HIS TORY 365. THE CONGRESSIONAL PLAN OF RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SECEDED STATES (1867). a. President Johnson's bitter feeling toward Congress. h. Two essential features of the Congressional plan. 366. THE WORK OF RECONSTRUCTION COMPLETE (1871). 367. BITTER STRUGGLE BETWEEN PRESIDENT JOHNSON AND CONGRESS (1867-1868). a. The Tenure of Office Act. 368. THE IMPEACHMENT OF PRESIDENT JOHNSON. 369. NEGRO SUFFRAGE AND CARPET-BAG RULE (1868-1871). a. The negro a frcedman, a citizen, and a voter. h. Great disorder, heavy taxes, and bad laws. 370. THE KU-KLUX KLAN (1868-1871). a. Brutal methods of the Ku-Klux Klan. 371. PRESIDENT GRANT SENDS TROOPS TO THE SOUTPL a. Unsatisfactory results of reconstruction. CHAPTER XX THE NEW SOUTH (1877- ) 372. PRESIDENT HAYES WITHDRAWS THE TROOPS FROM THE SOUTH (1877). 373. EADS AND THE MISSISSIPPI JETTIES (1879). a. The mud bars at the mouth of the Mississippi. h. Captain Eads proposes the ''jetty system." c. Success of the plan. 374. THE NEW SOUTH. a. Cotton. h. Railroads. c. Manufacturing. d. Natural mineral resources. e. Prosperity in the South. 375. THE NEW ORLEANS COTTON CENTENNIAL (1884), a. New Orleans in 1884. 376. THE ATLANTA EXPOSITION (1895). 377. THE FREEDMEN AND EDUCATION (1865- a. Industrial progress of the freedmen. Ui OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER XXI THE NEW WEST (1865- ) 378. POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION. a. Immigration since 1880. h. Value of immigrants to the United States. 379. INFLUENCE OF THE PUBLIC LANDS ON OUR NATIONAL GROWTH. a. The pre-emption system. h. The Homestead Bill. 380. WESTWARD EXPANSION. a. The opening of the prairies. h. Reaping and threshing machines. c. The steam-driven gang-plow. d. Results of Westward migration. 381 THE MORMONS. a. Joseph Smith. h. Thrift of the ^Mormons in Utah. 382. THE PACIFIC COAST AND CHINESE IMMIGRATION. a. Three reasons for opposition to Chinese immigration. 383. THE PACIFIC RAILROADS FURNISH THE SHORT NORTH- WEST PASSAGE TO CHINA, JAPAN, AND THE INDIES (1869;. a. The five Pacific railroads and Western settlements. h. The railroad and the telegraph help to maintain the Union. c. A short route to China and Japan. 384. THE ARID REGION AND THE PROBLEM OF IRRIGATION. 385. FOREST RESERVATIONS. CHAPTER XXII THE NEW UNION (1865- ) 386. THE ATLANTIC CABLE (1866). a. The wire cable of 1858 not successful. h. Results of the Atlantic cable. 387. THE PURCHASE OF ALASKA (1867). a. National resources of Alaska. 388. GRANT'S INDIAN PEACE POLICY (1869). c. Failure of the war policy. b Grievances of the Indians. c. The Indian reservation. d. Why the reservation system failed. e. The Dawes Act. liii OUTLIXF OF AMERICAN HIS FORV 5S0. THK FIXAXCIAT. PAXIC OF iS:^;. ij. Spocuhuiv">n in railroad-building and Wostorn lands. .^oo. RAILROAD STRIKFS u^rrV 5ji. TllF CFXri-NXlAL FXHllUriOX ^iS7o\ ti. What the Conionnial taviglu the people. b. The telephone perfected ;,iS76\ ^o-. Tlir Kl.FCrOKAL COMMISSIOX ANO THE FRFSIOFXCY d. A close election. b. The Joint High Commii^sion. c. Decision in favor of Hayes. ^^oo- RFSUMrnox of stfcif r.wMFXT ;tS:o\ tj. Greenbacks during the Civil War. h. Greenbacks become as good as gold. ^;04. ASSASSIN A riOX OF PRKSIDENT CARFIFLD ^iSSi^; CIVIL SKRVICF RFFORM i,i8S3-iSS6\ d. Reform in the civil service. b. Rapid growth of the reform. •;j5. THF BROOKLYN' BRIDC.F ^iSv\0. ^;oo. rRFSIDFXTIAL SUCCESSION ACT ^;iSS6). .;or. KNlOlirS OF l.AFOR. d. Black lists and boycotting. :,oS. THE STATUE OF LIBERTY uSSo). 509. OKLAHO^FV OPENED TO SETTLEMENT (1SS9) d. Rapivi gro\v:h of Oklahoma. 400. PEXSIOX FILL (.iSqoV 401. THE PAX-AMERICAN CONGRESS ^iSSo-iSoo\ d. What the Pan-American Congress did. 40-\ TR0F1U.F WFril ITALY (,iSoo) AND WITH CHILI ,iSoi). d. .\ss;\A>inatiou of the Now Orleans Ch»ef of Police. b. Three Ilaliiui citizens lynched. 4.\;. OUR XFW N.VVY (tSS^- ). c. \ccd of a new navy. b. The strength of our navy. • 4D4. THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM INTRODUCED INTO MOST OF THF STATES uSv^^-iSo:^ d. Demoralizing effect;? of buying votes. liv OUrUNE OF AMERICAN lIlSrORV 405. THE BERING SEA TROUBLE SETTLED BY ARBITRATION a. England and tlie United States disagree, b. The decision. 406. THE UNITED STATES AND THE HAWAIIAN REVOLUTION 407. THE WORLD'S COLUMKIAN KXTOSITION (u^oi). 408. FIXAXCIAL TAXTC OF iSo.;. 409. SILVER LEGISLATION (1873-1S93). <7. Silver donionoti/.cd in 1873. b. The Bland Silver Bill (1S7S). r. The Sherman Act (1890). 410. THE TARIFF QUESTION. a. $100,000,000 piled up in the TroasurN evorv voar. b. The IMcKinloy Hill, r. The Wilson Kill. 411. THE rULL:\IAX boycott and the great RAILROAD STRIKE (1894). 412. THE ANGLO-VENEZUELAN DIFFICULTY AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE (1805-1807). a. The boundary dispute settled by arbitration. 413. THE FRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN OF 1896. a. Free silver and the tarilT. b. The Republicans nominate Mckinley and the Democrats Bryan. c. The *' Dingley TaritT " ( 1 80 7). CHAPTER XXIII THE UNITED STATES NOW .\ WORLD l\nVi:R 414- THE CUBANS RISE AGAINST SPAIN O'Vbruary, 1805). a. The brutal policy of concentration. 415 BLOWING UP THE "MAINE." (7. The Maint- and the submarine mine. 410. WAR DECLARKD (April, 1898). a. Spiiin must give up Cuba. 417. DEWEY'S BRILLIANT VICTORY AT JMANILA. ti. The Spanish lloct destroyed. b. Surrender of Manila. Iv OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 418. THE COMING OF CERVERA'S FLEET a. Cervera's plans. h. Cervera "bottled up" at Santiago. c. Lieutenant Hobson's daring exploit. 419. OX TO SANTIAGO. a. Roosevelt Rough Riders at Las Guasimas. 420. THE BATTLE OF SANTIAGO. a. A glorious American victory. 421. CERVERA'S FLEET DESTROYED. 422. RESULTS OF THE WAR (1899). 423. PORTO RICO UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE UNITED STATES (1900). a. Americans relieve financial distress in Porto Rico. 424. the re-election and assassination of president Mckinley (1900-1901). 425. military and civil GOVERNMENT IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS (1899-1901). a. Aguinaldo, the leader of a rebellion. h. Civil government in the Philippine Islands. • 426. CHINA AND THE '^ OPEN DOOR " (1900). a. The scramble for Chinese territory. b. The Chinese uprising against foreigners. 427. THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA (1902). a. The Cubans organize a government. h. Help extended to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. 428. THE ISTHMIAN CANAL (1901-1904). a. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. h. The Isthmian Canal Act. c. The revolution in Panama. d. The treaty with Panama. 429. THE PACIFIC CABLE AND WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY (1903). 430. THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION AT ST. LOUIS (1904). 431. THEODORE ROOSEVELT ELECTED PRESIDENT (1904). 432. PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT AS PEACEMAKER (1905). a. War between Russia and Japan. b. Immense influence of our coimtry on world affairs. Ivi OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 433. THE ATLANTIC FLEET SAILS AROUND THE WORLD (1907- 1909). 434. THE SECOND PEACE CONFERENCE (1907). a. War or arbitration. 435. THE UNITED STATES A WORLD-POWER. a. Independence from England. b. Independence from Europe. c. Greater America. d. The chief manufacturing nation. 436. THE WORLD-POWERS OF EUROPE. a. Two movements. b. United Italy. c. United Germany. d. The Franco-Prussian War. s. A new Germanic empire. /. Wild scramble for territory, g. England. h. Germany, France, and Russia. i. Result of expansion. 437. THE SPIRIT OF UNION AND OF NATIONALISM IN CANADA. a. Dissatisfaction in Upper and Lower Canada. b. A broader union in Canada. 438. THE SPIRIT OF CO-OPERATION AMONG THE NATIONS. 439. THE CONSERVATION OF OUR NATIONAL RESOURCES. a. Natural resources. 440. PRESIDENT TAFT AND THE REVISION OF THE TARIFF (1909). 441. POSTAL S-AVINGS BANKS (1910). 442. ARBITRATION OF THE NEWFOUNDLAND FISHERIES DISPUTES (1910). 443. GENERAL ARBITRATION TREATIES OF THE UNITED STATES WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE. a. Differences settled by arbitration. 444. A NEW TREATY WITH JAPAN (1911). a. Japanese exclusion. 445. ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO MADE STATES (191 2). a. Forty-eight States. Ivii OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 446. WOODROW WILSON ELECTED PRESIDENT (191 2). (7. Issues of 191 2 campaign. 447. REFORMS TO SECURE LARGER CONTROL OVER PUBLIC AFFAIRS FOR THE PEOPLE. a. Primaries select candidates. b. The short ballot. c. Commission form of government. d. Aims to fix responsibility. c. The Initiative and Referendum. /. The Recall. ;;. People elect senators. 448. PARCEL POST (1913). (7. A marked change in transportation. b. A cheap means of delivery. 449. THE TARIFF LAW AND THE INCOME TAX (1913). a. Income tax to raise revenue. b. The incomes that are taxed. 450. THE CURRENCY AND BANKING LAW (19 13). (7. Its threefold object. b. The Federal Reserve Board. 451. THE PANAMA TOLLS (1914). (7. Panama tolls exemption repealed. 452. THE UNITED STATES AND THE TROUBLES IN MEXICO. a. Trouble with Mexico. b. Huerta becomes dictator. c. Refusal to recognize Huerta. d. American sailors imprisoned. c. \'era Cruz captured as reparation. /. jVlediation. g. Latin-American states more friendly toward us. //. Carranza recognized. 7. American troops in Mexico. j. The National Guard on the border of JMexico. 453. THE RAILWAY MANAGERS AND THE FOUR " BROTHERHOODS " (1916). (7. The demands of the four "Brotherhoods." b. President Wilson's suggestion. c. Congress passes a law meeting the employees' wishes. d. A commission appointed. Iviii OUTLINE OP^ AMERICAN HISTORY 454. WOODROW WILSON RE-ELECTED PRESIDENT (1916). a. Issues of 19 16 campaign. b. Results of the election. 455. IMPORTANT LAWS PASSED BY CONGRESS. a. Rural Roads Act. b. Two other laws. 456. THE PROGRESS OF PROHIBITION. a. Maine the first prohibition State. b. Rapid progress of temperance reform. 457. THE OPENING OF THE PANAMA CANAL (19 14). 458. THE UNITED STx\TES AND THE GREAT WAR IN EUROPE (1914-1918). a. A serious international situation. b. Our exports to Europe. c. Each side tries to cut off food supplies from the other. d. Our protest to Great Britain. c. Our protest to Germany. /. The position of our government. g. Germany's position. 459. PRESIDENT WILSON'S ADDRESS TO CONGRESS (April 2, 191 7). a. President Wilson's memorable address. b. Object of German submarine warfare. c. Germany's promise to us. d. Her reckless lack of compassion or of principle. e. German submarine warfare a warfare against mankind. /. A war against all nations. §. "We will not choose the path of submission." h. Germany's course war against our country. i. A state of war formally declared. j. The people's lo^'alty and patriotism. 460. OUR GOVERNMENT CO-OPERATES WITH THE POWERS ALLIED AGAINST GERMANY. a. The English and French War Missions. b. Certain definite things we could do. 461. THE WHOLE NATION AT WAR. a. A fine spirit of co-operation. b. The National Council of Defense. c. Transportation across the sea. lix OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY 462. CONGRESS PASSES THE "FOOD CONTROL BILL." a. Great need of food in the allied countries. b. Millions of private gardens. 463. THE HUGE TASK OF PROVIDING AN ADEQUATE ARMY AND NAVY. a. Increase in the navy. b. The selective draft. c. The whole nation a team. d. The first draft. 464. NAVAL AND MILITARY AID TO OUR ALLIES. a. The United States Naval Reserve Force. b. The Aviation Bill. 465. MEETING THE EXPENSES OF THE WAR. a. The first two "Liberty Loans." 466. GENEROUS GIFTS FOR THE AMERICAN RED CROSS. 467. OUR GOVERNMENT SENDS A MISSION TO RUSSIA. 468. OUR COUNTRY PLAYING A LARGE PART IN INTERNATION.AL LIFE. a. Our duty and interests as a \yorld power. 469. GOVERNMENT OPERATION AND CONTROL OF THE RAIL- ROADS. a. Much confusion in transportation. b. Need of bringing all the railroads under one control. 470. THE COAL SHORTAGE. a. A shutdown of industries. b. Three reasons for the shutdown. 471. OUR NAVY AND OUR MERCHANT SHIPPING. a. Two reasons for making our navy powerful. b. A great merchant marine needed. c. The shipping schedule much improved. 472. THE PATRIOTIC SPIRIT OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE. a. "We are all comrades." CHAPTER XXIV SOME INDUSTRIAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 473. THE NATURAL ADVANTAGES OF THE UNITED STATES. Ix OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. a. The industrial revolution. b. The spinning machine and the power loom. c. The first modern factory. d. The sewing machine (1846). IRON AND STEEL. a. The use of anthracite coal. b. Steel rails and cheaper transportation. c. Extensive use of steel. RAILROAD RATE REGULATION. a. Railroad rates not fair to all shippers. b. The Interstate Commerce Act. c. The rate laws of 1906 and 19 10. THE FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION (1914). TRUSTS AND THE REGULATION 07 TRUSTS. a. The Anti-Trust Law. THE GROWTH OF OUR FOREIGN TRADE. a. The United States leads the world in exports. b. The immense volume of our expanding commerce. ELECTRICITY IN MODERN LIFE. a. The many uses of electricity. INVENTIONS AS AIDS TO HUMAN PROGRESS. a. The automobile and the fl3dng machine. CITY POPULATIONS AND MUNICIPAL REFORM. EDUCATION. a. Liberal provision made for public schools. b. Interest in higher education. c. Special training for the farm and for modern industry. d. The education of women. e. Education of the weak and helpless. WOMAN SUFFRAGE. a. Advance in the education of women. b. Their larger outlook upon life. NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS. a. The linotype and the complex printing press. LITERATURE. a. Irving, Cooper, and Bryant. b. Other familiar names in American literature. PROBLEMS OF THE HOUR. RELATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL CITIZEN TO THE STATE. a. America means opportunity. b. Our national flag. Ixi HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES discover? of america CHAPTER I DISCOVERY OF AMERICA REFERENCES: 5cribner's Popular History of the United States, I.} Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Richardson's History of Our Country; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Eggleston's Household History; Bancroft's United States, I.; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Irving's Columbus; Prescott's Ferdinand and Isa bella; Winsor's Columbus; Fiske's Discovery of An)enca; Towle's Heroes of History (Marco Polo ; also Vasco Da Gama) ; Brooks's The Story of Marco Polo 1. European Trade with Asia in the Fifteenth Cen- tury.— For many hundred years there had been more or less trade between the people of Europe and Asia. Silks, spices, and precious stones had been brought by ships and caravans from India, China, and Japan, enriching- the cities of southern Europe. Genoa and Venice, especially, had been made rich by this eastern trade, which continued to grow until i453, when the Turks conquered Constantinople. This was thirty-nine years before Columbus discovered America. At this time European vessels on the Mediter- ranean Sea were no longer safe from the attack of these fierce and warlike people. Therefore Europe began to look for another and safer route to the Indies. 2. Aids to Discovery. — Three inventions which had re- cently come into practical use had made discovery less difficult than it had ever been before, (i) Gunpowder made easier the conquest of uncivilized peoples; (2) the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES A SHIP OF THE NORSEMEN. Remains of a viking ship and a sketch sJwwing steering board. mariner's compass encouraged the sailor to venture far out into the sea; (3) and the printing-press spread abroad the knowledge of new-found lands. Men were full of curiosity, and the more they learned the more they wished to know. With this burning desire for knowledge went hand in hand the spirit of adventure. There was a longing to go into distant lands, to perform great deeds, and to bring home gold and jewels. In these far-away lands men thought they should find honor, wealth, and fame. 3. Portugal Leads in Discovering an Eastern Route. — Portugal is to-day a very unimportant country. At the time when men were trying to find a safe water route to the Indies, she was one of the great powers of the world. She was the leader in many adventures and discoveries reaching through a period of two centuries. Early in the fifteenth century, Portuguese vessels and seamen were slowly and cautiously skirting the coast of Africa, and after seventy years of brave struggle they found the Cape of Good Hope.* Portugal had at this time many vessels and * Diaz reached the southern point of Africa in 1487 and called it the Cape of Storms. It was afterward significantly named the Cape of Good Hope. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. From a portrait by A ntonio Van Moor painted in 1542. By permission of Charles F. Gunth*^ seamen, and was the first country to find a new route to the Indies. 4. Plans of Columbus. — In the meantime Christopher 1 Columbus, in common with some learned men of his time, I had decided that the eastern coast of Asia could be reached I by sailing westward across the Atlantic. Columbus thought, also, that Asia was no farther from Europe on U-he west than we now know America to be. He thought ithe East Indies were directly west from the Canary Islands. (This being so, the easiest way of reaching China, India, and |Japan would be to sail down to the Canaries, and from jthem straight across the Atlantic in a westerly direction. |To us, with our knowledge, all this seems simple and viat- ;ural enough, but it was not so then. Men knew little of the world outside of their own country. Sailors were afraid o venture upon the trackless ocean, or Sea of Darkness, as HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES they called the Atlantic, where death seemed likely to meet them. Moreover, practical difticulties stood in the way. Difficulties of Such an enterprise would require the equip- Coiumbus. ment of vessels at much expense. Money and inlliicnce were essential. Columbus had neither, but he was eager to fit out an expedition. He went with his plans to his native city Genoa, and then to Portugal and Spain. He sent his brother to Eng- land and to France. Then he went to Spain again. He was nowhere successful. Some thought he was an idle dream- er, and others that he was a madman. But he never de> spaired, because he had faith in himself and believed also that his work was under the special direction of God. 5. First Voyage of Co- lumbus (1492). — Finallv, after seven years of anxious wait- ing, the brave Columbus found success. Isabella, Queen of Spain, agreed to aid him in carrving out his plans. Still there were difficulties. Sail- ors were unwilling to go on the dangerous voyage, but were compelled to yield to the mandate of the king. Three small vessels, onlv one of which had a deck, were fitted out. The largest of these, the Sd/ifa Mcin'a, was com- manded by Columbus. The others were the Xiuci and the Pinta, Before sunrise, August 3, 1492, this little fleet, with one hundred and twentv men and provisions for a year, sailed out of the port of Palos. It was a sad hour for the poor sailors. Columbus steered for the Canaries, where he stopped over three weeks to make a rudder for one of his Columbus Mts vessels. He then set sail again. As soon a3 »«''• thev could no longer see land, the sailors Avere overcome with fear and cried like children. At the end Qt a week the compass needle diil not point to the North DISCOVERY OF AMERICA Star. Failing to undcrsland the reason for this, the sailors were struck with terror. Three days later the vessels en. tered wide stretches of sca-wccd. It was then feared that the vessels might strike upon hidden rocks and be dashed to pieces. But they passed on in safety. Soon afterward the sailors were gladdened by the sight of birds, wliich they thought indicated that land was near It was an idle hope, for no land appeared. Again and again the cry " Land " was shouted, but in every case the cry was called fortli by the sight of distant clouds. The sailors in The poor sailors were in despair. They were despair, now in the belt of the trade-winds, which were steadily and certainly blowing them farther and farther from home and friends. " We can never re- turn to Spain," they said. "What shall we do?" They begged Columbus to turn back. He refused. They be- came angry and talked of throwing him overboard. He knew he was in danger and tried hard to quiet their fears and to give them hope. It was then that his great influ- ence over men was shown. His tall and manly figure gave him a commanding pres- ence, but his greatest strength in these trying days lay in his noble soul and his lofty purpose. His courage never failed him. Sometimes he heartened the sailors with promises of wcaltli and fame, and again, as occasion demanded, he threatened them with punishment from the Spanish king. At last, after a voyage often weeks, land was discovered October 12/ 1492. In a full suit of armor and bearing the ' October 21 by the present method of reckoning time. THE SAXTA MARIA. t> HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES flag of Spain, Columbus landed. With tears of joy he knelt upon the ground and offered thanks to God. Then, plantinsr the royal banner, he took possession Land discovered. r , , , . , r i i • i oi the land in the name oi the king and queen of Spain. He had discovered one of the Bahama Islands which he called San Salvador (Holy Saviour). He coasted along the shores of Cuba and Hayti, touched the coast here and there, and sent reconnoitring parties inland to exam- ine the land. He did not find the cities of Asia as he had expected, but he had no doubt that he was in the East In- dies, and therefore called the natives Indians. 6. Other Voyages of Columbus. — When Columbus re- turned to Spain with the news of his discoveiy, the people were enthusiastic with delight. The idle dreamer became suddenly great and famous, and honors were heaped upon him from every side. It w^as easy enough to find sailors and vessels for a second voyage, which was made in the following year, 1493. Men were now eager to go where they expected to get all kinds of wealth. Four voyages were made in all, but when the adventurers reached the land of their hopes, and found no silks, no spices, no pre- cious stones, no gold, they reproached Columbus. The Court of Spain, also, finding no return for the great ex- pense of fitting out these expeditions, censured him. His Last days of enemies increased, and his last days were spent Columbus. in disappointment and neglect. Heart-broken, he died ignorant of the greatness of his own discover3\ 7. John Cabot Discovers the Mainland of North Amer- ica (1497). — In consequence of the discoveries by Colum- The "Line of De- ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ Wcst and of thosc by Portuguese marcation " du captains in the East, it was feared there might vides the heathen ^^ troublc between Spain and Portuq-al over possessions of i & Spain and Portu= the ncw-fouud lands. To keep the peace, ^"'- therefore, between these two great Catholic countries, a treaty was signed in 1494, dividing between them the heathen lands that had been, or should be, discov- ered. " The Line of Demarcation," extending north and south three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape -^-3 c 3 «i r^H f 2- - i: a t o l^i^ ^^^.1 ^ » H 1 '•s = ^ 7 ^- 3|ii = ? I++ s •JD :++ ? 1 + 1 » I a 8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES r^^^^ Voyages of the Cabots. Verde Islands, ran between Spain's possessions on the West and those of Portugal on the East. The powerful navies of these two countries were sufficient to make good their claims against England or any other nation. But Eng- land was deteimined to have some share in the discoveries that were stirring the hearts of men. Hence, in 1497, Henry VII. sent out John Cabot, accompanied possibly bv his son Sebastian, to find a short northwest passage to Asia. By sailing across the northern part of the Atlantic, England avoided difficulties likely to arise from cominof in contact with Soanish or Portuguese discoverers far- ther south. John Cabot landed somewhere on the eastern coast of North America, possibly on the coast of Labrador. He was therefore the first to discover the mainland of the Continent of North America, and he claimed it in the name of Eng- land. The next year Sebastian Cabot sailed from England and explored the coast of North America from Nova Scotia down as far as North Carolina or farther. Upon these discoveries England based her claim to North America. 8. Americus Vespucius and the Naming of America (1499-1503). — Americus Vespucius, a native of Florence and a navigator, was first employed by Spain and later by Portugal, to make explorations. In 1499 he skirted the coast of Venezuela and northeastern South America. During the next four years he made several voyages to Brazil, and explored its coast as far south as the mouth of the La Plata River. On returning to Europe he wrote a good description of what he had seen. This was pub- lished in 1504, and constituted the first printed account of the mainland of the New World. Up to that time Europe, Asia, and Africa were known as the three parts of the SEBASTIAN CABOT. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA world, and one distinguished geographer believed there was an unknown southern continent which constituted the fourth part. It now seemed clear that Americus Vespu- cius had proved the existence of the fourth part. In con- sequence of this belief a German professor, NewWorid who printed a little treatise on geography a <^«"®^ America, few years later, suggested that the fourth part should be called America, after Americus Vespucius. According to this suggestion the name Amer- ica was at first applied to Brazil, later to South America, and later still to the whole of the New World. g. Magellan Proves America to be a Continent (1519-1521). — What America and the New World meant was as yet by no means clear. By some, America was supposed to be an immense island, like Australia ; by others, a peninsula extending in a south- easterly direction from Asia. In 1 5 19 Magellan, a Portuguese captain in command of a Spanish fleet, started on a voyage whose object was to reach Asia by way of a passage through America. After coasting down much of the eastern shore of South America, he discovered and sailed through the strait now bearing his wonderful voy- name. Mutiny, starvation, and other hard- age of nageiian. ships that would have driven back a less heroic man were bravely endured. He sailed for some distance up the west- ern side of South America, and then steered his way across the Pacific. He was killed by the natives in the Philippine Islands, but a part of his men succeeded in finding their way back to Spain. This was the most wonderful voyage that had ever been made, because it proved that the earth was a globe, and that America was a distinct continent. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. From statue by G. Grazzuti in the Uffizi Gallery, Flo7-ence, Italy. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 11 TO THE PUPIL. X. Trace on the map the Eastern trade routes in the fifteenth century. In what way did printing aid discovery ? What advantage did the control of the water route to India give to Portugal ? 2. Imagine yourself to be Columbus and write an account, in the first person, of your plans, your difficulties, and your first voyage. Trace this voyage on the map. What do you admire in the character of Columbus ? 3. How did America receive its name ? Was this fair to Columbus ? Give reasons for your answer. 4. What was the distinctive work of Columbus ? Of Americus Ves- pucius ? Of Magellan ? 5. Read in Fiske's Discovery of America the account of Magellan's wonderful voyage. NOTES Lief Ericsson and the Northnte7i. — The old inhabitants of Norway were called Northmen or Norsemen. These people were bold and hardy sail- ors, and in the ninth and tenth centuries were famous sea-robbers. In order to find new fields for plunder and adventure they sought strange coasts. On one of these expeditions they reached Iceland and on another Greenland. In each of these islands they made settlements. The brave deeds of these old warriors are preserved in the so-called " Sagas," which were written in Icelandic prose. For a long time these Sagas were trans- mitted orally, but finally they were committed to writing. Three of the Sagas tell us of the daring adventures of Lief Ericsson in his wanderings in the year 1000 a.d. along the eastern coast of North America. As the story goes, Lief Ericsson, with a crew of thirty-five men, started out in search of a land which had been visited by another Northman. Sailing west. Lief touched upon the coast of Labrador and thence, proceeding south, he landed, built huts, and spent the winter near the coast. Finding vines hung with grapes, he called the country Vinland. Some historians have supposed that Lief Ericsson's Vinland was somewhere on the coast of Massachusetts, but the weight of authority is in favor of Cape Breton Island or Nova Scotia. Other Northmen visited Vinland but they made no per- manent settlements. Nothing reliable can be found out about these early expeditions, and nothing of importance ever came of them. 12 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CHRONOLOGY 870. ICELAND DISCOVERED BY NADDOD, THE NORTHMAN. 1000. LEIF, SON OF ERIC THE RED, DISCOVERS AMERICA. 1450. INVENTION OF PRINTING, ABOUT THIS DATE. 1453. THE TURKS CAPTURE CONSTANTINOPLE. 1492. FIRST VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS ; DISCOVERY OF WEST INDIES. 1497. JOHN CABOT DISCOVERS NORTH AMERICA. 1498. THIRD VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS ; HE DISCOVERS THE CONTINENT OF SOUTB AMERICA. VOYAGE OF SEBASTIAN CABOT. 1499. FIRST VOYAGE OF AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. 1504. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS*S NARRATIVE PUBLISHED. 1507. AMERICA NAMED. 15 13. DISCOVERY OF FLORIDA BY JUAN PONCE DE LEON. PACIFIC OCEAN DISCOVERED BY VASCO NUNEZ DE BALBOA. I519-2I. CORTEZ CONQUERS MEXICO. 1519-21. A SHIP OF MAGELLAN'S EXPEDITION SAILS AROUND THE WORLD. lEyploration an& Colonisation CHAPTER II SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, I.; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Richardson's History of Our Country; Bancroft's United States, I.; Higginson's American Explorers; Morris's Half Hours with American History, I.; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Prescott's Conquest of Mexico; Prescott's Con- quest of Peru; Fiske's Discovery of America; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, II.; Higginson's American Explorers; Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World (Huguenots). FICTION: Henty's By Right of Conquest; Wallace's The Fair God; Munroe's Flamingo Feather; Munroc's The White Conqueror. An early Spanish explorer. 10. Precious Metals the Main Object of Spaniards. — Spain is to-day a third-rate power, but in the early part of the sixteenth century she was the greatest power in Eu- rope. She had a mighty navy, manned by daring and patriotic seamen, and she was ambitious to extend her sway over much of the heathen world. The marvellous stories of the treasures to be found in the New World dazzled the imagination of the Span- iards. Believing that gold and silver made the only true wealth, they were willing to undergo almost any suffering to secure them. 11. De Leon Discovers Florida (1513). — these fortune-hunters was an old 13 Among 14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES % X^f^w^-- =^P**-- OLD SPANISH MISSION, NEW MEXICO, BUILT 1604. man. Ponce de Leon, who bad been governor of the island of Porto Rico. He had heard the natives tell stories of rich gold mines, and of a wonderful fountain in the land of the North, the drinking of whose waters would restore youth and vigor to old age. De Leon conducted an expedition northward by which he hoped to secure for him- self wealth and young manhood. The gold and the fountain he did not find, but he discovered something of much greater value to Spain, a beautiful land covered with flowers. This he named Florida (15 13). A few years later De Leon returned to Flor- ida with the purpose of planting a colony, but he was killed by an un- friendly Indian. 12. De Soto Explores Florida and Discovers the Mississippi (1539-1541). — The failure of De Leon and Narvaez did not prevent other Spaniards from making sim- SPANISH GATEWAY, ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA. SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD 15 liar attempts. In 1 539 De Soto, with about six hundred men, two hundred horses, and bloodhounds to hunt the Indians, landed on the west coast of Florida in search of the new kingdom of gold. The Indians did not fear the bloodhounds more than they hated the Span- iards, whom they fiercely op- posed. Northward and west- ward the Spaniards wandered in their fruitless search for gold mines. They found, instead, " fighting, fever, and famine." One great, unlooked-for discov- ery it was their fortune to make. That was the discovery of the Mississippi River. They jour- ne^^ed many miles beyond it but soon returned, and at last, after two years of hopeless wan- dering, De Soto, worn out and sick at heart, died and was bur- ied in the great river which he had discovered (1541). His sur- viving companions sailed down the Mississippi and found shel- ter in the Spanish settlement of Mexico.* De Soto, like De Leon, failed ; nor were any Spanish explorations in the country north of Mexico successful. 13. The Spaniards Drive the Huguenots out of Florida. (1562-1565). — For more than twenty years after De Soto's failure the Spaniards made no further efforts in Florida. In the meantime a bitter religious war broke out in France between the Catholics and the Huguenots. ^ Coligny, the distinguished leader ot the Huguenots, desired to establish ' Cortez had conquered Mexico and established Spanish colonies there (15 19- 1521). Pizarro had conquered Peru (IS3I-I533)- ' French Protestants. BALBOA. !« early Spanish explorer. i6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES a commonwealth of his own religious sect in America. Accordingly he sent over in 1562 a small number of settlers Huguenot set- who tried to plant a colony where Port Royal, tiements. South Carolina, now stands. The colony having failed, another expedition under good leadership was sent out in 1564. This time the French planted a fort not far from the mouth of the St. John's River, Florida. But for several reasons Spain laid claim to Florida: (i) By right of discovery through Colum- bus; (2) by the explorations of De Why Spain laid Lcou and Dc Soto; and claim to Florida. (^) ]jy the Popc's dc- cree, which assigned that part of the heathen world to Spain. The king of Spain, therefore, was indignant that the French should make any settlement there, and at once decided to send out a force to destroy the insolent intruders. This Spanish force was under the command of Menendez, who in 1565 landed in Florida and built a stronghold which later became St. Augustine. Then he inarched across the country, and by surprise and treachery succeeded in destroying all but a miserable remnant of the The Spaniards de- unfortunate Frenchmen who had established ne^seniemennn ^hc Settlement. It was a cruel work, thor- Florida. oughly done.* The French learned a lesson from their unpleasant experience with the Spaniards at this time, and made no further attempt to plant colonies in the southern part of what is now the United States. 14. Advantages of Spain in the New World. — The ad- vantages of Spain in the New World were many, two of which we will notice. In the tropical regions of Mexico, FERNANDO DE SOTO. * Although at this time France and Spain were at peace, the French did nothing to resent this wrong. A French captain, Dominic de Gourgues, hov/ever, deter- mined upon revenge in the name of his country Having a private grudge against the Spaniards, who had imprisoned him and made him work in the galleys, he fitted SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD 17 South America, and the West Indies, the Indians lived in a warnri cUmate, supported themselves by a rude tillage of the soil, and could be easily enslaved. In this respect Spain had a decided advantage over the nations colonizing in the North, where the Indians had been made hardy and brave by exposure to rougher climate and almost continu- ous inter-tribal warfare. These Indians v^rere dangerous enemies to the white settlers. And surpassing all other advantages was the possession of the Gulf of Mexico and the mouth of the Mississippi River. 15. Reasons for Spanish Failure. — But in spite of these advantages the Spaniards failed, and they failed because out at his own expense an expedition to Florida. Until the proper time he con- cealed his real purpose. Then he sailed straight to Florida, and with the aid of the Indians surprised the Spanish forts on the St. John's River and put to the sword nearly all the Spanish soldiers. As his force was too small to attack St. Augustine he returned to France, leaving Spain in control of Florida. 4 i» HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES their conceptions and aims were wrong. Their greatest desire was for gold and silver, conquest, and adventure. They did not understand that the soil must first be con- quered, and that in order to develop agriculture, trade, and commerce, a life of patient toil was necessary. As they wished to get rich without work, the gold and silver which they found made them poor because it took away habits ol industr}^ In North America Spanish colonization was a total failure. TO THE PUPIL 1. There are some dates which you should know as well as the alphabet. One of these is 1492. Just about fifty years later De Soto, the last Spanish explorer of note, discovered the Mississippi River. 2. 1492-1541. Memorize these dates and remember that Balboa, De Leon, Cortez, Pizarro, and the other Spanish explorers did their work at some time within these fifty years. Just when, it is not im« portant to know. 3. Why did Spain lay claim to Florida ? What advantages did Spain have ? Why did Spanish colonization fail in North America ? You may well notice the fact that in the struggle among European coun* tr:;2 fcr colonizing North America, Spain practically dropped out of the race after establishing St. Augustine. 4. To develop accuracy, frequently write for five minutes on such topics as the following: De Soto's expedition, the Huguenots in Florida. Use your map constantly. 5. Rea.d Munroe's Flamingo Feather. NOTES Balboa Discovers the Pacific (15 13). — Balboa, a Spaniard in command of a company of men at Darien, made his way across the Isthmus of Pan- ama (then known as the Isthmus of Darien) and discovered the Pacific Ocean. He took possession of the sea in the name of his king. Cortez CoJiguers Mexico (151 9-1 521). — In 15 19 Hernando Cortez began the conquest of Mexico. Althoui^h his army numbered less than five hundred Spaniards, he burned his fleet behind him at Vera Cruz and boldly set forth against the powerful Mexican ruler, Montezuma. Under an ordi- nary leader the Spaniards must have been destroyed, but Cortez, with rare courage and foresight, led them on to victory. Before the close of 1521 Mexico had become a Spanish province. SPAIN IN THE NEW WORLD 19 Narvaez Explores Florida (1528). — As the greedy Spaniards now had fresh hopes of finding gold and silver in the new country, Narvaez fitted out an expedition that landed on the western coast of Florida (1528.) After passing through the severest hardships, he and many of his men were drowned. His secretary, Cabeza de Vaca, and three companions fell into fhe hands of the Indians. Passing through many thrilling experiences, they wandered during eight years over two thousand miles of territory and finally joined, on the Gulf of California, a body of Spaniards from Mexico. Pizarro Conquers Peru (i 531-1 533). — In 1531 Pizarro sailed from Panama, with the purpose of conquering Peru for Spain. By bravery, cruelty, and treachery, he succeeded in carrying out his plan (1533). Peru, like Mexico, yielded to Spain vast' quantities of gold and silver, which greatly aided her in carrying on her European wars. CHAPTER III ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD rtEFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, 11.; Vt right's Cliiidren's Stories in American History; Richardson's History of Our Country; Morrjs's Half Hours with American History, I.; Eggleston's House- hold History; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, III.; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Towle's Heroes of History (Drake and Raleigh); Higginson's United States; Montgomery's English History; Camden's His- tory of Queen Elizabeth ; Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Battles. FICTION: Scott's Kenilworth; Kingslcy's Westward Ho!; Hcnty'5 Under Drake's Flair. i6. Relations Between Spain and England — EnHand's claim to North America QUEEN ELIZABETH. was based upon the discoveries of the Cabots, who reached the mainland shortly after Colum- bus made his first landing on the West Indies. But Spain was the leading naval power in Europe. She controlled the Netherlands, and her mighty fleets sailed far and wude over the seas. England was not then the power she is now, and she was not strong enough to pre. vent Spain from carrying out her plans in America. So Eng- lish explorers did not venture into that part of America to which Spain laid claim. Their efforts were directed chiefly to ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 31 discovering a northwest passage to Asia, since they re- garded America as only a barrier between Europe and Asia. During the latter part of the sixteenth century, however, conditions changed. In 1567 the Netherlands revolted against the rule of Spain, and for forty years carried on war with that country. In this war, which was partly re- ligious, England was on the side of the Netherlands. Thus Spain had to contend with two countries at once, and found the great struggle a constant drain upon her strength. During these forty years of warring Spain re- ceived blows from which she never recovered. The *' Invincible Ar- mada,** her mighty Defeat of the fleet of war vessels,^ Spanish Armada. met with crushing defeat at the hands of English seamen (1588). From that date England's naval powxr was on the in- crease. 17. English Sea- rovers and Explorers. — After 1570 the English did not confine them- selves to the northern ocean but explored in waters that Spain claimed as hers alone. English ships, manned by fearless sea-captains ready to do and dare anything for old England and their queen, began to sail in every direction. As soon as it became clear that for carrying on her wars Spain depended largely on the gold and silver ^ coming from the mines of Mexico and Peru, there was a fresh SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND AUTOGRAPH. 'The Invincible Armada consisted of 130 warships carrying 2,500 cannon and about 30,000 men. Philip II., the Spanish king, expected to humble England with this fleet. ' It has been estimated that the gold and silver Spain got from America would be now valued at five thousand million dollars. 22 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE DESTRUCTION OF THE SPANISH ARMADA. motive for English voyages to the New World. To cut ofl the supply of these metals bold sea-captains like Drake and Hawkins scoured the sea in search of Spanish vessels. They cruised about the coasts, burning and plundering Spanish fleets and settlements, and thus did very great injury to Spain and her colonics in South America and Mexico. i8. Sir W^alter Raleigh's i Attempt to Colonize Amer- ica (1584-1587). — In 1578, ten years before the Invincible Ar- 1 Sir Walter Raleigh, born in 1562, was in his own time rightly called the "Great Englishman," for he ranked high as historian, navigator, soldier, and statesman. In 1579, when only seventeen years old, he fought on the side of the Huguenots in the religious wars in France. He is said to have won the admiration of Queen Elizabeth by a simple act of gallantry. Meeting her one day as she was walking across a muddy street, he spread his cloak in her pathway for her to walk upon. From that time the queen took him into her court as a favorite. So en- tirely did he win her favor that she made him a knight. In 1588 Raleigh commanded one of the vessels in the English fleet that de- feated the " Spanish Armada." Later he was thrown into the Tower of London on an unproved charge of treason. After remaining twelve years in the Tower he was beheaded (1618). Just as he was about to lay his head upon the block he felt the keen edge of the axe and said, "This is a sharp medicine, but a sound cure for all diseases." ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 23 tnada sailed for England, a scheme was laid to plant on the coast of America an English settlement, or military post, from which attacks might be made upon sir Humphrey Spanish fleets. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the Q»bert's scheme. author of the scheme, failed, but the idea of making a settle- ment in America had found a lodging-place in the English mind. A little later Sir Walter Raleigh determined upon an- other effort. He saw that America's greatest wealth did not consist in gold and silver, but in the opportunities it offered for the growth of a great people. He earnestly desired to plant an English commonwealth in Amer- ica, and he had the honor of making the first English settlement. After obtaining a patent from the queen, he ^3,^.^^ ^^„,^ ^^ sent out in 1584 two vessels exploring party to make explorations. The *«^''-2'"J«- explorers returned with glowing ac- counts of the new land and its people, and Queen Elizabeth was so delighted with the reports of the new country that she called it Virginia in honor of herself, the " Virgin Queen." In 1585 Raleigh sent out one hundred colonists, who landed on Roanoke Island, bright with hope. As soon as the ships sailed back to England the unfitness of the colonists for their new trials became apparent. Like all who had come before them they failed because of their thirst for gold. Instead of building homes Raleigh's first coi- and trying to cultivate the soil, they gave ony^aiis. themselves up to searching for gold and silver. Moreover, they showed so little wisdom in dealing with the Indians that the latter became bitter enemies, eager to destroy the white strangers. The natural result of the experiment was failure. Fortunately for them Drake, who was returning from one of his cruising expeditions, happened along and PHILIPPE II., KING OF SPAIN I527-I598. 24 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES carried the colonists back to England. The expedition was not wholly fruitless, however, for they took back to England on their return two products which were evidence AN INDIAN VILLAGE AT ROANOKE. From an old print. of the real wealth and promise of the new country. These products were tobacco and the common potato. Raleigh did not lose hope. Two years later he made a second attempt. He sent out a much larger number of settlers, among whom were women and children. The new ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 25 ENGLISH EXPLORERS BARTERING WITH INDIANS FOR LAND. settlement was made at Roanoke under the leadership ot Governor White. He was soon compelled to return to England for supplies, where he found all the Raleigh's second people astir in preparation for the attack colony *ai>s. about to be made by the Spanish Armada. As every man was needed to fight the coming enemy, three years passed before Governor White sailed again for Roanoke. Not one of the colonists was ever found. Raleigh sent out several expeditions in search of the lost colony, but finally gave up hope of finding it or of plant- ing another. He had spent what was equiv- Raleigh's lost alent to more than a million dollars of our colony, present money. Although nothing remained to be seen in return for this vast expenditure of money, Raleigh's work was not a failure, for his efforts had suggested to England that the real wealth of America lay in the opportunity it afforded for planting colonies which in time would become the foundation of a new English nation. 19. England's Need of America. — There was special need at this time for such an opportunity to relieve the crowded industrial conditions at home. The great demand for wool by Flemish weavers made wool-growing very 26 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES profitable in England. Therefore, English landowners en- gaged largely in raising sheep instead of cultivating the Large numbers of ^^^^' ^^^^ result was that but One man was men thrown out of now required to watch sheep where formerly work in England. ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ needed to raise wheat and barley. Large numbers of men were thrown out of work, and there was great distress among the laboring classes. The closing of the monasteries by Henry VIII., a few decades earlier, had had a similar effect, and the return ot soldiers from European wars increased the difficulty. What to do with this large body of the unemployed was a trying problem. America seemed to furnish a solution, and to America men eagerly turned for help in the hour of Eng- land's need. TO THE PUPIL 1. As the defeat of the *' Invincible Armada " by England is a great landmark in history, 1588 is another date you should know with certainty. You will notice that this defeat, which had a large influ- ence upon colonization in America, occurred about one hundred years after 1492. You will notice, also, that Raleigh's attempts to plant colonies took place only a short time before 1588. 2. If you will learn important dates like 1492 and 1588 and group about them others of less importance, you will remember your history much better, 3. Why can you say that Raleigh's work in America was not a failure ? Make a chart outline of the most important events for the first hun- dred years after the discovery of America by Columbus. 4. You can easily make a review outline from the topics in the three chapters now studied. Do it. It would be well for you to read the life of Sir Walter Raleigh and also Scott's Kenilworth. NOTES Szr Francis Drake (1577). — Sir Francis Drake was one of England's famous navigators and admirals. In 1577 he set .sail from England with five vessels; in 1580 he returned with but one. In the meantime he had doubled the Cape of Good Hope, as Magellan's men had done sixty years before, and sailed entirely around the world. He was the first English sea- captain to accomplish this great undertaking. Bartholomew Gosnold (1602). — In 1602, the same year in which Ra- leigh sent out his final expedition in search of the lost colony at Roanoke, ENGLAND IN THE NEW WORLD 27 Bartholomew Gosnold set sail from England. He had with him twenty- three men, eleven of whom were to remain in America to make a settle- ment. Reaching the coast of Massachusetts, he sailed around Cape Cod, which he so named on account of the abundance of cod fish near its coast. Then steering his course southward, he entered Buzzard's Bay and landed on an island which he called Elizabeth, in honor of the Queen of England. On his return homeward the eleven men, who were expected to remain and make a setdement, insisted upon returning with him. But Gosnold's inter- est in America bore fruit, for it kept alive the interests of other Englishmen in colonizing the New World. QUEEN ELIZABETH'S SIGNATURE. CHAPTER IV THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND (1607-1689) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, Ifl.; Wright's Cliildren's Stories in American History; Drake's Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies ; Richardson's History of Our Country ; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Fiskc's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; Fisher's Colonial Era; Eggleston's Pocahontas and Powhatan; Bancroft's United States, I.; Eggleston's The Beginners of a Nation; Doyle's English Colonies; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America; Thwaites's The Colonies; Cooke's Virginia; Browne's Maryland; Wilson's A History of the American People, I. FICTION: Johnston's Prisoners of Hope; Johnston's To Have and to Hold. 20. London and Plymouth Companies. — Raleigh as- signed his interests to a number of merchants and capital- ists, who received a charter from King James in 1606 and formed two companies for the purpose of colonizing Amer- <-o /J ica. One of these companies was ^ ^j *^ located in London, and was called / f [(1/7711^^^^^ the London Company. The other ( J was located in Plymouth, and was *-^ called the Plymouth Company.^ SIGNATURE OF JAMES I. T^i r ^ ^^ ^ \ i he former was to occupy the land between 34 degrees and 38 degrees north latitude, extending from Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac River; the latter, between 41 degrees and 45 degrees, extending from the mouth of the Hudson River to New Brunswick. By a * The Plymouth Company sent out to the Kennebec the following year a settle- ment which proved a failure. No further attempt was made by this company. 28 THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 29 charter granted in 1609, the Pacific Ocean was made the western boundary of Virginia. The area lying between these two belts, 38 degrees to 41 degrees, might be occu- pied by either company provided it came no nearer than one hundred miles to a settlement made by the other. The most notable provision of the charter was that the colonists, as citizens in America, should have the same rights and privileges as belonged to citizens of England. It will be well to bear this great principle of the charter in mind when we study later the causes of the American Revolution. T-^^^h^^,^^3„^ In addition to the common stoie- the charter, ^**"'"- the emigrants received from King James and the London Company strict or- ders about what should be done in Virginia. One of these orders was very un- wise and almost ruined the colon3\ It was as follows: for five years after settle- ment no one was to have any land of his own ; all were to work together and put the products of their labor into a common store- house, out of which pro- vision was to be made for clothing and feeding the colonists. 21. Settlement of Jamestown (1607.) — On New Year's day, 1607, the first colony, consisting of one hundred and five men, set sail from London. About half of these men were gentlemen, whose aim, like that of previous settlers, was to make their fortunes in the New World and then re- turn home. The other half consisted mostly of mechanics and tradesmen. There were no farmers and no women in the new colony, for the colonists did not come to make homes PLYMOUTH and LONDON GRANTS, 1606. 0 50 100 200 30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and settle down to earning their living by patient labor. Their aim was to find gold as the Spaniards had done in Peru and Mexico. Such men were not the right material to make a successful colony, as soon appeared after they had reached Virginia. In May they sailed up the James River and made a settlement. This they called Jamestown, in honor of King James, from whom they received their charter. Being for the most part a lazy, shiftless set, they did very little to prepare for the future. They were so slow that by the time they were settled it was too late for the The settlers and Spring planting. their sufferings. Soou their provi- sions began to fail, and famine, along with the fever which seized them in the warm climate, rapidly thinned their ranks. Sometimes there were hardly enough well persons to bury the dead. In about four months half their num. ber had died, and the rest were discouraged. During these wxary months of suffering some of the settlers lived in miserable dwell- ings made of boughs of trees or old sails, and some dug holes in the ground for shelter. 22. The Services of Smith. — But for one courageous man, John Smith, they would probably have perished. He so managed the Indians as to secure food enough to pre- serve the lives of the wretched colonists. Two years later more colonists joined them, but the new-comers were as un- fit as those who came first. During this time John Smith not only kept the colony from ruin but found opportunity to do some valuable exploring. While on one of these ex- peditions he sailed, in search of the Pacific, up the Chick- ahominy River,* where he was captured by the Indians and * North America at this time was supposed to be a narrow strip of land. RUINS OF OLD CHURCH AT JAMESTOWN. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 3^ taken before their chief, Powhatan. Smith tells a thrilling Story* of the saving- of his liie by Powhatan's young daugh- ter, Pocahontas. However much truth there may be in the romantic incident, Pocahontas herself is an attractive character, and her relation to the colonists is full of in- terest.' 23. Smith Returns to England ; the Suffering Colo- nists (1609-1610). — After two more years of famine and hardships, five hundred additional colonists came over. It was the old story over again. Paupers, crim- inals, and otherwise worthless men made up the greater part of this wretched company. About this time the colonists suffered a severe loss, also, for Smith, having been wounded by the accidental dis- charge of a gun, was obliged to re- turn to England. The colony was thus left without a leader. At once the Indians, whom Smith had man- aged with great skill, began to rob captain john smith. * As Smith in his eflForts to prevent capture had k'"ed two Indian warriors, Powhatan decided that he must be put to death. In the meantime Smith had won the warm friendship of Pocahontas, a kind-hearted girl about ten years old. This little friend saved his life. For the Indians, having bound Smith hand and foot and laid his head upon some stones, were gathered about their captive to see him put to death. Then a warrior raised his club, but before it could fall upon Smith's head, Pocahontas threw her arms about the prisoner's neck and begged her father not to kill him. Powhatan's heart being touched, Smith was released and allowed to return to Jamestown. Although this story has been discredited by some his- torians, there is pretty good evidence for its truth. Later, Pocahontas carried food to the starving settlers at Jamestown, and gave Smith warning of an Indian plot to kill him. A young Englishman, John Rolfe, fell in love with Pocahontas and married her. He took her to England, where she was treated with great kindness. Just as she was on the point of returning to America she died, leaving a son who became a man of influence in Virginia. John Randolph, of Roanoke (Va.), was one of her descendants. • According to his own romantic account, John Smith had many thrilling advent^ ures before he went to Virginia. Running away from his home in England, while 32 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and plunder the settlers, and famine and disease aided the work of destruction. The famine became so severe that •• The starving the colonists ate the bodies of their own dead. time.»» Every day the numbers were thinned by ieath, and at the close of that dreadful winter (1609-1610), long known as " the starving time," barely sixty of the five hundred were left alive. Lord Delaware, the nev/ly ap- pointed governor, came in June, 1610, just in time to pre- vent the miserable remnant from sailing away to England. On account of ill-health he could not remain long in the colony, and left Sir Thomas Dale in charge of affairs. 24. Dale's Great Reform : He Establishes Individual Ownership of Land and Goods (i6ii-i6i6). — Dale was, like Smith, a vigorous and able ruler. He quickly saw that he must be extremely severe in governing the lawless men in the colony. He not only flogged the unruly but in- flicted the severest kind of punishment upon those who Dale's severe Said anything against his mode of governing. measures. Hq even Went so far as to burn some of the most rebellious, and in one case he sentenced to death by starvation a man who had stolen food. Of course these oppressive measures made Dale unpopular, but a stern ruler was just what was needed to put the colony on a firm footing. Its future soon began to look hopeful. Perhaps Dale's wisest act was the abolition of the sys- tem of a common storehouse. This had been one of the Dale abolishes greatest cvils of the colony. The settler had »ml'„^srl-"" no land of his own and had to put the prod- House. ucts of his labor into a common stock which all shared alike. It was a foolish system. The idlers, yet a boy, he went to Holland and became a soldier. From Holland he wandered to other parts of Europe, and in course of time fought against the Turks, three of whom he slew in single combat. After being captured and enslaved by the Turks he made his escape, and in 1604 returned to England, at the age of twenty-five, in time to join the movement for planting a settlement in Virginia. On his return to England in 1609 he sailed to New England and made a map of much of its coast. In addition to an account of his own life, he wrote several books on America. He was a man of immense courage and energy, and doubtless saved the Jamestowo t;olony from ruin. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 33 knowing they would be fed and clothed whether they worked or not, willingly let the industrious ones support them. As a result, thirty or forty energetic men had been supporting four or five times as many lazy, good-for-noth- ing men. Dale's great reform consisted in giving every man his own plot of ground. After the owner had turned into the common stock two and one-half barrels of corn, the remainder of his crop was his own. Under the new law the idle were compelled to work, and the thrifty were en- couraged to produce all they could by their labor. 25. Tobacco the Main Source of Wealth. — About the time that this working spirit began 'to direct the colonists, they found that raising tobacco was immensely profitable. The soil and climate of Virginia specially fitting it for grow- ing tobacco, after 1616 this product was the principal source of wealth. Now that the colonists could have their own land and could make money by raising tobacco, tney were ready to work with a will. Farmers in England were glad to come to Virginia, and the success of the colony was no longer doubtful. 26. The Second Great Reform : Self-government (1619). — Up to 1619 the people had little or no voice in their government. This state of things they did not like, for they had been accustomed in England to sending represent- atives to their governing body. Parliament. In 1619, there- fore, they were granted a new charter, which provided for a representative assembly consisting of two delegates from each of the eleven settlements. As these settlements were called boroughs, the assembly was known as the House of Burgesses. The new government The new gov- consisted of a governor, council, and assem- ernment. bly. This threefold government was modelled after the English form * and furnished later a basis for our own State and national governments. The private ownership of land and the culture of tobacco were two great inducements to * The English Government consists of the King, House of Lords, and House of Commons. The Cabinet, and not the King, is the real executive in England. The two Houses constitute what is known as Parliament. 34 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES emigration. Now that the people had a voice in making their own laws and levying their own taxes, Englishmen flocked to Virginia. Within a year after the people began to govern themselves, the population increased from 600 to 4,000. With the coming of women about that time family life found a place in Virginia, and the people became pros- perous and contented. 27. Great Need of Labor ; Labor Supply. — A very different class of men now came to Vir- ginia. Men with families and capital were ready to plant homes where returns for labor were so promising. The great need was for laborers, and to supply this need indented servants in large numbers were brought over. At first these were poor boys and girls who were bound to service until they became of age. Then adult servants, required to serve a term of years to pay for their passage, were sent. White servants There wcrc also kidnappers in England sent to Virginia, whosc spccial duty it was to procure men for service in Virginia. But all these sources of labor did not supply Virginia's demand; for it frequently happened that the indented ser- The first cargo vaut, when free, himself became a landowner of negro slaves. qi^^^ required laborers. Naturally, then, the slave-trader sought this inviting market, and in 1619 landed the first cargo of negro slaves in Virginia. At that TOBACCO-PLANT. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 35 time able-bodied negroes could be bought on the coast of Guinea for a few shillings apiece. These negroes were packed so closely for sailing that a vessel would bring hundreds of them over in a single voyage. Reaching Vir- ginia they could be sold for about the price of a good horse. The profits were immense both to the slave-trader and the slave-owner. What the tobacco grower needed was an abundance of cheap labor, a need which negro slavery supplied. Tobacco, therefore, was large- ly responsible for the introduction of negro slavery into Virginia. 28. Tobacco Es- tablishes Rural Life. — It was found that tobacco quickly ex- hausted the soil. This led to taking up much new land as soon as the old was worn out. Large plantations were the result. Each planter tried to secure a planta- tion on one of the many rivers. He could then have his own wharf, where he could ship his tobacco and receive in exchange manu- factured goods from England. Under such a system, where each planter held thousands of acres of land, no large town could grow up, and life was wholly rural. A WILD DASH FOR LIFE. An incident of the early slave trade. 3C) HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 29. Berkeley and the People. — In 1660 after the over- throw of the commonwealth (see par. 35), Charles II. as- cended the throne of England, and Sir William Berkeley for a second time^ became governor in Virginia. Governor Berkeley cared very little for the rights and wishes of the people. He was trying to rule in America as his despotic king was ruling in England. Hence in 1660 there began, between the people on the one side and the king's party headed by Berkeley on the other, a struggle that grew more and more bitter until it ended in Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. As this rebellion is an event of some importance, we may well notice how it came about. We shall see in the chain of events some of the causes of the American Revolution Avhich occurred one hundred years later. 30. Bacon Leads an Uprising of the People (1676). — Charles 11. , early in his reign, decided to enforce the Naviga- The Navigation tiou Laws as a mcaus of increasing his revenue. '-"ws. These laws wer very severe upon the tobacco trade of Virginia. They required that the planters should send their tobacco in English vessels and to none but Eng- lish ports. They required also that the planters should buy in England all the European goods they might need, and that these goods should be brought over in English vessels. In other words, the planter had to sell his tobacco and buy his manufactured goods at prices set by English merchants. This nearly ruined the leading industry of the planters, and they became discouraged and exasperated. In 1670 they received almost nothing for their tobacco, and paid high prices for goods manufactured in England. At the same time the Virginia Assembly no longer rep- resented the wishes of the people, but the tyrannical ideas Tyranny of of Berkeley. Having found in 1660 a set of Berkeley. mcn^ that Suited his views, Berkeley for six- teen years kept these men in ofhce, without an election by * Berkeley was governor from 1642- 1 651. ' Between 1650 and 1660, when the Puritans were in control in England, hundreds of the Stuart followers, called cavaliers, came to Virginia (see par. 103). Many of these cavaliers became planters of large influence and naturally supported Berkeley. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 37 the people, by adjourning the assembly from year to year. Popular rights were thus despised. Moreover, suffrage was taken from all except land-owners and " housekeepers." All these things were bad enough, but in 1673 the king did something far worse. He actually gave away Virginia to two of his favorites for thirty-one years. This action made the colonists uncertain about the titles to their land and aroused them to a high pitch of indignation. When a little later the lives of the settlers were threatened by attacks from the Indians and Berkeley refused to send troops ao^ainst them, the people were ready t 1 IT XT .1 • 1 T-> Bacon's Rebellion. for open rebellion. Nathaniel Bacon, a young man of wealth and influence and a leader among the peo- ple, sought a commission from the governor to march against the Indians, but the governor, fearing a revolt, refused to give it. Without the commission, therefore, Bacon led his troops against the Indians and routed them. The governor declared him a rebel and traitor. Civil war followed. Governor Berkeley was driven out of Jamestown, and the town was burned by owners of property in order to prevent his coming back. But Bacon suddenly died of fever, and Berkeley returned to take revenge by putting to death more than twenty of Bacon's leading followers. Not pleased with Berkeley's management of affairs, the king summoned him to England where, dis- appointed and heart-broken at the king's rebuke, he soon afterward died. Bacon's Rebellion showed that the 40,000 people in Virginia loved liberty well enough to shed their blood in its defence. We have shortly to study settlers of a very different type, — the New England Pilgrims and Puritans, — but before doing so we must glance at the fortunes of the Catholics in Maryland. 31. Lord Baltimore and the Catholics Settle Maryland (1634). — At the time the Puritans^ were coming over to America on account of religious persecution in England, the Catholics also were being badly treated because they ^ See par. 40. 38 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES were unwilling to conform to the English church. Lord Baltimore, a prominent Catholic, wishing to secure freedom of worship for English Catholics, obtained from Charles I., who was his personal friend, a charter granting him the land lying north and east of the Potomac River and on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay. Lord Baltimore died before the charter was issued, and it was transferred to his son. The latter made a settlement in 1634 near the mouth of the Potomac River, at St. Mary's, and named his colony Mar3dand in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. Before proceed- ing to build houses for themselves the colonists bought the land of the Indians, and paid for it with axes, hoes, and cloth. Their re- lations with the Indians were, with rare exceptions, most friendly. 32. Lord Baltimore's Proprie- tary Rights.^ — The charter granted The liberal char- to Lord Baltimore *^'"- was extremely lib- eral The king made him propri- etor, requiring, as a token of his allegiance to the crown, two Indian arrows yearly and one- fifth of all the gold and silver. Lord Baltimore had almost the powers of a king in the new colony. He could call together an assembly of the people's representatives, whose laws were in force as soon as he signed them, the king's assent not being required. The proprietor could coin money, establish at his will courts of law and pardon crim- inals ; and these proprietary rights were to remain with Lord Baltimore's descendants. Thus we see that he had almost as much power in Maryland as King Charles had in England. Besides, the Maryland charter contained a remarkable ' Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were the only Proprietary colonies at the time of the Revolution. See par. iii. OiEORGE CALVERT (lORD BAL- TIMORE). THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 39 A MARYLAND SHILLING. provision denying the right of the English government to tax the colonists within the province. The colonists were to enjoy all the rights of freeborn Englishmen in the mother country, and no taxes could be levied without being voted by the people's representatives in their colonial legislature. 33. Disputes About Boundaries and Religion. — The Virginia colonists were greatly dissatisfied on account of the king's grant of land to Lord Baltimore, because the same land, they claimed, had already been granted to them. This dispute led to fighting and blood- shed, but the king finally decided the question in favor of Lord Baltimore. Much later, after the set- tlement of Pennsylvania, there was a dispute also about the boundary between that colony and Maryland. After a long time two nason and dix- surveyors, Mason and Dixon, established the ^n's une. boundary since known as Mason and Dixon's line (1763- 1767). In the early days of the colony every settler was allowed to worship as he pleased — provided he worshipped in a Chris- tian church ; all were equally protected under the laws. But later, during Cromwell's rule in England, the Protestants,* getting control of the government, began to persecute the Catholics, and serious trouble followed. 34. Prosperity of the People. — But in spite of many disputes about boundaries and religion the colony pros- pered. The land was fertile, the climate delightful, and the colonists could make their own laws. As in Virginia, life was almost wholly rural during the seven- Rural life of the teenth century. The numerous rivers, creeks, people. and inlets made communication so easy that towns, or cen- tres for collecting and distributing articles of trade, were un- necessary. Ships could bring whatever the planter needed » Protestants were always more numerous in the colony than Catholics. 40 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to his door, and carr}^ away in exchange the products of the plantation, — tobacco and Indian corn. Like Virginia, Mary- land derived much wealth from growing tobacco, which was for a long time the staple product of the two colonies. TO THE PUPIL 1. What was the most notable provision of the charter granted by James I. to the London Company ? What bad results followed the estab- lishment of the common storehouse ? What did John Smith do for the Virginia colony ? Tell all you can about his character. 2. Imagine yourself in Virginia during these early years, and give an account of your life there. Impersonating Pocahontas, speak in the first person of your relations to the whites. Compare the work of Smith and Dale. 3. Do not be satisfied until you understand clearly the two great reforms. 4. Study the relation of soil and climate to tobacco, and of tobacco to plantation life and to negro slavery. 5. What was Berkeley's attitude toward the plain people ? How did the Navigation Laws bear heavily upon the Virginia planters? In what way was Berkeley tyrannical ? Write a simple outline of the events which led to an uprising of the people under Bacon in 1676. What were the results of this uprising ? Contrast Bacon and Berke- ley, and show why you like or dislike either of them. 6. Subject for debate : Resolved, that Virginia owed a greater debt to John Smith than to Governor Dale. 7. Why did Lord Baltimore wish to plant a colony in the New World ? What singular powers did the king confer upon Lord Baltimore as proprietor of Maryland ? Be sure that you know what a proprietor was. 8. What remarkable provision did the Maryland charter contain ? Note the important clause in the Maryland charter about ** no taxation without representation." What was Mason and Dixon's Line ? In what respect was the life of the Maryland colonists like that of the settlers of Virginia? If you can see the relation of cause and effect between events, history at once becomes full of meaning and life. In looking for such relation, you will find it a great help to bring to your recitation at least one written question on every lesson. 9. The account of Bacon's Rebellion, as told in Cooke's Virginia, is well worth reading. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND 41 NOTES North and South Carolina (1663-1729). — In 1663-65 Charles IL, desir- ing to reward eight of his favorite noblemen, gave them a grant of all the land between the Atlantic and the Pacific and extending from Virginia to a point some distance below St. Augustine. Thus we see that this land, called Carolina, had eight proprietors, just as Maryland and Pennsylvania each had one. The form of government for Carolina was aristocratic. It was called the Grand Model, and is said to have been outlined by a great English philosopher, John Locke. A few noblemen were to own all the land, make the laws, and have all the powers of government in their hands. The people were, like the old Russian serfs, to be bought and sold with the land. Of course this absurd scheme was a failure. The people made so much trouble for the proprietors that the latter were glad to sell in 1729 all their rights to the king of England. The king then divided Carolina into North and South Carolina, appointing a governor for each colony and allowing the people in each to choose their own assembly. The population of the two colonies was composed of Englishmen, Huguenots, Germans, Scotch-Irish, and Scotch Highlanders. When the Revolution began. North Carolina was the fourth colony in population. The staple products of South Carolina were rice and indigo, and of North Carolina were tar, pitch, turpentine, and lumber. Georgia {\'ji'^. — James Oglethorpe, a brave soldier and wealthy mem- ber of Parliament, knov/ing how eager the Spaniards were to destroy the weak English settlements in South Carolina, wished to plant a colony that should serve as a military outpost to ward off the Spanish attacks. But this was not his only motive. Being a man of warm sympathies, he de- sired to find relief for . imprisoned debtors suffering in English prisons. He therefore secured from the king a grant of the land lying between the Savannah and the Altamaha Rivers and extending westward to the Pacific. In 1733 he planted at Savannah a colony in which freedom of worship was allowed to all but Catholics. For many years neither rum nor slaves could be imported. But, believing that these restrictions interfered with the prosperity of the colony,, the people finally secured their removal. At the end of twenty years the trustees, to whom the king had granted the original charter, gave it up. Georgia then became a royal colony and re- mained so until the Revolution. CHAPTER V THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS IN MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT (1620-1689) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, I. and II.; Drake's Making of New England; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, 111.; Eggleston's Household History; Andrews's United States. OUTSIDE READINGS: Fisher's Colonial Era; Doyle's English Colonies; Dodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America; Thwaites's The Colonies ; Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair ; Hale's Story of Massachusetts ; Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Abbott's Captain MylesStandish; Earle's Child Life in Colonial Days; Earle's Home Life in Colonial Days; Drake's On Plymouth Rock ; Drake's Making of New England. FICTION: Stowe's Mayflower; Austin's Standish of Standish, Betty Alden, A Nameless Nobleman, Dr. Le Baron and His Daughters; Cogswell's Regicides. POETRY: Longfellow's Courtship of Myles Standish. A PURITAN. 35. England Under the Stuarts (1603-1649 and 1660- 1688). — We cannot understand who the Pilgrims and Puri- tans were, why they left their homea in England, and what they did after they came to America, unless we know something of English history from 1603 to 1689. With the exception of eleven years (1649-1660) the Stuart kings ^ reigned in England during 1 James I. (1603-1625), Charles I. (1625- James II. (1685-1688). 42 [649), Charles II. (i 660-1 685), THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 43 this period. These men were oppressive rulers and aroused the opposition of many of the best people in England. When James I. ascended the throne he seemed The tyrannical to think that all England and its people were stuarts. his personal property. He claimed that he ruled by divine right, which was another way of sajnng that his will was law and that the people had no rights which he was bound to respect. Accordingly, there at once began a struggle be- tween the throne and the people, who were repre- sented by Parliament. The great majority of the peo- ple claimed that they could not lawfully be taxed with- out their consent ; in other words, that no No taxation with- taxes could be out representa- levied unless *'°"* voted by the people's rep- resentatives in Parliament. The Stuarts tried to plan various ways of raising money without asking Parliament to vote it. But this was very difficult. For eleven years (1629-1640) Charles I. ruled England without Parliament, and he was so arbitrary that he brought on the war which ended in the loss not only of his crown but of his life (1649). The Commonwealth followed (1649- 1660), England being ruled by Oliver Cromwell and later by his son Richard. Oliver Cromwell became even more autocratic than Charles I. had been. After the Restoration Charles 11., son of Charles I., reigned till 1685, when he was succeeded by his brother, James II. The latter was so despotic that the people rose OLIVER CROMWELL. 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES against him in the revolution of 1688 and drove him out ' of England. It will greatly help us to understand Berkeley James II. driven i^ Virginia and Andros in New England, if from England. ^yc remember that these men were trying to rule in America as their royal masters were ruling in England. James I. was determined to make every one conform to the Established Church in England. But there were many The Church of people who did not like its forms and cere- Engiand and the mouics and wished to modify them. They Puritans. were called Puritans because, it was said, they wished to purify the Church. The Puritans wished to re- main in the Church and reform it. Another party wished to leave the Established Church, or separate themselves from it, and were therefore known as Separatists or Independents. They not only disliked the forms and ceremonies of the English Church, but they also disapproved of church-government by bishops. They wished to have a church in which the people only should rule. Such a self-governing church, where each congrega. tion could elect its minister and manage its own affairs with* Gilt interference from king or bishop, afterward became ki'OAvn as Congregational. :^6. Pilgrims Migrate to America (1620). — In the early pai. of the reign of James I. a number of people in the village of Scrooby, a small village in Nottinghamshire, under- took to form such a church. But they were regarded as The Pilgrims es- rebels and were hunted down, and some of cape to Holland, them were thrown into prison. At last, in 1608, they escaped to Holland, where they were allowed to remain in peace and to worship as they pleased. But they were not satisfied to settle permanently in Hol- land, because they did not wish their children when grown up to intermarr}^ with the Dutch. They wished to make homes in a new land and there establish a free government and their own religion. After remaining in Holland twelve years, therefore, they decided to go to America, in order to establish a self-governing community and bring up their THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 45 children to be liberty-loving- and God-fearing men and women. By reason of their wanderings these people were called Pilgrims. The Pilgrims were poor, Their aims and but they were men of strong will and noble character. purpose. They tried to get a charter from the king, but he refused to give it. He led them to believe, however, irM,and IRTSH SEA P ^ /SCOTLAND EFGIAND AND HOLLAND. 0 50 100 200 Scale of Miles. that he would not interfere with their project if they did not make themselves troublesome to him. 37. Voyage and First Winter. — After getting money on hard terms they started^ over from Plymouth, England, in the Mayflower and the Speedwell. On account of a leak the Speedwell was obliged to return, and the Mayflower^ with about one hundred people on board, sailed for America. ' The Pilgrims sailed in July, 1620, from Delftshaven, the Port of Leyden, Holland, in the Speedwell for Southampton, England, where the J/o-Vi~:>^ and possessions, they were sti\ L.g wi ir.aiiiy purpose and brave enough to face any danger that threatened their little settlement. . 38. The Covenant, Democracy, and the Church. — Before landing they signed, in the cabin 01 the M.:\xc:^cr, a cove- nant in which they agreed to make and support such laws as should seem for the best interests of alL John Carver was chosen governor. The laws were made in town-meetings, in which every man could vote. The Pilgrims at Plvmouth believed that the people should rule ; thev planted democ- racy in their church and state. Some years later,* after population had increased, this pure democracy was obliged to give place to representative government. Governor Carver died during the hrst winter, and William Bradford was chosen to succeed him. Elder Brewster was the minister, and Captain Myles Staa dish was chosen military leader. These stout-hearted lead ers well represented the character of the Plymouth settlers. 39. Relations with the Indians. — For a better defence against the Indians the Pilgrims organized their able-bodied * lu 1630 there were only 300 settleis. By 1639 represcntatiTe govemmeiit became necessan,-. and in 1643 the popoladon nombered 3.000. This incre:i5e w-a$ due to surrounding seitiemenis which began to spring up about 163a. Pilgrim leader.*. A CHEST WHICH CAMK OVER IN THE THE riLGRIiMS AND PURITANS 47 men into .^mall companies who took turns in guarding- the settlement against surprises by the liulians. Fortunately for the IMvnunith settlers, so many ot the Indians of that region had recently died from a pestilence that the remaining natives were not troublesome. JNIassasoit, chief of the Wampanoag | Indians, visited Plymouth in the spring of 162 1, and ^ \ Governor Bradford made a treaty of peace with him that lasted tifty years.^ .u.-iv/i.oirBji. 40. The Puritans and the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628-1630). — Encouraged by the successes of the Pilgrims, many Puritans began to follow their example. In 1628 some of the leaders of the Puritan party in England, men of wealth and intluence, formed a trading company. They bought of the Plymouth Company a tract of land along the Massachusetts coast, extending between the Charles and Merrimac Rivers and to within three miles beyond each, and sent out men to occupy it. Endicott was their leader, and they settled at Salem. The following year the same trading coinpany, with in- creased numbers, obtained a charter from the king, incor- porating it as the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bav. Very likely Charles I. was quite willing to be rid of these liberty-loving, unruly subjects. At any rate he granted them a charter which was very liberal in its terms. It allowed the freemen of the company to choose their own governor, his deputy, and a council of eighteen ^^^ puHtans se. assistants, and to manage in every way their cure a uberai own affairs. It did not restrict its holders in *^*^"''*^'"' the place of meeting. Of course this was a distinct advan- tage to the promoters of the new enterprise. Accordingly, ^ Later the Narragansett chief, Canonicus, sent to Plymouth a rattlesnake skin containing a bundle of arrows; Governor Bradford removed the arrows and, filling the skin with powder and shot, returned it to the Indians. This hint was sufficient. 48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in 1629, when the king was ruling with a high hand and setting at. naught the will of Parliament by levying taxes himself and by throwing into prison those who refused to pay such illegal taxes, these Puritans decided upon the bold step of removing with their chartered rights to New England, where they might find a refuge from the tyranny of the king and build up a government accord- ing to their own ideas. In 1630, under the leadership of John Winthrop, about 1,000 persons, with horses, cattle, and stores of The Puritan set- various kinds. Sailed for tiements in 1630. Massachusetts. This new colony, called the Massachusetts Bay Colony, made settlements at Charlestown, Boston, Roxbury, and Watertown. John Win- throp was made the first gov- ernor. Like the Plymouth colony they established a gov- ernment democratic in form, but unlike the Plymouth col- ony they were men of wealth and culture. Some of them were relatives of the greatest men of the day. They were men of wisdom and energy also, and might have made great names ^ for themselves in England. It must have been a strong motive that led them to sacrifice so much. We shall see how tenaciously they held to the rights which those sacrifices had bought. 41. The New England Township. — Unlike ordinary colonists, the Puritans came in large communities with their plans of government fully matured. They were not Sepa- ratists in England as the Pilgrims had been, but the church they established in Massachusetts was independent and Con- gregational. Each congregation formed a settlement, and * Stoughton, lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts (1692-1 701), said, "God sifted a whole nation that He might send choice grain over into this wilderness.'* £0, SiaiuLs^ MYLES STANDI SH. THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 49 PILGRIM TYPES. each settlement consti- tuted a township and parish whose boundaries were one and the same, and usually included an area of from forty to sixty square miles. Each parish had one church or meeting-house, where all business, The meeting-house church or a"d the village. civil, was transacted.^ Later the people erected a separate building- for "^'^*.^i^, their town meetings and ^'^ called it a town-house or town-hall. The meet- ing house and the town- house were the centres about which clustered the villages. In order to meet the more easily for worship the settlers built their houses close together. Perhaps another reason was to secure a better defence against the Indians. 42. Church and State. — The charter permitted all free- men to vote, but the Puritans came to New England to establish and preserve what w^as most dear to them, their own religious and political freedom — in no sense religious toleration. When the first elections were held, puritans aiiow therefore, it was enacted that no one should none but church be admitted a freeman and so have a right to *"**" *"**'*' vote who was not a member of one of the churches of the colony. The union of church and state was thus complete. At first the freemen met with the governor, his deputy, and council of assistants to make such laws as pertained to the general welfare of the several towns. But after a time, when the towns and freemen had so multiplied that it be- ' As early as 1631 it was decided that none but church members should be admitted as freemen. 50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES came inconvenient for them all to meet, each town began to send representatives, or deputies, to the legislature, ot General Court (1634), just as each settlement or borough in Virginia sent representatives to the House of Burgess-es . J'' ■:^'/-^ MYLES STANDISH's BILL OF EXPENSES AFTER HIS VISIT TO THE INDIANS. 43. Massachusetts Gets Control of the Connecticut Valley (1633-1636). — Some time before the Massachusetts Bay Company had made settlements on the New England coast the Dutch had become established in New York (then New Amsterdam) on the Hudson, where they were engaged in the fur trade with the Indians. Claiming the land as far east as the Connecticut River, they built a small fort at THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 51 Hartford in the interest of the fur trade. In 1633 Massa- chusetts sent up the Connecticut a vessel, which in spite of Dutch protests sailed to Windsor, six miles The Dutch at above Hartford. There the Massachusetts Hartford, men built a house for trading with the Indians. Two years later John Winthrop, by building a fort called Saybrook at the mouth of the river, cut off the Dutch fort at Hartford from the support of New Amsterdam. The way was now open for Mas- sachusetts to send settlers into the valley of the Connecticut. 44. Massachusetts Settles the Connecticut Valley (1635-1636).— In 1635 3,000 more settlers came from England to Massachusetts, where, some of them maintained, there was not enough good land for the many people now in that colony. The complaint of the lack of land came mainly from three of the eight Massachusetts towns. On hearing of the fertile soil of the Connecticut val- ley a great part of the people of these three towns decided to make settlements there. When they migrated to Connecticut they settled the three towns of Hartford, Wethersheld, and Windsor. The principal settlement at settlement was made at Hartford in June, Hartford. 1636. Under the leadership of their minister, Thomas Hooker, one hundred men, wpmen, and children came overland from Cambridge (then Newtown), driving their cattle before them. It took them two weeks to make the toilsome journey through the woods to their new home. 45. Thomas Hooker and Democracy. — There is not much doubt that the principal reason why these three towns ^: GOV. JOHN WINTHROP. 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES wished to move to Connecticut was political. Many peo- ple did not approve of the Puritan idea held in Massachusetts of allowing only church members to vote. Nor did they like to have the clergy take a controlling part in political life. Thomas Hooker, the minister at Cambridge, was the leader of this movement in favor of a more democratic sys- tem. John Winthrop and other Puritan leaders believed in government by only a part of the people. They did not believe that all the people were wise enough to govern well* But Thomas Hooker, like Abraham Lincoln, believed in government " of the people, by the people, and for the people." 46. The Connecticut Constitution (1639). — ^^ 1^39 the three towns of Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor united under one government. The constitution which they adopted was the first written constitution in all history upon which a government was built up. Another interest- ing fact about this constitution is that in it no mention was made either of the king or of the English company ^ hold- Government by iiig a patent of the land. This constitution the people. ^y^g made by the people, in the interests of the people, and showed that Thomas Hooker and his followers had faith in the ability of the people to manage their own affairs.^ In the Connecticut colony all freemen, whether church members or not, could vote. The New Haven colony was founded in 1638 by a small body of men under the leadership of John Daven- New Haven col- port and Theophilus Eaton. They based ®"y- their laws strictly upon the Bible, and like the Massachusetts Bay colonists allowed none but church members to vote. After the Restoration Connecticut, in order to confirm * In 1630 the Council for New England granted the patent to the Earl of War- wick. In 1 63 1 he assigned it to Lord Say-and-Sele and others. ' Alexander Johnston says : " It is on the banks of the Connecticut, under the mighty preaching of Thomas Hooker, and in the constitution to which he gave life if not form, that we draw the first breath of that atmosphere which is now so famil« iar to us. The birthplace of American democracy is Hartford." 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES her rights, thought it best to secure, if possible, a charter fjom the king. Governor Winthrop was sent to England, and by his tact and pleasing address succeeded in obtain- The Connecticut ing a charter (1662) for the territory which charter. included Hartford, New Haven, and all the other settlements* that had been made in what is now Con- necticut. This charter was so liberal and satisfied the peo« pie so well that it afterward became the State Constitution and remained in force till 1818. 47. Religious Intoler- ance in Massachusetts Leads to the Settlement of Rhode Island (1636). — We must remember that the Puritans did not come to New England to establish religious free- dom, but to form a state where the}^ should have freedom for their own religion. They thought their own safety, cer- tainly their own welfare, depended upon having none but members of the church take any part in government. But while none but church members could vote, all were obliged to pay taxes for the support of the church and were corn- Roger wniiams pelled to attend its services. Roger Will- and his views. iams, a vouug man of pure spirit and strong conviction, who had become pastor of a church at Salem (1633), declared this system to be wrong. He asserted that no man should be obliged to pay taxes to support any church, nor should he be punished by the magistrates for not attending church services. His belief was that ' Saybrook was purchased by the Connecticut colony in 1644. FIRST CHURCH AT SALEM. THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 55 every man should settle all such matters with his con- science and his God. Williams stirred up the Puritans by declaring, also, that they had no just claim to the land they lived on. The land was theirs because the king had granted it to the Massachusetts Bay Company. But the land, Williams said, had never become the king's property; it belonged to the Indians; and the king, therefore, could not grant to anybody what was not his own. This strange way of looking at the authority of the magistrates and at property rights alarmed the Puritans, especially as the English government was already none too friendly. They very much feared that the English king, hearing of the disturbance which these new teachings had caused in the colony, would hasten to take away the charter. Hence they looked upon Roger Williams as a dangerous person and drove him out of the colony.^ He went to Rhode Island and made a settlement ,^^ wniiama at Providence (1636). Rhode Island became driven out of a refuge for all who were seeking for a place Massachusetts, to worship freely in accordance with their chosen faith. Another disturber of the public peace was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, an able woman who had recently come from England. She gave religious lectures which were opposed in their doctrines to those of the regular clergy, and caused great excitement. Although some of the leading men were included among her followers she was banished from the colony. 48. The New England Confederacy (1643). — The Dutch, angry at the loss of their fur trade in the Connecti- cut valley, had twice tried to drive the English away. The French in Canada were trying to push their claims to the ' As soon as Roger Williams learned that the Puritan magistrates had decided to send him back to England, he made his escape in midwinter to the wilderness. Here he wandered about for fourteen weeks, through deep snows, sometimes sleep- ing in hollow trees at night and sometimes getting food from the Indians. Early in the following summer, with five friends from Salem, he crossed the Narragansett Bay in search of a new home, Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts, gave him a tract of land where he made a settlement, calling it Providence, in token of God's care for him during his time of trouble. 6 50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES g^am()t(tea ant yufitmmuncta Got . . 0<)at^tC)e 4aub»,][faa!>ta ox any tt)t yttmifft^ V»y t^C ^tt>b Ut«tr< tcftemmuncta 6oUi iultf)m tC;c ggtb ^tart' of Cfti»&«. _^ _ ■ , _ - Tyg FACSIMILE OF OPENING LINES south, and the Indians, either as allies of the French or the Dutch or on their own account, threatened on all sides. Enemies of the Connecticut, therefore, proposed to Massa- New England col- chusctts a uniou of the New England colonies ®"'^®* for mutual defence. In 1643 articles were agreed upon at Boston by representatives from Massachu- setts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, uniting the colonies in a confederation for " mutual safety and welfare." This confederacy was important because it taught the colonies how to unite and made stronger their feeling of independence. It prepared the way for the Albany Con- gress, the Continental Congress, and the union of the States in 1789. 49. The Quakers in New England. — In 1656 the Massa- chusetts colonists were greatly alarmed to learn of the arrival of two Quakers. These persons were at once thrown into prison until the ship in which they had come should sail, and boards were nailed on their prison windows Punishment of the to prevent them from communicating with Quakers. people outsidc. But in spite of this harsh treatment the Quakers continued to come. Fined, im- prisoned, whipped without mercy, mutilated, and driven from the colony on penalty of death, they still persevered. THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 57 ^ l§ intRg County ofPtVOn pox t^if pCantmJ tat-mjt ota«r>RQ gnb j^ovtrimia of ^^t >vg - i6t< ro«>«tf "^jOvCtd.Orountca 6tOnxa.L?uanH^ anboKevnb ^tQc )^Qnfe<9alr^^£^taLaai>0v,mug .^ OF THE MASSACHUSETTS CHARTER. Not until four of them were hanged did a reaction in their favor set in. We are led to ask why the Quakers persisted in coming to Massachusetts in the face of such deadly opposition^ and why the Puritans were so horrified to have them in the colony. The first question is quickly answered. The Quakers were zealous to make converts and were more than willing to suffer for their teachings. In answering the second it may be said that the Quakers held Peculiar ideas ot in small esteem both the political and religious the Quakers. system of the Puritans. The ideal of the Quakers was a separation of church and state. They were guided by what they called the "inner light," or conscience. This was to them a supreme authority to be obeyed in spite of law or punishment. As they did not approve the Puritan system they refused to take the oath of allegiance, to pay taxes, or do military service. To the Puritans the success of Quakerism meant the overthrow of Puritanism. The Puritans said, ^^ the Puritans "We have come over to New England to es- persecuted the tablish a church and state after our own ideal. Q"«'^«"- If the Quakers and others do not like our system let them go elsewhere, as we did when we left England.** 58 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 50. Trouble with England and Loss of the Massa- chusetts Charter (1684). — During the first thirty years of its existence, Massachusetts, left pretty much alone by Independent atti- England, had improved her opportunities to tudeofMassa- build up a stroug and independent govern- chusetts. ^^^^^^^ -pj^^ stormy reign of Charles I. had not permitted any oversight on the part of England. The commonwealth which succeeded (see par. 35), being Puritan in its sympathies, allowed the colony to follow its own course. But the conditions which had favored her growth thus far were giving way. After the Restora- tion (1660), it was not to be ex- pected that Charles II. would overlook the growing importance and independent attitude of the Massachusetts colony. That would be too much to expect of any king, especially of a Stuart king. Moreover, Massachusetts had used her power in such a way as to make many enemies. Her custom of excluding from the colony people like Roger Williams and Anne Hutch- inson, whose religious view^s differed from her own, had Enemies of Massa- driven somc men of influence back to England. chusetts. Others \vho were not members of the Consrre- gational Church had of their accord returned to England, because in Massachusetts they could get no voice in the government. As a result, these men cherished only ill-will toward the colony which had caused them so much trouble. All these aggrieved persons found means of carrying into the king's court mischievous reports of the doings of the colony. For instance, it was rumored that Massachu- setts had raised money without the king's sanction, and had given a hearty welcome to two of the judges who had sen- tenced Charles I. to death, and who afterward had escaped SIR EDMUND ANDROS. THE PILGRIMS AND PURITANS 59 to Massachusetts. Furthermore, it was said that Massachu- setts had broken the Navigation Laws, which forbade the colonies to receive foreign vessels into their complaints ports or to trade with any except English against Massa* ports or ports belonging to England. This ^husetts. political sin was especially grievous to English merchants, and robbed the king of his revenue. The time had therefore arrived for England to find means of humbling her am- bitious colonists. But it was not until after a long struggle that the charter was finally annulled in 1684. The Government and Com- pany of Massachusetts then passed out of existence. 51. Andres, the Stuart Governor in New England (1686-1689). — Charles II. died and James II. suc- ceeded him. In 1686 he appointed Sir Edmund An- dros governor of all New England and, later, of New York and New Jersey also. Andros truly represented the despotic will of his royal master. He was especially tyran- nical in Massachusetts, because this colony Tyranny of An. had taken such an independent attitude tow- dros in Massa- ard England. He at once declared that inas- *^*^"s«"^- much as the colonists had lost their charter they could no longer lay any legal claim to their lands. They could hold them only by paying money as a quit-rent to the king. The privilege of making their own laws and levying their own taxes in town meetinsrs and General Court ^ was also taken PROVINCE RCEED OVER BY SIR EDMUND ANDROS, 1G88. 0 50 100 200 300 Scale of Miles. THE M.-N.CO. * General Court was the name for the colonial legislature. applied to the Massachusetts legislature. The term is still DO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES away. Andros and a council of his own choosing- now made the laws and levied the taxes. The colonists rebelled, but the kiuiir stood back of the governor, and resistance was useless. Freedom of the press was no longer allowed,' and men were illegally thrown into prison. Indeed, the condi- tion of the people was little short of slave:-y. THE CHARTER OAK- In 16S7 Andros went to Hartford to secure the Connect- icut charter. The conference was so long and heated that it continued till dark, when suddenlv the candles were blown Andros fails to se- <^"^ ^^^<^' ^^ thc traditional story goes, the cure the connecti- charter was suatchcd from the table and hid- den in an oak-tree ^ afterward historic as the ** Charter Oak." But the colonists were obliged to give up their charter government and to acknowledge Andros as Governor. * In 1S56 the noble old tree, which stood in what is now Charter Oak Place, Hartford, was blown do>*Ti. A marble tablet marks the spot. THE riLGRIMS AND TURITAXS 6l Andros, however, pressed his tyranny too far. As soon as the people heard that King James II. was driven from the throne of Kngland, they seized Andros, threw him into prison, and later sent him back to England. Andros in Massachusetts and Berkele>' in Virginia were both intensely hated and bitterly remembered.* 52. Industries and Trade in New England. — As we have seen, soil and climate favored the growth of tobacco on large plantations in Virginia, where life was rural. This was not true in New England. There the soil was rocky, and the climate was too cold for the growth of tobacco. The people lived mosth' in towns, usually not far from the coast. Near the towns were the farms of those who tilled the soil. In Virginia the many sluggish rivers made it easy for vessels to reach the wharves of the plantations. In hilly New England the swilt-running streams were not so navi- gable, but were useful for turning the wheels of mills and factories. Naturally, manufacturing on a small scale began early in New England. In addition to saw-mills and weav- ing-mills the New Englanders had factories for making salt, gunpowder, and glass-ware. Good fishing off the coast led to a considerable export trade in dried fish. The exten- sive forests furnished lumber for ship-building and com- merce. At an early day New England started the ship- building industry, for which, in later New England history, the people became famous. TO THE PUPIL 1. In what ways were the Stuart kings tyrannical ? Name two or three results of their struggles with the people of England. 2. Who were the Puritans ? the Pilgrims ? Why did the Pilgrims wish to emigrate to America ? 3. Explain how the settlers at Plymouth first made their laws. What were their relations with the Indians ? * It is only fair to say that Andros was personally a far more honorable man than Berkeley. 02 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 4, State the leading- provisions oi the charter which the Puritans ob- tained from the king. What was the township ? Why would the Puritans allow none but church members to vote ? What form of government did they have ? §. Name points of difference between the Pilgrims and the Puritans, Which do you like the better, the Pilgrims or the Puritans? Give your reasons. 6. How did the Massachusetts people get control of the Connecticut valley ? How did Thomas Hooker and John Winthrop diner in their ideas of government ? Tell all you can about the Connecticut Con- stitution. 7. Why did the Puritans send Roger Williams out of their colony? Subject for debate : Resolved, that the Puritans were right in their treatment of Roger Williams. 8, What were the causes and results of the New England Confeder- acy ? Do you think that if you had been a Puritan you would have joined in persecuting the Quakers? Give your reasons. 9, What enemies did Massachusetts make ? What complaints did they raise against the colony? Compare the rule of Ancros in Massa- chusetts with that of Berkeley in Virginia, In what respects were these governors like the Stuart kings ? 10, How did the life and occupations of the people in Virginia differ from those of the people in Massachusetts ? 11. Read Austin's Standish of Standish and Longfellow's Courtship ot Miles Standish. NOTES Nr» ITamfiskure (1623).— Two . ^ :..:•..-;.:. :- Council of PhTiiouth granied to Sir . Mason the terriion- between the Mc:: .. .. ...... .. .\...:.. ... ..... .. 1.; 1623 fishing stations were begun at Dover and Portsmouth. Later, Mason and Gorges divided the territor\- between iheni. Mason : < : f part west of the Piscataqua, which he named New Hampshire own county of Hampshire in England ; Gorges took the part eas: 0: :::e same river, naming it Maine. The proprietors left the eariy settler? to do pretty much as they liked. Massachusetts claimed all the territcr make certain her claim bought out the heirs of Gorges (1677) fc r r Maine continued as a part of Massachusetts till iSaa New Hampshire re- mained for a long time under the protection of Massachusetts. After sever- ing cotmecdon with Massachusetts three times. New Hampshire br:..:..e a ^e^arate royal a^ony in 1741, and so cor. tinned until the Revehjtion* CHAPTER VI THE DUTCH IX M:W YORK AND THE QUAKERS IX TEXN- SVLVAXIA (1609- 1 689) REFERENCES : Scribner's Popul.ir History of the Unite.l States. II. and III.; Wright's Children's Stories in Anieriean History; Drake's Miikin;^- of Xirginia and the A\iddle Colonies; Richardson's history of Our Country; Morris's Half Hours with Americm History ; Andrews's United States, I. OUTSIDE READINGS: Fisher's Colonial Era; Doyle's Ensriish Colonies; Lodge's Short History of the Env:lish Colonies in America ; Thwaites's The Col- onies; Bancroft's United States. I.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History. III.; FIske's The Dutch and Quaker Colonies tn America; Cuell's Wilham Penn. FICTION: Irving's Knickerbocker i History of New York. 53. Henry Hudson Seeks the Northwest Passage (i6o9\ — in 1609 Henry Hudson, an English navigator, was eni ployed by the Dutch East India Company to sail in search of a short northwest passage to India. rloUand was then one of the greatest commercial countries in the world, and, like the other great European powers, desired to find a shorter route for the trade that was making her people rich. Hudson crossed the Atlantic, and with a crew of twenty men, in the Half-Dioon, sailed up the river which now bears his name. He held tlie familiar belief of his time, that the East Indies could be reached by a short water-route through North America, which was supposed to be a narrow conti- nent. But after sailing as far as the present site of Albany he could go no farther, and ga\ e up his plan of finding the East Indies by that route. Although he did not find a short passage to the Pacific, he discovered the Hudson River, ivhich was a great water-way for the Dutch fur traders 7oming later. He also won the good-will of the Indians. 63 64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Hudson wins the good-will of the Indians for the Dutch. It was worth much to the Dutch that Hudson came to the Indians as a friend. The same year Champlain, a French explorer and trader, made deadly enemies of these same Indians, the Iroquois, who gave him great trouble and hindered the French in their work of exploration and colonization. 54. Dutch Claims to New Netherland. — During the next few years Dutch traders continued to visit the region of the Hudson, and in 1615 the Dutch States-General gave a char- ter to a company of merchants. In this charter the new country was named New Netherland. A small trading-house was erected on the present site of Albany, and a sim- ilar one was built on Manhattan Island at the mouth of the river. Real colonizing did not begin until 1623, when the West India Company, which had been char- tered two years before for pur- poses of settlement and trade, be- gan to send out colonists. Some of these settled on the Delaware, or South River, some on the Hudson, or North River, som^ on Long Island, and a few remained on Manhattan Island. The Dutch built Fort Orange, where Albany now stands. In 1626 Peter Minuit, governor of New Netherland, founded Dutch settlements New Amsterdam (now New York City) on •nd forts. Manhattan Island, which he bought from the Indians for trinkets worth twenty-four dollars. These early colonies opened a successful trade with the Indians, with whom they kept on good terms, but they did not cultivate the soil and, therefore, their settlements did not thrive. 55. The Patroons. — To encourage emigration the States-General of Holland granted to the company a new charter by which the patroon system was established. This system permitted any member of the Dutch West India A DUTCH OFFICER OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK 65 A GROUP OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY DUTCHMEN. Company who would, within four years, bring into the col- ony fifty settlers, to own a landed estate with a water front of sixteen miles if on but one side of the Hudson, or of eight miles if on both sides. This great land-owner or patroon might extend his estate inland as far Power and duties as he thought desirable. In all cases the land of the patroons. was to be fairly bought of the Indians. These patroons exercised almost absolute power over their tenants. In fact the patroons resembled feudal lords, and the tenants resem- bled the vassals of feudal times. It should be noted that the patroons were each required to support a minister and a school teacher, in order that religious education should not suffer. Thiswise provision indicated the sturdv, whole- some character of the Dutch people. 56. The Dutch Win the Friendship of the Iroquois Indians and thus Secure an Extensive Fur Trade. — By treating the Iroquois justly the Dutch won the warm friendship of these powerful Indians, who engaged in an extensive fur trade with them. By honest dealing the Dutch fur-traders avoided costly Indian wars, and easily secured all the furs coming through the hands of the Iro- quois from numerous tribes around the Great Lakes and between the Ohio and the Mississippi. The results of this 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES friendship were important : (i) Dutch commerce was en- riched ; (2) the Iroquois received for their furs the fire- Resuits of the arms which enabled them all the more sue- Ir^ut'Vtl;: cessfully to prevent the French from getting Dutch. possession of New York ; (3) unwittingly the Dutch were doing the English a great favor, for after New Netherland passed into the hands of England, the Dutch remained along the Hudson as betore, and helped -t' . ^atr-f rueuiM K^rn/i<*riuiiw ^/» >20j£anhatans THE EARLIEST PICTURE OF NEW AMSTERDAM. to maintain the fur trade with the Iroquois, much to the advantage of England. 57. New Netherland Under Dutch Governors ' (1623- 1664). — There was less political freedom in New Netherland than in New Eno^land. The people could not The srovernment. i i • ^ ^ ^ make their own laws nor levy their own taxes, The town meeting, which was such a characteristic feature of New England life, had no existence here. Religious free, dom was all that the most liberal could desire. As Holland welcomed the Pilgrims when driven by persecution from * New Netherland had four Dutch governors : Peter Minuit, Walter von Twil- ler, William Kieft, and Peter Stuyvesant. Stuyvesant was the only governoi worthy of the name. With great reluctance did he yield to the English. THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK 07 Eneland, the Dutch in New Netherlaiid welcomed the vie- tims of Puritan intolerance in New England. People from all parts of Europe were attracted to New The mixed popu- Netherland, and a very mixed population was 'at'O"- the result. It was said that in 1643 eighteen languages were spoken in New Amsterdam. In such a mixed com- munity there could not be the same intense loyalty to the ruling power as if all the people had been of one nation. 58. New Netherland Becomes New York (1664).— The Dutch were now, as the Span- iards had been the cen- tury before, the great naval and commercial It nat- that rivals of England. was ural England sho Id be Dutch trade. Dutch held the Why Ensriand wished to get control of New Netherland. HENP.Y HUDSON S HALF MOON ON 1 riE HUDSON. jealoui of The best harbor on the Atlantic coast and the best highway to the Indian fur trade in the interior. No other river equalled the Hudson in this respect; its advantages were superb. Moreover, the Dutch colonies separated the Eng- lish colonies north and south, and England, not foreseeing that the union of the English colonies could prove disas- trous to the mother country, conceived the idea that the intrusion of the Dutch was a great obstacle to their growth. Therefore, after allowing the Dutch to remain fifty years in the territory they had settled, England suddenly brought forward her claim to the land by the discover}^ of the Cab- ots. Accordingly, in 1664, while Holland and England were at peace, Charles W. sent over a fleet to attack the Dutch 68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES colony at New Amsterdam.^ Governor Stuyvesant made frantic appeals to the people to assist in warding off the at- The Dutch yield tack, but the Dutch were outnumbered,^ and to the English. resistance was useless. Without a blow New Amsterdam fell into the hands of the English, and with it the whole of New Netherland. Charles II. gave the newly conquered territory to his brother, the Duke of York, and changed the name of both the colony and its capital to New York. Dutch colonization, like Spanish, failed, and for a similar reason. The Spaniards were allured by goM, the Dutch by Why the Dutch trade. They both lacked the colonizing in- 'ai'ed. stiuct which puts homc-makiug before wealth- getting. Though the Dutch failed as a nation in colonizing America, their influence was indelibly impressed for good on the part of the country which they settled. 59. New York Under English Governors. — New York prospered under English rule, but the people there were disappointed because they were not given as much political freedom as the English colonists enjoyed in New England. The feeling became so strong that in 1683 they were al- lowed an assembly elected by the freeholders, which could meet with the governor and council to make laws and levy taxes. In 1686, however, the Duke of York, having become king, took away this representative government, and two years later annexed New York to New England, under the rule of Andros.^ The later English governors were so ex- asperating and tyrannical, that a people's party arose in the colony. When in 1689 news came that James II. had been driven from the throne, the people of New York, like ^ ConHecticut readily came forward to assist in defeatmg her old enemy in the Connecticut valley and on Long Island, where English settlers had come into col- lision with the Dutch. ' At this time the population of New Amsterdam was about fifteen hundred, and of New Netherland about seven thousand. 3 Andros, while governor of New England, New York, and New Jersey (l686- 1689), remained in New England. Nicholson represented him in New York as lieutenant-governor. THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK 69 AN EARLA' DUTCH MAN OF WAR. Frotn a vtodel in the Musee de Louvre, Paris. their New England neighbors, put aside the king's govern- ment and established one of their own. Their party was headed by Jacob Leisler, an energetic trades- Leisier leads an man without education or political experi- peoptl"^ again^ ence. He made many mistakes and aroused Andros. the opposition of his own party, but he managed to hold office for three years. The people finally appealed to the king (William 111.), who sent over in 1691 a new governor. Leisler was tried for treason and hanged. With the new governor, the assembly was restored, and from this time the colon v was governed in a constitutional way. 60. The Quakers in England. — The direct cause of the settlement of Pennsylvania was the bitter persecution 70 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of the Quakers in England.^ They had no respect for forms and ceremonies; they were extreme dissenters from the Established Church, and did not believe in paying taxes for its support; they would use no titles of honor to any man, not even the king; they counted it a sin to take oath -even in a court of justice, or to pay taxes for war. 6i. W^illiam Penn and the Quakers Settle Pennsyl- vania (1681). — William Penn was the most illustrious con- vert of the Quakers in the seven- teenth centur}'. He was a young man of wealth, education, culture, and political promise. His father, Admiral Penn, had been active in brinofing" about the restoration of the Stuarts, and was therefore held in high esteem by King Charles II. and his court. Penn early cher- ished an idea of founding a settle- ment for the Quakers in America. He had taken a leading interest in a colon V in West Jersey, where manv Quakers had found a refusre.^ The colony was not altogether sat- isfactory, and he was led to obtain a grant of land from the king, in payment of a claim of $80,000 which he had inher- ited from his father. The king, always short of money, was glad to discharge his debt in this way. He granted Penn a large tract of land west of the Delaware River (1681), and named it Penn- sylvania in honor of his friend, the admiral. Penn was made proprietor of the new colonv, and by the terms of „ ^ the charter, which was drawn by his own Penn becomes pro- ' _ ^ - prietor of Penn- hand, the proprietor, with the consent of the syivania. freemen, was to make all necessary laws. Having obtained the charter, Penn offered land on liberal terms, and promised the settlers a popular government, ' At one time there were 4,000 Quakers in English prisons. 'Some of the New England Quakers came here, and many came from England. WILLIAM FENN. THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK 71 with justice to all regardless of religious belief. The people of his faith throughout England responded with such en- thusiasm that he sent out a large colony. 62. The Quakers Live in Peace with the Indians. — William Penn came to America in 1682, and in the follow- ing year he laid out the city of Philadel- phia on a tract of land lying between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. Under the spread- ing branches of an elm-tree^ he made a treaty^ of peace with the Indians. By this treaty he paid them fairly for the land and made them presents. So honest were the Quaker colonists of Pennsylvania in all their dealings with the natives that for a long time the highest compliment an Indian could pay a white man was to liken him to Penn. They kept their treaty with them for sixty years. 63. Penn's Liberal Government. — The government was very liberal. The proprietor named the governor, but the ^ This tree was blown down in 1810. A monument marks the spot where it stood. ^ Penn said to the Indians : " The friendship between you and me I will not compare to a chain, for that might rust, or the falling tree might break. We are the same as if one man's body were to be divided into two parts. We are all one flesh and blood." When the Indians handed to Penn the wampum belt of peace, they said : " We will live in love and peace with William Penn as long as the sun and the moon shall endure." MAP BHOWIMO COLONIES between Potomac aud Iludson.RiT«r6. 60 190 '^^^"Sr^ ^ _^^^ Scale of MU,.. %^ 72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES people chose the members of the council and the assembly. Every tax-payer and freeholder was to have the right to vote. The first laws reflect the benevolence of Penn and his people. These laws provided that the Indians should be treated kindly ; that each child should be taught a trade ; that criminals in prison should be kept busy with some kind of work; and that all public officers should be pro- fessing Christians. 64. Growth of Pennsylvania. — In spite of internal feuds, some slight and others serious, the colony continued to pros- per. The climate was good, the soil was fertile, and rivers offered easy communication. These natural advantages, together with the liberal spirit, the good laws, and the peaceful relations with the Indians, caused the settlement to grow rapidlv.^ Colonists were not afraid to come where Mixed character of othcrs had opcucd the way. Besides English the population. ^nd Swcdcs, there were many from Wales» Holland, and Germany. Industries were built up, and wealth increased with population. Thus Penn's " Holy Ex- periment" proved to be successful, and Pennsylvania took her place among the foremost of the original colonies.^ TO THE PUPIL 1. Describe Hudson's attempt to find the Northwest passage to India. What advantage did he gain for the Dutch by winning the good- will of the Iroquois Indians ? How did Champlain make these same Indians deadly enemies of the French ? In what way did the friend- ship of these Indians to the Dutch aid the English later ? Note the importance of the fur trade. 2. Bear in mind the mixed population in New York and in Pennsylvania, for you can use this knowledge to a good purpose when you study the Revolution. * In three years Philadelphia had gained more in population than New York had in a half century. Toward the close of the century Philadelphia was a "noble and beautiful " city, as a history of that time describes it, containing two thousand houses, most of them " stately," built of brick. ' Although Penn's colony prospered, it caused him much anxiety and the loss of a large fortune. THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK 73 3. Why did England wish to secure New Netherland ? What does the series of years, 1609-1664, cover in the history of New Netherland ? Why did Dutch colonization fail ? 4. What was the condition of New York under the English governors? What led to a popular uprising under the leadership of Leisler? 5. Find interesting facts about the following : The Quakers, William Penn, his charter, his liberal ideas of government in the new colony, and his relations with the Indians. Write five minutes on one of these. 6. You began with 1492: you have now reached 1689, about two cen- turies later. Learn these dates thoroughly : 1492,1588,1689. 1492- 1898: observe that 1689 is almost half-way between the two. How many of the thirteen original colonies had been settled before 1689? Make out a chart with the following facts in separate columns i Name of colony, when settled, where settled, by whom settled. 7. You have seen how the Spanish, the English, and the Dutch tried to establish colonies. In the " Notes " you will find an account of similar attempts made by the Swedes. 8. It would be a good plan for you to make out a chronological chart, beginning with 1492 and ending with 1689, inctuding dates of princi- pal events in three parallel lines, one for the Spanish, one for the English, and one for the Dutch. NOTES I^etu Jersey (161 8). — As New Jersey was at first included in New Netherland, the Dutch erected, as early as 161 8, a small fort at Bergen, on the west bank of the Hudson River. When in 1664 New Netherland passed into the hands of the English, the Duke of York sold the land be- tween the Hudson River and the Delaware to his friends. Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. He named the province New Jersey, after the island of Jersey, which Carteret had bravely defended for the king's father, Charles I., during the Civil War in England. The first permanent English settlement was made at Elizabethtown in 1665. As the people were allowed freedom of worship and a part in making the laws, a good class of settlers was attracted to New Jersey. The Indians were so kindly treated that they gave no trouble. In 1674 the province was divided into East and West Jersey, for many years known as " The Jerseys." By 1682 both the Jerseys had been sold to a number of Quakers, among whom was William Penn. There were now so many proprietors that much confusion over land titles resulted. The proprietors therefore sold in 1702 all their claims to the English Crown. Frorr. that time the Jerseys were known as New Jersey and were 74 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES united to New York. New Jersey and New York now had the same gov- ernor, but each province had its own assembly. In 1738 New Jersey was made a royal province, which it continued to be until the Revolution. Benjamin Franklin's son was the last royal governor. Delaware (1638). — In 1638 a number of Swedes and Finlanders landed near the present site of Wilmington, Delaware, and built a fort which they called Christina, in honor of their queen. Later, the Swedes made settlements along the Delaware River as far as the site of Philadelphia. Their colony they called New Sweden. But the Dutch claimed all this region as a part of New Netherland, and in 1655 they sailed up the Del- aware, captured all the Swedish forts, and made New Sweden a part of New Netherland. When in 1664 the English took New Netherland from the Dutch, Delaware became an English possession. In 1682 William Penn, wishing to secure a free outlet to the ocean, bought from the Duke of York this territory, then known as the " three lower counties on the Delaware." Delaware then became a part of Pennsylvania. In 1703 the people of Delaware were allowed a separate assembly ; but they had the same gov- ernor as Pennsylvania until the Revolution. CHAPTER VII LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, I., II., III.; Drake's Making of New England; Drake's Making of the Great West ; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Morris's Half Hours with American His- tory, I. ; Richardson';^ History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Catlin's North American Indians; Chapin's Land of the Cliff Dwellers; Fiske's Discovery of America; Ellis's Red Man and White Man; Drake's Indian History for Young Folks; Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac; Hart's Colonial Children. POETRY: Longfellow's Hiawatha. 65. The People Columbus Found in America. — When Columbus came to America he found a people very differ- ent from the Spaniards or other Europeans. As he believed he had reached the Indies he called these people Indians. They were alike in having high cheek-bones, black eyes, coarse black hair, and beardless laces. But with respect to their size, dress, houses, and manner of life there was as much difference as there was among people living in various countries of Europe. 66. Division into Families of the Indians East of the Mississippi. — The Indians whom the French and English found living East of the Mississippi were divided into three great families. First, there were the Southern, or Maskoki, Indians, who were spread over the country extending from the Tennessee River to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Mississippi to the Atlantic. The most important tribes were the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks, and Seminoles. Secondly, there were the Iroquois Indians, 75 76 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES .?i-4-^ ^S^i- AN INDIAN CAMP. who included the Five Nations* in Central New York, the Tuscaroras in North CaroHna, the Hiirons north of Lake Erie, and the Eries south of it. Thirdly, i II the other tribes spreading northward from the Tennessee and eastward from the Mississippi were Algonquins. 67. Character. — The Indian was a true child of the forest. He had a wild love ot liberty, which refused control by any *The Five Nations included the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, who formed aloose confederacy. The Five Nations were very powerful Indians till their defeat by Frontenac in 1697. They firmly controlled the Mohawk River valley and prevented the French from using the best natural highways from Lake Erie to the Ohio. Their population at the time of their greatest strength was under 20,000. After the Tuscaroras from North Carolina joined them in 1715 they were known as the Six Nations. LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS 77 will except his own. He was cruel to his enemy and often tortured him or burned him alive. But the Indian was generous and kind. In the midst of famine he would cheer- fully share the last morsel with a fellow-sufferer, and in the hour of danger would lay down his life for a friend. 68. Occupations. — The squaw dia nearly all the work. She dug the soil with shells and pointed sticks, gathered the crops, dressed skins, dried meat, and made mocca- sins and various articles of clothing out of what the squaw the skins of animals. The Indian was first ^'^• of all a warrior. His weapons were the war-club, the bow and arrow, and the tomahawk. A sharpened stone served for the blade of his tomahawk, and bone or flint pointed his arrows. He was also fond of Indian weapons. iSilEiiiSiisBiiiiS tlDaClll(((ICI13(^Kn!fHIIIIJmilNllllllV eiitGD(t((ie8'jj'i'.^':C'!ictiiticiiieiiiilillii|iD:jiD-.. mmmi .ummmmnmm. mmm c , o sbcciibiihiiimiimiombb-'c tCtCMGODlDllCGBOiliCOec lUtH 'joiiimsiccccci It c mmm c oiDioiiiNiiniiilinioiiiiot ( ctcctteco ,t lOIOeiinNIIIOIOIBNIINIIU 1 :G, joeotitG ZlSSl mmmmm /fssam^ WAMPUM RECEIVED BY PENN FROM THE INDIANS. hunting and fishing, and to assist him in these occupations he made the canoe and the snow-shoe. 69. The Canoe and the Snow-shoe. — In the fishing sea- son he sought the side of lake or stream, and he was always eager to go where game was thickest and where the scalps of his enemies could be taken in greatest numbers. The canoe was therefore a necessity. Before the whites came it was to him horse, steamboat, and railroad, all in one. In travelling on land he followed the trail of The canoes and the deer or the buffalo. But water-ways were the water-ways, so much easier that he travelled ten miles on water to one on land. Between the water-ways there were *' carrying places," or portages, over which he had to carry the 8 7» HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES canoe and all its load of fur and other goods. In other words, sometimes the canoe carried its owner and some- times the owner carried his ca- noe. It was therefore necessary that it should be both light and strong. Such was the birch- bark canoe, which was made by stripping off the bark of the birch in one piece and carefully fitting it over a light wooden frame. Another Indian inven- tion of great use was the snow« shoe, which was three or four feet in length, curved and taper- ing, and enabled the wearer to go along easily on the surface of the snow at the rate of forty miles a day. 70. Wampum. — Wampum consisted of small shells, or beads made from shells, perfor- ated and strung together, and often wrought into belts. The Indians used wampum for per- sonal adornment and also for more serious purposes, such as summoning the tribes to war, and recording treaties, laws, and speeches. Ten thousand beads have been known to be worked into a single war-belt four inches wide. The colors and the pat- terns of the belt varied with its purpose, peculiar signs and fig- ures enabling the Indian to remember certain parts of a speech or a treaty. This was INDIAN WHIP (quirt), WAR-CLUB, ^ , 1 t t AND HUNTING-ARROW. ucccssary because the indian LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS 79 could not write. Apart from other uses it was valued also as money. 71. Religion. — The Indian believed that all Indians, good and bad, would after this life go to the Happy Hunt- ing Grounds. This was his name for Heaven. The Happy Hunt- Life there would be the same as life in this ingOrounds. world, but without pain or trouble of any kind. It is INDIAN SNOW-SHOES AND PAPPOOSE-CASE. thought that the practice of scalping enemies killed in bat- tle was associated with the belief that the loss of the scalp prevented the spirit from entering the Happy Hunting Grounds. The Indian would therefore risk almost any- thing to save the dead body of his chief or his friend from being scalped by the enemy. As in the Happy Hunting Grounds he would need arms to defend himself, these and 8o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Other things of use in this life were buried with him for use in the other life. 72. The Clan and the Tribe. — According to language and locality the Indians were separated into families, such as the Maskoki, Algonquin, and Iroquois. According to government the family was separated into distinct tribes, and again, by relationship more or less remote, the tribe was separated into clans. Each clan had its name, usually TOTEM OF THE FIVE NATIONS. TOTEM O. .'HE l^^ll.At. that of some bird, beast, or reptile, and the picture of this animal became the peculiar emblem or "to- tem " of the clan. The animal represented in the totem of each clan was supposed to favor and protect that clan and was sometimes tattooed on the breast. Every clan selected a sachem, or civil ruler, and at least one war-chief. The sachems exercised but little authorityo Indian govern- They actcd as adviscrs and, when assembled ment democratic, together in tribal councils, freely discussed important questions. The Indian government was there- fore democratic, each warrior being to a large degree his own master. 73. Communal Living. — The Indians knew but little of real estate. The tribes occupied the land but did not own it in the sense in which white men own land now. They had LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS 8l very little personal property except such objects as weap- ons, trinkets, and clothing, and held all other property in common. Their arciiitecture was adapted to their com- munal life. Interesting illustrations of this are to be found in the *' Long Houses "of the Iroquois. These ^^^ .. ^ong houses, made of wood and bark, were in some Houses" of tho cases one hundred feet long, and would ac- *«"oquois. commodate as many as twenty families. As a rule, each house was occupied by families of which the mothers were members of the same clan. Whatever these families obtained TOTEM OF THE SIOUX. TOTEM OF THE HURONS. by hunting or by the rude culture of the soil they owned in common, and all their food they kept in a common store- house. 74. The Mound Builders. — Many thousands of mounds have been found in Ohio and in other parts of the United States. Some have the shape of birds, fishes, and reptiles ; some of the square, circle, and other mathematical figures. The Big Elephant Mound, a few miles below the mouth of the Wisconsin River, is 135 feet long; the Serpent Mound, in Ohio, is 1,000 feet long, with a gracefully curving body. These mounds have gateways, outlooks, and parallel lines, showino^ that they were probably used as for- A.'a 4.' r^c A / r 1 i The mounds. tihcations. Ui late years very careful explorers have been at work among these mounds, opening many oi them and taking out relics. These relics include kettles, 82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES pipes, axes, arrowheads, tools for weaving and spinning, and other things. They have been examined with the great- Reiics found in est care, because they help us to understand the mounds. what kind of people made and used them. At one time it was thought that the Mound Builders were a people of a very superior civilization, because of the artistic skill they showed in their sculptured relics. Accordingly, the Mound Builders were spoken of as a " lost race " that numbered many millions and constituted a mighty empire. The character of the mounds and of the relics found in them leaves no Mound Builders ^O^^t that probably Ameri- they WCrC can Indians. the WOrk of various tribes, differing from each other quite as much as Indian tribes The Chero- are known to mounds some the whites CARVED PIPES FROM AN INDIAN MOUND. in the western part part of Tennessee. differ now kees, who have built time after came to America, prob- ably built those found CaroHna and the eastern altogether probable that of North It seems the Mound Builders were nothing more than American Indians, like those found by the English and the French colonists. 75. Number of Indians. — There are at present about 250,000 Indians in the United States. Very likely the num- ber is quite as large now as it was when the English and the French began to plant settlements. It has been thought LIFE AMONG THE INDIANS 83 ihat the coming of the whites prevented the destruction of large numbers of Indians by war and famine. 76. Influence of the Indians Upon the Whites. The influence of the Indians upon the whites, especially from the time of the early settlements to the Revolution, was considerable. They often saved struggling settlers from starvation by furnishing them food, and they taught the whites how to cultivate Indian corn. But, as we shall see in later chapters of this book, the principal Indian wars influence of the Indians upon the whites was t«"8»»t the ^oio- ^ nists the advan- through the numerous Indian wars, which tage of union, helped the colonists to know one another better, and taught them what they most needed to learn — the advantage of union. In fighting against a common danger the colonies were brought into closer sympathy with one another. Let us briefly refer to two of those wars, the Pequot War and King Philip's War, both of which were fought before the beginning of the Intercolonial Wars. BIG ELEPHANT MOUND. CHAPTER VIII EARLY INDIAN WARS 77. The Pequot War (1637) — The leading cause of each ot the Indian wars in New England was the same — the feeling on the part of the Indians that the whites were Leading cause of getting posscssion of the lands, and would early Indian wars, in time drive the Red Men away from their hunting grounds. The Indians did not at first understand that sales of land meant their giving it up entirely. But even when they understood the nature of land sales, they thought the whites had taken advantage of them. When the people from Massachusetts settled in Con«^ necticutin 1636 they found themselves neighbors to a strong, ferocious tribe of Indians, called Pequots, living in the east- ern part of the State. These Indians attacked the little settlement of Wethersfield, where they killed a number of persons. Captain John Mason, with ninety men from the Ca tain Mason's tOWnS of Hartford, Wcthersfield, and Wind- expedition against sor, Started in pursuit. The party came to the Pequots. auchorin Narragansett Bay about three weeks after leaving Hartford. Mason marched westward across Rhode Island, and at the end of two days halted the expe- dition just north of the present town of Stonington. Before daybreak next morning he and his men surprised the In- dian fort, and destroyed nearly all the Indians in it, con- sisting of frofti 400 to 600 men, women, and children. The war resulted in the destruction of the Pequot tribe, and so awed the Indians in that part of the country that there was no more trouble with them for about forty years. Then came King Philip's War, which lasted two years and was much more extensive than the Pequot War. 84 EARLY INDIAN WARS 85 78. King Philip's War (1675-1676). — King Philip, chief of the Wampanoags, a Rhode Island tribe, was a leader of much ability. He united the New England King PhiUp's Indians from Maine to the Hudson River in purpose, a league whose aim was to destroy all the whites in New England. The war broke out in Swansea, Massachusetts, INDIANS CARRYINCx CANOES OVER A PORTAGE. and spread through the towns in the southern and western parts of the State. Deerfield and Hadley were among the places pillaged and burned. The war was stubbornly fought, and finally ended with the death of King Philip, who was shot while trying to escape capture at Mount Hope (Bristol), Rhode Island, which was his home. Results of King The remnant of his tribe were either killed or Philip's war. sold into slavery, and the power of the New England In- dians was completely broken. The war was a severe strain upon the New England colonists. Six hundred of them were killed, and thirteen of their towns were destroved. It 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES cost the colonists a large sum of money and imposed heavy burdens upon them in the way of taxation. But the Indians having the greatest infiuence upon co- lonial development were the Iroquois. These we have already mentioned in their relation to the Dutch, and we shall now speak of their immediate infiuence upon the French and the English colonies. TO THE PUPIL 1. Why were the canoe and the snow-shoe of great value to the Indian ? What was his religious belief? Tell what you can about communal living; about the Mound Builders. 2. Why did the absence of such animals as horses and oxen retard the progress of the Indians? Discuss the influence of the Indians upon the whites. 3. What were the causes and results of the Pequot War ? of King Philip's War ? Impersonating King Philip, v/rite an account of the wrongs you suffered at the hands of the whites. 4. Subject for debate: Resolved, that the Indians have been unjustly treated by the white people. 5 If you rightly study the facts about the Indians, you will be prepared to understand the Indian problem which the American people are now trying to solve. As in the case of all other problems of to-day, we study the past that we may learn how to interpret the present. Even the Indian question has two sides. Read the first chapter of Parkmans Conspiracy of Pontiac ; also Longfellow's Hiawatha, CHAPTER IX FRENCH EXPLORATIONS REFERENCES: Scrlbner's Popular History of the United States, 1. and II.5 Wright's Children's Stories in American History ; Drake's Making of the Great West; Drake's Making of New England; Morris's Half Hours with American History; Rictiardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS : Parkman's La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West; Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, IV.; Winsor's The Westward Movement; Bancroft's United States, II.; Hinsdale's Old Northwest; Hildretli's United States, II.j Tliwaites's Father Marquette ; Wilson's A History of the American People, II. j Dix's Champlain. FICTION: Catherwood's Romance of Dollard; Catherwood's Story ol Tonty. 79. The French Discover and Explore the St. Law- rence.— By reason of the discoveries of Verrazano (1524) France laid claim to the Atlantic coast between Cape Fear, North Carolina, and Newfoundland. Ten ^,^^1^^ discover, years later Jacques Cartier discovered the St. the st. Lawrence Lawrence and sailed up the river as far as an ^'^^'*^- Indian village on the present site of Montreal. He returned in 1540 and in the name of King- Francis L took possession of Canada, as the Indians called the country. Immediately attempts were made to colonize, but they were unsuccess- ful. In 1603 the French again attempted settlement in the region extending from New York harbor to Cape Breton, called Acadia,^ and again they failed. But these failures only shed the greater lustre about the name of Samuel de Champlain, the *' Father of New France." When he first penetrated the St. Lawrence val- * Acadia was afterward restricted in meaning to its present boundaries. 87 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FRENCH SOLDIERS OF THE TIME OF THE FRENCH EXPLORATION. ley he was impressed with its great beaiit}^ and its valu- able resources, for it was rich in forests and furs. Next Champiain makes to the gold and silvcr, the fur trade furnished nent Frenrh"^"!! ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ '^S ^^ ^^^ ^^^"L * *^ ^^ *^eted Wealll tiement in Canada, which the Ncw 'Vorld offr fed. C'la^ij-'un was a man of culture and refinement, earnest, patriotic, and religious. He wished to extend the glory of France and the Catholic Church. Moreover, he saw that the St. Law- rence valley, and not Acadia, was the promising field for France in the New World. In 1608 he made the first per- manent French settlement in Canada, at Quebec. The fol- lowing year he discovered the lake which bears his name. 80. Champiain and the Iroquois. — It was a curious coin- cidence that two years after the settlement of Jamestown Hudson should have sailed up the Hudson River and Champiain and Champiain should have explored Lake Cham- Henry Hudson. pi^in (1609). Thcsc two cvcuts had a large influence on American history. The Dutch on the Hudson and the Iroquois in the Mohawk River valley stood in the way of French success in America. The story containing the reasons for French failure is full of interest, and we will now begin to read it. \ ^ V ' MAP 6IIO%VIXG KOrXES OP CHAMPLAIN, MARQUETTE and IjA SALiIjE, ALSO ENGLISH POSSESSIONS, FRENCH and SPANISH CLAIMS AT TUB TU1£ OF THE FBENCU AND INDIAN WAB. 9 60 190 890 400 jgo Soale of Miles. Champlain- — — Marquette-*- — -»■ — -f — La Salle ^^^ -50* FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 89 When Champlain settled at Quebec in 1608, he found that the neighboring- tribes of Algonquin Indians were bit- ter enemies of the Mohawks, one of the Five Nations, or Iroquois, in New York. It was hard for him to keep out of their deadly feud, and he decided to take the side of the Algonquins because their lands were nearer to him. Ac- cordingly he joined them in a battle with the Mohawks near Ticonderoga, on Lake Cham- plain, and shot some of the latter with his gun. As the Mo- hawks had never before heard the report of a gun champJam makes they were overcome the iroquois ene- With superstitious «"'"<>' the French. terror and defeated. The French- man enabled the Algonquins to triumph over the Mohawks, but that shot was fatal t the future success of the French in America. The Iroquois were from that day the unrelenting enemies of the French colonists, and did all they could to prevent them from carrying out their plans of exploration and trade. 81. The French Reach the Mississippi Valley It is important to remember tiiat this Ijattle of Ticonderoga took place in 1609, when only a handful of Englishmen were at Jamestown. The French had control of the St. Law- rence, one of the three great water-ways to the interior of North America. If they could get control of jhe three great the Mississippi valley and the Hudson-Mo- water-ways. hawk River route they would hold the other two, and North America would be in their grasp. The distance from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi was not great. One route lay through Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, by portage into French Creek, through the Alleghany and Ohio Rivers into the Mississippi. Another lay through the same lakes into the Maumee, by portage into the Wabash, SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN. 90 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and through the Ohio into the Mississippi. But the ever- watchful Iroquois, whose territory stretched along the The Iroquois force shorc of Lake Erie, blocked the way and I^l^nTand^Tfffcuu baffled the French here. The latter were route. obliged to seek a route farther north, which was much longer and more difficult. Slowly and patiently they worked their way up the Ottawa River into Georgian Bay, through Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, across into the Illinois River, and from there into the Mississippi. The Jesuit missionaries bore a large part in this toil- some work of exploration. These brave men were eager to Christianize the Indians. They built mission stations and in their zeal braved many dangers. Not only did they gain converts to their faith, but with rare intelligence they made important explorations and discoveries. It was one , . of their number, Marquette, who succeeded Important work of . ' ,^. . . . . i i , the Jesuit mis- m reaching the Mississippi. Attended by ijionaries. Jolict, he Sailed, in 1673, as far down the Mis- sissippi as the mouth of the Arkansas. This was two years before King Philip's War and three years before Bacon's Rebellion. 82. La Salle Plants the Arms of France at the Mouth of the Mississippi. — But the most valuable explorations were made by the daring and tireless La Salle. He was an earnest Catholic, and was full of plans for his own success and ambitious for the success of France. In 1666, at the age of twenty-three, he came out to Canada, filled with the passion of his age, the desire to discover a water route to India. Not much is known of his early explorations, but it is supposed that he discovered the Ohio River and partially explored it. In 1679 he set out on an expedition to explore the Mississippi. By this time he had given up the idea of a water route to India. His great ambition was to reach La Salle sets out ^^^ mouth of the Mississippi and secure the to explore the vallcy for Fraucc. Having built the Griffin^ Mississippi. ^ sm3.\\ boat, on the Niagara River, he sailed in it through Lakes Erie and Huron and landed on the shore of Lake Michio^an. He then sent back His boat for lA SALLE CLAIMING FOR FRANCE ALL THE TERRITORY THROUGH WHICH THB MISSISSIPPI AND ITS TRIBUTARIES FLOWED. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 91 supplies, but he never heard from it again. This was only one of the many trials and disappointments in his troubled life. A little later he reached the Illinois . e .. La Salle reaches River, and sailing- about half way down, built a the mouth of the fort afterward fitly named Crevecoeur (Heart- ^'^^'s^'pp'- break). In 1682 he found the Mississippi and explored it to its mouth. There, according to French custom, he planted the French arms and claimed all the country through which the river and its tributaries flowed. He called the country Louisiana in honor of the French King, Louis XIV. This was the year in which Penn was laying the foundations of Philadelphia. 83. Attempt to Plant a Colony at the Mouth of the Mississippi. — La Salle's aims were two-fold: (i) To establish military and trade centres at various LaSaiie'stwo points and (2) to "'"*• plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. In this way he hoped to get control of the fur trade for France. He had built many forts. He now returned to France to get people ior his colony. He succeeded in getting men for this new scheme, but in sailing for the mouth of the Mississippi he missed it and landed several hundred miles to the west at Matagorda Bay. Trials and difficulties grew thick about him until, at the end of two years, he started overland to get assistance from Canada. While he and his wretched followers were wandering through the dense forests, he was waylaid and shot dead by some of the men of his own company (1687). He had not accom- whatLaSaii© plished his full purpose, but in exploring ^^^• the Ohio and the Mississippi and in building forts in the unoccupied territory he had done a great work for his country. ( ROBERT CAVALIER DE LA SALLE. 92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 84. On Account of La Salle's Exploration the Missis* sippi Valley Becomes a Part of New France. — The plant- ing of French arms at the mouth of the Mississippi was a very significant event in American history. It was the declaration to the world that France laid claim to the whole Mississippi valley from the Rocky to the Alleghany Mountains. Spain had failed to follow up her discovery of the Mississippi by making the country known to the world or by colonizing it. It had been the dream of La Salle to unite this immense and valuable territory La Salle's dream. .,, ^i Oi. t n 1 • w^ith the St. Lawrence valley, makmg a vast empire which would crowd out the English. The English had planted their colonies on the Atlantic sea-coast, and he wished to keep them shut in behind the AUeghanies for- ever. The Mississippi and St. Lawrence valleys would form the New France of America, with the seat of govern- ment removed to the Mississippi. TO THE PUPIL X. You have been studying colonial history from the earliest settlements to 1689. Before that date, each colony largely went its own way, with but little interest in any other. After that date, the colonies were gradually drawn nearer together by the necessity of uniting fcr a better defence against common enemies. One of these common enemies was the French and the Indians, and another the royal and proprietary governors. 2. What was done for France by Verrazano ? by Cartier ? by Cham- plain ? You cannot too carefully note the results of Champlain's mistake (1609) in making enemies of the Iroquois. 3. Trace carefully on the map the various water-ways by which the French could reach the Mississippi valley. What part did the Jesuit missionaries bear in the toilsome work of exploration ? 4. Describe the work of La Salle. What were his aims ? Notice what he did in 1682, only seven years before the great landmark 1689. What were the results of his work ? Write an essay on his explora- tions. 5. Learn all you can about the Iroquois Indians, as their influence upon colonial history was remarkable. You will find a good account of them in the first chapter of Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac. CHAPTER X THE LAST FRENCH WAR REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, III.; Wright's Children's Stories in American History; Sloane's French War and the Revolution ; Cook's Stories in the Old Dominion ; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Fiske's War of Independence; Ricliardson's History of Our Country ; Hart's Formation of the Union. OUTSIDE READINGS : Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, V. and VI. ; Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe; Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac; Park- man's Old Regime in Canada ; Bancroft's United States, V. ; Morris's Half Hours with American History, I. ; Hinsdale's Old Northwest; Wilson's A His- tory of the American People, II. ; Frothingham's Rise of the Republic; Rossiter Johnson's Old French War; Scudder's George Washington; Franklin's Au- tobiography; Wilson's George Washington; Ford's The True George Wash- ington, FICTION: Cooper's Last of the Mohicans; Thackeray's Virginians; Henty's With Wolfe in Canada ; Munroe's At War with Pontiac. POETRY : Longfellow's Evangeline (the Acadians). 85. England and France Struggle for Control in America (1689-1763). — These events in the Mississippi val- ley occurred just before 1689. In 1688 James ^^^^^^^^^^^g^^. II., one of the Stuart kings, was driven out of land and France England and found refuge in the court of ^'^^^"'7^^^' France. There France took up his cause, and England and France began a series of wars which did not end until 1763. While these wars were going on in Europe there was fight- ing between the French and English colonies in America. The Iroquois stood in the way of French The iroquois and success, for the French sought the fur trade, the fur trade. and the Iroquois largely controlled it in the region of the Great Lakes. But since the day that Champlain had joined 93 94 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the Alg'onquins and helped them defeat the Iroquois, the French had been persistently hindered and harassed by these powerful tribes in the INlohawk valley. It will be re- membered that the English, when they conquered New Netherland, inherited from the Dutch the good- will and friendly alliance of these Indians. Both the French and the English encouraged their Ind- ian allies to make attacks upon frontier settlements during the years that France and England were at war. The vari- The Intercolonial ous wars in the colonics were called Inter- ^*'"s- colonial Wars.^ The last one is the most in- terestinir one to us. It is known as the Last French War^ in America and the Seven Years' War in Europe (i 756-1 763). 86. Causes of the Last French War. — Both Ensfland and France claimed the territorv between the AUeghanies Reasons why and the Mississippi. England claimed it by unTcraZt'.r tl^-e discovery of the Cabots and by Indian nississippj valley, trcatv, and France by reason of exploration. France had done much more than England to make this region known, but had not occupied the country. When, therefore, the English colonies, which had been taking root on the Atlantic coast, had spread as far west as the eastern base of the AUeghanies, a struggle for possession was inevi- table. By 1750 the French had built a line of sixty forts by * The first three of the Intercolonial Wars, named after the English sovereign reigning at the time, were as follows: King William's War (16S9-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). and King George's War (1744-1748). During the last one the New England colonists, led by Colonel Pepperrell, captured Louisburg, a great fortress on Cape Breton Island, The French had thought that this strong- hold could withstand any attack, and were therefore amazed at the success of the New England farmers and fishermen. At the end of the war, however, England gave up Louisburg to France. ~ To develop union among the English colonies, there were needed such com- mon interests as the Intercolonial Wars furnished. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York united in King William's War ; South Carolina, New England, New York, and New Jersey organized separate expeditions against the French and Ind- ians in Queen Anne's War; the northern coloni'^s engaged in King George's War; and in the Last French War all the colonies stood side by side in a solid array against the French and Indians. This war was national, and led the provincial to beg^n to think of himself as an American. THE LAST FRENCH WAR 95 f*^^^t?^ FRENCH SOLDIERS AND OFFICERS OF THE TIME OF THE FRENCH WAR. way of the Great Lakes, from the St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi. Great skill was shown in lo-, catin'; them it points of military importancr. In many cas^^^i they atterwa^d became great business French fo-*s and c«.... trade centres. Detroit, Chicago, Nat- co'onies. chez, and St. Louis mark the sites of some of these forts. The French had planted colonies also at Mobile and New Orleans early in the eighteenth century. Thus far they had outgeneraled the English in establishing a claim to such a vast extent of territory, for the English colonists had been so busy with their own affairs that they had thought very little of the land lying west of the mountains. But at last they had waked up and were ready to make a stubborn fight if necessary. French and English traders had come into collision in the disputed territory, and both the French and the English appreciated the need of immediate action. About the same time that the French governor was once more trying to make friends with the Iroquois* Indians, and urging the * The Iroquois were the great barrier between the French and the disputed terri- tory. During this war the Iroquois were neutral. 96 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES home government to send colonists to the Ohio valley, the Ohio Company was formed by some gentlemen in Virginia. This company received from the king, on condition of set- The Ohio Com- tlcmcnt, a grant of 600,000 acres of land be- pany- tween the Great Kanawha and Mononga- hela Rivers. Lawrence Washington had a large interest in the Ohio Company, and his younger brother George was employed as surveyor. The Ohio Company at once began to send explorers into the disputed region, and at the same time the French were taking formal possession by sinking lead plates with inscriptions at the mouths of the streams. To get ahead of the English the French built a line of forts on the direct route to the Ohio> Governor Dinwid- washington's ^^^ ^^^^^ Gcorgc Washington, then adjutant- lourneytothe general of the Virginia militia, to inform the French forts. French commander 2 that he was building on English territory and would do well to depart peace- ably. Washington at this time was twenty-one years old and over six feet tall. Cool-headed and fearless, with seven companions, all on pack-horses, he started from Williams- burg, Va., on his perilous journey late in October, 1753. About the middle of January, 1754, he returned Avith the refusal of the French commander to withdraw. As the juncture of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers was the " Gateway of the West," a fort here would control the entrance to the Ohio valley. Both nations had their eyes upon this important site. The English reached ^ These forts included Presque Isle, Le Boeuf, and Venango on the Alleghany. ^ To reach Fort Le Bceuf, situated only fifteen miles from Lake Erie, Washing- ton had to travel five hundred miles through the wilderness. By the time he was ready to start back from Fort Venango, it was Christmas. The pack-horses were so weak that Washington and a single companion pressed forward on foot. They had many narrow escapes from death. A treacherous Indian guide, who was not three rods in advance, turned suddenly and shot at Washington, but missed him. Washington took the Indian's gun away and let him go. On reaching the Alle- ghany River Washington and his companion found it full of floating ice. W^ith nothing but a hatchet, they made a raft and began crossing the river. Shortly after- ward Washington was struck by a piece of floating ice and knocked into the water. Darkness falling upon them before they couM reach the opposite side of the river, they spent the night on an island, where they nearly froze to death. THE Last FRENCH V/AR 97 it first, but were driven off by a larger force of French, who put up a fort and called it Fort Du Quesne. Washington, who was on his way from Virginia to occupy the new fort, was met by the unsuccessful party of English. He pushed on to Great Meadows (Pennsylvania), and there learned that the French were marching toward him. Advancing with the aid of an Indian guide and forty men, he met a French party in a dark glen near by, and exchanged shots with them. The French leader and most of his men were killed. This encounter began the war. Washington returned to Great Meadows The fighting be- gins at Great ileadows. QUEBEC IN 1730. and threw up intrenchments which he called Fort Neces- sity. Here he was defeated by the French and obliged to retire (July, 1754). This handful of men with their youth- ful leader had fired the shot which set in motion European armies. The war which followed was but little less im- portant in its issues than the Rcvoluiion. Let us now fol- low it in some of its most important engagements. 87. Plan of the War. — The plan of the English in 1755 and their general plan for the war was four-fold. An ex- pedition was to be sent against Acadia ; a second against Crown Point, a French fort on Lake Champlain, which 98 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES controlled the route to Canada from the south ; a third was to move through the Mohawk valley and capture Fort Niagara, the key to the Great Lakes ; and a fourth, the most important, under the leadership of General Braddook, had for its object the capture of Fort Du Quesne, the '' Gate- way of the West." 88. Braddock's Defeat (1755.) — In 1755 General Brad- dock was sent over to take command of the English forces in America. He was a brave soldier with much expe- rience, but he knew nothing of fighting the Indians in woodland warfare. Self-confident and headstrong, he was quite unwilling to take advice from Wash- Oeneral Braddock. ? t^ ^ ■,- -, ■, 11 11. ington or rranklm,^ who both warned him against Indian ambuscades. He trusted all things to his English regulars. The colonial troops were to his mind very inferior, the colonial officers inexperienced, and he regarded them with contempt. With 2,000 men Braddock started from Alexandria, Virginia, toward Fort Du Quesne.^ His purpose was to capture this fort and then to march north along the Alleghany River, capture the line of forts upon its banks, and join the other forces at Niagara. In marching his troops he insisted upon the same order and precision as in the open fields of Europ'^. and would listen to no suggestions of avoiding risks from ambush. Finally, when within eight miles of the fort, the fears of the de- spised American militia were realized. Braddock's army The ambush and marchcd into an ambush. The attack came the battle. from an unseen foe, who shot down by scores the surprised English soldiers. The regulars tried to fight in ranks, but in doing so were the more easily struck down * Benjamin Franklin was at this time forty-nine years old. He had been for many years a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly and was now Postmaster-gen- eral for America. ^ Braddock was in great need of horses and wagons, which for a long time he was not able to secure. At Frederick, Maryland, he was met by Benjamin Frank- lin, who used his powerful influence to procure from Pennsylvania farmers one hun- dred and fifty wagons, six hundred draft-horses, and fifteen hundred pack-horses. Franklin promised to see that the farmers were paid for their horses and wagons, and he kept his word. GENERAL BRADDOCK'S TROOPS IN AN INDIAN AMBUSCADE. THE LAST FRENCH WAR 99 by the Indians firing from behind trees. Braddock made a brave effort to bear up against the foe. Four horses were killed under him, and he was on the fifth when he received a mortal wound. Washington, one of Braddock's staff, had three horses shot under him, and four bullets passed through his clothes. Finally, after suffering severely, the regulars fled in shameful rout. The brave Virginians, led by Washington, fought behind trees in true Indian fashion, and saved the army from utter ruin. Out of Braddock's Dismal failure of army of 2,000, 700 men and three-fourths of Braddock's expe- the officers were killed. Such was the dismal failure of Braddock's expedition. The miserable remnant of his army retreated, and the Indians laid waste the settle- ments in western Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. .89. Removal of the Acadians (1755). — During the same summer that Braddock w^as defeated the people of Acadia were removed from their homes. Acadia was included in what is now Nova Scotia and. New Brunswick. It w^as settled by the French early in the seventeenth century, and about one hundred years later (17 10) was captured by the English. For forty-five years it had been un- The Acadians take der English rule. But the simple-minded, sides with the ignorant peasantry continued to speak the ^'■®"*^**- French language and to take sides with the French in every struggle with the English. In this way they did much in- jury to the English cause. Accordingly, in 1755, some troops from New England landed in Acadia and told the inhabitants they must promise to support the English king or they would be sent out of the country. More than 5,000 of them refused, and they were torn from their Their removal homes and scattered among the colonies from necessary. Massachusetts to Georgia. A large number of them found their way to Louisiana, where many of their descendants may be found to-day. This removal caused much hardship, but it seemed to be a military necessity. 90. Montcalm and French Successes. — There had been fighting in the colonics for about two years before war was lOO HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES declared between England and France in 1756. The first two years of fighting- in the colonies found the French suc- cessful almost everywhere. The English government sent Weak English to America very weak and inefficient generals. generals. Thcsc men, like Braddock, were unwilling to take any advice from colonial officers and looked down upon colonial troops. Moreover, they so managed the various armies that there QUEBEC was not united and harmo- nious action. The French, on the contrary, were ably handled by Montcalm, who so massed his forces at im- portant points that, during these two years, he kept the English out of the disputed territory, and hemmed them in behind the Alle- ghanies. At the close of 1757 the outlook for Eng- land wa? gloomy. 91. William Pitt and English Successes. — At this critical time William Pitt became the head of affairs in England. Clear- headed and great-hearted, he was a true hero. He loved England as fondly as his own life and was willing to rise or fall with her. He said, *' I can save England," and he did save England. His faith in himself and his country filled the people with hope and confidence. He appointed strong and able officers for the troops in America. He put the colonial officers and troops on an equal footing with the English and pushed forward the various armies in energetic, united action. The spirit of Pitt was everywhere. In quick succession Louisburg, Fort Frontenac, Fort Du Quesne, Fort Niagara, and other French strongholds fell into the hands of the English. THE LAST FRENCH WAR lOI General Wolfe. 92. Wolfe and the Capture of Quebec (September i8, 1759)- — t'itt showed great wisdom in appointing- General Wolfe to take command of an expedition against Quebec, the most important place now remaining in possession of the French.^ General Wolfe, then in hi§ thirty-third j^ear, had a feeble body but a fear- less soul. As brigadier-general at Louisburg he had gained high praise for energy and boldness. Pitt believed in this brave young general, and therefore placed him at the head of an army of 10,000 men for the capture of Quebec. The men so idolized Wolfe that they would gladly follow him to victory or death. Quebec was situated on steep and lo-fty cliffs overlooking the St. Law- rence, and was pro- tected by a strong for- tress. This fortress was the strongest in A'' jerica, F id the key to Canada. WcUe and his arrpy tried in vain for iiix^e mor.ths to .ind a weak spot where they might make a successful attack, but failure met them on every hand. The English troops were dis- couraged, and even the brave Wolfe began to lose hope, but in spite of sickness and intense bodily suffering he resolved to make one more attempt to take Quebec. At last his searching eyes caught sight of a pathway up the rugged sides of the cliffs along the river bank, some distance above the city. Here was an opportunity not to be neglected. One dark night Wolfe's army floated quietly down the river in boats and landed at the foot The English ciimb of the rocky heights. The brave soldiers, the rocky heights. with immense difficulty, pulled themselves and their cannon up the steep ascent. Reaching the top, thev quickly over- ' Crown Point and Ticonderoga were captured by the English under Amherst in the summer of 1759 (the last of July), MAJ.-(]EN. JAMES WOLFE. 102 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES powered the guard, which was too much astonished to make resistance. In the morning, Wolfe's men were drawn up in line of battle on the Plains of Abraham, less than a mile from the walls of Quebec. Montcalm, astonished at what the English had done, would not wait for an attack, but at once led his army out on the open plain. The fighting was terrible, and the French could not stand up against the withering fire of the English. Wolfe led in a furious charge and, although twice pierced with bullets, refused to give up until he received a mortal wound. It was Wolfe's victory ^'^^^'<^ ^^^ 1^1^"^^ tO die aS and death. loug as the issue was in doubt, but when, in his last moments, he heard the shout of victory, he said, "Now, God be praised, I will die in peace." Montcalm was also mortallv wounded, and in the hour of death was equally heroic. When told that he could not live more than ten or twelve hours, he exclaimed, ''Thank God, I shall not live to see A few davs later Quebec passed from French into English hands (September i8, I759)- 93. The Treaty of Peace (1763"). — With the fall of Quebec the last stronghold of the French in America passed into the hands of the English. The following year Montreal surrendered, and the colony of New France ceased to exist. iVlthough the war was over in America, it still continued for three years in Europe, and Spain joined France against England. It was finally closed by the treaty of Paris, signed in 1763. By this treaty France ceded to Spain all the territory lying between the Missis- sippi and the Rocky Mountains ; also the town of New Orleans, which controlled the navigation of the Mississippi. To England she gave Canada and all her territory east of the Mississippi.* Spain gave Florida to England in ex- 1 Fraace retained for fishing stations two small islands, St. Pierre and Miquelon, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. MARQUIS DE MONTCALM. Quebec surrendered.' THE LAST FRENCH WAR 103 change for Havana, which the English had captured during the war. The English had driven out of North America successively the Dutch (1664) and the French (1763). Eng- land and Spain alone remained. Thenceforward these two had control in North America. 94. Other Results of the War. — But there were other far-reaching results of the Last French War which largely affected the future of the English colonies: (i) Up to this time there had been little of common interest among them. But all were engaged in this struggle, and they fought side by side. Thus the war taught them to know and respect each other, gave them a mutual interest, and prepared them for union. (2) They were made to realize their own strength and to see that their military ability was quite equal to that of the English soldiers. (3) The war was a preparatory school for the Revolution. Such officers as Marion, Stark, Putnam, and Washington received a mil- itary training of great vaUie. (4) Although in fighting the French in America, England felt that she had been pro- tecting the colonies, the colonies felt that they had been helping England in establishing English against French authority. This attitude explains their growing sense of power and independence which led, after the removal of the French, to their resistance against British interference and their final separation from the British crown. NOTE The Conspiracy of Poniiac. — When, at the close of the Last French War, England tried to take possession of the territory west of the Alleghanies and north of the Ohio, trouble with the Indians in that region at once arose. The French, embittered by their loss of this territory, stirred up the Indians against the English, and the conspiracy of Pontiac was the outcome. This able and daring chief of the Ottawas organized a widespread movement for the purpose of destroying all the English settlers west of the Alleghanies. Having won over to his scheme many tribes, he succeeded in capturing eight out of twelve forts, whose garrisons he put to death. This fierce and bloody war lasted two years and ended in the complete failure of Pontiac. 104 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PUPIL 1. What was the lending cause of the Last French War ? What did the Ohio Company set out to do ? What journey did Washington make and with what results ? Write an account of this journey. 2. How did the war begin ? In outlining the plan of the -war use the map freely. 3. What do you think of Braddock and of the causes of his defeat ? Was the removal of the Acadians just ? Give reasons for your answer. 4. Account for French successes in the early years of the war. What had William Pitt to do with English successes later ? 5. What do you admire in the character of General Wolfe ? For many interesting facts about the personality of this heroic man, see Park- man's Montcalm and Wolfe. 6. Imagine yourself to have been one of Wolfe's soldiers and write an account in the first person of scaling the Heights of Abraham and of the battle on the following day, 7. What were the results of the war? Make two brief outlines, one containing the advantages the French had in America and the other containing the advantages the English had. 8. Subject for debate : Resolved, that the French had a just claim to the Ohio valley. 9. Subject for essay: Cooper's Last of the Mohicans. 10. To aid you in an intelligent review from the beginning of the book, you can supplement the chronological chart suggested at the end of Chapter VI. by adding a fourth parallel line for the principal event? connected with French exploration and colonization. Such a review will help you to understand clearly the nature of the struggle, mainly on the part of four European countries, to get control of North America. By 1763 England had come out ahead in this struggle. 11. As you may know, Francis Parkman is the standard historian on the relations between the English and the French colonies in America. Read his Montcalm and Wolfe and Longfellow's Evangeline. CHAPTER XI LIFE IN THE COLONIES AT THE CLOSE OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS REFERENCES: Drake's Making of New England ; Richardson's History of Our Country ; Barnes's Popular History of the United States ; Sanford's History of Connecticut; Thwaites's Colonies; Scudder's Men and Manners in America One Hundred Years Ago; Eggleston's Household History. OUTSIDE READINGS: Earle's Customs and Fashions in Old New England; Earle's Sabbath in Puritan New England; Earle's Costume of Colonial Times; Weeden's Economic and Social History of New England; Earle's Margaret Winthrop; Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York; Irving's Sketch Book ; Hart's Colonial Children. 95. The Colonies in General. — At the close of the French and Indian Wars in 1763, the colonies mainly occu- pied a strip of land lying along the Atlantic coast and stretching all the way from Maine to Florida. There were thirteen of these original colonies, which, by reason of dif- ference in soil, climate, and other natural as well as social and economic conditions, may be divided into three groups : the New England group, or New Hampshire, The three groups Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecti- of colonies, cut; the Middle group, or New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, and Delaware ; and the Southern group, or Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The population was about two million souls,^ one-fourth of whom were slives. The people lived mainly along the sea- coast and large rivers, although a few settle- Population and ments stretched back into the forests. As 'arge towns, many of the people were engaged in farming there were few large towns. Philadelphia, with a population of about *The population of New York City in 1900 was 3,437,202. 10 ^ Io6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 25,000, was the largest town ; Boston was not far behind ; and New York contained 10,000 or 12,000 people. Money being scarce, trade was mainly by barter. There were much comfort and prosperity and some wealth, but there was great need of labor to develop the resources of the West, which was now under the control of the English and open to settlement. THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 96. Occupations of the People. — By reason of the poor, rocky soil of New England, agriculture yielded a meagre re- turn for a great deal of hard labor. Farming on a small scale was extensive, -but much more important sources of wealth The fisheries and were the cod and whale fisheries. By 1763 New ill wett rJZ England had built up a flourishing trade with Islands. the Wcst India Islands. Cargoes of dried fish from New England were exchanged in these islands for sugar, molasses, and slaves. Large forests furnished excel- lent material for shipbuilding. Boston alone had six hun- dred vessels engaged in foreign commerce and a thousand in the fisheries and trade along the coast. All this fishing and trading developed a hardy and expert class of sailors that later furnished excellent material for our navy. 97. Religion and Church Worship.— Religion came first with the Puritan. The minister was usually the leading man in the community, and he did much to form public opinion in political as well as religious matters. The churches were plain within and without. They were not heated, even in the coldest weather. But for all this, Church attend- everybody was expected to attend, absence »nce. without good cxcusc being punishable by a fine. The minister sometimes preached in overcoat and mittens. Women carried heated stones in their muffs, and later handstoves took the place of the stones. When going to church the men sometimes carried their muskets and left sentinels outside to watch against sudden attack from the Indians. People were carefully seated according to their war with ined §1 » %\m -< •° ° s" 2Ssions at the at the close t of the Missi leans w.hich 1 S HH Ig 6D M 111!.? 1 g 1 oa ? a S'l 1^" (.-4 ^ ^ S.i.5l Em limit 0 be war Englis luded a except nch. 190 ^■og-2l[i;oJ i'>y> iiiMOHV oi' nil-, i)Nrn:h M'iAri-;s rXM i.l) |Mr,ili'»ll, III' IIM II Mlllll," oil 1 1 I 1 1 • ( 1 1 1 1 ' I . /\ ' , f 1 1 < 1 1 1 1 1 1 r . I < I M i I < II 1 1 1 ' . M 1 1 < < I (wo ni (liMf. Iioiir., Ill' « < .11;' I ' I'.ilioii ;il Inii'', ii.iliii.illy -|ii..iMiiinu ^rtivv liM 'I .111.1 -,1" py. I'"( II-' lilliiii;'. iii;iM »"»•". \v;ifi ;ilw;iyr> j»M ^riii, wil h lii'Joiif, 1 < "I . d jiillioi- il \'. 'Ilii'i MM I li:il I la- i '11 11 1 .111. I' < I I ' > I li;il fili;iii;"' (I'liiM'iii I-, II' I Wl» ;i*t ill'' .'i.il'iii \V 1 1 ( II' I .ill . ;\'\ a iii.il I' I .iil.'«l liKn <|()^.s, .ind went Inlo 111',, 'I' ' I.ii III" lli.il ('il.iiii |Mi .'loii'i, ill |f;if.»iir willi llir devil, ImI IIi'iii, |iiii'Ii< of illllO( ('III |Mii (HI (lie ( li:ii['r of witclui'ill liiloK iIm li(ii/y li.id '.{M-iil ihic'll, iiiiit:(('ru UPK IS afUfSlM. T/MFJ log \f^/f\f\t were hiiUi^tAf iudntWu^ a (Aer^ymiWf nnd (me oM //^r/hi%, \'> , i$it/'r lUf^f tiOfttr, (A fhc UiU^\%> ■ difs uml even thr? f^overttor'n wUe were Hffm^A, the • le refiUzful iUelr UMy mu\ t,Uf\r\tt^A \Hm\%U\u^^ ior wiu,}t^ eHr\y h% \fr'ft ii^trvurri (UfU .,,. ..,■.-. . *',i,ii*^he4 Hi ('/4fu\fr\(\i^ef Hn^,, Uftd in iy^,f VuU: i'f^f, Ltm\e% Sit\(\ S/iW% were%f.verefiiU(\ '' A^ <,rUne% were (/p y (4ieuw,^ were \mfMt' Ae hy fhmUf arA all kUA% (A ^fauWUtuf^Mi^ w^n*, iftf\Uj/A the rr, .;<,| . .. .. . ^ Ui a ,u%\AcHrm% p\n/:^, n \AiC MiiA \eiMr UAUmU$^ Uh erUne, '""''■•''"••''■■ '> yte u¥^ i^/d iinf\ c/tfie^ turn, TUe \teM r^t*, v . i\%e Uo'i^.^- , %♦ the "„ it wrpuUl i$4^i^:/rtmnftni$U a yt^^^M^$m* no HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tire sheep. As there were no stoves all cooking was done here. By such firesides the mothers and daughters would sit during the long winter evenings with their knitting, spinning, or quilting, while the father read his Bible or smoked his pipe. Sometimes as the fire blazed, cider-drink- ing, nut-cracking, and story-telling helped to while away the evening hours. In general, however, life was neither bright nor cheer- ful, as the Puritans were shy of most kinds of enjoyment. But the young people were not with- out simple amusements. Amusements. ... ^ . . like h o u se - r a 1 s 1 n g s , dancing, and corn-husking parties, and social gatherings for spinning, quilting, and apple- paring. On these occasions there was much genuine fun. Christmas was not observed because the Puritans did not like the Church of England, which made much of the observance of Christmas. Their chief holidav was Thanksgiving Da}^ which they celebrated, as now, in the autumn. This was made the occasion for family reunions. At the Thanks- The Thanksgiving giving dinner the table was loaded with reunion. chickcn, turkcy, nuts, plum-puddings, mince- pies, pumpkin-pies, and many other toothsome varieties of food. Weddings were festive occasions. The friends and neio^hbors were srenerallv entertained at the bride's home, the wedding feast often lasting several days. Funerals were verv expensive. Gifts such as scarfs, gloves, and rings were generousi ' distributed to A WANTON GOSPELLER Weddings and funerals. I LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES III the guests, and an elaborate feast of meats and drinks was regarded as an essential feature of the occasion. TO THE PUPIL 1. Prepare yourself to write five minutes on any one of the following" topics : Occupations of the people, church worship, education, crimes and punishments, the old-time fireplace, and amusements. 2. Imagine yourself to be a New England boy or girl in colonial days and write a story of your experiences. Such work will greatly aid you in reviving the past. 3. What do you like in the manners and customs of Early New England? Read Earle's Customs and Fashions in Old New England. THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 102. Occupations of the People. — In the Southern col- onies, a rich soil was general, rivers made excellent high- ways, and the climate was well suited to agriculture. The plantations were scattered along the rivers. The plantation and sometimes many miles apart, with thickly the planter. wooded stretches of land between. Each planter in Vir- ginia had his own wharf, from which his produce was car- ried to England, and to which manufactured goods of every sort were brought in exchange. The planter needed but little that he did not obtain on his plantation or at his wharf. His slaves were not only cultivators of the soil, but they in- cluded skilled workmen, such as millers, tailors, carpenters, and shoemakers. Under such an independent system of life, towns were not needed, and before the Revolution there were only a few towns of any size in Virginia. 103. Education. — The facilities for common school edu- cation were poor. Governor Berkeley said (1670), " I thank God there are no free schools, nor printing, Berkeley opposes and I hope we shall not have them these hun- tree schools, dred years." The scattered condition of the population did not favor the establishment of good common schools. The rich planters had tutors at home for their children and often sent their sons to Europe to be educated, but the schools for the masses were so few that the poorer people 112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES generally grew up in ignorance. The wealthy planters could live without work and formed a leisure class. Many of them owned tine libraries. Although Virginia had been settled as early as 1607, the most important additions were made to her population in the time of the Commonwealth (1649-1660.) During this -,. ,. . time hundreds of the king-'s followers, or The cavaliers and ... political leaders in cavaliers, Came to Virginia. These men were Virginia. usually from the higher ranks of English soci- ety, and had been prominent in public life in England. Their descendants in Virginia naturally inherited their political tendencies and included the ancestors of George Washington, 1 homas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, Patrick Henry, the Lees, and the Randolphs. We need not be surprised, then, that Virginia furnished more leaders in the Revolution than any other colony and after- ward became the ' Mother of Presidents." 104. Life and Manners. — The mansion of the planter, built of wood or brick, was two stories high, with a spa- cious veranda and a wide hall- wa}^ Close by the mansion The mansion and WCrC the slave the slave quarters, quarters, Consist- ing of wooden cabins sur- rounded by gardens and poultry yards. These negro quarters, on a large plantation, made a small village, and all about them could be seen swarms of nesfro children. Planters on the large plantations lived in wasteful Manner of life of cxtravagancc, with the planters. ch(^ice dogS, fine horses, and a coach-and-six for great occasions. Thev were fond of such sports as horse- racing and fox-hunting, and THE PILLORY. wcrc SO gcnerous and hospi- LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 113 COLONIAL RELICS. table that the doors of their mansions were always open to respectable travellers. Though, as we have seen, Thanks- giving was the feast-day of the year in New Christmas a fes- England, Christmas was celebrated in a fes- tive occasion, tive manner in the South, when everything was gay and bright in the planter's house. A great dinner was followed in the evening by dancing to the music of the harpsichord and the violin. TO THE PUPIL 1. Find points of difference between the people in New England and in the South in respect to occupations, education, and life and man- ners. 2. Write an essay on life in Virginia just before the Revolution. Read Scudder's George Washington. THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 105. The People and Their Occupation. — The people in the New England and Southern groups of colonies were largely English, b'.it this was by no means . . , f XT A^ 1 T^ '• mixed popula true of New York, Pennsylvania, and the tion i-i New York other Middle colonies. Here the population «"^p« •"«>'-«">«• represented many of the countries of Eurc^pe. Trade and agriculture were of about equal importance in New York. The fur trade claimed most attention in New York and 10 114 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 7,^,0^^::^^^^''^^^-- i,yy- ^^-'^"'''-'*' EARLY NEW AMSTERDAM, SHOWING Trade, agricult- ure, and manu- facturing. of Europe. Pennsylvania. Besides furs, the principal exports were grain and fiour. The principal port for foreign trade was then, as now, New York, whose merchants were busy and prosperous, employing many ships in their extensive com- merce with England, the West Indies, and other parts of the world. Most manufactured goods came from England and the continent As in New England, the spinning-wheel and loom took their place in the domestic economy. The ship- building industry and the saw-mill were of necessity early developed, and the Dutch wind-mill became a striking feat- ure of the landscape. Outside of New York agriculture was the most extensive industry. I06. Education. — While the Dutch were in control, common schools were well supported in New York, but under the English they were not in a flourishing condition. The Episcopalians founded King's College, now Columbia University, New York, in 1754. Although in New Jersey and Pennsylvania but little was done to provide for general education, outside of a few larger towns, the Presbyte- LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES "5 COSTUMES, AMUSEMENTS, AND ARCHITECTURE. rians founded Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1746; and Benjamin Franklin founded the University of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia in 1749. 107. Crimes and Punishments. — Crime was not widely prevalent in the Middle colonies, although piracy had a most demoralizing influence. Hanging, whipping, and the pillory were forms of punishment frequently practised under the public gaze, as was the case in New England. 108. Life and Manners Among the Dutch. — The Dutch house had a pointed gable roof with a weather-vane on top and a porch in front of the house, where the family sat durins: summer evenine^s to enjoy the air. T-u 4. J c 1 -^^u 4^ The Dutch house. There were great wide nreplaces with seats for reading or sewing. The walls were without paper, but many pictures in small frames hung upon them. The Dutch women were noted for their neatness and for their excellent housekeeping. They scrubbed the Neat housekeep- floors and sprinkled them with sand every *"»• day. The men were slow and easy-going, but they were honest, thrifty, and industrious. They were fond of smok- no HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ing and liked story-telling and good eating, the Dutch housekeepers being noted for their skill in making dough- nuts, crullers, and various kinds of cakes. The Dutch intro- duced *' Santa Claus " and " St. Nicholas " at Christmas time, and New Year's visiting. Among them a funeral was a most expensive affair. Not onlv did Funeral customs. , t.-io^^i ^ i "r they distribute to the guests gloves, scarts, and rings, as was the custom in New England, but to each friend a bottle of wine. In Albany the funeral expenses in one instance were S-O'OOO. The towns were situated mostly about the mouth of the Hudson, and from there the settlements extended through the Hudson valley to Albany and then followed the Mo- hawk valley. The patroons lived on their vast estates in Ufeamongthe grand and richly furnished houses facing the patroons. Hiidson. They had about them many ser- vants and rented to numerous tenants the farms into which their estates were divided. These great estates, lying on the rivers, where goods could be easily landed and cargoes sent off, did away with t'lQ neces ity / t- ar'e centres it- towns. The people were more soci: and fonc of n er \v la ing, than the New Englanders. Their most noted hoUdays were Christmas, New Year's, St. Valentine's Day, Easter, and ^lay Day. In the country, spinning-bees, house-rais- Sociai life of the i"gs, com-huskiugs, and dancing parties were peop>«- favorite amusements ; in towns, horse-racing, cock-fighting, balls, and picnics. There was little luxury, but much quiet contentment with the simple ways of living. TO THE PUPIL 1. What points of difference do you find between the people of the Middle colonies and those of New England ? Those of the South ? 2. Write a short account of life and manners among the Dutch, adding as many facts as you can to those given in the text. 3. The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, in Irving's Sketch Book, is delightful reading. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 117 MODES OF TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION 109. Modes of Travel. — It was difficult for the colonies to know aiul uiulcrstaiKl each other because their means of couHuunication were so restricted. The usual mode of travel on land was on foot or horseback ; and not only were the r(^ads poor, but very few of the rivers had bridges. People living near the rivers journeyed much bv r(^w-boats, and those along the coast made great use of sloops. The trip by water from New York to Philadelphia, with a lair wind, required three days. A wagon ran twice a week from New York to Philadelphia, and, in 1766, a stage-coach was put on which made the trip in two days. This stage, greatly shortening the time, was called a "flying machine." It could make the journey from Boston to New York in four days. When the coach was ready the driver The old stage- gave notice by sounding a horn, and then, with coach, a crack of the whip, away it went on its slow and toilsome journey, during which it was no uncommon thing for the travellers to be compelled to alight and help pry the coach- wheels out of the mire. Mails were carried mostly on horseback, and people depended mainly on letters for news. Newspapers did not at this time tell much about local or colonial news. Thev were full of advertisements and news from Europe. The first newspaper was the Boston News Letter {ijo^). At the close of the Last French War there were from thirty to forty newspapers in the whole country. OLD SPINNING-WHEEL. CHAPTER XII GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States; Fisher»9 Civil Government in the United States; Thwaites's Colonies; Fiske's Colonial Era ; Bancroft's United States, II. OUTSIDE READINGS : Frothingham*s Rise of the Republic; Eggleston's Household History; Macy's Our Government ; Franklin's Plan of Union (Old South Leaflets) ; Fiske's Civil Government in the United States ; Woodburn's The American Republic. iio. Colonial Government. — The various colonial gov- ernments were modelled after the English and were there- ^. fore much alike in form. Each colony had The governor, the ^ -^ , council, and the its govcrnor and a law-making body consist- assembiy. -^g. ^^ the Council/ and the Assembly. The Council was the governor's body of advisers. They aided the governor in executing his duties, and generally took part in making laws. The Assembly was elected by the people and was therefore the stronghold of their rights. It alone could levy taxes, and in this way it controlled the public money. But the manner of choosing the governor made all the difference in the amount of freedom which each colony The three kinds cnjoycd. In 1763 there were three political of colonies. groups^ of colonics. The first, containing Rhode Island and Connecticut, may rightly be called the republican^ or self-governing, group, because the people elected the governor ; the second, containing Pennsylvania, ^ The members of the council were chosen in various ways : by the king, as in Virginia; by the proprietary governor, as in Pennsylvania; by the legislature, as in Massachusetts ; or by the people, as in Connecticut. ^ These political groups should not be confused with the groups named in par. 94. 118 GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES 119 Delaware, and Maryland, may be called the proprietary group, because the proprietors appointed the governor; and the third, containing the remaining eight colonies, may be called the roya/ group, because the king of England appointed the governor. III. Republican, Proprietary, and Royal Colonies. — Connecticut and Rhode Island had very liberal charters and governed themselves without any interference from the mother-country. They were, even at this early period, little republics. In the royal and proprietary struggle between colonies there was an almost continual strug- the royai andpro- gle going on between the governors and the and the^° ^sem- colonial assemblies. The points at issue were ^^'*^^' sometimes petty, sometimes serious, and the discussions were often bitter. In New York, for instance, the burn- ing question was whether the governor should receive a fixed salary (1745-1755). The members of the assembly ob- jected, for they feared that the governor might thus become independent of the people. They believed a fixed salary would be in the nature of a tax by the crown, and, true to the instincts of their forefathers, they declared that no taxes should be levied without the consent of the people. In all the proprietary and royal colonies, long and no taxation with bitter conflicts were waged over raising money out representa- for public defence, especially during the Inter- "°"* colonial Wars (1689-1763). As the real source of power in any government is the authority that lays the taxes, the assemblies usually came out ahead. The results were twofold: (i) The people received valu- able political training, and (2) they learned that they had a common interest in contending against the personal rule of the king of England. The attempt to enforce personal rule, or royal prerogative, as it was called, is Two results of most familiar in the case of Berkeley in Vir- *he struggle. ginia and Andros in Massachusetts, who did much to arouse the spirit of opposition in the two leading colonics. These colonies were afterward the first to break out in open re- bellion against English authority. i:o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Peer Richard, 175;. 112. Need of Union Among the Colonies. — Tlie great need of the tinrtceu colonies was union. We have seen how the feeling- of common danger from Indian Wars, and later from the various wars with the French, drew the col- onists together. The com- mon grievances of the as- semblies against their royal and proprietary governors united the people still more closelv, when the latter real- i-axi that their liberties were endangered by the British crown. The royal governors ap- preciated the need of union, and thev naturallv sought the advantage of the crown. They urged union as r» means of checking the people's power. As representatives of the king they wished {i) to get control of colonial trade, and (2) to take the right of taxation out of the Why the royal 1^^^"^^^. ^f the i:o>ernors wished COlouial aSSCm- ""'^^"- ''-•- For the A N Almanack For rhc Voir ofChyiit Being the Firrt afffr I EAP YEAR: By iSc Ljt:n ChjtjS. wSv-n O cm T <59>I By rSr Co-p;::»i.or. of W J^ 5.42 By {S; /\.--r.-z CSrcnoIogj 5.^Si h 'bcrt:n is cc*:fjtrfJ The Lcnarions, Ec-Iipfcs, Judt^Tvcrir cC the WoirScr. Sf.inj Ti.ifs Phnfts\i,v,oni & nxinul Aipc5>s ^^n ;tv< M»>i>n"> K.nnj and Sec- ting. Lrr-jh ci" Divs. T.nv fo" High Wjtcr. Fsiri, C'j'rTi, i:>J oSfcnjS'f Oj)» Firccdf.-ithr Lai-iruJccl Forf\ Drgrrc^, ari a Mcti.iian o^" Fivr h\v;r% VWtl rn-w^'/^vr' hvt msr wirhojf iVni'KIe Ef^'r iVrv.-ili ,hf *d-' jscrnr Pliccs, o-co from .Vtr4*»i'* union, cil, similar to our present National Congress. This Grand Council was to have the pcnver of levying taxes upon the people for raising and maintaining armies and otherwise providing for the defence of the cc^lonies. Moreover, like our present Ctmgress,tiiis Council was to exercise supreme * Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston in 1706 and died in 1790. His father, a soap-boiler and tallow-chandler, had seventeen children, of whom Benjamin was the youno:est son. At ten years of age the lad was set lo work in his father's shop, but was dissatisfied with the business. Then he tried printing with his brother, but suffered from harsh treatment. Finally, at the age of seventeen he ran away from home to seek his fortune. One Sunday morning he landed in Philadelphia, cold and friendless, and with only a single dollar in his pocket. In 1732 he began to publish Poor Richard's Almanac, which he continued to publish for twenty years Full of witty maxims which people could apply with profit to everyday living, it became e.xtremely popular and had an immense sale. Franklin became rich and devoted himself to science. By simple experimenting with a kite, he discovered that lightning is nothing more than discharges of electric- ity. He invented a kind of open stove which is in use at the present time. At the close of the Revolution he was associated with John Adams and John Jay in securing a treaty of peace with England ' Only seven colonies were represented. This Convention was called to form a closer alliance with the Six Nations. M 122 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES authority in questions affecting all the colonies alike. This was known as the Albany Plan of Union. The king of England did not like it, because he feared it might encourage the colonies to form a union in which the people would exercise too much power. The colonists did not like it^ because they were unwilling to give up Reasons for its the right of taxation by their colonial assem- laiiure. blics. Franklin's Plan of Union failed, but it was of great value because it led the people to think seri- ously about the advantages of union. TO THE PUPIL 1. How did the Council differ from the Assembly ? 2. What were the three political groups of colonies ? What was the distinguishing feature of each group ? 3. Discuss the nature of the struggle between the various assemblies on the one side and the loyal and proprietary governors on the other. What were the results ? In this connection, review the struggle be- tween Governor Berkeley and the people of Virginia and that be- tween Governor Andros and the people of New England. If you get clear ideas about these struggles, you will better understand the causes of the Revolution. 4. Why was there need of union among the colonies? What attempts at union had been made ? Why did the royal governors wish union among the colonies ? On what grounds did the colonies seek union ? What was Franklin's Plan of Union ? Why did it fail and what were its results ? CHRONOLOGY 1524. FRENCH EXPEDITION TO AMERICA UNDER VERRAZANO. 1528. PAMPHILO DE NARVAEZ LANDS IN FLORIDA. 1531-33. PIZARRO CONQUERS PERU. 1534. CARTIER SAILS TO THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE, 1539. DE SOTO LANDS IN FLORIDA. 1540. CORON ado's EXPEDITION IN SEARCH OF CIBOLA. 1541. DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 1562. COLIGNY's FIRST COLONY SENT TO FLORIDA UNDER RIBAULT. 1565. FOUNDING OF ST. AUGUSTINE. 1576. MARTIN FROBISHER DISCOVERS THE STRAIT SINCE CALLED BY HIS NAME. 1579. DRAKE ON THE CALIFORNIA COAST. * The plan was presented to the several legislatures, and they all rejected it he- cause they did not strongly feel the need of union. GROWTH TOWARD UNION IN THE COLONIES 1 23 1584. SIR WALTER RALEIGH'S FIRST EXPEDITION. 1585. RALEIGH'S FIRST COLONY. 1587. RALEIGH'S SECOND COLONY. 1603. FIRST VOYAGE OF SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN TO AMERICA. t6o6. PATENT GRANTED TO THE VIRGINIA COMPANIES. 1607. FIRST PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA AT JAMESTOWN. 1608. FOUNDING OF QUEBEC BY SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN. 1609. THE DISCOVERY OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN. HENRY HUDSON DISCOVERS THE HUDSON RIVER. 161 1. SIR THOMAS DALE, GOVERNOR OF VIRGINIA. 1619. FIRST CARGO OF SLAVES BROUGHT TO JAMESTOWN. FIRST LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF VIRGINIA MEETS IN JAMESTOWN. 1620. THE PILGRIMS LAND AT PLYMOUTH. 1623. SETTLEMENT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE AT PORTSMOUTH AND DOVER. 1630. SETTLEMENT OF BOSTON AND NEIGHBORING TOWNS. 1634. SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. 1635. PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT BY EMIGRANTS FROM MASSACHU- SETTS BAY. 1636. PROVIDENCE FOUNDED BY ROGER WILLIAMS. 1637. THE PEQUOT WAR. 1643. THE CONFEDERATION OF NEW ENGLAND COLONIES FORMED. 1663. CHARTER OF RHODE ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS GRANTED BY CHARLES II. FIRST GRANT OF CAROLINA. 1664. GRANT OF NEW NETHERLAND TO THE DUKE OF YORK, AND ITS SURRENDER TO THE ENGLISH. NAMED NEW YORK. GOVERNMENT OF NORTH CAROLINA ESTABLISHED. GRANT OF NEW JERSEY TO BERKELEY AND CARTERET. 1665. SECOND GRANT OF CAROLINA. ARRIVAL OF PHILIP CARTERET AS GOVERNOR OF NEW JERSEY. ELIZABETH FOUNDED. 1673. MARQUETTE EXPLORES THE MISSISSIPPI. 1675. OUTBREAK OF KING PHILIP'S WAR IN NEW ENGLAND. 1676. bacon's REBELLION IN VIRGINIA. 1679. NEW HAMPSIHRE MADE AN INDEPENDENT ROYAL PROVINCE. 1680. HENNEPIN'S VOYAGE ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 168 1. THE GRANT OF PENNSYLVANIA SIGNED. EMIGRATION BEGUN. 1682. THE FRIENDS BUY EAST JERSEY, PENN SAILS FOR AMERICA. PHILADELPHIA FOUNDED. PENN'S INDIAN TREATY. LA SALLE'S voyage ON THE MISSISSIPPI. 1685. LA SALLE'S COLONY FOUNDED IN TEXAS. 1686. ANDROS GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ENGLAND. 1687. ANDROS ATTEMPTS TO SEIZE THE CONNECTICUT CHARTER. 1689. ARREST OF ANDROS AT BOSTON. 1692. OUTBREAK OF THE WITCHCRAFT PANIC AT SALEM, MASS. 1700. IBERVILLE ESTABLISHES A SETTLEMENT AT POVERTY POINT, LA. 1702. BEGINNING OF QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. 17 15. FIVE NATIONS BECOME SIX BY ADDITION OF THE TUSCAR0RA4. 1733. OGELTHORPE'S colony SETTLES IN GEORGIA, SUGAR AND MOLASSES ACT. 1744. BEGINNING OF KING GEORGE'S WAR. 124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1745. CAPTURE OF LOOSBURG. I74S. OHIO COMP.\NY FORMED. LOOSBURG RESTORED TO FRANCE. 1754. COLONIAL CONGRESS AT ALB.ANY, AND FRANKL^K'S PLAN OF UNION. 1755. BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT. BANISHMENT OF THE ACADI.VN'S. 1756. FORT OSWEGO SURRENDERED TO THE FRENCH. BEGINNING OF THE LAST FRENCH WAR. 1757. MASSACRE OF FORT WILLI.AM HENRY. 1758. DEFEAT OF ABERCROMBIE AT FORT TICONDEROGA. 'RECAPTURE OF LOnSBURG. 1759. FORT TICONDEROGA TAKEN BY AMHERST. CAPTURE OF FORT NI.A.GAR.\ BY THE ENGLISH. WOLFE CAPTURES QUEBEC. 1761. ATTEMPT TO ENFORCE WRITS OF .ASSIST.ANCE IN MASSACHUSETTS. 1763. PONTIAC'S W.AR. TREATY OF P.ARIS. f Zbc IRcvolutlon, tbe Confeberatlon, ant) tbe 3fct)cral "ITlnioii CHAPTER XIII THE REVOLUTION REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, III. sad IV.; Andrews's United States, I.; Fiske*s War of Independence; Sloane's French War and the Revolution ; Hart*s Formation of the Union ; Chan- ning's United States ; Richardson's History of Our Country; Coffin's Boys of '76; Barnes's Popular History of the United States ; Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion ; Hale's Stories of Massachusetts. OUTSIDE READINGS: Trevelyan's The American Revolution; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History, VI. and VII.; Bancroft's United States, III.; Fiske's American Revolution; Hildreth's United States, II. and III.; Lossing's Field Book of the Re 'olution ; Lecky's England in the Eighteenth Century, III. ; Wilson's History ot the American People, II. ; Frothingham's Rise of the Re- public; Qoldwin Smith's United States; Morris's Half Hours with American History, II.; Hale's Franklin in France ; Hart's Camps and Firesides of the Revo- lution ; Roosevelt's Winning the West, I. and II.; Greene's Historical View of the American Revolution ; Hinsdale's Old Northwest; Green's History of the English People. IV.; Drake's Burgoyne's Invasion; Abbot's Blue Jackets of '76; Brown's Mercy Warren; Wharton's Martha Washington; Hosmer's Samuel Adams ; Henry's Patrick Henry ; Morse's John Adams ; Scudder's George Washington ; Hale's George Washington ; Abbot's Paul Jones ; Spark's Life of Arnold ; Arnold's Life of Arnold; Lossing's Two Spies; Spear's The History of Our Navy; Ford's The True Benjamin Franklin; Thwaites's Daniel Boone; Greene's General Greene; Brady's Commodore Paul Jones; Wilson's George Washington ; Ford's The True George Washington. FICTION: Cooper's Lionel Lincoln; Henty's True to the Old Flag; Cooper's Spy; Harte's Thankful Blossom; Cooper's Pilot; Simms's Partisan; nitchell's Huc:h Wynne; Brady's For Love of Country ; Churchill's Richard Carvel ; Thompson's Alice of Old Vincennes ; Comfort's Arnold's Tempter. POETRY: Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill Battle; Independ- ence Bell; Bryant's Seventy-six; Bryant's Song of Marion's Men. 125 126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TJie Causes of the Revolution 113. England Tries to Control American Commerce. — In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries European countries planted colonies as a means of increasing their own trade. In accordance with this theory, England valued her American colonies according to the wealth she gained from them. To secure control of colonial trade, therefore, Parliament began in 1 65 1, thirty-one years after the landing of the Pilgrims, to pass the famous Navigation xi,^ M» i^o*!«« Laws and The Navigation Laws and Acts A C t S O f of Trade. Trade. These laws required (i) that all trade between the colonies should be carried on in ships built in England or in the colonies ; (2) that the colonies should not ex- port such colonial prod- ucts as sugar, tobacco, iron, furs and lumber to any part of the world except England, or some English colony ; (3) that all European goods should be bought in England and brought over to the colonies on English vessels; (4) that the colonies should not manufac- ture anv article that could be manufactured in England. The carrying out of these laws would injure the colo- These laws injure ^^^^ts iu the followiug ways : (i) A profitable the colonies in trade with the Dutch would be cut off at a four ways. single strokc ; (2) w^hatever colonial products the English manufacturer needed he could buy of the colo- nies at his own price; (3) as the colonists were compelled to JOHN HANXOCK HOUSE, BOSTON, MASS. THE REVOLUTION 127 buy European goods in England, they had to pay whatever English merchants charged, or not buy at all ; (4) while the law providing that all European goods should be imported in English ships would put money into the pockets of the English ship-owner, it would almost ruin the ship-building industry in the colonics and throw^ thousands of sailors out of employ- ment. 114. The Sugar Act and Smug- gling.— In 1733 the famous Sugar Act was passed to protect the English West India sugar islands. By this act a prohibitory duty was laid upon the sugar and molasses imported into the colonies from the French islands in the West Indies. The principal exports of New England were lum- ber and fish. The inferior qualities of fish were carried to the French islands and exchanged with profit for sugar and molasses. There w^as thus a double advantage to New England in this trade : (i) The French would buy fish which were not salable elsew^here ; (2) they were willing to sell at a low price their sugar and molasses. On the other hand, Advantages of the New Englanders made the sugar and mo- the^FrenThWest lasses into rum, part of which they consumed indies, at home, and the remainder they took to Africa, where they exchanged it for slaves to be sold to the Southern colonies. All this trade was extremely profitable for New England, and was one of the principal sources of wealth. New Eng- land merchants saw that if the Su^rar Act should be en- forced the profits of their West India trade smuggling or must be greatly diminished. Financial ruin financial ruin. threatened them. They had to choose between that and smuggling. They chose smuggling, because the}^ believed the law^ was an unjust interference with the natural rights of free-born Englishmen. JAMES OTIS. 128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES A ROYAL STAMP. 115. James Otis Defends New England Merchants against Writs of Assistance. — As long as England allowed this smuggling to go on, all went well with the colonies. But after the Last French War the English Government decided to put a stop to this contraband trade. England was greatly in debt. Money had to be raised, and it was thought that by enforcing the Navigation and Trade Laws the profits of colonial trade would be turned over to English merchants. Legal papers called Writs of Assistance were issued (1761). They were general c , .. search-warrants, which em- England issues ' Writs of Assist- powered officers to go into °"^^* any warehouse or private dwelling in search of contraband goods. With these odious papers in hand, cus- tom-house officers could at any time en- ter a warehouse or a private dwelling, and ransack it from garret to cellar. In this way many thousand dollars' worth of goods were seized and confiscated. The people were furious. James Otis, of Massachusetts, defended the colonial merchants in a test case. He made a Otis declares that great spccch, in which he earnestly contended outTe^^rere^ta-^ ^'^^^ ^^^^ colouists wcrc uot bouud to obcy any tion is tyranny." law uot made by their own representatives. The keynote of his speech was ''Taxation without rep- resentation is tyranny," and it sounded from Massachusetts to Georgia. 116. Parliament Passes the Stamp Act. — We have just seen how England, in protecting her merchants, ship- owners, and manufacturers, had indirectly^ taxed the colo- nies. In thus taxing them England regarded the colonies as trading companies whose main purpose, from her standpoint, 1 A tax levied directly on a person or property is a direct tax. One levied on trade is an indirect tax. When a man pays a tax on his house, his horse and car- riage, or any other form of property, he pays a direct tax. When a merchant im- ports goods upon which a duty has been laid by the government, he pays this duty to the government through the custom-house. Such a duty is called an indirect tax. The taxes for the support of our national government are usually indirect. { THE REVOLUTION 129 was to enrich the mother-country. The colonies had sub- mitted to such indirect taxation of their trade The colonies sub- and industries because (i) it was usual, the ™'t to '"^^'•ect ^ '' ' taxation for three world over, for colonies to have their trade reasons, thus taxed by their mother-country; (2) the English navy protected the commerce of the colo- nies; and (3) the Trade Laws were not strictly enforced. But in 1764 the Eno-lish Govern- ment decided to levy a direct tax upon them. As we have seen, England, by reason of the expensive Intercolonial Wars (1689- 1 763), was greatly in debt. The king's representative in the min- istry, Lord Grenville, main- tained that this debt was incurred in the defence of the colonies. Pie said that it was now time that the colonies should pay their share of their defence. Grenville seemed to forget that the colonies Jiad paid their share and were them- selves heavily in debt. lie seemed to forget, also, that all these wars were fought quite as much to protect the English trade as to defend the colonies. Now that the French were driven out, a standing army of from 10,000 to 20,ooomen was to be kept up in America for the jhe colonies to bo purpose, among other tilings, of protecting the required to help \ ' t xiTT A. T to maintain a colonies from the Indians. A standing army, s-andin- army it was argued, would prevent a repetition of an '" America. Indian uprising such as Pontiac's conspiracy. Moreover, if such a permanent standing army was to be maintained in * Faneuil Hall was built in I7j2 by a Boston merchant named Peter Faneuil and presented by him to the town of Boston. The first floor was to be used as a 11 FANEUIL HALL, BOSTON, MASS.* I30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the colonies for their defence, it seemed fair to Grenville and to the king that the colonies should share in the expense. During the Intercolonial Wars the various colonies paid Colonies slow in their share of expense by raising money in i'n^the*in'terc1)"oI Tcsponsc to requisition made by the king's niaiwars. agents. But they were very slow about it. It was difficult to get any legislature to vote money for soldiers and supplies unless the danger threatened its own colony. Such a sys- tem was weak and lame, and it prevented prompt and united action. Some more effective plan of taxa- tion seemed not only desirable but impera- tive. The Stamp Act offered such a scheme, and it became a law in March,! 1765. 117. How the Stamp Act Was Re- ceived in America. — This act required the colonies to use stamped paper for newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, advertisements, and all kinds of legal documents. These stamps cost all the way from six cents to thirty dollars each. Grenville market house ; the second as a town hall. Just before the Revolution, so many public meetings were held in Faneuil Hall that it was called "The Cradle of Liberty." In "The Cradle of Liberty" the people met, day after day, in 1773 (see par. 127) to decide upon some plan of action about the tea in Boston Harbor. The last of these meetings was so large that it had to be held in the Old South Church, lit is certain that up to this time, as later during the Revolution {i77S-'^7^3)> and the critical period (1783-1789), the American people suffered greatly for lack of some central taxing power. England's purpose was to supply this lack by a system of direct taxation furnished in the Stamp Act. OLD STATE HOUSE, BOSTON, MASS. The Stamp Act. THE REVOLUTION 131 thought this tax would be fair because it would fall upon all alike. But he found that the Stamp Act aroused a storm of angry opposition throughout the colonies.^ Organizations called " Sons of Liberty " were formed. Merchants banded together to import no more goods from Eng- its effects upon land until the Stamp Act should be repealed. the colonists. They urged the necessity of manufacturing in the colonies. They decided to stop eating mutton, that they might have more wool for making cloth. The day the Stamp Act went into effect was made a day of niourning.2 Bells tolled, flags were lowered, and business houses were closed to indicate that liberty was dead. 118. Patrick Henry Intro- duces the Virginia Resolutions. — In May the Virginia Legisla- ture met at Williamsburg. It in- cluded the most eminent men of Virginia, and they were anxious to act wisely. In the midst of the general doubt and perplexity, Patrick Henry ^ arose and introduced his famous resolu- tions. In these he declared that the " General Assembly PATRICK HENRY. * At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the people bore to an open grave a coffin with this inscription: "Liberty, aged CXLV years," The solemn procession marched to the beating of muffled drums. On reaching the grave the people listened to a funeral oration over Liberty, which was supposed to be lying dead, but just as they were lowering the coffin some' one cried, " There are signs of life!" The coffin was eagerly raised, and " Liberty Revived" was inscribed upon it. At once the people shouted themselves hoarse because Liberty was once more alive. ' The brave women did their share, also. They formed organizations called " Daughters of Liberty," and agreed to buy no more goods imported from England- They formed "Spinning Societies," and wove cloth for the men to wea.T. ' He was at this time just twenty-nine, tall in figure, but stooping, with a grim expression, small, blue eyes which had a peculiar twinkle, and wore a brown wig without powder, a "peach-blossom coat," leather knee-breeches, and yarn stock- ings. He had ridden to Williamsburg on " a lean horse," and carried his papers in 132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of the colony had the sole right and power of laying taxes in the colony." An exciting debate followed. George ^ , , . „ , VVashinp:ton was present, and Thomas Jeffer- Patrick Henry's fc> i i i t famous resoiu- son stood at the door earnestly listening. *'**"* He tells us later that the discussion was *' most bloody." The opposition only fired the passion of Henry, and in a burst of wrathful eloquence he ended his speech in words never to be forgotten, andspeec . *' Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third" — '* Treason! Treason!" wildly shouted some of the members. The orator paused a moment and then calmly added, *' may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." The excitement caused by this speech travelled like wildfire through the colonies. Massachusetts and Virginia had declared themselves and were ready to join hands in open resistance. 119. The Stamp Act Congress (1765).— The English Government made a great mistake in passing the Stamp r, . ^. , . ., Act. The enforcement of the Susfar Act England's mistake , i o i • In passing the affcctcd the Middle and Southern colonies so stamp Act. |.^^jg ^-^^^ ^Yicy doubtlcss would uot havc joined New England in resistance to Parliament on this issue alone. But in the Stamp Act a grievance was presented which affected all the colonies alike. It furnished them a common ground for resistance and a common purpose for united action. Accordingly, the passing of the Stamp Act had a most important and significant result in strengthening the union of the colonies. In June Massachusetts sent out a call for a general congress to discuss the situation and agree upon some plan of action. Representatives from nine of the colonies met at New York in October and passed reso- lutions similar to those of Virginia. They sent a memorial to the king acknowledging his sovereignty, and a remon- strance to Parliament declaring it had no right to tax a pair of saddle-bags. ... As Henry came out of the Capitol a man of the <:rowd slapped him on the shoulder and cried : "Stick to us, old fellow, or we are gone." — Cooke's Virginia. THE REVOLUTION ^33 them. This congress should have been a warning to George III. 120. Repeal of the Stamp Act (1766).— But the most effective action of the colonists was their non-importation agreements. One-third of England's trade Effect of non- was with the colonies. In 1772 it amounted '"'po'-taiionupon . . , r English mer- to $30,000,000. Non-importation, therefore, chants, caused a serious loss to English merchants, and they eagerly begged Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. The debate THE " BOSTON MASSACRE." After an engraving by Paul Revere. In Parliament over the repeal showed that many English statesmen stoutly defended the colonies in their opposition to the direct taxation without representation. Said Will. iam Pitt in a stirring speech in the House of Commons i " Sir, I reioice that America has resisted ! „,„.. „,^^ ' -[ William Pitt op- Three millions of people so dead to all the poses the stamp feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to ^^^' be slaves would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the rest." Parliament voted to repeal the act, but de- 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES clared its right to bind the colonies in all cases. It was thii^ very right to tax an unrepresented people that the colonies called in question. 121. I'axation Without Representation in America.— The colonists claimed that as freeborn Englishmen in Amer- ica they had, granted to them in their charters, the same rights and privileges as freeborn Englishmen in the mother- country. The only difference between the man of Kent (England) and the man of Massachusetts was in the author- ity that taxed him. The government in Kent consisted of the king and Parliament ; the government in Massachusetts of the king and the colonial assembly. The king could exer- cise no more power in Massachusetts than in Kent, while the taxing power in Kent was Parliament and in Massachusetts was the colonial assembly. This was the position taken by the Whig^ party in America, not by all the colonists, 122. Taxation Without Representation in England. — We cannot understand the real meaning of the Revolution in America without looking into a similar struggle that was at the same time going on in England. Some Americans did not oppose England and some Englishmen did not join hands against America. It was in each country the same kind of struggle — a struggle between hostile principles. There was taxation without representation in England as well as in America, and many Englishmen, like William Pitt, were as much opposed to it there as men like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry were opposed to it in America. William Pitt and his followers rei,Tesented the true feeling of the English people toward America. At this time Parliament oli" not fairly represent the peo- ple of England. Great towns like Manchester, Liverpool, The English peo- Birmingham, and Leeds were not represented pie not fairly :ep- ^^ ^jj ^^^ mcmbcrs wcrc rctumed for boroughs resented in Par- ' . o i Hameni. that had uo existence except in name, buch boroughs were called rotten ooroughs, or pocket boroughs, * The Whigs were those who opposed the king's schemes of taxing the Ameri- cans without their consent. The suoporters of the king, who at this time included a large part of the American people, were called Loyalists, or Tories. THE REVOLUTION 135 which were owned by the great families. Long" after Old Saruin, a noted rotten borough, had no population, a mem- ber, representing its owner, was returned to the House of Commons. In a population of 8,000,000 only about 160,- 000, or one-tenth of the men of voting age in England, could vote.^ A few great fam- ilies controlled the House of Commons. Certainly the mass of Englishmen could justly complain of taxation without representation. Among them was the great William Pitt, who urged upon the people the justice of par- liamentary reform, with a fair and full representation of the English people in the House of Commons. 123. George III. and .-■■ Personal Government. — -^i " George, be King," said fc '* George the Third's mother ^- when he was crowned That - advice pleased the young ruler, who was then only twenty-two years old. His controlling purpose was to establish personal government in England. His desire for arbitrary power, together with his narrowness and bigotry, had much influence in bringing on the Rev- The views oi olution. He cared little for the rights of aeorgeiii. the people. The more power they had the less he would enjoy. By the corrupt use of money he succeeded in con- * In our own country the people are fairly and equally represented in the na- tional House of Representatives. The unit of representation, or the number of people entitled to one representative since the last census of 1900, has been 194,182. This means that the number of representatives in Congress from any State may be tound by dividing its population by 194,182. For example, Pennsylvania has 32 OLD SOUTH CHURCH, BOSTON. 136 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES trolling the elections. His desire was to make Parliament represent him and a few great families that were in the political ring with him. He maintained his influence large- ly through boss-like methods, keeping his followers under control by the use of an immense corruption fund. As long as a large number of small boroughs remained under the control of his friends, the king could maintain his tyrannical hold upon the government. But if the Americans should succeed in their struggle for " No taxation without representation," there was little doubt that in time Englishmen would succeed in a similar „,^ ^ . . stru^rerle for parliamentary reform, or *' No Why the king ^,^ ^^ J „ . ' , , wished to tax the taxatiou without representation in hngland. Americans. j£ ^|^^ Americans were not repressed, their success would make certain the failure of the king's pet scheme of personal government. King George, therefore, was deeply chagrined when the Stamp Act was repealed. He could not let the matter rest here, however, but the next year (1767) he again tried to force new taxes upon America. We shall see how well he succeeded. 124. The New Taxes of 1767. — In 1767 Townshend, acting as the king's tool, induced Parliament to levy new port duties on a few articles, including glass, lead, paper, and tea. The colonies had objected to a stamp tax because it was a direct tax. As these new taxes were indirect, Townshend and King George thought the Americans might not refuse to pay them. But in this they wholly misunder- stood the temper and feeling of the American people. The new taxes were opposed quite as violently as the Stamp Act had been. We can easily understand the feelings of the colonists when we see the purpose of the taxes. The Sugar Act Purpose of the (sec par. 1 14) was to be strictly enforced by new taxes. commissioners who were to use the hated Writs of Assistance in searching for smuggled goods. The money raised by these taxes was to be used not only to pay representatives and Delaware but one. But every State, large or small, has two members in the Senate. THE REVOLUTION 137 ST. John's church, Richmond, va. Where the Jatnous orator Patrick Ilcnry made his great speech. the colonial governors, judg-es, and crown attorneys, and thus make all these officials independent of the people, but also to maintain a small English army in the colonies. The remainder, if there should be any, was to be used in pen- sioning men of influence. This last was in reality a cor- ruption fund to bribe men to become the king's tools. Thus we sfee that the colonists themselves were to pay the taxes which should keep their governors and judges inde- pendent of them. When we recall the bitter struggle between the people and the royal governors over this question of allowing a fixed salary, we can easily realize why this Bitter opposition measure was so unpopular. Then, too, in pay- to the new taxes. ing this tax the people were supporting a standing army whose presence was plainly intended to enforce the per- sonal rule of the king. In a word, the people were to pay taxes whose real purpose was to deprive them of the rights of freeborn citizens. 12 .138 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Massachusetts led in the opposition. She sent a circu- lar letter to the other colonies for the purpose of securing some united plan of action against the Townshend Acts. The result was that the colonies again agreed to import no more goods from England, and they thus greatly injured English ship-owners and mer- chants.. In the next two years English imports to New England fell off one-half, and to New York five-sixths. 125. The Redcoats ^ and the " Boston Massacre '* (1770). — King George at length decided to send troops to America to enforce the revenue laws. In the autumn of 1768 they arrived in Boston. Their presence was regarded as a menace and was a constant source of annoyance. Quarrels between them and the people were of frequent occurrence ; and finally one evening in March, 1770, the crisis came in a disturbance which took place in State Street in front of what was then the Custom House but is now the old State House. The soldiers fired upon the people, killing three and wounding many others. This was called the " Boston Massacre." The next day an immense town meeting was held, and the people, through Samuel Adams as spokesman, demanded that the troops should be removed. They were withdrawn to an island in the harbor. 126. Committees of Correspondence (1772-1773). — The need of united action among the towns of Massachusetts was now pressing. It was hard to tell what new danger might at any hour fall upon the people. So Samuel Adams proposed, in town meeting, that committees of correspond- ence should be appointed in the towns. His plan was car- ried out (1772). In the following year Dabney Carr of Virginia suggested committees of correspondence for the various colonies. When these committees were organ- ized the colonies rapidly drew closer and closer together in their sympathies. This was a bold step, which led later, as we shall see, to the Continental Congress and open war. * The English soldiers wore red uniforms. They were therefore called Redcoats. THE REVOLUTION 139 127. Samuel Adams ^ and the "Boston Tea Party" {^773)' — The new duties were no more successful than the Stamp Act had been, for again colonial merchants refused to import English goods. Again English merchants begged for a repeal. But the stupid king could not understand the Americans. Thus far he had failed. He now resorted to a trick by which he hoped to induce the colonists to pay a small tax levied by Parliament. He took off all the new taxes except the one on tea. " There must « ^. . ^, ^ ^ George Third s be one tax to keep the right to tax," he said. trick in levying The tax on tea was to be only threepence the tax on tea. a pound in America, instead of sixpence, as in England. This not only enabled the colonists to buy tea cheaper than it could be bought by the people in England, but also cheaper than it could be bought when the colonists smuggled it from Holland. But still they refused to im-* port the taxed tea. The East India Company decided to ship cargoes to such important ports as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. When the tea arrived the people Taxed tea sent to in New York and Philadelphia refused to let it America. land, and the people in Charleston stored it in damp cellars where it spoiled. In Boston the people were determined to send it back, but Governor Hutchinson refused to let this be done. For, nineteen days the struggle continued. On the nineteenth day the excitement in Boston was intense. If the cargo of tea should remain in the harbor till the twen- tieth day the law permitted it to be landed. All day long the town meeting continued in Boston. Seven thousand men crowded the Old South Church ^ and the streets outside. * Samuel Adams has been called the " Father of the Revolution." He was dis- tinguished for his courage and perseverance and for his ability as a leader of men. Like Jefferson, he was full of sympathy for the toiling masses and easily won their confidence. In 1774 General Gage offered him money and official advancement if he would give his influence and services to the king. Although Samuel Adams was poor, yet true to himself and to his countrymen, he scorned the offer. He was the first American to advocate independence of England, and was one of the fore- most leaders that prepared the people to adopt the Declaration of Independence, 'The Old South Church is i^tiH standing on Washington Street, at the corner of Milk Street. 140 HIS'IOR^ OF THE UNITED STATES At nigntfall a messenger brought word from the gov- ernor that he would not permit the tea to be returned to The "Boston Tea England. At ouce Samuel Adams, moderator Party." Qf i\^q meeting, arose and said : " This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." As if this were the signal, a warwhoop was heard, and forty or fifty men, disguised as Indians, proceeded down the street toward Griffin's Wharf.* Boarding the tea-ships they ripped open every chest and spilled the tea into the harbor. A large party of people stood by while the " Indians '* were emptying the chests, but every- one was quiet and orderly. This was the famous ** Boston Tea Party," at which some of the best people of Bos- ton were present (1773). 128. Boston Punished for its Tea Party. — King George was very angry at these high-handed proceedings. In order to punish the Boston people for what they had done. Parliament passed the Boston Port Bill, which closed the port of Boston to all trade until the town should pay for the tea that had been destroyed. Another law, known as the Massachusetts Act, annulled the charter and took away free government from the people. A military governor, General Gage, like the Stuart governor, Andros, was appointed to stand for the tyranny of an arbitrary king. Surely George III. and his followers little realized the love of self-government in these stubborn, unruly colonists ! 129. The Colonies Unite in Support of Massachu- setts.— The English Government determined to make an example of Boston, and hoped in this way to frighten the OLD NORTH CtlURCH, BOSTON, MASS. * A tablet on Atlantic Avenue now marks the spot where the Tea Party reached the wharf. i }■ ) fl> w. '^.: ms^^ THE REVOLUTION 141 other colonics into submission. Contrary to the expecta- tion of the Government, the effect of the oppressive meas- ures was to unite the colonies in s^anpatiietic support of the Massachusetts people. Through the committees of cor- respondence the colonies could now act together more promptly than ever before. Provisions were sent from every direction to the suffering people in Boston. Help came from even the far-away Carolinas. Patrick Henry* ano:rily cried: " We must h'• were in . every way without proper equipment. Only a limited number had muskets, and very few had bayonets. Besides, there was a great scarcity of cannon and powder. Of course, under such conditions, Washington could not attack the enemv. But with patience and faith he awaited the hour when he could strike a telling blow. 13 148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Early in March, 1776, having received cannon^ and am- munition, he seized Dorchester Heights, on the south Th Americans ^^ Boston, and threw up intrenchments there seize Dorchester as the Americans had done on Bunker Hill Heigiits. .j^ ^YiQ previous June. Howe saw that he must drive Washington off the heights or leave Boston. He proposed to storm the works, but bad weather delayed him until the position had been made too strong to be suc- cessfully attacked. The British therefore evacuated Bos- ton and went to Halifax. TO THE PUPIL Why were English troops sent to Lexington and Concord ? What results followed this expedition? Impersonating Paul Revere, write an account of his famous ride. What did the Continental Congress do at its second meeting? As an aid to the intelligent study of the Battle of Bunker Hill, draw a map ox Boston and its surroundings. Why was this battle fought ? What effect did it have upon the Americans ? Describe the difficulties Washington had to face after taking com- mand of the American army. Do not fail to read, over and over again, Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill Battle. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE HUDSON RIVER AND THE MIDDLE STATES IN 1776 134. The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) — When the first gun of the Revolution was fired, Samuel Adams stood almost alone in his wish for the political separation of America from England. One year later, ^ . , , ^ however, the desire for independence grew Oestre for indepen- ' r ^ ^ u ^u dence grows rapidly. The king had refused to near the rapidly. petition sent to him by the Continental Con- gress; he had called the colonists rebels; he had sent his ships of war to burn their towns; and, worst of all, had * These cannon, numbering fifty, came from Ticonderoga, which had been captured the previous year. Along with other supplies, they were brought down on sledges drawn by oxen. THE REVOLUTION 149 hired Hessian * soldiers to make war upon them. About this time Thomas Paine published Common Sense — a pamphlet which urged many reasons why America should separate from England. The fact that war already existed had weakened the bond of union, and Paine's arguments led many to look with favor upon the idea of independence. Virginia took a leading part by instructing her dele- gates in Congress to vote for independence. This action on the part of Virginia had its due influence upon the other colonies. The Stamp Act, the Boston Port Bill, and the other unpopular meas- ures of the King and Parliament had drawn the colonies much closer together. They were beginning not only to realize the value of united action but to have a feeling of self-confidence leading to a de- sire for independence. On June 7 Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, introduced a resolution "that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." 2 This resolution was sec- onded by John Adams of Massa- chusetts. Thus did the leading colonies, Massachusetts and Virginia, join hands in this most important step toward es- tablishing the nation. Before July all the colonies except New York had de- * The Hessians were so called because they came from Hesse-Cassel in Ger- many. Thirty thousand Hessians were hired during the war, 18,000 of whom were engaged the first year. Twelve thousand lost their lives during the war. The cost to the king was $22,000,000. The English government was driven to hire Hessian troops because (at this time) the war was so unpopular in England that it was not easy to secure English volunteers to fight in America. ' The colonies, with the approval of Congress, began to form State govern- ments in 1775. The change from a colonial to a State form of government was slight. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, where the people had been governing themselves by electing their own representatives, the only change necessary was to withdraw allegiance from the king. SAMUEL ADAMS. 150 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES clared themselves in favor of independence. In the mean- time, tlic committee^ which had been appointed to prepare Adoption of the the Declaration of Independence, made its re- lid^ependence! P^^'^' ^liis famous paper, written by Thomas July 4, 1776. Jefferson, was formally adopted in Indepen- cence Hall,^ Philadelphia, July 4, 1776. Realizing how se- rious the occasion was, John Hancock said: "We must be INDEPENDENCE HAI.L, PHILADELrHIA, PA. CHESTNUT STREET FRONT. unanimous ; we must hang together." ** Yes," said Franklin, with his ready wit, *' we must all hang together, or else we shall all hnng separately." 135. The British Direct their Attention to the Middle States and the Hudson River. — The British^ had failed in •The committee consisted of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston, 'This building is still standing on Chestnut Street. ' On June 28th the British fleet attacked Fort Moultrie, in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. Colonel Moultrie commandea the fort. His men returned the British fire with a precision which was surprising in untried gunners. The fleet retired, and South Carolina and Georgia were safe for three years. THE REVOLUTION ici Reasons why the English wished to secure the Hudson River and the niddle States. NEAV YORK and Vicinity. 9 ■ ■ ■ . ^ Lo ^llaitirrslraio their attempts to crush the Revolution in New England. They had found the opposition there so stubborn that they had been driven out of Boston. Their ncx-t move v^as to try to get control of the Hudson River and the Middle States. There were several reasons why this movement attracted the British. In this region, on account of the mixed char- acter of the population, the people were not so united and earnest in their desire for independence as in New England. A large part of the inhabitants were Tories,^ whose influence, it was thought, would be of much service to the British. The Hudson River was of great military importance, because, along with Lakes George and Champlain, it made a natural highway ^ be- tween New York and Can- ada. If the British could secure this river, they could cut off New England from the other States. British forces concentrated in New England would soon conquer it, and they would then make short work of the rest of America. In a word, British control of the Hudson meant certain defeat for the Americans. 136. Washington's Plan of Defending New York : Bat- tle of Long Island (August 27). — When the British evacu- ated Boston, Washington supposed that their next point of attack would be New York. He therefore proceeded to * Everywhere in America Tory sentiment was strongest among the non- English elements of the people. ' Water routes were especially valuable then, because there were no railroads for the transportation o( armies and military supplies. 152 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES make ready its defences. Not knowing at what point the attack would be made, he found it necessary to prepare (or the defence of a line of twenty miles. Just above New York he built Forts Lee and Washing-ton, on opposite sides of the Hudson. He also fortified Brooklyn Heights and sent Putnam with half the army to occupy them. In the summer General Howe arrived at Staten Island with a powerful fleet and an army of about 30,000 men. Washington had only about 18,000. On August 27 Howe landed on Long Island and attacked a detachment of the Americans under Sullivan, whose forces were outnumbered four or five to one. The battle was brief and one-sided. The Americans were defeated and driven back behind their intrenchmcnts on Brooklyn Heio^hts. If Howe escapes from had followcd Up his victory he might have Long Island. capturcd the American army and brought the war to a speedy end, but as usual he was too slow. Two days later Washington, perceiving that the British fleet was moving to cut him off from New York, secured all the boats he could find, and with the aid of a heavy fog es- caped during the night with all his force.^ 137. Washington's Retreat from New York and Across New Jersey. — Brooklyn Heights overlooked New York just as Bunker Hill or Dorchester Heights over- looked Boston. As soon, therefore, as the British got pos- session of Brooklyn Heights, Washington saw that his army could not iong remain in New York.^ A little later * It is surprising that Washington could, in a single night, succeed in getting an army of 10,000 men across a river, at this point nearly a mile wide, without be- ing discovered. It was a brilliant piece of work, which none but an able general could have achieved. Here, as at Dorchester Heights, the slow-witted Howe was outgeneralled. ' During the interval of about two weeks between the retreat from Long Island and the evacuation ot New York, the sad episode of Nathan Hale's capture and execution occurred. Captain Nathan Hale, who was only twenty-one years of age, was quite willing to risk his life by going as a spy into Howe's camp on Long Island. Hale succeeded in getting much valuable information about the enemy's fortihcations, and was on his way back to the American army when he was captured and taken before General Howe. The latter promptly ordered him to be hanged on the next (Sunday) morning. During the night Hale asked for a clergyman and THE REVOLUTION 153 THE JUMEL MANSION, NEW YORK CITY, WASHINGTON S HEADQUARTERS. Howe, with the aid of his fleet, tried to prevent Washing- ton's escape by cutting off his retreat, but Washington was too alert for him. After more or less fighting near the Hudson River, north of New York, Washing-- _^ „ ,,, , " I he tsritisn capt* ton left General Charles Lee with one-half ure Forts Lee and the army at North Castle while he crossed w«»»^'"«t«"- over to New Jersey. The British captured Forts Lee and Washington and 3,000 men. This was a terrible loss at a time when everything seemed to be going against the American cause. But even worse things were to follow. In order to pre- vent the British from carrying out their plan of taking Philadelphia, Washington put his troops between that city and the British army. Needing every avail- tee's disobedienco able soldier, he sent Lee orders to join hirn. and jealousy. Lee did not move. Again and again Washington urged upon Lee the importance of joining their forces, but he re- ft Bible. Both were denied him. Rewrote to his mother and to his betrothed, but the letters were torn in pieces before his eyes by the hard-hearted jailer. The last words of the martyr-spy bore witness to his brave spirit; "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." 13 154 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES mained at North Castle. He was jealous of Washington, and, being second in command, he wished Washington to fail in order that he himself, by promotion, might become commander-in-chief. This disobedience and jealousy put Washington in a critical position. To save his army from capture he was again forced to retreat — this time across New Jersey. On his line of march he broke down bridges and destroyed supplies which the British hoped to secure for their army. Often the rear- guard was just leaving a burning bridge when the advance of the British could be seen approaching. Washington's retreat was so skilful that the British spent nineteen days (November 19 to December 8) in marching a little Washington's ovcr Sixty milcs. But his losses by desertion army melting wcrc great and his army seemed to be melting ■^"^' away. When he reached the Delaware River he had only about 3,000 soldiers. Having previously sent on men to secure the boats for nearly one hundred miles along the river, he got his little army across just in time to escape the British, who arrived on the evening of the same day. 138. Battle of Trenton. — These were indeed " dark and dismal " days. In the retreat across New Jersey the Amer- Dark outlook of i^ans Suffered greatly. Many were without the American shocs and they could be tracked by crimson **""• foot-prints upon the snow. The friends of the patriot cause, both in England and in America, thought the Americans hopelessly beaten. There was doubt and gloom everywhere. The British generals thought the war was near its close, and Cornwallis was packing up to re- turn to England ; for as soon as the Delaware should be- come frozen over the British intended to march across and seize Philadelphia, the ''rebel" capital. It would then be useless for him to remain longer in America. But Washington was not without hope. He noted with satisfaction the mistake the British were making in care Washington's Icssly Separating their army into several di- «"«"«• visions and scattering them at various points in New Jersey. In the meantime Charles Lee had been THE REVOLUTION 155 WASHINGTON'S RETREAT ACROSS HEW JCRSEY. captured. His troops, now under Sullivan, had joined Washington, so that the entire army numbered 6,000. Washington at once planned to attack the body of Hessians stationed at Trenton. The attack was made on Christmas night with 2,400 picked men. They began crossing the river early in the evening. Great blocks of ice, float- ing down the swift current, made the crossing slow and difficult. Massa- chusetts fishermen skilfully directed the boats, but it was four o'clock in the morning before the soldiers were ready to take up their line of march. A furious storm of snow and sleet beat in their faces as they plodded on toward Trenton, nine miles away. By daybreak they had completely surprised the Hessians and, after a brief struggle, had captured the whole force a gioHous victory of more than 1,000 men. By one bold stroke «t Trenton. Washington had changed defeat into victory and had in- spired the patriot Americans with new hope. Cornwallis, filled with amazement, decided to remain a little longer in America. Leaving a rear-guard at Prince- ton to protect his supplies, he speedily advanced with a superior force against Washington. At nightfall January 2, 1777, only a small creek separated the two armies, just south of Trenton. " At last," said Cornwallis, " we have run down the old fox and we will bag him in the morning." But \"^ IS6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Washington outgeneralled him. During the night he not only escaped, but marched around Cornwallis, defeated his Battle of Prince- rcar-guard at Princeton, captured five hun- *<^"* dred prisoners, and then withdrew in safety to the heights about Morristown, where he went into winter quarters. 139. Robert Morris Furnishes Money for the Army.— After the battle of Trenton Washington was in sore straits Great need of with his army. Many of the soldiers' terms of money for the scrvicc wcrc about to expire, and these men soldiers. were eager to get to their homes. Washing- ton knew that good money would hold them over for a few weeks. He wrote in haste therefore to his friend Robert Morris, a rich merchant and banker of Philadelphia, for $50,000 in hard cash. Morris promptly responded. Before light on New Year's morning he went knocking from door to door to secure the money from among his friends. The noble task of By noon the sum was made up and on its way Robert norris. ^q Washington. The army was saved, and Washington was able to bring to an end a brilliantly ex- ecuted campaign. Again during Greene's campaign in the Carolinas (1780) and during Washington's about Yorktown (1781), Morris came to the rescue of the army. His ample fortune was a silent power which none the less truly than the military genius of Washington made American inde- pendence possible. TO THE PUPIL Review the New England Confederacy, Franklin's Plan of Union, the Stamp Act Congress, and the Continental Congress. How do you account for the rapid growth of a desire on the part of the colonists for Independence ? In this connection, find out all you can about the Hessians. Explain the leading part taken by Virginia and Massachusetts in se- curing the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Review Berkeley in Virginia and Andros in Massachusetts. What were the Americans fighting for before the adoption of the Dec- laration of Independence ? What, after it ? THE REVOLUTION I57 4. Why did the British wish to secure control of the Hudson River and the Middle States ? Can you give any reason why the Tories were more numerous in this part of the country than in New England ? 5. What plans did Washington make for the defence of New York? 6. Are you constantly using a map to aid you in forming vivid pictures ? 7. What had Charles Lee to do with Washington's retreat across New Jersey ? After chasing Washington across New Jersey, what mis- take did the British make ? How did Washington take advantage of this ? You may well closely follow Washington at this time. What service did Robert Morris render the American cause ? 8. Read the account of the battle of Trenton in Coffin's Boys of '76. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE HUDSON RIVER AND THE MIDDLE STATES IN 1777 140. The British Plan to get Control of the Hudson in 1777. — By the capture of New York the British held the lower part of the Hudson. Their plan for 1777, like that for 1776, was to get entire control of this river. The plan was three-fold : (i) Burgoyne was to come down from Can* ada by way of Lake Champlain ;i (2) St. Leger was to sail up the St. Lawrence into Lake Ontario and, landing at Os. wego, was to come down the Mohawk Valley; (3) and Howe, with the main army, was to go up the Hudson from New York. All three of these divisions were to meet at Albany. The plan looks simple. It will be interesting to see how the blundering of the British led to failure. 141. Burgoyne's Brilliant Beginning.— Burgoyne, with an army of 10,000 men, including Canadians and Indians, captured Crown Point (June 26). Ten days later he forced the Americans to evacuate Fort Ticonderoga and hastily to retreat southward. Burgoyne was now confident of easy victory. King George clapped his hands and shouted, "I have beat them! I have beat all the Americans!" The English people thought the war would soon be over. ' In 1776 Carleton had led a similar expedition. With 12,000 troops he started from Canada to secure control of the water route to the mouth of the Hudson. Al- though stubbornly opposed by Arnold on Lake Champlain, he captured Crown Point, but finding Ticonderoga strongly fortified he withdrew without attacking that fort. 158 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Americans were everywhere disheartened. Four days more (July 10) found Burgoyne's army at Skenesboro (now Whitehall), about twenty miles distant in a direct line from Fort Edward. 142. Some of Burgoyne's Difficulties.— But in crossing the carrying-place between Lake Champlain and the Hud- son serious difficulties stood in his Avay. The country was swampy and heavily wooded. General Schuyler, who was in command of the Americans, felled trees across the roads and destroyed over forty bridges. These obstructions greatly delayed Burg03^ne. The British advanced only about a mile a day until they reached Fort Edward (July 30). As Burgoyne's supplies had to be sent to him from Canada, the farther he advanced the more difficult it was to feed his army. To keep his line of communication guarded it was necessary to leave troops in his rear. Every mile of advance thus compelled him to weaken his attacking force. 143. Burgoyne's Indian Allies. — Burgoyne's Indian allies were a source of more weakness than strength to his army. They murdered and scalped peaceful inhab- itants every day.* These barbarous cruelties aroused the hottest indignation among the people, hundreds of whom eagerly offered their services to the American commander. 144. Bennington and Supplies. — While encamped at Fort Edward in August, Burgoyne's army stood greatly in need of horses and supplies. News came that at Benning- ^ Near Fort Edward they killed Jane McCrea, a fascinating young woman who was engaged to be married to David Jones, an American loyalist serving as lieutenant in Burgoyne's army. Jones, having prevailed upon Miss McCrea to come within the British lines and marry him, sent a party of Indians under the half-breed Duluth to act as her guard. She was staying at the house of Mrs. McNeil, only a few hundred yards from Fort Edward. Before Duluth's party could reach Mrs. McNeil's house, however, another party of Indians under the Wyandotte Panther arrived and carried off Miss McCrea. Both parties of Indians met at a spring between Fort Edward and Glens Falls, and Duluth declared his right to take charge of the young lady. In the heated dispute which followed the Panther shot dead the unfortunate Miss McCrea. This is the version of the McCrea story as told by W. L. Stone in the " Cyclopaedia of American Biography." THE REVOLUTION 159 ton, a little village in Vermont at the foot of the Green Mountains, the Americans had collected several hundred horses, as well as food supplies and ammunition. Burgoyne was as much in need of horses to draw his can- Burgoyne's need non as of food to feed his troops. Besides, he °* «"pp"^^- was told that there were many Tories in the Green Moun- tains who would, with a little encouragement, flock to the British army. To win over the people to the British cause was no small part of the purpose of the expedition to Bennington. Accordingly, about 1,000 Hes- sians were sent to Bennington, where nearly all of them were killed or captured by a body of militia under Colonel John Stark. Burgoyne's army was badly crip- pled by this disaster. Instead of bringing recruits to Results of the the British the expe- British defeat at ,. . . T-» '4. Bennington. dition to Bennington only served to make the feeling of the Green Mountain farmers more bitter against the English Government. Great numbers of them speedily hastened to join the American army. 145. Failure of St. Leger.— Fortune seemed to be against Burgoyne. St. Leger, it was hoped, would gather about his standard many of the Iroquois, or Six Nations, and large numbers of Tories in western and central New York. In due time he made his way to Oswego, and from there to Fort Stanwix. St. Leger laid siege to the fort. Arnold, with a body of troops, pressed forward to its st. Leger's relief. He sent a messenger ahead to report hurried retreat. that a large force would soon attack the British. Panic stricken, the Indians at once hurried away and were soon followed by St. Leger himself (August 22). Burgoyne could no longer look for aid in this direction. His only re- maining hope was in receiving reinforcements from Howe. JOHN BURGOYNE. i6o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Where Howe was and what his army was doing we will now consider. 146. Why Howe Failed to Unite with Burgoyne If Howe had gone up the Hudson and joined Burgoyne at the time planned, the latter's invasion would no doubt have been successlul. Why Howe did not do the part assigned him was a question that until eighty years afterward had no satisfactory answer. An explanation was then found in a document in Charles Lee's hand- writing that p^:oved him beyond a doubt to be a trai- The traitor Lee. _ 11, tor. Lee had been captured in the autumn of 1776. While yet uncertain of his fate, he told Howe that he had given up the American cause and of- fered his advice for the summer campaign. Lee believed it was more important to capture Phila- delphia than to get control of the Lee's advice to HudsOU. HcUCC he ^^^^' advised sending a force to take that city, which the British general called the ** rebel Howe might thus speedily bring Pennsylvania under subjection to England, while Burg03^ne and St. Leger would easily subdue New York. To his own confusion and to the confusion of the British cause Howe followed Lee's advice. 147. Howe's Advance Toward Philadelphia. — Howe opened the campaign (June 12) by an effort to draw Wash- „ , , ^ inirton from his strono^ position amons: the Howe 8 vain at- /* . . tempt to bring on liills arouud Morristowu into a general en- a battle. gagcmcnt. But Washington was too wary to allow himself to be caught napping. After spending two or three weeks in vain attempts to provoke Washington to come out from his strongholds and fight in the open field Howe withdrew, tired out with his fruitless manoeuvres. LAFAYETTE. capital." 14 i6l l62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES He sails to Elkton. Even though Howe's army numbered 18,000 men he dared not risk a march across New Jersey with Washing- ton and an army of 8,000 in his rear. So on the last day of June he gave up his plan of marching across New Jersey to Philadelphia and withdrew his army to Staten Island. He then sail- d southward in order to reach Philadelphia b»\' way of the Chesapeake. When he reached Elkton, the hen i of the Chesapeake (August 25), he had been two months on the way. It \vas a precious two months to the American cause, as we shall now see. 148. Battle of the Brandywine.* — Howe had no sooner landed, than he found his watchful foe ready to dispute his advance upon Philadel- phia. Washington decided to make a stand at Brandywine Creek, where he met Howe in battle (September 11). The British greatly outnum- bered the Americans and defeated Washington's thcm.^ But Wasliiug- siciifui retreat. tQn withdrew in good order and handled his troops with such skill as to keep Howe two weeks in marching to Philadelphia, only twenty-six miles from the battle-field. * When La Fayette heard that the Americans had declared their independence of England he was eager to cross the Atlantic and aid them. He was not yet twenty years of age and had just married a beautiful young woman of rank and fortune. But he was willing to leave behind him wife, family, and friends to fight in a noble cause. Accordingly, he sailed in his own vessel for this country and reached the coast of South Carolina in April, 1 777. Congress made him major-general in the Continental army, where he rendered excellent service. He fought his first battle at Brandywine, and here was wounded in the leg. He freely spent his own money for clothing and equipping the soldiers under his command. From their first meeting a warm friendship sprang up be- tween La Fayette and Washington. After the war was over La Fayette twice visited the United States, The first visit he made in 1784 on Washington's invi- tation ; the second, in 1824, when he laid the corner stone of Bunker Hill monu- ment on the spot where the brave Warren had fallen in 1775. * Washington had weakened his army by sending picked troops to aid the Army of the North. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. THE REVOLUTION 163 It was on September 26 when the British general marched into this city, a week after the first battle of Saratoga, and altogether too late to send troops to co-operate with the unfortunate Burgoyne three hundred miles away. In de- laying Howe Washington had made Burgoyne's capture certain. People did not understand the meaning of Wash- ington's masterful strategy, but his policy of delaying Howe had been fatal to the success of the British plan to secure control of the Hudson. 149. Burgoyne's Surrender. — While Howe was on his way to Philadelphia Burgoyne was passing through a try- ing experience in the North. On sailing away from New Fork Howe left Clinton in command there. In vain Bur- goyne sent messenger after messenger to Clinton, asking for reinforcements. Without Clinton's aid success was very doubtful, for the Americans were increasing daily and were threatening to cut off Burgoyne's line of com- munication with Canada. The American army, now com- manded by Gates,^ occupied a strong position at Bemis Heights. The situation was desperate. Bur- Burgoyne's situa* goyne must force an advance. With great tion desperate. courage he fought a battle (September 19), in which his advance was stubbornly contested. Still there was no news from Clinton. In the meantime, Lincoln had suc- ceeded in cutting off. the British supplies from Canada. Three weeks later Burgoyne, whose army was suffering from want of food, again attacked the Americans (Oc- tober 7) with the hope of cutting his way through their lines, and again suffered defeat. He tried in vain to find a way of escape but could not, for he was surrounded and cut off from supplies. After ten days, therefore, he ^ Schuyler was a noble man and a good general, but he had political enemies who succeeded in having him removed. Gates was vain and weak, and his subse- quent history proved him to be lacking even in personal bravery. The success of his army at Saratoga was due to the gallant leadership of Arnold and Morgan. Gates deserved no credit. His easy manner and fluent tongue enabled him for a time to influence people who did not understand his real character. In time, how- ever, his selfishness, trickery, and cowardice brought down upon him the contempt of honest men. I64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES surrendered his entire army of 6,000 regular troops* (Oc- tober 17). 150. Burgoyne's Surrender Leads to Aid from France. — The surrender of Burgoyne was the turning-point in the Franklin's infiu- war. Its immediate result was a treaty of IretaiTulm ^^' alliance between France and our country. France. Shortly after the Declaration of Independence was signed Congress sent over three commissioners ^ to se- cure aid from France. The principal one of these was Benjamin Franklin, then seventy years old. His simplicity and directness charmed the French people and won him a warm place in their hearts. Before Burgoyne's invasion France had secretly sent to the Americans much aid in the form of money and ship-loads of ammunition and clothings But after Burgoyne's surrender it was evident that the Americans were fighting England with success. France, Resuitsof the England's traditional enemy, was then ready American treaty to aid them opculy. She therefore entered w ranee. .^_^^^ ^ treaty of alliance with the United States, agreeing to send over a fleet and an army of 4,000 men. England promptly declared war against France. She also changed her policy toward the Americans. She repealed the tea duty, the Boston Port Bill, and all the other hated measures that had driven the colonies to take up arms against the king. She promised that there should be no more taxation without representation. But it was too late. The Americans would now agree to nothing short of independence. 151. The Suffering at Valley Forge.— Even after losing Philadelphia, Washington had the courage to attack the British at Germiantown. Although he made a well-planned attack, on account of a fog he suffered defeat. He then * The Americans when marching the English soldiers off the field of sur. render proudly unfurled their new flag. In January, 1776, Washington began to use an American flag. This was like the British flag, except that the thirteen stripes in the American flag took the place of the solid red of the British. Con- gress adopted the " Stars and Stripes " on June 14, 1777. John Paul Jones is be- lieved to have been the first to hoist the flag at sea. ' These commissioners were Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane. b THE RICVOLUTION . l05 withdrew his army and went into winter quarters at Valley For«^e. This was a stron*;* position anion«^ the hills, about twenty miles northwest of Philadelphia, on the Schuylkill River. But the winter was a terrible one for the army.* Most of the soldiers were in rags, few iiad any beddini;, and many had not even straw to lie uponat nii^ht. Nearly 3,000 were barefoot, and could be tracked by their bloody foot- prints upon the frozen ground. Owing to mismanage- ment by Congress and the commissary department, there was often, for days at a time, no bread. The army, though weakened by suffering and loss of food, was greatly strengthened by the systematic military drill which they received from Steuben,'^ a Prussian veteran who had joined the American cause. lie was made in- spector-general, and he transformed the ragged regiments into a well-disciplined army, 152. The Conway Cabal. — Petty politics and personal jealousy in Congress did much at this time and at other times to prevent the successful handling of vvasiiinirton's the troops by Washington. Weak and vain enemies and their men, such as Gates and Charles Lee, did all P«="y -^^heminfi:. they could to destroy Washington's influence and drive him from his position as commander-in-chief. As Gates had succeeded, by his political scheming, in getting Congress to appoint him, in place of Schuyler, as head of the Northern army in 1777, so now he was busily scheming for the down- fall of Washington that he might himself become the head of all the American armies. As one of the leaders in this * A beautiful story is told of Washinj^ton at Valley Forge. When " Friend Potts " was near the cainii one day he heard an earnest voice. On approaching he saw Washington on his knees, his cheeks wet with tears, praying to God for help and guidance. When the farmer returned to his home he saiti to his wife: " (leorge Washington will succeed ! George Washington will succeed ! The Ameriains will secure their intlependence ! " "What makes thee think so, Isaac?" inquired his wife. "I have heard him pray, Hannah, out in the woods to-day, and the Lord will surely hear his prayer. Ilewill, Hannah; thee may rest assured He will." ' There were five eminent foreign gentlemen who fought in the American army. Two of these, La Fayette and John Kalh, were Frenchmen ; two others, Koscius-ko nnd Pulaski, were Poles ; and the fiftli was Har //::';> . A 1 r ^ " Bonhomme of the two, the Serapis. A desperate nght Richard -and the followed. During the action the firing on " serapis." the Richard slacked. The English commander shouted to Jones, "Have you struck?" Jones promptly answered, " I have not begun to fight." The two vessels coming in touch, he lashed them together with his own hands and for two hours longer continued the deadly struggle. At last some of Jones's men, from the main-yard of the Richard, dropped hand-grenades among the English sailors. One of and sailors who, as we have already found, were thrown out of employment by English cruisers ; (2) privateering was far more profitable than service in an ill- paid army. 174 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tliese caused an explosion of a powder chest. This de- moralized the English crew, and their commander struck his colors. Jones had lost in killed and wounded one hun dred and sixteen men, and the Richard was sinking. It was a tremendous struggle and a great victory, and it caused the name of John Paul Jones to be spoken of with gratitude throughout America. TO THE PUPIL 1. In what part of the country was most of the fighting in 1775 ? In 1776 and 1777 ? Review the leading events of these three years. 2. Why was there little fighting in 1778 and 1779? Notice with care the weakness of the Continental Congress and the disastrous effects of the Continental currency. 3. How did the English make use of the Indians? Give reasons for the importance of the struggle between the backwoodsmen and the Ind- ians in the region west of the Alleghanies. 4. What was the purpose of George Rogers Clark's expedition ? Trace it on the map. What did Clark accomplish in the Northwest? 5. Imagine as vividly as you can his heroic expedition against Vincennes and write an account of it. 6. Why were the Americans without war vessels at the beginning of the war ? How were they crippled for lack of a suitable navy during the Revolution ? In what way did France aid them with her fleets ? 7. Who was Paul Jones ? What service did he render the Americans ? 8. Read Roosevelt's Winning of the West for a good account of what the Westerners did during the Revolution. WAR IN THE SOUTH AND THE SURRENDER OF CORNWAL- LIS (1780-1781) 162. Reasons Why the British Tried to Conquer the South. — After failing in New England and the Middle States, the British directed their energies to the South. Their plan was to conquer Georgia and then get control of the Carolinas and Virginia. They knew that Georgia, be- ing weak, could not offer much resistance, and that the Tories, who were numerous in the Carolinas, would join them. Moreover, should England fail in overthrowing American independence, the control of the South would THE REVOLUTION 175 help her, at the close of the war, ia confining the Ameri- cans within a smaller territory than would be otherwise possible. 163. First Successes of the British. — As we have seen, there was little fighting anywhere in America in 1778 and 1779. The British had captured Savannah in 1778, but it was not until the spring of 1780 that they began the serious work of conquering the South. General Lincoln was in command of the American army in the South and was stationed at Charleston. Clinton, coming down from New York with a large force, succeeded in penning Lincoln surren- him in this place and forcing his surrender ders to cunton at (May 12), with about 3,000 Continental troops. C''*'-**^*^"- Well satisfied with this beginning, Clinton returned to New York and left Cornvvallis in command of the British forces in the South. After Lincoln's surrender at Charleston, Congress sent General Gates down to take command of the American troops. Gates, whose head had been turned by his capture of Burgoyne at Saratoga, went South confident of success. He reached the army on July 19 and at once planned to make an advance upon Camden. This was Defeat of Gates at the most important place in South Carolina, Camden. because all the principal roads, leading from the North and from the coast, centred here. He was met by Corn- wallis (August 16) and badly defeated. This was the sec- ond American army destroyed in the South within three months. Gates rode off the battle-field in such confusion of mind that he did not stop until he was more than sixty miles from Camden. In utter disgrace he retired £. i-u i-uujr 1- ^aX.Q^ in disgrace. from the army, to be heard 01 no more during the war. As Gates was leaving his Virginia plantation to take command of the army in South Carolina, his friend Charles Lee had said to him, *' Take care that your Northern laurels do not change to Southern willows." But Gates was bound to fail. He was too self-satisfied to listen to any advice, even that of his officers. 15 176 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 164. Battle of King's Mountain. — Cornwallis now ad- vanced into North Carolina. At the same time he sent 1,200 men, mostly American Tories under the dashing Fe'> guson, to enlist Tories in the mountainous regions of Soull: Carolina. Hearing of this movement, a body of American backwoodsmen hastily gathered and attacked Ferguson al King*s Mountain (October 7) before he could receive rein- forcements. His position was a strong one, but the back- woodsmen assailed him with great fury on three sides at once and killed or captured his entire force. Ferguson himself was killed. This brilliant victory so severely crippled Cornwallis that it has sometimes been called the Bennington of the South. Cornwallis was compelled to return to South Carolina in order to maintain control of the territory in that State. 165. Partisan Warfare in the South. — Before returning to New York after the capture of Charleston, Clinton sent Clinton's unwise Small forces into the interior of South Caro- prociamation. jjna, and in a proclamation offered pardon to all who would return to allegiance to England. Those who would not actively aid in restoring the royal government were to be treated as rebels and traitors. This unwise proclamation compelled all citizens to range themselves on one side or the other. A bitter, bloody, and cruel partisan warfare resulted. Neighbor fought against neighbor, sometimes brother against brother, in this semi-civil war. The most noted par- tisan leaders on the American side were Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee. Marion's men were without uniforms, without tents, and without pay. They lived The Swamp Fox. . , , -r^ i • in the swamps, and were so swiit and cunnmg in their attacks that their leader was known as the Swamp Fox. With a ver}^ small force, often less than fifty men, he annoyed beyond measure the British by rescuing prisoners and capturing supply-trains, foraging parties, and outposts. When the American cause looked most gloomy in the South, these brave men, aided by noble women, kept hope alive in patriot hearts. THE REVOLUTION 177 166. Arnold in Philadelphia. — Before we follow Greene and Cornwallis in their final struggle for control in the South, let us turn to an alarming event on the banks of the Hudson. This was Arnold's treason, which offered the British an opportunity to make a third attempt to get con- trol of the Hudson. After the British left Philadelphia (1778) Arnold, who had not fully recovered from his wounds received at Sara- toga, was placed in com- mand there. He was pop- ular in social circles, which included many Tories, and became engaged to a Tory's daughter. Extravagant liv- ing followed, and Arnold was soon heavily in debt. The State government accusing him of dishonesty, Congress ordered his trial by court-mar- Arnold tried by tial. By its coun-martial. verdict he was found guilty of indiscretions and mildly sentenced to receive a rep- rimand from the command- er-in-chief. As Arnold had served his country with dis- tinguished bravery, Wash- ington held him in high esteem and therefore gave the reproof as gently as possible. But Arnold was indignant. He felt that he had been un- justly treated, and he secretly planned revenge. 167. Arnold Becomes a Traitor.— Arnold pretended that on account of his wound he was not able to engage in active service, and requested that he might be placed in command of the important position of West Point. Wash- 178 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ington, suspecting nothing, granted Arnold's request. The latter, no doubt, thought the American cause was hopeless. At any rate he was as eager for money as he was for re- venge and soon opened a treasonable correspondence with General Clinton, commanding the British troops in New York. The scheme was that Arnold should so dispose of his forces at West Point that this strong fort might easily fall into the British hands at a time agreed upon for an attack. i68. Arnold Fails, and Andr6 is Hanged as a Spy. — For weeks the correspondence between Arnold and the THE ESCAPE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. British commander was carried on. Arnold looked for. ward to a successful execution of his plot ; but a few details were yet to be agreed upon. So, in September (1780), Major Andre was sent by Clinton up the Hudson to make final arrangements with Arnold. Andre sailed up the river in the ship Vulture and met Arnold on shore near Stony Point. An all-night interview followed, and morning found the transaction still unfin- The all-night ishcd. Before Andre could return to the VulU Interview. ^ive it was fircd upon and withdrew down the river. Andre then attempted to make his way to the Brit- ish lines by land. In disguise, therefore, and with Arnold's THE REVOLUTION 1 79 plans of the fort between his stockings and the soles of his feet, the next morning- he was galloping rapidly down the east side of the Hudson on his way to New York. His safe arrival would secure him honor and fame. Little did he know what fate awaited him. As he reached Tarrytown he was stopped by three militiamen lying in wait for any suspicious persons who might ap- pear. They searched him and, finding the tell-tale papers, retained him as a prisoner. Arnold g-ot the , ^ . , . ^ . . Air Andre's capture. news of the capture m time to escape. Andre was tried by a fair-minded court-martial and was con. demned to be hanged as a spy. Arnold received for his treason a brigadiership and about $30,000, but he spent the remainder of his life in dis- grace, justly despised by Americans and Englishmen alike. He had carefully kept in his possession the Arnold's disgrace old uniform in which he made his escape from and death. West Point. Just before his death he called for this and put it on once more. " Let me die," said he, " in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever putting on any other." 169. Greene and Cornwallis. — In the meantime the struggle between Greene and Cornwallis in the South was going on. When Gates retired from the command of the armies of the South, General Greene was appointed by Con- gress to succeed him. On reaching the Carolinas (Decem- ber 2, 1780) Greene had many difihculties to Greene's face. The British, now in control of Georgia difficulties. and South Carolina, were about to overrun North Carolina also. Their army was in good condition and was led by such able officers as Cornwallis, Tarleton, and Rawdon. Greene's small forces were poorly armed, without pay and clothing, and sometimes even without food. The troops were broken in spirit and discouraged, but Greene soon inspired the confidence of officers and soldiers. He sent the brave General Morgan against Tarleton. They met at Cowpens (January 17, 1781), where Morgan, with only nine hundred men, routed the British force of i8o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES i,ioo picked men. The British loss was two hundred and thirty killed and wounded and six hundred prisoners. This Morgan's briii:ant brilliant victory destroyed nearly one-third of victory at Cow- Cc^rnwalHs's army and, like the victory at P*"** King-'s Mountain, seriously interfered with his plans. At King's Mountain Cornwallis lost his best corps of scouts ; at Cowpens lie lost his light infantry. Both would have been of untold benefit to him when chas- ing- Greene into Virginia immedi-. ately after this battle. 170. Greene's Retreat into Vir- ginia.— After his victory at Cow- pens Morgan joined Greene. Corn- wallis then chased them foi two hundred miles northward across the Carolinas. In this famous retreat the Americans forded three rivers whose waters, swollen by rain- storms soon after the Americans had crossed, checked the British in their pursuit. Greene crossed the last of these, the Dan, just in time to escape the British, who were pressing closely upon his rear. Knowing that Greene would be reinforced in Virginia, Cornwallis dared not follow. On receiving reinforcements Greene returned and fought his enemy at Guilford Court House, North Carolina (March 15, 1 781). Here he was defeated, but withdrew his forces Battle of Guilford Ji^ good ordcr. This battle was fatal to the Court House. plaus of Comwallis, for it so severely crip- pled his army — which lost about one-fourth of its whole number — tiiat he would not follow Greene in his retreat. The remainder of the British army were tired out and Cornwallis retires almost famished. With his men in this condi- to Wilmington. ^{Qy^ ComwalHs could not return to Charles- ton, his base of supplies, but decided to go to Wilming- ton, where communication with the English fieet would NATHANIEL GREENE. THE REVOLUTION i»l be easy. Greene's Fabian policy had been very successful. He had worn out the enemy and forced him to seek the coast for supplies. Greene at once greatly disturbed Cornwallis's peace of mind by marching back to South Carolina. Again and again Greene was defeated, but he skilfully handled his troops and inflicted severe losses upon the Greene's skin a» enemy. Before the close of 1781 the British a general. held, in the States south of Virginia, only the two seaports of Charleston and Savannah. Greene was bold, cautious, active, and persevering. He had outgeneraled Cornwallis, the ablest English commander, and shown himself second only to Washington in military genius. 171. Cornwallis Goes to Virginia. — Cornwallis, disap- pointed in the South, and regarding Virginia as the great storehouse of the Southern armies, now marched north- ward to get control of that State. Here he found a con- siderable force of British sent there to keep the inhabitants from aiding the more southern States. Arnold had set fire to Richmond and had destroyed much property in other parts of Virginia. La Fayette was there with cornwaiiis trie» a body of troops to look after the interests of to entrap the Americans. When Cornwallis reached ^^ Fayette. Virginia he tried to entrap La Fayette, but the wily young Frenchman was not to be caught. Cornwallis then withdrew to Yorktown, where he could easily communicate with the English fleet. Clinton had ordered him to be in readiness to send reinforcements to New York in case the expected French fleet should co-operate with Washington in trying to capture that place. 172. Cornwallis, Entrapped at Yorktown, Surrenders. — Up to this time the French army had not been of any real service to the American cause, nor had the French fleet given much direct aid. Now, however. Direct aid from both their land forces and their fleet were to the French, help Washington in carrying out a bold plan. The latter, whose army was lying on the Hudson, had been joined the 15 I82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES NELSON lUH'Sl-, YORK 1. ^ , \. Which ivtts occu/>u-ii as heaaquartets by Cencral CortnvaUis. year before Cornwallis went to Yorktown by 6,000 fresh troops from France in command of Rochambeaii. Clinton, who was at the head of the English forces in New York, hearing that a powerful French fieet was on its way with more land forces to America, feared that on its arrival there would be a combined attack by land and sea. This had been the original plan, but when Washington learned that the fleet was on its way to the Chesapeake he withdrew from New York and began the execution of a Washinjrton'a brilliant movement. Leaving a small force brilliant ou the Hudson, he marched the rest of his movement. ,^^.j^^^, f^^^^^. i^^n^^i,-^^] ^^^cs to rciuforcc La Fay- ette in Virginia and co-operate with the fleet in capturing Cornwallis. So secretly and skilfully did Washington make his plans that he had almost reached Maryland be- fore Clinton lound out what was going on. Clinton at once sent a fleet to drive the French fleet away. He also sent Arnold to burn New London, Con- necticut, hoping thus to draw Washington back. But the English fleet failed in its attack on the French, and Washing- ton was not to be turned aside from his purpose. Rapidly marching to the Chesapeake, he embarked his troops at * ^ 1 ^^ i Vp V » *, \ / ^ ^° lAT /)^ ii o ^ / THE REVOLUTION iS^ Baltimore and Elkton, and united with La Fayette, who had already been reinforced by a French land force from the fleet. Cornwallis, entirely surrounded, comwaiHs saw but one chance of escape. That was by surrenders. crossing the York River and making a rapid retreat north- ward. A violent storm upset his plans. As his army of 8,000 was matched against an army of 16,000, to say nothing of the fleet, a successful resistance was hopeless. Therefore, after a siege of about three weeks he surrendered his army (October 19, 1781). 173. The End of the War and the Treaty of Peace (1783). — The Americans everywhere rejoiced. Congress, adjourning in a body, attended church to offer thanksgiving for the great victory. It was plain to Americans and Eng- lishmen that Cornwallis's surrender must end the war. Peace commissioners from both countries were therefore appointed to agree upon a treaty of peace. The French Government tried hard to confine the Amer- icans to the region east of the Alleghanies. But the work of George Rogers Clark and other Westerners who had bravely conquered and settled the vast regions George Roger* north and south of the Ohio, aided our com- ciark and the missioners in securing for American indepen- ^^^** dence the territory lying between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, and between the Great Lakes and Florida. Florida was ceded back to Spain. George the Third's plan of personal government in America had failed. The Revolution secured independence in America; it overthrew the personal rule Qeorge the Third of George the Third in England. In 1784 fails to carry out young William Pitt had become the real head *"'" p'*"^' of the English Government, and Parliamentary reform was only a question of time. Jl84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PUPIL l\ Review the attempt on the part of the British, first, to subdue Massa* chusetts in 1775, and second, to get control of the Hudson River and the Middle States in 1776 and 1777. You will remember that there was but little fighting in 1778 and 1779. .?, Why did the British in 1780 turn their attention to conquering the South ? Take note of their first successes there. 3, Explain why the Battle of King's Mountain was important. 4* What was the character of partisan warfare in the South ? Look up facts about the Swamp Fox and his men. Subject for essay : Parti- san warfare in the South. ||, What were the results of Arnold's trial by court-martial ? What reason did he assign for requesting that he might be placed in com- mand of the troops at West Point ? ^w How was his treasonable scheme to be carried out ? What part did Andre take in this scheme ? Discuss Arnold's disgrace and death. Subject for essay: Arnold the traitor. ^f. What were the difficulties of Greene when he succeeded Gates in the South ? How did Morgan's brilliant victory at Cowpens play havoc with the plans of Cornwallis ? ^x What was the condition of the English army after the Battle of Guil- ford Court House ? What had been Greene's main purpose and how had he carried it out ? 9. Why did Cornwallis go to Yorktown? What direct aid did the Americans now receive, from the French fleet? Before its arrival what plans of attack upon the British had Washington made? What changes did he make in his plans after the arrival of the fleet ? 10. Outline the events leading to the surrender of Cornwallis. What were its results ? 11. Study carefully these topics: George Rogers Clark and the West; George the Third fails to carry out his plans. 12. Subject for debate : Resolved, that Greene was a better general than Cornwallis. Subject for debate : Resolved, that the capture of Bur- goyne was a greater achievement than the capture of Cornwallis. 13. Read Simms's Partisan and the chapter on Arnold's treason in Coffin's Boys of '76. Memorize Bryant's Song of Marion's Men. CHAPTER XIV THE BREAKDOWN OF THE CONFEDERATION AND THE FOR- MATION OF THE CONSTITUTION (1781-1789) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV.; Fiske*s Critical Period of American History ; Fiske's War of Independence ; Channing's United States ; Hart's Formation of the Union ; Fiske's Civil Government. OUTSIDE READINGS: Frothingham's Rise of the Republic; Hale's Story of Massachusetts; Johnston's American Politics; Hinsdale's Old Northwest; Lossing's Field Book of the Revolution ; Roosevelt's Winningf of the West, III. j Wilson's A History of the American People, III. 174. Congress During the Revolution. — When the col- onies threw off the yoke of Great Britain it was necessary that they should have some central authority to guide them in establishing their independence. To meet this need they formed the Continental Congress, which assumed many of the duties of such a government. But Congress, as we have seen, labored with great difficulties because it had no power to compel obedience. Early in the Revolution the people had formed State governments. They felt more closely in touch with these and were extremely jealous of any authority interfering with local control. This- feeling found marked expression in the Articles of Confederation — a plan of government outlined by a committee which Con- gress appointed in June, 1776. 175. Weakness of Congress Under the Confederation. — Under the Articles of Confederation, which did not go into effect until 1781 (see par. 180), Congress had but little power. It could declare war, but it could not raise or sup- port an army. It could find out the amount of revenue needed for the expenses of carrying on the government, but it could not raise a dollar by taxation. In our own 185 1 86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES time the tariff supplies a large part of the government revenue, but as Congress could not at that time regulate commerce, it could not levy any duties on imported goods. Commerce with foreign countries and between the States was under the control of the States. Congress could do nothing but request the States to pay certain sums of money needed by the central government, and the States could, and usually did, re- fuse to notice such requests. The states control In fact, thc commerce. main busiucss of Congress was to recom- mend and advise. It could not compel a State, or a citizen of a State, to do anything. 176. England and Amer- ican Commerce. — A gov- ernment so weak at home could not command respect abroad. Soon after the Revolution, Parliament be- gan to enforce the restric- tions upon American trade which had threatened to ruin the colonial commerce. Of course these acts of Parliament embittered the Americans against England, and they sought in vain for some way of retaliating. Thirteen independent States could not, or would not, agree upon a united plan of action, and as Congress could not regulate commerce nothing was done. 177. Commercial War Between the States.— Each State, managing its own commerce, tried to gain advantages over the other States in its trade relations. In order to in- crease its foreign trade, a State would sometimes make its duties on imported goods lower than those of a neighboring THREE SHILLING MASSACHUSETTS BILL OF I74I. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 187 State. Duties were levied 011 goods carried from one State into another. For example, New York laid a duty on chick- ens, vegetables, and dairy products from New Jersey, and on firewood from Connecticut. New Jersey retaliated by laying a tax of $1,800 a year upon a lighthouse which New York had erected on the New Jersey shore, and the mer- chants in Connecticut began to hold meetings for the pur- pose of stopping all trade with New York. All such bickerings over inter-State trade made the States more jealous and unfriendly toward one another. And it is worthy of notice that all this increase congress without of selfishness, the continuation of which could power to regulate only result in civil war and the political ruin *^°™™^'""* of the Confederation, was brought about by the inability of Congress to regulate commerce. But there were other commercial difficulties of a serious nature. 178. Financial Difficulties of the Confederation. — After the Revolution our imports, which had to be paid for in specie, were so much more than our exports that the coun- try was soon drained of nearly all its gold and silver. Con- gress w^as in great need of money, and there was financial distress throughout the country. 179. Shays's Rebellion. — Business depression steadily continued to grow worse. People were in debt, their taxes were heavy, and they could not get money for what they had to sell. The consequence was that nearly all the States began to issue paper promises, which they called money. Distress was especially great among the farmers in western Massachusetts. Their cattle and their farms Distress of farm- were sold by the sheriff, and they themselves ers in western were sometimes thrown into prison for ^^^^^ usetta. debt. When their State Legislature refused to issue paper promises in order that they might pay their debts, two thousand angry farmers in the region about Springfield and Worcester, under the leadership of Daniel Shays, sur- rounded the court-houses in those cities and put a stop for the time to all lawsuits against debtors. For a while (in the latter part of 1786 and early part of 1787) they had things 1 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES their own way. They not only burned barns and carried off movable goods, but they tried to seize the arsenal at Springfield for the purpose of securing muskets and cannon. After about seven months the rebellion was put down by the State militia. iSo. Conflicting Claims to the Northwest Territory. — Thus we see that, by reason of the inability of Congress to regulate commerce and to raise money by taxation, difficul- ties were growing day by day. There was still another vexing question. That was the conflicting claims to the territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, known as the Northwest Territory. Four States claimed each a part or all of it. Massachusetts and Connecticut based their claims to the northern part upon their chartered rights. New York insisted that about all of it belonged to her by an agreement with the Iroquois Indians. Virginia claimed the wliole of it not only by chartered right but by the con- quest of George Rogers Clark during the Revolution. Of course these conflicting claims led to bitter disputing, in which Maryland took a leading part. She objected to the naryiand objects owucrship of . the Northwcst Territory by a to these claims. p^j.^- ^f ^he Statcs. She Said that inasmuch as all the States had fought France and England to secure this territory, all ought to have a share in the ownership of it. Maryland therefore refused to agree to the Articles of Confederation until it was clear that these claims would be abandoned. The four States having yielded their claims, she signed the articles in 1781. In taking this position Maryland was doing a great ser- vice to the whole country. The common possession of the Results of com- North wcst Territory by the thirteen States mon ownership, helped to hold the States together. They all had an equal interest in this extensive region, whose land sales would enable the Confederation to get money enough to pay all its debts. 181. The Ordinance of 1787. — The outcome of the dis- pute concerning this common ownership was the ordinance of 1787, which was the most important measure passed by THH FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 189 the Confederation. This ordinance provided for the gov- ernment of the Northwest Territory, and for dividing it into five States. Education was to be encouraged, and there was to be religious freedom. Although runaway slaves were to be returned to their masters, slavery was to be forever prohibited. This ordinance was passed by Con- CELEBRATING IN NEW YORK THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. ^ress in 1787, the year of the formation of the Consti- tution. 182. Events Leading to the Constitutional Convention. — The many commercial and financial difficulties, ending in Shays's Rebellion, showed that the Confeder- The confederation ation was breaking down. Shays's Rebellion breaking down, in Massachusetts might soon be followed by similar upris- 16 IQO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ings in other States. In the face of such dangers the Con- federation was ahiiost powerless. A better form of govern- ment had therefore become a necessity, and this the Con- stitutional Convention devised. The question of the regulation of commerce led to the calling of the Constitutional Convention. Western settle- ment showed the need of connecting the East and t.ie West by a system of canals. As the navigation of the Potomac River was concerned, commissioners from Maryland and Virginia met to adopt some regulations for the use of this river by the two States (1785). When the Virginia Legislat- ure adopted the commissioners* report, they also voted to invite all the States to send delegates to a convention the following year. This convention was to consider com- mercial regulations for the whole country. As delegates The conference at froui oul}^ fivc Statcs met at this Conference, Annapolis. \^Q\^\ ^^ AnuapoHs in 1786, it did not seem worth while to discuss the business for which they were called t(\getiier. But before adjourning, they recommended that delegates from all the States should meet to consider the Articles of Confederation and make them adequate to the needs of the country. All the States except Rhode Island appointed some of their ablest men as delegates to the convention, which met in Philadelphia (May 25, 1787) and remained in secret session almost four months. Washington was presiding officer of The Constitution this convcution, wliich framed the Constitu- "*"''"*• tion* for the New Federal Union. The adop- tion of the Constitution required its ratification by nine States. When the ninth State ratified it on June 21, 1788, * Slavery Comproruises in thf Constitution. — In appointing representatives to Congress from each State, some of the Southern States wished all the slaves to be counted. The Northern States opposed the countingof any of the slaves. Finally, it was agreed that in deciding the number of representatives from any slave State three-fifths of the slaves should be counted. The North, or commercial part of the country, wished the national government to have power to regulate commerce, but the South feared this power might be used to prohibit the slave trade. At last it was voted that Congress should have full control of commerce, but that importation of slaves should not be stopped before iSo8. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 191 preparations were immediately made for the organization of the new government. 183. Supporters and Opponents of the Constitution.— There was much opposition to the Constitution from men whohonestly believed that too much power was r^^ ^ ^ ... -^ . \ The Federalists given to the national government. These men andthe Anti- believed that the States should have most of P'^^^^^''^^^- the power, as under the Confederation. Because they opposed the Federal Constitution they were called Anti- Federalists. The brilliant orator, Patrick Henry, belonged to this political party. Among the Federalists, or sup- porters of the Constitution, were Washington, Hamilton, and Franklin, who firmly believed in a strong central gov- ernment to control all matters of national interest. After a long struggle between these political parties throughout the country, the Constitution was ratified by the various States, and thus the New Federal Union was established. TO THE PUPIL 1. The period from the close of the Revolution to the adoption of the Constitution has rightly been called the Critical Period. Ascertain the reason. 2. Why was there a delay in the adoption of the Articles of Confedera- tion ? What is meant by saying that Congress was merely an ad- visory body ? 3. What was the relation between Congress and the various States ? 4. Be sure that you get clear ideas about the following topics: Com- mercial war between the States ; Congress without power to regu- late commerce. 5. What financial difficulties did the Confederation have after the close of the Revolution ? What caused Shays's Rebellion? 6. What claims were made by various States to the Northwest Terri- tory ? Why did Maryland object to these claims ? Name the lead- ing provisions in the Ordinance of 1787. 7. Can you now tell why the Confederation broke down ? Outline the events leading to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. What was the position taken by those who opposed the Constitu- tion ? By those who supported it ? 192 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CHRONOLOGY 1765. PASSAGE OF THE STAMP ACT. 1765. MEETING OF STAMP ACT CONGRESS. 1767. NEW TAXES ON GLASS, LEAD, PAPER, AND TEA. 1768. BRITISH TROOPS QUARTERED IN BOSTON. 1770. BOSTON MASSACRE. 1773. DESTRUCTION OF TEA IN BOSTON AND ELSEWHERE. 1774. BOSTON PORT BILL PASSED. THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS MEETS AT PHILADELPHIA. 1775. April 19, FIGHT AT LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. May 10, CAPTURE OF TICONDEROGA AND CROWN POINT. SECOND MEETING O* THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. 1775. June 15, WASHINGTON APPOINTED COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. June 1 7, BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. November 12, Montreal taken by Montgomery — Arnold's march to QUEBEC. December 3O, DANIEL BOONE SETTLES IN KENTUCKY. 1776. January I, UNION FLAG RAISED AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS. February 27, BATTLE OF MOORE'S CREEK BRIDGE. June, ARRIVAL OF BRITISH FLEET IN NEW YORK BAY. June 28, ATTACK ON FORT SULLIVAN, CHARLESTON, S. C. July 4, DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE BY CONGRESS. August 27, BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND. September 15, AMERICANS ABANDON NEW YORK. October 28, BATTLE OF WHITE PLAINS. November 16, SURRENDER OF FORT WASHINGTON. December 26, BATTLE OF TRENTON. 1777. January 3, BATTLE OF PRINCETON. June 14, FLAG OF STARS AND STRIPES ADOPTED BY CONGRESS. July 6, BURGOYNE CAPTURES TICONDEROGA. August 6, BATTLE OF ORISKANY. August 16, BATTLE OF BENNINGTON. September 11, battle of brandywine. October 4, battle of germantown. October 17, surrender of burgoyn». HOWE occupies PHILADELPHIA. 1778. CONWAY CABAL. ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE. May, CLARK'S EXPEDITION TO ILLINOIS. June, ATTACK ON WYOMING. June 18, BRITISH LEAVE PHILADELPHIA. June 28, BATTLE OF MONMOUTH. July, ARRIVAL OF FRENCH FLEET UNDER d'eSTAING. December 29, SAVANNAH TAKEN BY THE BRITISH. 1779. September 22, FIGHT between THE BONHOMME RICHARD AND THE SERAPtS. SULLIVAN'S EXPEDITION AGAINST THE IROQUOIS. 1780. May, CAPTURE OF CHARLESTON BY THE BRITISH. August 16, BATTLE OF CAMDEN. September, ARNOLD'S TREASON. X781. January 17, BATTLE OF COWPENS. March 15, BATTLE OF GUILFORD COURTHOUSE. September 8, battle of eutaw springs. October 19 cornwallis's surrender at yorktown. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 193 1782. November 30, preliminary treaty of peace signed. 2783. September 3, FINAL treaty OF PEACE WITH GREAT BRITAIN SIGNED. November 25, EVACUATION OF NEW YORK. December 4, WASHINGTON takes leave of his officers. 1784. JEFFERSON'S NORTHWEST ORDINANCE PROPOSED. 1786. SHAYS'S REBELLION. 1787. NORTHWEST TERRITORY ORGANIZED, AND ORDINANCE ADOPTED. May 25, CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION MET AT PHILADELPHIA. September 17, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES SIGNED BY THE DEL- EGATES. *788. June 21, CONSTITUTION RATIFIED BY NEW HAMPSHIRE, SECURING ITS ADOPTION. I CHAPTER XV THE NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE AND THE GROWTH OF NATIONAL FEELING (1789-1829) REFERENCES : Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV. ; An- drews's United States, I. ; Walker's Making of the Nation ; Richardson's His- tory of Our Country ; Wright's Children's Stories of American Progress; Hale's Stories of Invention ; Coffin's Building, the Nation ; Hart's Formation of the Union; Channing's United States ; Eggleston's Household History ; Drake's Making the Great West; Drake's Making the Ohio Valley States; Barnes's Popular History of the United States ; Burgess's Middle Period. OUTSIDE READINGS: McMaster's United States, I.-IV.; Hildreth's United States, IV.-VI.; Schouler's United States, I. ; Henry Adams's United States, I.-IX. ; Brooks's First Across the Continent; Lossing's Field-book of the War 0)1 1812; Roosevelt's Winning of the West, IV.; Roosevelt's Naval War of 1812, Spears's History of Our Navy : Wilson's A History of the American People^ III.; Thwaites's Rocky Mountain Exploration ; Hosmer's A History of the Mis- sissippi Valley; Hart's How Our Grandfathers Lived; Gordy's Political History of the United States, I.-II. ; Parton's General Jackson ; Johnston's American Politics ; Lodge's George Washington; Lodge's Alexander Hamilton ; Morse's Thomas Jefferson ; Wharton's Martha Washington ; Bolton's Famous Americans ; Oil- man's James Monroe; Magruder's John Marshall; Gay's James Madison; Schurz's Henry Clay ; Morse's JohnQuincy Adams. FICTION : Martineau's Peasant and Prince ; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities ; Henty's In the Reign of Terror; Hale's Philip Nolan's Friends ; Hale's Man Without a Country ; Elggeston's Signal Boys; Eggleston's Captain Sam j Eggleston's Big Brother ; Bynner's Zachary Phips ; Seawell's Little Jarvis ; Seawell's Midshipman Paulding. POETRY : Holmes's Ode for Washington's Birthday ; Key's Star Spangled Banner; Drake's American Flag; Holmes's God Save the Flag ; Holmes's Old Ironsides. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 184. Washington the First President. — It was natural that the people should wish George Washington to be 194 NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE IQS the first President.^ He stood for no party but was the choice of all the people, and he received the unanimous vote of the Presidential electors.' John Adams, of Massa- chusetts, was elected Vice-President. The inauguration had been planned for the first Wednesday in March, but travelling was so slow in those days that it was impossible for Congress to meet and count the electoral votes in time to have the inauguration before April 30. New York City was the capital of the country. The inauguration at Federal Hall was very impressive. The oath of office was solemnly taken, and the chancellor of New York, who had g-iven it, then turned , , . . f T /-> The Inauguration. to the people and cried, '' Long live (jeorge Washington, President of the United States!" The cry was taken up by the throng, who, amid their joyous shouts, had escorted Washington from his house in New York to Federal Hall on his way to deliver his first inaugural. 185. The Number and Distribution of the People. — According to the census of 1790 the population of the * George Washington, first President of the United States (1789-1797), was born in Westmoreland County, Va., February 22, 1732, and died at Mount Vernon December 14, 1799. When he was eleven years old his father died, leaving the youth in care of a faithful and devoted mother. While at school George was pains- taking and careful with his work and excelled in such athletic sports as running, leaping, and wrestling. He was so true to himself and to others that he often acted as a judge in deciding disputes between his young friends. In 1759 he married a rich young widow, Mrs. Martha Custis, whose property, added to his own large estates at Mount Vernon, made him a man of much wealth. His bravery, patriot- ism, and military skill, as shown in the Last French War, led to his being chosen by the Continental Congress as Commander-in Chief of the American troops during the Revolution. By reason of his modesty he shrank from this service, for which he was admirably fitted. He refused to receive any pay during the entire Revolution. It may indeed be truly said that he proved himself indispensable to the success of the Americans in that war. He was a man of commanding presence and dignified man- ner. His success lay not in intellectual brilliancy, but in a well-balanced judgment, in a belief that right made might, and in a rare power of winning men's confidence. ^ Under Section I., Article II., of the Constitution, maybe found the following: ** Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, <| number of ^/ayment of supremacy ovcr the separate States. As the by* the *unKed State dcbts were mostly loans from wealthy states. Americans, these influential citizens would be attached as creditors to the Union. They would become directly interested in building up its financial credit. They ALEXANDER HAMILTON. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPEXDLXCE 203 would work to make the central government strong by giv- ing it a large taxing power with which to obtain a revenue to pay its debts. This part of the plan was novel and unexpected, and greatly alarmed the followers of Jefferson. They believed that the States should do a large part of the Jefferson's foi- governing. They dreaded more than all else ^ZTayr^ent'oi a strong central government, because they the state debts. feared it might lead to a monarchy. They accused Hamil- ton of trying to rob the people of their rights by placing them under the rule of a king. Accordingly, the followers of Jefferson opposed the payment of the State debts by the United States, and after a bitter struggle defeated Hamil- ton's scheme by a narrow majority. Later, however, in return for an agreement to locate the new capital, Washington, upon the banks of Washington the Potomac, the Jeffersonians conceded the made the capital, assumption of the State debts to the followers of Hamilton. The measure proved one of the wisest policies ever adopt- ed. It was a brilliant example of Hamilton's far-seeing statesmanship. 193. A Tariff Laid on Foreign Trade.— How to raise the money to pay all these debts was a serious question. At its first session, Congress laid an indirect tax upon ves- sels and certain kinds of goods coming into this country from foreign ports. This tax, or tariff, was not only for the purpose of raising a revenue, but also for protecting the young manufactories springing up at various points in the United States. As this tariff did not yield rev- j^x on spirituous enue enough for the country's need, a direct »quor». tax was laid later on spirituous liquors (1794). Direct taxes are not generally popular, and this one was no exception. It was an unpleasant reminder of the Stamp Act. We need not be surprised, therefore, that resistance was offered to this direct tax imposed by the new government. 194. The Whiskey Rebellion (1794).— The people oi western Pennsylvania lived so far from business centres, which they could reach only by poor roads, that it was 204 HISTORY Ol' 1MIK llNrri:i) STATICS very cxj)Cnsiv(' lor lliciii (o 1 1 niisporl, tlicir i;iaiii to market. There was more proiit in making;' llie <;raiii into whiskey, which was much less bulky than tlie <;raiu Iroui which it was ma(U'. .As the tax levied u[)ou the w hiske\' U'sseued the j)r()lit of the i.aiineis, they ie*^ardecl this tax as unjust. They therefore refused to pay it, and severely handled olfi- cers sent by the Government to see that it was enforced. The peoi)le rose in arms to resist the hiw, but Washington prom[)tly sent a body of troops, which easily put down the insurrection. 195. The Invention of the Cotton-gin (1793). — The WMiiskey Rebellion had nunly a passing inleri^st. Whit- nc\*s cot t o n-i;" i n had a permanent inlluence upon our history. Let us now CO us i d e r that re- markable inx'ention. in i;93 l<:ii Whit- ney, a Massachu- setts man tlu'ii liv- ing- as a tutor at the home of (icneral (li'cene's widow in (ieori;ia, in ventetl the cotton-i;in. The inlluence ol this in- vention npon cotton-i^rowiui;', s!aver\-, and tlu* tutuit' his- tory of the country cannot be measurcul. Uefore that time cotton was not raised to any i^iwit extent in the S()uth. Without the cotton-i^in a slave could separatc\ in a (kn , the seeds from only a sin<;de pinind ol cotton fibre, but now, with the aid of the cotton-o-in, he C(ml(l in the same time separate the seeds from a thousand j)ounds. Tlu> vahK' of slave labor was thus "«"-K'"- now the cotton-growers in the Soutii and the owners of cotton-mills in the North had a sel- fish interest in the insti- tution. For the owners of cotton-mills,' like the planters, made money on the ever-increasing demand lor cotton, the price of which had been greatly lessened by the cotton-gin. They all thought that cotton- raising could not be carried on successfully without slave- labor. Hence the demand from this time forward lor more and more slaves in the cotton States. Whitney's first cotton-gin. TO THE PUPIL X. Note the fact that Washington was President for two terms, 1789-1797. 2. With your map before you, study carefully the distribution of the peo- ple in 1790. Why did the people live mainly along rivers or on the coast ? 3. Try to form vivid mental pictures of travel by the old stage-coach. How was the mail carried in 1790 ? How did the clumsy methods of travel and communication affect the attitude of the people in one State toward the people of another State ? On all these topics McMaster's History, I., will repay careful reading. 4 What classes of people were included in the Federalists ? Discuss Washington's formality. 5. What is meant by the Cabif et ? 6. "Shall the Federal Government be supreme over the States?" What answer did Hamilton give ? Jefferson ? You may well keep this great question in mind, for it will come up again and again in 17 206 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the subsequent periods of our history. As you will find later, dis- agreement about the answer led at last to Civil War. What is meant by "strict construction" of the Constitution? 7. What was Hamilton's financial policy? Why did he urge that the United States should assume the debts of the separate States ? Why did Jefferson's followers oppose this part of Hamilton's plan ? 8. Which do you think was right in his attitude toward the State debts, Hamilton or Jefferson ? Give reasons for your answer. 9. Review the difference between a direct and an indirect tax. What indirect tax was levied ? What was its purpose ? What direct tax was levied ? Why was it unpopular ? ID. What influence did the invention of the cotton-gin have upon the pro- duction of cotton by slave-labor ? Explain why the Southern planters and the Northern cotton-mill owners had, from the time the cotton- gin was invented, a selfish interest in slavery. II. For social life in New England and in other States read Coffin's Building the Nation. FOREIGN RELATIONS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 196. A Period of Trial and Uncertainty for the Young Republic (1789-1815) — When in 1789 Washington became President, many intelligent people, both in Europe and America, doubted whether the Federal Union would live long. This was a reasonable doubt, for the young repub- Littie national ^^^ ^^'''^^ J^^ wcak and Called forth little na- feeiinR In the tioual feeling, A foreign traveller, visiting United states. ^^^^ United Statcs at tliis time, said that he found no Americans ; that the people were all English or French in their sympathies and feelings. The English party, or the Ilamiltonians, and the French party, or the Jeffersonians, were almost as intense in their dislike of each other as were Englishmen and Frenchmen in Europe. Soon after the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789), war began between France and England and, with short War between intervals of peace, continued until Napoleon's France and dowufall at WatcHoo (1815). During this England. great struggle many efforts were made to drag the United States into the war. Both France and Eng- land were unwilling that this country should remain neu- NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 207 traL When the United States refused to form an alliance with either country, both of them seriously injured our commerce. They showed little respect for a people who seemed so lacking in national spirit. The entire period from 1789 to the close of the War of 1812 was one of anxiety for the well-wishers of the republic. During- all these years the American people were engaged in a struggle similar to the American Revo- From 1789101815 lution. In the earlier struggle they were the Americans fighting to become independent of England ; depende^nce'^of" in the later they were striving to become Europe, independent of Europe. This later period culminated in the War of 1812, which has been rightly called the Second War of Independence. But from the beginning of Wash- ington's administration the struggle over commercial or other difficulties was pressing. 197. Influence of the French Revolution upon Ameri- can Affairs. — The same year that Washington became President was also the first year of the French Revolution. The people of France had been so oppres- The French sively taxed and otherwise misgoverned that Revolution. they were at last ready to resort to violence against the French monarchy. They tore down the gloomy prison called the Bastile and afterward put to death the king and queen. In the ** reign of terror" that followed thousands of men and women were guillotined. To add to the confusion, the French Republic was soon at war with neighboring countries. She declared war with England in 1793. Hamilton and his followers took the side of England: Jefferson and his supporters sympathized with the French revolutionists. As France had helped us in the American Revolution, the French claimed that we ousrht „, ^. _, ' . . o Washm^on to help them in their struggle for freedom. refuses to aid At first Washington and the Hamiltonians, F'^^"". with gratitude to France for aid given us in the American Revolution, felt a warm interest ; but later, when the revo- lutionists had resorted to extreme violence to carry out their plans, Hamilton began to regard them with great distrust. 2o8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Besides, Washington agreed with Hamilton in the belief that we were too weak to become involved in European wars, and he therefore issued a proclamation of neutrality. 198. Citizen Genet Defies Washington.— The new French Government, the Directory, knowing that many Americans were in sympathy with the French revolution- ists, sent Citizen Genet as minister to the United States. In utter defiance of the President this indiscreet man tried to fit out American privateers to be used in destroying English commerce. In answer to objections from Wash- ington, Genet threatened to appeal to the people, hoping they would approve his course and take his side against their own President. This threat was a striking bit of au- dacity and showed the contempt Genet felt for our govern- ment. But the people sustained Washington, and at his request Citizen Genet was recalled. 199. Jay's Fruitless Treaty with England. — The Eng- lish would not give up Oswego, Niagara, Detroit, and other Our diffkuities Northwcstcrn forts which, by the treaty of with England. peacc at the close of the Revolution, they had agreed to surrender. They also seriously interfered with our commerce by forcibly stopping and searching our ves- sels for deserters, and in many cases impressing our seamen into their service. Besides all this, they would not let us trade with the English West Indies. On the other hand, the English maintained that we had failed to keep our part of the same treaty by refusing to pay certain debts owed by Americans to English merchants, and by not making good the losses sustained by American Tories when they left their homes in this country during the Revolution. To settle these difficulties John Jay was Edit over to England. As a result a treaty was agreed upon which set- tled nothing about the impressment of American seamen. ja '8 treat England refused to discontinue this practice, makes the Amer- but Jay felt that in our weak position among leans indigmant. ^-^e nations of the world we must be satisfied with what we could get from a country so much stronger than our own. Washington, believing the treaty was the NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 209 best we could arrange, urged its adoption. A large part of the American people were indignant. Hamilton was stoned while making a speech in New York in defence of the treaty, and Washington was so bitterly attacked and unjustly accused that he said he would rather be in his grave than be President. 200. Political Parties. — Originally, as we have seen, those supporting the Constitution were called Federalists, and those opposing it Anti-Feder- alists. After the Constitution went into effect, the Federalists, under the lead of Alexander Hamilton, favored a strong central govern- ment, while the Anti-Federalists, under the lead of Jefferson, wished the States to have most of the pow- ers of government. The Jefferso- nians called themselves Republi- cans, but since Jefferson's followers favored the French revolutionists, the Federalists called them Demo- crats, after the French Democrats. A little later they became known as Democratic- Republicans. In Andrew Jackson's administration they were called Democrats, and the name has remained till the present time. 201. The ''XYZ Papers."— Our trouble with France was by no means settled by the recall of Genet. When the Jay treaty with England was ratified, the The French an- French were so angry that they sent home gry about the our minister and recalled their own from the Jay treaty. United States. French cruisers openly attacked our mer- chant vessels. The country was too weak for war, and President Adams ^ wished to avoid one if possible. JOHN ADAMS. 'John Adams, second President of the United States (i 797-1801), was bom at Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1735 and died July 4, 1826. After graduating from Harvard he became a lawyer. lie was a prominent member of the Continental Con- 2IO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The F''cnch having* promised to receive an embassy v^rith honor, President Adams sent over three envoys, John Marshall, afterward Chief Justice, Charles Pinckney, and Elbridge Gerry to set things right. Upon their arrival they were not received with respect. They were boldly informed that peace with France could be secured only on two conditions: (i) That a large sum of money should be paid to members of the Directory, and (2) that an ad- ditional sum should be loaned to France for carrying on her wars. The papers reporting to Congress these shame- ful propositions were signed, not by tlie names of the secret agents representing the French Government, but by the letters X Y Z. Hence they w^ere called the " X Y Z Papers." Pinckncy's indignant reply w\as, "Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute," and this became a rallying cry throughout the United States. Congress organizctl an army and put Washington at the head of it. In the meantime, the French continued to capt- Scrious trouble ^11"^ our vcsscls and seized a thousand of them. with France. Soon a State of war existed on the sea, where Commodore Truxton defeated and captured two French fricfatcs.^ These defeats recalled France from her insolent attitude, and when President Adams again sent over envoys, gress, and proposed Washington for commander-in-chief of the American troops. Being an eloquent advocate of independence, he did much to bring about a political separation from England. He was one of the three commissioners who negotiated a treaty of peace with Great Britain at the close of the Revolution and afterward became the first American minister to England. His honesty and courage won the admiration of his friends, but his obstinacy and lack of tact involved him in many quarrels. John Adams was inaugurated at rhihulcl[ihia, wliich lunl taken the place of New York as the seat of government. During his term of otTice, in i8oo, Washington became the capital. 'Out of the excitement that thrilled the people the song, "Hail, Columbia," sprang. The words were written by a lawyer of Philadelphia, Joseph Hopkinson, and set to the music of the march composed for W^ashington's inauguration. " Hail, Columbia" was first sung at a theatre in Philadelphia. The applause was tremen- dous. Men rose to their feet, throwing their hats into the air, and women vigor- ously waved their handkei chiefs. Again and again the audience called for the song until it had been sung nine times. In a few weeks " Hail, Columbia" was known V>y thousands of enthusiastic Americans. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 21 1 Napoleon Bonaparte, who was then at the head of affairs, made things satisfactory to this country. 202. Alien and Sedition Laws (1798). — These difficul- tics with France stirred the patriotic feelings of our peo- ple and for a time strengthened the Federalist party. Its leaders went too far, however, when they passed the Alien and Sedition Laws. Many of the Democratic-Republican newspapers were under the influence of Frenchmen who had come to live in the United States. These men used their papers to make bitter and slanderous attacks upon President Adams and the government. Naturally the Fed- eralists, with their leanings toward a strong central govern- ment, believed that such attacks weakened the Union by lessening the respect of the people for it. They there- fore passed the Alien Law, which gave the President power to send out of the country any foreigner whom he might think dangerous to its peace. The Sedition Law gave him power to fine or imprison any one who might conspire against the government or publish anything evil against it. This law violated the first Amendment to the Consti- tution by interfering with the ficcdom of tlie press, and aroused the Democratic-Republicans to a high state of in- dignation. They said such laws were tyrannical and proved the desire of the Federal leaders for something like a mon- archy. The Virginia Resolutions, written by The Virginia and Madison, and the Kentucky Resolutions, writ- ^J^^,,'^^^^.'^*''- ten by Jefferson, expressed their dislike of the 1799). Alien and Sedition Laws. These Resolutions not only de- clared the laws to be unconstitutional, but the Kentucky Resolutions went so far as to say that a State might right- fully nullify any act passed by Congress that was not con- stitutional. Nullifying a law is declaring it not binding, and therefore nullification is a most dangerous doctrine; for if each State should reserve the right to refuse obedience to any law which in its judgment violates the Constitution, that document would in time be worth as little as the paper it is written on. and the Federal Union w(Hild fall to pieces. 212 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 203. Chief Justice Marshall's Influence in Strengthen- ing the Federal Union. — That this result was not brought about was largely due to the influence of one man. Just before going out of office in 1801, President Adams ap- pointed John Marshall/ of Virginia, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He heartily believed in the liberal con- struction of the Constitution, and for thirty-five years his decisions as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court had great influence in making the general government superior to the States in all questions affecting the common interests of the whole people. It has well been said of him: "He found the Constitution paper, and made it power; he found it a skeleton, and clothed it with flesh and blood." ' TO THE PUPIL X, Review the significance of the following dates: 1492, 1588, 1689. Now add to these 1789. Why is it significant: Can you think of any reason for the lack of national feeling among the Americans in 1789? 2. Look up in Coffin's Building the Nation the causes of the French Revolution. 3. Why was the entire period from 1789 to 18 15 one of trial and anxiety for the Young Republic? Do not forget these dates. 4. Why did the French Revolutionists maintain that we should aid them in their war with England ? What did Washington think of aiding them ? Was he right or wrong ? Give reasons for your answer. 5. What difficulties did we have with England ? Why was Jay's treaty unsatisfactory to a large part of the American people ? Do you like it or not ? Give reasons for your answer. 6. Review the origin of the Federalist and the Anti-Federalist parties. What were these parties now called? What was the principal difference between them ? 7. How did the French indicate their anger about the Jay treaty ? Ex- plain clearly the '• X Y Z Papers." What recalled France from her insolent attitude toward the Americans ? At this juncture John Adams, our second President, was in office. He served one term, 1797-1801. * John Marshall was a great American and left his impress upon the government as few men have done. His personal appearance was striking. He was tall and slender, with black hair and small eyes. Simple in dress and modest in manner, his warm heart won the truest friendship of those who knew him. With rare grasp of mind and greatness or purpose, he labored to make the Union strong. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 213 8. What facts led the Federalists to pass the Alien and Sedition laws r What were these laws ? What were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? Mark them well. They were a significant and dangerous step toward the nullification and secession movements of later years. 9. What kind of man was Chief Justice Marshall ? Memorize the quota- tion which well indicates the work of this remarkable man, the greatest chief justice we have ever had. 10. If you will read Martineau's Peasant and Prince you will have clear ideas about the leading facts of the French Revolution. SETTLEMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 204. Thomas Jefferson, the Democratic-Republican Leader, becomes President.* — Before beginning- to discuss the settlement of the Mississippi valley let us consider for a moment a statesman whose greatest act was the purchase of Louisiana, a large part of this valley. That statesman was Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, who became the third President (March 4, iSoi).^ Up to that time the national government had been under the control of the Federalists, and many people believed that the election of the Demo- 1 Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States (1801-1809), was born at Shadwell, Virginia, in 1 743 and died at Monticello, Virginia, July 4, 1826. At seventeen years of age he entered the College of William and Mary, where he was an earnest student. He afterward became one of the most learned men of his times, being known as the *' Sage of Monticello." He was also a daring horseman and an excellent violinist. After graduating from college he studied law and soon exer- cised a large influence over the politics of his State and his country. He was elected a member of the Continental Congress and, as chairman of the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence, wrote practically all of that remarkable document. At the end of his Presidential term of office he retired to his beautiful home, Monticello, where he spent the remaining years of his life. ''The Presidential election for a successor to John Adams caused much bitter feeling between the two political parties. The Federalists cast their votes tor John Adams and C. C. Pinckney ; the Republicans, for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. As the two latter each received seventy-three electoral votes, neither was elected, and the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, which, ac- cording to the Constitution, was to choose one of them for President. The contest was prolonged and exciting, but ended, as above stated, in the choice of Jefferso? as President. Burr became Vice-President. This unfortunate contest resulted in the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, in accordance with which the Presi- dential electors must vote separately for President and for Vice-President. 214 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES cratic-Republican President would lead to the country's ruin. In this, of course, they were greatly in error, for Jefferson, as President, moved slowly in changing the pol- icy of the government, and did many things to make the general governnient stronger than it had been before. 205. Jefferson's " Republican Simplicity." — During the eight years of his Presidency Jefferson wielded a large per- sonal influence over the people. Form and ceremony were distasteful to him. He believed the Pres- ident should be sim- ple in dress and man- ner and mingle freely with the people. In his " red waistcoat, yarn stockings, and slippers down at the heel," he presented a striking contrast to the courtly appear- ance of Washington. On the day of his inauguration he went on foot to the Capi- tol, in his ordinary dress, escorted by a number of his politi- cal friends.^ It be- came his custom, when visiting the Capitol, to ride on a horse, which he tied with his own hands before entering. He did not hold Jefferson the Idol Weekly rcccptions, but he entertained hospi- •of the masses. tably and allowed persons wishing to see him to call at any time. Though the Federalists did not be- > Henry Adams, in Vol. I., pp. 190, I91, of his History of the United States, denies the truth of the story that on dhe day of his inauguration "Jefferson rode on horseback to the Capitol and, after hitching his horse to the palings, went in to take his oath." SCHOOL-HOUSE WHERE THOMAS JEFFERSON RECEIVED HIS EARLY EDUCATION. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 215 lieve it best for men of all classes and conditions to vote, Jefferson, because of his great faith in the people, was an ad vocate of universal manhood suffrage. We need not be sur- prised, then, to learn that he became the idol of the masses. 206. Pioneers in the Mississippi Valley before the Revolution. — We have seen how Boone, Clarke, Sevier, MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF JEFFERSON. and Robertson were leaders among the pioneers who went from Virginia and the Carolinas across the mountains be- fore the Revolution and made settlements in ^^^ pack=hor8o Kentucky and Tennessee. Their only roads and the forest- were the forest-trail and the river; their only *'"^''* means of travel and transportation the pack-horse and the canoe. Daring and full of the spirit of adventure, they re- lied quite as much upon the rifle as upon the axe and the hoe. Leading their pack-horses along the rough mountain pathways, they built log huts for dwellings, and with their rude tillage raised a few vegetables and a little corn for food. 210 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 207. Life in the Backwoods of Kentucky and Tennes- see in Pioneer Days. — Often the pioneer's cabin was built of rough logs and had only one room, with a ladder reach- The cabin and ^^g to 3. loft abovc, whcrc the children slept. its furniture. Articlcs of clothing hung upon pegs that were thrust into the sides of the house. A rough piece of board resting upon four wooden legs served as a table, three-legged stools were used as chairs, and wooden bowls as dishes. Life was everywhere plain and simple, and society dem- ocratic. Land was plentiful, and every head of a household had his own farm, usually of about four hundred acres. The settler relied upon his rifle for meat. He dressed much like an Indian, often ap- pearing in a fur cap, a fringed hunting-shirt of buck-skin, and moccasins and leggings made of the skins of wild animals. Amusements took a practical turn, the pioneers making them a pleasurable means of getting their work done. Hence, log-rollings, corn- huskings, and quiltings were common. After the work was out of the way the guests sat down at a table loaded with an abundance of such coarse foods as the backwoods afforded and such beverages as rum and whiskey. Then followed dancing, wrestling, racing, and various other sports calling for strength and skill. 208. The Flatboat and the Ohio River. — Soon after the ordinance of 1787 was adopted, and the fertile region lying between the Ohio and the Mississippi was opened for set- Westward tlcmeut, population began to stream westward, emigration. Yankees from New England, Scotch from New York, and Germans from Pennsylvania formed the bulk of this second emigration to the West. This wave of The settler. Amusements. THOMAS JEFFERSON. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 217 A PACK-HORSE. migration was greatly accelerated by the use of the flatboat, which could be employed as soon as the Ohio River was reached. By means of the flatboat the settler could carry many more goods than with the pack-horse. He could also travel much more rapidly, especially when going with the current. For this reason it was natural that this westward movement should follow the lines of the Ohio and the streams flowing into it from the north. Along their banks such towns as Marietta, Cincinnati, and Louisville rapidly sprang up. 209. Twofold Use of Rivers. — The rivers were valu- able, not only for bringing the new settlers to their homes, but also as highways for their trade. The settlers could not profitably carry their bulky produce, such as corn> meal, flour, ham, and ba- con, on pack-horses over the mountains to eastern business centres; but they could easily float their produce on rafts or flat- boats down the currents of the Ohio and Missis- sippi Rivers to New Or- leans. There, instead of attempting the slow and laborious return against the current, they disposed of their cargoes and sold their boats as lumber. The goods received in A HAND CORN-MILL. cxcbangc wcrc put aboard 2l8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES !5^-Jt '^MsCi A SWEEP- MILL. vessels sailing for Ball i more or some other Atlantic port, and from there taken over the mountains to the Ohio valley. The roundabout Several months were required to make this trip the setiier rouudabout trip. But this circuitous route must make in i i • , i ttt trading. was the ouly one by which the VVesterners could get such home comforts as clothing, furniture, and other manufactured products. As the Mississippi was their outlet into the world, their prosperity depended upon its free use for navigation. 210. Napoleon's Scheme to Plant Colonies in the Mis- sissippi Valley. — By the treaty of 1763 France had given i<>^t^■?p(o.X?H>l^,:^ "^*^. BREAKING Kl.AX. up to Spain all claim to the Mississippi valley lying west of the river. The dreams of La Salle for establishing a New France in America had failed to be realized. But by 1800 Napoleon, who had become the all- powerful ruler of France, conceived a similar and equally brilliant plan. He determined to secure Louisiana — which in- cluded all the country NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 219 from the Mississippi to the Rockies between Texas and Canada — and to people it with French colonists. New France in America would thus be revived, and the Amer- ican Union would be hemmed in between the Mississippi and the Atlantic. 211. France Regains Louisiana from Spain (1800). — Napoleon forced Spain to cede Louisiana to France, and thus carried out the first part of his plan. He next sent an army to subdue the island of San Domingo. His purpose was to make this island a base for his extensive operations in the Mississippi valley. But in this attempt he met a mighty opposition. Toussaint L'Ouverture, a native black AN OHIO RIVER FLATHOAT. general, fought the French troops with desperate heroism. Although he was taken prisoner, yellow fever finished the work which he had begun. Many thousand French soldiers perished, and the island was not subdued. French army for The army intended for the support of the Louisiana detained colonists in Louisiana never reached New «* 5-" Domingo. Orleans. War between France and England was again about to break out, and Napoleon was too busy in Europe to think of colonizing America. 212. Alarm in the United States. — When the Americans found that Louisiana had again passed into the hands of France they were alarmed. It was bad enough to have the territory colonized by feeble Spain. It was far worse to 220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES have for a neighbor a dangerous rival like France. This feeling was especially prevalent among the settlers west of the Alleghanies. Their alarm was increased when they learned that the Spa'nish authorities at New Orleans had refused to let them float their products to that town and there reship them. Closing the Mississippi to their trade meant their commercial ruin. Their indignation was at ^^ , ^. , a white heat and they talked loudly of war. The indignant „ -^ i r i Westerners talk of They urgcd Jefferson to get control ot the war with Spain, jgi^^i^^ qj^ which Ncw Orlcaus stood, and of the territory including the east bank of the river to its mouth and extending some distance eastward. The free navigation of the Mississippi would thus be assured. 213. The United States Purchases Louisiana (1803).— President Jefferson therefore sent Monroe over to France as special envoy to aid Livingston, the American minister, in securing West Florida and New Orleans. It was an oppor- tune time for the Americans. As Napoleon was greatly in need of money for his war with England, he was willing to sell much more territory than the envoys were instructed to buy. The result was that we purchased from France in 1803, for $15,000,000, the immense Louisiana territory, a larger area than the United States of that day contained.* By this purchase Jefferson was taking much greater liber- ties with the Constitution than the Federalists had ever done. His action was directly contrary to the teachings of his party. He realized this, but the purchase was so plainly for the interests of the people that he felt justified in mak- ing it. The purchase proved to be the greatest act of his admin- istration and had four important results : (i) It kept France Results of the from planting colonies which would be our purchase. near neighbors; (2) it prevented England from getting possession of the territory by treaty with France ; (3) it gave us the control of the Mississippi River ; (4) it added much to the strength of the national government. » Before 1803 the area of the United States was 827,844 square miles. The Louisiana purchase added 1,171,931 square miles to this area. \\ NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 221 Singularly enough, Jefferson, the writer of the Kentucky Resolutions, boldly did that for which the Constitution made no express provision. The Federalists Jefferson's bold declared the purchase to be unconstitutional, action, and many people opposed it on the ground that we already had territory enough. But the great majority, especially in the West, warmly applauded Jefferson's course. 214. Lewis and Clark's Expedition^ through the Loui- siana Territory to the Pacific (1804-1806.) — Previous to the purchase of Louisiana, Jefferson sent to Congress a mes- sage recommending that an exploring party be sent to the Pacific Ocean. Accordingly a party of thirty men under Lewis and Clark started from St. Louis in 1804 and trav- elled in boats to the head-waters of the Missouri, nearly three thousand miles from its mouth. Here they procured horses from some Indians, made their way over the moun- *In accordance with Jefferson's long cherished desire this expedition was de- signed prtmari/y to explore the Missouri River to its source and then by the easiest route to reach and explore some river flowing into the Pacific Ocean. 222 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tains, and again taking to boats, floated down the Columbia River to the Pacific. After nearly two years and a half, the party returned with a most interesting account of their experiences. Besides giving the American people some Results of the idea of the vast extent and great wealth of expedition. ^j^g Louisiana purchase, Lewis and Clark's expedition gave the United States a basis for claiming the Oregon Country some years later. 215. War with the Barbary States (1801-1815).— In the year 1801 the attention of the American people was sud- denly drawn toward the East. The Barbary States in eluded the petty Moorish powers of Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, on the northern coast of Africa. For some time their pirates had been seriously disturbing Amer- ican commerce in the Mediterranean. They captured and destroyed our' vessels, confiscated the cargoes, and made slaves of the crews. In many cases large sums were paid to ransom Americans from slavery. Like the various nations of Europe, the United States had been protecting her commerce by paying tribute to these Barbary States. But the pirates grew continually more ag-i^-ressive. Tripoli became so insolent that War with TripoH. r ,-, , tt • i o . i 1 1 • ^ finally the United States declared war against that country (1802). By 1805 Tripoli was forced by our navy to make peace and to stop interfering with our com- merce. For some years the Barbary pirates did not interfere with American vessels, but it was not till 181 5 that their at^ Results of war tacks were entirely suppressed. The war with with the Bar- these statcs had two good results: (i) It forced bary states. Jeffers(Mi to increase the navy; (2) it was a training school by which our officers and seamen greatly profited in the War of 1812. 216. Fulton's Steamboat and River Navigation. — The war with the Barbary States brought the young republic into a more prominent position in the eyes of Europe, and showed that the American spirit would have to be reckoned with. But, important as the results were, they sank into comparative insignificance when placed beside an event lewis's first glimpse of TIIK ROCKIES. (Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804.) NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 223 which, at the time, attracted no special attention. In the year 1807 Robert Fii/ton, after many trials and difficul- ties, succeeded in applying steam to boats as a motive power. The outcome of his efforts was the steamboat Clermojit, a clumsy affair that people ridiculed by calling it** Fulton's Folly.'* On the day advertised for its trial trip from New York, a large crowd *™°" * gathered on the river side, expecting to witness a fail- ure. When the boat slowly moved off they began to jeer, but when finally the success of the experiment was no lon- ger in doubt they were equally hearty in their applause. The Clermont steamed up the Hudson from New York to Albany, 150 miles, at the rate of nearly five miles an hour. At once the boat became a wonder to the people, and they came many miles to see it. Four years later (181 1) the first steamboat on Western rivers was launched on the Ohio at Pittsburg. As this strange-looking object passed down the Ohio at what was then regarded as wonderful speed, the people on the river- banks were filled with awe and fear. The flying sparks, especially at night, and the unusual noise of the wheels, made some of the more ignorant onlookers believe the end of the world was near. This boat was soon ,, * ,.. , Use of the steam- toUowed by others, and the great network of boat on western rivers became thick with steam-driven craft, ■■'^®"- defying wind and current. The steamboat was a great ad- vance upon the flatboat. Western settlers could now more easily and cheaply reach the fertile land in the great valley and send their produce to good markets. The steamboat gave a fresh impulse to Western migration also. Population increased and many new settlements sprang up. 217. Burr's Conspiracy. — While holding the office of Vice-President, Aaron Burr — a brilliant and villainous man — killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel, because Hamilton had prevented him from being made President of the United States, and later from being elected Governor of New York. Having failed to satisfy his political ambition in the East, Burr got together soldiers and adventurers from the West- 224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ern States, and sailed down the Ohio and the Mississippi tG carry out some schemes not yet fully understood. It is thought that his plan was to establish a personal govern- ment in the Southwest, possibly including the Spanish possessions in Mexico. In due time he was taken and tried for treason, but was acquitted for lack of evidence. He died many years later, disgraced by his own acts and despised by the American people. TO THE PUPIL 1. How did Jefferson illustrate his republican simplicity ? Compare his ideas of formality with those of Washington. Why would the Federalists naturally favor pomp and ceremony on the part of the President ? 2. Prepare to write five minutes about any one of the following Westera leaders : Boone, Clark, Sevier, and Robertson. Describe the life of the pioneer settlers. 3. What advantages had the flatboat over the pack-horse ? What were the two uses of rivers ? With your map before you, outline the roundabout trip the Western settler had to make in trading. 4. Napoleon is one of the most interesting men in all history. Can you not look up some facts about his life and his plans of conquest ? Any short French History will give you all you need. Perhaps after you have read such a brief sketch you will wish to read what you can find about the great general in Henry Adams's History of the United States. 5. What was Napoleon's scheme to plant colonies in the Mississippi valley ? Compare this scheme with La Salle's. In this connection review La Salle's work. In what respect was La Salle like Napoleon ? 6. What country owned Louisiana at this time ? What had the island of San Domingo and the black general Toussaint L'Ouverture to do with Napoleon's scheme for colonizing the Mississippi valley? Why did the cession of Louisiana to France alarm the people of the United States ? 7. What steps did Jefferson take which finally led to the purchase of Louisiana ? What were the results of this purchase ? 8. Do not fail to get a clear idea of the territory that was included in Louisiana. How many States like your own did its area equal ? 9. How did the steamboat aid Western migration ? to. Find out what you can about Burr's relations with Hamilton. Com- pare the two men. What was Burr's Conspiracy .' NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 225 In connection with the study of Aaron Burr, read Hale's Man With- out a Country. The chapter in Shaler's History of the United States, Vol. I., on the Mississippi valley, is worth careful reading. THE WAR OF 1 8 12, OR THE SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 218. England Claims the Right to Search American Vessels and Impress American Seamen. — England still continued to search our vessels and to impress into her service American seamen. She claimed that . ^ T- T u 1 • u T- T 1 Once an English. English seamen, having once been English man, always an subjects, always remained such ; or, as the say- Englishman." ing ran, " Once an Englishman, always an Englishman.** On the other hand, our government claimed that an English- born subject could become an American by naturalization. There was doubtless cause for annoyance on both sides. Many English seamen, on reaching American ports, easily procured fraudulent naturalization papers, and Fraudulent nat- entered the American service. As a result, an ""-aiization. English captain was often embarrassed to find that, after making a port and visiting the town, he had no crew with which to put to sea again. And why was American service preferred ? Because better treatment and higher pay were received on American vessels. The commanders of English war-ships therefore insisted upon searching our vessels and taking off American seamen on the charge that they were deserters. English cruisers hovered about the more important American ports, and in their search for seamen boarded every vessel entering or leaving the harbor. Before the War of 18 12 began nine hundred American vessels had been searched, and more than 4,000 Americans had been impressed into the English service. These insults' and outrages reached their most irritating stage in the attack made on the frigate Chesapeake by the British man-of-war Leopard, off the coast of Virginia. The English captain made a demand for some English deserters who, he claimed, were on the American frigate. When 18 220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the American commander protested, the Englishman fired a broadside, killing or wounding twenty-one of the Ameri- The "Leo ard" ^^^ crcw. The Chesapeake, not being in a con- fires upon the dition to make resistance, surrendered. She "Chesapeake." ^^^ boardcd, and four of her crew were ar- rested for deserters and taken on board the Leopard. One of these was afterward hanged as a deserter and the other three, who were Americans, were released. The people were deeply excited, and in some quarters there was a clamor for war. But as the country was ill prepared for war, Jefferson could go no further than to en- ter a protest, and warn English men-of-war to leave American waters. In return, the British Government made a tardy and half-hearted apol- ogy, but declared its purpose to continue the impressment of seamen. 219. England and France Greatly Injure American Commerce (1806-1807). — England and France, now at war, tried to starve each other into submission. Each country, in her efforts to injure the other's trade, seriously crippled American commerce. During the early years of the war our vessels had done much of the carrying trade of the world, and our merchants had been growing rich. But in 1806* and 1807 England issued her "Orders in Council," England's "Or- which forbadc neutral vessels to trade with Jnd'Nap';'eon"s ' Fraucc or her allies. Napoleon retaliated by "Decrees." issuing his " Decrccs," which placed a prohi- bition upon all neutral trade with England. As nearly all American commerce was with England, France, and their respective allies, these restrictions threatened it with ruin. If an American vessel was bound for an English port she was liable to be seized by the French. If she risked a voyage to a French or other Continental port she was liable to be seized by an English man-of-war. Thus our ^ "Orders in Council," issued in England in 1806, declared that all the ports between Brest and the Elbe were in a state of blockade. In 1807 a similar order declared all ports blockaded from which the British flag was excluded, and forbade all vessels to trade with France or any of her allies. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 227 merchantmen were between two fires. They were pretty certain not to escape both. 220. Jefferson's Peace Policy and the Embargo (1807). — With all his greatness, Jefferson was not a model execu- tive in time of serious foreign difficulties demanding firm and vigorous measures. He abhorred war and believed that the same results could be accomplished by peaceful means. He thought that by refusing to trade with Eng- land and France he could force them to a reasonable and just treatment of the United States. As an expression of his peace policy, he secured the passage of the Embargo Act (December, 1807). This prohibited all American ves- sels from leaving the United States for foreign ports and foreign vessels from taking cargoes out of American ports. Jefferson thought that France and England stood in such need of our trade that they would soon come to terms when deprived of it. But they could do with- Disastrous re- out our trade much better than we could do s"'** <>* *»;« Em- bargo, and its without theirs. Our ships rotted at the repeal. wharves. Our commerce was destroyed. New York and New England especially suffered, and business distress be- came very severe. A few hot-headed men in the Eastern States suggested withdrawing from the Union.^ The farm- ers and planters also suffered greatly because they could not export their produce. Many of the Virginia planters, whose principal source of wealth was tobacco, were nearly ruined. Dissatisfaction was so bitter that Jefferson, after con- siderable urging, consented to the repeal of the Embargo after a trial of fourteen months. The Non- Bitter dissatisfac- intercourse Act, allowing American vessels l^^p^l^TthV^'' to open trade with all the world except Embargo. France and England, took the place of the Embargo (1809).^ * When New England commerce was ruined, the merchants of that part of the country invested their money in manufacturing. ' By act of Congress the Embargo was removed on March 4, the day when Jef- ferson's term of office expired and Madison succeeded him as President. Jamef 22H iiisi'om <)!• nil'; uNiri;i) srA'i'KS 221. Trcumsrh's ("oiispir.nv ( 1811).- I' i < >in iIm',( (oin- incrciiil !(■., .mi|)|)os('(I Id Ix' iii< jI',( . he m.iu l\(-d w il II a l)od\- nl 1 1 nops ai'jiinsl 1 In Iiid- i.in Inwn nil ihe I ippet.inoe KiN'ei. in Indiana. A h.illlo Mniiisnil. f.Mlilh I'r.'siil.Mil nl ll\o rml.il !.(!i(ru (lSini); !iI««mi( ihr iM'tlrini ruiivrnliiiii of 17S7. |In \vn« our <•( llip rMpiI mlviu-(ilr<« III Ihr eonsliuilinn, ninl \vn«i llir niillinr ol lUfltiv of iU lnnii till lonluiri^. I Ip WHS rt'5<»tn inlril with llnmillon siiul jny in writiiiji llin vnv i\\Ar jmpprs (litil rtpprmril in (l\p Irdn ;ili',( Aliii Immu^ jpllrmon's StMnMmv"! Suio, JlP WrtB rlpi'lpil i'lpsiilrnl. liKi' Jrllnson, M.-nlison whs n nmn ol mlioliulv ullnin- inenis nml nmitlrnrlivr slnlrsinnn'^lnp. Imt wns iiol HiliipUMJ to tlip pirssin^ rmer* genoloB ilirti nni'sl l»r inri l»y tlio PrnsiilpiK of llip Uiiitetl Stfttes in lime of war. NIAV bllWr.r,\,\. \(>\{ roLllK Al, INDEPENDENCE 239 w;i'; l')i(;'li( i»i wlii' li Mi'- hi'iinns wcio (lcfcat,Ci imili vli' n ii stood in the w;iyol hr, ;irnhilion, Ihrfi played a trick upon oiif ^ovcrnrnciit in the hope of bMiif/in^ on w;ii hetWCCn the (Inilc.d States ;ind l',n^;l;in'l. Iff: ifj. forriK-d ns that he woidd revoke his decrees, hut ;il the n;nnr lime he sent secret orders to the fwench Adniif;iMv lo 'oiihriH'- Seizifl^:^ on r vessels. Wli'n lli' I m (c li ' mp' / <»» made thin prf;rnise, lui^land was recjiiesfcd io do likewise. She, however, wrmid not consent, hecanse she knew that N;ipoleon was tiot acting in goo'l f.iiili. I oi ;i imi' Am'fi- <;;in vessels were allowed to enter Irrnch pfufs wilh(;nl he- int/ seized. Hut when a ^oorlly uuut^yrr were within rmr h, the French swooperj riown upon flc m ;in'l confiscated lie m .iriH their car^/oes. l'.ntH;ifid helieved (li;il A m' r Irjins werr f;i vo/intr franec ;in'l lie refr;re vexerl ;mfl iMif;ilrH th' m mor^' Ili;in f^'fj (,e- fore. Her war-ships l;iy in w;.if Pilf,n^ tl,e r r, „.,,.«„„^ „,..,m. tire eastern coast of the ('nited .Stafe«; jin^l '^'ni » nKi^rni capfnfcH many ''f onr merchantmen. fJitterness trMvard England increase d, It seerns prefty clear that the United States harl as fnuch f/nmrn] for t/oint/ to war «/jfh Ifie one <:onnlfy ;r; vvitfi fhf- other i',n\ we were tof; we,ik to y/> to war with h(;tfi of them, ;inr| tt,c str(;nt/cr of tlie fwf» political parties, which li?id always sympathized with 2^io iiiSTOKV OK Tin: rNiriD sr.vri:s I'l.nuc. wislu^l tof WAV wilh I'njM.iiul i.itlicr th.m with I' I amc. \\\c VcAcvaWsI \\\\{\ iiuliulrvl most ot {\\c C(>\\\\\\cv- c'\a\ i'l.iss(\s .uiil the* wi'.illhN Inisiiu-ss nun i>l [\\c roimtiv. ri\c'V wcMO sllOMi;' in Nrw l'n;;l.niJ .mil wrir iK>sclv Attidulr of the ;illitHl ill tl.ulc^ with I' ll;>J.nul. I lu \ l>l>li('VCHi t>vo,M>iuKj,ir«.. ji^ ,^^. ^^^^ ^ ur(ull"rssaiul Nvi.kcnl. VUc\ wtth t iittiiiiut. .isscMtcd th.it in ni.ikiniv ^^ ''^i' rnilv\i St.iti\^ was icmIIv St r(MijM hrnin;>^ N.ipoh^Mi in his .iinlutioiis srhcMiu'S in hhiiopr. Tins was tiiK\ (hi {\\c othrr liaiul, thr PrnuHiatir Ki-jMibhians wcmi^ lai;'^fl\ tnaili" up ot tho a:Mu nhiiial rlassi\s in thr South aiul West. V\\c W'cstcMU- (M s in paituul.ii iIuMishcnl hiltri" nuMiioi irs ol lMii;huul*S lihh..in pohiN' ihiiin;' thi^ K("\ ohit ion. aiul w cm t^ raj^tM" tor a wai with th.it louuttv. \\\c \ouni; K\uhMs, IKmiin' lMa\-, i>! Kv-iit lulv \ . aiul John C\ i'.ilhonn. ot South (\uoHna, thoui'Jit th.it suoh a w.ii wvuihl u\siih in tht' sprrilv ron- iiuciin;*, oi C'.in.ul.i. I .Koi o\\, as w c sh.ill src, thi' attcMupt tv> I'oiiqnci (\inaJ.i hro.inu" a lo.ulinj;- tcMtuir ol thr war. lMnall\'. on Jniu- k"^. iSi.'. w.ir was ih\lairJ. ahhon^h Nc'w huj'Jaiul hotlv opposed it. This (Opposition h\l io 5M(Mt ihtiuuh\ in seouiin;', t hi' ui\-(^ssarv Kvins tor o.ni \ it\j;* iMi the w.ii . btwiuse a Lu i^(M\ii t ol the in one v Ml tlie eouutiN was in the haiuls ot >se\v r n^- l.nul business tuen. who lelnsevl to \<\\\\ it to the i;ovcM n- UUMlt. j.\v rhe Hritish auii the AiiUMieaii Navies. When the wai bei;an the rnited Statc\s was not prepau\l Uu it. The OiMuoetatie Kt^publieans had neviM" iavoiwi a na\ \. >Umc'- oviM. )(dl(Mson had bc^Mi sv^ biMit on paviui;' o\\ the national (\chl (hat he liavi us(\l all his inthuM\ee a^^ainst buiUiiui^- ;i Strom; na\ v. Tlu^ land K^iH^s wtM'e without proper oquip- iiient. ^i>od discMpliiu\ or i\HupcMcMit otlu'iMs. b'nj^land's uavN eoutaint\l about iaH\> vessels, luaiw v^t thcMU beUuii^iiii^ to the Kiri;t'st and most pvnvertul el.iss. It was meaterthan the v'vMu!mu(\1 navic\s ot tl\e lest ot ti\c^ wvuld. To m.iteh this, the rnitt\l vSiates uavv eoutaiiu\l onlv twdve war vc\s- sels. uvMie ot them Luce, but all well built and the best oi NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 231 their class. There was small hope that this little navy could do much when fighting- against the " Mistress of the Seas." But as soon as war was declared, the American vessels gal- lantly started out in search of the enemy. 224. Fight Between the Constitution and the Guer- riere (1812). — The hrst sea light of importance was between the C'i^;/^"/'///^//^;/, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, and the English man-of-war Giierritre, which were thought to be about equal in fighting strength. Within a half-hour the Americans won a splendid victory. They thoroughly dis- abled the English vessel, so that she had to be destroyed where she lay at the end of the fight. The Constitution was practically unharmed, and lost in killed and wounded only fourteen men. The Gucrricrc lost one hundred. This naval duel took place (August 19, 1812) in less than three months after war was declared. By reason of this and later vic- tories, the people afterward proudly named the Constitution "Old Ironsides.'* 225. Superiority of Americans in Naval Battles. — In twenty years of fighting with France, England had lost only five vessels. In about six months of fighting in the War of 1812 she lost every one of the six vessels that fought with the Americans. Europe was amazed. England was, of course, chagrined ; but Americans were carried away with enthusiasm. Their gallantry on the sea showed that they had lost none of the national spirit shown by them in the days of the Revolution. The British officers and seamen were so accustomed to winning victories that they had be- come careless in their training and discipline. The marvel- lous success of the Americans was due to better seaman- ship, more accurate gunnery, and the superior construction of their vessels. But our victories did not prevent the immense English navy from blockading our coast. Smarting under repeated defeats when she had counted on certain vie- „„ ., . „, _ cnglisn war-ves- tory, England transferred a good part of her seis blockade our navy to American waters. Whenever one of *^**°*** our war-vessels entered a harbor, several British vessels 232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES hovered near to prevent her escaping to sea again. As a consequence, during the last half of the war the larger American vessels, shut in by this blockade, could not engage in fiofhtino^. But American privateers inflicted Privateers. ^ i t- i • i t^ • ..i great loss on bnglish commerce. During the war about 2,500 British merchant vessels were captured by American privateers. These privateers were New Eng. land vessels that were prevented by war from engaging in commerce. But while we were successful on the sea, we were not so successful on land. 226. War in the Northwest (1812-1813). — It will be remembered that one of the leading purposes of the war (see par. 222) was to invade and conquer Canada. With this aim in view General William Hull started from De- troit into Canada. He was soon driven back and forced to surrender at Detroit with his entire force (August 16, i8i2).i A little later the English captured Fort Dearborn, now Chicago. Instead of our securing Canada it looked very much as if the British would get control of all the ter- ritory north of the Ohio. To prevent this, General Har- rison was sent, early in the winter of 18 13, to drive the British troops out of Detroit, but his advance force was obliged to surrender at the River Raisin, where the Indians cruelly massacred the wounded prisoners. 227. Perry Wins a Brilliant Victory on Lake Erie (September 10, 1813). — Before the English could come into effective control of the Northwest, it was necessary for them to command Lake Erie. To prevent this. Captain Oliver H. Perry, a naval ofihcer twenty-eight years old, was sent there to build and man a fleet. With remarkable en- Perry'8 remark- ^rgy and pcrscverance he cut down trees, able energy. coustructcd vcsscls of grccu timber, and got together men whom he trained for the severe struggle they were to engage in. Some of his best men were Rhode Island seamen and Kentucky riflemen. 1 People were indignant at Hull for his surrender and accused him of cowardice. Although he was tried by court-martial and sentenced fo be shot, the sentence was never executed. It now seems clear that General Hull was an innocent man. AMKRICAN SEAMEN BOARDING THE FROLIC. The ot^agentent between the IVas^ and the Frolic— V^ar of 18 is. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 233 On September 10, 1813, the British fleet, ecnnmanded by Captain Barclay, a veteran officer, hove in sij^lit. There was little dilferencc in the strength of the two fleets. The British had six vessels with sixty-three guns, and the Amer. leans had nine vessels with fifty-four guns; but while the enemy's vessels were larger, their guns were smaller. By concentrating their fire upon Perry's flagship, Lawrence ^ the British completely disabled her. Only Perry and eight of his men were left unharmed. It was a su- i. A/T i. 1 u "•* bravery preme moment. Most men woula have sur- rendered. He boldly entered a rowboat and, standing up, flag in hand, rowed straight for \\\q, Niagara, another vessel of his fleet. Although the British directed their fire upon the little boat. Perry reached the Niagara without injury. He then renewed the battle with great vigor, and in fifteen minutes compelled the English captain to strike his colors. This was the first time in history that an entire English fleet was captured. It was a brilliant victory. Taking out of his pocket an old letter. Perry wrote on the back of it his celebrated dispatch to General Harrison : *' We have met the enemy and they are ours." General Harrison at once attacked and defeated the land forces at the Thames River (October 5, 181 3). These two victories put the Americans in entire control of Lake Erie and saved the Northwest. 228. Threefold Attack of the British in 1814.— In the Northwest neither side had made any decided gain when invading the other's territory. This was equally true of the fighting farther east, where the Americans failed at Ni- agara River,! and the English at Fort Erie. Having de- feated Napoleon in Europe, England now had more soldiers and seamen for the war in the United States. Accordingly, she decided to invade American territory from the north, on the old Burgoyne route, and to enter the Mississippi ^ Under the lead of General Scott and General Brown, the bloody battles of Chippawa and Lundy's Lane were fought and won just west of Niagara River, on Canadian soil. As the United States troops had to retreat across the Niagara River, these victories were of no immediate advantage. 234 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES on the st)utli aiul capture New C)ilcans. At the same time attacks were to be made at various poiuts aloui;- the eastern coast, so as to keep the inhabitants in that quarter in a state of lear auei doubt. l)v makiui;- this threeU)Kl attack, the English expected to ]'revent the ^Vmericans from concen- trating at any point. 229. McDonough's Victory on Lake Champlain. — To ward off the attack from the north, the Americans luid a squad rc-)n under ComincnU^re Mcl.^onough on Lake Cham- phiin, and a hind force of 1.500 at IMattsburg on the kike shore. The English akso had a lleet on the kike and an army of 14,000 on kind. Altliongh the English ilect was stronger in men and guns, INIcDonough, in about two hours, gained a deciiled victory, and captured all the larger ves- sels belonging to the English lleet. As soon as the news of the battle reached land, the English army beat a hasty re- treat (September 11, 1814)- This invasion, in its purpose and failure, recalls that of Burgoyne in 1777. 230. The British Capture Washington and Attack Baltimore (1814). — In August (1S14) a British lleet sailed into Chesapeake Bay and landed an army which marched against Washington. They reached Bladensburg, six or seven miles from WashingttMi, before they met with any opposition. Here General Winder, an incom|ietent com- mander, with a botly of Americans compt^sed largely of untrained and ill-supplied militia, made a short, feeble re- sistance and fled in ciMifusicMi. The British then marched into Washington, almost capturing President Madison him- self. Here they disgraced their victory by destroying the Capitol and other government buildings. After a lew days they sailed for Baltimore, where they were bravely re- pulsed, with the loss of General Ross, their commander.* ^ Wlien the iMitish woio nuuching aoainst \VnslHnL:;ton, they seized ami carried otT a friend of I''rancis S. Key. As soon as Key lieard of the capture he took steps to secure the release of the prisoner. President Madison ^ave assistJince by order- ing that a vessel be placed at the disposal of Key. General Ross consented to the release of Key's friend, but insisted that Key should be detained until after the at- t.ick upt^n Baltimore. Puriiii^; the nij^ht of attack Key could see, by the glare of the firing guns, the " St:u--Spangled Banner " waving over Fort McIIenry. But I NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 235 The British fleet visited many points of the Virginia and Carolina coast, burning bridges, farm-houses and vil- lages, and carrying off crops, stocks, and slaves belonging to the inhabitants. They also maintained a strict blockade all along the coast from Maine to Georgia. 231. War with the Creek Indians (1814). — Tecumseh, when planning his conspiracy in the Northwest, had aroused against the Americans the powerful Creek Indians, occupying territory now included in Georgia and Alabama. Like the Indians north of the Ohio, they saw the whites getting control of their hunting-grounds and killing their game. Believing this time of war to be a favorable oppor- tunity for getting back their lands, the Creeks planned an attack. They captured Fort Mimms, near Mobile, and cruelly slaughtered some 400 men, women, and children in the garrison (summer of 181 3). Andrew Jackson, with men from Tennessee, Georgia, and Mississippi, marched against the Creeks, and, after defeating them several times, won a decisive victory over them at Horseshoe Bend, on the Tal- lapoosa River, in eastern Alabama (March, 18 14). This battle so broke the power of the Creeks that they were obliged to abandon much of their territory and go farther west. 232. Battle of New Orleans (1815).— The British wished to get possession of New Orleans, in order to control the trade of tne Mississippi and the territory of Louisiana after the close of the war. As their success here would give them a great advantage over the Americans, they sent against New Orleans 12,000 veterans who had fought in Wellington's army. The success of the expedition, which was in command of skilful generals, seemed well-nigh certain. Andrew Jackson's But Andrew Jackson, who was put in com- preparations, mand of the Americans at New Orleans, proved himself toward morning, when the firing ceased, he was in an agony of suspense to learn whether or not our flag yet floated in triumph over the fort. After finding that the '• flag was still there," he gave expression to his deep feeling in "The Star-Spangled Banner," a part of which he hastily penned on the back of a letter. ?36 HISTORY OF Till-: UNl'li:!) STATES ri;ciK:3'. Wln'ii lie foiiiul ihat tlic rnciiiy were close at hand, he be<^an vvitli inil)oun(lc(l eiier<;y to prepare for tlie defence of the city. After aiminj;- even free CoU)re(l men and convicts, he could number only half as many men as the luijj^lish. Hut with Ids army stront New iMi^land Federalists had New i!ntriiimi'ii bcHMi uiueh opposcd to tlic War. As it pro- diH.satJshictioii. o-rrssed, their o|>position became bitter. At first the government had not onlv ai)i>ointed weak command- ers, but all alonjj: it had pooilv manai^ed the finances. It had not protected the New Kngland coasts from British attack, NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 237 and to New r>iii^hiii(l mcicli.inls il. had s(U'm(;d indifferent about, fiiniishin^- such j)r()(.cct ion. C'onnncrcc was practi- cally ruined, and tlu-rc was inucli husiiu-ss distress. New Eni;land had bravely (h)nc; its part in carrying on the war, Massachusetts havinj^ furnished much more than its share of men and moiu^y, but the; r\;(h'ralists in New England had no conl'idence in Fresident Madison and liis oil) STATK HOIJSK, WIIKKK TIIK 1 1 A ini'OKI) CON VKN'lloN M KT. government. At length they called together the Hartford Convention, which met at Hartford, in December, iops fr>r its own defence. This recommendation was extremely unwise. It 238 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES sounded much like the Virg^inia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799. The Hartford Convention was a great political blunder. It killed the Federalist party. 234. Treaty of Peace and Results of the War (Decem- ber 24, 1814). — The treaty of peace was agreed upon De- cember 24, 1 814. No mention was made of impressment of seamen and the unjust interference with our commerce by the English navy. But the war put a stop to both evils, and had, in addition, three results: (i) It showed the supe- riority of American seamanship ; (2) it gave the United States a position of respect and honor among the nations of the world; (3) it led the Americans, who had been for so many years cut off from the manufactured goods of Europe, to build mills and factories for themselves and thus become more independent of European manufactures than ever be- fore. Well may this war be called the Second War of Inde. pendence. In the Revolution Americans fought for inde- pendence of England; in the War of 1812 they fought for independence of Europe. TO THE PUPIL 1. What complaints did we make against England about searching American vessels and impressing American seamen ? What com- plaints did England enter against us ? 2. How did England and France injure American commerce ? What was Jefferson's purpose in securing the passage of the Embargo Act ? What was the Embargo ? How did it affect American commerce? 3. Why was there more commerce carried on in New England than in the South ? Why was the Embargo Act repealed ? 4. James Madison, our fourth President, was inaugurated March 4, 1809, and served two terms, 1809-1817. Name in order the three Presi- dents who preceded him. 5. What led to Tecumseh's conspiracy ? What were the results of the battle of Tippecanoe ? What had Tecumseh's conspiracy to do with our trouble with England ? 6. What was Napoleon's trick, and how did its success lead to increasing trouble with England ? Wny did the Federalists oppose a war with England ? Why did the Democratic-Republicans favor such a war ? 7. Subject for debate : Resolved that in i8i2we should have gone to war with France rather than with England. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 239 8. Why had we so small a navy in 1812 ? Compare it with the English navy at that time. 9. Give an account of the fight between the " Constitution " and the "Guerriere." How great was the success of the American navy in the first six months of the war ? How do you account for this success ? 10. What disasters fell upon our armies in the Northwest in 1812-13 ? What led to the battle of Lake Erie? Imagine yourself with Perry during the battle, and write to a friend, giving an account of your experiences. What were the results of Perry's victory ? I What was the threefold plan of attack made by the British in 1814 ? Give the results of McDonough's victory on Lake Champlain. 12. What was the object of the British in trying to capture New Orleans ? Give the results of the battle. In what ways were the Americans superior to the English in this and in other battles of the war ? 13. Why were New England Federalists bitterly opposed to the Em- bargo ? How was their dissatisfaction increased during the war? What recommendation did the Hartford Convention make ? Com- pare this recommendation with the Kentucky and Virginia resolu- tions of 1798 and 1799. You observe that even in 1814 true national feeling was not strong and deep in the United States. Name three results of the war. 14. Learn well the story of The Star-Spangled Banner's origin and then memorize the poem. Read again and again Drake's American Flag and Holmes's Old Ironsides. DEVELOPMENT WEST OF THE ALLEGHANIES 235. Purchase of Florida. — At the close of the Revolu- tion Florida had passed into the hands of Spain. During the War of 181 2 the Spaniards were in sympathy with the Eng^lish, and allowed them to build forts in Florida and to arm the Seminole Indians living- there. This ^^ ^ , . . o The Seminole unfriendly attitude of the Spaniards embit- Indians protect tered the Southern States. Moreover, many --""^y «'«ves. slaves, escaping- from Georgia and Alabama, fled into the swamps and morasses of Florida, and there found protec- tion among the Seminole Indians, with whom they married and lived. The slave-owners often followed in search of their slaves, and for years carried on a kind of border warfare. As Spain did not set matters right. General Andrew Jackson was 19 240 HISTORY OF THE UxNlTED STATES sent down (1817) with a body of troops. Jackson acted with his usual decision and energy. He hanged two Ind- ian chiefs, and two Englishmen whom he ac- Jackson in Florida. ^ c ■ • . • .il> ■ ^ tt ^ j cused or inciting the beininoles. He captured Pensacohi and establislied a garrison there. These acts were open war against Spain, but trouble was avoided by our buying Florida. The purchase was made in 18 19, for $5,000,000. The territory was more than twelve times tKe size of Connecticut.^ 236. The Monroe ~ Doctrine (1823).,— Having watch d the United Stales win inde[)endcnce from England and then become strong and prosperous, Mexico and the other Spanish colonics in America rose in revolt against Spain. One after another they declared their independence and set up republics of their own. Spain was unable of herself Spain and the to cuforce authority, and looked for aid to the •• Holy Alliance." <' Holy AlHancc." This alliance had been formed in 181 5, after the downfall of Napoleon, by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Its purpose was to prevent the peo- ple of any European monarchy from overthrowing the gov- ernment, as the French people had done during the French Revolution. From the American standpoint, if the great European powers should begin to interfere with the coun- tries of America, tliey might, by obtaining a foothold here, endanger the welfare of the United States. The experiment of twenty-five years of struggle between the United States on the one hand and England and France * The area of Connecticut, being 4,990 or approximately 5, coo square miles, makes a very convenient unit of measurement. It will hereafter be so used in many cases. 'James Monroe, fifth President of the United States (1817-1S25), was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, in 1 758, and died in 1831. Soon after his student life began at the College of William and Mary, he was called away to active service in the Revolution. He fought bravely at Trenton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. lie filled many high stations in his country's ser- vice, not only at home, where he was a member of the Continental Congress, and later of the Senate under the Constitution, but abroad, where he was minister to France, England, and Spain. After being Secretary of State under Madison, he was elected President. In all his public service he proved himself a patriotic and upright citizen. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 241 on the other had culminated in the War of 1812. We had thus learned the wisdom of keeping out of European entanglements. We had learned, also, the wisdom of man- aging our own affairs without the intervention of England, France, or any other European country. President Mon- roe, therefore, in a message to Congress at The "Monroe this time, declared (i) that we would take no Doctrine." part in European wars; (2) that we would not interfere with any Eunjpean colonies already established in America; (3) but that any attempt on the part of a European nation to interfere with the independence of an Ameri- can state would be regarded as an unfriendly act.* This statement of our position gave expression to the general American sentiment which has since become known as the ** Monroe Doctrine." It was a strong position to take, but the valor of Perry on Lake Erie, of McDonough on Lake r^^„,,^ „, ,^^ Champlain, of Jackson "Monroe at New Orleans, and of doctrine.- the American sailors on the sea, had won the respect and admiration of Europe. The Holy Alliance wisely refrained from med- dling with American affairs: a precedent was established; and the Monroe Doctrine has ever since been the settled policy of the United States. 237. The National Road.— The Monroe Doctrine prac- tically settled the foreign policy of the United States ; but there remained a question at home which appeared almost to defy solution. From early colonial times two obstacles JAMKS MONROE. * We find a similar sentiment expressed in Washington's Farewell Address, from which the following is quoted : "The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is, in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible . . it is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion ot the foreign world." 242 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES had stood in the way of westward migration. These were the Indians and the natural barriers to travel and transporta- ..... tion. By the overthrow of Tecumseh's con- Two obstacles to -J i r i >-. i • westward migra- spiracj in the Northwest and of the Creeks in **°"- the Southwest, the po\ver of the Indians east of the Mississippi River had been broken. This vast, fertile area was now open to migration. People from New England and the Northern States be- gan to move westward in large and increasing numbers. The steamboat greatly aided this westward movement, but The steamboat ^^^ stcamboat was of usc Only on the rivers andthepacko and lakcs. It was necessary for men and all ^^^^^' kinds of movable property to pass over wide stretches of country through which navigable rivers did not flow. The pack-horse of early days needed only a path through the woods, but the emigrant called for a roadway to connect the East and the West. Hence the "National Road," beginning on the banks of the Potomac, at Cumber- land, Maryland, was undertaken at national expense. The first contract was let in 1811. By 1820 the road was extended over the mountains to Wheeling, where it connected with the steamboats on the Ohio. The original purpose was to build this road to the Mississippi. But by the time it reached Illinois (1838) the coming of the rail- road made its farther extension unnecessary. It helped much in furthering emigration and westward growth. For the construction and repair of this road Congress spent nearlv seven million dollars. 238. The Natural Boundary Line Between Freedom and Slavery.— Nature had decreed that the large plantation should have no place in the North. Mason and Dixon's Line and the Ohio River formed the convenient and natural boundary line between the free and the slave States as far west as the Mississippi River. North of that line slaves were of use mainly as house- bold servants. It was thought that other kinds of work could be done with greater profit by white labor. In alt this northern area, therefore, there were comparatively few NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 243 slaves. But south of that line the soil and climate were favorable to the growth of cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco. The successful cultivation of these great siaver in the staples called for an abundance of cheap North and in the labor always at hand when needed. Slavery ^<'"*''- fulfilled these conditions. Moreover, it was assumed that the negroes, if set free, would not work, and hence slavery seemed to the Southern planter necessary for his highest prosperity. Since the freeing of the slaves, this assumption has been shown to be incorrect, but it was none the less believed in the South before the Civil War. 239. The Question of the Extension of Slavery into the Louisiana Territory. — Before the Louisiana Purchase, then, soil and climate seem to have largely decided what should be the line separating freedom from slavery. Seven of the thirteen original States were free and six were slave, but the admission of new ones had been so planned that in 1819 there were eleven standing for freedom and the same number for slavery. In this way each section had an equal vote in the Senate. In the House of Repre- The south eager sentatives the North, having grown in popu- l^^XyllVh" lation much faster than the South, had by senate. 18 19 a much larger vote.^ If, however, the South could maintain an equality in the Senate, legislation unfriendly 'kepresentation in congress in 1820. No. Free States. Ad- mitted. Sen. ate. House of Rep. No. Slave States. Ad- mitted. Sen- ate. House of Rep. I 2 3 4 I 7 8 9 10 II 12 Pennsylvania. . . New Jersey Connecticut Massachusetts.. New Hampshire New York Rhode Island.. Vermont Ohio. 1787 1787 1788 1788 1788 1788 1790 179I 1803 1816 1818 1820 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 23 6 7 13 6 27 2 6 6 I 7 I 2 3 4 5 6 I 9 10 II 12 Delaware Georgia Maryland vSouth Carolina Virginia North Carolina Kentucky Tennessee Louisiana ... Mississippi . .. Alabama Missouri 1787 1788 1788 1788 1788 1789 1792 1796 1812 1817 1818 1821 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 9 9 23 13 10 6 I Indiana Illinois I I I 12 Free .......... 24 los 12 Slave 24 82 244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Attitude of the North and the 5outh toward slavery in Mis- souri. to slavery could be prevented, and to this end the slave- holders were ready to put forth all their energy. 240. The Missouri Compromise (1820). — In 18 18 Mis- souri, a part of the Louisiana Purchase, applied for admission into the Union. The first State admitted from this purchase, Louisiana, had come in as a slave State in 1812, but it was far south of the line dividing freedom and slavery as al- ready established. Missouri, however, lay partly north of this dividing line and partly south. The Northern people claimed that as Congress had control of the Territories it had a constitutional right to decide whether they should be free or slave. The Southern people, on the other hand, insisted that each State had a consti- tutional right to decide this question for itself. When applying for admission the people of Missouri had requested that they might have slavery. It happened that about the same time Maine wished to be admitted as a free State. The slaveholders, there- fore, refused to allow Maine to enter the Union unless Missouri should be admitted as a slave State. The strug- gle was long and bitter. At last, largely through the in- fluence of Henry Clay, an act known as the " Missouri Compromise " was passed, which, for the time, settled the difficulty. This compromise had two provisions : (i) Missouri was to come into the Union as a slave State ; (2) all the remain- The two proviso ing territory in the Louisiana Purchase, north 'ZZiVZT oi the parallel of 36° 30', or the southern misc. boundary of Missouri, was to be forever free. Maine was admitted as a free State in 1820, and Missouri as a slave State in 1821, making twelve free and twelve slave .(^^^ HENRY CLAY, "THE GREAT PEACEMAKER." NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 245 States. It was supposed that the slavery difficulty was for- ever settled. "Forever" in this case meant only about twenty-five years. 241. The Erie Canal (1817-1825).^ — Transportation over- land, from east to west, by means of wagons and draught animals 'vas slow and expensive. Some better means of travel and communication between the Altantic coast and the Mississippi valley had therefore become a necessity. This necessity suggested to the thoughtful mind of DeWitt Clinton the building of a canal to connect the Great Lakes with the eastern seaboard. So in 18 17, through his untir- ing energy, a large body of laborers began the task of dig- ging the Erie Canal. It extended from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to Albany, on the Hudson, a distance of three hundred and sixty-three miles. As Lake Erie is nearly six hundred feet higher than the level of the Hudson, and as the canal had Difficulties in to pass through forests and over rivers, many building the canal, people looked upon the scheme as a foolish venture. By way of ridicule they called the canal " Clinton's Ditch." But Clinton's perseverance overcame all opposition, and the Erie Canal was ready for use in 1825. It was built at the expense of the State of New York, and v/as easily paid for by tolls levied on boats and goods passing through it. 242. Results of the Construction of the Erie Canal.— The results of constructing the Erie Canal surpassed the * The Erie Canal was opened in the autumn of 1825, the first year of John Quincy A.dams's administration. John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams and the sixth President of the United States (1825-1829), was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1767, and died in 1848. After graduating from Harvard he began the study of law. His public service was long and distinguished. He was noi" only American minister to Holland, Portugal, England, Prussia, and Russia, but was one of the American peace commissioners at the close of the War of 18 12. After serving with signal ability as Monroe's Secretary of State, he was elected to the presidency. As President he was unpopular and made many enemies. But the greatest part of his career began when he entered the national House of Representatives in 1831. Here he became the anti-slavery statesman of his time. His fearlessness won the admira tion of friend and foe alike. He remained a member of the House until 1848, when he fell dead in the Capitol. He was well called the *' Old Man Eloquent.'' 240 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES highest expectations, even of Clinton, (i) Cost of transpor- tation was reduced. Before the canal was in use $io was paid for carrying a barrel of flour from Buffalo to Albany by wagon. By canal-boat the expense was reduced to thirty cents per barrel. (2) Since the canal made travel easier and less expensive, it increased migration westward. Before the building of the New York Central Railroad it carried thousands of emigrants. (3) All along the canal towns and cities rapidly grew up, so that New York soon became the most populous State in the Union. (4) It greatly stimulated the devel- opment of New York city, which shortly became, as it has since re- mained, the chief commercial city in the country. (5) By largely reduc- ing the freight charges for transpor- tation of goods it made the food produced on Western farms much cheaper in the East, and for the same reason it caused manufactured goods from the East and imported goods from Europe to sell for lower prices in the West. It therefore increased the wealth of both the East and the West. 243. Internal Improvements. — The National Road and the Erie Canal were a part of an extensive system of inter- nal improvements which were of great service in develop- ing the West and connecting it with the East. This system included not only the building of roads and canals, but the improvement of rivers and harbors. Some of these roads and canals were built by private enterprise and some by Twowaysof ^^^ Separate States. The cost of building making internal and keeping them in repair was met by toll improvements. charges. Many people believed that Con- gress had a right to make internal improvements at the ex- pense of the whole people. Many others insisted that such improvements should be made by private companies or by JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, THE ANTI-SLAVERY STATES- MAN. NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 247 the separate State governments. These last urged that the ** general welfare " ^ of the people was not served by build- ing roads and canals and by improving rivers and harbors, which directly benefited limited areas only. They there- fore argued that such works should not be undertaken by the general government at national expense. This was the view of those who gave a strict construc- tion to all parts of the Constitution. Madison, Monroe, and Jackson were of this party. Those who gave a broad construction to the Constitution said that this power was implied in the following clause : *' The Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all the powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States" (Article L, Section 8, Clause 18). This has rightly been called the " Elastic Clause." The •• Elastic The " River and Harbor Bill," passed every clause." year for the improvement of rivers and harbors in all parts of the country, shows that Congress to-day gives a liberal construction to the Constitution. 244. New Problems and a New Political Party. — The best way of making internal improvements was a new problem for the people to solve, but there were other prob- lems equally difficult. The Alien and Sedition laws had seriously injured the Federalist party; the The era of good Hartford Convention had killed it, leaving feeiing. the Democratic-Republicans as the only political party in the country. From 1817 to 1825, during Monroe's adminis- tration, this singular condition of affairs prevailed, and this period has ever since been known as the " Era of Good Feeling." But the new problems that soon presented themselves led to the rise of a new political party and involved three pressing and vital questions: (i) Shall inter- Three pressing nal improvements be made by Congress at questions. national expense ? (2) Is the United States Bank constitu- tional ? (3) Is the true policy of the country a tariff for * See preamble of the Constitution. 20 248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES revenue only or a high tariff for the protection of home industries? The Democrats, as the Democratic-Repub- licans now began to call themselves, believed in leaving internal improvements to private enterprise or to State governments. They regarded the Bank of the United States as unconstitutional. They favored a low tariff. The new party wished internal improvements to be made at national expense, approved the United States The National Re- Bank, and urgcd that a high protective tariff publican party. ^y^s for the bcst iutcrcsts of the people. Be- cause this new party favored the strengthening of the na- tional government in these three ways it was called the National Republican Party. TO THE PUPIL 1. James Monroe was now President, serving two terms, 1817-1825. 2. What difficulties led to the purchase of Florida ? 3. What was the Holy Alliance, and what was its connection with the Monroe Doctrine ? Name the three main provisions of this Doctrine. Try to understand clearly the meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. It will come up again later, 4. Before the purchase of Louisiana, what was the natural boundary line between free and slave territory ? Explain how soil and climate favored slavery south of Mason and Dixon's Line and the Ohio River. 5. Why was the South eager to maintain in the Senate an equality with the North ? What difficulty was settled by the Missouri Com' promise ? What was this Compromise ? 6. Review what has been said about the pack-horse, the flat boat, the steamboat, and the National Road. In what way did the Erie Canal supplement these ? Do not be satisfied until you know well the re- sults of constructing this canal, especially the last one named in the text. 7. John Quincy Adams, who served for one term, 1 825-1 829, was now President. 8. What was meant by internal improvements ? Why were they greatly needed at this time ? What two views were held as to the best way of makinp: internal improvements? 9. You see you are again face to face with the two opposite views of the true meaning of the Constitution. What were these views ? What is the «« Elastic Clause"? NEW STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE 249 10. What were the new political problems, and what the pressing ques- tions they involved ? What was the new political party, and how did it answer each of these questions ? How did the Democratic party answer them ? 11. In this connection you might well review what you have already studied about political parties. You will recall two great mistakes made by the Federalist party. Make frequent use of the index. 12. Read Washington's Farewell Address and the message containing the Monroe Doctrine. CHAPTER XVI JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST (1829-I841) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV.; An- drews's United States, I.; Burgess's Middle Period; Wright's Children's Stories of American Progress ; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Coffin's Build- ing the Nation; Richardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS : Schouler's United States, III. and IV. ; Rhodes's The United States, I.; Wilson's A History of the American People, IV.; Sumner's Andrew Jackson; Lodge's Daniel Webster; Von Hoist's John C. Calhoun; Schurz's Henry Clay; Morse's John Quincy Adams; Johnston's American Orations (Webster and Hayne); Bolton's Famous American Statesmen; Teft's Webster and His Masterpieces. FICTION : Eggleston^s Hoosier Schoolmaster ; Eggleston's Graysons. 245. Character of Andrew Jackson.^ — The six Presi- dents that preceded Jackson came from Virginia or Massa- chusetts. They were all men of culture and stood for what was best in the social life of New England and the South. Andrew Jackson was of a different type. He represented the frontier life of the West. His education had been meagre, but he was a man of much ability and of strong and forceful character. He was a natural leader of men and had occupied many positions of trust in the community in which he lived. His unbounded * Andrew Jackson, seventh President of the United States (1829- 183 7), was born in Union County, North Carolina, in 1767, and died at his home, "The Her- mitage," near Nashville, in 1845. When only fourteen years old he joined the American force under Sumter. After the Revolution he began to study law. At the age of twenty-nine he removed to Nashville and soon became prominent in pub- lic life. He was elected to the national House of Representatives, and later to the Senate. In 1814 he was appointed major-general in the United States army and in this position won the brilliant victory at the battle of New Orleans. On account of his obstinate will his friends called him " Old Hickory." 250 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 251 faith in his own convictions caused him to commit some errors as President. But he was ahvays sincere and in- tensely patriotic. He was loyal to his friends, but severe upon his enemies. His personal prejudices and his jealousy for the nation were so intense that he regarded those dis- agreeing with him as not only enemies to himself but to his country. • His genuine interest in the welfare of the people cannot be questioned. During the eight years of his Presidency (i 829-1 837) his influence upon the course of events was a a man of the personal one. He was people, in a true sense a man of the people, who cheerfully followed wherever he led. 246. The Spoils System.— When Jackson became President he desired to reward those political friends who had worked faithfully for his elec- tion. Moreover, he believed in the rights of the people, and did not deem it democratic to allow any set of men to remain long in office to the exclusion of others just as worthy. He therefore decided to adopt the more democratic principle of "rotation in office." "To the victors belong the spoils,** was his motto. He accordingly turned out of office two thousand postmasters^ and other officials, although their work was in no way con- nected with politics. Jackson appointed his own follow- ers to positions which he had made vacant by removal. He appointed them because they were his followers and not because they had a special fitness for the official work they were to do. This was the introduction into national ANDREW JACKSON. The Union! It must and shall be preserved J " Rotation in office. * During the forty years from 1789 to 1829, there had been only 74 removals, or, on an average, less than two a year. Of these, Washington had made 9 ; John Adams, 10; Jefferson, 39; Madison, 5; Monroe, 9; John Quincy Adams, 2. 252 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES politics of the " Spoils System." The system, until 1883, had full sway in the country, and has had a most demoral- izing influence on the political life of the nation. 247. " A Tariff for Revenue with Incidental Protec- tion."— It will be remembered that during- the time of the Embargo and the War of 18 12 the country, being cut ofl from foreign trade, was obliged to build its own mills and factories to produce whatever manufactured goods were needed for home use. As the streams flowing down New England hillsides furnished excellent water-power, the busi- ness men of that region gradually invested their capital in manufacturing instead of commerce. Until 1816 duties had been levied on goods from foreign countries mainly for revenue to pay the expenses of the national government. These duties furnished only incidental protection to Ameri- can manufacturers. Such a system of duties is called "a tariff for revenue with incidental protection." 248. A Protective Tariff. — After the \var closed, how- ever, and trade was resumed with foreign countries, our E ifsh oodsin rn^^kets bccamc flooded with foreign goods, American mar- especially from England. Labor w^as so much *'***• cheaper in England than in this country that her merchants could sell goods to the United States at a lower price than American manufacturers could afford to sell them. Our manuiacturers naturally called for a higher tariff on the goods that could be made to advantage in American mills and factories. These imported goods would then cost so much m the United States that the American manu- facturer could afford to undersell the foreigner and still make a profit. Such a tariff is said to encourage home in- dustries, or to protect American manufacturers from for- eign competition. It is therefore called a protective tarifif. 249. South Carolina Objects to a High Protective Tariff. — The first protective tariff was laid in 18 16. It w^as too moderate. The duties were so low that foreign mer- chants could pay them and still fill our markets with their goods. The New England manufacturers could not thrive JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 253 under such conditions and urged Congress to raise the duties. These were therefore gradually in- The high tariff oi creased until the high tariff of 1828 was passed, '^as. The industrial conditions of the South were so different from those of the North that manufacturing had no place there. The people of the South were almost ^. , . , . , , T . . . 1.1 Slavery and the exclusively employed in raising on their plan- four great staples tations the four great staples: rice, sugar, cot- *»* **^® s<^"th. ton, and tobacco. The slaves were not intelligent enough to be employed in manufacturing. They were adapted only to agricultural labor. Such a difference in industrial conditions between the North and the South was decidedly unfortunate. The conflicting business interests of the two sections brought about a seri- ous disagreement in regard to the tariff system. The Southern people had to buy all the manufactured goods they used, and naturally wished to buy them at as low prices as possible. They claimed the right The south desires to import foreign *ree trade. goods free from duty. In other words, they wished free trade, or freedom to seek, without govern- ment restrictions, any foreign market. The people of South Carolina claimed that a protective tariff made them poorer and the New England manufacturers richer, and that it was therefore sectional and unfair. 250. Calhoun and Nullification (1831-1832). — John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Vice-President during most of Jackson's first term, and an able statesman, was the leader of his State in this memorable struggle over the tariff. He declared that inasmuch as the tariff enriched the Northern manufacturers at the expense of the South, it was sectional and, therefore, unconstitutional. JOHN C. CALHOUN, THE D& FENDER OF SLAVERY AND STATE RIGHTS. 254 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES His theory was that of the Kentucky and Virginia Reso lutions. It declared that the States were superior to the ^ ,. ... Union and that each was its own master, or Calhoun believes ^ ^ ' 8n State Rights practically a sovereign nation. According to •nd Nullification, j^-^ -^^^^ ^^^ u^^j^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ loOSC-jointcd confederacy, and South Carolina had a right to decide for itself whether or not laws passed by Congress were con- stitutional. This was the doctrine of State Rights. He believed, also, that the State could nullify, or declare not binding in its own territory, any law which it decided to be unconstitutional. This was the doctrine of NuUificatioHa 251. New England Manufacturers and the Protective Tariff. — On the other hand, the manufacturers of New Eng« land and of other Northern States vigorously maintained that a protective tariff would benefit the whole country in the following ways : (i) It would provide a revenue to defray the expenses of the Government; (2) it would, by making wages higher, better the condition of workingmen .; (3) it would furnish a home market for the products of the farm ; (4) it would cause a greater diversity of interests in the United States and would thus make the country more independent of foreign nations, especially in time of war. 252. Webster and the Union. — About the same time there was in the United States Senate a great debate between Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, and Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina, over the public lands. This de- bate was a part of the controversy between the North and the South about the true meaning of the Constitution. Web« ster, like Hamilton, believed in a strong Federal Union, supreme in matters concerning the interests common to all the people. He saw clearly that a Union composed of States with the right to nullify at pleasure any laws passed bv Congress must in time break down, just as the Confed« Webster believes eratiou had after the close of the Revolution. lupr^emeVvLrthe ^^ therefore insisted that, under the Consti- states. tution, the State governments were inferior to the Federal government. According to his idea, the United States was a nation with supreme authority over JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 255 the States, and he summed up his views in those glowing words that to-day should inspire us with lofty patriotism : " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and insepa- rable." 253- Jackson's Feeling Toward Nullification.— In the meantime there was much excitement over the tariff agitation. The South Carolina people, knowing Jackson's opposition to a high protective tariff, were eager to find out the President's feeling about the position their State was taking. They invited him to a dinner in Washington, and called upon him for a speech on a toast f . . , . Jackson '5 toast. of his own selection. He startled them by proposing this toast : " Our Federal Union : it must be preserved." Although he did not like the tariff, yet as the head of the Federal Union he meant to enforce its laws. At another time, when asked by a member of Con- gress from South Carolina whether he had any message for his friends in that State, he said : " Please give my compliments to my friends in your State, and say to them that if a single drop of blood shall be shed in opposition to the laws of the United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hands on engaged in such treasonable conduct." In this struggle for the Union, Jackson was nobly supported by Thomas H. Benton, a prominent Senator from Missouri. 254. South Carolina and State Rights. — In 1832 an at- tempt was made to pour oil upon the troubled waters by adopting a new protective tariff, lower and therefore less objectionable to the South than the tariff of 1828. But South Carolina, being opposed to the principle of protec- tion, was still dissatisfied. Accordingly, a State convention was called (1832) which 20 DANIEL WEBSTER. Liberty and Union, noiv and Jin^ ever, one and inseparable." 256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES declared that the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 were null and void, and prohibited the collection, after a certain date (February i, 1833), of duties under these laws in the ports South Carolina ^^ Soutli Carolina. It threatened that, in case declares tiie tariff tlic Uuitcd Statcs should try to enforce the acts null and void, ^.^^j^-^ ^^^^^^ -^ g^^^j^ Carolina, she would with- draw from the Union and organize a separate government. When Jackson received the news of the action of the South Carolina Convention he was lilled with indignation. Rais- ing aloft his right arm, he exclaimed : *' The Union ! It must and shall be preserved ! Send for General Scott !" Troops and war- vessels were at once sent to Charleston with orders to collect duties upon all imported goods entering the harbor. Through Clay's influence, how- ever, Congress enacted a compro- mise measure, gradually lowering The compromise thc duticS. Uudcf with South caro- tliis gradual reduc- ""^* tion, the tariff, at the end of ten years, would not be far removed from a tariff for reve- nue only. But the prompt, energetic action of the Presi- dent was an object-lesson to the nation. We should remem- ber with gratitude the unflinching devotion of Daniel Web- ster and Andrew Jackson to the Union at this critical time. 255. Jackson and the United States Bank. — The first United Statcs Bank w^as planned and chartered by Alex- ander Hamilton^ for twenty years (1791 to 181 1); and the second one al?o received a charter for the same number of years (1816 to 1836). It was to receive all revenue and other public money and to pay this out as needed by the government. Its friends, the National Republicans, main- * This bank was an important feature in Hamilton's scheme for giving the na- tional government a firm financial footing. EGBERT Y. HAYNE JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 257 tained that it made the paper currency safer and more uniform throughout the United States. Jackson declared it was unconstitutional: that it enriched its managers at the expense of the people, and was therefore not democratic: that its funds were used in politics to reward its friends and to injure its enemies. 256. Jackson's Removal of Deposits (1833). — Although the charter of the second United States Bank was not to expire until 1836, a bill to recharter was passed by Con- gress in 1832. It failed to become a law by reason of Jack- son's veto. The next year the President decided upon the removal of the deposits. He therefore ordered that after that time all the m.oney of the government should be deposited in various State banks. This was known as the "removal of deposits." Since in every case these banks were managed by Democrats, they were Pet Banks known as ''pet banks." The effect of this ''removal of deposits" will be better understood if we ob- serve how money w^as used at that time in the development and expansion of the West. 257. The Introduction of the Railroad. — Vast sums had been spent in the construction of better means of trans- portation. As already seen (see par. 216), the application of steam-power to boats made the people independent of wind and current. But methods of trade and travel overland were altogether too slow and meagre for the energetic American people. Roads, canals, and steam- ^. i i ^ ' . The new problem. boats had promoted travel and transportation, but the great problem was to find some way of applying steam-power to travel and transportation by land. The railroad and the steam-driven locomotive-engine furnished a solution. The first form of the railroad was the wooden rail used in the coal mines of England. The next step was to cover the wooden rail with a thin layer of iron for protection. This was the form in which the first railroad appeared in the United States at Quincy, Massachusetts (1826). This 258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES road was only five miles long, and its cars were drawn by horses. It was used to carry granite from the quarries _^ ^ ^ to the place of shipping. In 1828 the first The first passen= , . , ^ , i /^ ger railroad in the passcugcr railroad m the united States was begun in Baltimore. It extended westward about thirteen miles, and its cars were at first drawn by horses. This road was the beginning of the Baltimore & Ohio Rail- road. 258. The Growth and Results of the Railroad. —The growth of the railroad in the United States has been wonderful. In 1828 there were only 3 miles; in 1837, 1,500 miles; and in 1840, 2,200 miles. From that time on the growth has been tremendous. The United States now has over 200,000 miles of railroad. The railroad brought about great changes in the life of the people: (i) It stimulated Western migration; (2) it THE BALTIMORE & OHIO RAILROAD, 1S3O-35. THE BOSTON & WORCESTER R.\ILROAD IN 1835. made Western lands more valuable; (3) by lowering cost of transportation, it cheapened Western food in the East and Eastern manufactured goods in the West; (4) it there- JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 259 fore added to the wealth of both parts of the country and brought the people into closer sympathy and union. 259. Rapid Growth of the West. — From 182 1 to 1837 the country was highly prosperous. Crops were good, trade and manufacturing flourished, and cities grew rap- idly. In 182 1 the population of the whole country was ten milHons; in 1837 it was sixteen millions. This remarkable growth in population was encouraged by the vast expanse of rich public land which the government was offering for very small sums, in order to increase Western migration and settlement.^ The growth was stimulated by the steamboat and the railroad. Before 1837 steamboats were in extensive use on * An examination of the following two tables, one showing the number of foreign immigrants for the years 1829-183 7, and the other the population of many of the States for 1821 and 1837, will give a better idea of the rapidity of this growth in the West: Immigration Table, 1829-37. Year. Number of Immi- grants. Year. Number of Immi- grants. 1820 22,520 23,322 22,633 60,482 58,640 i8s4 65,365 45,374 76,242 79,340 18^0 1835 1831 1836 18^2 1837 18^^ Population ik 1S21. Population in 1837. Round Numbers. Round Numbers. New York . 1 ,400,000 1,000,000 600,000 450,000 170,000 80,000 70,000 60,000 10,000 2,200,000 Pennsylvania 1,600,000 Ohio 1,400,000 800,000 Tennessee Indiana 600,000 Mississippi . ... 320,000 350,000 400,000 200,000 Missouri Illinois Michigan 26o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the Great Lakes, the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the many smaller tributaries of those rivers. And now, with the in- vention of the railroad, settlement spread westward with ever-increasing rapidity. Towns and cities sprang into ex- istence as if by magic. In 1830 Chicago consisted of a fort (Dearborn) and a small village. In 1833 it had 550 inhabit- ants; in 1837 it numbered 4,170; and at the last census the population was 2,185,283. 260. Speculation in Western Lands. — Extensive areas of Western public lands, offered at low prices, filled men with the fever of speculation. Plans were laid to buy up large tracts and connect them with the East by roads, canals, and railroads. It required a great amount of money to establish all these great lines of communication started up by the railroads, but the demand was easily met after the "removal of deposits," for then the public money was distributed among many State banks, and was more accessi- ble to borrowers. Loans could now be obtained, and here and there cities were laid out in the West. Then by the sale of these lands, at an enormous advance in price, the specu- lators became suddenly wealthy. Fortune-making seemed so easy that men took great risks with borrowed money. 261. Wild-cat Banking. — ^The increasing demand for money led to "wild-cat" banking. A few men with little or no capital to make good the notes they issued, would start a bank by issuing cheaply printed bills (notes) which they circulated under the name of money. After buying public lands from the government at high prices and paying for them with these notes, they would sell their lands for gold and silver. When, however, their own notes returned to be redeemed in gold and silver, these dishonest bankers would fail, and, in some cases, go elsewhere and repeat their swindling operations. 262. The United States Free from Debt. — Of course I this speculation in government lands made it easy for the United States to pay the pubHc debt. Whereas, in 1830, the sum received for these lands was $2,300,000, six years JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 261 A RAILWAY COACH OF 183O. later it reached nearly $25.,ooo,ooo. We need not be sur- prised, then,' that by the end of 1835 the public debt was paid. The apparent prosperity made foreigners eager U emigrate from Europe to this country, and they came in large numbers (see table, page 274). 263. State Speculation in Internal Improvements. — After the public debt was paid there was a large surplus, $28,000,000 of which was distributed among the vari- ous States. It was now very easy for State govern- ments, especially where the " pet banks " were located, to get money for carrying out their extensive plans, and these governments in- vested large sums in in- ternal improvements. Not satisfied with what their States supplied, they began to borrow largely from foreign countries. By 1837 these foreign debts amounted to oearly two hundred million dollars. Of course the loans from foreign countries made money all the more plentiful, and the fever of speculation raged more fiercely than ever. 264. The Specie Circular. — Such reckless speculation could not fail to bring disaster. The wild-cat banks had issued so many paper promises, based upon nothing more solid than the people's willingness to receive them, that, like the Continental currency, they became worthless. Jackson was alarmed at the amount of this worthless paper coming into the United States Treasury. He therefore issued the famous Specie Circular, which declared that in the future nothing but specie, or gold and silver, should be received in payment for these lands. Wild-cat bank-notes were no longer of any use in buying and selling public lands. These notes went streaming back to th,; Eastern banks that had issued them, for redemption in geld and silver. Since the banks were without the gold 262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and Sliver to make good these printed promises, the prom* ises were worth nothing and could not be redeemed. 265. The Financial Panic of 1837.*— Of course there at once arose a great cry for money. Men tried to sell stocks, houses, lands — in fact every kind of property — to raise money to pay their debts. All wanted to sell. None cared to buy. As always happens under such conditions, prices went dow^n with astonishing rapidity. There were exten- sive business failures, and rich men became poor. Mills and fac- tories shut down because they could not sell their goods. La- boring men were thereby thrown out of work, and their families suffered for lack of food. Soon there were bread riots in the streets of New York. It was a terrible time and has always been known as the ** Panic of 1837.' 266. The Independent Treas- ury. — As mentioned above, many of the States had made extensive foreign loans for the purpose of building roads, canals, and rail- roads. When caught by the great financial panic of 1837, some States refused to pay the interest on these loans, and some went so far as to refuse Repudiation of to pay either principal or interest. Such a state debts. rcfusal on the part of a State to pay its debts is called repudiation. In the midst of this financial distress MARTIN VAN BUREN. > Martin Van Buren, eighth President of the United States, was born at Kin- derhook, New York, in 1782, and died in 1862. After he had received his train- ing as a lawyer he began, at only eighteen years of age, his long political career. He represented New York in the Senate and afterward served his State as Gov- ernor. When Jackson was elected President he made Van Buren his Secretary of State. During Jackson's second term Van Buren was Vice-President. In 1837 ihe latter became President, but owing to the unpopularity of his administration he failed to be re-elected. He was eminent not only as a lawyer but also as a political leader. JACKSUNIAN DEMOCRACY AND THE WEST 263 the " pet banks " were unable to pay the Federal Govern- ment the public money which it had deposited in them. The government being greatly embarrassed, President V^an Buren, Jackson's successor, was obliged to call a spe- cial session of Congress to adopt some plan for getting money to pay the running expenses of the government. Congress authorized the Treasury Department to issue $10,000,000 in notes. The wisdom of having an independ- ent treasury instead of a number of State Banks for the safe-keeping of all the public money, was now evident. By 1846 it had become the settled policy of the United States to have a national treasury which should take care of all the money paid to the government. This independent treasury is at Washington, while there are nine branches known as subtreasuries distributed in various commercial centres.* 267. The Public School System and the Newspaper As life began to move at a quicker pace people began to think more actively, and to take a larger interest in things outside of their immediate surroundings. In the newer States there was such a democratic feeling Manhood suf- that every man was made a voter.' Manhood *''*»®- suffrage, adopted in all the West, soon spread to the older communities of the East. All the people, coming into full control of public affairs, began to feel a deep interest in po- litical life. It thus became a necessity to educate men to an intelli- gent conception of their duties toward the State and so- ciety. This led to a great improvement in the public school systems, especially in the newer States. It the people were to be rulers they must have intelligence and virtue enough to rule wisely. In this period the modern news- paper may be said to have been born. The New York Stift (1833) and the New YorV Herald (1835) became more ener- ^ These are located in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Bos- ton, St. Louis, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and Baltimore. ' In the earlier years the suffrage was in many ways restricted in the older States. 21 264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES getic than before in collecting news, were printed in a more convenient form, and were sold at lower prices. From that time the daily newspaper has had a great influence in mould- ing public opinion. 268. Other Aids to Progress.— Other aids to progress were furnished in the establishment of transatlantic steam- ship lines and in the invention of the McCormick reaping- machine. The Savannah, sailing from Savannah, Georgia, in 1819, was the first ocean steamship to cross the Atlantic. In 1838 two English steamships, the Siritis and the Great West- ern, sailed from England to New York. Two years later the first regular transatlantic steamship line, between New York and Liverpool, was established. This was the begin- ning of the well-known Cunard Line. Ocean steamship traffic greatly stimulated European immigration to this country. The McCormick reaping machine, which came into use in 1834, was destined to have a large influence upon the development of the West. By making farm-work easier and more profitable, it stimulated emigration to the fertile Western lands.^ 269. The Temperance Movement.— There was so much pauperism and general demoralization during the years fol- lowing the War of 18 12 that people became alarmed and began to inquire the cause. Investigating committees re- ported that drinking was the most fruitful source of the evil. Everybody drank— ministers, doctors, merchants, la- borers, and even women and children. An occasion was never wanting ; at funerals, weddings, dinners, and when- ever friends met, the social glass flowed. In 1824 there began in Boston a great national move- ment which swept through the Union. Its principle was abstinence from strong drink. By 1830 a thousand temper- ance societies had been formed and hundreds of merchants had given up the sale of liquor. Temperance societies in- creased in number and influence, saving hundreds of thou- » In 1838, matches, adding much to the comfort and convenience of household life, came into successful use. JACKSONIAN DEMOCLACY AND THE WEST 2O5 sands of men from the curse of the drinking habit. From that time the cause of temperance has steadily gained ground. TO THE PUPIL Z. You have now reached an important chapter in your nation's history. Study it carefully. Since 1829 the influence of the West has been very great. You will therefore add 1829 to the following land- marks: 1789, 1803, 1812-1814, 1820. Review the meaning of these dates. 2. Are you still grouping less important events about the more impor- tant ? 3. Andrew Jackson was President for two terms, 1829-1G37. TJame in order the Presidents who preceded him. What was the secret of Jackson's large influence over the people ? Name his most striking characteristics. 4. What was the " Spoils System " ? What did Jackson mean by saying that it was democratic ? How did he apply this system to the na- tional civil service ? What is the civil service ? Do you think Jackson was wise, or unwise, in introducing the ** Spoils System " into national politics ? Give reasons for your answer. 5. Review the tariff measure enacted when Washington was President. What was its double purpose ? What is meant by ** a tariff for revenue, with incidental protection"? 6. Recall the effect which the Embargo and the War of 1812 had upon the growth of manufacturing in New England. Why could English goods be sold at a lower price than American ? What is a protective tariff"? 7. Why did South Carolina object to a high protective tariff? What difference was there in the industrial conditions of the North and the South ? 8 On what ground did Calhoun declare that the protective tariff was unconstitutional ? What was his idea of the Union ? Define nulli- fication and State rights. 9. What arguments did Northern manufacturers advance in favor of a protective tariff? What was Webster's idea of the Union ? Find out all you can about the personality of these noted statesmen. 10. What was Jackson's feeling toward nullification ? How did he ex- press this feeling in a toast and in a message he sent to friends in South Carolina ? ZX. What action was taken by the State Convention in South Carolina? What did Jackson do when he heard of South Carolina's bold step? 12. Subject for debate : Resolved, that a protective tariff" was for the best interests of the country as a whole. 266 HISTORY OF THE VNITED STATES 13. What was the purpose of the United States Bank ? What three charges did Jackson bring against it ? What is meant by his '* re- moval of deposits " and by *' pet banks " ? 14. What results followed the building of railroads ? Discuss the rapid growth of the West. Why was there extensive speculation in Western lands, and how did the "removal of deposits " make such speculation easier ? 15. What was wild-cat banking ? How did speculation affect the pay- ment of the public debt ? What effect did the payment of the public debt have upon foreign immigration ? Can you now explain the re- lation of the railroad to Western development and to speculation in Western lands ? 16. What led Jackson to issue the specie circular ? How did it help to bring on the financial panic of 1837 ** 17. What is the independent treasury ? 18. Prepare yourself to write from three to five minutes on any of the fol- lowing topics : The public schools, the newspaper, and the temper- ance movement. 19. Read Webster's famous " Reply to Hayne " and memorize some of the most eloquent passages. CHAPTER XVII THE SLAVERY QUESTION (18411-1859)' REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, IV. ; An- drews's United States, II. ; Wright's Children's Stories of American Progress; Burgess's Middle Period; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Richardson's History of Our Country ; Coffin's Building the Nation. OUTSIDE READINGS: Rhodes's United States, I. and II.; Schouler's United States, IV. and V.; Wilson's A History of the American People, IV.; Draper's Civil War, I.; Ropes's Story of the Civil War; Hart's Romance of the Civil War; Brigham's Geographic Influence in American History; Goldwin Smith's United States; Johnston's American Orations, II. and III.; Bolton's Famous American Statesmen ; Trent's William Gilmore Simms ; Grant's Personal Memoirs; Olmstead's Seaboard Slave States; Olmstead's Texas Journey; Olmstead's Journey in the Back Country; Page's Old South. FICTION: Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin; Stowe's Minister's Wooing; Munroe's Golden Days of '49; Harris's Uncle Remus; Brooks's Boy Settlers; Brooks's Boy Emigrants. POETRY: Whittier's Slave Ships; Whittier's Our Countrymen in Chains; Longfellow's Slave's Dreams. THE RISE OF THE ABOLITION MOVEMENT 270. Morse and the Electric Telegraph (1844). — Be- fore we consider the slavery question, let us briefly refer * William Henry Harrison, ninth President of the United States, was born in Charles City County, Virginia, in 1773, and died in Washington, District of Colum- bia, in 1841. After attending Hampden Sidney College, Virginia, he began to study medicine, but being drawn toward military life he soon entered the army at nineteen years of age. In the War of 18 12 he served as major-general with dis- tinguished success. Later he represented his State in both Houses of Congress. He was the Whig candidate for the Presidency in 1840, and after an exciting can- vass in what has been called the " log-cabin and hard-cider campaij^n " was elected. He died just one month after his inauguration. * john Tyler, tenth President of the United States (1841-1845), was born in Charles City County, Virginia, in 1790, and died in 1862. After he was graduated 267 268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to a few other events. After twelve years of patient effort, Samuel F. B. Morse succeeded in bringing the electric tele- graph into practical use (1844). Being poor, he had tried for four years to get an appropriation from Congress for testing his invention. At length Congress reluctantly voted him $30,000 for constructing a line from Baltimore to Washington, a distance of forty miles. Morse himself sent the first message from the Supreme Court room, in Washington, to Baltimore. " What hath God wrought!" was the message. Fitting words were these, since the What the tele. telegraph has brought graph has done great chaugcs into the for the world. ^orld. By mcaus of it trade and commerce have been much increased. Business men can keep themselves acquainted with the quotations of the world's great markets every hour in the day. They can transact more business in five or six hours now than could have been transacted in as many months a hundred years ago. Another wonderful discoyery of untold value to mankind was made in 1844 by Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut. He tried an ex- Horace Weiis and periment upon himself. He caused one of his anaesthetics. teeth to be extracted after he had inhaled nitrous oxide, or *' laughing-gas," and found that while un- der the influence of the " laughing-gas " he was insensible to pain. About two years later William T. G. Morton and Charles T. Jackson, both of Boston, made a similar appli- from the College of William and Mary he studied law and entered upon his long political career. He served his State as governor and represented it in both Houses of Congress. He was elected Vice-President by the Whigs in 1840, and on the death of Harrison became President. He was soon engaged in a bitter struggle with the Whig leaders, with whom he became extremely unpopular. As a warm advocate of State sovereignty, he gave his cordial support to the se> ession movement in 1861, when he was elected a member of the Confederate Congress. WILLIAM HENRV HARRISON. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 269 cation of sulphuric ether to render surgical operations painless. When sulphuric ether and "laughing-gas" are thus used they are called anaesthetics. 271. «< Fifty-four Forty or Fight" (1844). — In the same year that Morse's electric telegraph came into successful use, there was much excitement in the United convicting claim* States over the dispute between our country to the Oregon and England about the Northwest Boundary. ^**""^'*y- Our government claimed the country west of the Rockies from the northern boundary of Cal- ifornia, then a part of Mexico, to the southern boundary of Alaska, or the parallel of 54° 40'. Great Britain claimed the region as far south as the Columbia River in latitude 46°. By 18 18 the dispute over these con- flicting claims had grown serious, but the two countries agreed to a joint occupation of the Oregon Country for ten years, and at the end of that period they renewed their agreement for an indefinite time. Why the United States at length laid vigorous claim to it and became so eager for it that the Democratic party in the presidential campaign of 1844 was shouting "Fifty-four forty or fight," can be told in a few words. 272. American Settlers Strengthen Our Claims to Oregon. — We had several reasons for claiming Oregon. In 1792 Captain Gray, of Boston, discovered the Columbia River, which he named in honor of his ship; in 1805 Lewis and Clark explored this river, and in 181 1 an American company established at its mouth the trading Reasons for our post, Astoria. But we made a yet stronger ^^'^•'"^ *« Oregon. claim by reason of the actual settlements which Americans planted there before 1845. These settlements began in a small way as early as 1832, missionaries being among the first Americans to find their way to the Oregon Country. JOHN TYLER. 270 HISTORY OF THE UNITED srATES Now in this matter of planting settlements we had the ad- vantage of England, because we were nearer the disputed territory. For a long time, to be sure, the English Hudson Bay Company had been out there making money in fur- trading, but this company had planted no settlements. The Americans, too, were for many years little inclined to seek homes in Oregon. Although small parties of Amer- to the 54° 40' ParaUel Scale of Miles. 0 80 100 200 300 lean settlers started for the Columbia River after 1832, no large settlements were made until 1843. In that year one American emi- thousand emigrants made the journey of gration in i843 more than two thousand miles, braving many and 1844. dangers and enduring much hardship. The next year two thousand more went out, and by 1845 about seven thousand American settlers had made their homes in Oregon. The English Hudson Bay Company held only a small number of military posts and trading stations. The United States could therefore claim the country by right of actual possession. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 271 By a treaty agreed upon in 1846 both England and the United States gave up a part of their claims. The boun- dary determined upon was neither 54° 40' as J^^^ ^^^ ^^ desired by the United States, nor 46° as de- boundary dispute sired by England, but 49°, as at present. The «e"ied by treaty. whole Oregon Country included what is now the States of Oregon, Idaho, and Washington, or an area equal to more then fifty States like Connecticut. 273. The Anti-Slavery Movement. — Hitherto we have not had occasion to refer to a movement which was des- tined to overthrow the most cherished institution of the South. In order to understand this movement we must notice for a moment the new spirit which was gaining ground among the plain people of the countrj^ It has been rightly said that when Andrew Jackson went to Washington as President he took the people with him. It is The rights of the certainly true that at that time the common common people. people began to feel a sense of their power such as they had not felt before. Jackson supported them in this feeling by standing up for their rights and by encouraging them to have faith in themselves as controlling the affairs of the na= tion. There had been various limitations on suffrage in the Eastern States, but now manhood suffrage spread from the West to the East. Government by the people and for the people had become a reality. The anti-slavery movement, led by the abolitionists, was partly the product of this democratic spirit, but was mainly due to the gradual recognition of the dignity and worth of man as man, regardless of race or color. It was felt that slavery was out of place in a country where the people are the rulers. This sentiment, at first limited to a despised few who were called fanatics, rapidly spread through all classes of society. 274. "William Lloyd Garrison and The Liberator. — In 183 1 William Lloyd Garrison, a young man of slender means and little education, began to publish a paper called T/ie Liberator. In it he urged that all the slaves in the United States should be immediately set free. He went so 21 27' HISTORiT OF THE UNITED S FATES far as to declare that it would be better to have tio Union at all than to have a Union with slavery in one section of it. He boldly asserted that slavery was a *' sin against God and a crime against man," and that the Consti- tution, by giving it support, " was a covenant with death and an agreement with hell." 275. Southern Opposition. — The Southern people, how- ever, believed that the immediate abolition of slavery would FAC-SIMILE OF THE HEADING OF GARRISON S PAFER. bring about their financial ruin. Inasmuch as the whole industrial system of the South rested on slavery, they re- garded the advocates of immediate abolition as nothing less than public enemies of that section. Therefore gov- ernors and State legislators in the South were so eager to punish the abolitionists that large rewards were of- fered for their capture. But the abolitionists were in 'earnest, and by means of lectures, pamphlets, books, and newspapers scattered their anti-slavery ideas among the people. 276. Northern Opposition. — Very few people, even in the North, had any sympathy at that time with Garrison's •extreme views about immediate abolition. Northern people thought that such agitation could only result in stirring up sectional feeling and might end in breaking up the Union. To them a Union with slavery seemed better than no Union at all. So the abolitionists were for a time disliked in the North quite as much as in the South, and in various parts THE SLAVERY QUESTION 273 of the North anti-slavery mobs and riots were common for some years. The opposition. to Garrison's teachings became so intense that he was mobbed in the streets of Boston (1835). The mob in its fury had almost torn the clothing q^^^.^^„ ^^^^^ from his body and was dragging him through in the streets ot the streets with a rope around his waist, when °®*^°"* he was saved from death by the police. Elijah P. Lovejoy was mobbed and murdered in Illinois for printing an aboli- tion newspaper (1837), and abolition speakers became accus- tomed to showers of eggs and stones at public meetings. 277. Growth of the Abolition Movement. — But in spite of all the scorn and contempt heaped upon them, in the North and in the South, the heroic William Lloyd Garrison and his brave followers would not be silenced. They were, like most reformers, extreme in their views and unwise in their methods, but they were right in their leading idea that slavery was wrong. Their sincerity of purpose had its in- fluence, and won the sympathy of many who joined them in forming abolition societies, which by 1837 included probably 150,000 members. Among them were two of the ablest de- fenders of the anti-slavery crusade, Wendell Phillips, the anti-slavery orator, and John Quincy Adams, the anti-slav- ery statesman. 278. John Qdincy Adams Defends the Right of Petition. —John Quincy Adams was the champion of the sacred right of petition. For many years he stood almost alone in the na- tional House of Representatives in his opposition to slavery. He presented on the fioor of the House hundreds of peti- tions that slavery be abolished in the District of Columbia, and that the slave-trade between the States be stopped. As these petitions were very displeasing to Southern members. Congress unwisely voted not to receive them. This was not fair play and aroused much sym- .. Qag.ja^o in pathy in the North for the abolition movement, the House of Rep- The '' gag-law," by which the House refused '•^««"'«"ves. to receive these petitions, continued in effect for many years (1836-1844), but the heroic efforts of the ** old man eloquent,* 274 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES as Adams was rightly called, at last gained for these anti- slavery petitions a respectful consideration (1844). TO THE PUPIL 1. What has the telegraph done for the world ? 2. Upon what did we base our claim to Oregon ? 3. What reason is assigned in the text for the origin of the anti-slavery movement ? What position did William Lloyd Garrison take upon the slavery question ? 4. How did Southern opposition to the abolitionists express itself? How did Northern opposition? What do you admire in William Lloyd Garrison and his anti-slavery friends ? What connection did John Quincy Adams have with the abolition movement ? 5. Read the account of his untiring efforts as described in Morse's "John . Quincy Adams." TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR 279. The Annexation of Texas. — About 1820 Southern people began to migrate to Texas, which was then a part of Mexico. By the year 1835 several colonies had been planted by these settlers from the Southern States. Being dissatisfied with Mexican rule the Texans revolted (1835), defeated the Mexicans, and drove them out of Texas. They then declared their independence and sought annexation to the United States. The South was eager for this annexation, because Texas lay south of the slavery line established by the Missouri Why the South Compromisc in 1820. If Texas, which was as favored the large as fifty States like Connecticut, could be annexation of Texas, ^ddcd to the slavc territory of the South, the cause of slavery would be materially strengthened. In time, four or five slave States would be made out of this vast area, and the South would thereby have a larger number of sena- tors. This increase of voting power in the Senate would enable her to maintain, for some years at least, the balance between the slave States and the free States. The North entered a vigorous protest against annexation, but the South won, and Texas entered the Union as a slave State in 1845* I THE SLAVERY QUESTION 275 280. Attitude of the North and the South Toward the Mexican War.— One of the reasons ur<^cd by the North airainst annexation was, that it would cause trouble with the Mexicans, who refused to acknowledge the independence of Texas. But this objection had no weiglit with the South- ern slaveholders. A war with Mexico might result in the acquisition of more slave territory, and hence such a war was not, from their stand-point, un- desirable. The North, however, ear- nestly opposed the acquisition of any more slave territory, and just as ear- nestly opposed a war with Mexico. 281. The Causes of the Mexican War. — Mexico wished to avoid seri- ous trouble with the United States about the annexation of Texas. But before the question could be settled there arose a dispute about the boundary line between Texas and Mexico. Texas claimed the territory to the Rio Grande; Mexico claimed it to the Nueces River. The terri- tory in dispute was large and there- fore desirable both to the South and to Mexico. While the difficulty was still under discussion, however, our government took steps ♦^.hat were almost certain to bring on war. General Taylor had been sent down in command ot American troops to support the cause of Texas, and was ordered to advance into the disputed terri- General Taylor tory. He did so, taking a position on the Rio "he'^XputTd^er. Grande at Fort Brown, opposite Matamoras.^ ritory. The Mexicans justly considered this an invasion of their territory and therefore an act of war. It certainly looked JAMES K. POLK. ' Before this time President Polk had sent an envoy to Mexico, whose govern- ment refused to receive him. This action of Mexico aroused the resentment of our government. James K. Polk, eleventh President of the United States (1815-1849), was born 2^6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE STORMING OF CHAPULTEPEC. An incident in one of the itnportant battles of the Mexican War, 4ike an attempt to provoke them to make an attack on the American troops. At all events, this was the result of General Taylor's movement. A Mexican force crossed the Rio Grande and killed some American dragoons belonging to a reconnoitring party. At once President Polk sent to Congress a message in in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, in 1795, and died in 1849. In 1806 he removed to Tennessee, After being graduated with distinguished honors from the University of North Carolina he entered upon the study of law. He served the State of Tennessee not only as governor but as member of the national House of Representatives, His manners were simple, and his private life sincere and blameless. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 277 which he declared, " War exists notwithstanding all our ef- forts to avoid it — exists by the act of Mexico herself. Mex- ico has invaded our territory and shed Amer- congress declare* ican blood upon American soil." Congress ^ar. therefore declared, that war existed " by the act of Mexico/* and at once sent troops and supplies to invade Mexican ter- ritory (1846). 282. The Character of the Struggle. — The American plan of campaign was comprehensive. It indicated that the purpose of the war was the conquest of new territory. Al- though the Americans met with stout opposition from Mexico, the American commanders easily carried out their plans. The war was one-sided. The battles were all won by the Americans, even in cases where the Mexicans great- ly outnumbered our troops. There were many reasons for the deft tof the Mexicans. Their government was weak and poor ; their generals were inefficient; and their troops were without discipline and proper equipment. Although the Mexicans were spirited and brave, they were greatly inferior to the Americans in intelligence, dash, and endurance. 283. Results of the War. — In less than two years Mexico was conquered, and her entire territory was at the mercy of the United States. But however unfair our gov- ernment may have been in bringing on the war with this weak country, it was willing to pay for any territory it might secure. Mexico received more than eighteen million dollars* for the cession it made to the United States. Nev- ertheless, we cannot but regret that our people, distinguished for their keen sense of justice, should have consented to wage this war in the interests of slavery. But the results of the war seemed decidedly favorable to the slavehold- ers, w^ho thought they had gained a vast region adapted to the use of slave labor. If we include in the territory acquired by the Mexican war the State of Texas and the parts of Arizona and New *The sum paid to Mexico was $15,000,000. The United States also satisfief' claims of American citizens against Mexico to the amount of about $3,500,000. 278 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Mexico secured by the Gadsden Purchase* a little later, the whole area is equal to more than one hundred and ninety States like Connecticut. 284. The Wilmot Proviso. — But then* was another re- sult which made the war a costly one to the United States, and that was the increased bitterness between the two sec- tions over the slavery question. The South insisted that slavery should go into the new territory, and the North in. sisted that it should not. In fact, this quarrel over the question of slavery in the new territory began even before the v/ar was over. For when in 1846 it seemed pretty evident what the result of the fighting would be, David Wilmot, a representative in Congress from Pennsylvania, proposed that slavery should be forever prohibited in all the territory which should be acquired from Mexico, This was called the Wijmot Proviso. It failed of enactment by Congress, but it expressed a policy which was soon to be made a guiding principle by a great political party. Two years later this principle became the political watchword of the Free Soil Party and later of the Republican Party. The Wilmot Proviso marked the swift approach of the downfall of slavery in the United States. TO THE PUPIL 1. Why did the South favor the annexation of Texas ? What was the attitude o' the North and the South toward the Mexican War? 2. What were the causes of this war ? How did it begin ? Give three reasons why the Mexicans were defeated in every battle. 3. What were the principal results of the war ? Including Texas and the Gadsden Purchase, how many States like your own would the whole territory acquired by the Mexican War equal? What was the Wil- mot Proviso ? 4. Read Thomas Nelson Page's " Old South." ^ In 1853 a treaty was negotiated through James Gadsden which settled the dis- puted boundary with Mexico. The United States paid $10,000,000 and gained the Mesilla Valley, an area of about twenty million acres. It formed the southern part of what is now New Mexico and Arizona, and became known as the Gadsden Purchase. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 279 THE MEXICAN CESSION AND THE COMPROMISE OF 185O 285. Discovery of Gold in California and Its Results (1848). — California had been valued for its fertile soil and its deligiitful climate. It had also the fine harbor of San Fran- cisco. These attractions drew a few settlers, who in 1848 made a great discovery. Some workmen, in digging a mill- SUTTER S MILL, WHERE GOLD WAS FIRST FOUND IN CALIFORNIA. race for Captain Sutter, a Swiss immigrant, discovered shining particles of gold in a stream flowing into the Sacra- mento River, about 100 miles northeast of San Francisco. Upon examination of the surrounding country, the soil, the river-beds, and the rocks were found to be rich with gold. It was a wonderful discovery. Before the close of 1861 these mines had yielded more than $500,000,000. As soon as the news spread abroad people were almost beside themselves with excitement, and at once rushed for the gold region from all the settled parts of Excitement of the the United States. Farmers, carpenters, store- p«>p'e. keepers, and professional men were seized with a desire for sudden wealth, and left their work to seek the golden treasure. Vessels coming into the harbors of San Fran- 22 28o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CISCO were deserted by their crews, who, with the rest, wild- ly rushed with pickaxe and shovel to the mines. There were three routes to California from the Eastern States: the first and longest was by vessel around Cape Horn, the trip from New York to San Francisco in 184S taking about one hundred and thirty days ; the second was down to the Isthmus of Panama, across it, and up along the western coast to San Francisco ; the third was by slowly moving trains of wagons The three routes and ox-carts ovcrlaud to California. across the country. By this last route it took one hun- dred days to travel to the valleys of California after reaching the plains west of the Mississippi. The difficulties and dangers in crossing the plains and the desert region on the journey were many. The Indians often attacked the em- igrants, and in one instance they were encouraged to do so by a few white settlers of southern Utah, who pleaded in palliation thai; these emigrants had exasperated them beyond endurance. Thousands died on the way, and the bones of human beings, horses, and oxen were strewn along ^^ ^ . the route. The o:old-seekers found the Mor- The dangers of i >-a o i t i r the overland mou Settlements near the Great halt Lake ot route. much convenience, as they could there rest in safety and secure fresh supplies to enable them to reach their journey's end. Large numbers of men flocked to the gold.regions. In less than eighteen months after the discovery, California Results of the dis- ^^^ ^ population of not less than 100,000. In covery of gold in the meantime, San Francisco increased from California. 2,ooo to 20,ooo pcoplc, and Sacramento from a little cluster of houses to a place of 10,000 inhabitants. The discovery of gold in California had important results: ZACHARY TAYLOR. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 281 (i) By greatly increasing the gold in circulation, it stimu- lated trade and commerce; (2) by developing the Pacific coast it led about twenty years later to the building of the first Pacific railroad ; (3) it had, as we shall now see, an important bearing upon the slavery question. 286. California Seeks Admission into the Union as a Free State (1849). ^ — In about a year after the discovery of gold there were people enough in California for a State. But Congress had been so busy discussing the slavery ques« tion that it had not established any government at all there. This was most unfortunate, for among the gold-diggers there were many thieves and ruffians, who were very dis- orderly and lawless. Hence the better class of citizens were forced to act without waiting for Congress. They organized a government of their own, established order, and applied for admission into the Union in 1849. As a large majority of the people were from the North, they wished California to be made a free State. 287. Difficult Slavery Questions in 1850. — It will be re- membered that the Missouri compromise was called forth ^Zachary Taylor, twelfth President of the United States (1849-1850), was bom in Orange County, Virginia, in 1784, and died in 1850. While he was yet an infant his parents removed to Kentucky, which continued to be his adopted State until 1841, when he made his family home in Batun Rouge, Louisiana. Al- though his opportunities for education were very limited, his keen desire foi knowledge led him to study with care ancient and modern history. He became a daring and skilful soldier, servmg his country with great distinction as brigadier- general in the Mexican War. "Old Rough and Ready," as he was fondly called by his many admirers, indicates that he was a popular hero. lie died in the sec- ond year of his Presidency. Millard Fillmore, thirteenth President of the United States (1850-1853), was born in Cayuga County. New York, in 1800, and died in 1874. In early youth he learned the meaning of a life of struggle. Like Lincoln and Garfield, he was a poor boy, and like them he overcame, by invincible determination, almost insur- mountable difficulties. Until fourteen years of age he worked on a farm nine months of the year, and attended the primitive schools of those times the remain- ing three. At fourteen he was apprenticed to a trade, but managed to find some time for hard study. Later he studied law, and won for himself an enviable posi- don at the bar. Having been elected Vice-President in 1848, he became President on the death of Zachary Taylor in 1850. His kindlv manner and never-failing courtesy made him very popular. 282 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES by the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. The whole question was opened afresh by the Mexican cession. Should the territory acquired from Mexico be slave, or free? The North argued that inasmuch as this territory had always been free, it should continue to be so. The South was divided in opinion. Some of the Southerners wished to extend the line of the Missouri Compromise, 36° 30', as a boundary to the Pacific. Othe rs claimed, as in ^ .v)V, MODES OF TRAVEL IN THE WEST. AN OLD STAGE-COACH AND PRAIRIE SCHOONER. 1820, that Congress had no constitutional right to interfere with slavery ; and that the people in the territories ought to be allowed to decide for themselves whether they should come into the Union as free or slave States. The settlement of the dispute was one of extreme im- portance. It involved several points of issue: (i) California wished to come in as a free State, but in that case the bal- ance of power in the Senate would be disturbed. Hence there were strong objections from the South. (2) The anti- slavery men continued to urge upon Congress legislation that would abolish slavery, or, at least, the slave-trade in THE SLAVERY QUESTION 283 Threats of seces' sion. the District of Columbia. Whether or not Congress had a right to meddle with slavery in the territories, it clearly had a right to enact a measure against slavery giaver in caiitor- in the District of Columbia, which was under ma and the dis- the direct control of Congress. We have tnct of Columbia, already seen how John Quincy Adams bravely struggled for years in behalf of legislative action against slavery in this district. (3) The South bitterly complained that the North was violating the Fugitive Slave Law, by aiding the escape of slaves from their masters to Canada. All these difficult slavery ques- tions were pressing for satisfactory answers, and many people began to fear a dissolution of the Union. Threats of secession were freely made by some of the more hot-headed pro- slavery men. It was evident that prompt and wise measures must be taken to quiet the violent feelings among people in both sections. 288. The Compromise of 1850. — Henry Clay had already fairly gained the title of " Peace-maker" by taking a leading part in securing the Missouri Compromise in Henry ciay the 1820, and the compromise in 1833 settling the "Peace-maker." difficulties brought about by the tariff and nullification in South Carolina. In his old age he was again called upon to help meet these new difficulties in 1850. He therefore prepared what was called the Omnibus Bill, because it made provision for settling many questions. This famous Omnibus Bill, or Compromise of 1850, con- tained four essential clauses, two of which favored the North and two the South. They were as follows: jhe four essential (i) California was to be admitted as a free clauses of the State (for the North) ; (2) but in the rest of the ^""'busBiii. Mexican cession, divided into the two territories of Utah MILLARD FILLMORE. 2S4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and New IMexico, the people were to decide for themselves whether or not the>' would have slaves [iov the South); (^:;) tlie slave-/r(Z(/r, not slavery, was to be abolished in the Dis- trict of Columbia (for the North); (4) but a vii;orous and exacting fugitive slave law was to be jxissed [iov the South). IMany people thought that this compromise would bring peace and good-will throughout the count rw 289. The Fugitive Slave Law and Its Results in the North. — Congress had directed that the Fugitive Slave Law enacted in 1793 should be car- ried out by the various State governments. As the South charged that the Northern States were neglecting to en- force this law in a proper manner, the fugitive slave clause was inserted in the Compromise of 1850, as has just been stated. In accordance with this clause Congress passed a rigid Fugitive Slave Law, which was to be en- forced not by State but by Federal officers. By the provisions of this law fugitive slaves, or negroes claimed as fugitive slaves, were to have no trial by jury and were not to be permitted to testify in their own defence. All citizens, if called upon, were required to aid the United States marshal in capturing runawa>' slaves. JMany cases of cruelty, injustice, and A-iolcnce followed. The indignation of the North rose to fever heat, and soon the ^'higher law'' of right and justice was openly pro- claimed. Some people in the North were ready to defy a law that was in their \'iew cruel and inhuman. They took the same attitude toward the law that South Carolina took in the Nullilication Act. 290. Personal Liberty Bills and Their Results in the South. — The outcome of this intense opposition to the Fugi- tive Slave Law was the passage, by many Northern States, FUGITI\"E SLAVE ^VTVERTISEMENTS. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 285 of the Personal Liberty Bills. 7'hese laws ;^anted trial by jury to runaway slaves and in other ways protected them from the severity of the Fugitive Slave Law. Naturally these Personal Liberty Laws embittered the Southern slave-holders, who accused the North of a desire to break up slavery. I'hey further asserted that in passing these Personal Liberty Bills the Northern States were nullifying an act of Congress and violating the Constitution. 291. The Underground Railroad.— Some people in the North secretly aided the runaway slaves in escajji ng to Canada. The fugitives made their way to freedom by means of the so-called "Underground Railroad. '^ The *' stations" w^ere the houses of persons who received the negroes at any hour, night or day, giving them food and shelter and keeping them in a safe hiding-place until they could be sent on to the next "station." In this way they were fed and cared for until they reached Canada, the northern end of this strange railroad. It is estimated that over 30,000 fugitive slaves escaped to Canada between 1830 and i860. 292. Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852).— In the midst of the stirring discussion about slavery "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Harriet Beecher Stowe, appeared. During the first year after its publication more than 200,000 copies were sold. It was read in all parts of Europe as well as in the United States. It not only appealed to the imagination, but it also touched the heart and conscience. It rapidly caused people to feel that slavery v/as m.ore than a political ques- tion. Through its influence many men and wTjmen now joined the abolitionists in the conviction that slavery was a great moral evil. 293. Commodore Perry Secures a Treaty with Japan (1854). — While all this discussion of slavery was going on, Commodore Perry sailed into the ports of Japan with a fleet of steamers. Previous to that time the Japanese had been suspicious of all foreign nations and had refused to 286 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES trade with them. Commodore Perry won the good-will of these people, and they entered into a treaty of commerce with our country. From that time Japan has been on a most friendly footing with the United States. Through her trade relations with this country and Europe she has come into touch with Western civilization, and has sur- prised the world by the eagerness with which she has adopted it. 294. Filibustering Expeditions (1851-1860) ; The Os- tend Manifesto (1854). — By the admission of California as a free State in 1850 the balance be- tween the free and the slave States was destroyed, for now there were sixteen free to fifteen slave States. The outlook for slavery was so gloomy that the Southerners turned their eyes toward Cuba, as they had turned them, a few years before. The slaveholders toward Tcxas. Slavery eager for Cuba. already existed in Cuba, and if the island could be secured to the Union it would furnish two more slave States. Our government was on friendly terms with Spain, and no pretext for war existed when, in 1851, the first filibustering expedition started out from New Or- leans. The scheme ended in disaster, but there were still many greedy eyes turned toward Cuba. Some people thought that Spain might be induced by treaty to give it up, and even advocated seizure if it could not be got by cession. In 1854, therefore, the United States ministers to England, France, and Spain, acting under in- struction from President Pierce,^ met at Ostend, Belgium, * Franklin Pierce, fourteenth President of the United States (1853-1857), was born in Hillsborough, New Hampshire, in 1804, and died in 1869. In his class at Bowdoin College, from which he was graduated, were Henry W. Longfellow and Nathaniel Hawthorne, the latter being a life-long friend. Entering the army at the outbreak of the Mexican War, he was so brave that he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. After serving in both Houses of Congress he was elected FRANKLIN PIERCE. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 287 to discuss the situation. They declared, in the Ostend Man- ifesto, that Cuba ought to belong to the United States, and that if Spain should refuse to sell it we should secure it by force. It is perhaps unnecessary to say that the United States did not adopt any such policy. TO THE PUPIL 1. Trace on your map the three routes to California from the Eastern States. What were the results of the discovery of gold ? 2. Explain why California sought admission into the Union as a free State. What were the three difficult slavery questions in 1850 ? ^. In what way was the Missouri Compromise called forth by the Louisiana Purchase ? What question was asked about the Mexican cession? How did the North answer the question? How did the South? 4. What two clauses in the Compromise of 1850 favored the North ? What two the South ? 5. What was the Fugitive Slave Law, and what were its results ? Ex- plain the Personal Liberty Bills and the Underground Railroad. What effect had ** Uncle Tom's Cabin " upon the slavery question? 6. What was the purpose of the filibustering expedition? What do you think of the Ostend Manifesto? 7. Read the chapters on slavery in Coffin's " Building the Nation." THE FIGHT FOR SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES 295. The Kansas-Nebraska BiH (1854.) — By the Com- promise of 1850 the people in all the territory acquired from Mexico, except California, were to de- The south desirea cide for themselves whether or not they would « /"•'the'- exten- •y sion of slave terrl* have slavery. But this act was not enough, tory. The need of the South for a still further extension of slave territory to offset the rapidly growing power of the free North became more pressing every year. By the Missouri Compromise of 1820 slavery was for. ever prohibited in the Louisiana Purchase north and west to the Presidency in 1852. Although he believed in " State Rights " and opposed all anti-slavery movements, he urged the people of New Hampshire, in the stormy days following the attack upon Fort Sumter in 186 1, to stand by the Union. 22 288 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of Missouri, or north of the parallel of 36^ 30'. In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas, a Democratic Senator from Illinois, claimed that the Compromise of 1850 had repealed the Mis- souri Compromise ; moreover, that Congress had no Consti- tutional right in 1820 to shut out slavery from the Louisiana Purchase. He therefore proposed the erection of the two territories of Kansas and Nebraska, in which the settlers should decide whether they would have slavery or not. This measure, known as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, became a law in 1854. It had many important results: (i) It took from Con- gress all authority over slavery in the territories, and gave Results of the ^^^^ authority to the people; (2) it opened to Kansas-Nebraska slavcry all the territories belonging to the ^'"' United States ; (3) it led to a bitter struggle over Kansas ; (4) and it reopened with renewed bitterness the slavery controversy, which could never again be set- tled by peaceable means. 296. The Struggle for the Control of Kansas. — Since the people now had authority to d-^cide the question of free- dom or slavery in Kansas, both the North and the South made a desperate effort to gain control of the territory. Emigration was no longer a matter of private or personal Emiffrantaid interests. There were now urgent political secieties in the rcasous why emigration to Kansas should be ^^^'^- encouraged from both sections. Meetings were therefore held in many leading Northern cities, and money was raised for the support of emigrant aid societies to send settlers to Kansas. Soon long trains of emigrant wagons were winding their way across the prairies. As Southern sympathizers refused to let them pass across Missouri, they were obliged to go north through lov/a. The South now hastened its preparations to get control of Kansas. But in this struggle it was at a disadvan- tage, because slave-holders were afraid to risk taking their slaves into a territory that might, by vote of the people, be- come free. The South, therefore, did not make such an organized effort to settle Kansas as was made in the North. THE SLAVERY QUESTION 289 Two rival gov= erntnents in Kansas. The pro-slavery men, however, made hasty preparations to do all they could. Arming themselves. Bloodshed in they crossed the border and began to plant Kansas, colonies. Both sides were aroused, and both took part in the plundering, burning, and murdering. 297. Triumph for the Free-State Men. — On election days Southern sympathizers who came to be called " border ruffians," went over to Kansas in large numbers and cast fraudulent votes in the in- terests of slavery. By false voting and false counting of ballots the pro-slavery party was for some time ahead. Two rival govern- ments were estab- lished. Although the anti-slavery men were clearly in the majority, Pres- ident Pierce supported the pro- slavery faction and used the influ- ence of the administration to secure the admission of Kansas into the Union as a slave State. But in spite of all that could be done by President Pierce and the pro-slavery leaders, the cause of freedom triumphed. After three years (185 5-1 858) of this civil war, in what was truly called " Bleeding Kansas," the free-State men won a victory, and Kansas was admitted to the Union in 1861 with an antislavery constitution. 298. Assault on Charles Sumner (1856). — During the fiery debating in Congress over the difficulties in Kansas, the distinguished anti-slavery leader, Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, made in the Senate a vigorous speech on the *' Crime against Kansas." In this speech he severely attacked Senator Butler, from South Carolina. Sumner's Southern enemies became more intense in their hatred of him than ever before. In the midst of the exciting days which fol- lowed, Senator Butler's nephew, Preston S. Brooks, who was a representative in Congress from South Carolina, came CHARLES SUMNER. 290 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Whigs. suddenly upon Mr. Sumner while writing at his desk in the Senate Chamber and assaulted him. Again and as^ain Brooks struek Sumner over the head with a eane until he Resuitsofthe reeled and fell senseless to the floor. Sumner assault. cii(^ not recover from the shock for over three years. This assault increased the bitterness of feeling and made both sections more determined in their actions. 299. New Political Parties (1854). — Slavery had brought about in political parties great changes, which we will now briefly consider. In 1833 the National Repub- lican Party (see par. 244) was succeed.-d by the Whig Party, of which Henry Clay became the leader. Tins party opposed the Mexican War. At the close of this war many Northern Whigs and Democrats believed in the principle of the Wilmot Proviso — that slavery should be prohibited in all the Mexican cession. They became anti- slavery men and, joining the Abolitionists, formed the Free Soil Party. But while many Northern Whigs became anti- slavery men, many pro-slavery Whigs in the South joined the Democrats. The result was the breaking into frag, ments of the Whig Party after 1852. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854) caused still another split in parties. By reason of this measure all The Republican votcrs in the North who opposed the further Party. extcnsiou of slavery, whether they had been previously known as Democrats or Free Soilers, called them- selves Anti-Nebraska Men. In the following year the " Anti-Nebraska Men " began to be called the Republican Party, which has ever since been known by that name. The corner-stone of the Republican Party was the principle con- tained in the Wilmot Proviso. Table of Immigration from Eurote for the Years 1S45-1S56. Number of Year. Iinniigratits. 1845 114.371 1846 154,416 1847 234,968 1848 22(),527 1849 207,024 1850 310,004 Number of Year. Immigrants. iSc;! 379.466 i8"t^2 371.603 1853 368,645 i8q4 427.833 1855 200,877 1856 200,436 THE SLAVKRY QUICSTiON 291 300. Immigration from Europe.— Before 1840 the total number of lorei<4"ii iiniiii^^iciulsiiito tlic United States during any one year never exceeded 100,000. A reference to the imminsibility. Besides serving in both Houses of Congress, he became Sec- rotary of State under President Polk and minister to England in Pierce's adminis- tration. As President of the United States during the trying years jnst preceding the Civil War, he was severely blamed by the Unionists because he did not take a firm stand in opposition to the secession movement. 296 PilSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in; ^ mmm^Q:< ITIliiiiitt, ENGINE HOUSE, HARPER'S FERRY, WHERE JOHN BROWN WAS CAPTURED BY UNITED STATES MARINES. prominent part in the struggle for Kansas. He had a strong John Brown and will, a ruggcd, intense nature, and was deeply his plan. rehgious. ' He beheved that slavery was a curse to the nation, and that he himself was an instrument in God's hands to put an end to it in this country. The only way to carry out his purpose was, as he thought, to make slave-property insecure. His plan was to aid the slaves in rising and then escaping to the mountains of Vir- ginia, which would become a rallying-place for the negroes. Having this aim in \dew, in the autumn of 1859, with about twenty followers, he seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry. His plan met with disastrous failure. He \Vas captured, brought to a speedy trial, and hanged. Throughout his Results of the trial he was calm and dignified, and he died »■*•**• bravely. The South was alarmed and angered by this deliberate plan to stir up a general uprising of THE SLAVER^^ QUESTION 297 slaves. A large majority of the Northern people also bit- terly condemned it. John Brown's raid increased the mis- understanding and widened the breach between the two sections. The irrepressible conflict was now at hand. TO THE PUPIL I. How did the Kansas-Nebraska bill differ from the Missouri Compromise ? What important results did it have ? What struggle did the North and and South make to get control of Kansas? a. You can easily see how such a struggle would stir up bitter feelings in the people of the North and of the South. The assault on Charles Sumner illustrates well the intensity and depth of this feeling. 3. You will do well to note that the *'Anti-Nebraska Men " banded together on the one issue — that there should be no further extension of slavery. The members of the Republican Party did the same. The fight all along, except in the case of the Abolitionists, was about the extension of slavery into new States. 4. Why did European immigrants refuse to settle in the South? Give three reasons why th« South fell behind the North in prosperity. 5. Account for the friendly relations between the North and the West, and for the national feeling in the West. 6. Before taking up the Dred Scott decision review the following topics: Natural boundary between the free and the slave States before the purchase of Louisiana; the Missouri Compromise (1820); the Com- promise of 1850; the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854). 7. What extreme ground was taken by the slave-holders in the Dred Scott Decision? W^hat were the far-reaching results of this decision? 8. What was John Brown's plan ? What were the results of his raid ? CHAPTER XVIII SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR (1860-1865) REFERENCES: 5>cribner*s Popular History of the United States, IV. ; An- drew's United States, II.; Burgess's Civil War and Reconstruction ; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Coffin's Buildinic the Nation ; Richardson's History of Our Country; Champlin's Young: Folks' History of the War for the Union; Barnes's Popular History of the United States. OUTSIDE READINGS: Wilson's A History of the American People, IV.; Comte de Paris's Civil War; Draper's Civil War; Rhodes's United States, III. and IV.; Ropes's Story of the Civil War, I. and II.; Greeley's American Conflict; Alexander H. Stephens's War Between the States; Jefferson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Goldwin Smith's United States; Pollard's Lost Cause; Spear's The History of Our Navy, IV.; Morris's Half Hours with American History, II.; Ropes's Army Under Pope; Doubleday's Chancellorsville and Gettysburg; Fiske's The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War; Cox's March to the Sea; Pond's Shenandoah Valley, Coffin's Drum-Beat of the Nation; Coffin's Freedom Triumphant; Coffin's Marching to Victory; Soley's Sailor Boys of '61 ; Soley's Blockade and Cruisers; Parker's Recollections of a Naval Officer; Hague's Blockaded Family; Maury's Recollections of a Virginian; Dodge's Bird's-Eye View of the Civil War; Johnson's Short History of the War; Nicolay and Hay's Abraham Lincoln; Horse's Abraham Lincoln; Brooks's Abraham Lincoln ; Pratt's Lincoln in Story; Tarbell's Abraham Lincoln ; Grant's Personal Mem- oirs; Adams's Charles Francis Adams; Lothrop's William H.Seward; Davies's General Sheridan; Mahan's Admiral Farragut; Lee's General Lee; Sher- man's Memoirs; Sheridan's Memoirs; Home's General Thomas; McClel- lan's Own Story; Cooke's Robert E. Lee; Cooke's "Stonewall" Jackson; Hughes's Joseph E. Johnston ; Church's Ericsson ; Goss's Recollections of a Private; Trumbull's War Memories of an Army Chaplain; Gordon's Rem- iniscences of the Civil War; Hart's Romance of the Civil War; Alcott's Hos- pital Sketches ; Livermore's My Story of the War. FICTION: Page's In Ole Virginia; Page's Among the Camps; Page's Two Little Confederates ; Henty's With Lee in Virginia; Trowbridge's Cud- joe's Cave; Trowbridge's Three Scouts; Trowbridge's Drummer Boy; But- terworth's In the Boyhood of Lincoln; Goss's Tom Clifton; Stoddard's Bat- tle of New York; Churchill's The Crisis. 298 SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 299 POETRY: Holmes's View of the Loyal North; Holmes's Our Country; Whittier's Barbara Frietchie; Harte's John Burns of Gettysburg; Read's Sheridan's Ride; Work's Marching through Georgia; Tenting on the Old Camp Ground; Stoddard's Burial of Lincoln; Longfellow's Decoration Day. THE WAR BEGINS 307. Slavery Splits the Democratic Party (i860). — By i860 the question of slavery caused a split in the Demo- cratic Party. The Northern Democrats believed in the principle oi popular sovereignty^ which allowed the people in the territories to decide for themselves whether or not they would have slaves. The Southern Democrats declared that the Constitution imposed upon Congress the duty of pro- tecting slavery in the territories, and they supported their view by the Dred Scott Decision. The Republican Party declared that the Constitution imposed upon slavery in the Congress the duty oi forbidding slavery in the territories, territories and repudiated the Dred Scott Decision. This party did not at that time favor the abolition of slaver7\ The great political issue, therefore, in the campaign of i8^>g was the extension of slavery into the territories. The Northern Democrats nominated for President Stephen A. Douglas; the Southern Democrats, John C. Breckin- ridge; and the Republicans, Abraham Lincoln. As the Democratic vote was divided the Republicans elected their candidate. 308. Abraham Lincoln.^ — The new President was one of the most remarkable men that the country has produced. While Lincoln was still young, his parents, who were of very humble origin, moved to Indiana. His home sur- roundings were such as a log hut in the backwoods could * Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth President of the United States (1861-1865), was born in Hardin County, Kentucky, February 12, 1809, and died at the hands of an assassin in 1865. His father, who could neither read nor write, removed to In- diana when his son was only seven years of age, and later to Illinois. After serving as captain in the war with the Black Hawk Indians Lincoln was elected as a mem- ber of the Illinois Slate Legislature. In 1837 he began to practise law and soon became distinguished for his ability as a lawyer. In 184 7-1 849 he served as Rep- 300 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES furnish, and his advantages were few. He had less than a year's training- in the rude schools of the region ; yet de- spite his rough exterior he developed into a youth of manly character. He became known as " Honest Abe." His clear head and good judgment caused him to be selected as a judge to settle disputes among his friends and neigh- bors. He was six feet four inches in height and a giant in strength. His opportunities for reading were so limited that it was hard work for him to make much headway with even the few books he could get. But he was patient and persevering in the Patient and per- facc of difficulties, and severing. gradually won a great reputation as a debater and public speaker. He had a keen sense of humor, was a good story-teller, and possessed a rare power in winning men over to his views. His iiiag- netic influence, joined to his clear judgment and sincerity of purpose, thus made him a great leader in the affairs of the nation. 309. The Southern Point of View. — Soon after Lincoln's elec- tior. South Carolina, the leader in the attempt to dissolve the Union, passed the Ordinance of Secession (December 20, i860). The Southern leaders did not closely discriminate between Abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and John Brown, and Republicans like Seward and Lincoln. Therefore, when the Republican candidate was elected, these leaders naturally thought that resentative in Congress. He first attracted special attention, however, by his able speech in reply to Stephen A. Douglas on the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. This speech and his great reputation led to his nomination by the Republicans in 1858 for the United States senatorship. Douglas was nominated by the Demo- crats. The contest was a memorable one. Although Douglas secured the election, Lincoln's brilliant debating with Douglas led to his nomination for the Presidency in i860. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 301 slavery would thrive better out of the Union than in it. Like Calhoun, Southern leaders in general were more at- tached to their States than to the Union. The state first And, since they beheved that the separate '" *^^^ ^**"^''' States were possessed of sovereign power, they also be- lieved that any State could withdraw, or secede, from the Union whenever it pleased. 310. The Northern Point of View. — The North believed, as Webster had declared (1830), that the Constitution was Lincoln's birthplace. not a compact between sovereign States but the fundamental law of the nation; that the Union was "now and forever, one and inseparable." With the South the State The union first was first and the Union second: with the in the North. North the Union stood first, and no State had a right to secede from the Union against the consent of the other States. According to the latter view, peaceable secession, as Webster said (1850), was impossible. When, therefore, South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Secession, she gave the signal for a terrible struggle in which the life of the nation was threatened. 311. The Principal Steps toward the Civil War. — The following were the principal steps in the disagreement^ 1 Of course the two sections had long disagreed on the tariflf question also. But ^e have already .seen how slavery led to this disagreement. 302 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES resulting in Civil War between the North and the South, By reason of an unfavorable soil and climate, slavery did not pay in the North, while it seemed to pay in the South. As the moral sentiment against slavery increased in the North, steps toward the the South saw that the interests of the slave- civii \var. holder demanded an extension of slavery into new States. The North objected. This disagreement ar- rayed the sections against each other. Finally the Southern slave-holders declared that, since the States were nations mth sovereign power, they had a perfect right to secede from the Union and erect a Con- federacy. \Vlien eleven of the fifteen slave States tried to break up the Union by secession, the free States were deter- mined to preserve the Union, and the result was the Ci\dl War. Before taking up the study of the war, let us notice a few of the conditions under which it was carried on. 312. Secession of the Remaining Cotton States and Organization of the Confederacy. — Within six weeks after the secession of South Carohna, the six other cotton States, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, had likewise seceded. The cottcn States naturally seceded first, because there slave labcr was more profitable than in other parts of the South. Cn February 4, 1861, delegates from all these^ States except Texas mxt at Mont- gomery, Alabama, and proceeded to the organization of the "Confederate States of America."^ Jefferson Davis,^ of ^ The South was disappointed because seme cf the slave States did not secede and because the Northern people were so united. The Secessionists did not expect the cause to meet with such firm opposition throughout the North. 2 The Confederate capital was removed from J^.Iontgomery, Alabama, to Rich- mond, Virginia, on IMay 20, 1861. 3 Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky in 1808, and died in 1889. After graduating frcm V/est Point (1828) he served in the army for some years and then became a cotton-planter in IMississippi. He took his seat in Congress in 1845, but again entered the army on the outbreak of the IMexican War. He distinguished himself for bravery in this war, receiving a severe wound at the battle of Buena Vista. He represented his State (Mississippi) in the United States Senate in 1847-51, and was Secretary of War under President Pierce. He again entered the Senate in 18^7 and there remained until the beginning of the Civil War, when he resif^ned. He was elected President of the Southern Confederacy and remained in that ofSce until the end of the war. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 303 Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander H, Ste- phens,* of Georgia, Vice-President. 313. Advantages of the North. — In this great struggle the North and the South were more evenly matched than is sometimes supposed. The North had many advantages: (i) She had a population of twenty-three millions, while the seceding States had but nine millions, three and a half mil- lions of whom were slaves. (2) She had many factories, by means of which the necessary mili- tary supplies could be furnished to her armies. The South had to get her supplies from abroad.^ (3) The North had a navy that gave her command of the sea, while the South, having put nearly all her energies ' into the cultivation of rice, cotton, sugar, and tobacco, had few sailors and no navy. Her extensive sea- coast and large rivers were therefore open to attack from Northern vessels. (4) The North had also a greater number of able business men and far more wealth than the South. The industrial system of the North had developed men of the highest business ability. 314. Advantages of the South. — The South had the fol- lowing advantages: (i) Fighting on the defensive, on her JEFFERSON DAVIS. ' Alexander H. Stephens was born near Cravvfordsvllle, Georgia, in 1812, and died in 1883. After graduating from the State University at the head of his class, he studied law and soon began his long political career by securing an election to the State Legislature. As a representative in Congress for sixteen years, 1843-59, he proved himself to be a statesman of conspicuous ability. In i860 he vigorously opposed secession, but when Georgia seceded "he went with his State." He was elected Vice-President of the Southern Confederacy and continued in that position throughout the Civil War. The year before his death He was elected governor of Georgia. He was a man of very slight, frail body, and toward the end of his life had to be wheeled about in a chair. '•' Not until the war was half over did the Confederates succeed in building and equipping the factories necessary for supplying their troops with guns and ammuni- 2d ■ 304 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES own soil, she neeoed fewer soldiers. Generally she could select her own positions behind breastworks and could fight near her base of supplies. On the other hand, many Northern troops were required to garrison strategic points that had been captured in the South. Before the war had closed a large proportion of the Union soldiers were guard- ing conquered territory. (2) At the beginning of the war che South had most of the experienced generals. (3) More- over, the Southern people, almost exclusively devoted to the out-door life of agricultural pursuits, were well pre- pared to endure the severe physical strain demanded of a soldier in time of war. (4) The Southern troops, accus- tomed to the woods of the South, had a great advantage also in tha-t considerable part of the fighting took place in the woods and wild regions. 315. The South Seizes National Property; the Star of the West. — Throughout the area of secession the South at once began to seize custom-houses, forts, arsenals, and all other property belonging to the United States. Some of President Buchanan's Cabinet were Southern men in full sympathy with the secession movement, and they took ac- tive measures to aid the South by sending arms and military supplies to Southern forts. Buchanan did not believe in the right of secession, but neither did he believe that the National government Buchanan's inde- had a right to usc cocrciou. As he was in dlsaTte^/upon Sympathy with the Southerners on the slav- the Union. ery qucstion, he was unwilling to oppose them by preventing secession. The seceding States were there- fore allowed to do much in preparation for war before Lin- coln came into office. If the iron-willed Andrew Jackson had been President, in place of Buchanan, secession would probably have been put down before gaining much head- way. Buchanan, with unfortunate indecision, let things drift, and by this let-alone policy brought disaster upon the Union. Before Lincoln's inauguration the South was ready for a ternble struggle. Early in January (1861) President Bu- MAP OF THE UNITED STATES SHOWING rniST AM) SECOND SECESSION ARE and tb" Four Slave States that did Jiot se CD Union Free States. CJtJnion SlaveJiolding 81 C3 States seceded before April 16, 1861. C3 States seceded after April 15, 1861 C3 Territories controlled by the Federal Government. y^Q g Mountain Area of (he South outlined thus:^ w^^. I ' ^Was () 6P ipO 200 300 490 Soale of Miles. I SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 305 chanan sent the merchant steamer Star of tJic West with men and supplies for Major Anderson of the United States army, who had command at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, but the South Carolina army in Charleston fired upon the steamer and prevented her reaching- the fort. 316. Lincoln's Inaugural Address. — The time for de* cisive action had at last come. In the midst of intense ex- citement all over the Union Lincoln started from his home in Illinois for Washington. Before reaching Baltimore he was informed that a plan had been laid to assassinate him as he passed through that city. He therefore changed his plans and went to Washington at night on a special train. In his inaugural address (March 4, 1861) he said he had no intention of interfering with slavery, because he thought the Constitution had given him no such authority. But he declared that he would do everything in his power to pre- serve, protect, and defend the Union. President Lincoln's address was free from bitterness, but left no doubt of the firmness of his purpose to uphold the Constitution. 317. The Confederates Capture Fort Sumter. — Neither the North nor the South wished to strike the first blow, but the South w^as eager to get possession of Fort Sumter. Major Anderson was in command here with a small force of about eighty fighting men. The Confederates had an op- posing army of between 5,000 and 6,000 men. Moreover, Major Anderson had only a small supply of provisions on hand. About one month after the inauguration of Lincoln the latter decided to send supplies to the garrison. Two days after this decision reached South Carolina General Beauregard, who commanded the Confederate troops in Charleston, demanded the surrender of the fort. When Major Anderson refused, Beauregard opened fire at 4.30 on the morning of April 12,1861. For thirty-four hours the brave garrison, with little to eat, held out jhe brave little against the overwhelming forces of the enemy, garrison makes a On the morning of the second day the Con- "*"'''^°'"" ^"*""^"- federates, firing hot shot, set on fire the barracks and other wood-work in the fort. The flames were dangerously near 3o6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the powder magazine, and the smoke almost suffocated the soldiers. Falling flat upon the ground, they covered their faces with wet cloths for protection, but would not give up. At last, seeing that there was no hope of supplies reaching the garrison. Major Anderson was compelled to surrender. On Sunday afternoon, the 14th, the Union sol- diers saluted the Stars and Stripes with fifty guns, and, with drums beatins: ** Yankee Doodle," marched out of the liNTKRIOR OK FORT SUMTKK AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT IN 1S63. fort to embark for New York. In this bombardment no one was killed on either side. The North was ablaze with indignation at the attack on Fort Sumter. Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for o w **K 75,000 volunteers (April 15), and declared Results of the / -" , . r i i i j attack on Fort Southcm ports to bc HI a statc ot blockade Sumter. (April 19). Troops flocked to Washington. The North thrilled with martial enthusiasm. The South was surprised. The secessionists had looked for compro- mise, but war had begun. In the North and in the South alike armies were promptly organized. 318. Secession of Four More States.— When Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas were called upon to furnish their quota of troops to the National army, they SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 307 refused. Altlujugh these States had not wished to secede, they believed in the right of secession, and therefore when it became certain that the government meant to coerce their sister States to remain in the Union, they vested to secede. The secession area was tlius extended over eleven States.^ 319. Battle of Bull Run. — When, early in July, the Nortlicrn army had driven the Confederate forces out of West Virginia, the people in the North became impatient for an advance upon Richmond. General McDowell was in command, in Washington, of a Union army (of about 30,000 men). General Patterson (with about 18,000) was in the Shenandoah Valley watching General The opposing Joseph E. Johnston "^ (with 9,000), and the Con- forces, federate army, commanded by General Beauregard, with 22,000, was posted at Manassas Junction, about thirty-five miles from Washington, on a little stream called Bull Run. This position was selected by the Confederates because it could be easily reached by rail with men and supplies, and because an advance upon Washington from this point would be easy. Here, on July 21, McDowell made an attack upon the Confederates, in which he seemed at first to be winning a iThe remaining slave States, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, did not secede. The mountainous parts of western Virginia, not being adapted to the cultivation of rice, cotton, sugar, or tobacco, had no large plantations, and thare was not a large ownership of slaves in that part of the State. The people, t!ier('r(jre, did not sympathize with secession, and early in 1861 withdrew from Virginia und organ- ized a separate State government under the name of West Virginia. In June, 1863, West Virginia was admitted to the Union. The attitude of this State toward the war is an interesting illustration of the intimate connection between soil and ciimate and slavery, and between slavery and secession. In the mountainous regions still farther south many of the people were loyal to the Union. It is estimated that 100,000 of these mountain whites fought in the Northern armies. 'Joseph 10. J(jhnston was born in Longwood, Virginia, in 1807, and died in 1891. He was graduated from West Point in the same class with Robert K. Lee, who was ever after his warm, personal friend. Like Lee, he did not favor seces- sion, but "went with his State " when it seceded. Next to Lee he was probably the ablest Confederate general. After his success at the battle of Ikill Run he fell into a serious disagreement with Jefferson Davis, the effect of which was to injure the Southern cause. Johnston's defensive campaign in Georgia in 1864, when Sher- man was advancing upon Atlanta, showed military ability of a high order. 3o8 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES victory by forcing back a part of the Confederates a dis- tance of a mile and a half. At the critical moment, how- The Northern cvcr, the Confederates were reinforced by army, at first f resh trooDS from the Shenandoah, where John. successful, re- i i i i i t~» • i i • treats in a panic, ston had cluded Fattcrson with his entire army, most of which had joined Beauregard on July 20th. The Federal army fled in a panic toward Washington, but LONG BRIDGE ACROSS THE POTOMAC AT WASHINGTON, D. C. the Southern army, by reason of its crippled condition, made no attempt at pursuit. 320. Results of the Battle of Bull Run. — This battle probably benefited the North more than it did the South. The Confederates seemed to think the war was over and beofan to seek their homes. But the defeat caused the North to appreciate the need of putting forth all her ener- gies in preparation for the great struggle which, it was now evident, could not be avoided. General McClellan, who had been very successful in driving the Confederates out of West Virginia, was called from his victories' there to or- ganize and drill the army. During the autumn and winter the warring forces were busy fortifying their respective SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 309 capitals, Washington and Richmond, and gathering all pos- sible strength for the campaigns of 1862. 321. The Trent Affair. — To secure aid for the South- ern cause Mason and Slidell had been selected by the Con- federate government as commissioners to England and France. In November, 1861, they escaped the blockade at Charleston and took passage at Havana on the British mail steamer Trent, Captain Wilkes, of the United States war- vessel San Jacinto^ stopped the Trent not far from the Bahama Islands, took off Mason and Slidell, and confined them in Fort Warren, in Boston Harbor. 322. England Resents the Cap- ture of Mason and Slidell. — For this act Captain Wilkes was greatly applauded by Northern people, but England was highly indignant and at once began to make preparations for war. She sent troops and war- vessels to Canada and was unnec- essarily harsh in her demands that the prisoners be given up. President Lincoln, knowing that the War of 1812 was brought about mainly because England claimed the right to stop and search neutral American vessels at sea, wisely refused to approve the course taken by Captain Wilkes. Accordingly he at once gave up the prisoners president Lincoln to England, with the statement that Captain gives up Mason Wilkes had acted without any authority from »"**siideii. the United States Government. But the North could not help thinking that England was not only insolent in her de- mands, but over-hasty in her preparations to make war upon us. Ill-feeling between the two countries was thus aroused and was a source of more or less irritation throughout the war. GEORGE B. MCCLELLAN. ^ro HISTORY OF TIIK UXm:!) STATICS TO THE PUPIL 1. Yoii arc now ready to study the Civil War. Only a few of the great battles are described in this history, but these will enable you to iniderstand the character of the terrible conflict. You do not need to know the details of military movements, but you do need to know what kind of men your country sent to the camp and battle field. Were they brave men? Were they manly, vigorous, and true? Find out as you study the war. 2. How did slavery split the Democratic Party ? What did the Repub- licans think of slavery ? Learn all you can about the life and chai- acter of Abraham Lincoln. 3. What was the Southern pcint of view of the Constitution ? The Northern point of view ? Recall the liberal construction and the strict construction theories of the Constitution in the time of Ham- ilton and Jefferson. Explain how slavery was the real cause of the war. 4. Why were the cotton States the first to secede ? Name the advan- tages of the North and of tiic South in the war. 5. What wciii President Buchanan s attitude toward the secession move- ment ? Contrast this attitude with that of Andrew Jackson toward nullification. What was the result of Buchanan's attitude ? 6. Why did the Confederates attack P'ort Sumter? Imagine yourself to have been in the fort with the brave little garrison and describe your experience there. What were the results of the attack on Fort Sumter ? 7. Why did Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas secede ? Account for the refusal of the people in the western part of Virginia to join their ^tate in the secession movement. B. Locate on your map the position of the opposinp; forces just before the Battle of Bull Run. What were the results of this battle? 9. What was the *' Trent affair " ? Do you think President Lincoln acted wisely in giving up Mason and Slidell ? Give reasons for your answer, 10. By reading the opening chapter of Ropes's " Story of the Civil War " you will };et a clear idea of the difference between the Northern and the Southern point of view of the Union. Till': NATK^X IN ri'KIL 323. Union Plan of the War.— Not until the ojHMiintr of iS()j was ;; ])Ian ol" operations inaluRMl by the North. This plan, at thc^ oiilsrt, was (hrcrfold: (i) To blockade SECESSION AND 'JIIK CIVIL WAR 3^^ Soiitlicrn j)orls; (2) to ()\)cn tlic Mississippi; (3) to capture kiclimond. ilic successful carryin<^ (jut of this plan led also to Sherman's campaign in Georgia in 1.S64. 324. England and King Cotton. — At the outbreak of tlie war peoi)lc at the North supposed they had only the South to deal witiu They soon ionnd, ho\v(.-\'(i , I hat th(;y had to contend with an insidious inlluence li'oni abroad. When Jefferson Davis said, "Cotton is kin;.-:,"' he doubtless thou<^ht that lMi;^l.'iii(rs money and friendship could be se- cured by hc^r need of cotton. In i860 the col ton exports, most of which went to lM)<;lish factories, amounted to more than $202, 00(J,000. Many Ii^nglish mannfaci urcrs and mer- cliants and 4,000,000 Iui<^lish wcjjking ])eople were depend- ent uj)on Southern cotton for their means oi sn[)j)ort. The Southern leaders naturally thoutdit that th( se Ent^lish manufacturers and working;- peoj)le would never submit to any action on the j)art of the Ncjrth which would crip[)lc their industries. It was therefore cx[)ecl(:d by the Con- federates that the need of cotton in England would win for them the symprithy ot the English pe(;ple. 325. The Blockade. — Hut from the bc'.rliming (>{ the struggle the Nortfi was determined to blockade the South so effectually that the latter could neither send cotton to England nor receive in return the much-needed supjdies for her soldiers and homes. In the end, as the world knows, the South was forced to give up the struggle be- cause of a lack oi the* vejy supj^lies which cotton alone could [)rocure ; in other wr)rds, the Confederacy was starved into submissir^n by the blockade. Although, as stated above, the cotton ex[)orts in i860 harl atrujunted to $202,000,000, in I "61 the exports fell in vahur to §42,000,000, and in 1862 to $4,000,000. !i/ th(; remaining years of the war the blockade was so effectual that the value of the cot- ton cx|)orts w' s not worth consideration. 326. The Merrimac and the Monitor. — It was to break the blockade th.'ii the Merrimac was setadont. When the 'At the be^Mnnin" '•♦ 'ho war the cotton States in the South furnished nearly two thirds of all th ' <\ in the world. 24 312 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Norfolk navy-yard was abandoned by the United States Government at the outbreak of the war, among the ships The Confederates burncd and sunk was the frigate Mcrriinac, make an iron-clad jj^-^ j^^^ y^^^^^ ^^^^ ^f ^|-^g laro^est and finest of the Merri- ^r^i >-. r i • i mac. ships in the navy. The Confederates raised her and converted her into an iron-clad. Up to this time very few iron-clad frigates had been built, and none had been tested in war. The Confederate naval officers DECK OF THE MONITOR. thought, however, that one iron-clad would be much more effective in reducing the Union navy and raising the blockade than a whole fleet of wooden craft to match those generally in use. The history of the naval duel between the Merrhnac and the Monitor shows how wisely the Con- federates planned. The hull of the Merrimac was razed to the water's level. The vessel was rebuilt with s'ioping sides, plated with iron four inches thick, and was furnished with a cast-iron beak and a formidable battery. The Merri- mac had been many months in construction, and when, about noon of March 8, 1862, she steamed into Hampton Roads, where the United States had a fleet of five powerful war-vessels, she was not wholly unexpected. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 313 In advancing to meet her, three of the blockading- squad- ron ran aground on account of low water. But the Con," gress and the Cumberland, supported by the batteries on the shore, made ready for the attack. They poured broad- side after broadside into the Merrimac 2iS she TheMerrimac approached. The balls rebounded from her ^^r^^^HZ^^^ iron sides with no effect. The Merrimac squadron. steered straight for the Cuinberlaftd, discharging a broad- side into the Congress in passing. Continuing her fire she rammed her iron beak into the Cumberland' s side, making a great hole, into which the water rushed. The crew of the Cumberland continued firing until they reached the water's edge, and when they went down their colors were still fly- ing. The Merrimac then turned to the Congress, poured hot shot into her, set her afire, and forced her to surrender. At nightfall the Merrimac steamed back to her landing, expect- ing to complete her work of destruction the following day. Great was the joy in the South that night, and great was the consternation in the North. Statesmen were grave, the people terrified. The blockade was broken consternation in at Norfolk. Soon it might be broken at other the North. ports, and Northern commerce might be ruined by the ravages of this invulnerable sea-monster. But in history, as in fiction, it is the unexpected that of- ten happens. That night a strange-looking craft came into the harbor. It was Ericsson's Monitor^ which had been completed in New York two days before. The ^^^ Monitor Monitor was an experiment, and her construe- arrives just in tion had been pushed with desperate energy, *''"^* that she might be ready as soon as the Merrimac. She was built with an iron-plated deck almost level with the water, and had a revolving iron turret with two powerful guns. The purpose of this peculiar construction was to present as little resisting surface as possible to the enemy's guns. The Confederates well described her appearance when they said she looked like a Yankee cheese-box on a raft. She had arrived just in tmie. The following morning the Merrimac steamed out of 314 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Norfolk confident of a victory over the other three frigates. She steered for the Minnesota, by the side of which the Monitor was lying-, and soon found that she had a new ad- versary to deal with. The Monitor steered straight for the Merrimac, and one of the strangest naval battles ever fought Thesturd little began. The ducl Continued ovcr three hours. Monitor saves x\t poiuts the Mcrriiuacs armor was crushed the Union. y^^^ ^^^^ picrccd. Captain Worden of the Monitor received a wound which delayed the action for a little, and the Merrimac withdrew. Neither side cared to continue the struggle. The Merrimac had met her match and made no further attempt to break the blockade. The sturdy little Monitor had saved the Union. This fight revolutionized naval warfare, for it showed that the days of wooden war-vessels were at an end. Against such iron-clads as the Monitor and the Merrimac wooden vessels of the finest t3^pe were useless.^ 327. The Importance of the Mississippi, — In order to cut off the South from communication with the rest of the Why the North world, it was ucccssary not only to maintain coniroto^th^e ^^^^ blockadc but to gain possession of the Mississippi. Mississippi River. For by way of Mexico trade was kept up with European countries to some extent. Other advantages would be secured to the North by getting control of this river: (1) Such control would cut the Con- federacy in two, making Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana of little use to the Southern cause; (2) it would prevent the South from getting supplies of any sort from the region west of the Mississippi ; (3) it would enable the North to use her navy to great advantage in concentrating troops in the rear of the Confederacy and in getting supplies to her armies in that region ; (4) it would open the Mississippi ta the trade of the West and the Northwest. ^ Neither of these famous iron-clads ever again took part in a battle. When, two months later, McClellan forced the Confederates to evacuate Norfolk, they destroyed the Alerrimac, which drew so much water that she could not steam up the James River to Richmond. In December of the same year the Monitor went down, with most of her crew, in a storm off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 315 328. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — It was one thing to cut off the South from the rest of the world ; it was quite another to get possession of her vast territory. But this last was necessary also. Early in the war the Con- federates had been driven from West Virginia and from Missouri. In the winter and spring of 1862 the Federal generals began a series of movements whose twofold pur- pose was to open the Mississippi to the North and gain possession of Tennessee. To defend Tennessee, the Confederates had built Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cum- berland. Their line of defence, as will be seen The Confederate by consulting the map, extended from Colum- "ne of defence, bus through Forts Henry and Donelson, Bowling Green, and Mill Springs, to Cumberland Gap. To break this line of defence, it was necessary for the North to capture Forts Henry and Donelson. By capturing the two forts the two important rivers would be under the control of Northern vessels, and Nashville would have to be abandoned by the Confederates. Columbus, when cut off from support, would also have. to be given up without a struggle. With all these things in view, General Grant, with the aid of Commodore Foote, moved upon the two forts. Com- modore Foote soon captured Fort Henry (February 6); and General Grant,^ after a hard fight, received the surrender of Fort Donelson with nearly 15,000 prisoners (February 16). By this important victory the first Southern line of defence in the West was thus broken, and Columbus and Nashville fell into the hands of the Federals. 329. The Battle of Pittsburg Landing (or Shiloh). — The Confederates now fell back upon another line of de- fence, extending from Memphis, through Cor- General Grant at inth, an important railroad centre, to Chatta- PJttsburg Landing TT1 r^ 1A11 r>-i Ti waits lor General nooga. Under General Albert Sidney John- Bueii. ston, the Confederate army, 40,000 strong, took position at * When General Buckner sent to Grant for terms of surrender the following an- swer was sent: " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works," 3i6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Corinth. General Grant, with 33,000 men, advanced as far as Pittsburg" Landing on the Tennessee River, about twenty* four miles from Corinth. Here he waited for Buell, who was hastening Irom Nashville to join him with an army of 27,000 men. On Buell's arrival the Federal army was to attack Johnstons forces at Corinth. Before BucU could reach Pittsburg Landing", however, Johnston attacked Grant early on Sunday morning, April 6. PARAPET AT FORTRESS MONROE. It was a terrible day. By nightfall the Confederates had driven Grant's troops back a mile and a half toward the Grant wins a rivcr. But bcforc momiug Buell's fresh troops v'<^*o'*>'- had come up, and they assisted Grant in driv- ing the Confederates from the field. In this battle about 20,000 men were killed or wounded. Among the killed was General Albert Sidney Johnston, whose death was a serious loss to the Soutli. 330. Capture of New Orleans. — New Orleans was im- portant to the South because it controlled the lower Missis- sippi. Thirt}^ miles from the mouth of the river were two forts nearly opposite each other. Between them were Confederate Stretched across the river immense chains defences. fastened to the hulks of old vessels. A little farther up the river was a strong" fleet, which included a formidable iron- clad ram like the Mcrriniac and a floating battery covered with railroad iron. There were also fire* rafts ready to be turned loose upon the Federal vessels. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 3^7 Commodore Farragut, who was in command of a fleet of nearly fifty wooden vessels that was to attack Farragut runs by these forts, advanced up the river to New Or- the forts, leans. There General Butler, with an army of 15,000 men. ^4tt^;5^«^^** ^y^^i>-\^^^ ^urw^^-*, grant's " UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER " LETTER. ■^J' permission of General James Grant Wilson. was to aid in getting possession of the city. After bom- barding the forts for six days without making much im- pression, Farragut determined to run by them at night. It was a desperate undertaking, but it succeeded, and easily 24 5 H . SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 3^9 brought New Orleans into the possession of the Union forces (April 25). With the aid of the river gunboats the Federals had, before the close of 1862, opened the river as far down as Vicksburg. This city and Port Hudson alone remained in possession of the Confederacy. 331. The Peninsular Campaign (1862). — These brilliant victories were in marked contrast with the failure of the army under General McClellan. As we have Mccieiian creates already seen, he was placed in command of a splendid army, the Army of the Potomac, which was intended for the de- fence of Washington and the capture of Richmond. Be- fore the opening of the spring campaign in 1862, he had, by thorough organization and drill, created a splendid army. His original plan was to approach Richmond by the James River. Lincoln opposed this because he thought that Washington would thus be exposed to attack. He therefore urged the wisdom of approaching Richmond over- land from the north, in order to keep the Federal army between the Confederates and Washington. Mccieiian objects McClellan objected because there were so to Lincoln's plan. many rivers to be crossed, every one of which could, for defensive purposes, be made a Confederate stronghold. The swampy forests of this region were also in the same way of great value to the South. It is no exaggeration to say that these natural advantages were worth many thou- sand troops to the Confederate army, and it is unfair to McClellan and Grant not to take them into account. McClellan adopted neither Lincoln's plan nor his own, but compromised by approaching Richmond by way of the peninsula between the James and the York Rivers, making his base of supplies on the latter. McDowell was stationed near Fredericksburg, between the main Confederate army and Washington. In this posi- tion he could protect Washington or unite mcDowcii with McClellan, as occasion required. To stationed at prevent an attack upon the capital by way of Fi^dericksburg. the Shenandoah, well known during the war as the " back SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 321 door to Wasliington," Union forces were stationed there under Banks and Fremont. 332. McClellan Advances up the Peninsula. — Starting at Fortress Monroe on April 4, 1862, McClellan, with 120,- 000 troops, advanced along the York River Mccieiian stop? to Yorktown. Here, instead of storming the for a month at town, he laid siege to it. When he was ready Yorktown. for an assault, the Confederates, having held him in check for a month, withdrew, and thus gained time to strengthen i^^lf!i^-ST mmm •7 / i A MORTAR HATTERY IN l-RONT OF YORK'l(J\VN. their defences about Richmond. McClellan hurried after them and fought an indecisive battle at Williamsburg, from which the Confederates retired toward their capitaL McClellan then advanced slowly, and by the end of May found himself within ten miles of Richmond By that time the Confederates defending Richmond numc^^red 70,00c. Dividing his army, McClellan encamped upv.:. oth sides of the Chickahominy. He made this arrangement so as to establish easy connection between his north wing and Mc- Dowell, who (with 45,000 men) was near Fredericksburg with 322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES orders to be in readiness to unite with McClellan. Heavy rains caused the Chickahominy to swell, thus separating the two wrings. General Johnston took advantage of the Battle of situation to attack the division south of the Fair Oaks. rivcr at Fair Oaks (Seven Pines), and threat- ened to overwhelm it, but McClellan got reinforcements across and stayed the retreat. 333. " Stonewall " Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley; McClellan Changes his Base of Supplies. — In order to prevent McDowell from joining McClellan, General Rob- ert E. Lee, who was now in command of the Confederates,* sent ** Stonewall *' Jackson down the Shenandoah Valley to threaten Washington. Jackson defeated Banks and Fre- mont, and so thoroughly alarmed Lincoln that the latter ordered McDowell to return to the defence of Washington. After playing havoc with the Union forces in the Shenan- doah Jackson hastily joined Lee. Now that INIcDowell was prevented from joining the at- tack upon Richmond, McClellan changed his base of sup- plies to the James River. During the w^eek that he was The •• Seven Days' transferring the army to the new base of sup. Battles." plies the terrible "Seven Days' Battles," in which McClellan lost 15,000 men, w^ere fought. At Malvern Hill, the field of the last of these engagements, Lee repeat- * Lee had succeeded General Joseph E. Johnston, who was wounded in the bat- tle of Fair Oaks (May 31). Robert E. Lee, son of Henry Lee, or "Light-Horse Harry," of Revolutionary fame, was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, in 1807, and died in 1870. He \ras graduated from West Point in 1829, ranking second in a class of forty-six. He distinguished himself for bravery in the Mexican War and rose to the rank of colonel. After Virginia seceded in 1S61 Lee decided "to go with his State." He therefore resigned his commission in the army of the United States, and a little later took command of the Virginia State troops. AVhen, at the battle of Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks (1862), General Joseph E. Johnston received a serious wound that temporarily unfitted him for active service, Lee was put at the head of the Confederate army. From that time to the end of the war he was the leading Confederate general and handled his troops with consummate ability. Military critics rank him and Grant as two of the foremost commanders of this century. Lee won the confidence of the Southern people, who regarded him with unbounded admiration and affection. At the close of the war he became president of what is now Washington and Lee Uni« versity, where he spent the remaining years of his life. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 323 edly charged but was driven back with fearful slaughter. The Army of the Potomac fought here with magnificent heroism. Had McClellan taken immediate advantage of this victory he might, by a vigorous attack, have captured Richmond. As a whole, the Peninsular Campaign failed and caused bitter disappointment in the North. 334. Lee*s First Invasion of the North (1862). — Mc- Clellan made no further attempt upon Richmond. In the A FEDERAL BATTERY IN THE FIELD. meantime Halleck had been put in chief command of the Union armies. Pope was appointed to take command of the forces in northern Virginia and McClellan was ordered to join him. Before McClellan could reach Pope, however, Lee pushed north. He united his forces with "Stonewall" Jackson's, which had been sent to surprise Pope's rear. After defeating Pope in the second battle of second Battle oi Bull Run he marched across the Potomac Buiiruh. into Maryland, where he thought he would receive large recruits. In this he was disappointed. The great major- ity of the Maryland people were loyal to the Union, and 324 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES plainly showed this in their attitude toward the invasion. When Lee's men marched into the State singing '' My Maryland people Maryland" there was not a word of welcome loyal to the Union, from the pcoplc. On reaching Frederick, Lee was surprised to find not only places of business shut, but even the doors closed and the blinds drawn. The North, however, fearing an attack upon Baltimore, Washington, or Philadelphia, was greatly alarmed. 335. Battle of Antietam (Sep- , ""'''•' tember 17, 1862). — Alter Pope's de- feat in the second battle of Bull Run, McClellan, having united Pope's army with the Army of the Potomac, started in pursuit of Lee. On September 17, w^ith an army of 70,000, he "attacked Lee, who, with about 40,000, had taken his position at Sharpsburg, behind Antietam Creek. This battle was one of the bloodiest of the war. Although Lee Lee retreats succcssfuUy defended Into Virginia. himsclf against the at- tack of the Union army, he had to retreat into Virginia without hav- ing gained anything by his first invasion of the North. Some people thought McClellan ought to have routed or captured Lee's army. As he did not follow the Con- Burnside,who5u- federates he was severely criticised for being uTisdef^cItedat ^low and ovcrcautious, and was superseded Fredericksburg, by Burnsidc. Burnsidc was as rash as Mc- Clellan was cautious, and later in the autumn met a crush- ing defeat when he attacked Lee, who was intrenched in a strong position at Fredericksburg. The year's operations had been successful for the Union cause in the West, but unsuccessful in the East.^ ROBERT E. LEE. * One of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought at the ead of this year at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. Beginning December 31 (1862), it lasted three days, and resulted in the retreat of the Confederates after the most stubborn fighting. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAK 325 TO THE PUPIL *. What was the Union plan of the war ? In what way did Jefferson Davis think that the cotton trade would secure the friendship of England for the Southern cause ? Why was it extremely important for the North to blockade the South ? 2. What did the Merrimac accomplish on the first day she attacked the blockading squadron ? What were the results wf the hght be- tween the Merrimac and the Monitor? 3. Name four or five advantages to the North in securing control ot cue Mississippi. "What purpose had the Confederates in building Forts Henry and Donelson ? What effect did the capture of these forts by the Federals have upon the Confederate line of defence ? 4. What was the second Confederate line of defence? What were the causes and results of the Battle of Shiloh ? Why was New Orleans of in portance to the Couth ? 5. Are you making cons:, 'jding the Mortti in 1863. Northern city, and dictate terms of peace. He had reason to believe that a victory on Northern soil FUGITIVE NEGROES FORDING THE RAPPAHANNOCK. would lead England and France to recognize the indepen- dence of the South. These two countries were only wait- ing until some pronounced success on the part of the South should afford them a reasonable excuse for giving such recognition. rison County, Virginia (now West Virginia), and was graduated from West Point in 1846. He took part in the Mexican War, where he was promoted for good con- duct. He resigned from the army in 185 1, on receiving an appointment as profess- or in the Virginia Military Institute, at Lexington, Virginia. He was so eccentric that he became unpopular with the students, who did not regard him as a man of ability. Although he was opposed to secession he thoroughly believed in State rights, and therefore "went with his State " when it seceded. As soon as he took command of troops on the battle field he showed himself to be a splendid soldier. By his stubborn bravery at Bull Run he won the name of " Stonewall" Jackson, and rose at once to the rank of major-general. He was Lee's ablest subordinate, and, next to Lee, was probably the most popular Confederate general. SECESSION AND THE CTVTL WAR 327 Lee advanced his army toward Chambersburg and en- camped in that vicinity. Hooker crossed the Potomac east of the mountains, marched north to Frederick, and sent a detachment west through the mountains to menace Lee's line of supplies. In order to draw off the Union forces from his rear, Lee marched eastward to , ,^^ , . /^ 1 Lee's advance. threaten Washmgton. On the very same morning Meade, who had superseded Hooker, started north from Frederick, keeping east of the mountains to protect Washington. The two ar- mies were thus marching toward each other, and each The two armies was ignorant of the meet at Oettys- other's movements. **"''^* They unexpectedly met at Gettys- burg and fought a three-days* battle (July I, 2, and 3). On the first day the advance forces of the Union army, being greatly out- numbered, were driven . u r> ^^ u The first day. through Gettysburg with a loss of 5,000 prisoners. The ''''''''^' ^i'^T^^"^"^"^ Confederates also suffered heavy loss in killed and wounded. That night the Union army took a strong position on Cemetery Ridge, just south of the town. This ridge, three miles in length, is in the shape of a fish- hook, with Culp's Hill for the barb and Round Top at the extreme southern end. Just north of Round Top was Little Round Top. Lee's army took position on Seminary Ridge, lying about a mile west of Cemetery Ridge and nearly parallel with it. On the second day of the battle the Confederates made two vigorous assaults, one at Culp's Hill on ^1 • 1 . • r ,1 TT . 1 , The second day. the right wmg of the Union army and the other in front of Little Round Top on the left wing. AU though the Confederates gained some slight advantage, there was no definite result on either side. Having failed to break the Union flanks and having re- 328 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ceived Pickett's fresh division, Lee spent the next morning in preparation for a grand assault on the Union centre, where he hoped to be more successful. By one o'clock in the afternoon he had placed in position on Seminary Ridge The furious can= morc than a hundred guns. The Federals oonade. could find room for only eighty on Cemetery Ridge. At one o'clock the Confederate guns opened fire, and until three the furious cannonade continued. At that time the fire slackened on Cemetery Ridge in order to let the guns cool in time for the expected attack. The Confederates thought they had silenced the Union batteries, and that the mo- ment for the South to make one mighty effort had come. General Pickett, who was to lead this assault at the head of some of the best Virginia troops, was ordered to Pickett's charge. , . advance. In three magnificent lines, with a front a mile long, 15,000 Confederates charged across the field. The sight was thrilling, but soon the murderous fire from the Northern guns began to cut them down by hundreds. The fearful slaughter thinned the advancing lines. Still they pressed on. As they neared the first line of Northern troops. Lieutenant Cushing, a Union ofificer, although mortally wounded, pushed the only remaining gun of his battery to the fence and shouted to his commander, '' Webb, I will give them one more shot." As he fired he fell, saying *' Good-by." Pickett's men broke through the first line. Armistead, one of Pickett's gener- als, leaped over the fence, raised aloft his sword, upon the Hi. M.-n}co/ Scale of Miles. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 329 point of which he swung his hat, and shouted, " Give them the cold steel, boys ! " Just as he laid his hand upon a Union gun to capture it, he was shot down. From every side the Union men came rushing headlong upon the enemy. The struggle that followed was terrific. Men and officers were mingled together in one seething mass, each man fighting for himself. Pickett's men were soon repulsed, and with their lines broken into fragments they were driven back with disas- trous loss. The failure of Pickett's charge insured Lee's defeat at Gettysburg, and with Defeat of ihat defeat the tide Pickett's men. turned. Next day, while Grant was receiving the surrender of Vicksburg, Lee began his retreat toward the Potomac. After this failure the South was unable to secure a foothold in the North.^ 337. Capture of Vick»burg; Opening of the Mississippi River. — At the close of 1862 Vicksburg and Port Hudson were the only Confederate strongholds left on the Mississippi. After months of unsuccessful efToi-t to take Vicksburg from the north, Gen- eral Grant moved his army down on the west bank of the river and, crossing over to the east bank, Grant attacks made an attack from the south. Pemberton, vicksburg from who was in command of the Confederates in the south. Vicksburg, marched out to meet Grant, hoping to unite with Johnston, who was hastening to join him. Before the union of the two Confederate armies could be effected. Grant drove Pemberton into Vicksburg and compelled Johnston to retreat. Grant's bold plan was brilliantly executed. GEORGE G. MEADE. ' In this battle Meade's army (infantry and artillery} numbered about 82,000; Lee's about 74,000, Each army had m addition about 11,000 cavalry. Meade lost in all about 23,000 ; Lee 30.000, or more than one-third of his entire force. 330 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES VICKSBURG AND TICIMTY. Bcale of Miles. < IP ' The Confederates starved into surrender. He then laid siege to the city (May 19), cutting it ofi from supplies of all kinds. Flour sold for $1,000 a barrel (Confe'^erate money). Provisions became so scarce that even rats and mule-flesh were used as food. So many thou- sand shells were thrown into the city daily that many people abandoned their homes. They lived in caves which they dug in. banks where the streets had been cut through the hills. In about seven weeks the Confeder- ates were starved into surrender. On July 4, 1863, the day after Lee's defeat at Gettys- burg, Pemberton sur- rendered Vicksburg with 32,000 men. When, four days later, Port Hudson was cap- tured, the Mississippi River, to its mouth, was under the control of the North. 338. Slavery and the Emancipation Proclamation (Janu- ary I, 1863). — In his inaugural address President Lincoln had declared that he would not interfere with slavery where it already existed because he had no constitutional right to do so. But as The slaves aid ^^^ ^^^ proceeded it became evident that the blacks in the South were a great source of strength to the Confederate cause; for while masters enlisted in the army, slaves by their labor supplied food not only for Southern families but for the the cause of the South. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 331 support of the Southern army. In this way they were aiding the cause of the South about as much as if they had been able to bear arms. Moreover, the sentiment in regard to slavery was changing in the North. People had come to look upon it as the cause of the war, and many de- sired the government to attack it as a war measure. As commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, President Lincoln had authority to set free all slaves THE FIRST READING OF THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. in territory conquered by the Union armies. Just after the Battle of Antietam, therefore, he warned the seceded States (September 22, 1862) that unless they returned to the Union before January i, 1863, he would set their slaves free. As none of these States returned, the emancipation procla- mation was issued on January i, 1863. From that time the North fought not only for the Union but for the abolition of slavery.^ 339. Employment of Emancipated Blacks in Northern Army Stops Exchange of Prisoners. — It was but one step further to arm the blacks and make them soldiers. If the * General Butler, early in the war, confiscated the negroes whom he found em- ployed in throwing up earthworks for the Confederates near Fortress Monroe. He fed and protected them, regarding them as contraband of war. 332 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Emancipation Proclamation was issued as a military neces- sity in order to weaken the South and to make the issue of the war perfectly plain to the world, the same military necessity would call for the arming of these emancipated slaves. Before the end of the war there were enlisted in the Union armies 180,000 blacks, who made good soldiers. The Confederates bitterly resented the employment of their former slaves in the Union armies and retused to recognize A FEDERAL CAVALRY CAMP — WINTER QUART FK-^ the negro soldiers or their officers in exchanging prisoners. This led to mutual misunderstanding and ended in stopping all exchange of prisoners. As a result, thousands of sol- diers languished in prisons and suffered much from disease and famine.* 340. Conscription in the North; Draft Riots. — In 1863 the North found it advisable to resort to a conscription or draft. All able-bodied men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five were enrolled, and from the enrollment a cer- tain proportion was chosen by lot. The draft was very unpopular, and in New York City, on July 13, 1863, a serious riot took place, lasting four days and resulting in the de- ^ Some of the noted Southern pisons were Libby Prison and Belle Isle in Rich. mond, Virginia, and Andersonville, in Georgia. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 0J)3 Struction of much property. The mobs showed especial hatred toward colored people, brutally killing many. The riot was finally put down by. the aid of troops sent frOm Gettysburg-. 341. Conscription in the South. — In April, 1862, by an act of the Confederate Congress, all able-bodied white men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five were required to enter the Confederate army. In the autumn of the same year all white men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five were in- cluded in the conscription law, and before the close of the war even boys of sixteen and seventeen and old men were included. So hard pressed for men were the Confederates that just before the war came to an end their Congress had decided to enlist some of the slaves in the Confederate army. When all exchange of prisoners was stopped, the South, by reason of the scarcity of fighting men, was much more seriously crippled than the North. The whole number of men captured from the armies of the North and the South in the entire war amounted to a half-million. 342. Battle of Chickamauga (1863). — After the loss ol Vicksburg and Port Hudson, the strongest and most im- portant position held by the Confederates in The importance the West was Chattanooga,^ which was not oi Chattanooga, only a great railroad centre, but the key to eastern Tennes- see and the gateway to Georgia, General Rosecrans, in GEORGE H. THOMAS, "THE ROCK OF CHICKAMAUGA." * From the outbreak of the war the Confederates had made a strenuous effort to get control of Kentucky and Tennessee. The outcome was the remarkable middle Tennessee campaign in 1862. On the last day of the year the battle of Stone's River, or Murfreesboro, was fought, Rosecrans being the commander of the Northern. army and Bragg of the Southern. The result was the retreat of Bragg with his army greatly weakened. This battle kept the South from capturing Nashville, and made easier the movement of the Northern army against Chatta- nooga in 1863. .) 25 334 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES command of the Union army in Tennessee, advanced with 55,000 troops upon Chattanooga, which was occupied by Bragg. By moving to the south of this place, Rosecrans threatened Bragg's line of suppHes and compelled him to withdraw from Chattanooga and take position at Lafayette (September 19-20), twenty-six miles to the south. Here Bragg received a strong body of reinforcements and vigorously attacked the Union army, now outnumbered. He overwhelmed and routed the right wing, General Thomas and WOuld save* the Union hi^rf^iMif army from ruin. ^avc put ous defeat. tO rOUt the entire army but for the unflinching courage of General Thomas, the ** Rock of Chicka- mauga," who coolly held his position on the left until the rest of the army could make a safe retreat to Rossviile on Missionary Ridge. 343. Siege of Chat- tanooga. — Although Bragg defeated the Union army in the bat- tle of Chickamauga, he did not secure what he greatly desired— Chattanooga itself. He therefore strongly fortified himself on Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, overlooking Chattanooga, and tried to cut off the Union army from its supplies. The situation ^^. . ,. *. became serious. For weeks all the Union Critical situation , , , , , , ^ • i of the Union Supplies had to be brought over a single ^'^y- mountain road for a distance of sixty miles. When Grant, who had superseded Rosecrans, reached Chattanooga about the middle of November, the number of horses and mules had been so reduced by starvation that GENERAL GRANT AND STAFF ON POINT LOOKOUT, IS63. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 335 ■Map op CHATTANOOGA and Ylciiiltj'. Col.McCook/ Davia'Div. Scale of Miles. the artillery could not be moved.^ The soldiers were liv- ing on half-rations, and had not enough ammunition left for a single day's battle. But in five days after reaching Chattanooga Grant^ got control of the river line of sup- plies. From that time the army, which had been cooped up in Chattanooga for months, had an abundance of food. 344. Battle of Chatta- nooga. — Having received reinforcements, Grant now decided to attack Bragg, who occupied Bragg's strong a very strong position, position, with his right flank resting on the northern end of Missionary Ridge, his left flank on the northern end of Lookout Mountain, and his centre stretching across Chattanooga Valley. His line was twelve miles long and on the flanks ap- peared to be almost im- pregnable. On November 24 Grant sent the gallant Hooker and his men to charge up the rocky heights of Lookout Mountain. This charge resulted in desperate fighting " above the clouds/* and in driving Bragg's left flank from its mountain strong- * Ten thousand horses and mules had starved to death. 'When seventeen years of age (see par. 371) Ulysses S. Grant received an ap- pointment to a cadetship in the Military Academy at West Point. Although he did not take high rank in scholarship, he became the finest horseman in his class, and showed a marked aptitude for mathematical studies. Entering the army after graduation, he distinguished himself for bravery in many important battles of the Mexican War. He remained in the army until 1854, when he resigned his com- mission, and continued in private life until the beginning of the Civil War. Dur- ing these years he tried farming, store-keeping, and selling real estate, but did not have much success. In 1861 he received a commission as colonel of an Illinois regiment, and. by his extraordinary military skill and ability, rose to the rank of 33<^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES hold. Early next morning Sherman vigorously assaulted the north end of Missionary Ridge. Until three o'clock in Two heroic ^^^ afternoon he struggled to drive the enemy charges by the from the heights, but in vain. Then Thomas's Union troops. ^^^ were Ordered to join the attack. Like a mighty whirlwind they swept away all opposition in their grand charge up the hill. Bragg's army, overwhelmed and defeated, fled from the battle-field in confusion. TO THE PUPIL t. Observe that after Lee's retreat from Antietam he defeated the Army of the Potomac ia two battles, the first at Fredericksburg (December, 1862), and the second at Chancellorsville (April, 1863). What reasons had Lee for a second invasion of the North in 1863 ? 2. Trace v^ith care upon your map the location of the two armies on the second day of the battle of Gettysburg. As this is one of the world's great battles you will do well to understand it. Describe Pickett's charge. What were the most striking results of the battle ? 3. Before studying the capture of Vicksburg review the following battles fought to open the Mississippi in 1862: Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, the battle of Shiloh, and the capture of New Orleans. Now you are ready to describe the capture of Vicksburg. Read General Grant's excellent account of it in his " Personal Memoirs." 4. How did the slaves aid the Confederate cause ? What was the source of President Lincoln's authority to set free any of the slaves in the South? What was the Emancipation Proclamation? After its issue what was the North fighting for? 5. Why was it natural for the North, after emancipating the blacks, to employ them as soldiers ? What effect did such employment have upon the exchange of prisoners? 6. Why was Chattanooga an important military position ? What led to the battle of Chickamauga, and how did General Thomas save the Union army from rout ? Describe the critical situation of the Union army when Grant reached Chattanooga. What were the results of the battle of Chattanooga ? 7. You will find Coffin's books on the Civil War very interesting. lieutenant-general (1864) in command of the Union armies. His brilliant strategy at Vicksburg and Chattanooga in 1863, and his advance upon Richmond in 1864' 65, proved him to be one of the greatest military leaders of all time. His iron will, resolute purpose, cool judgment, and unflinching courage never failed him in the hour of trial and danger. He was also a man of singularly pure and gentle spirit, with a high sense of public duty. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 337 THE HAMMERING CAMPAIGN 345. The Union Plan of 1864.-111 March, 1864, Grant who had won the confidence of the people by his campaigns in the West, was raised to a military rank sec- General Grant ond only to that of the President, with the title Sland'*of"anTe of lieutenant-general.^ In reality he was placed Union armies, in command of all the Northern armies. By the close of 1863 the Confederacy had been cut down to Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The Union armies had now to get control of these four States. Grant was to attempt the capture of Richmond, which was defended by Lee ; Sherman was to get control of Georgia by defeating Johnston, who had command of the Confederates there. The watchword in the East was "On to Richmond;" in the West, "On to Atlanta." These two movements were planned to begin at the same time, early in May, so that, if possible, the Confederate armies might be pre- vented from aiding each other. 346, ** On to Richmond." — Grant's advance upon Rich- mond began (May 4) by crossing the Rapidan and entering the Wilderness. He had 120,000^ men against Lee's 62,000. For two days in the thick, gloomy woods, where the enemy could not be seen twenty feet away, a terrible struggle ensued. Grant's loss was se- vere, but he pressed on, writing to Lincoln, " I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." As Grant moved forward, terrible battles were fought at Spott- sylvania Court House (May 8-18) and at Cold Harbor GENERAL U. S. GRANT. In the Wilderness. * Before that time only Washington and Scott had been made lieutenant-generals. 'Grant's army, arranged in ranks of four, thf. ranks being five feet apart, would extend a distance of more than twenty-eight miles. 23^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (June 3). Before the close of June he had lost more than 60,000 men, and Lee, 40,000. Realizing after this great loss of life that he could not capture Richmond by attacking it from the north, Grant nt transfers transferred his army across the James in order his army across to attack the city from the south. Here an the James. attempt was made to capture Petersburg (July 30) by exploding a mine under the outer Confederate defences. The explosion was followed by a vigorous as- sault, but the plan failed. 347. Early's Raid in the Shenandoah. — It will be re- membered that in 1862, when McClellan was near Richmond, BUILDING A PONTOON BRIDGE. " Stonewall '* Jackson was sent into the Shenandoah to threaten Washington and prevent McDowell from reinforc- ing McClellan. In 1864 L e tried in the same way to weaken the attack upon Richmond. Toward the last of June he sent Early with 20,000 men to threaten Washington Early threatens by way of the Shcnaudoah. Early swept on Washington and ^^^^y ^iQ met General Lew Wallace with a burns Chambers- n r ^i i\/r D • burg. much smaller force on the Monocacy River, not far from Washington. Here Wallace fought a losing battle in order to detain Early long enough for Grant to get a part of his army into Washington. These troops reached the city just in time to prevent its capture. A lit- tle later Early again pushed down the Shenandoah across SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 339 the Potomac into Pennsylvania, where he burned Chambers- burg. 348. Sheridan in the Shenandoah. — To put an end to such raids in the North, General Sheridan ^ was sent with 30,000 men to watch General Early and to lay waste the fruitful Shenandoah Valley. After defeating Early and chasing him up the valley, Sheridan destroyed 2,000 barns filled with grain and farming implements and seventy mills filled with flour and wheat, besides driving off thousands of sheep and cattle. A few days later, while Sheridan^ was away. Early surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek, and drove it back seven miles. This was the occasion of " Sheridan's Ride " •« Sheridan's from Winchester, Ride.'» about fourteen (not " twenty ") miles away. On Sheridan's arrival he found that the Union forces had been formed in battle array. Early's army was totally defeated (October 19) and driven in confusion from the field. * Philip H. Sheridan was born in Ohio in 1831, and died in 1888. He was graduated from West Point in 1853. Upon the outbreak of the Civil War he was made chief quartermaster of the army in the southwestern part of Missouri. He handled his troops so ably at the battle of Murfreesboro that he was promoted to the rank of major-general. He gave further striking evidence of military skill and dar- ing at Chickamauga and Chattanooga. In 1864 Grant had Sheridan put in com- mand of all the cavalry m the Army of the Potomac. His campaign in the Shenan- doah was one of the great military achievements of the war. He was so popular that he was called by his men " Little Phil." Some years before his death he became lieutenant-general, and on his death-bed was promoted to the rank of general in-chief. ' In the early morning of the battle, General Sheridan, who was at Winchester on his return from Washington, was informed of the firing in the direction of Cedar Creek. Mounting his handsome coal-black horse, he rode at full speed toward the scene of batde. When he met the retreating soldiers he shouted, "Turn back, men — turn back ! Face the other way ! '* His inspiring presence heartened the soldiers. With waving hats they cried, "Sheridan! Sheridan! " and cheerfully followed their leader as he dashed forward. Sheridan's ride changed defeat into overwhelming victory. PHILIP H, SHER-IDAN. ?40 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 349. «« On to Atlanta."— Early in May, 1864, Sherman,' with 100,000 men, was at Chattanooga, facing Johnston, with 64,000, at Dalton. It was desirable to get Importance of ^ ' e r^ ' a • i_ Atlanta and possession of Georgia because it was the Georgia. workshop, the arsenal, and the storehouse oi the Confederacy. Sherman's plan was to capture Atlanta, an important railroad and manutacturing centre, and then to pass on to the sea and destroy the sup- plies necessary to sus- tain the Confederate armies.^ Sherman had great difficulties to face. In Sherman's the firSt difficulties. place, an able general, Joseph E. Johnston, opposed him ; in the second place, every mile oi advance took him far- ther away from his base of supplies at Nashville. He soon had to protect a long line of com- munication which the enemy was constantly trying to 1 William T. Sherman was born in Lancaster, Ohio, in 1820, and died in 1S91. Having graduated from West Point in 1840, he remained in the army until 1853 and then resigned his commission to engage in business. At the outbreak of the Civil War he became a colonel and took part in the battle of Bull Run. Soon after that battle he was raised to the rank of brigadier-general and transferred to Halleck's command in the Department of the West. His great military skill was shown at Shiloh and in the memorable Vicksburg campaign. When, therefore, Grant was placed in command of all the Union armies in 1864, he secured the appointment of Sherman as commander of the armies of the West. The " March to the Sea," one of the notable military achievements of modern history, followed. Sherman was among the ablest generals of the Civil War. When Grant became general-in- chiet Oi the army in 1866, Sherman was made lieutenant-general, and when Grani ■was elecicd President, Sherman was promoted to the rank of general-in-chief. ' Such a course may seem cruel, but it is just as good generalship to starve an army into submission as to kill with firearms. Its effect is to shorten war and save life. DESTROYING A RAILROAD AT ATLANTA, GA. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 341 destroy. Johnston's plan was to draw him as far as pos- sible from Nashville, always avoiding a pitched battle. Sherman's plan was to flank Johnston and threaten his line of communication with Atlanta. By a series of flank move- ments Sherman compelled Johnston to retreat. Battles were fought at Resaca, New Hope Church, and Kenesaw Mountain. Both generals were skilful, but Johnston, by his cautious movements, lailed to satisfy the Confederate authorities. Me was superseded by Hood, who was as rash and impetuous as John- ston was careful and Capture of cautious. Hood at once AUanta. made desperate attacks upon Sher- man and was soon defeated. By cutting the railroad connections on the south Sherman captured Atlanta (September 2, 1864). 350. Sherman's ** March to the Sea." — A little later Sherman, cut- ting loose from all communication with the North, started through Georgia on his famous march to the sea, which was some two hundred miles away. Hood, by moving northward, tried to draw Sherman after him, but Sherman sent Thomas to look after Hood, while he himself moved southward from Atlanta. After destroying three hundred miles of railroad and laying waste the country over a belt sixty miles wide, "from Atlanta to the sea," Sherman, with the loss of less than a thousand men, reached Savannah just before Christmas. He presented Savannah as a "Christmas gift" to the government.* In the mean- WILLIAM T. SHKKMAN. * The following was Sherman's message to the President : Savannah, Georc.ia, Dccembtr 22, 1864. To His Excellency, President Lincoln, Washington, D. C: 1 beg to present you, as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one hun- dred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition ; also about twenty-five thou* sand bales of cotton. W. T. SHERMAN, Major-General. ■ 26 342 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES time Thomas so thoroughly routed Hood's army at Nash- ville that it could not be brought together again. 351. Capture of Mobile. — As we have seen, one of the leading purposes of the North was to prevent, by blockade, the export of Southern cotton. By the middle of 1864 Union war-vessels had closed to foreign trade nearly all the Southern ports. One of the most important of these was Mobile, which Admiral Farragut, in co-operation with MA? n^rsTSATrss SHEEHANS XiJlCH TO TILE SEA- K Scale of Miles. 0 25 50 : THE '*.'•*. CO. a land force of 5,000 men, was sent to capture. Realizing the great value of Mobile, the Confederates had prepared The defences for a vigorous defence. Two strong forts of Mobile. stood ou opposite sides of the entrance of the bay, the channel of which was obstructed by torpedoes. Within the bay were three gun-boats and the powerful iron- clad ram, Tennessee. At six o'clock on the morning of August 5, 1864, the Union fleet, consisting of fourteen wooden vessels and four monitors, was under way. In order that he might see over the smoke, Admiral Farragut,^ then sixty-three years old, ^ David Glasgow Farragut was bom near Knoxville, Tennessee, in iSoi, and died in 1S70. The night before the terrible struggle in Mobile Bay he wrote to his SECESSION AND THE CIVIL W.VR 343 took his position in the rigging of the fhigship Hartford, One of the monitors was sunk by a torpedo, but the remain- der of the fleet passed into the bay and engaged the Ten- nessee^ the strongest of the Confederate iron-clads. By ten o'clock the fight was over and the capture of Mobile as- sured. In a few days the forts surrendered to the land force. This signal victory was due to the unflinching cour- age of x\dmiral Farragut. 352. Sympathy of English Workingmen with the North. — We may now leave the armies for a while and consider how England and France were look- ing upon the war. Jctlerson Davis and the South greatly erred when they counted upon the sympathy of the working classes in England, for when English workingmen under- stood that the war was a struggle between freedom and slavery, their sympathies were with the North. Although the cotton famine in Eng- land, produced by the blockade of the South, forced hundreds of thou- sands out of employment, these starving laborers prayed for the success of the North. On the other hand, the aristocracy, with a few exceptions, and the Eng- lish Government, being more in sympathy with the aristo- cratic Southern planter and perhaps jealous of American commerce, favored the South. 353. England and the Confederate Navy. — The South was in great need of a navy, and had no facilities for build- ing one. English shipbuilders, therefore, with the knowl- edge of the English Government, responded to the need of the South, and built formidable Confederate cruisers in British dock-vards. These cruisers drove our merchant marine from the sea. wife ; "I am going into Mobile Bay in the morning, if God is my leader, as I hope He is, and in Him I place my trust. God bless and preserve you, my darling, and my dear boy, if anything should happen to me." DAVID GLASGOW FARRAGUT. 344 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The most famous cruiser was the Alabama} commanded by Captain Semmes. This vessel was built with English money in an Ensflish port, was manned by an The Alabama. . English crew, carried English gunners, and hoisted an English flag. In a word, with the exception of her officers, she was an English vessel built for the special purpose of destroying Northern commerce. Charles Fran- cis Adams, our able minister to England at that time, pro- tested, but in vain. The United States, in the midst of a civil war, no longer commanded the respect of the English Government. Our country was not in a position to demand justice and satisfaction. But it resented England's attitude none the less keenly, and the time came when England was wise enough to listen. The Alabama (1862-64) captured over sixty Northern vessels, amounting in value, with their cargoes, to over $7,- The Kearsarge 000,000. The ducl between the ^Az^*^;;/^: and sinks the the Kcarsargc, which had gone out in search of Aiaba.i>a. j^^^.^ ^^^^^ fought off the coast of France (June 19, 1864). The Alabama, in about one hour, Avas shattered and sunk. The sinking of the Alabama put an end to the destructive work of Confederate cruisers. After the war England paid more than $15,000,000 for damages done by The Alabama Confederate cruisers. As the first of these Claims. claims made by our government for redress- grew out of acts committed by the Alabama, all the claims growing out of the acts of all the vessels became known as the "Alabama Claims." 354. Napoleon III. and the Confederate Navy. — But the English Government did not stand alone in its un- friendly attitude. The French Government was equally ^ *' A score of other Confederate cruisers roamed the seas to prey upon United States commerce, but none of them became quite so famous as the Sumter and the Alabama. They included the Shenandoah, which made thirty-eight captures; the Florida, which made thirty-six ; the Tallahassee, which made twenty-seven; the Tacony, which made fifteen ; and the Georgia, which made ten. Most of these cruisers were built in British ship-yards." — R. Johnson. The attitude of the English government toward the Confederate navy was most unfortunate, naturally causing in the North much bitter feeling toward Ene;land. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 345 hostile to the North. Napoleon III., for personal reasons, was eager for the success of the Confederate cause, and urged England to acknowledge the independence of the South. He wished to see the Union dissolved, k, • , ^ • ' iNapoleon s desire because it was his desire to establish an em- to establish an pire upon the ruins of the republic of Mexico, ^"pi'-e '« Mexico, and he knew that so long as the Union remained unbroken he would not be permitted to carry out his plans. He also, during the later years of the war, with contemptible du- plicity equal to that of Napoleon I. just before the War of 1812, allowed formidable iron-clads for the Southern navy to be built in France. One of these was finally launched, but the war was at an end before it could reach our coast. Napoleon sent a French army to invade Mexico in 1861. By 1863 it had established an empire there, and Napoleon offered the throne to Maximilian, Archduke MaxFmiiianin of Austria. The United States protested, but Mexico, in vain. After the close of the war, however, in response to the threatening attitude of this country, Napoleon with- drew the French troops. Maximilian was then taken pris- oner by the Mexican authorities, tried by court-martial, and shot. TO THE PUPIL 1. What part of the Confederacy remained unconquered at the close of 1863 ? Describe the Union plan of campaign in 1864. Outline the "On to Richmond " movement. 2. Compare Early's raid in the Shenandoah in 1864 with Jackson's move- ment in that valley in 1862. What did Jackson accomplish ? What did Early accomplish ? Why was Sheridan sent into the Shenan- doah ? What did he accomplish there ? Why was the Shenandoah of importance to the Confederates ? 3. Why was it desirable for the North to get possession of Atlanta? What difficulties did Sherman meet in his advance upon Atlanta? What was Johnston's plan of defence ? 4. Outline Sherman's *♦ March to the Sea." Which do you think was the abler general, Sherman or Johnston ? Give reasons for your answer. 5. What did Jefferson Davis mean by speaking of cotton as "king"? At this point review the " Trent Affair," the importance of the block- ade, the attempt on the part of the South to break the blockade by 346 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES means of the ** Merrimac," and the effect the blockade had upon coU ton export. 6. Why did English workingmen sympathize with the North ? Why did the English aristocracy and the English Government favor the South ? In what way did English shipbuilders aid the South ? 7. What was the ''Alabama," and what was the attitude of the English Government toward Southern cruisers built in English dockyards ? What became of the " Alabama " ? What were the "Alabama Claims " ? 8. How did Napoleon III. show his sympathy with the South ? What was his scheme in sending Maximilian to Mexico ? In this connec- tion review the Monroe Doctrine, and find out whether or not Napo- leon ni. violated this doctrine by supporting Maximilian with a French army. Why were the French troops withdrawn from Mex- ico after the Civil War ? 9. Subject for debate: Resolved, that Grant was a better general than Lee. APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE 355. Fall of Richmond. — By the various disasters which we have recounted the Southern cause was brought into , ^ ., , ^ , desperate straits. Careful observers could see Lee fails to break ^ through Grant's that the cud was ncar.^ Sherman, after re- ^^^^'' maining about a month in Savannah, started through the Carolinas northward (February i). Lee, with 40,000 men, still held Richmond, which Grant, with ioo,ooO' men, was trving to capture. In order to join Johnston's force in North Carolina, Lee made one last effort to break through the Union army lying south of Petersburg. This plan was defeated by Sheridan in the battle of Five Forks, where 5,000 Confederates were captured. The next day (xA.pril 2) Lee evacuated Richmond and started on a retreat westward. The pursuit was hot. Hun- dreds of the Confederates, having little to eat and believing that their cause w^as hopeless, deserted, and thousands threw away their arms. Theii condition was pitiable. For five or six days they lived on ^ In the spring of this year General Wilson, in a brilliant cavalry movement, captured the five fortified cities of Selma, Montgomery, West Point, Columbus, and Macon. These places had important railroad connections, contained valuable supplies for the Confederate army, and manufactured for it war material. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 347 A COUNCIL OF WAR AT MASSAI'ONAX CHURCH. parched corn and the shoots of trees. One week after leav- ing" Richmond (April 9), Lee, finding that every avenue of escape was cut off, agreed to hold a conference with Grant at Appomattox Court House, about seventy-five miles west of Richmond, to consider terms of surrender. 356. Lee's Surrender. — It was a notable meeting. The result of tlie interview was the surrender of Lee with 26,000 men, only 8,000 of whom had arms. The Grant's delicacy terms of surrender were very generous to the of feeiing. Confederates, who were to lay down their arms and were not, unless properly exchanged, to take them up again. With rare delicacy of feeling Grant ordered that all the Confederates owning horses or mules should be allowed to 2fi 348 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES take them home. "They will need them for the spring ploughing-," he said. But consideration for the Confeder- ate soldiers did not stop here, for when they marched in front of the Union soldiers to stack arms in token of sur- render the Union soldiers saluted them. The Confederates promptly returned the salute. Grant's attitude toward the Confederates, which won the hearts of the Southern people, was like that of the The generous United States Government as a whole. Only attitude of the One Confederate — the keeper of Anderson- Government. ^.j|g Pdson— was put to death at the close of the war. The death-penalty in this case was inflicted, not at all for connection with the Confederate movement, but because of inhuman cruelty. No government ever showed so great mercy to those who had tried to break it in pieces. The great struggle ended when Johnston surren- dered to Sherman near Raleigh, North Carolina (April 26, 1865). 357. Flight and Capture of Jefferson Davis. — On Sun- day morning, April 2, Jefferson Davis was attending service at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Richmond when an offi- cer walked quietly up the aisle with a telegram from Lee announcing the retreat of the latter from Petersburg. Da- vis at once left the church and prepared to leave the city. In a vain endeavor to escape capture he fled through the Carolinas into Georgia. While encamped in the woods near Irwinsville, Georgia, in the early morning he was sur- prised and captured (May 10). He was taken to Fortress Monroe and confined there for two years. At the end of that time many well-known men — among whom was Horace Greeley, a Republican leader of great prominence — used their influence to secure his release. Davis was never brought to trial. 358. The Assassination of Lincoln. — The rejoicing of the people over the return of peace soon gave place to mourning for the loss of the one who had safely piloted the nation through the storm of war. On the evening of April 14, 1865, while President Lincoln was at Ford's Thea- THE SURRENDER OF LEE TO GRANT AT APPOMATTOX. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 349 tre in Washington, an obscure actor, half-crazed over what he believed to be the wrongs of the South, entered the Pres- ident's box from the rear and shot him through the head. He then leaped upon the stage, and shouting " Sic semper tyrannis ! " (So be it always to tyrants), rushed out of the stage-door amid the wildest excitement of the people and escaped. In a few days he was hunted to his hiding-place in Virginia and shot dead while resisting capture. Lincoln's assassin was at the head of a conspiracy whose aim was to bring confusion to the government by killing some of the leading men and thus creating a The aim of the panic. On the same evening one of these con- conspirators, spirators forced his way to the bedside of Secretary Sew- ard, who was lying ill in his home, and vainly tried to stab him to death. Four of these conspirators were hanged and three imprisoned for life. Lincoln, who was shot a little after ten o'clock in the evening, lingered, unconscious, until early next morning. When Lincoln's spirit passed away. Secretary The grief of the Stanton w^as the first to break the silence by people, saying, " Now he belongs to the ages." The grief of the people for the nation's hero was well-nigh universal. On Friday, April 21, the train that was to take his body to Springfield, Illinois, moved slowly out of Washington on its mournful journey. In order that the people might have opportunity to express their love and grief for the departed leader, it stopped at many large cities along the route. The unbroken silence amid which the vast throngs filed past the open cofifin as the body lay in state indicated a feel- ing too deep for words. The spirit of his noble service is well illustrated in the closing words of his second inaugural address, March 4, 1865:^ "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the * It seems fitting to introduce here the memoraole Gettysburg speech, made at Gettysburg, November 19, 1863, on the occasion of the dedication of the National 350 HISTORY OF^ THE UNIIED STATES battle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations.'* 359. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. — Early in the war the Sanitary Commission was organized by good men and women to supplement the work of the government in aiding needy and distressed soldiers. Rec- ognized by the government and supported by all classes of the people, its career was one of extraordinary useful- ness. It had its own physicians, nurses, and attendants, its own transports and methods of work. It ministered to the wounded on the battle-field and carried the wounded sol- diers by easy methods of conveyance to the hospital. Fur- thermore, it gave special relief to men on sick-leave, col- lected and distributed supplies, and in every possible way cared for the suffering and needy soldiers. The Christian Commission cared for the souls as well as the bodies of the soldiers. It distributed tracts, held prayer- meetings in improvised chapels, comforted the dying, and, where possible, gave Christian burial. This commission Cemetery there. The speech well exemplifies, in its brevity, simplicity, and ten» derness of feeling, the character of President Lincoln : Lincoln's Gettysburg speech Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that na- tion, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We are come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here ; but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the Hving, rather to be ded- icated here to the unfinished work which they, who fought here, have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 35^ also received the recognition and support of the govern- ment. Thousands of noble women at home, in hospitals, and near the scenes of battles expressed in The work of their service through these commissions not noblewomen, only a tender love and sympathy, but a patriotism as faithful and true as that of the brave soldiers whom they attended. 360. The Results of the War. — The Civil War was one of gigantic proportions. At its close the South was pros- A SANITARY COMMISSION LODGE NEAR ALEXANDRIA, VA. trated, the North was under severe strain. About 600,000 men had been killed, and several hundred thousand more permanently injured. The loss of wealth can never be told, but, including the expenditure of the government and the States, the destruction of property by both armies, and the value of slaves to the South, the war cost not far from eight thousand millions of dollars. The most important result of the Civil War was that slavery was forever abolished throughout the Union.* The Emancipation Proclamation had set free only the slaves in * See Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 352 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES those States and parts of States conquered by Union armies , but now slavery was entirely swept away, and with it the attendant evils of State rights, nullification, and secession. The supremacy of the Union was established, and the United States, ** one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all," turned her energies to the new struggle of building up what had been torn down by four years of frightful havoc — the industries and wealth of her people. TO THE PUPIL 1. Before studying the fall of Richmond review the various attempts made by the Army of the Potomac to capture that city. Your review will include Bull Run, the Peninsular Campaign, and the *' Onto Rich- mond " movement in 1864. 2. Describe Lee's retreat and his memorable surrender. 3. Read Lincoln's second inaugural, and memorize his Gettysburg speech. 4. Subject for debate : Resolved, that the army did more effective work than the navy in the Civil War. 5. What were the Sanitary and Christian Commissions ? What were the most important results of the war ? Are you sure you know its causes ? 6. If you will read Alcott's Hospital Sketches you will get a sad picture of suffering in the hospitals during the war. CHRONOLOGY 1789. March 4, FIRST CONGRESS ASSEMBLED IN NEW YORK. April 30, WASHINGTON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1790. THE FIRST CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 3,929,214. 1791. VERMONT ADMITTED TO THE UNION — FIRST NATIONAL BANK ESTABUSHE© 1792. KENTUCKY ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1793. WAYNE'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE INDIANS. COTTON-GIN INVENTED BY ELI WHITNEY. 1794. THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION. 1795. JAY'S TPJiATY RATIFIED. 1796. TENNESSEE ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1797. March 4, JOHN ADAMS INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1798. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY CREATED BY ACT OF CONGRESS. ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS ENACTED BY CONGRESS. 1800. THE SECOND CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 5,308,483. 1 80 1. JOHN MARSHALL MADE CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COXHIT. March 4, JEFFERSON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1802. OHIO ADMITTED TO THE UNION. X803. LOUISIANA PURCHASED FROM FRANCE. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 353 T804. LEWIS AND CLARK STARTED ON THEIR EXPEDITION 1805. TREATY OF PEACE WITH TRIPOLI. i8o6, AARON burr's EXPEDITION TO THE SOUTHWEST. November 20, THE BERLIN DECREE ISSUED. 1807. TRIAL TRIP OF FULTON'S FIRST STEAMBOAT. November, THE ORDERS IN COUNCIL. December, THE EMBARGO ACT PASSED BY CONGRESS. 1809. March 4, MADISON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1810. THE THIRD CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 7,239,881. 181 1. THE FIRST STEAMBOAT STARTS DOWN THE OHIO FROM PITTSBURG FOR NEW ORLEANS, November 7, BATTLE OF TIPPECANOE. 1812. LOUISIANA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. June 18, WAR DECLARED AGAINST ENGLAND. August 16, hull's SURRENDER OF DETROIT. August 19, NAVAL FIGHT BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES VESSEL CONSTITU- TION AND THE BRITISH FRIGATE GUERRIERE. 1813. March 4, madison's second inauguration. September 10, PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. October 5, BATTLE OF THE THAMES. JACKSON'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. 1814. CAMPAIGN ON THE NIAGARA ; BATTLES OF CHIPPEWA AND LUNDY'S LANE. August 25, CAPTURE OF WASHINGTON BY THE BRITISH. September 11, BATTLE OF plattsburg. December 15, HARTFORD convention met. December 24, treaty of peace signed at Ghent. 181 5. January 8, battle of new ORLEANS. 1816. THE SECOND UNITED STATES BANK CHARTERED. INDIANA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 181 7. March 4, monroe inaugurated president. July 4, CONSTRUCTION OF THE ERIE CANAL BEGUN. MISSISSIPPI ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 18 1 8. STEAM NAVIGATION BEGUN ON THE GREAT LAKES. ILLINOIS ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 18 1 9. ALABAMA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. THE STEAMSHIP SAVANNAH MADE THE FIRST TRIP ACROSS THE AT^.ANTIC, FROM SAVANNAH TO LIVERPOOL. 1820. MAINE ADMITTED TO THE UNION. THE FOURTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 9,633,822. X821. RATIFICATION OF TREATY OF 1819, CEDING FLORIDA TO THE UNITED STATES. MISSOURI COMPROMISE ADOPTED BY CONGRESS. MISSOURI ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1825. March 4, JOHN quincy adams inaugurated president. CORNER-STONE OF BUNKER HILL MONUMENT LAID IN BOSTON BY LAFAYETTE. ERIE CANAL OPENED. 1826. FIRST RAILROAD BUILT IN THE UNITED STATES (AT QUINCY, MASS.). 1828. FIRST PASSENGER RAILROAD IN THE UNITED STATES BEGUN (AT BALTIMORE, MD.). 1829. March 4, JACKSON inaugurated president. 1830. THE FIFTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 12,866,020. 1831. GARRISON ESTABLISHED "THE LIBERATOR." 1832. NULLIFICATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 1833. REMOVAL OF DEPOSITS FROM THE UNITED STATES BANK. 1835. TEXAS PTTCLARED HER INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO, 21 354 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1836. June 15, ARKANSAS ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1837. January 26, MICHIGAN ADMITTED TO THE UNION. March 4, VAN BUREN INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1840. THE FIRST CUNARD STEAMER SAILS FROM LIVERPOOL TO NEW YORK. THE SIXTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 17,069,453. 1841. March 4, HARRISON INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1842. THE DORR REBELLION IN RHODE ISLAND. THE ASHBURTON TREATY CONCLUDED. 1644. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINE ESTABLISHED BETWEEN BALTIMORE AND WASHING- TON. 1845. TEXAS ANNEXED BY JOINT RESOLUTION, March 3, FLORIDA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. March 4, POLK INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. December 29, TEXAS admitted to the union. 1846. May 8, BATTLE OF PALO ALTO, BEGINNING OF THE MEXICAN WAR. August 8, DAVID WILMOT INTRODUCED HIS PROVISO IN CONGRESS. December 28, IOWA admitted TO THE union. 1847. February 22, 23, BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA. March 27, SURRENDER OF VERA CRUZ. September 14, city of Mexico occupied by the American forces. 1848. February, TREATY OF peace WITH MEXICO CONCLUDED. GOLD DISCOVERED IN CALIFORNIA. May 29, WISCONSIN ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1849. March 4, taylor inaugurated president. 1850. the clay compromise passed. the seventh census, showing a population of 23,191,876, September 9, California admitted to the union. 1853. March 4, PIERCE INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. 1854. May 30, THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL PASSED. 1857. March 4, BUCHANAN INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. March 6, THE dred scott decision. 1858. May II, MINNESOTA ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1859. February 14, OREGON ADMITTED TO THE UNION. October, JOHN brown's raid on harper's ferry. i860. THE EIGHTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 31,443,321. December 20, SOUTH Carolina seceded. 1 86 1. January, MISSISSIPPI, ALABAMA, FLORIDA, GEORGIA, AND LOUISIANA SECEDED, January 29, KANSAS ADMITTED TO THE UNION. February, TEXAS SECEDED ; provisional CONFEDERATE GOVERNMENT ORGAN- IZED. March 4, LINCOLN INAUGURATED PRESIDENT. April 12, 13, BOMBARDMENT OF FORT SUMTER. April 17, VIRGINIA SECEDED. April 19, FIRST BLOOD SHED, IN BALTIMORE. May, ARKANSAS AND NORTH CAROLINA SECEDED. July 21, FIRST BATTLE OF BULL RUN. November 8, MASON AND slidell taken from the TRENT. 1862. February 16, SURRENDER OF FORT DONELSON. March 9, FIGHT BETWEEN THE MERRIMAC AND THE MONITOR. April 6, 7, BATTLE OF PITTSBURG LANDING (SHILOH). April 25, CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS BY FARRAGUT. June 25, THE SEVEN DAYS* BATTLES BEFORE RICHMOND BEGUN. August 2(), 30, SECOND BATTLES OF BULL RJN. SECESSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 355 1862. September 17, battle of antietam. December 13, battle OF Fredericksburg. 1863. January i, emancipation proclamation issued. May 2, 3, battle of chancellorsville. June 20, west \irginia admitted to the union. July 1-3, battle of GETTYSBURG. July 4, SURRENDER OF VICKSBURG. July 8, SURRENDER OF PORT HUDSON. September 19, 20, BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA. November 24, 25, BATTLE OF CHATTANOOGA. May 4, SHERM.\n'S ATLANTA CAMPAIGN BEGUN. 1864. May 5, 6, grant's advance on lee, battle of the wilderness. * June 14, GRANT CROSSES THE JAMES ; SIEGE OF PETERSBURG BEGUN. June 19, THE ALABAMA SUNK BY THE KEARSARGE. August 5, BATTLE OF MOBILE BAY. September 2, FALL OF ATLANTA. September and October, Sheridan's campaign in the shenandoah vaixeY. October 19, battle of cedar creek. October 31, NEVADA admitted to the union. November 15, Sherman's march to the sea begun. December 15, 16, battle of nashville. December 21, SHERMAN enters savannah. 1865. January 15, FORT FISHER CAPTURED BY GENERAL TERRY, March 4, ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S SECOND INAUGURATION. April I, BATTLE OF FIVE FORKS. April 2, RICHMOND EVACUATED. April 9, SURRENDER OF LEE'S ARMY. April 14, PRESIDENT LINCOLN ASSASSINATED. April 26, SURRENDER OF JOHNSTON'S ARMY. May 10, CAPTURE OF JEFFERSON DAVIS. May 23, 24, REVIEW OF THE ARMY AT WASHINGTON. TReconstruction anb tbe IRew TaJmon CHAPTER XIX RECONSTRUCTION DAYS (1865-1871) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States. V.; Ah" drews's United States, II.; Andrews's Last Quarter Century, I.; Burgesses Civil War and Reconstruction ; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Richardson s History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Wilson's A History of the American People; GolJ- win Smith's United States; Alexander H. Stephens's War between the States; Jefferson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Blaine's Twenty Years in Congress ; Mcpherson's Political History of Recon- struction ; McCulloch's Men and Measures of Half a Century. 361. Condition of the South when Johnson became President. — If all the wisdom and tact of Lincoln had been required during" the war, much more were thej needed in the trying days of reconstruction. The public debt was enormous, and the whole country was suffering- from the strain of war. Fortunes had been lost, family circles broken, and thousands of brave fathers, husbands, and brothers slain in battle. Conditions were hardest in the South, where wasted plantations and ruined homes bore evidence of the terrible havoc of war. Bodies of Union cavalry were scour- ing the country in search of Confederate leaders who, when captured, were sent to forts and imprisoned until the nation should decide their fate. ''What shall be done with the leading Confederates?" ** How shall the millions of Southern negroes be cared for?** Perplexing " In what Way shall the seceded States be questions. treated?" These were a few of the perplex- ing questions of those trying times. It was hard to know 356 RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 357 what was best to do — so hard that men soon realized that Lee's surrender presented new troubles as difficult to settle as the problems that brought on the war itself. 362. Andrew Johnson.^ — Andrew Johnson, who suc- ceeded Lincoln, was rash, hot-tempered, and self-willed, ut- terly without the delicate tact and persuasive power that gave Lincoln such a remarkable influence over men. In politics he was a strict constructionist, but was devoted to the Union. At the beginning of the war he was the only senator from the secession States who refused to resign his office. At this time he was an ardent believer in the doctrine of State rights, but he had no sympathy with the secession move- ment. This was accounted for by the fact that he was brought up among the "poor whites" and was therefore prejudiced alike against the rich men of the South and the negroes. We need not be surprised, then, to find him ready to put to death Jefferson Davis and other distinguished Confederates, and to show no special concern about the protection of the freedmen. 363. President Johnson's Plan of Restoring the Se- ceded States. — By the middle of July, 1865, President John- son took steps to restore the eleven Confederate States to their places in the Union. Congress would not meet until ANDREW JOHNSON. * Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth President of the United States (1865-1869) was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1808, and died in 1875. His parents be- longed to the class of people known as the "poor whites, "and therefore his early advantages were extremely limited ; but he was fearless, honest, energetic, and ambitious. He taught himself to read while apprenticed to a tailor, and after his marriage his wife taught him to write and cipher. While a young man he re- moved to Tennessee with his mother and sister, who were dependent upon him. There he gained the confidence of the people, and occupied one public office after another until his election to the Senate of the United States. He was governor of Tennessee when he was elected Vice-President, and after Lincoln's assassination he became President. 35^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES December, and up to that time he could carry out Ins own ideas in regard to the South. He appointed provisional governors, who were to call upon the white voters in their respective States to elect delegates to State conventions- These conventions were to pass three votes : (i) To declare the Ordinances of Secession to be null and void ; (2) to repu diate the Confederate war-debt; (3) and to ratify the Thir teenth Amendment, which forever abolished slaver}^ in the United States.^ The votes having been passed by all the seceded States, the President recognized the State govern- ments^ and declared them ready to be represented in Con. gress (December, 1865). 364. The Freedmen and Southern Legislation. — It was believed in the South that the freedmen, having so long been accustomed as slaves to the direction of masters and overseers, would not work unless compelled by law, and that the safety of the South was tnreatened by the pres ence of several million ignorant and shiftless beings Southern Legislatures, therefore, began to enact laws whose results would have been to reduce the negroes to a condi- tion little short of actual slaverj^ These laws aroused in- dignation in the North and had great influence in shaping the work of reconstruction. 365. The Congressional Plan of Reconstruction in the Seceded States (1867). — When Congress met in December^ 1865, the Republicans refused to admit the representatives and senators from the seceded States until something President John- should bc douc to protcct the frecdmcu in fngtow'ard'^conr their civil rights. This action made Presi- gress. dent Johnson furious against Congress. He declared that it had no more right to keep a State out ol the Union than the States had to secede from the Union. His bitterness increased until it led him to lose all sense of dignity and propriety as he gave expression to his violent ^ This amendment did for the whole United States what the Emancipation Proc- lamation did for the seceded States. 'Johnson's plan of restoring the seceded States was similar to that outlined by Lincoln in his "Presidential Theory" of reconstruction. RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 359 feelings. In a short time lie turned his [)arty in Conc^rcss against him. As they numbered twothirds oi botli the Senate and the House they could enact any laws they pleased, in spite of the President's veto. Jolmson soon ac- cused them of keeping out tiie Southern representation for this specihc purpose. But the more he accused, the more solid became the ranks of the Republicans opposed to him. By 1867 Congress had worked out a simple and thorough plan of reconstruction which it boldly proceeded to execute. By this plan, (i) the Confederate leaders were Two essential excluded from voting or holding office until 'e«t"'-es of the pardoned by Congress, and (2) the freedmen plan. were given the ballot. In other words, those who a few years before had been slaves Were given large influence in public affairs, while many of their former masters were lelt without any political power whatever. No seceded State could be represented in Congress until it should submit to these two conditions. To indicate its submission each Slate was to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment.^ 366. The Work of Reconstruction Complete. — It is needless to say that the Southern people indignantly op- posed these laws. They thought Congress unjust to deny the right of suffrage to the most intelligent and influential whites, and at the same tiiue to give it to the ignorant blacks. But in June, 1868, seven 2 of the States had submit- ted, and their representatives were admitted again to Con- gress. By January 30, 1871, tlic work of reconstruction had been completed, and all the ^States were again represented in Congress. 367. Bitter Strug[5le Between President Johnson and Congress (1867-1868). — The President, as we have seen, had ^This made the frccdman a citizen, declared that the Cfjnfedcratc leaders should not fill any public ofifice until pardoned by Congress, and that while the del)t of the Union should be paid, the debt of the Confederacy should not be paid. Tennessee WAS the first of the Confederate States to accept the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments, and Congress voted, July 24, 1866, that she was entitled to repre- sentation. 'These States were Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, I'Morida, Ala- bama. Louisiana, and Arkansas. 3^0 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES not agreed with Congress about the plan of reconstruction. The quarrel between them grew more bitter. Congress continued to pass measures over his veto, and he con- tinued fiercely to attack that body in his speeches. This most unfortunate and undignified contest was brought to The Tenure of a climax by the Tenure ol Office Act. Up to ofUceAct. that time it had been held that, while the President could appoint no high officials without the Senate's approval, he could remove them at his pleasure. But in March, 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, pro- viding that the President should not, without the consent of the Senate, remove any office-holder whose appointment required the consent of the Senate. In August, during the Congressional recess, Johnson removed from his Cabinet Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War, and appointed General Grant to fill the position. When the Senate again met, it refused to sanction Stanton's removal, and General Grant withdrew. 368. The Impeachment of President Johnson.— The President, believing that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional, refused to obey it, and again removed Secretary Stanton, putting General Thomas in his place. The House then impeached the President ; that is, it accused him of failing to do his duty as the executive head of the nation. He was tried before the Senate, Chief-Justice Chase presiding. As in all cases of impeachment, the Sen- ate acted as a high court, a two-thirds vote being necessary to secure conviction. More than two-thirds of the Senators were Republicans, but seven of them voted for acquittal, making the vote stand thirty-five for conviction and nine- teen for acquittal. The President had won by a single vote. 369. Negro Suffrage and Carpet-bag Rule (1868-1871). — Before the work of reconstruction was completed, the The negro a freed- Fifteenth Amendment had become a part of man, a citizen, the Constitution. The Thirteenth Amend- andavoter. mcnt (1865) made the negro a freedman, the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) made him a citizen, and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) made him a voter. With the RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 361 right of suffrage in his grasp, his friends hoped that he might protect himself against oppression. But he was too ignorant to become a voter or lawmaker. As a slave he had not only been kept in ignorance, but, by his master's care for his wants, had been deprived of all sense of respon- sibility. One could hardly expect that all at once he would become an intelligent voter. The whites tried by bribes and other means to keep the negroes away from the polls. When mild means failed, vio- lence was used. As a natural result there was great disor- der. The negroes were joined by a small number of white men, some of whom were adventurers from the North, called "carpet-baggers" because they were Qreat disorder said to have brought all their possessions in heavy taxes, and their carpet-bags, and others were Southern *'^^'^^*- men, called " scalawags" and despised as traitors by the South. Doubtless many of these white men were honest in their convictions, but some of them used the blacks as tools for their own political advancement. The Legislatures made bad laws and levied heavy taxes upon property owned mostly by the whites, who could not vote. Vast sums of money were wasted or stolen, and State debts were enor- mously increased. 370. The Ku-Klux Klan (1868-1871).— Naturally, men of property and intelligence resented these unjust prac- tices and determined to put a stop to them. At first the whites used peaceable means, and soon got control in some of the States. But in others, especially where the blacks were in a majority, the whites were not so successful. In those States attempts were made to terrify the freedmen. Much of this terrorizing was done under the name of a secret society called the Ku-Klux Klan, which existed throughout the South. It was at first a sort of police organized by the young m.en of Tennessee as a pleasurable means of keeping the negroes under control by working upon their superstitions. Its members wore hideous masks and disguises, and did much of their work at night. As disorder increased, 27 362 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES "dens," or Ku-Klux societies, multiplied, especially in those States where the blacks were in a majority. Usually the Brutal methods knowledge that a "den" was organized in 01 the Ku-Kiux the vicinity was enough to terrify the negroes '^'^"* into submission. When that was not sufficient the Ku-Klux Klan, or men who pretended to belong to the society, began to whip, maim, and even murder the freedmen and their white Republican friends. Finally, law-abiding ,^ The Horrible Sepiikhre and Bloody Mooti has at laat arrfTod. »ome live to-day to-morrow "Die." We the andersigned understand throngh ou» Orand (,>/c/op»" that you have recommended a big Black Nigger for Male agent o» Onr nu rode; wel, sir, Jest you understand in time if he gets on the rode yon can make up your nund to pull roape. If you have any thing to say iu'regard to tho Oct I^st'lSTl Cyclops and Conclave at Den No. 4 at 13 o'clock midnight,. -;.'>,^^^'^°°?f* inCalerawe warn yon to hold yoni tounge .nd notspeai bo much !^^i^™»T !l*'V'*"'''^ y°" "'" ^ taken on supprise and led oot by the Klan. ^L^^*''*^'"'""P- li«""e. Beware. Beware Beware. ^atgaea) ^•PHILLIP ISBNBAUM, ''Grand Cyeltf^ "JOHN BANKSTOWN "ESAU BAVES. "MARCTJS THOMAS, -v^-ir,™. V •'BLOODY BONES. ion Know who. And aU other* of the Klait" A KU-KLUX "warning" IN MISSISSIPPI. citizens of both parties, aided by the National Government, united to put down the disorder, and by the close of 1871 had succeeded. 371. President Grant Sends Troops to the South.— The reconstructed governments, which were in the hands of the negroes, assisted by their white friends, appealed to President Grant^ for national troops to help them secure ^ Ulysses S. Grant, eighteenth President of the United States (1869-1877), was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, in 1822, and died at Mount McGregor, near Saratoga, New York, in 1885. He was the oldest of six children, and in his boyhood helped his father in the work of the farm. The name given him by his parents was Hiram Ulysses. On receiving his cadetship at West Point, however, he found that his name had been inserted in the official appointment as Ulysses S. Although Cadet Grant informed the authorities at West Point of the mistake, thev did not rectify it. RECONSTRUCTION DAYS ^6^ order. These were sent, but before 1877 the whites had gained control in all but tliree States, South Carolina, Flori- da, and Louisiana. The presence of bayonets unsatisfactory in aid of the reconstructed governments had Results of Re- greatly irritated the Southern whites, who had *=«"^t^»<^«o"- thus been prevented fron^. getting complete political control. The North did not clearly understand the situation, and the South found it hard to yield to the changed conditions. There was a great effort made on each side to do the best thing under the circumstances, but the obstacles were un- usually great. TO THE PUPIL 1. What perplexing questions called for answers at the close of the war? It was a trying time for the new President. Can you tell what his peculiar political views were? 2. What steps did he take to restore the seceded States ? What three votes were the State conventions required to pass before the se- ceded States could be restored to their places in the Union ? Re- member that these things were done between the time when John- son became President (April 15, 1865) and the meeting of Congress in December of the same year. 3. Before the meeting, however, what laws were passed by Southern Legislatures, and with what effect ? Why, then, did Congress refuse to admit representatives and senators from the seceded States ? 4. What were the two essential features of the Congressional plan of reconstruction ? 5. You will observe the increasing bitterness of the disagreement be- tween Johnson and Congress. What was the Tenure of Office Act ? Why did Congress impeach the President? Which do you think had the right attitude toward the Tenure of Office Act, the Presi- dent or Congress ? Give reasons for your answer. 6. What effect did the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amend- ments have upon the political condition of the negro? What kind of voter and law-maker did he make ? What was the Ku-Klux Klan? 7. Note the dates, 1865-1871, of this reconstruction period and bear in mind the fact that Andrew Johnson was President nearly four of His name ever after remained Ulysses S. He was inaugurated as President March 4, 1869. At the close of his first term he was re-elected. After retiring from public life he made a tour of the globe, and received distinguished attention wher- ever he went 3H HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES these years. His administration was, in some ways, as critical as that of President Lincoln during the Civil War, 1861-1865. These two groups of dates are important enough for you to know them accurately. 8. Read the pages of McCulloch's Men and Measures of Half a Century that refer to the difficult problem of reconstruction. CHAPTER XX THE NEW SOUTH (1877- ) REFERENCES : Scribner's Popular History of the United States, V. ; An- drews's United States, II.; Andrews' Last Quarter Century, I.; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Richardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Wilson's A History of the American People, V.; Grady's New South; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Cyclopedic Review of Current History ; various magazine articles ; the IVorld and the Tribune almanacs, each issued annually. 372. President Hayes Withdraws the Troops from the South (1877). — When Hayes ^ became President many of the problems of reconstruction remained still unsolved. He nevertheless withdrew the Federal troops from the South, leaving the Southern people to settle their difficulties alone. This was a wise measure, for, as long as Federal bayonets were employed in the South, Southern men were kept in a state of irritation against the Federal government. The Republican governments in the South had been supported by Federal troops, but as soon as they were withdrawn the Democrats got control. The South was now "solid"; that is, the solid white ^ vote was in control and was Demo- cratic. * Rutherford B. Hayes, nineteenth President of the United States (1877-1881), was born in Delaware, Ohio, in 1822, and died in Fremont, Ohio, 1893. After graduating from Kenyon College he studied law at Harvard University. Entering the Union army during the Civil War, his gallantry and meritorious service led to his promotion to the rank of brigadier-general. In 1865 he resigned his commission because he had been elected to represent his district in Congress. Three times he was elected governor of Ohio. His popularity in that great State had a large influ- ence in securing his nomination by the Republicans for the Presidency. ■* Only a small fraction of the whites joined the negroes in voting the Republican ticket. 365 366 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 373. Eads and the Mississippi Jetties (1879). — Hayes*s administration was fortunate enough to accomplish a great engineering achievement of vast importance to the South. The Mississippi River brings down large quantities of mud which, in its natural course, it deposits when its current The mud bars at bccomcs slowcr ou reaching the Gulf of Mex- the mouth of the ico. Thcsc dcposits fill up the channel at the" Mississippi. mouth of the river, thereby preventing the passage of heavy ships. Formerly these mud bars were a great hindrance to the shipping industry of this great sea port of the Southwest, and many mill- ions were expended both by the United States Government and Louisiana for the removal of the bars and the deep- ening of the channel ; but the work was not successful. In 1874 Captain James B. Eads, an engineer who had built the magnificent steel bridge spanning the Mississippi River at St. Louis, proposed a different plan. He had noticed that where the river was narrow and the current swift the channel was also deep. He be- lieved, therefore, that by narrowing the river at the mouth a deeper, swifter current could be secured, which by its natural force would ca tain Eads make and keep the channel free from ob- proposesthe structing dcposits. Hence he proposed the •• jetty system." u j^^^y systcm," which had been in use in Europe for more than a century. Captain Eads met with great opposition, but Congress finally allowed him (1875) to make a trial of his plan on one Success of the of the Smaller mouths. In the contract time, p'a"- four years, he succeeded in all he had planned to do, and made the channel deep enough to float the heavi- est steamships as far up the river as New Orleans. This was a gigantic undertaking, but its success has brought great increase of wealth both to New Orleans and the country at large. RUTHERFORD 1!. HAYES. THE NEW SOUTH 367 Cotton. 374. The New South.— As the wSouth became politically peaceful her industries took a new start. We have al- ready noted that before the war the Southern people be- lieved that slavery was necessary for the cultivation of their staples, especially cotton. Statistics since the war show us how greatly they erred in this belief. The largest cotton crop under slavery was about four and a half million bales (i860); in 1900 it was more than ten million bales. The South furnishes about five-sevenths of the world's supply ol cotton. The United States exported dur ing the tiscai year ending June 30, 1903, raw cotton valued at more than $316,000,- cx)o, and supplied our own mills with near- ly two -sevenths as much. We must re- member, too, that this is in spite of the fact that much labor has been turned in other directions. The South is no longer exclusively devoted to agriculture. There is scarcely an industry com- lijon to other parts of the country which has not been taken up there. Before the war there were very few railroads, the great network of rivers forming natural highways for trade, except in mountainous regions. But since the war railroads have spread in every direction, and hundreds of mills and factories have sprung up. It is not too much to say that the vSoiith promises to be- come unsurpassed in the production of manufactured goods. It has been predicted that the mountainous area including EADS RRIDOR OVKK lilK MISSISSIPPI AT ST. LOUIS. Copyright, /goj, by Underwood 6^ Underwood, New J 'ork. Railroads. 368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES southern Tennessee, northern Alabama, and northern Geor- gia, may in time take the lead of the world in the produc- tion of iron and steel. It is of g-reat advan- Manufacturing. ^ . . i r . • • " i • . , , . tage to the lactones m this region that their raw materials, cotton, iron, coal, and lumber, are close to the manufacturing centres. The mountains of Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia Natural mineral fiimish rich mineral products, including the resources. fincst marble in the country and extensive coal-helds. It is estimated that at the present rate of con- A COTTON PRESS YARD, NEW ORLEANS. sumption these coal-fields could supply the world for one hundred and fifty years. Since 1880 the development of the new South has been almost as remarkable as that of the West. Northern capi- Prosperityin tal has flowcd in; the energies of Southern the South. men, held in check under the system of sla- veiy, have been directed to new industries; and the better class of negroes, forced to depend upon themselves, have worked harder and to better advantage. The South is no longer sectional. Her industries are varied; her interests and feelings are national. Nowhere does loyalty to the Union find more sincere expression than in the South. 375. The New Orleans Cotton Centennial (1884).— The improved state of the South, under the new conditions, was THE NEW SOUTH 369 particularly evidenced in 1884 by a great exhibition. In that year a Cotton Centennial was held at New Orleans, to commemorate the first shipment of cotton from the United States. In 1784 eight bags were shipped from Charleston, South Carolina; in 1884 nearly four million bales were ex- ported from our country. Two millions of these were sent from New Orleans, which had become the most important cotton port in the world. This Centennial Exposition was a striking revelation of the vast changes that had been taking place in New Orleans ^M^hrM^4?^^^^^^..jJZ^5^^- A SUGAR PLANTATION. since the close of the war. In i860 it was mainly a commer- cial city. Twenty-four years later it had noc only become a great railroad centre, but had an immense NewOrieans capital invested in various kinds of manufac- in 1884. turing and an export trade ranking second only to that of New York city. Its trade with foreign countries has been vastly increased by the construction of the Mississippi jetties. 376.- The Atlanta Exposition (1895). — Another evidence of the changes wrought in tlie industries of the South was the Cotton States and International Exposition, held at Atlanta, Georgia, in the autumn of 1895, To make a suc- cessful exhibit so soon after the World's Columbian Expo- sihion (1893) was a daring enterprise, but in beauty, extent, 370 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES STATE BUILDINGS, ATI-ANTA, GA. and significance, the result fully justified the attempt. The Exposition at Atlanta was a great object-lesson to the coun- try at large of the wonderful natural resources of the South, the variety of its manufactured products, the skill of its workmanship, and the surprising advance made by the negroes. 377. The Freedmen and Education (1865- ). — We hear much said about the race problem in the South, but education is slowly finding a way out of the difficulty. Since the w^ar the South has spent about $125,000,000 upon negro education, the Southern whites having cheerfully taxed themselves to give the blacks a start in life. The North, also, has contributed generously for the same pur- pose. The fund of $3,500,000 given by George Peabody for education in the South, and $i>ooo,ooo given by John F. Slater for educating the freedmen in the South, aided by the immense work done by various religious denominations ot the North, are causing rapid changes in the social and political conditions of that region. Then, too, such institutions as Hampton School (Hamp- ton, Virginia), Fiske University (Nashville), and Tuskegee THE NEW SOUTH 37* Normal and Industrial Institute (Tuskegee, Alabama) are giving young colored men and women the training best suited to make them leaders among their industrial prog- people in all parts of the South. In 1865 ressofihe the freedmen had no property ; the colored ♦•"^e^'^en. people in the whole country now have over $500,000,000 worth. This fact shows that the former slaves have made marvellous progress industrially. And the industrial train- ing that the normal schools for the colored people are now giving will still better prepare the freedmen to make intel- ligent use of their opportunities. TO THE PUPIL 1. Note the dates of the period you are now beginning to study, 1877- 1913. Grant was President in 1869-1877. Can you give in order the Presidents and the dates of their administrations, up to the time of Hayes's administration ? Do not fail to learn them. 2. Why did President Hayes withdraw the Federal troops from the South ? Do you think his action was wise ? Give reasons for your answer. What is meant by the ** solid SouJi " ? 3. What changes have been wrought in New Orleans since the war ? 4. In studying the important paragraph headed The New South, note the sub-topics — cotton, railroads, manufacturing, natural mineral re- sources. By a careful study of these sub-topics you will see clearly how different is the New South without slavery from the Old South with slavery. What has been done for the education of the freedmen^ and with what results ? CHAPTER XXI THE NEW WEST (1S65-- REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, V.; \ndrews's United States, II.; Andrews's Last Quarter Century, I. and II.; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Richardson's History of our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia; Cyclopcedic Review of Current History ; various magazine articles ; the IVorld and the Tribune almanacs, each issued annually. 378. Population and Immigration. — A reference to the table of population for the United States/ according to the census taken every ten years, from 1790 to 1910, will show that the increase has been exceedingly rapid. In 1900 the population was 75,568,686. In 1910 it was 91,972,266, mak- ing the rate of increase since 1900 more than one and one< half millions a year. A comparison of the table of population with the table of immigration will show that since i860 a large part of the increase has been due to immigration. From 1820 to 1790 3'929,2i4 iSoo 5,308,483 1810 7,239,881 1820 9>633>822 1830 12,866,020 1840 17,069,453 1850 23,191,876 * POPULATION, I 790-1910 1S60 1S70 1880. 1890. 1900. I910. 31,443,321 38,558,37^ 50,155,783 62,622,250 75,568,686 ^91,972,266 IMMIGRATION, 1820-I91O I.820-1S40 750,949 184I-1850 1,713.251 1851-1860 2,598,214 1861-1870 2,466,752 1871-1880 2,944,695 1881-1890.. 1 891-1900.. I901-1910.. 5,238,728 3,687,564 8,796,308 Total, 1820-1910. 17,722,600 28,196,461 10,473,861 *Total population of the U. S. and possessions is estimated to be about 101,100,000 372 THE NEW WEST 373 1910 more than 28,000,000 foreign immigrants came to the United States. In the decade preceding the last census (1901-1910) the number reached over eight immigration and a half millions, and during the years 1881- ^'"^ '^^^• 19 10 immigrants swarmed into the United States at an aver- age rate of nearly 600,000 a year; that is, nearly two-thirds of all the foreign immigration since 1820 came into this country during the last three census decades. It is estimated that the better classes of immigrants brought with them an average of at least $80 apiece, mak- ing a very large sum in the aggregate. If we add to this sum their power to produce wealth by their vaiueofimmJ- work, their contribution to the nation's wealth grants to the will be found to be enormous. Without for- ^"'*^' '*"*^^ eign immigrants, a large part of whom were skilled labor- ers when they came and have made valuable citizens, it would have been impossible to develop the resources and increase the wealth of the country so rapidly. But within the past thirty years the general char- acter of the immigrants has not been so good as formerly, the average of intelligence and morals being much lower than it was before that time. The worst elements among them, including paupers and criminals, become a burden upon society and seriously tax the strength of our republi- can institutions. 379. Influence of the Public Lands on our National Grov/th.— The foundation for our extraordinary national growth and increase in population has been the vast area of the public lands. These have been sold for very small sums in order to get them into the hands of the people, who have speedily brought them under cultivation. At first it was the policy of the government to sell these lands in order to increase the public revenue, but it was afterward thought wiser to use them for the purpose of developing the wealth and increasing the population of the country. In 1841, by what is called the pre-emption* > Pre-emption gives the settler the first right of purchase as against the investor or speculator. 374 HISTORY OF HIE UNITED STATES system, Congress began to sell fanns on the public lands The pre-emption at the low pHce of $1.25 an acre. This was sy**^""- upon condition that the purchaser would oc- cupy and cultivate the land. Easy as these terms were, more liberal ones were de- sired. The growing sentiment in the West was that the land belonged to the people and that the United States should grant free homes on the public domain. Finally, after much debate, Congress passed in 1862 the Homestead Bill, which is still in operation. The Homestead Bill. A CRIPPLE CREEK MINE. This enables settlers to secure farms of one hundred and sixty acres free of payment, except a small fee for legal ex- penses, on condition of settlement. This method has proved very successful .in establishing homes and communities, thus increasing the value of the lands and the strength of the nation. 380. Westward Expansion.—American history has been largely the history of westward movement from the Atlan- tic to the Pacific. At the close of the Revolution (1783) the area of settlement was confined, for the most part, bv tween the Alleghanies and the Atlantic. By 1825 it had rrached the Mississippi, by 1850 the Missouri,^ and by 1890 thf * The gold-mining region of California is not here taken into account. THE NEW WEST 375 Pacific coast.* We thus see that the westward movement was at first slow, requiring about one hundred and fifty years to reach the AUeghanies. But after 1825 it was wonderfully rapid. This marvel- lous expansion was in a large measure due to the opening of the prairies, which were easily brought under The opening of cultivation because they were almost free from the prairies, trees. In the forest-covered regions fartlier east, from forty to fifty days' labor was required to clear an acre of land for A REAPER. tillage, but only three or four days per acre were required in the prairie region. Moreover, the soil was rich and fer- tile and needed little cultivation. Another reason why people flocked to the West was be- cause of the great improvement in farm machinery. The McCormick Reaper (p. 264), which came into use about t86o, had a large influence. Drawn by two Reaping and horses, it could do as much as twenty men threshing using the " cradle.'' Yet it was but a beginning. '""''^•""• The reaper was followed by the self-binder, which not only cut the grain but bound it into sheaves. The self-binder gave place to the steam-driven thresher, and that in turn to the combined reaper and thresher. This complex machine, which is in general use on the vast wheat farms ^ of the Northwest, is either drawn by horses to the number of thirty or more, or propelled by steam. It cuts, threshes, cleans, • In 1889 North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington were ad- mitted to the Union, in 1890 Idaho and Wyoming, in 1896 Utah, and in 1907 Okla- homa, making the number of States in the Union forty-six. 'The wheat farms in the Red River Valley vary in size from 4,000 to 12,000 acres, but in recent year? the tendency has been to cut up these large farms into smaller ones. 37<^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and measures the grain, and puts it into bags. Tended by four men, it will cut 3,000 bushels in a day. Almost equally noteworthy was the change of method in breaking up the soil before planting or sowing the grain. The cast-iron plow, which could be drawn by a single horse, The steam- was an advancc upon the wooden mold-board driven gang=piow. Qf colouial days. But the pressing need for something better on the large farms of the West led to the invention of the steam-driven gang-plow. The one com- monly used will turn twelve furrows at one time and will plow in a ten-hour day from thirty-five to forty-five acres. •^ii^M*^, Mi£:^ Jj^*^ A STE.\M-DRIVENr GANG-PLOW. These variovis causes explain the great waves of migra- tion westward, which in turn produced tw^o important re- sults: (i) They made labor scarce, and therefore wages Results of west- high, in the East; (2) they led to an enormous ward migration, incrcase in food products, and therefore low- ered the cost of food. Both of these conditions were of im- mense advantage to the workingmen, and they help us to realize how much the general welfare of the people has been increased by the 'settlement and cultivation of the western part of the country. 381. The Mormons.— Among the many settlers of the West was a religious people who wished to enjoy their forms of worship and social customs without hindrance. THE NEW WEST 377 In 1839 the main body of these people, under the leader- ship of Joseph Smith, a native of Vermont, settled at Com- merce, Illinois, and built up the city of Nauvoo. Smith claimed to receive revela- tions from God, and to have discovered the Book of Mormon, which, according to his teaching, is a religious record of prehistoric America, containing the pure Gospel of Christ. He was the founder of the Church of the Latter- day Saints, otherwise known as Mormons. They prospered at Nauvoo, but had trouble with some of the other people of Illinois, and their leader fell a victim to mob violence. Owing to these troubles with their neighbors, the Mormons A THRESHER. went into the wilderness to find a place where they could live in peace and safety and in accordance with their own beliefs. Under their new prophet, Brigham Young, they soon after emigrated to the desert region of Salt Lake valley. There the Mormons prospered. With com- Thrift of the Mor. mendable industry and thrift they transformed """""^ '" ^*^''- the desert, by irrigation, into fertile land, and soon built Salt Lake City. Much credit is due to them for the rich culti- vation under which they brought the surrounding land. 382. The Pacific Coast and Chinese Immigration.— A less desirable increase of population came from the far East, at first in comparatively small numbers, but at length 28 378 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in such large bodies as to cause a general demand for re- pressive measures. These people were the Chinese. In 1888 the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed to prevent the further immigration into the United States of Chinese laborers. Althougli at that time not more than 100,000 Chi- nese were in tlie United States, 75,000 of whom were in California, tlie American people, especially those on the Pacific coast, were bitterly opposed to any further Chinese Three reasons for immigration. For this opposition there were ScscTmmi. several reasons, (i) The Chinese brought no eration. familics with them, because they did not intend to remain and become citizens; they showed little interest in American affairs and almost no inclination to adopt our customs. (2) As they lived more meanly than the whites, eating little but rice, they could work for lower wages, and in this way they greatly injured our laboring men. (3) It was feared that in time they might come over in such vast hordes as seriously to endanger our institutions. 383. The Pacific Railroads Furnish the Short North- west Passage to China, Japan, and the Indies. — It is well to remember tluit the westward growth of population has depended much on easy, cheap, and rapid transporta- tion, in which the railroad has played a most important part. The hrst trans-continental railroad, tlie Union and Central Pacific, was completed .in 1869. It extended from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco, California. Work had been progressing upon this road for six years, one party working east from San Francisco, the other west from Omaha. The parties met at Ogden, Utah. Since that time four other Pacific railroads have been built, so that there are The five Pacific now fivc grcat trunk lines connecting the At- werrt^'uc- l^^ntic with thc Pacihc coast. The value of ment. thcsc Pacific railroads to the United States can hardly be estimated, for they have brouglit into service immense areas of land otherwise of trilling value. Without these roads and their network of branches running in all directions through the agricultural and mining regions o\ £ I ■^.\ g 1 THE NEW WEST 379 the West, the, rapid settlements made in the last fifty years would have been impossible. At the close of the Revolution, Frederick of Prussia de- clared that no single republic could be held together in a territory so vast as that stretching from Maine to Georgia. He believed it would break into sections or give place to a monarchy. A like argument v/as made by a United States senator when the Oregon country came under discussion in 1843. This senator urged that such a far-off land could never become an integral part of the United States: that it would require ten months out of every twelve for the representatives in Congress from a State so remote to go to and from Washington. But we can now go The railroad and from Oregon to Washington in less time than {^eip t'mahllain John Adams could go from Boston to Phila- the union, adelphia in the days of the Continental Congress. Steam and electricity, applied to the transportation of men and ARTESIAN WELL SYSTEM, RIVERSIDE, CAL. AN AERATOR IN THE FOREGROUND. goods and the transmission of thought, enable us to main- tain a republic over an area of vast extent. It is difficult to see how the North, the South, the East, and the West, with their widely differing interests, could be held together in one great Union without the railroad and the telegraph. But the effects of the Pacific railroads on international 380 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES trade, also, have been striking. Americans in the nineteenth century have found what Europeans so eagerly sought in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries — a short A short route to northwcst passagc to China, Japan, and the China andjapan. £^5^ Indics. Formerly, vessels with tea from China and spices from the East Indies sailed around Cape Horn and reached our eastern coast after a five or six months' voyage. Now cargoes of these products are brought to San Francisco and reshipped by rail to New York, the whole distance being covered in five or six weeks. The Pacific railroads have thus not only shortened the journey between Asia and the United States, but have reduced the cost of goods by diminishing freight charges. 384. The Arid Region and the Problem of Irrigation.— With the extension of facilities for transportation the ^f^^.: AN IRRIGATED ORANGE GRO^^, RIVERSIDE, CAL. rapidly increasing population of the country began to turn to the districts that yet remained unoccupied. Under the Homestead Law nearly all the fertile land of the West, in regions of sufficient rainfall for agriculture, has been THE NLV/ WEST 383^^ taken up by settlers.* But there is a great district which is barren until it is improved by irrigation. This arid and semi-arid region extends from the looth meridian west- ward to a belt of country lying within about two hundred miles from the Pacific coast. It includes the whole of Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, and parts of Washington, Oregon, Califor- nia, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan- sas, and Texas. This vast region contains at least 1,000, oco square miles, or an area equal to more than two hundred States like Connecticut. The soil is of great depth, and is exceedingly fertile when watered by irrigating canals and ditches.^ Professor Shaler estimates that the area of this im- mense arid region which may be won to tillage by irrigation is probably not more than ten States like Connecticut. 385. Forest Reservations.— Under authority from Con- gress President Harrison withdrew from public sale 18,- 000,000 acres of forest-covered public lands. The move- ment in the direction of forest preservation is exceedingly important, because forests hold water in the ground and let it drain off gradually. They thus influence the volume of water in rivers, and therefore greatly aid irrigation. TO THE PUPIL 1. Why did our government, from the first, sell the public lands at very low prices ? What was the Homestead Bill ? 2. Trace on your map the advance of Western settlement and note the marvellous expansion due to the opening of the prairies. 3. What objections have been urged against Chinese immigration? What do you think of these objections ? What influence has the building of the Pacific railroads had upon trade with China, Japan, and the Indies? Upon Western settlement? In this connection re- view the pack-horse, the flat-boat, the steamboat, the national road, and the Erie Canal. 4. Trace on your map the arid region and show what connection irriga- tion has with it. How many States like your own could be included in this region ? ^ Areas of fertile land still open to settlement are found in the forest regions of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota, and in those west of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon and Washington. ^ Irrigation has been successfully introduced into many of the States of this region. CHAPTER XXII THE NEW UNION (1865) REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, V.; An- drews's United States, II.; Andrews's Last Quarter Century, I. and II. 1 Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Richardson's History of Our Country. OUTSIDE READINGS: Wilson's A History of the American People, V.} Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia; Cyclopedic Review of Current History; Field's Story of the Atlantic Telegraph; Elliott's Our Arctic Province; McCul- loch's Men and Measures of Half a Century ; Bourke's On the Border with Crook; Walker's Indian Question; Blaine's Twenty Years in Congress; Stan- wood's History of Presidential Elections; Woodburn's Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States ; various magazine articles ; the IVorld and the Tribune almanacs, each issued annually. 386. The Atlantic Cable (1866). — We have considered in some detail the development of the South and of the West. We have now to glance rapidly at some matters that concern the nation as a whole. One of the most im- portant facts in the history ot the country since the close of the Civil War is the invention that has made possible the instant transmission of thought to the most distant parts of the world. In 1858, after several unsuccessful efforts, the two continents were connected by a wire cable extending from Newfoundland to Ireland. Two ships, each contain- ing a section of the cable, met in mid-ocean, and, having The wire cable of spliccd the scctious, returned, the one toward 1858 is not sue- Newfoundland and the other toward Ireland, *^®^**"'* laying the cable as they went. The two ships reached land on the same day, and very soon afterward (August 16) the Queen of England sent to the President of the United States this message : "■ Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth and good-will to men." But within 382 THE NEW UNION 383 A MIDSHIP VIEW OF THE GREAT EASTERN, SHOWING ONE OF THE PADDLE- WHEELS AND THE LAUNCHING GEAR. Redrawn by pertnission froju a copyrighted picture in Gassier s Magazine. a month the cable failed to work, and not until 1866 did ocean cabling become permanently successful. Since that time communication between Europe and America has not been interrupted, and now ten lines cross the Northern Atlantic. The cable has largely Results of the affected commerce, because the market prices Atlantic cabie. in the great trade centres of America and Europe are re- ported every day, and large business transactions can easily be made in a few hours between American and European business houses. It has also brought the vari- ous parts of the civilized world into closer and more sympathetic relations, because the news of what is going on is so readily sent across the ocean. Our daily papers easily report European events a few hours after they have occurred. 29 384 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 387. The Purchase of Alaska (1867). — In 1867 our gov- ernment gave to Russia $7,200,000 for Alaska, an immense territory equal in area to about one hundred and twenty States like Connecticut. The purchase was then thought by many to be an extravagant waste of the public money, because Alaska ap- peared to be almost worthless. But the investment has proved to be a good one, the seal-fur trade alone being ^ , worth $2,500,000 a SAMUEL F. B. MORSES ORIGINAL MODEL OF THE ^^ -1 v ^ TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT. ycar. A^^Si-va lur- From the model in the Patent Office, Wachii.gtofi. OiSheS DCautltUt white marble, and has mines of coal, iron, and gold of great value. Alons^ many ot the streams are found rich forests, consisting Natural re- mainly of pine and cedar. The fisheries, sourccro; which includc salmon in the rivers and cod Ai.Tsi:-. ^j^^ halibut on the coast, are extensive. Be- sides all these natural resources Alaska has a coast well supplied with good harbors. By consulting the table below it will be seen that the entire area of the United States, exclusive of our island possessions, is now about 3,600,000 square miles, or nearly the size of all Europe.^ 388. Grant's Indian Peace Policy (1869). — The Indians had always been more or less troublesome on the frontier, and during the Civil War the Sioux had committed shock- Square Miles. * United States, in 1 783 827,844 Louisiana, 1803 1,171,931 Florida, 1 819 59,268 Texas, 1845 376,133 Mexican cession, 1848 545, 7^3 Gadsden purchase, 1853 45, 535 Alaska, 1867 577r3QO Total 3,603,884 THE NEW UNIUN 3>i5 ing outrages in Minnesota. Hall ot the expenses of our War Department, exclusive of those incurred by the Civil War, had been occasioned by Indian v^ars, and yet Failure of th« the Indians v^ere not subdued. The v^ar policy warpoucy. had failed, and therefore President Grant wisely adopted a peace policy. He had observed that the Cherokees^ had developed by themselves a good degree of civilization, and he believed that by kind treatment and education the more barbarous tribes might be trained into good citizenship. He therefore entrusted the management of a few reservations to the Society of Friends, with whom the Indians had always held peaceful re- lations. No Indian agent was to be appointed for these reservations with- out the approval of both the President and the Society. The system gradually extended to other reser- vations and to other religious denominations, with some success. The Indian could not immediately appreciate this new policy, however, and within a few years the Modocs (1872) and the Sioux (1876) both made outbreaks. There is no doubt that the Indian had grievances. He Grievances oi could not understand why the Great Father the Indians, in Washington should allow the white man to invade his reservations, as the white man did when he saw in them fertile soil and unworked gold mines. But a more crying evil was the dishonesty of Indian contractors, who were making money by cheating both the government and the * The five civilized tribes were the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles. They all lived on reservations in the Indian Territory. R. V. T. ALLEN'S ORIGINAL MODEL OF THE TYPEWKITER. From a model in the Patent Office, IFashington. 385 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Indians, and were ready to oppose any plan likely to inter- fere with their schemes. The government method of reservation was by treaty with the various tribes, the government agreeing to give yearly, for land yielded by the Indians, a quantity of The Indian reser- food, ammunition, and other supplies. The vation. food-supplies were to compensate for the loss of hunting-grounds, because hunting was the Indian's only means of support. Ammunition was to help them in secur- ing such gam 3 as their reservations supplied. The govern- ment made liberal promises for the comfort, education, and civilization of these Indians. The reservation system was, however, not successful, because under it the Indians were placed by themselves, out of contact with Why the reserva- the civil- tion system failed, i^ino* in* fluence of the whites. Moreover, it was im- possible for them to develop a spirit of manly independence ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELl/S ORIGINAL MODEL whcil SO mUCh WaS OF THE TELEPHONE RECEIVER AND TRANS- ' MiTTER. done for them. The From the jnodeUn the Patent Office, WasJnngton. rCSCrvatioU plaU madc the Indian a pauper. The "Dawes Act," passed in 1887, provided for indi- vidual ownership of land by the Indians. In the course of time it is hoped that the individual Indian, like tlie white man, will have his own farm and reap the fruits of his own toil. Individual ownership, along with industrial training and general education, will aid in making him a useful citizen. 389. The Financial Panic of 1873. — The Indian prob- lem, serious as it was, affected a comparatively small part of the population. Far different was the trouble that attended the financial crash of the year 1873. This panic was much like the panics of 1837 and 1857. It was preceded by a THE NEW UNION 387 period of general prosperity, and was brought on by rash speculations in Western railroads. For five years railroad building had been going on to such an extent speculation in that the railroad mileage in the United States [fj^J^rn'"'^ had increased one-half.* This excessive rail- lands, road building, which was in the West, increased more rap- idly than it could receive support from the population. Fortunes were made by some and lost by others in buying up tracts of lands in unsettled regions and increasing the value of that land by extending railroads through them. The speculative fever be- came so high that rail- roads w^ere built much faster than they were needed. As in 1857, the failure of a single great banking- house suddenly brought this panic upon the coun- try. Financial ruin fell upon business firms and ^^^„^ //,^ modeUn the Patent office, Washington. individuals, and want and suffering came into thousands of homes. It was six years before the country fully recovered. 390. Railroad Strikes (1877). — During the years of finan- cial distress following the panic of 1873, the earnings of the railroads were much reduced. In 1877 some of the railroads in the Middle and Western States lowered the wages of their men. Brakemen and other trainmen on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and on the Pennsylvania Railroad refused ^ In 1861 only 651 miles of railroad were built ; in 1871 7,779 miles were built. The Northern Pacific, extending from Duluth to Puget Sound, was the most impor- tant of these roads. During the five years preceding the panic, about $1,700,000,- 000 were spent in railroad building. ELIAS HOWE S ORIGINAL MODEL OF THE SEWING MACHINE. 388 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OPENING DAY AT THE PHILADELnilA CENTENNIAL, to work. Then men on other roads followed their example. Soon there w^ere bloody riots at Baltimore and Pittsburg, and large mobs in Chicago, St. Louis, and other cities. In Pittsburg a mob of 20,000 men had control of the city for two days, one hundred lives being lost. The State mi- litia and the United States troops united to stop violence, but it continued about two weeks. During that time 100,000 men took part in the strike, which resulted in the destruc- tion of ten million dollars' worth of property. 391. The Centennial Exhibition (1876). — But during these years of financial depression and industrial discontent the country gave striking evidence of its vast resources by holding the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 in honor of the hundredth anniversary of the founding of the nation. The place chosen was Philadelphia, the city in which the Dec- laration of Independence was given to the w^orld. This ex- hibition taught the people many things. It showed them the wonderful results that had been brought about by THE NEW UNION 389 What the Cen- tennial taught the people. A close election. machinery and invention in all countries. It quickened their sympathies and turned their attention toward art. But education, especially, received such an impetus that the good results have steadily increased. The Centennial Exhibition also re- vealed to America, as well as to the rest of the world, the richness and the variety of our natural productions and the superiority of this country over all others in useful inven- tions. Two of the most wonderful of these were the telephone^ and the application of elec- tiicity to lighting purposes. 392. The Electoral Commission and the Presidency (1877). — In the Presi- dential election of 1876 there were dis- putes about the election returns made in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisi- ana.^ Hayes, the Republican candidate, needed all the electoral votes from these States to secure his election, while Tilden, the Democratic candidate, needed only one. Florida and Louisiana had given Dem- ocratic majorities, but the *' returning boards," who received the election returns as they came in from various parts of the State, were Republican, and threw out enough votes, on the charge of intimidation, to make a Republican majority. The people were much disturbed, and feared there might be serious results. The excitement increased as the time drew near for the new President to be inaugurated. The Senate being Repub- lican and the House Democratic, they could not unite upon any plan of seating either of the rival candidates. Finally a bill passed both Houses providing that a " Joint High Commission" should be appointed, whose decision should * The inventor of the telephone, which came at once into practical use, was Alexander Graham Bell, of Massachusetts. The American Bell Telephone Com- pany was soon incorporated, and lines rapidly multiplied. • There was some dispute about the election in Oregon also. SAMUEL J. TILDEN. 390 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES be final. The commission included five senators, five rep- resentatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. The The "Joint High fifth justicc was appointed by the other four Commission." named in the bill. Before the fifth justice was appointed, seven of the commission were Republicans and seven were Democrats. It was expected that the fifth justice would be an independent, but circumstances caused a Republican to be selected, thus giving the Republicans a majority of one on the commission. On March 2, just two days before the time set by the Constitution for Decision in favor inauguration, the deci- of Hayes. gion in favor of Hayes was published. Opinions were di- vided as to the correctness of the returns, but whichever candidate was elected, the decision of the uncer- tain question was final. The people throughout the land, Democrats and Republicans alike, had shown re- TAMES A. GARFIELD. i , i . , i i r ^ i markable wisdom and seii-control during all the months of the trying situation.^ 393. Resumption of Specie Payment (1879). — The finan- cial disturbance of 1873 and subsequent years was partly caused by the instability of the currency and the undue en- couragement thereby given to speculation. Nobody knew exactly how much a dollar was worth or how much it was likely to be worth. This condition was unavoidable during the Civil War, but it was intolerable in a time of peace. During the Civil War so much money was needed to carry on the extensive military operations that the gov- ernment and the banks could not furnish gold and silver enough for the unusnal demands. Congress, therefore, like * To provide tor possible contested elections in the future the Electoral Count Bill was passed in 1887. This measure threw the responsibility of Presidential elections upon the States, and provided that electoral certificates sent to the national capital by the various States should be opened by the president of the Senate in the presence of both Houses, and that four tellers, two from each House, should read aloud and make record of the votes. THE NEW UNION .^91 the Continental Congress of the Revolution, issued millions of dollars of paper currency, which the people used instead of gold and silver. These paper notes were Greenbacks dur- called greenbacks. As they were ** legal ingthecivii tender" — that is, the law declared that they ^"'** might be used in paying debts — everybody was willing to make free use of them. Gold, however, remained the stand- ard of value, and the value of the greenbacks depended SUPREME COURT ROOM, CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. upon the defeats and victories on the battle-field. When the Northern armies Avon a great victory, the greenbacks rose in value ; when they met with a severe defeat, the green- backs fell in value. While the war was most threatening they were worth, in gold, little more than one-third of their face value, because the prospect of Northern success was very gloomy. After the war, when the government began to pay the national debt rnpidly, people began to have more and more 29 392 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ronfidence in these paper promises issued by Congress, and the greenbacks steadily rose in value. In 1879 the Secre- flreenbacks be- ^^^T ^^ the Treasury announced that he would come as good as givc gold for paper currency if it were pre- ^^^^' sented at the Treasury. This action of the Secretary of the Treasury meant the resumption of specie payment by the government, and from that time on a paper dollar was worth as much as a gold dollar. 394. Assassination of President Garfield 1 (1881) ; Civil Service Re- form (1883-1886).— When this impor- tant question of the currency was set- tled, the new administration of Gar- field, who was elected in 1880, seemed to be opening a new era of prosperity. But only a few months after his inaug- uration the country was shocked by the announcement of his assassination (July 2, 1881). The assassin being a disappointed ofihce-seeker, the tragedy brought forcibly to the minds of the people the great need of civil service reform. President Jackson had intro- duced the spoils system into the civil service in order to reward his political friends. Appointments were not made CHESTER A. ARTHUR.^ ^ James A. Garfield, twentieth President of the United States, was born at Orange, Ohio in 1 831, and died September 19, 1881, from a wound inflicted by a disappointed office-seeker. In early childhood Garfield's path was beset with difficulties. He was but two years of age when his father died, and his home, in a lonely log-cabin of the backwoods, was one of poverty and hardship. But the boy cheerfully helped his mother in supporting the family. After being graduated from Williams College he was for a time a college professor, and afterward studied law. Owing to his gallantry and daring on the battle-field in the Civil War he was pro- moted to the rank of major-general. His term of service in Congress (1863- 1880) was so successful that he was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1880. Before taking his seat, however, he was nominated by the Republicans for the Presidency. He was the second President who was assassinated and the fourth who died in office. ' Chester A. Arthur, twenty-first President of the United States (1881-1885), was born in Fairfield, Vermont, in 1830, and died in 1886. After being graduated frora THE NEW UNION 393 by reason of fitness for the work, but were distributed as rewards for political services. In 1883 ^^^ a^ct was passed by Congress authorizing the President to appoint civil service examiners, who should test by fair examinations, without regard to Reform in the party, the fitness of applicants for office. civu service. From the list of those passing the civil service examinations appointments and promotions were to be made. In accord- ance with this act, during the next twenty years about 110,000 office- holders were put under Rapid growth of civil service rules. As the reform, a result all Federal officers are now under civil service reform rules, except two classes: (i) The higher officers, including the heads of de- partments, and (2) postmasters in fourth-class offices.^ These 110,000 positions are now filled by those who have successfully passed the civil service examinations without any reference to changes in Presidential administrations. The spoils system in the Federal civil service has become largely a thing of the past. Experience, training, ability — in a 1-i GROVER CLEVELAND.' Union College he studied law and became a successful lawyer. In 1871 President Grant appointed him Collector of the Port of New York. Having been elected Vice-President by the Republicans in 1880, he succeeded to the Presidency on the death of Garfield. He was the fourth Vice-President who thus became the e-xecu- tive head of the nation. ^ Of those not yet classified, over 72,000 are postmasters of the fourth class. These include postmasters receiving salaries of $1,000 or less a year. ^ Grover Cleveland, twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of the United States (1885-1889 and 1893-1897), was born in Caldwell, New Jersey, in 1837. In his early childhood the family removed to New York State. Later, he became a lawyer and took high rank in his profession. After filling the offices of assistant district attorney and sheriff of the county he was elected Mayor of Buffalo. In this position he so fearlessly used his veto power that he was called the "veto mayor." His success as mayor led to his nomination by the Democrats, in 1882, for gov- 394 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES word, personal fitness to perform the duties of the office — ■ are now demanded in our civil service. 395. The Brooklyn Bridge (1883).— In the same year that Congress passed the act for civil service reform, another great work affecting the public good was accomplished. This was the completion of the Suspension Bridge spanning East River and connecting Brooklyn with New York. The bridge was sixteen years in building, and cost $16,000,000, It is 85 feet wide, and is more than a mile long, its centre being supported by four main cables made of steel wire nearly 16 inches in diameter. There are five passage- ways— two for cable- cars, two for drive- ways, and a middle one for foot-passen- gers. In design and construction it is a most stupendous work of engineering. 396. Presidential Succession Act (1886). — A great nation like this should not be kft for a single day without a Pres- ident. Congress had already passed a law that in case of the death or disability of both President and Vice-Presi- dent, the temporary president of the Senate and, following him, the Speaker of the House, should become President. But in case either of the last named should be of the oppo- ernor of the State of New York, to which office he was elected by an overwhelming majority. Owing to his popularity in New York the Deiiiocrats nominated him for the Presidency in 1884. James G. Blaine was nominated by the Republicans. The political campaign was exciting and resulted in Cleveland's election. At the close of his first term he was defeated by Benjamin Harrison, but in 1892 he in turn defeated President Harrison and became President for a second term. BROOKLYN BRIDGE. ONE OF THE LARGEST SUSPENSION BRIDGES IN THE WOXLD. Copyright, igoi. by Underwood &" Undernuood, New York. THE NEW UNION 395 site party, their succession would not represent the choice of the people, and the plan was therefore not considered satisfactory. In 1886 an act was passed providing that in case of the death or disability of both the President and Vice-President, members of the Cabinet should, one after another, be made Acting President as long as the disability existed, or until the next election of a President by the peo- ple. The duty would fall first upon the Secretary of State, and then upon the other members of the Cabinet in the order of establishment of the various departments.^ Such members as might in any way be disqualified would be passed over. There is scarcely an emergency now in which the country could be left without a President.^ 397. Knights of Labor. — We have already noted (see par. 390) the great railroad strike of 1877. Within ten years there were many similar troubles between working- men and their employers. In order to strengthen them- selves for a struggle with employers the workingmen formed large organizations, one of which, the Knights of Labor, contained many thousand members and exerted a large influence all over the country. The members of the organization, calling themselves union men, would suddenly quit work, or strike, when they wished to force their em- ployers to grant them higher wages or shorter hours. The employers, in, turn, united against the work- Brack lists and ingmen by making out " black lists," contain- boycotting, ing the names of the more influential union men, whom the employers would, from that time forward, refuse to em- ploy. The workingmen sometimes resorted to "bo3xot- ting,** which was refusing to have any business relations * The order in which the various Cabinet positions were created was: (i) Sec- retary of State, 1789; (2) Secretary of the Treasury, 1789; (3) Secretary of War, 1789; (4) Attorney-General, 1789; (5) Postmaster-General, 1789; (6) Secretary of the Navy, 1798; (7) Secretary of the Interior, 1849; (8) Secretary of Agri- culture, 1889; (9) Secretary of Commerce and Labor, 1903. ' President Garfield died in September, nearly three months before Congress as- sembled, and during the intervening period President Arthur was critically ill. Had he died at that time there might have been some confusion in the administra- tion of the government. 396 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES with the man they wished to injure, either by using any goods he had manufactured or by handling them even for transportation. In most cases both parties gained Httle by their unfortunate attempts to injure each other. 398. The Statue of Liberty (1886). — In pleasing con- trast with these serious labor troubles was an international event that took place in New York City in 1886. This was the unveiling of the enormous statue of " Liberty Enlight- ening the World," which was given by Frenchmen to the people of the United States as an expression of friendly feeling toward our country. The statue cost more than $200,000 and was paid for by 100,000 Frenchmen. It was placed on Bedloe's Island — now called Liberty Island — in New York Bay. The height of the statue is 151 feet and of the pedestal 155 feet. 399. Oklahoma Opened to Settlement (1889). — The rapid growth of population west- ward began at last to press upon the Indian reservation. That part of Indian Territory called Oklahoma was a large and fertile stretch of country especially coveted by white settlers. The United States therefore finally purchased it from tlie Indians in 1889, and President Harrison, by proc- lamation, declared it open to settlement. By nightfall of the day of occupation (April 22, 1889) several thousand persons had staked out their claims in Guthrie and had taken steps to form a city government. Before the year THE STATUE OF LIP.KRTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR. THE NEW UNION 397 came to a close the territory had nearly or quite 60,000 people, 8,000 of whom were in Guthrie and Rapid growth of 5,000 in Oklahoma City. The population of Oklahoma. Oklahoma in 1900 was 398,331. In 1907 this territory and Indian Territory were admitted into the Union as one State, Oklahoma. 400. Pension Bill (1890). — In 1890 Congress passed a Pension Bill which was very liberal to the soldiers and sail- ors injured in defending the Union during the Civil War. In accordance with this measure the government paid in pensions, to the close of 1903, more than $137,000,000 a year, on an average. This sum will be diminished gradually as our veterans pass away. No other nation has ever before been so liberal to its soldiers and sailors, nor has any other na- tion, with the possible exception of Germany, ever had in its service an army and navy ranking so high in intelligence and fighting ability. Well may we be proud of American manhood as it was seen on the battle-fields of this war. 401. The Pan-American Congress (1889-1890).— The attention of the people of this country during the past generation has naturally been given, for the most part, to questions of internal polity and development. But ques- tions of wider import have now and then been brought to the front. The relations of this country to the coun- tries of South America present a still unsettled problem. More than one American statesman has cherished the hope of bringing about closer relations and more friendly feel- ings between the United States and the leading independent countries of North and South America. Hence our gov- ernment invited these countries to send representatives to a congress to meet at Washington. The invitation was accepted, and the Pan-American Congress was held in the autumn of 1889. Seventeen coun- tries were represented by sixty-six members. Questions concerning closer business relations and bet- what the Pan- ter means of communication between the American con- various countries represented in the Con- eressdid. gress were discussed. But by far the most important work of the Pan-American Congress was its rccommcnrlntion 398 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES SENATE CHAMBER, WASHINGTON, D. C. that the republics of North, Central, and South America should settle by arbitration all disputes and difficulties that might arise among them. 402. Trouble with Italy (1890) and with Chili (1891).— The desirability of a system of arbitration with foreign Assassination of couutrics was made suddenly and painfully tiie New Orleans evidcnt. In 1890, ou the failure of the jury to Chief of Police. couvict some Italians on trial for assassinating the New Orleans Chief of Police, a party of lynchers, in- dignant at this failure of justice, broke into the jail and Three Italian put to death elevcu Italian prisoners. As citizens lynched, three of thcsc men were Italian citizens there was serious trouble with Italy over the lynching; but through our able Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, a satisfactory settlement was reached when our government agreed to pay $25,000 to the families of the murdered men. Equally unexpected and unwelcome was the complica- tion with Chili. In 1891, in the streets of Valparaiso, a mob THE NEW UNION 399 HALL OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, WASHINGTON, D. C. attacked^ some sailors from the American warship Balti- more, killing- two of them and wounding- eighteen others. When the United States demanded satisfaction, Chili dis- avowed the act and agreed to pay damages to our govern- ment. 403. Our New Navy (1883- ). — These various diffi- culties with foreign nations showed the need of a more powerful navy. During the twenty years succeeding- the Civil War nothing was done to build up or Need of a new maintain our navy. The ships that had served "^^y- during the war had either been disposed of or had gradu- ally become useless through age. Such a navy could af- ford but small protection to our commerce and extensive sea-coast, and was unworthy of a great nation like the United States. ' A revolution having broken out in Chili, our Minister there took sides with the Chilian president. Moreover, a Chilian cruiser had been seized in a port of California because she was thought to be on the point of sailing with a supply of arms for the revolutionists. Hence the anger of the Chilian mob. 30 400 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Finally, people began to realize its worthlessness and took measures to improve its condition. Accordingly, in 1883 Congress authorized the building of four steel cruis- The strength of ers. This was a beginning. Since that time our navy. Other cruiscrs of great strength and speed, and battle-ships of immense power, have been brought into use. The cruisers are for the protection of our commerce and the destruction of the enemy's com- merce in case of war. 404. The Australian Ballot System Introduced into Most of the States (1888-1892).— By the year 1888 public opinion demanded a sweeping reform in the methods of voting at State and Demoralizing national elections. Votes effect of buying were SO easily bought and ''°*^^- sold that the results of the election in some cases seemed to depend in a large measure upon the JAMES G. BLAINE. amouut of moucy spent in buying votes. This was a serious menace to our institu- tions and was highly demoralizing. The feeling of the peo- ple against this corruption of American manhood soon ex- pressed itself in an emphatic way. State after State passed ballot-reform laws, the purpose of which was to lessen vote- buying and to give voters a better opportunity to cast a secret ballot. These laws provided for a method of voting called the Australian ballot system. By this plan every voter could shut himself in a stall and there prepare and fold his ballot, so that no one could know how he voted or interfere in any way with his choice. By 1892 thirty-seven of the States, with the aid of both of the great political parties, had passed such ballot-reform laws. 405. The Bering Sea Trouble Settled by Arbitration (1886-1893). — This movement, important as it was, aroused no great attention abroad. But an international question that had remained long unsettled threatened for a time to embroil us with Great Britain. After the purchase of THE NEW UNION 401 THE NEW BATTLESHIP MAINE. Alaska (1867) the United States claimed entire control of the seal-fisheries in Bering Sea. England insisted that the jurisdiction of our government could not extend beyond three miles from the shore, and she therefore encouraged Canadian sailors in seal-catching outside the ^^ j^^^ ^^^ ^^^ three-mile limit. So great had become the united states destruction of seals that their extermination '^'^^st''*®- seemed only a matter of a few years. In 1886, when our cruisers seized Canadian vessels and confiscated all their cargoes of seal-furs, the dispute between the United States and England became serious. After a warm diplomatic correspondence the matter was referred to a tribunal of arbitration, which decided (1893) that the United States had no right to con- trol the seal-fisheries beyond the three-mile limit. But in making careful provision for the protection of the seals, the decision was satisfactory to the United States, whose main purpose was to prevent the destruction of the seals. The settlement of this dispute without an ap- peal to arms was, like the settlement of the Alabama Claims (1871), another triumph for arbitration. 406. The United States and the Hawaiian Revolution (1893-1894). — In 1893 a revolution broke out in Hawaii.^ The revolutionists at once appointed a committee of safety * Hawaii was annexed to the United States in 1898, and was made a Territory The decision. \n 1000. 402 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES which organized a provisional government and sent com. missioners to Washington to secure a treaty of annexation. The treaty was arranged and sent by President Harrison^ to the Senate for confirmation. But before the Senate could act upon it President Harrison's term of office had expired (March 3). Five days after taking his seat, Presi- dent Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent to Hawaii a minister who recommended that the queen be restored to her throne. Con- gress, however, refused to take any action. 407. The World's Columbian Exposition (1893). — Our history opened with the discovery of Amer- ica by Columbus in 1492. Four hundred years later the great Co- lumbian Exposition in Chicago cel- ebrated that event. This exhibition surpassed all previous international exhibitions, being regarded as one of the marvels of the world. The location on the lake front wa? most fortunate, and the building? were wonderful in their grandeur and beauty. The deaication exercises were held October 21, 1892, and the fair was for- mally opened in May, 1893. Foreigners were greatly im- pressed by the evidence of the growth of our people in higher than industrial lines; and Americans were justly proud of the intellectual and artistic advance of their country. BENJAMIN HARRISON. ' Benjamin Harrison, twenty-third President of the United States (1889-1893), was born in North Bend, Ohio, in 1833, and died in 1901. After being graduated from Miami University, he studied law in Cincinnati, removed two years later to Indianapolis, and soon won much success in his chosen profession. In 1862 he entered the Union army as a lieutenant, and a little later, having organized a company of an Indiana regiment, received the commission of colonel of the regiment. He remained in the army throughout the war and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. He became a United States Senator in 1 88 1 and ably repre* sented the State of Indiana. He was elected President in 1S88. AT THE world's FAIR. The Administration Building on Chicago Day. THE NEW UNION 403 408. Financial Panic of 1893. — While the country was still celebrating the great achievement of Columbus, there came, almost without warning to ordinary observers, one of the worst financial panics the United States has ever passed through. It was called the panic of 1893. There were bus- iness failures and financial distress everywhere. As great manufacturing establishments could not sell their goods, many of them shut down their factories altogether or ran them on shorter hours. Soon there were hundreds of thousands of workingmen out of work, with suffering and want in their families. President Cleveland, believinof that silver legislation was one of the principal causes of the panic, summoned Congress to repeal the Sherman Act, which it did (November, 1893) after a long and bitter struggle. 409. Silver Legislation (1873-1893).— By 1873 the silver dollar, having become worth more than the gold dollar, had practically passed out of circulation. Very little silver had been coined in the United States since 1834, 'ind for more than twenty years the yield from newly discovered gold mines had been so abundant that it was gener- silver demone- ally supposed, both here and abroad, that the tizedimsja. supply of gold would be sufficient to provide all the specie the world needed. Congress therefore passed a coinage act (1873) which demonetized silver by declaring that it should no longer be a legal tender for debts. But many people desired to have more gold and silver money in circulation. Accordingly, in 1878, the Bland Silver Bill was passed, which not only made silver a legal tender for debts, but also directed that the TheBiand mints should coin not less than two, nor more stiver bui. than four, million silver dollars a month. In spite of this extensive purchase of silver by the government, however, there was a demand for a still larger purchase. Congress, therefore, passed the Sherman Act (1890), which modified the Bland Bill by providing The Sherman that the Secretary of the Treasury should pur- ^^t- chase not less than $4,000,000 worth of silver bullion each month and pay for it by issuing Treasury notes which were 404 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES a legal tender for all debts, and redeemable in gold or silver coin at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury. The purchase of silver was therefore increased, but its coinage was no longer compulsor3\ 410. The Tariff Question. — During the Civil War du- ties on foreign goods were raised repeatedly for increased revenue to meet the enormous expenses of maintaining the army and navy. After the war no change worthy of mention was made for about twenty-five years. Dur- inof Mr. Cleveland's first administra- tion (i 885-1 889) it was found that the $100,000,000 internal revenue on to- Tr:a?„r;Vv''e% bacco and spirituous liq . year. uors, and the duties on foreign goods, piled up in the national treasury $100,000,000 every year, after all the expenses of the government were paid. President Cleveland there- fore recommended such a reduction in the tariff as would make the revenue and the expenses more nearly equal. The Mills Bill, representing the pol- icy of the President, was passed in the House but failed in the Senate. In the election of a President and a Congress in 1888 the tariff was the main issue between the two great parties, the Democrats and the Republicans. The Democrats de- manded a tariff lor revenue only, and the Republicans a high tariff for the protection of American manufactures. The Republicans were successful not only in electing the President, Benjamin Harrison, but in getting control of both TheMcKiniey Houscs of Congress. The outcome was the Bill. passage of the McKinley Bill in the interests of a high taritt to protect and stimulate American manu- factures. In the Presidential election of 1892 the tariff plank was the principal difference between the platforms of the Re- publicans and the Democrats. As in 1888, the Repub- WILLIAM MCKINLEY. THE NEW UNION 405 lican policy was a high protective tariff, while the Demo- cratic policy was a tariff for revenue only. The Democrats were successful, electing the President and an overwhelm- ing majority in the House of Representatives. As soon as they came into office they set about a revision of the tariff by passing the Wilson Bill, which, in its final form, differed from the McKinley Bill mainly in the degree of protection it called for.^ In other words, the Wilson Bill stood for a moderately low protective tariff; the McKinley Bill for a high protective tariff. 411. The Pullman Boycott and the Great Railroad Strike (1894). — The financial depression of 1893 caused such a decrease in travel that there was little demand for the sleeping-cars furnished to numerous railroads by the Pull- man Car Company, located at Pullman, Illinois, near Chi- cago. Its income being greatly lessened, the Pullman Company decided upon a reduction of wages. When, on re- ceiving notice of this reduction, 3,000 of the workmen went out on strike, the company shut down its works. The outcome was a strike which soon spread to twenty- two railroads running out of Chicago. Business in Chicago was prostrate, and travel became dangerous. The usual large supplies of meat and provisions going out to various parts of the country from that city were cut off, and a meat famine was threatened. Various kinds of trade and in- dustry throughout the land were thrown into confusion. To aid the local authorities in putting an end to the disorder in Chicago, 2,000 United States troops and 4,000 state militia were sent there. During the strike, the worst of which was over at the end of three weeks, the money losses to workingmen, railroads, and the United States Govern- ment were not less than $7,000,000. 412. The Anglo-Venezuelan Difficulty and the Mon- roe Doctrine (1895-1897). — For a long time there had been a dispute between Venezuela and England about the boun- * As an amendment to the Wilson Bill, an Income Tax of two per cent, on all incomes of more than $4,000 a year was proposed, but the Supreme Court decided by a vote of five to four that such a national tax was unconstitutional. 30 4o6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES THE INAUGURATION OF WILLIAM McKINLEY. dary line separating Venezuela from British Guiana. By 1895 the dispute had become serious, and our government tried — as it had for years been trying — to induce England to submit the whole question to arbitration. The English Government declared, however, that England and Vene- zuela could settle their own disputes, without aid or inter- ference from the United States. Our government answered that if, in this controversy, England insisted upon enforcing her claims to territory not shown to be rightfully her own, she was violating the Monroe Doctrine. In the high- spirited diplomatic correspondence between the two govern- THE NEW UNION 407 ments, our Secretary of State, Richard Olney, argued the American side with great vigor and ability. There was, for a short time, talk of war; but this war feeling quickly sub- sided, and England and Venezuela agreed to settle their boundary dispute by arbitration. A most fortunate out- come of the Anglo-Venezuelan dispute was a growing feel- ing on the part of a large number of people in both the United States and England in favor of the settlement of difficulties between the two countries by arbitration. 413. The Presidential Campaign of 1896. — Scarcely had the excitement over the Anglo- Venezuelan difBculty passed when the United States entered upon an experience which can never be forgotten. This was the Presidential campaign of 1896. The two leading political questions Free silver and to be answered by the people were as follows : the tariff. (i) "Shall we have free and unlimited coinage of silver, or shall we maintain a gold standard ? ** (2) " Shall we have a protective tariff, or a tariff for revenue only?" When the Republicans met in their National Convention to make nominations for President and for Vice-President they declared in their platform that they were in favor of a protective tariff, and that they were " opposed to the free coinage of silver, except by international agreement with the leading commercial nations of the world." The convention nominated William McKinley, of Ohio, for President, and Garrett A. Hobart, of New Jersey, for Vice- The Republicans President. The Democratic Nominating- Con- nominate McKin. 1 1 1 ti . • 1 r 1 r '®y ^"^ *''^ Dem- vention "demanded, m its platform, "the free ocrats Bryan. and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present legal rate of 16 to i, without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation." This Convention also declared itself in favor of a tariff for revenue only, and nominated William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, for President. Some Democrats, believing in a gold standard, would not join the silver movement, and nominated their own candidates for President and Vice-President; while many voters, who were called Populists, believing that the gov- ernment should own and manage all railroads and telegraph 4o5 HISTORY OF T:-IE UNITEr STATES lines, just as it owns a:: i :".:::-i^^5 : > :: : .::ed Still other candidates. After an intensely earnest and ser . - : ^ M. Kin- ley was elected, and was :: -V. .:.::.::: i r:i> .: :: >.:. s. 1897.* Heat once set abou: :.:;: r;: /:<:.:: j: :::^ ::.::z . . ^... - ing a special session of Congress, The resuli was the pas- sage of the " Dingier Tariff" (Jii^' -4» i^~ ^ - the duties on foreign goods in accordance w <;> made by the Republicans in the Presic; ^ . of i: I, Al:iioug:h the eve: TO THE PVrIL lisc-ssed u = der •' The Nevr U" 2, DiscL-s^ : : value 15 A.-i own does i:: 3, What -rieva :va:::ca svs:er::. ar^c whv ha; 4, Subject :\— .■-:r.i:-:: R-js::- t : .- . Ex 6, W'r.:-.: ^.icu^cv w.i> :;:-; :■. how -.vas it settled - Oh? cexit in iS — -:S5:, N.-. ■-: the Indian has h- : . • o:" : >-; .■ .■ > .-^v :he ::::. \V-a: c:^ the Ce: * WilUam McKinley. twertcy-mcii Prx > f L'meevi States \ i ^97). wis hora at Niles, Tnimbull County, Ohio, in iSc- - ' ■". tcjoi. When the Civtl War began he was a teacher in a countnr schooi. -ly seventeen years old Ite enlisted as a private in the 23d Ohio Reg-l w i< .v"-.:v.%"d:d \%tc-r Vv Rntherford E. Hayes. Young McKinley fouc tarn, Opeqnan, Fisher^s Hill, and Cedar Creek. . , > , . : major. After the war was over he studied law and began the successtu" h in Canton, Ohio. In 1S77 he entered Congress as a Republican re^. - -- r from Ohio, and served almost continuously until iSqi. I>ttr£ng his last terir.. as Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, he liecame the aut" - :""? McKinley Bttl. In 1S91, and again in 1S93;, the Republicans e Governor of Ohio, and be gave evidence of rare tact and execute, i ^. ...y. President McKinley was a very efiecdve pablk speaker. THE NEW UNION 409 7. Why was so much paper currency issued during- the Civil War? Upon what did the value of the greenbacks depend ? What is meant by resumption of specie payment ? 8. Review Jackson's introduction of the spoils system and rotation in ofi5ce. What are the demoralizing influences of this system ? What is civil service reform ? 9. Observe that James A. Garfield was inaugurated as a Republican President in 18S1, and that after his death Chester A. Arthur be- came President, continuing in office in 1SS1-18S5. Grover Cleveland, elected by the Democrats, was President in 1SS5-1S89. Benjamin Harrison, elected by the Republicans, was President in 1889-1893, For the next four years, 1893-1897, Cleveland was again President, and gave place to William McKinley, who was inaugurated March 4, 1S97. What was the Presidential Act of 1S86 ? 10. Prepare to write from three to five minutes on any of the following topics: Oklahoma, the Pan-American Congress, the trouble with Italy, the Pension Bill, and the trouble with Chili. 11. Why do we need a strong navy ? 12. What is the Australian ballot system, and why has it been introduced into most of our States ? 13. What was the Bering Sea trouble ? What was the decision reached in regard to it by the tribunal of arbitration ? What is arbitration ? 14. Write an outline of the silver legislation, 1873-1S93. 15. Before taking up the tariff question here review the difficulties about the tariff which resulted in nullification in South Carolina in Jack- son's administration. What were the Mill's Bill, the Wilson Bill, and the McKinley Bill? XC>, Review the Monroe Doctrine and Maximilian in Mexico. What was the trouble between Venezuela and England? What attJtude did our government take toward this trouble ? 17. What were the leading political questions before the people in the Presidential campaign of 1896 ? What answers did the Republicans propose ? the Democrats f CHAPTER XXIII THE rXITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWXR OITSIDE READINGS : NN atterson's Historv' of the Sranish-Ainirican Wir; Ken nan's Cxnipiiiniing in Cuba: Spear's Our Nivy in the Wir with Spjiin; Russell's Historv- of Our Wir \vith Srain ; RooseveH's Rou^h Riders : Lodge's Wir with Spain: Foster's Americjin Diplonucy in the Orient; Woolsey's Aroerid's Foreign FVlic> : Qriffis's Americi in th? East: Andre^^s's LnjievJ States in Our Ovvn Times: Wil son's H.stor>- of the Anxericm Fe-. pie, V. 414. The Cubans Rise agains: Spain February, i£95^. — Tariff revision and the financial policy of the g:overnment were serious questions, but there soon arose an international complication of overshadowing interest, which absorbed much of the thought and energy of the nation. From the be- ginning of her control in Cuba the rule of Spain was cruel and unjust. The Cubans tried several times to throw off the galling voke, but in vain. In February. 1S95. however, thev organized in eastern Cuba an insurrection that within a year spread to the western end of the island. THF AVKFCK OF CERX^KRA S FLAGSHIP^O^xW. THE INllKD SIAIKS NOW A WORl.n lOW FR 411 In alarm the Spanisli Govorninonl docidod upon severe mcasiiros, and appointed General Wevler as CTovernor- oenei-aL He drove the conntry people into xhcbrutai rnvky towns and cities, bnrned their dwellini^s, and oiconcemration. desl roved everything that might fnrnish support to llie ghiing Cubans. Such was the brutal policv of concenti-a- r.on. By this policv General Wevler hoped to starve the pct^ple into submission, but he failed. Blanco succeeded him ..s governor-general and tried by a railder policy to win the Culxins back to Spain. The Cub:ins* cry, however^ was, "Independence or death!'* At the end of three yeai*s, with an armv . t more than 200,000. Spain had made little headway in putting down the insurrection. 415. Blowing up the Maine.— As the war went on American indignation grew bitter. In the midst of a period of deep feeling aroused by the inhu- man methods of conducting the war, the people of the United States Avere shocked by an awful event. On the night of Februarv 1;, 1 80S, the American battle-ship J/«;/V/r, Iving in the harbor of Havana, was blown up. two hundred and t». *, • ' ^ * The Maine and \N '^ lI^-NSINC -\ H^ Chicagi etroit NP, iScoL.N \ /l L l!/l N O I S 'Y Po<^.\5.638,5jrL IL O H. I O CK.Y /"V'^ b.^_?!-— -'• « 5 i _ 0 B G 1 A ,^'Mp^Tao.rfKVp,p. 2.609.121 /^'^ .\ _Ad" 90 TMl M.-N. CO., BUFFALO W.Y. 86° i£a««"»S5-. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 421 Secretary Hay urged these powers to unite iu guaranteeing to all nations equal rights of trade in China. The powers agreed to carry out his wishes, and thus established the policy of the "open door." By securing an agreement to this policy Secretary Hay did much to prevent the break- u}) or "partition" of the Chinese Empire for the bencht of those European powers that coveted her territory for their own enrichment. The unseemly scramble for her territory devel()|)cd in China a bitter anti-foreiirn sentiment, which culminated in "fe^^^ ^^\ %x^^T?^, NATIVE TAGALO CHILDREN, MALABON. 1900 in a serious outbreak. Some foreigners were killed, and even the lives of foreign ministers in Peking were in danger. In order to put down the uprising ^he Chinese up- and rescue the legations, the European pow- rising against ers, Japan, and the United States found it *«'-^'^"^'-s- npcessary to send troops to Peking. In the settlement of the' dif^culties in China our government exercised a pre- ,^^, fdpminating influence in favor of fair treatment of the - Chinese, This was an incident in the persistent policy of the United States to preserve the territorial integrity of China. 427. The Republic of Cuba (1902). — While these events were taking place in the Far East, others of deep concern to 422 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES us were taking place at our very doors. When Spain gave us Cuba, the island came under the military authority of the United States. According to a joint resolution passed by Congress before the outbreak of the war, this military control was to continue until order should be restored and the Cubans should oriranize a 2:overn- The Cubans org:an=> mCUt ize a government, satis- factory to Con- gress. Early in November, 1900, a convention of Cu- bans met at Ha- vana, and before the middle of Feb- ruary, 1 90 1, com- pleted a constitu- tion modelled after that of the United States. On Janu- ary I, 1902, a presi- dent aad members of congress were appointed in ac- cordance with the provisions of the Cuban Constitu- tion, and on May 20, 1902, the new Cuban govern- ment was formally inausfurated. True to its pledges, the United States handed over the control of affairs to the recognized official, and the people of the young republic entered upon their full independence. In Cuba, as in Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands, the United States greatly improved sanitary conditions PHILirriNE ISLANDS. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 423 and rapidly organized an effective system of public schools. In December, 1903, tlie Cuban Reciprocity Act was passed. This provided for a reduction of twenty per cent, of the Dingley Tariff rates on Cuban imports into the United States, and thus i;-reatly increased Cuban trade. 428. The Isthmian Canal (1901-1904). — For some time our growing commercial interests had led many people to be- lieve that we should be benefited by the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama or some narrow part of Central America. But public opinion in the United States demanded that such a canal should be owned and controlled by our government. In accordance with this The Hay-Paunce- sentiment, therefore, the Hay-Pauncefote *ote Treaty. treaty between England and the United States was signed in November, 1901. By the terms of this treaty the United States was to have sole power to construct, control, and defend an Isthmian Canal for the benefit of the commerce of the world. The next step toward the construction of such a canal was the passage by Congress in June, 1902, of the Isthmian Canal Act. This act empowered the Presi- The isthmian dent to secure the unfinished Panama Canal CanaiAct. at ?. cost not to exceed $40,000,000, and also to secure from the Republic of Colombia a strip of land, at least six miles wide, extending across the Isthmus of Panama. Within this strip of land the United States was to construct, oper- ate, and protect a canal with control of its terminal ports. If, however, the unfinished Panama Canal and the land from Colombia could not be secured in a reasonable time and on reasonable terms, the President was empowered to secure a canal route from Costa Rica and Nicaragua. When the Colombian government rejected the treaty containing the conditions expressed in the Isthmian Canal Act, the people of the State of Panama, feel- The revolution ing that their interests had been disregarded, in Panama, planned a revolution, which broke out on November- 3, 1903. They quickly organized a provisional government 424 HISTORY OF THE UxVITED STATES and proclaimed their political independeiice as the Republic of Panama. The new re-public was recognized by the United States, November 6th. On November i8th a new canal treaty was signed by Secretary Hay and the representatives of Panama. By the The treaty with tcrms of tliis treaty Panama granted to the Panama. United Statcs " in perpetuity the use, occu- pation, and control " of a zone of land ten miles wide on the margins of the canal. In return the United States guaran- teed the independence of Panama, the payment of Sio,ooo,ooc WIRELESS TELEGRAPH STATION AT WELLFLEET, CAPE COD. when the treaty should become active, and at the end of nine years an annual payment of $250,000. The Senate of the United States adopted this treaty on February 23, 1904. 429. The Pacific Cable and Wireless Telegraphy (1903). — Another link in the chain of communication which is drawing the nations of the earth more closely together is the Pacific Cable. This was completed in 1903 and extends from San Francisco to Hong Kong by way of Hawaii and Manila. On July 4, 1903, President Roosevelt sent the first message, which flashed around the world in four minutes. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 425 Of less importance to commerce, but of unmeasured value in other ways, is the wonderful invention of the Marconi wireless telegraph, by which messages are sent through the air. On January 18, 1903, from the station at Wellfleet on Cape Cod, President Roosevelt sent to King Edward of EnglancJ the first wireless message to cross the Atlantic. 430. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis (1904). — Long l^efore these events took place the people of the United States had been intent upon carrying out a great enterprise. This was the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, planned to commemorate the centennial of the purchase of the Louisiana territory in 1803. It opened April 3c, 1904, and closed December ist. Like other international expositions on a large scale, it had a great educational influence. Its architecture, its sculpture, and. its landscape-gardening were of a high order of excellence, and so were its exhibits of industry and commerce. The latest scientific discoveries were among the remarkable features of this exposition. It is especially worthy of note, however, that for the first time in the history of international expositions, the educational exhibit had a building exclusively for itself. 431. Theodore Roosevelt Elected President (1904). — While interest in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition w^as still at its height, the public mind was earnestly engaged in considering the Presidential nominations that were to be made in the summer of 1904. When the national conven- tions of the two great parties met, the Republicans nomi- nated Theodore Roosevelt, and the Democrats Alton B. Parker. The principal point of difference between the two party platforms related to tariff reform, but the issue was largely one of the personal popularity of the candidates. As the sentiment of the people was wath Mr. Roosevelt, he was elected by a very large popular majority. 432. President Roosevelt as Peacemaker (1905). — From these questions of national interest and importance we turn to one which involved the welfare of the whole civilized world. 426 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES On February 6, 1904, nine months before the election of President Roosevelt, a terrible war broke out between Rus- sia and Japan. All the Western nations, shocked by the War between frightful loss of Hfc, watchcd the struggle with Russia and great conccm. Finally, when the progress of Japan. ^j^^ ^^^ ^^ j ^j^^ couditiou of the opposing forces seemed to warrant it. President Roosevelt addressed a note to the Governments of Russia and Japan (June 8, 1905). In this note he urged the warring nations, not only in their own interests, but in the interests of the civilized world, to try to agree upon terms of peace. The outcome was a conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, between commissioners from each of the two _— . -^~_-^- zu.':^-.'^ .^"^^^"^ - ^--^^^ - •) j "^ THE ATLANTIC FLEET STARTING ON ITS VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD, DEC, I907. From a photograph, copyright, IQOJ, by Underwood ^ Underwood, New York. countries. The people in this and in other lands looked on with anxious suspense as the commissioners continued, week after week, to discuss the question of peace or war. At last, when it seemed likely that the conference had come to a point of deadlock and was about to break up in failure, President Roosevelt, with well-timed decision and tact, THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 427 brought about a delay until he could communicate with the Czar of Russia and the Emperor of Japan. The result was the sending by the home Governments of such immense instructions to the commissioners at Portsmouth countrTtn'^lorid as enabled them speedily to agree to a treaty affairs, of peace. The successful outcome of President Roosevelt's efforts showed the immense influence of the United States in the affairs of the w^orld. 433. The Atlantic Fleet Sails Around the World (1907- 1909).— In December, 1907, the battle licet of the United States Navy, including sixteen battleships, started from Hampton Roads, Virginia, on a voyage around the world. The route was by way of South America and the Pacific coast to San Francisco, then westward to Australia, the Philippine Islands, Japan, and China, passing through the Indian Ocean, the Suez Canal, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Straits of Gibraltar. The voyage was completed on Washington's Birthday, 1909, at Hampton Roads, where the fleet arrived after having travelled more than 30,000 miles. Everywhere it was received with great enthusiasm. This cruise was a noteworthy event in naval history. It not only tested and proved the expert seamanship of our navy, but it called into expression the friendly feeling of foreign powers. 434. The Second Peace Conference (1907).— In marked contrast with this cruise of warships was the second Peace Conference^ held in the same year at The Hague. The first Peace Conference had met there in 1899. These meetings, which included distinguished men from the various civilized nations of the world, were held in the interests of interna- tional peace and goodwill. In both conferences our country took a leading part in advancing the peaceful settlement of disagreements between nations. The old method of barbarous warfare, with its cost of maintaining vast armies and navies, is a great strain upon the people. But even this burden is not to be compared ^ At the first, 26 of the powers of the world were represented; at the second, 44 428 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES with the frightful suffering and loss of life which is caused by war. Although the United States is a peaceful nation, War and its wars havc cost an enormous sum. More arbitration. than two-thirds of the national revenue is paid out in pensions, in interest on war debts, and in the support of the army and navy. 0^ ^•;)-, i^' 2£3im^ PEACE PALACE, THE HAGUE. From a photograph by Underivood &" Underwood, New Votk. It is to be hoped that the day will soon come when all disagreements between nations will be settled by arbitra- The Court of tiou, just as thosc bctwccn individual men are Arbitration at now scttlcd by courts of law. Already a num- The Hague. ^^^ ^£ such disputcs havc bccu settled in the Court of Arbitration at The Hague, which was established by the First Peace Conference in 1899. Each nation is represented in this Court by four men who may be called upon to serve as judges in international disputes. When any two nations have a disagreement and refer the matter to the Court they select from among the judges a small number to try their case and settle the THE UNIIED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 429 disagreement. Many believe this to be a step toward a Supreme Court of the world, which will decide issues be- tween nations as our Supreme Court does between separate States. 435. The United States a World-Power. — Our prom- inence in the two peace conferences held at The Hague calls attention, in a striking way, to far-reaching changes that have taken place during the last hundred years in this country's relation to the great powers of Europe. You will remember that the American Revolution was fought to secure our independence from England. But at the end of that war there was no strong spirit independence of union among the people of the various *'"**'" Ens'^nd. States. Even after we organized a new plan of govern- ment under the Constitution, our country was so weak from lack of union that it did not command the respect of Europe. In fact, England and France treated the United States as if it were a vassal. The outcome was the War of 1812, which has well been called the second war of independence; this time it was independence from Europe, independence In less than ten years after this war, we gave ^^'^"^ Europe, expression to our feeling of independence and national strength by setting forth what is known as the Monroe Doctrine. Its central idea was ''America for Americans," and supplemented Washington's Farewell Address, which had for one of Its central Ideas "Europe for Europeans." These two maxims stand roughly for the traditional at- titude of our nation toward Europe until the time of the Spanish-American War of 1898. When that war closed, Spain had lost the West Indies and the Philippines and we ourselves were in control of extensive territory overseas. In fact, by this expansion the United States had become "Greater America." Our nation was now a world-power because our Interests were world-wide, and Greater our wishes received consideration in any part America, of the globe. Our people felt the change. They were 430 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES conscious of new strength. They were ready to solve new problems and had the courage to face new responsibihties. Henceforth the United States stood prepared to take an active and leading part in the affairs of the world. Moreover, for many years before the Spanish War, we had been wonderfully prosperous. We had amassed al- The chief most uutold Wealth, and had become the chief manufacturing manufacturing nation of the world. All this, nation. combined with our new prominence as a world-power, made the United States an important rival of England, France, and Germany. 436. The World-Powers of Europe. — But these coun- tries, as well as some others of Europe, had been under- going a transformation. Let us briefly note how there came to be a Greater Britain, a Greater France, a Greater Germany, and a Greater Russia. After the overthrow of Napoleon in 1815, there were five great powers in Europe — Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. This situation remained without much change, though with some difference in Two relative strength, for nearly sixty years. Then movements. followcd two movcmcuts which altered the entire balance of the European world. The first of these movements was toward national unity and the second toward national expansion. Italy had been for ages a mere ''geographical expres- sion." It was not a single kingdom like Spain, but was made up of several kingdoms and other states, some ruled United by Austria and others by the Roman Pontiff, '^^'y- For many years patriots had striven to make of these a united Italy. In 1859 began an armed contest for this ideal. It ended in 1870 with the complete union of all parts of Italy into a single kingdom, with a constitu- tion and a national parliament. Victor Emmanuel was made King. The next country to form a union of its many states was Germany. Austria and Prussia, the most important THE UNITED STATES NOW A \vORLD POWER 431 ones, had long been rivals for leadership. But in 1866, in a ''seven weeks' war," Prussia defeated Aus- united tria, and then forced many other states into Germany, a new North German Confederation, with the King of Prussia at its head. Thus had Prussia suddenly risen to a leading position among the great powers of Europe. But one more war was fought before there was established a true national union of German states under the leadership of Prussia. This was the Franco-Prussian War, which oc- ^^^ curred in 1870. Like the conflict between Franco= Prussia and Austria it was brief, for within six weeks the French were overwhelmingly defeated by the Ger- mans. They captured the French Emperor, whose people at once deposed him, and at the end of seven months they were in possession of Paris and had conquered France. Then the Germans compelled France to pay one bil- lion dollars as a war indemnity and give up Alsace and Lorraine. But the most marked result of the war was in Germany herself, where a new Germanic Empire was created. All the German states except those of the Austrian Empire — Austria had by this time united with Hungary to form Austro-Hungary — were now ^ ^^^ united (1871) in one federal empire, with a Germanic written constitution, and with the King of mpire. Prussia at the head of the whole. He was also called the German Emperor. Somewhat later, years after this spirit of national union had made itself felt in Italy and Germany, there suddenly began among the European countries a wild scramble for territory in foreign lands. This wiid scramble was the beginning of a fresh era of expansion. *°'' territory. *' Spheres of influence" were sought in new lands, because of a keen desire for new markets to increase commerce and enrich the people. Of all these countries England had been the most suc- cessful colonizing nation. But she had lost her chief 432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES American colonies because she had governed them selfishly and for her own interests. In course of time she found out that she had more to gain by allowing some of her colonies, such as Canada, New Zea- land, and Australia, to manage their own affairs, and they remained loyal to her. Although she still held these and others in various parts of the world, she now wanted more. Germany, having become a strong military power with a large and ever-increasing population, had great need for an outlet to her industries and commerce, which had grown Germany, CUOrmOUsly. So shc alsO WaS stubbornly re- France, and solved to gain new territory beyond the seas. France likewise, not wishing to be left behind, was seized with a feverish desire for expansion. She had the old belief that colonies by themselves would bring national riches. Russia alone was able to expand along her borders instead of across the sea; but she needed ad- ditional seaports, and these the other powers were deter- mined to prevent her from getting. By the time the First Hague Conference was held (1899) almost all of Africa and more than half of the Result of great continent of Asia were under control of expansion. Europcan powcrs. Thus you can easily see how, in this era of expansion, there came to be not only a Greater America, but also a Greater England, a Greater Germany, a Greater France, and a Greater Russia. More- over, in this gigantic struggle for control of new territory all these countries were engaged in world-wide competition for world trade. 437. The Spirit of Union and of Nationalism in Can- ada.— The first colony to profit by England's change in Dissatisfaction colouial poHcy was Canada. The people in in Upper and Upper Canada, or the province of Ontario, Lower Canada. jrr r~^ 1 j1 • c r\ and or Lower Canada, or the provmce oi (Que- bec, had been growing more and more dissatisfied because their legislatures did not have a larger control over their executives and over the expenditure of money. As a con- THE UlMTED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 433 sequence of the popular discontent, there was a rebelHon in 1837 in both Upper and Lower Canada. Although this rebelHon was easily put down, to satisfy the Canadian people England allowed the two provinces to unite into one, called Canada, and govern chemselves as they desired. In 1867 a broader union was organized to include other provinces. At first only four — Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick — joined the union; ^ broader but not many years later British Columbia and union in Prince Edward's Island became members of the Canada, federation. This desire for union on the part of the Canadians was doubtless quickened by the groundless fear that the United States might attempt to seize and annex their country. 438. The Spirit of Co-operation Among the Nations. — From the foregoing you can easily see that along with the development of the spirit of union and nationalism there has arisen an ever-increasing spirit of rivalry and competition among the great nations of the twentieth century. But, while competition m.ust flourish if the world is to advance, co-operation is of even greater value. Na- tions are coming to realize it. They are learning that their prosperity and progress come from working together and not by fighting one another. The most advanced ex- pression of this co-operative spirit is found in the two Hague Peace Conferences, of which we have spoken. Their influence should be to strengthen international good-will, on a basis of common sense and humanity, and to uplift the moral and social as well as the industrial welfare of men and women in all lands. 439. The Conservation of Our Natural Resources. — Another matter of great importance, to the welfare of our country was a meeting held in the White House in Wash- ington in May, 1908. It was made up of national and State leaders, whom President Roosevelt had called to- gether to consider the conservation of our Natural natural resources; that is, the best means of resources, preserving our water, forests, soil, fuel, and minerals. 434 THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD J'OWER 435 As a people \vc had been extremely wasteful of these natural sources of wealth, but with a rapidly expanding population the time had come to use them with care. This is especially true in the case of forests, which have a large influence upon the flow of water in rivers and streams. The meeting at the White House did much to strengthen sentiment in favor of preserving our resources. Connected with it is the work of improving our waterways, such as a plan to establish a ship route from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico. 440. President Taft^ and the Revision of the Tariff (1909).— In the Presidential campaign of 1908, the Republicans were success- ful in the election of their candi- dates, William H. Taft as President, and James S. Sherman as Vice- william h. taft. President. Shortly after his inauguration (March 4, 1909), Presi- dent Taft called a special session of Congress for the revision of the tariff. There was a sharp difference of opinion as to how this revision should be made, but after The revision of several months of heated discussion. Congress the tariff, passed the Payne-Aldrich tariff bill, which became a law August 5, 1909. This new tariff law, like the ''Dingley Tariff" (p. 408), was highly protective. It was therefore • ' William Howard Taft, twenty-seventh President of the United States (1909-1913), was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, September 15, 1857. He was gradu- ated from Yale University in 1878, and two years later began the practice of law in his native State. In 1892 he was made Judge of the United States Dis- trict Court. In 1900 he was appointed presiderit of the United States Philippine Commission, and in 1901 became the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands. He filled this important position with great credit to himself and to his country. He became Secretary of War in President Roosevelt's Cabinet in 1904 and con- tinued in this office until 1908. In the autumn of that year he was elected Presi- dent of the United States. For this position of responsibility his long experience in the public service seemed especially to have fitted him. 436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED ST^^TES regarded with disfavor by those who beheved that there should be a substantial reduction of duties. Along with the tariff law, this Congress passed a bill to create a Tariff Commission, but it was abolished by the next Congress. It was to investigate the cost of produc- ing foreign manufactured articles, that Congress might know how high each tariff item must be to protect the manufacturers here. 441. Postal Savings Banks (191c). — Another law passed by this Congress established the Postal Savings Banks. A leading purpose of this law was to develop habits of thrift among people of small means. It was thought that those who could save only a little from their earnings would be encouraged to put their savings into Postal these banks; for they are under the control of banks. ij^g United States Government and are there- fore absolutely safe. Any person of ten years or over can open an account with a Postal Savings Bank by depositing as little as one dollar. All deposits pay two per cent, interest. 442. Arbitration of the Newfoundland Fisheries Dis- pute (19 10). — For more than a hundred years there had been much friction in North Atlantic waters as to the rights of American fishermen there. After many fruitless efforts to settle the dispute, it was referred by the United States and Great Britain to The Hague Court of Arbitra- tion, and was adiusted to the satisfaction of both countries. 443. General Arbitration' Treaties of the United States with Great Britain and France. — This international dis- pute concerning fisheries is far from being the only one settled by The Hague Court. Almost every important nation in the world has been a party to settlements of this kind. Moreover, such progress has been made in this direc- tion that since the First Peace Conference at The Hague most countries have entered into treaties by which they agree to settle certain kinds of differences by arbitration.^ * Our country has signed many such treaties. THE UJNliED STATES NOW A WOKi^x^ lOVvER 437 Usually, however, questions involving "vital Interests, independence, and honor are excepted." President Taft strongly disapproved of such formal exceptions, and nego- ^==^^^^5^ r^-^ss^*; ■0 J THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF STATE BUILDING. tiated treaties with England and France without them. But the Senate disagreed with him. It refused Differences to ratify them without important amendments, settled by and would not ** delegate to any other body its treaty-making power under the Constitution." As amended, these treaties required further negotiations. 444. A New Treaty with Japan (191 1). — To maintain and strengthen our long-standing friendship with Japan, a 438 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES new treaty was signed with that country, setting aside the existing treaty — a clause of which declared our right to exclude Japanese laborers. Their government complained Japanese that wc placcd no sucli clausc in our European exclusion. treaties, and so our new treaty omits it. But there is an understanding between the two countries which allows us to regulate Japanese immigration as before. 445. Arizona and New Mexico Made States (1912). — In 1 91 2 Arizona and New Mexico were admitted into the Union as States. Except Alaska and the District of Co- lumbia, all our territory on the mainland has now been made into States, bringing up the number to forty-eight. So to-day, Forty=eight whilc our national flag states. contains thirteen stripes to represent the thirteen original col- onies, it has forty-eight stars to stand for the States which now make up our great Federal Republic. 446. Woodrow Wilson^ Elected President (1912). — A question of ab- issuesofi9i2 sorbiug interest to all campaign. ^j^g States was the Presi- dential campaign of 1912. During the campaign, issues of far-reaching importance were earnestly discussed. ^ Woodrow Wilson, twenty-eighth President of the United States (1913- ), was bom at Staunton, Virginia, December 28, 1856. He graduated at Princeton University in 1879, and took the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University in 1SS6. He practiced law for two years but gave it up in order to devote himself, as teacher and writer, mainly to histor>', juris- prudence, and politics. After serving as professor of history and poHtical economy at Br>Ti INIauT and later at Wesleyan University, in 1890 he was appointed pro- fessor of jurisprudence and pohtics -at Princeton University. In 1902 he became president of Princeton University, a position in which he remained until 1910, when the people of New Jersey made him their governor. But before the end of his term of olBce he was elected President of the United States. During that part of his life which he spent as a college professor he ^^Tote a niunber of books, most of which were in the fields of biography, histor>% and politics. While presi- dent of Princeton University and governor of New Jersey he gave evidence of marked ability as an administrator. All his work was characterized by sincerity of purpose ai.d high standards of pubhc service. WOODROW WILSON. From a photograph, copyright igi2, by Moffett. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 439 Among these were the tariff, the proper methods of deal- ing with the business trusts, and the conservation of our natural resources. On these great national issues, a new political party was formed. Its members called themselves the Progressive Party. It was made up of Republicans and Independents, and some Democrats who held views which they believed to be in conflict with those supported by the Republican and Democratic Parties. The supporters of this party se- lected as their candidate for President Theodore Roose- velt. The Republicans nominated for a second term President William Howard Taft. \A^oodrow Wilson, who was the Democratic candidate, was elected. 447. Reforms to Secure Larger Control over Public Affairs for the People. — In this campaign "many States made use of primary elections, or primaries, in selecting delegates to the national conventions which were to nomi- nate candidates for the Presidency. It was Primaries select believed that in this way the people could ca.ndijates. have more control in selecting officials to carry out their will. The primaries, as you should know, took the place of caucuses, in which party managers largely, and in many cases entirely, controlled the selection of candidates. Another reform to help the people to control public affairs is the short ballot, which is used in several States and in many cities having the commission form The short of government. Especially in a large city is baiiot. this reform of great value, because such a city is really a gigantic business corporation, which taxes the people mil- lions of dollars to carry on its various departments — school, park, street, fire, police, and so on. To succeed in such a great undertaking, the city gov- ernment should be well organized and well managed. But up to recent years such has not been the case in many of our large cities. The administration has been too compli- cated and clumsy to get the best work done with the least 440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES expense. As a result, there have been much corruption and much waste of money. To remedy this defect many cities ha^'e adopted the experiment of a commission form of government using the short ballot. By this plan, all the legislative and executive Commission fuuctious of the city have been placed in the form of hands of a small group of men, usually live in governmen . numbcr, Called a commission, whom the people elect. As the number of officials is small, it is possible to hold each responsible for the kind of service he renders the public. For the same reason also it is easier to find Aims to fix out what sort of candidates are up for election responsibility, p^j- ^^g ghoj-t ballot is quite different from the Jong ballot, which in some cities contains the names of scores of candidates, of whom the voter knows very little or nothing. The commission form of government is now in use in hundreds of cities in the United States. The same principle has been carried out in the executive departments of State government by making only a few important officials elective and requiring them to appoint their subordinates. Other plans designed to give the people direct control of their affairs are the initiative and referendum now being The initiative tried by a number of States. By means of the and initiative, a. certain fraction of the voters may um. propose a statute which the State Legislature must consider. If it refuses to adopt the measure, it must be submitted to the voters of the State to approve or re- ject at a regular election. By means of the referendum, a certain fraction of the people may demand that any law passed by the State Legislature be submitted to the voters at an election to approve or reject as they see fit. Another plan, intended to make it easier for the people to punish an official for wrong-doing or for unsatisfactory The recall public scrvicc, is the recall. By means of this plan a certain fraction of voters may demand an election in which the people shall decide whether or not THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 441 the official in question shall give up his office before the end of the period for which he was elected. The movement in favor of popular control of public affairs became so wide-spread that in 1913 the Seven- teenth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted, re- quiring that United States senators be elected by the people. Before the adoption of this amendment the United States senators had been elected by the State Legislatures. This method was not wholly People elect satisfactory, for two reasons: (i) because there senators, were many cases where improper influences were used with legislators to secure votes for candidates; and (2) because it sometimes happened that a legislature would be dead- locked for weeks and even months before electing a sena- tor. The feeling was wide-spread that too much time was wasted in this way. 448. The Parcel Post (1913). — -Another Federal law, which directly affected the people in every part of the land, was the parcel post law. This brought about ^ marked a marked change in transportation. Before change in the parcel post came into use, parcels and transportation, goods that needed to be moved quickly were handled by express companies, while bulky freight was handled by the railroads, as now. But, as the express companies depended upon the railroads for transportation, they served only those whom the railroads served. By means of the parcel post, the United States mail service can carry on a postal express business reaching any locality that is included in our rural free ^ ^1^^^ delivery system, even though it may be far means of from a railroad station. Moreover, the United delivery. States postal express carries packages and other goods within certain limits of size and weights for much less than the express companies used to charge. Merchants and farmers have been quick to adopt this cheap means of delivery, and the work of the parcel post has increased with marvellous rapidity. 442 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 449. The Tariff Law and the Income Tax (1913). — After the enactment of the Payne-Aldrich tariff law of 1909 there followed an increasing demand for more reduction in duties. In fact, the tariff continued to be perhaps the leading issue in national politics. Shortly after President Wilson entered into office, therefore, he called a special ses- sion of Congress to consider the tariff question. Follow- ing a notable contest, a law was passed (October, 1913) which made a large reduction in the duties on imported goods. This decided revision downward was certain to bring about a large decrease in customs receipts, and it became necessary to provide revenue in some other way. A section was inserted in the tariff revision law, therefore, levying Income tax to an incomc tax. Such a tax had been advo- raise revenue, catcd for many ycars and had already been made constitutional by the adoption of the Sixteenth Amendment (1913). The income tax is levied upon incomes of more than four thousand dollars for any married person living with wife or husband, and upon incomes of more J^^tarcTalld. ^^^^ ^^^^^ thousaud for all other persons. The tax upon such incomes is one per cent. An additional tax is levied upon incomes that exceed twenty thousand dollars. 450. The Currency and Banking Law (1913).— Another law having a very important bearing upon the financial affairs of the people was the currency and banking law Its threefold (1913). It providcs for the Federal Reserve object. System. The object of the law is threefold: (i) to make the monetary system of the country more simple and uniform; (2) to provide a plan by which there shall always be enough money to meet any special need; and (3) to make it easy for this money to be obtained in that part of the country where the need is greatest. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 443 The central body, which has power to control and di- rect this system, is located at Washington. It is called the Federal Reserve Board. The ^se^^^BoLd. system includes twelve Federal Reserve Banks, ^ each being a centre of the banking power in its own district. All the national banks in any district must become members of the system and purchase stock in its Federal Reserve Bank, each in proportion to its paid-up capital stock and surplus. The State banks also may become members if they apply for membership. Only the banks in the system and the United States Government can deposit money in any Federal Reserve Bank. By this new currency and banking law all the banks in the Federal Reserve System are joined together to give one another financial aid, just as the forty-eight States of our Federal Union are joined together for government aid. 451. The Panama Tolls (1914). — According to the Hay- Pauncefote treaty between the United States and Great Britain, the shipping of all countries was to pay equal rates for the use of the Panama Canal. Many of our citizens held that ''all countries" could legally mean all other coun- tries than ours. So Congress passed a law (191 3) exempt- ing American coastwise shipping from paying tolls. Other governments, and likewise many Americans, be- lieved this to be a violation of the treaty legally and, even more, a violation of good faith. President Wilson, in February, 1914, in a special message to Con- panama toils gress, asked for its repeal. After long and able exemption debates in both the House and the Senate, "-ep^^'^^- Congress passed a bill for the repeal, but incorporated in it an amendment that it was not to be interpreted as ^The banking cities are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Rich- mond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. 444 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES giving up any right of the United States under the Hay- Pauncefote treaty with Great Britain. 452. The United States and the Troubles in Mexico. — Although the problem of canal tolls was important, it Trouble with w^as at times almost overshadowed by a criti- Mexico. (,^1 situation regarding Mexico. In February, 1913, an uprising in the City of Mexico resulted in the overthrow and death of Madero, who had been recently elected by the people as their constitutional President. '^^» Vf .ALEUTIAN' NOTE ■Rontes tor Full-Powered Steam Vessels ■ Routes for Sailing Vessels. Distances in Nautical Miles. By the aid of his army, General Huerta became dic- tator. He soon got control of the centre of the country, including the capital city. But many of Ma- Huerta becomes i»rii ' ^^ ' ,\ ... r dictator. (i^vo s toliowcrs, especially in the states 01 Northern Mexico, would not submit to Huerta, and took up arms in an insurrection that kept growing in volume and strength. They called themselves Consti- tutionalists. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 445 President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta on two grounds: (i) he had not been elected by the Refusal to people in a lawful way; and (2), according to recognize the best evidence obtainable, his hold upon Huerta. power gave too little promise of stability to justify recog- nition of him by the United States. This refusal led to much bitter feeling toward our gov- ernment on the part of Huerta and his followers. Mean- while, the danger to our own people and their interests in Mexico from the civil war going on there made it prudent to send war- vessels to Mexican waters. On April 10, 1914, a boat-load of sailors from one of our gunboats landed at Tampico to secure gasolene. They were American arrested and thrown into prison. Admiral sailors Mayo, commanding the American fleet in the imprisoned, harbor, at once demanded their release. This was granted, and both the Federal general in command at Tampico 446 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and General Huerta himself expressed regret over the affair. Admiral Mayo was not satisfied. In accordance with the long-standing custom of nations, he demanded a salute to our flag by the firing of twenty-one Mexican guns. Huerta refused, and President Wilson sent a Vera Cruz n r a 7 /--> captured as fleet of war-vcsscls to capture Vera Cruz as reparation. reparation for the insult to our flag. On April 21 a force of American marines landed there, and after some fighting and the loss of a small number of men they captured the city and seized the custom-house. It looked like the beginning of war. But before there was any more fighting the ministers at Washington from Argentina, Brazil, and Chile offered to lend their services as mediators. President W^ilson promptly accepted the offer. On May 20 the mediators met at Niagara Falls three American and three Mexican envoys in order to arrange a plan of settlement. Although the mediators did not succeed in ending the trouble between the United States and Mexico, there was Latin-American no war bctweeu the two countries. More- fHen^dir*"^^ over, the mere fact that our government was toward us. quitc willing to accept the offer of mediation from three enlightened and powerful South American states doubtless caused all the Latin-American states to be more friendly toward us as a people. 1 1 helped them to understand that we had no thought of making the troubles in Mexico an excuse for getting control, by force, of Mexican territory. In the autumn of 191 5 the United States and the Latin- American powers recognized Venustiano Carranza, leader of carranza the Constitutioualist party, as the head of the recognized. provisioual govcmment of Mexico. Serious trouble was again threatened in the spring of 191 6, when bandits from the army of Francisco Villa, a rebel outlaw, crossed the border-line between the two countries and made an attack upon Columbus, New Mexico. Thereupon Gen- eral Pershing, with several thousand American troops, in- THE UNllED STATES NOW A WORLD ICWER 447 vaded Mexico for the purpose of capturing Villa. This wily chief eluded his pursuers; and the pres- r \ • T% /r • '1 American ence 01 American troops on Mexican sou caused troops in so much bitter feeling in that country that Carranza insisted that they should be withdrawn. This was done some months later. AMERICAN TROOPS MARCHING THROUGH VERA CRUZ. As border raids still continued, President Wilson, early in the summer, ordered the National Guard in all the States to mobilize and prepare for military The National service on the border of Mexico. There about SoTciel- o" "'*" 100,000 men went into camp before the end Mexico, of summer, although they were gradually withdrawn be- fore the coming of winter. 448 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES A joint commission, composed of men appointed by the American and IXIexican Governments, met and tried to bring about a settlement of the difficulties between the two countries, but no definite and satisfactory results came out of the meeting. 453. The Railway Managers and the Four ^' Brother- hoods " (1916). — While our troops were still in Mexico, a The demands scrious situatiou arosc withiu our own borders. "^B^lTtherl Four '' Brothcrhoods, " or Unions, representing hoods." 400,000 railway employees, demanded that they should receive their pay on the basis of an eight- hour, instead of a ten-hour, day, and that for overtime the rate of their pay should be fifty per cent higher than for regular hours. When the railway managers rejected this demand, the ''Brotherhoods" threatened to strike. They also refused to submit the dispute to arbitration. President Wilson, after holding conferences with each of the contesting parties, suggested that the eight-hour President basis bc adopted, with the understanding that Wilson's the employees should not receive higher pay for overtime. To this the railway managers objected, however, ''because," they claimed, /'shorter days mean higher wages, and higher wages the railroads cannot afford to pay." Refusing to give up anything they had asked for, the "Brotherhoods" ordered a strike for Labor Day (Sep- congress passes tcmbcr 4). Then President Wilson, knowing theer^loye"!' that a general "tie-up" of the railroads wishes. throughout the country would bring great suffering and even disaster upon the people, urged Con- gress to pass a law Avhich would meet the wishes of the employees. As this was done, the threatened strike did not take place. Some months later, when a test case was brought be- A commission forc thc Suprcmc Court, that body declared appointed. ^j^^ j^^^ ^^ j^^ Constitutional. A commission was then appointed to make a careful study of the law THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD FCWER 449 in Its operations and later on to bring a report of their investigations to Congress. 454. Woodrow Wilson Re-elected President (1916). — In the midst of these serious discussions between railway managers and the "Brotherhoods," the coun- issues of 1916 try was giving earnest attention to a presi- campaign, dential campaign and election. Woodrow Wilson, who was completing his first term as President, was the Demo- cratic candidate, and Charles E. Hughes, who was a justice of the Supreme Court, was the Republican nominee. An important issue of the campaign was President Wilson's foreign policy. The Democrats strongly emphasized the fact that he had kept the country out of war; the Repub- licans asserted that in dealing with other countries his policy had been vacillating, and that he had not given proper protection to the lives and property of Americans abroad. It was some days before the people knew with certainty the results of the election. This delay was largely owing to the small majority in some of the States, Results of the notably New Hampshire, Minnesota, and election. California, which in an election so close might have changed the result. The final outcome was the re-election of Mr. Wilson by a majority of 21 electoral votes. 455. Important Laws Passed by Congress. — Of the important work done by Congress during the latter part of President Wilson's first administration, a Rural Roads few laws merit special comment. One of ^'^*^- these was the Rural Roads Act, which made liberal ap- propriations to aid the States in the construction of roads. This means better highways, which bring the farmer into closer touch with the city market and, along with the trolley and suburban trains, make possible country homes for many whose work is in the city, thus helping to relieve the crowded conditions of city life. Another law made a wise provision for federal aid to those States which had established vocational schools, 450 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES where training in domestic science, manual arts, and Two other agHculturc is given. Still another law, which ^^^^- is certain to have a great effect upon our future population, requires a literacy test for immigrants. Congress passed this law over President Wilson's veto. 456. The Progress of Prohibition.— We have already noted (pages 264-265) the origin and spread of the tem- Maine the first peraucc movcmcnt. Many organizations kept prohibition up the agitation in favor of temperance re- form. Maine was the first State to pass a law prohibiting the manufacture and sale of all intoxicat- ing drink when used as a beverage, and thus became the first prohibition State. By 1872 temperance reform had become so wide-spread that a national Prohibition party was organized, with the specific purpose of influencing Congress to put an end to the liquor traffic throughout the country. In recent years the progress of prohibition has been rapid, about half of all the States in the Union having Rapid progress adopted it. lu iQii thc XVebb-Kenyon law, of temperance forbidding thc shipmcut of intoxicating liquor into prohibition States, was passed over the veto of President Taft, who considered it unconstitutional. The Supreme Court, however, decided in its favor, and this decision greatly stimulated the prohibition movement. In 191 6 Congress established prohibition in the District of Columbia. In 191 7 Congress proposed an amendment to the Constitution providing for prohibition throughout the Union. If this amendment is ratified by the legislatures in three-fourths of the several States, it will become a part of the Constitution. 457. The Opening of the Panama Canal (1914).— An event which is likely to have an enormous influence in strengthening friendship and good-will toward us on the part of the twenty Latin-American countries was the open- ing to commerce of the Panama Canal (August 15, 1914). There is little doubt that this opening was the beginning THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 451 of a new era in our national history, and for the following reasons: (i) It supplies a short, quick, and cheap water- route between the ports of the Atlantic and the Gulf sea- board and the ports of the Pacific seaboard. (2) The canal shortens the distance between our Pacific States and Europe as well as between our Atlantic States and Australia, the Philippine Islands, China, and Japan. (3) It is also likely to prove a powerful force for good in our relations with the twelve Latin-American states border- ing on the Pacific, for the increase in .trade and travel will promote a better understanding and a more friendly feel- ing. There is already maintained at Washington an inter- national organization, the Pan-American Union, which aims to develop closer business and commercial relations between the United States and the twenty republics to the south of us, as well as to form closer ties of friendship and good-will. It is important that we should work in harmony with our sister republics represented in the Pan- American Union. 458. The United States and the Great War in Eu- rope (1914-1916). — Another event of far-reaching conse- quence occurred when the great war in Europe suddenly broke out in the midsummer of 1914. This conflict, which involved all the great European powers, ^ serious put a political strain on the neutral nations international who wished to maintain their friendship with all the warring countries. This was especially true of the United States, because the war had a direct influence on our commerce and industry. Not only were the principal markets for our goods and sources of supplies for our factories cut off, but our sea-borne commerce was seriously crippled because most of it was carried on in vessels belonging to the belligerent countries. But, notwithstanding the violent upsetting of normal trade conditions, in some ways the war has been a source of profit to American business. All the nations at war 452 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES needed for their armies, and for their civil population, vast quantities of munitions, food, clothing, and other Our exports to supplics bcyoud their own capacity to furnish. Europe. p^j- ^j^g year ending June 30, 191 5, we ex- ported such goods to the value of $857,000,000; in the preceding year the value of all such exports was about $221,000,000. This means that our sales to Europe by reason of the war increased about $636,000,000 during the year. For breadstuffs alone we received about $574,000,000 against only $165,000,000 the year before. To prevent all supplies from reaching the enemy was of vital importance to both sides. The Allies at the outset completely destroyed the direct ocean commerce of Ger- many except in the Baltic Sea; while the harm that Ger- many could inflict on British commerce by submarines and roving cruisers was comparatively small. The Allies then turned their efforts toward cutting down Germany's indi- rect trade through neutrals. This was a far harder and more delicate task, for it involved the welfare of neutrals and struck heavily at American interests. Up to the opening of this war, food intended for civil- ians was never considered as contraband and hence could not be lawfully seized at sea when it was on the way to a belligerent port. But changed conditions brought about new methods. Some time after the war began Each side tries German authorities, including those of cities suppHe^^Jom'' ^^ wcll as thosc of thc Imperial Government, the other. assumcd coutrol of the distribution of food- supplies in Germany. This caused Great Britain to declare, on February 2, 19 15, that all food imported into Germany was contraband. Moreover, Germany had placed mines in the North Sea for the defense of her coasts. But these were frequently found far away from the shore, whether through having drifted, as Germany claimed, or ''strewn" for offensive purposes, as England claimed. So England established a ''war zone" in the North Sea, with only a single lane for neutral vessels. On February THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 453 4, 1915, Germany retaliated by declaring a war zone, which included all the waters around Great Britain, and asserted that in this zone she w^ould destroy all enemy vessels. She said it might not be possible to save crews and passengers, and, moreover, that neutral vessels sailing into this zone would be in danger. In return Great Britain announced, on March 3, that she would adopt means to prevent goods of any kind from reaching Ger- many. These extensions of contraband and blockade, which were violations of existing international law, led our gov- ernment to make strong and earnest protests to both sides. The chief grounds of protest to Great Britain were two: First, that food for a civilian population had never been contraband, and her now making it such our protest to was remaking international law by her own ^'■®^*^ Britain, fiat. Second, that her blockade was not legal. This was partly because it was not universally effective; it did not control, for instance, the Baltic Sea, where the German fleet kept trade open with the Scandinavian countries. Our protest to Germany required most delicate diplo- macy on account of our deep reluctance to break off re- lations with that country. In the submarine our protest campaign against England, Germany torpe- ^^ Germany, doed several vessels carrying American citizens. The first was the Cunard liner Lusitania, which was torpedoed (May 7, 1915) without warning off the coast of Ireland, with the loss of more than a thousand lives, including over a hundred Americans, many of whom were women and children. Our government, in a note to Gei-many, stated that American citizens had full rights under international law to travel wherever legitimate business called ^^ "^ ^ The position them ; that Germany must make reparation of our govem- for American lives and property so destroyed ; '"^" ' and that in the future she must not allow her submarines 454 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES either to attack American ships or to imperil American citizens travelhng on any ships. Germany declared that our requirements were equiva- lent to prohibiting submarine warfare altogether, since, if Germany's time wcrc givcn to rcmovc passengers, the position. wireless system made it easy for the ship at- tacked to call other vessels to her aid, and the submarine boats were too vulnerable to resist attack. She further declared that she had the right to use the only ocean weapon left her and that the peril of innocent lives was a risk which neutrals must take or else be in effect allies of the enemies of Germany. Later, although refusing to admit that her course was illegal, Germany agreed to make reparation to the United States for the lives and property she had destroyed. 459. President Wilson's Address to Congress (April 2, 191 7). — But the trouble Avas far from ended, and events which took place during the two years that followed the ,. ... «,-. sinkins: of the Lusitania caused such increas- President Wil= . ^. itt'i son's memo= ing fHction that the United States finally declared that a state of war existed between this country and Germany. The steps of progress are made so clear in the address of President Wilson to Con- gress on April 2, 191 7, that Ave may best folloAv them in his OAA^n AA^ords. In this memorable address, AA^hich is one of our great historic documents, the President told his countrymen and the AA'orld hoAA^ the German GoA^ernment not only had injured our commerce, but also had violated sacred human rights and the rights of nations, AA^hich Ave as a free people are bound to cherish and defend. He said : "On the 3d of February last I officially laid before you the extraordinary announcement of the Imperial German ^^- ^ *^ GoA^ernment that on and after the first day Object of Qer= , . •' man submarine of February it AA^as Its purpose to put aside war are. ^jj restraints of laAv and humanity and use vts submarines to sink every vessel that sought to approach THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 455 either the ports of Great Britain and Ireland or the western coasts of Europe. . .• . That had seemed to be the ob- i PRESIDENT WILSON ADDRESSING CONGRESS, APRIL 2, igiy- Fro;// a photograph by G. V. Buck, Under-wood &= Under-wood. ject of the German submarine warfare earHcr in the war, but since April of last year the Imperial Government had somewhat restrained the commanders of its Germany's submarine craft, in conformity with its prom- promise to us. ise, then given to us, that passenger-boats should not be sunk and that due warning would be given to all other 456 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES vessels which its submarines might seek to destroy, when no resistance was offered or escape attempted, and care taken that their crews were given at least a fair chance to save their lives in open boats. ... ''The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, Her reckless their cargo, their destination, their errand, Ira'ssion'o''rTf ^avc bccn ruthlcssly sent to the bottom with- principie. Qut Warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board. . . . Even hospital-ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved and stricken people of Belgium, though the latter were provided with safe-conduct through the proscribed areas by the German Government itself, and were distinguished by unmistak- able marks of identity, have been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle. ''I am not now thinking," continued the President, "of the loss of property involved, immense and serious as German sub= that is, but Only of thc wautou and wholesale marine warfare dcstructiou of uou-combatauts, men, women, a warfare i i -i i i • • i • i i against man= and children, engaged m pursuits which have always, even in the darkest periods of modern history, been deemed innocent and legitimate. Property can be paid for: the lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot be. The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind. ''It is a war against all nations. American ships have been sunk, American lives taken, in ways which it has A war against Stirred US vcry deeply to learn of, but the all nations. ships and pcoplc of other neutral and friendly nations have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the same way. "The German Government denies the right of neutrals to use arms at all within the area of the sea which it has THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 457 proscribed, even in the defense of rights which no modern pubHcist has ever before questioned their right to de- fend. . . . There is one choice we cannot .. „, .„ ^ " We will not make . . . we will not choose the path of choose the path , . . 1 rr 1 1*1 of submission." submission and suner the most sacred right of our nation and our people to be ignored or violated. The wrongs against which we now array ourselves are no common wrongs; they cut to the verv roots of human life. "With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of the step I am taking and of the grave respon- sibility which it involves, but in unhesitating Germany's obedience to what I deem my constitutional aga^nstTur duty, I advise that the Congress declare the country, recent course of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the government and the people of the United States; that it formally accept the status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it; and that it take immediate steps ... to exert all its power and employ all its resources to bring the govern- ment of the German Empire to terms and end the war." Acting upon the President's advice, the Senate and the House without delay passed a joint resolution (April 6) that "a" state of, war between the United States and the Imperial German Govern- a state of ment, which has been thrust upon the United de^Jiared"^ ^ States, is hereby formally declared." The promptness and zeal with which the American people responded to the action of the government was a signal proof of their loyalty and patriotism. Measures were taken by Congress and by The people's the States all over the Union to put the na- pa'tHotism. tion in a state of preparedness for war. 460. Our Government Co-operates with the Powers Allied against Germany.— Shortly after Congress passed the war vote, the English and French Governments sent 458 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES War Missions to this country in order to bring about The En lish effective co-operation between the United and French Statcs and the powers alHed against Ger- War Missions. , i i r many, and a general plan oi operations was agreed upon. Although at that time our army was too small to be of service on European battle-fields, there were certain Certain definite ^^^^^itc thiugs wc could do which involvcd things we no use of the army: (i) We could loan our allies money, so that they could buy here or elsewhere what they needed. (2) We could furnish them with munitions for their armies, raw materials for their civilian workers, and food for both. (3) We could build merchant ships of sufficient tonnage to help carry these supplies across the ocean. (4) With our navy we could assist in combating German submarines. 461, The Whole Nation at War. — In carrying out this programme, the whole nation was enlisted to bear the A fine spirit hcavy burdcn of war. All branches of in- ofco=opera= dustry wcrc called upon to co-operate with the government. Farmers, business men, railroad operators, mechanics, and unskilled laborers, no less than the soldiers and sailors, joined in the service of their country. The railroad directors operated the 250,000 miles of roads as if all were one system; the manu- facturers sold the government their products at prices fixed by the government; and the chief labor organiza- tions pledged their unqualified support during the war, their leaders promising to do all in their power to prevent strikes. To perfect the organization of the various industrial interests, Congress authorized the appointment by the -,. ,, ,. , President of a National Council of Defense, I he [National ... Council of to consist of six cabinet members and seven civilians. In this way the government secured the expert advice and invaluable service of some of the most prominent leaders in business, industry, and science ion sea. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 459 in the country. In close co-operation with the Council of Defense were various commissions and boards, which had to do with the special problems of the war, such as those of labor, raw materials, munitions, transportation, aircraft production, and sanitation. Of all these pressing problems, that of transportation across the sea was the most important, for without it the other problems would be solved in vain. It Transportat was fortunate that Congress, in the preceding across the year, had established a board for increasing the number of our merchant ships and that the work of this board was already begun. It had under its control a capital of $50,000,000 with which to build or to buy ships, and it now began to push the construction of hundreds of mer- chant vessels. 462. Congress Passes the "Food Control Bill."— To make careful provision for the conservation of our food- supplies and to regulate their prices. Congress q^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ passed the ''Food Control Bill" (August 10); food in the al- and President Wilson appointed Herbert C. Hoover, the former head of the Belgian Relief Fund, as food administrator. ''If we do not economize in food- stuffs," said Mr. Hoover, "we stand a great chance of losing the war." He assured the people that conditions in Europe had not been misrepresented and that millions of people in the allied countries would starve unless we sent them food. Of course, it was evident that we should be unable to do this if we were wasteful. Moreover, to increase our food-supply, millions of small private gardens Millions of were planted and a special effort was made private gardens, to preserve by canning all perishable foods not needed for immediate use. "Waste not" became the slogan of all good housewives and producers. 463. The Huge Task of Providing an Adequate Army and Navy. — An increase of food, ships, munitions, and other material needs was an immediate result of our en- 46o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tering upon the war. The huge task of providing an ade- quate army and navy developed more slowly. Even before the declaration of war, President Wilson Increase in had Ordered the navy to be increased as the navy. rapidly as possible to the full war strength of 93,000. In the month following the declaration of war, the Army Draft Bill was passed (May i8), the first step toward The selective Calling to the national colors a vast host of *^^^^^' the young men of the country. A new feature of the enrolment caused the draft to be called selective, since those who were best fitted for army life and had the fewest dependants were to be selected for the fighting-line; and those were to be exempted from active service in the army who were physically or morally deficient, or who were engaged in productive industries, or were in some other way meeting the vital needs of the country during the war. For, as President Wilson said : "The whole nation must be a team The whole na= iH which cach man shall play the part for tionateam. ^yhich hc is bcst fitted. To this end. Con- gress has provided that the nation shall be organized for war by selection; that each man shall be classified for service in the place to which it shall best serve the general good to call him." On Registration Day (June 5) 9,700,000 young men between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one years in- The first clusivc, from every town, village, and city draft. jj^ ^Yie country came to their nearest voting places and registered. From these, during the next month, the first draft of about 685,000 was made. But long be- fore the draft, many thousand men had volunteered and had been accepted for service during the war. Some of them enlisted in the National Guard, which the President in due time called and drafted into the federal service; and some joined the regular army and navy, the size of ^ which Congress had greatly enlarged. Most of the drafted THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 461 men became members of the National Army and were sent for training to forty cantonments located in various parts of the country. 464. Naval and Military Aid to Our Allies. — To defend our coast against possible attack by German submarines or other hostile craft, our navy promptly ^^^ united began the patrol of American waters ; and states Navai " II' 1 r 'i' Reserve Force. to supplement this coast deiense, an auxiliary fleet, known as the United States Naval Reserve Force^ was organized. To aid our allies in their submarine cam. AMERICAN TROOPS ARRIVING IN FRANCE. Frovi a photograph copyriglit by Kadel &= Herbert. From Umierzvood &" Underwood. paign, a squadron under the command of Admiral Sims was sent to European waters, where it arrived before the 1st of May. The first contingent of American troops, which was under the command of General Pershing, reached France late in June. But land and water forces no longer constitute a com- plete armament, for the airplane has become a very im- 462 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES portant, perhaps vital, feature of modern warfare. In fact, some military experts believed that it would prove The Aviation to be the most effective instrument in decid- ^*"- ing the outcome of the present wai . However that may be, Congress unanimously passed the Aviation Bill, providing for some 22,000 airplanes and 100,000 men to be trained as aviators. CHILDREN PROMOTING THE SALE OF LIBERTY LOANS. 465. Meeting the Expenses of the War. — To raise a five-billion-dollar bond credit for meeting the enormous The first two expcnscs of the war and for loaning money ta "Liberty Qur alHcs, thc govcmmcnt decided to float two loans, one of two, and the other of three, billions, to be called "Liberty Loans." The first was floated early in the summer and was a national triumph. More than four million persons bought all of these bonds and were willing to buy a billion more than were offered. The second loan, floated in October, was also remarkably sue- THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 463 cessful, for the people responded in a very loyal and patriotic way. The total subscription for these bonds was over $4,600,000,000 and the total number of subscribers was 9,500,000. Since even these loans would not meet the needs of the government, in October Congress passed a taxation bill which provided for the raising of another vast sum of money. The war expenses were so enormous that a third liberty loan, which was for three billion dollars, w^as floated in the spring of 191 8. The sale of these bonds began on April 6, the first anniversary of the beginning of the war, and the people, rich and poor, bought them with en- thusiasm. The amount subscribed was more than $4,170,- 000,000, and the subscribers numbered about 17,000,000. 466. Generous Gifts for the American Red Cross. — Be- sides the funds collected by the government loans and taxes, the American Red Cross, declared by President Wilson to be "the officially recognized agency of volun- tary effort in behalf of the armed forces of the nation and for the administration of relief," asked for gifts amount- ing to $100,000,000. The response was so generous that much more was given than the sum named. 467. Our Government Sends a Mission to Russia. — Not long after the entrance of the United States into the war, a revolution broke out in Russia. The Czar was de- throned and a republic established. This great internal change while the country was at war produced conditions that were almost chaotic. To convince the Russian people of our sympathy and desire to be of service, a mission, headed by Elihu Root as special ambassador, was sent to that country. 468. Our Country Playing a Large Part in International Life. — The sending of this mission, like the reception here of war missions from Encfland, France, Bel- ^ ^ ^ ^ , \ ^ , ' Our duty and gium, Italy, and Japan, is signiffcant and interests as a ... c . , , • !• world power. strikmg; tor it clearly mdicates a more intimate political relation between the United States 464 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and Europe than has ever existed before. We are now in a deeper sense than at any other time in our history playing a large part in international life. And this is right; for as a world power, with greater wealth than any other nation on the earth, we must be willing to do our duty as a people, no matter how high the cost THE SECRETARY OF WAR AND GENERAL PERSHING REVIEWING AMERICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE. Copyright by CojUDiittee of Public Information. FrofU Under^uood &= Under^vood. may be to us in property, and even in human life. We must be willing to spend freely of our treasure and our blood ''to make the world safe for democracy." The fact has been brought home to us, as never before, that we cannot live as a nation apart, but that our duty and also our interests bid us unite with other nations in carrying forward the work of civilization. 469. Government Operation and Control of the Rail- roads.— Just before the close of the year 191 7, the govern- Much ment took into its own hands the operation urnspo^tauon. ^ud coutrol of all the railroads in the country. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 465 This was done because there was much confusion in trans- portation. Cars loaded with fuel, food, and other important freight sometimes stood on the side-tracks for days because it was not possible to move them. In explaining the action of the government, President Wilson pointed out that under the unusual war conditions it was impossible for the many private and Need of bring- competing companies to manage the complex rafir^'oids under system of transportation as effectively as the one control, government could by bringing all the railroads under a single unified control. A winter of extreme severity, w^ith long periods of very low temperature and great snow- storms, would have proved a serious handicap to trans- pcrtation even in times of normal traffic. William G. McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury, was made director- general of the railroads. 470. The Coal Shortage,— Shortly after we entered the war, it was known that the country would need for the year following an increase of about 100,000,000 tons of coal over the normal demand. But the mines did not supply the extra coal. Moreover, in the second week in December, there was a heavy snowfall over a large part of the country, and also a period of unusually cold weather. The result was a coal shortage which caused much dis- tress. In many cities thousands of homes, offices, apart- ment and other public buildings used up their coal supply down to the last shovelful. Families lived at hotels because the apartment elevators stopped running; schools and manufactories ran on short hours or closed for a time. The crisis in the coal shortage became so acute that on January 16, the federal fuel administrator, Harry A. Garfield, ordered a shutdown of practically a shutdown all industry from January 18 to 22, inclusive, of industries, and eah of the following Mondays up to and including March 25. This shutdown applied to twenty-eight States. The President, in giving the reasons for sending out 466 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES for the shutdown the order, stated that the saving of coal was absolutely Three reasons necessary : (i) To fill the bunkers of ships which must carry soldiers and supplies across the Atlantic; (2) to transport great quantities of food by rail to shipping-points; (3) to enable the people to get coal enough to keep their homes warm. 471. Our Navy and Our Merchant Shipping. — Even be- fore entering the war, as already noted, a considerable increase had been made in our navy. Immediately after Two reasons taking up arms, the government, with remark- for making our ablc cucrgy, sct out to make the navy far more powerful than it had ever been before. This was done with two aims in view: (i) To help our allies keep open the lanes of ocean transportation, so that LAUNCHING A SHIP AND IMMEDIATELY LAYING THE KEEL OF A NEW VESSEL IN THE SAME DOCK. our men might be sent in safety to France, and also sup- plies for them and our allies. (2) Being in the war, we THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 467 had to prepare to defend our seaports from attack and our coasts from invasion. By the ist of May, 191 8, there were about 300,000 ofhcers and men in our navy. But it was not enough to build war-vessels and sub- marine destroyers. It was necessary also to increase our merchant shipping, for without a great merchant marine we could not perform the giant task of trans- ^ ^^^^ porting an army of perhaps millions to a battle- merchant field three thousand miles distant, and at the "'^•"'"^"^^ ® same time almost unlimited quantities of food, munitions, and other war materials. It seemed clear that unless we were able to keep up abundant means of ocean transportation, we could not be successful in the war. With good reason, then, a splen- did programme for the production of merchant shipping was worked out, and in the spring of 191 8 Charles M. Schwab was appointed director-general of the Emergency Fleet Corporation, which had charge of the building of the new ships. There can be no doubt that the American merchant marine will grow rapidly, and that it will be powerful enough to meet the needs of our great coun- t,^ ^. . ^ ^ , , The shipping try. By the 1st of May, 1918, the shipping schedule much schedule was so much improved as to make it possible to speed up the transportation of American soldiers from the camps and cantonments, where they began their training in the fall of 191 7, to the battle-front in France. It is confidently hoped that at no distant day the American boys in khaki, on the other side of the Atlantic, will number at least a million. We had under arms in the camp and field in May, 191 8, not far from 2,000,000 men, and the government was planning for a large increase. 472. The Patriotic Spirit of the American People. — From the day when Congress declared that "Weareaii we were at war with Germany, the American comrades." people, with a public spirit unsurpassed in our history, 468 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES have shown a wilHngness to meet any demands that might be made upon their loyalty and patriotism. Thousands have generously given time, money, and invaluable service, without thought of material reward. Our young men, regardless of race, creed, or social sta- tion,, have cheerfully left their homes to join the army GENERAL PERSHING S VETERANS DIRECT FROM THE TRENCHES IN FRANCE ARRIVE IN NEW YORK CITY. or navy where, by their heroic and self-sacrificing spirit, they have given evidence of their fine quality and robust manliness. It is for us who are living in the peace and quiet of our every-day life to make them realize that we count on them, that we have unbounded faith in their courage and endurance, and that we will give them strong support by doing our part as well as we possibly can. "We are all comrades" in helping to win victory for our own country and for the freedom of the world. THE UNITED STATES NOW A WORLD POWER 469 TO THE PUPIL 1. Do you think the United States was justified in going to war with Spain at this time? Give reasons for your answer. 2. Why did Dewey go to Manila? Impersonating him, give an account of your experiences. 3. What were the most important results of the war? 4. Explain the policy of the " Open Door." What is meant by the ter- ritorial integrity of China? 5. Explain the following: the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, the Isthmian Canal Act, and the treaty with Panama. 6. In what ways is the Pacific Cable of use to the world? 7. What good results would follow if disagreements between nations were settled by peaceful methods? 8. In what ways is co-operation of advantage among individual men and women and also among countries? 9. What is meant by the United States as a world power? 10. Explain the following: short ballot, commission form of government, the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the Constitution, and the income tax. 11. Why are the Latin- American states, south of Mexico, more friendly to us now than they were some years ago? What are the aims of the Pan-American Union? 12. Explain the serious trouble between the railway managers and the four "Brotherhoods." How was it settled? 13. What results are almost certain to come from the opening of the Panama Canal ? 14. How did the Great War bring about trouble between our country and Great Britain? Between our country and Germany? 15. Tell all you can about the torpedoing of the Lusitania. 16. What promise did Germany make to our government? What new policy did she adopt later? 17. What did President Wilson mean when he said: "We will not choose the path of submission"? 18. Why did we go to war with Germany? 19. In what ways did we co-operate with the powers allied against Germany? 20. What is meant by saying that our whole nation is at war? 21. Explain Registration Day, selective draft, and "Liberty Loans." 22. Why is it the duty of our country to play a large part in international life? 470 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 23. Why did our government take into its hands the operation and control of the railroads ? 24. What was the size of our army in May, 1918? Of our navy? 25. How have the American people shown their loyalty and patriotism in the war with Germany ? 26. Name in order the Presidents of the United States. CHAPTER XXIV SOAIZ INDUSTRIAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CON- DITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT REFERENCES: Scribner's Popular History of the United States, V.; Andrews's Last Quarter Century, II.; Dogart's Economic History of tlie United States ; Wright's Industrial Evolution of the United States ; Coman's Industrial History of the United States. OUTSIDE READINGS: Boone's Education in the United States; Tyler's History of American Literature ; Richardson's American Literature ; Sted=i man's Poets of America; Hudson's History of Journalism in America; vari- ous magazine articles. 473, The Natural Advantages of the United States. — As the United States in its vast extent has many vari- eties of soil and climate, its productions also are varied. THE ROUND-UP. Our coasts offer valuable fisheries, and the prairies and the Great Plains furnish excellent pasturage for millions of sheep and cattle. Extensive areas of forest lands supply 471 472 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the best timber, a large region in the South affords suitable land for the growing of cotton, and rich mineral deposits of gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal lie imbedded in the mountain regions. Our coal supply is many times greater than that of all Europe, including England. From all these sources we get abundant raw material ^ with which to supply our factories and still have man}^ things to spare for trade in foreign markets. 474. The i extile Industry.— But these natural sources of wealth would be of little value without the power to bring them under control and put them to proper uses. The industrial This powcr the American people possess in revolution. their iuvcntivc genius, their mechanical skill, and their untiring ene»-gy. They have, therefore, become leaders in the industrial revolution which began with the TEXTILE MILL. invention of steam-driven machinery over a century ago and is still going on. This revolution has brought about such great changes that we may well consider some of its more striking phases. * In the output of iron, copper, coal, wheat, and cotton — the products which with wool are of greatest use in modern industry — our country leads the world. It produces wool also in large quantities. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 473 The textile industry, a leading one in the United States, well illustrates the growth of all. Up to the time of the American Revolution, and even later, the coarser cloths for ordinary use were made by hand in the household and in small shops, while the finer grades were ^-^e spinning imported from England. It was not until the machine and close of the eighteenth century that the spin- ^ ^^"^^^ **"'"' ning wheel and the hand loom gave place to the spinning machine and the power loom. These new inventions, im- ported from England, completely changed the making of woolen and cotton cloth. The first spinning mill with machinery made after the English models was built by Samuel Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1790. This was the beginning of the factory system in the United States. But the The first mod- first factory, in the modern sense, that is, a em factory, building where all processes from the raw material to the finished product are carried on under one roof, was erected at Waltham in 18 14. Since then the extension of cotton manufactures has been steady and rapid. New inventions and processes and increased demand for cotton goods have given the textile industry a wonderful development.^ Just as the improved machinery in spinning and weav- ing transferred the making of cloth from the household to the factory, so the invention of the sewing machine (1846) changed the making of men's clothing from a The sewing domestic to a factory industry and the man- machine, ufacture of boots and shoes from a hand-made to a machine- made product. This transfer of industries from the home and shop to the factory greatly lowered the cost of labor and cheapened production. The price of ready-made cloth- ing and shoes was thus brought so low as to come within the reach of even the very poor. 475. Iron and Steel. — Another industry which has had a remarkable growth is that of iron and steel. Like the ^ Textiles include clothing and fabrics of every description for household and other uses; textile materials include cotton, wool, flax, silk, and coarser fibres. 474 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES making of doth, it had an early beginning but did not in- crease much during the colonial period. Common farm implements, tools, and household utensils were made in most of the colonies, but the finer grades of cutlery and edged tools were brought from England. It was not until the beginning of the last century that the iron and coal fields of western Pennsylvania began to be worked, and Pittsburg, now the most important cen- Theuseof trc of the iron industry, had its first foundry anthracite coal. (1803). DuHug the ycars that followed, fur- naces, forges, iron mills, and steel works sprang up in all quarters. But the impulse which revolutionized the mak- ANTHRACITE COAL MINE. ing of iron was brought about by the use of anthracite (hard) coal instead of charcoal in the process of smelting (1840). It cheapened production and increased the output. The Bessemer process (1859) wrought a second revo- lution. This invention, with the use of bituminous (soft) coal instead of anthracite, gave a wonderful stimulus to the CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 475 iron industry. By greatly cheapening the manufacture of steel rails it also played a large part in the rapid extension of the railroad system. For steel rails, being gteei rails stronger than iron, made possible the use of cheapen I 1 ,• J 1 • J. • J transportation. larger locomotives and heavier trains, and permitted a much higher rate of speed. They are, there- fore, the foundation of cheap and rapid transportation, which is a great factor in our industrial life. Steel is also used extensively in the structure of bridges, of large buildings, and of war-vessels, as well as in the in- ventions and conveniences of every-day life. Our natural products of iron and coal have been the greatest forces in the development of manufacturing in this country. 476. Railroad Rate Regulation. — The astonishing growth of manufactures and business in this country since the outbreak of the Civil War would have been impossible without the aid of the railroad. After the close Railroad rates of that war railroad lines were rapidly extended not fair to aii so as to connect the mining and farming re- * •pp^''^- gions with cities and factories. In the course of time most of the important railroads in the country were combined into a few systems, and the lines of each system passed through several States. The great railroad companies owning these systems, in their eagerness to secure busi- ness, made certain rates which were not fair to all shippers. Some shippers and places were secretly charged less than the regular freight rates. The business companies who en- joyed the advantage of the lower rates were thus enabled, in some instances, to drive rival companies out of business. To stop this injustice, Congress passed the interstate commerce act (1887). Its purpose was to regulate trade between the States.^ This law declares that freight and passenger rates on railroads running from one The interstate State into another shall be just and reasonable, commerce act. and shall be uniform, for like service, for all. The Inter- ^ Congress can regulate trade between the States. But only the State Legisla- ture can regulate trade carried on entirely ivithin any State. 476 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES state Commerce Commission (first consisting of five mem- bers and later of seven) was appointed to see that the law was carried out. As the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission under this law were not large enough, another rate law was passed (1906). It forbids the granting of free passes and The rate laws dcclarcs that if any shipper complains of a of 1906 and rate as unjust and unreasonable the Inter- state Commerce Commission shall have the power to fix a new rate. Still another law was passed (1910), which created a commerce court to enforce the or- ders of the Interstate Commerce Commission. It gives the commission power to suspend (for as long as ten months if necessary) a new rate, or any rate, in order to find out by in- vestigation whether or not such rate is just and reasonable.^ 477. The Federal Trade Commission (1914) — As the Interstate Commerce Commission was given power to oversee and regulate railroads and other transportation interests and the Federal Reserve Board was given large powers in the field of currency and banking, in like man- ner, for the best business interests of the whole country, a need was felt for another powerful Federal board to regu- late and control corporations or trusts holding property in several States. Accordingly, the Federal Trade Commission bill was passed by Congress (191 4). It authorized the appoint- Threefoid mcnt of the Federal Trade Commission with Federal Vad^e thrccfold powcrs as follows : (i) to investi- commission. gate interstate corporations in order to find out whether they were breaking the laws; (2) to forbid and prevent unfair methods of competition; and (3) to aid the Attorney-General and the United States courts in enforc- ing the anti-trust laws. 478. Trusts and the Regulation of Trusts. — The rail- road, improved machinery, and the opening up of the ^ The rate law of 1910 applies not only to railroads but to telegraph, telephone, and cable companies, and also to express companies and sleeping-car companies. COx\DITIOxNS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 477 West caused manufacturing to increase with wonderful rapidity. Business was extended and competition became intense. As an outcome, rival companies decided that union was better than strife, and large companies or cor- porations were organized. A corporation formed by the union of several companies was called a trust.^ -n^fe if] (1 liii' o^W-- — g ^-^c^^, GOODS AWAITING EXPORTATION. The main purposes of the trust were, first, to cheapen the cost of production, and, second, to lessen and, so far as possible, to prevent competition. But the people felt that the prices of trust-made goods, which The anti- often included the necessaries of life, were too ^"""^^ '^^• high. As the trust controlled the market in its given line ' Examples of trusts are The Standard Oil Company, The United States Steel Company, The Sup;ar Trust, etc. The Standard Oil Company controls the output of petroleum, in the production and export of which the United States leads the world. The first oil-well was bored in Pennsylvania in 1859. Since then oil has been produced in large quantities in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Texas, and i.i other States. 478 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES of goods, It could fix the prices on the raw materials it bought and on the hnished goods it sold. Accordingly, the Sherman an ti- trust law was passed (1890). This de- clares, in effect, that all combinations and agreements made for the purpose of controlling the output and sale of goods and of fixing prices are unlawful and are liable to punishment by fine or imprisonment. 479. The Growth of Our Foreign Trade. — Quite apart from attempted regulation of railroads and trusts, the volume of our trade has steadily increased. Our ag- The United Hcultural and manufactured products have thewortd ^ more than kept pace with the needs of our in exports. growing population, and the surplus has found a ready market among the nations of the world. The foreign trade of the United States is a fair measure of its economic progress. During our first century as a nation we were largely agricultural and had to depend on foreign markets for many of our manufactured goods. By the close of that century the products of our factories more than equalled in value the products of our farms, and to- day we are the leading manufacturing nation in the world. Moreover, during the period of development, our exports did not pay for our imports. But since 1876 our exports have exceeded our imports, and the United States has advanced to the position of the first exporting nation in the wo rid. ^ Along with the growth of exports has been an increase of imports, consisting mainly of raw materials used in manufactures, and of luxuries, that is, of those things which „. . could not be produced at home. The value of The immense ' volume of our our total cxports for 1917 was over $6,294,- commelce. 000,000; of our total imports, nearly $2,659,- 000,000, making an excess of exports of over $470,000,000. This volume of foreign trade is a measure not only of the expanding commerce but of the growing 1 Only three times during that period — in 1888, 1889, and 1893 — did our im- ports exceed our exports. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 479 TRANSPORTATION IN A LARGE CITY, SHOWING ELEVATED ROAD, SURFACE LINE, AND SUBWAY. wealth of the nation. And when we learn that our domestic commerce Is many times as large as our foreign we get a faint idea of the magnitude of the country and of its business operations. 480. Electricity in Modern Life. — As we have seen, steam has come to be of immense service to the world by its use as a motive power in driving machinery. But no less remarkable, perhaps, is the work which The many uses electricity has been made to do in many ways. ®^ ejectncity. The telegraph, the telephone, the marine cable, and wire- less telegraphy have already been discussed as useful agents 48o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in the transmission of thought. About 1880, by the in- vention of the arc and the incandescent Hghts, electricity- was apphed to the Hghting of streets and of houses. Soon after, it came into use as a motive power. Trolley-cars, electric automobiles, electric engines, and electric motors for fixed machinery followed. But two of the most striking uses of electricity are the transmitting of power from falling water to distant cities^ and the producing of the X-ray, which enables physicians to photograph the bones and to observe the action of the heart and other organs in the living body. By 1900 the uses of electricity had multiplied twentyfold, and yet to-day they are believed to be in their infancy. 481. Inventions as Aids to Human Progress. — From all that has been said about the uses of electricity and steam and the various forms of invention, we see clearly how science has aided man in bringing the forces of nature under his control. Improved machinery as well as im- proved methods of travel, transportation, and communica- tion have so cheapened the cost of food, clothing, and other things needed in every-day life that the day laborer can now have comforts and con\'eniences which even the rich did not enjoy fifty years ago. Moreover, as inventi\'e genius is constantly making new disco\Tnes, we may confidently look forward to changes as wonderful as any that have yet been made. Two of the The automobile most rccciit iiiveiitions are the automobile and and the Hying ^lic flyiug machinc. Before the close of 1910 the automobile had come into extensive use not only as a means of pleasure and recreation, but also for practical purposes in the cit}^ and on the farm. In the ' Important examples of companies engaged in such transmission of power are the Central Colorado Power Company, the power companies of Niagara Falls, and the Southern Power Company. The first transmits power from Shoshone Falls to Denver, a distance of iSo miles; one of the second group, from Niagara Falls to Syracuse, a distance of about 150 miles; and the third to various points, some of which are 150 miles from the place where the power is generated. In all these cases the transmitted power may be used for driving fixed machinery, for propel- ling trolley-cars, and for lighting purposes. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESEN'i 481 yM'9&- same year successful experiments with the flying machine, invented by the Wright brothers, led people to believe that the days of m tor^ aerial navigation might be near at hand. 482. City Popu- lations and Munic- ipal Reform. — Our huge industries must be carried on by large bodies of workmen. The re- sult has been an amazing growth of modern cities; and this massing of people in great centres has brought new problems to the front. When the Constitution went into effect in 1789 only about three per cent, of the people of the United States lived in cities; now not far from forty per cent, are in cities of 4,000 inhabitants and upward. The immense growth of manufactures and commerce has largely caused this change. The massing of large numbers of people in com- mercial and manufacturing centres furnishes a difficult political problem. Many of the most ignorant foreign-born voters are found in such centres, and, being without in- telligent ideas about our government, they can the more readily be induced to sell their votes. As the strength of republican institutions depends upon the morality and in- telligence of the people, the practice of buying and selling votes presents a grave danger. But a wide-spread move- ment in the interests of better city government is making itself felt more and more every year. A CROWDED STREET TN A TENEMENT DISTRICT. Copyright, igo2, by Underzvood <5^ Underwood, New York. 482 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Interest in higher education. 483. Education. — All our material advantages would be worth little without a moral and intelligent people to make proper use of them. This the United States under- stands and has therefore been foremost among the nations Liberal of the world in educating its citizens. Every fTpubHc"'^''^ State in the Union has its system of public schools. schools, some even providing State universi- ties. As a natural result of such systems the progress of education in the United States has been remarkable. The nation has also taken much interest in higher education, and the people have reason for pride in the stand- ing of their universi- ties. The value of the property owned by colleges and universities in the United States, includ- ing grounds, buildings, and productive farms, amounts to hundreds of millions of dollars. Outside the colleges and universities there are many professional and scientific schools. Many special institutions of learning have also been established by gifts and bequests of rich men and women, who have given of their abundance not only for the devel- opment of good and strong minds, but also for the training and support of the weak and helpless classes of society, such as the blind, the deaf, the mentally defective. There are in the United States many institutions for those classes that need special help. The nation has made a supreme effort to educate NEW STEEL TOWER BRIDGE ACROSS THE EAST RIVER, NEW YORK. Copyright, igo4, by Underwood S^ Underwood, New York. Education of the weak and helpless. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 483 the masses and to improve the condition of the weak and suffering. In recent years, under the direction of the United States Bureau of Agriculture/ much attention has been given to training for hfe on the farm. There g ^^.^j are now more than sixty agricultural colleges training for established in various parts of the country, the farm, and model farms and experiment stations are to be found in every State in the Union. By means of these oppor- tunities the farmer is learning to make the soil yield much larger returns than was possible before science came to his aid. The advance in scientific farming is one of the most hopeful movements of our time. Another promising movement is that in favor of vo- cational and trade schools, that is, schools which give special training for modern industry. The jrainin for belief is growing that our public schools not modem only should furnish a general training for life industry, but also should help to develop that mechanical power and skill and that industrial knowledge which are so much needed in our complex factory system. 484. "Woman Suffrage. — Quite as noteworthy is the advance in the higher education of women in the past twenty-five or thirty years. Women now have ^. . ^. ■' ^ -^ -^ ^ ^ Advance in the scholastic advantages formerly limited to men, education of and have taken their place in many fields of ^«'"^"- activity once exclusively occupied by men. This has come about, however, not only because of a broader gen- eral training, but partly on account of the transfer of many household duties to the mill and fac- ^. . , ■^ , Their larger tory. As we know, many household supplies outlook upon which women made by hand in the home a '''^" hundred years ago are now made by the use of power machines within factory walls. Women are also doin^- ^ In 1862 Congress authorized the establishment of the Bureau of Agriculture and also made provisions for the support of agricultural colleges from proceeds of the sales of public lands. 484 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES more than they ever did before in the many forms of pub- lic service which make for a finer pubHc spirit and a better civic Hfe. By reason of these and other facts, many beHeve that women should have the same voting privileges as men. Wyoming was the first State to vote full suffrage to women. There are now twelve States in which women have in all respects equal voting power with men. 485. Newspapers and Periodicals. — The high aver- age of intelligence in the United States has created a great demand for newspapers and magazines. They have be- RALPH WALDO EMERSON. JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER come an immense educational force, giving the people a The linotype keener, more intelligent interest in public and the complex affairs. But it is well to remember that with- printing=press. ^^^ ^^^ ^j^ ^^ rcccut invcutious the modern daily newspaper would not be possible. The telegraph, the telephone, and the marine cable all aid in gathering the news, while the linotype and the complex printing- press supply the lightning processes of printing. The linotype enables the printer very rapidly to put the news into type by striking the keys of a keyboard as in operat- CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 485 ing a typewriter. The most advanced printing-press will print, fold, and count 300,000 eight-page papers in an hour, or more than eighty every second. 486. Literature. — For a long time after the settlement of the English colonies the people were too busy with the work of clearing the land and building suitable homes to produce any literature. Washington Irving, born the same THE LOUISIANA PU?vCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, 1904. ONE OF THE BRIDGES AND LAGOONS. WITH THE PALAJE OF EDUCATION. Copyright, IQ04, by Louisiana Purchase ExpositioJt Co. year that the Revolution was brought to a close, first attracted public attention by his Knickerbocker History of New York. He has rightly been called the "Father of American Literature." J. Fenimore Cooper, his contem- porary, was the first American novelist. He irving, cooper, wrote the first sea story that attracted the *"^ Bryant, attention of the world, and was author of the famous Leather stocking Tales, describing the life of the American 486 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Indian. These stories were written with such freshness and originaUty that they were eagerly read in many countries. Our first poet to be recognized in England, William Cullen Bryant, belonged to the same period. He came into fame by his well-known poem, Thanatopsis, written when he was nineteen. Among the familiar names of later American literature are the following: poets, Henry Wadsworth Longfellov/, THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Edgar other familiar ^^^^^ ^oe, Ralph Waldo Emcrsou, and James names in Amer= RusscU Lowcll ; cssayists, Emcrsou and Lowell ; ican literature, novclists, Nathaniel Hawthomc, W. D. How- ells, Henry James, Harriet Beecher Stowe; historians, George Bancroft, John Lothrop Motley, William H. Pres- cott, and Francis Parkman. Much excellent work has been done by living writers, especially in the department of American history, and this work is coming from all parts of the country. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 487 487. Problems of the Hour. — The great educational influences coming from the public schools, from higher in- stitutions of learning, from the newspapers and periodicals, and from the reading and study of good literature are pre- paring the people rightly to solve the problems of the hour. These problems include the race problem in the South, temperance reform, immigration, the tariff, trust regulation, railroad regulation, conservation of our natural resources, vocational education, the form of government of our cities, the money question, civil service reform, woman suffrage, and the strife between labor and capital. The right solution of these difficult problems demands intelligence, patience, and conscientious effort. We must take time to study them, and we must try to look at them from more than one point of view. If we approach them with a broad and generous spirit, with an earnest desire to find out the truth, we shall be more likely to understand them and to take the proper steps to a satisfactory solution. 488. Relation of the Individual Citizen to the State. — But no matter what problems present themselves for solution, the character of the State is determined by the character of its citizens. We should never forget that a vast territory like ours, with all its wealth, is not necessarily great. The greatness of a country is not measured by what it has in land, productions, trades, and educational in- stitutions, but by what its people are. If they are intel- ligent and patriotic, ready at all times to do their duty in the interest of the public good, their future is assured. You, my young reader, owe much to your country for what it has done for you. It has been said America means that America means opportunity. It does, opportunity. It means opportunity to get wealth, power, influence, and honor. It means opportunity to make the most of your powers of body and mind. But, more than all else, it means opportunity to make the institutions of your coun- try better by honest, faithful service, and sincere efforts to know the truth. 488 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Charles Sumner said of our national flag: "The stripes of alternate red and white proclaim the original union of thirteen States to maintain the Declaration of Independ- our national cucc. Its stars, whitc ou a field of blue, pro- flag- claim the union of States constituting our na- tional constellation, which receives a new star with every new State. These two signify union, past and present. The very colors have a language which was officially recog- nized by our fathers. White is for purity, red for valor, blue for justice." " I pledge allegiance to my flag and the republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." TO THE PUPIL 1. Name the natural advantages of the U. S. 2. What is meant by the industrial revolution? Name two inventions that had a large influence on the making of textiles. How did the sewing machine cheapen the cost of clothing ? 3. What effect did the use of hard and soft coal have upon the production of iron and steel? How did steel rails cheapen transportation? 4. What was the purpose of the Interstate Commerce Act? What powers were given to the Interstate Commerce Commission by the various rate laws? Why was the Anti-Trust Law passed? CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 489 5. Tell what you can of the immense increase of our foreign trade. 6. What is meant by the transmission of power by the use of electricity? Give examples of such transmission. 7. What is meant by municipal reform, and why is it needed? 8. What liberal provision has been made for public schools in this coun- try? What advance has been made in education in recent years? 9. Name four inventions which make the modern daily newspaper possible. 10. What are some of the familiar names in American literature? Name some of the problems of the hour. 11. What is the relation of the individual citizen to the state? 12. Before laying aside the study of this history learn the symbolism, as given by Charles Sumner, of the colors of the ♦' Stars and Stripes," and memorize the "pledge." 490 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CHRONOLOGY 1867. March i, Nebraska admitted to the union. 1868. July 28, fourteenth amendment adopted. 1869. March 4, ulysses s. grant inaugurated president. May 10, first pacific railroad completed. 1870. March 30, fifteenth amendment ratified. the ninth census, showing a population of 38,558,371, 187 1. January, all states again represented in congress. 1873. February, law passed demonetizing silver. March 4, ulysses s. grant inaugurated president, financial panic. 1876. centennial exposition at philadelphia, first telephone patented. August I, COLORADO ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 1877. March 4, rutherford b. hayes inaugurated president. July, great railroad strike in pittsburg. 1878. February, bland-allison silver bill passed. ELECTRIC LIGHT INVENTED. 1879. January i, resumption of specie payments. 1880. THE TENTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 50,155,783. 1881. March 4, james a. garfield inaugurated president. September 22, Chester a. Arthur formally inaugurated. 1883. letter postage reduced to two cents. 1884. December, new Orleans exposition opened. 1885. March 4, grover Cleveland inaugurated president. 1887, THE interstate COMMERCE ACT. 1889. March 4, benjamin harrison inaugurated president. April 22, OKLAHOMA OPENED TO SETTLERS. PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS MET IN WASHINGTON. November 2, north Dakota admitted to the union. November 2, south Dakota admitted to the union. November 8, Montana admitted to the union. November 11, Washington admitted to the union. 1890. DEPENDENT PENSIONS ACT BECAME A LAW. July 3, IDAHO ADMITTED TO THE UNION. July TO, WYOMING ADMITTED TO THE UNION. MCKINLEY TARIFF BILL BECAME A LAW. SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE LAW PASSED. THE ELEVENTH CENSUS, SHOWING A POPULATION OF 62,622,250. SHERMAN ANTI-TRUST LAW. 1893. January 14, revolution in Hawaii. March 4, grover Cleveland inaugurated president. May I, COLUMBIAN V/ORLD'S fair opened at CHICAGO. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT 491 1894. June 4, PULLMAN BOYCOTT. August 27, THE WILSON BILL BECAME A LAW. 1895. December 17, president ^Cleveland's Venezuela message. 1897. March 4, william mckinley inaugurated president. July 24, DINGLEY TARIFF BILL BECAME A LAW. 1898. April 25, CONGRESS DECLARES WAR TO EXIST WITH SPAIN. May I, dewey's victory at manila. July I, battle of Santiago. July 3, «cervera's fleet destroyed. 1899. February 6, treaty of' peace with spain ratified. 1900. the twelfth census, showing a population of 75,568,686. 1 901. March 4, william mckinley inaugurated president. July I, civil GOVERNMExNT established in the PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. September 14, theodore roosevelt inaugurated president. HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY SIGNED. 1902. May 20, NEW CUBAN GOVERNMENT FORMALLY INAUGURATED. THE ISTHMIAN CANAL ACT. 1903. January 18, first wireless message sent across the Atlantic, July 4, first message sent by the pacific cable. November 3, the revolution in Panama. November 18, the canal treaty with panama signed. 1907. the second peace conference held at the HAGUE. November 16, Oklahoma admitted to the union. 1908. May, meeting at Washington on the conservation of our natural resources. 1909. March 4, william h. taft inaugurated president. August 5, payne-aldrich tariff bill becomes a law. 1910. the thirteenth census, showing a population of 91,972,265. 19 12. January 6, new Mexico admitted to the union. February 14, ARIZONA admitted to the union. 1 9 13. February 25, sixteenth amendment declared in force. March 4, wooDriOvv wilson inaugurated president. May 31, sfaexteexth amendment declared in force. 1914. August 2, THE beginning OF THE GREAT WAR IN EUROPE. August 15, THE OPENING OF THE PANAMA CANAL. 191 7. March 4, woodrow wilson inaugurated president. April G, CONGRESS declares a state of war to exist with GERMANY. May. ARMY draft established. ■ June, first contingent of American troops landed in France, first LIBERTY LOAN. August, food control established. October, second liberty loan. government operation and control OF railroads established. TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY (The figures in parentheses refer to pages in the book) I. DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS. European trade with Asia in the fifteenth century (i). Portugal leads in discovering an Eastern route (2). Columbus and his discoveries (3-6). Americus Vespucius and the naming of America (8). Magellan proves America to be a continent (9). Spanish discoverers and explorers (De Leon, Nar/aez, De Soto, and Balboa) (13, 14, 18, 19). Voyages and discoveries of the Enghsh (Cabot, Drake, Raleigh, and Gosnold) (6, 21, 23, 26). Henry Hudson discovers the Hudson River (63). Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence (87). Champlain explores Lake Champlain (88). Father Marquette and La Salle explore the Mississippi (90). THE I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II SPANISH IN AMERICA. Precious metals the main object of the Spaniards (13). The Spaniards drive the Huguenots out of Florida (15, 16). Advantages of Spain in the New World (16). Reasons for Spanish failure (17). Relations between Spain and England (20, 21). France cedes to Spain all territory between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains (102). France regains Louisiana from Spain (219). The purchase of Florida from Spain (239). Spain and the Monroe Doctrine (240). The Spanish- American War (410-417). Spain gives up Cuba and Porto Rico (417, 418). m. THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA. 1. The Spaniards drive the Huguenots from Florida (15). 2. The work of Champlain (87-89). 3. The French in the Mississippi Valley (89-92). 4. England and France struggle for control in America (93). 5. The last French war and its results (97-103). 6. The French lose control of territory in North America (103). 492 TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 493 7. Influence of the French Revolution upon American affairs (207). 8. Citizen Genet defies Washington (208). 9. The " X. Y. Z. Papers " and serious trouble with France (210). 10. France regains Louisiana from Spain and sells it to the United States (219, 220). 11. The attempt of Napoleon III to estabhsh an empire in Mexico (344, 345)- IV. STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL IN WHAT IS NOW THE UNITED STATES. 1. Advantages of Spain in the New World (17). 2. Why Spanish colonization failed in North America (17). , 3. England's need of America (25). 4. Success of English colonization in America (28-74). 5. The Dutch in New Netherland (63-66). 6. New Netherland becomes New York; why the Dutch failed in colonizing America (67, 68). 7. The work of Champlain (87-89). 8. The French in the Mississippi Valley (89-92). 9. The French lose control of territory in North America (103). 10. The English colonies declare their independence of England (148-150). 11. The Revolution puts an end to English rule in the thirteen Eng- lish colonies (183). 12. France cedes to Spain all territory between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains (102). 13. France regains Louisiana from Spain (219). 14. The purchase of Florida from Spain (239). 15. The attempt of Napoleon III to establish an empire in Mexico (344, 345). V. ENGLAND AND THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 1. Sir Walter Raleigh's attempt to colonize America (23-25). 2. The London and Plymouth Companies (28). 3. Virginia. a. John Smith and the settlement of Jamestown (29-31). b. Dale's Great Reform (32). c. The second great reform {33). d. The great need of labor; the labor supply (34). e. Tobacco establishes rural life (35). /. Berkeley and the people; Bacon's Rebellion (36, 37). 4. Maryland. a. Lord Baltimore and the Catholics settle Maryland (37). b. Lord Baltimore's proprietary rights (38). c. Disputes about boundaries and religion (39). d. Prosperity of the people (39). 494 TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 5. North and South Carolina. a. Charles II and the grant of land (41). b. The form of gov^ernment (41). c. Carolina divided into North and South Carolina (41). d. The population (41). 6. Georgia. a. Why Oglethorpe wished to plant a colony (41). b. The settlement of Georgia (41). c. Georgia becomes a royal colony (41). 7. England under the Stuarts (42). 8. Massachusetts. a. The Pilgrims migrate to America (44). b. Voyage and first winter (45). c. The covenant, democracy, and the church (46). d. Relations with the Indians (46). e. The Puritans and the Massachusetts Bay Colony (47). /. The New England township (48). g. Church and State (49). 9. Connecticut. a. Massachusetts gets control of the Connecticut Valley (50). b. Massachusetts settles the Connecticut Valley (51). c. Thomas Hooker and democracy (51). d. The Connecticut constitution (52). 10. Rhode Island. Religious intolerance in Massachusetts leads to the settle- ment of Rhode Island (54). 11. The New England confederacy (55). 12. The Quakers in New England (56). 13. Trouble with England; loss of the Massachusetts charter (58). 14. Andros the Stuart governor in New England (59). 15. Industries and trade in New England (,61). 16. New York. a. Henry Hudson seeks the Northwest Passage (63). b. Dutch claims in New Netherland (64). c. The patroons (64). d. The Dutch win the friendship of the Iroquois Indians and thus secure an extensive territory (65). e. New Netherland under Dutch governors (66). /. New Netherland becornes New York (67). g. New York under English governors (68), 17. Pennsylvania. a. The Quakers in New England (6g). b. William Penn and the Quakers settle Pennsylvania ^70). c. The Quakers live in peace with the Indians (71). d. Penn's liberal government (71). e. The growth of Pennsylvania (72). TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 495 i8. 19. New Jersey. a. The first permanent English settlement (73). h. **The Jerseys" and New Jersey (73). c. New Jersey becomes a royal province (74). Delaware. a. The Swedes plant settlements along the Delaware River (74). h. The Dutch make New Sweden a part of New Netherland (74). c. Delaware becomes a part of Pennsylvania (74). d. The people of Delaware allowed a separate assembly (74). VI. THE INDIANS. Division into families of the Indians east of the Mississippi (75). Character; occupations; wampum; religion (77-79). The clan and the tribe; communal living (80). The Mound Builders (81, 82). Number of Indians; their influence upon the whites (82, 83). Relation of the Pilgrims with the Indians (46). Early Indian wars (84-86). The Iroquois Indians (88, 89). The Quakers and the Indians (71). The conspiracy of Pontiac (103). Burgoyne's Indian allies (158). Tecumseh's conspiracy (228). War with the Creek Indians (235). The Seminole Indians in Florida (239). Grant's Indian peace policy and the reservation system (384-386). Vn. ENGLAND AND THE UNITED STATES. Jay's fruitless treaty with England (208). England claims the right to search American vessels and im- press American seamen (225). England and France greatly injure American commerce (226). The War of 1812 (228-238). The Oregon boundary dispute settled by treaty (269-271). The Trent affair (309). England and King Cotton (311). England and the Confederate navy; the "Alabama Claims" settled by arbitration (343). The Bering Sea trouble settled by arbitration (400). The Anglo-Venezuelan difficulty and the Monroe Doctrine (405). The Hay-Pauncefote treaty with England (423). The Panama tolls and the Hay-Pauncefote treaty (443). Great Britain becomes Greater Britain (432). 4q6 TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY Vm. STEPS LEADING TO THE CONSTITUTION. 1. The New England Confederation (55). 2. Franklin's Plan of Union (121). 3. The Stamp Act Congress (132). 4. Committees of Correspondence (138). 5. The first meeting of the Continental Congress (145). 6. The second meeting of the Continental Congress U45)» 7. The Declaration of Independence (148). 8. The adoption of the Articles of Confederation (188). 9. The Annapolis Convention (190). 10. The Constitutional Convention (190). IX. THE CONSTITUTION (The topical outline may be found on page 5o6\ X. WESTWARD GROWTH. 1. Importance of the struggle between the backwoodsmen and the Indians (168-170, 183). 2. Settlement of the Mississippi Valley (213-21S). 3. The purchase of Louisiana (220). 4. Lewis and Clark's expedition (221). 5. The use of the steamboat on Western waters (223). 6. The National Road (241). 7. The Erie Canal (245). 8. The railroad and the rapid growth of the West (258, 259). 9. Speculation in Western lands (260^ 10. Our claims to Oregon (269). 11. The annexation of Texas (274). 12. The Mexican cession (277). 13. California (279-283). 14. Influence of the West in favor of nationalism (293-294). 15. Influence of the pubUc lands on our national grov/tli (373). 16. Westward expansion (374). 17. The Mormons in Utah (376). 18. The Pacific railroads (378). 19. The arid region and the problem of irrigation (33c). 20. Forest reservations (381). 21. Oklahoma made a State (397). 22. Arizona and New Mexico admitted into the Union (43P) XI. TERRITORIAL EXPANSION. 1. The United States at the close of the Revolution (183). 2. The purchase of Louisiana (220). 3. The purchase of Florida (239). 4. The annexation of Texas (274). 5. Settiement of conflicting claims to the Oregon country (269-273). TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 497 XII. XIII. 6. The Mexican cession (277). 7. The Gadsden Purchase (278). 8. The purchase of Alaska (384). 9. Hawaii annexed to the United States (401). 10. The Spanish cessions of 1898 (417). DEVELOPMENT OF MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION. I. Modes of travel and communication in colonial days (117). 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 The fiatboat (217). The trail and the pack-horse (217). Steamboat navigation (222, 223). The National Road (241). The Erie Canal (245). The railroad (257, 258). Ocean steamships (264). The telegraph (267). The Atlantic cable (382). The telephone (389). The Panama Canal (423). The Pacific cable (424). Wireless telegraphy (424). Electricity in modern life (478). The automobile ; the flying machine (479, 480). SOME USEFUL INVENTIONS. 1. The cotton-gin (204). 2. Friction matches (264). 3. The reaping machine (264, 375). 4. The combined reaper and thresher (375). 5. The steam-driven gang-plow (376). 6. The railroad (257). 7. The telegraph (267). 8. The sewing machine, the spinning machine, and the power loom (472). 9. The Bessemer process of making steel (473). 10. The automobile and the flying machine (479, 480). XIV. SLAVERY. 1. Slavery in the colonies (34, 35, iii, 112). 2. Slavery in the Constitution— the Three-fifths Compromise, the importation of slaves, and fugitive slaves (190, 487, 490; Amendments, Articles XIII, 517; XIV, 518). 3. The cotton-gin and slavery (204). 4. The Missouri Compromise (244). 5. Slavery and the tariff (253). 6. The Abolitionists (271-273). 498 TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY Texas and the Mexican War (274-277). The Wilmot Proviso (278). The Compromise of 1850 (281-283). The Fugitive Slave Law (284). The Underground Railroad (285). The Kansas-Nebraska Bill (287-289). The Dred Scott Decision (294). John Brown's raid (296). Abraham Lincoln and slavery (299). The Emancipation Proclamation (330). The Thirteenth, the Fourteenth, and the Fifteenth Amendments (351, 359, 360). XV. STATE RIGHTS, NULLIFICATION, AND SECESSION. 1. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (211). 2. Calhoun and nullification (253). 3. Webster and the Union (254). 4. Jackson's feeling toward nulUfication (255), 5. South Carolina and State rights (255). 6. The State first in the South (300). 7. The Union first in the North (301). 8. State rights, nullification, and secession swept away by the Civil War (352). XVI. RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW SOUTH. 1. President Johnson's plan of restoring the seceded States (357). 2. The freedmen and Southern legislation (358). 3. The Congressional plan of reconstruction (358). 4. The work of reconstruction complete (359'). 5. President Hayes withdraws the troops from the South (365). 6. The New South (367). 7. The Atlanta Exposition (369). 8. The freedmen and education (370). XVII. THE TARIFF. 1. A tariff laid on foreign trade (203). 2. A tariff for revenue with incidental protection (252). 3. A protective tariff (252). 4. South Carolina objects to a high protective tariff (252). 5. New England manufacturers and the protective tariff (254). 6. The tariff question (404, 405). 7. The " Dingley Tariff " (408, 418, 423). 8. The Payne- Aldrich Tariff (435), 9. Tariff revision in 1 913 (442), TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 499 XVIII. CURRENCY AND BANKING. 1. Jackson and the United States Bank (256, 257). 2. Pet Banks (257). 3. Wild-Cat Banking (260). 4. The Specie Circular (261). 5. The Independent Treasury (263). 6. Greenbacks during the Civil War (391). 7. The Resumption of Specie Payment (390). 8. Silver Legislation (403). 9. Free Silver and the Tariff (407). XIX. POLITICAL PARTIES. 1. The Federalists and the Anti-Federalists (191, 209). 2. The Democrats-Republicans (209, 211, 213, 230). 3. The Federalist Party and the War of 1812 (230, 236, 237). 4. The Democrats and the National Republican Party (248). 5. William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolitionists (271-273). 6. The Free Soil Party and the Anti-Nebraska Men (278). 7. The Whig Party (290). 8. The Republican Party (290, 299, 358, 360, 389, 404, 407, 425, 435, 439, 449). 9. The Democratic Party (299, 365, 389, 404, 407, 425, 439, 449). XX. WARS (The topics bearing upon wars may be found in a convenient form in the " Topical Outline of American History," which is included in the book). 1. Indian wars (84, 85, 103, 228). 2. The first three intercolonial wars (94). 3. The last French war (94-103). 4. The Revolution (126-183). 5. The War of 1812 (229-238). 6. The Mexican War (275-277). 7. The Civil War (305-352). 8. The Spanish-American War (411-417). 9. The United States and the Great War in Europe (451-468). XXI. TREATIES. 1. Treaty of peace between France and England in 1763 (103). 2. Treaty of alliance with France in 1778 (164). 3. Treaty of peace with England in 1783 (183). 4. Jay's treaty with England in 1795 (208). 5. Treaty of peace with Tripoli in 1805 (222). 6. Treaty of peace with England in 1814 (238). 7. Oregon boundary dispute settled by treaty in 1846 (271). 8. The treaty of peace with Mexico in 1848 (277). 9. The treaty of peace with Spain in 1899 (417). 10. The Hay-Pauncefote treaty in 1901 (423). 500 TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY XXII. THE MONROE DOCTRINE. 1. The principal features of the Monroe Doctrine (240, 241). 2. Maximilian in Mexico (345). 3. The Anglo-Venezuelan difficulty and the Monroe Doctrine (405, 406). 4. The United States and the trouble in Mexico (444). XXm. THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE SINCE i860. 1. The Trent affair (309). 2. England resents the capture of Mason and Slidell (309). 3. England and King Cotton; the blockade (311). 4. The battle of Gettysburg and recognition of the independence of the South by England and France (326). 5. The sympathy of English working-men with the South (343). 6. England and the Confederate navy; settlement of the "Alabama Claims " (343)- 7. Napoleon III and the Confederate navy (344). 8. Trouble with Italy (398). 9. The Bering Sea trouble settled by arbitration (400). 10. The Anglo-Venezuelan difficulty and the Monroe Doctrine (405). 11. The Spanish-American War (411-417). 12. China and the "Open Door" (420). 13. The Hay-Pauncefote treaty (423). 14. President Roosevelt as peacemaker (425). 15. The Second Peace Conference (427). 16. The United States and the Spanish-American War (417, 429). 17. The United States a world power (429). 18. The growth of foreign trade (451, 452). XXIV. THE UNITED STATES AND THE GREAT WAR IN EUROPE, 1914- 1. Protest to Great Britain and Germany on extensions of contra- band and blockade (452). 2. The United States and German submarine warfare (453-457). 3. War between the United States and the Imperial German Gov- ernment declared (457). 4. The United States co-operates with the Powers allied against Germany (457, 458, 461, 466). 5. The whole nation at war (458, 459). 6. The Army Draft Bill (460). 7. Meeting the expenses of the war (462). 8. The United States Mission to Russia (462). 9. The government operation and control of railroads (464). 10. The United States Navy and merchant shipping (466, 467). 11. Patriotic spirit of the American people (467, 468). XXV. THE PRESIDENTS (For this outline see Appendix D). TOPICAL REVIEWS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 501 XXVI. PRESENT-DAY PROBLEMS. 1. Struggle for popular control of public affairs (439). 2. The tariff (203, 252, 254, 404, 405, 407, 408, 418, 423, 425, 435, 439, 442). 3. Conservation of natural resources (433). 4. Railroad rate regulation (474). 5. Trusts and the regulation of trusts (475). 6. Special training for the farm and for modern industry (449, 482). 7. The education of women; woman suffrage (482). 8. Immigration (259, 290, 291, 372, 373> 45o. 486). 9. Civil service reform (392, 393, 486). 10. Municipal reform (439, 480). 11. The strife between capital and labor (448, 486). 12. Prohibition (264, 265, 450). APPENDIX A THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776 The following preamble and specifications, known as the Declaration of Inde- Dendence, accompanied the resolution of Richard Henry Lee, which was adopted by Congress on the 2d day of July, 1776. This declaration was agreed to on the 4th, and the transaction is thus recorded in the Journal for that day : *^ Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself uito a committee of the whole, to take into their further consideration the Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resufjied the chair, and Mr. Harrison reported that the committee had agreed to a Declaration, zuhich they desired hi/n to report. The Declaration being read, was agreed to as follozvs : " A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to as- sume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, gov- ernments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, ami to institute a new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a 502 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 503 long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an aljsolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 1. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. 2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- portance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, ex- posed to all the dangers of invasions from without and convulsions within. 7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur- pose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appro- priations of lands. 8. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure on their ottices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our people and eat out their substance. 11. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the con- sent of our Legislatures. 12. lie has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. 13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation ; 14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; 504 APPENDIX A 16. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of a trial by jury; 19. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses; 20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; 21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and alter- ing, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 22. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 23. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and de- stroyed the lives of our people. 25. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com- plete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally un- worthy the head of a civilized nation. 26. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 27. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, i.s unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend ap un- warrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consan- guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our sep- aration, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war ; in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 505 from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved, and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing declaration the following members : NEW HAMPSHIRE. JoSIAH BaRTLETT, William W^hipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by RHODE ISLAND. Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. C^sar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. JOHN HANCOCK. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jun., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jun., Thomas Lynch, Jun., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett^ Lyman Hall, George Walton. APPENDIX B A CHART ON THE CONSTITUTION Some Steps toward the Constitution New England Confejleration (1643). Franklin's Plan of Union (1754). Stamp Act Congress (1765). Committees of Correspondence (1772). First Meeting of the Continental Congress (1774). Declaration of Independence (1776). Adoption of Articles of Confederation (1781). Annapolis Convention (1786). Constitutional Convention (1787). Legislative Depart- ment I Manner of election. Term of office. Qualifications. atives -, Represents the people. Census. Apportionment. V Speaker the Presiding Officer. Number. Manner of election. Term of office ^Senate -{ Represents the States. Qualifications. Sole power to try impeachments. Vice-President the Piesidins: Officer Term of office. Manner of election. /^President 4 Qualifications. Oath of office. Executive Depart- j \^ Impeachment, ment , I ^ , . f Manner of appointment. VCabmet 1 Number. t Duties. f Manner of appointment* Mudges < Number. I V Term of office. Judicial Department.! I ^ . ( Supreme. ^Courts I ^.^^^^.^^ i. District. 500 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 507 Congress. Time of meeiing. Congress has power — Quorum. To lay taxes Adjournment. To borrow money. Journal. To regulate commerce, ilow a Bill becomes To naturalise foreigners, a Law. To coin money. To fix standard of weights and measures. To establish post-offices. To declare war. To raise and support armies. To provide and maintain a navy. To maintain light-houses. To make new States. President's Powers . . Commander in-Chief of the army and navy. With the advice and consent of the Sen- ate makes treaties President's Duties.. Ambassadors. and appoints J Ministers. I Consuls. [Judges. Messages to Con- gress. Special sessions of Con- gress. Receives Ambassadors. Attends to ex- ecution of laws. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, pro- mote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. — Legislative Department. vSECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Represent- atives. SECTION II. Clause i. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev- eral States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective 5o8 APPENDIX B numbers,^ which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The num- ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION III.— Clause i. The Senate of the United States shall be com- posed of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legis- lature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. Clause 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president /rc> tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be 1 Under the census of 1910 one representative is apportioned to every 212,407 people. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 509 liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV. — Clause i. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a diflerent day. SECTION V. — Clause i. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, re- turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. Clause 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punisk its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two thirds, e.xpel a member. Clause 3. Each House shall keep'a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Clause 4. — Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for moie than three days, ngr to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. — Clause i. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the treas- ury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be "privileged from arrest during their attendance at the ses- sion of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil ofifice under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- creased, during such time ; and no person holding any ofhce under the United States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in ofBce. SECTION VH. — Clause i. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with 5IO APPENDIX B his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such re- consideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be recon- sidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a lav^:, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accord- ing to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION VIII. — Clause i. The Congress shall have power to lay and col- lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and ex- cises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; Clause 5, To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; Clause 7. To establish post-ofhces and post-roads ; Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations •, Clause ii. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy ; Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 511 Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- gress : Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — And Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- tion in the government of the United States,- or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX. — Clause i. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each, person. Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. Clause 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinliefore directed to be taken. Clause 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. Claisk 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or rev- enue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor snail vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. Clausk 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind what- ever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. SECTION X. — Clause i. No State shall enter into any rreaty, alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post/acto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 512 APPii^NDIX B Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for exe- cuting its inspection laws ; and the i.et produce of all duties and impost, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Con- gress. Clause 3 No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II.— Executive Department. SECTION I.— Clause i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during a term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and repre- sentatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. Clause 3.^ Clause 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same through- out the United States. Clause 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident within the United States. . Clause 6. — In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice- President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. Clause 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Clause 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- 1 This clause is no longer in force. Amendment XII. has superseded it. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 513 lowing oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my abil- ity, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." SECTION II. — Clause i. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall ap- point, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of department. Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III. — He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, con- vene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV. — The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the V Ated States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department. SECTION I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. APPENDIX B SECTION II. — Clause i.^ The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; — between a State and citizens of another State ; — between citizens of different States ; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have orig- inal jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under sucli regulations as the Congress shall make. Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III. — Clause i. Treason against the United ^States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except dur- ing the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV.— General Provisions. SECTION I. — Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State ; and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II. — Clause i. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several vStates. Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be -.elivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. This clause has been modified by Anieiidinent XI. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 515 SECTION III.— Clause i. New States may be admitted by the Congress i*;^ this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 0/ any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prei"- dice any claims of tiie United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV, — The United States shall guarantee to every State in thi:: Union a republican form of Government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Leg- islature can not be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE v.— Power of Amendment. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legis latures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the othet mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of tht first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VL— Miscellaneous Provisions. Clause I. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adop- tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several Staie Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a quali- fication to any office or public trust under the United States. 5i6 APPENDIX B ARTICLE VII.— Ratification of the Constitution. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the estab- lishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. CONSENT OF THE STATES PRESENT.i NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas Oilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, RuFus King. CONNECTICUT. William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. DELAWARE. George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James Mc Henry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. William Livingston, David Brearlev, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersol, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. Attest: SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. i Rhode Island was not represented in the Federal Convention. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 517 AMENDMENTS^ To the Constitution of the United States, Ratified according to the Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. ARTICLE I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- scribed by law. ARTICLE IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in- famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same oflfence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of common law. ARTICLE VllL— Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 1 Amendments I. to X. were declared in force December 15, 1791. 5i8 APPENDIX B ARTICLE IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. — The pov/ers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI .^ — The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. ARTICLE XII. ^ — The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vot& by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and indistinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- ment of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate; — the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi- dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII. 3 — Section' i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, ex- cept as a punishment for crime, whereof the person shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 1 Declared in force January 8. lyqS. - Declared in force September 25, 1804. •^ Declared in force December 18, 1865. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 519 Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. ^ — Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, repre- sentatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of represen- tation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pension and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legisla- tion, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV. 2— Section i. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 1 Declared in f'>rce July 28, 1898. - Declared in force March 30, 1870. 520 APPENDIX B ARTICLE XVI. — The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII^— Section i. The Senate of the United States shall be com- posed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. Section 2. WTien vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided that the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. » Declared in force February 25, iQii- ' Declared in force May 31, 1913. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 521 TO THE PUPIL 1. What colonies united to form the New England Confederation, and what were its purposes and results ? What was Franklin's plan of Union, and why was it not adopted ? What did the Stamp Act Con- gress do ? What was the leading object of the Committees of Cor- respondence ? 2. Under what circumstances was the first meeting of the Continental Congress held ? What led the colonies to adopt the Declaration of Independence ? 3. When did the States adopt the Articles of Confederation? Explain the weakness of the central governing power, Congress, under the Articles of Confederation. Tell what you can about the Annapolis Convention ; the Constitutional Convention. 4. Under the Constitution, what are the three departments of our gov- ernment ? Which of them makes the laws? Which sees that they are carried out ? Which interprets them and tries cases arising under them ? 5. Of what does the legislative department consist ? How are members of the House of Representatives elected? For how long .^ What are their qualific ions ? 6. How many people does each member of the House represent ? What is the unit of representation ? How^ can you find the number of rep- resentatives in any State ? How many in your own ? Why ? 7. What do the Senators represent ? How are they elected and for what term of office ? What are their qualifications ? 8. What exclusive functions has the House ? the Senate ? 9. What are the qualifications of the President? How is he elected? For what term of office is he elected ? What is meant by the im- peachment of the President? ID. What is the President's Cabinet ? How many members had Wash- ington's Cabinet ? How many in the Cabinet now ? What are the duties of the Cabinet officers ? 1 1. Name the three kinds of national courts. How many judges are there in the Supreme Court ? How are they appointed and what is their term of office ? Why should we have national courts ? 12. Explain the three courses which a bill must take in order to become a law. Name the powers of Congress enumerated in the chart. 13. What military power has the President ? How^ are treaties and im- portant appointments made ? What duties of the President are named in the chart ? APPENDIX C TABLE 1 OF STATES AND TERRITORIES No. Name. Date of Admission. Area in Square Miles. Represent- atives in Congress, 1914 Electoral Votes, 2 1912 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Dela\v;.'re^ Pennsylvania . . . New Jersey. . . . Georgia Connecticut .... Massachusetts. . Maryland South Carolina. New Hampshire Virginia New York North Carolina. Rhode Island. . . Vermont Kentucky Tennessee Ohio Louisiana Indiana Mississippi Illinois Alabama Maine Missouri Arkansas Michigan Florida Texas 787 787 787 788 788 788 788 788 788 788 788 789 790 791 792 796 802 812 816 817 818 819 820 821 836 837 845 845 2,050 45,215 7,815 59,475 4,990 8,315 12,210 30,570 9,305 42,450 49,170 52,250 1.250 9,565 40.400 42,050 41,060 48,720 36,350 46,810 56,650 52,250 33,040 69,415 53.850 58,915 58 680 265,780 I 36 12 12 5 16 6 7 2 10 43 10 3 2 II 10 22 8 13 8 27 10 4 16 7 13 4 18 3 38 14 14 7 18 8 9 4 12 45 12 5 4 13 12 24 10 15 10 29 12 6 18 9 15 6 20 ' The population, the capital, and the largest city of each State may be found on the map between pages 420 and 421. 2 In 191 2 the total number of representatives in Congress was 435. Add to this number 96 for the number of senators in the Senate, and the result is 531 Electoral votes. 'The dates opposite the first thirteen — the "Original Thirteen" — indicate the year when the States ratified the Constitution. 522 TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES 523 No. 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Date of Admission. Iowa Wisconsin California Minnesota Oregon Kansas West \'irginia Nevada Nebraska Colorado North Dakota South Dakota Montana Washington Idaho Wyoming Utah Oklahoma New jMexico Arizona Alaska District of Columbia Hawaii 1846 1848 1850 1858 1859 1861 1863 1864 1867 1876 1889 1889 1889 1899 1890 1890 1896 1907 1912 1912 Area in Square Miles. 56,025 56,040 158,360 83,365 96,030 82,080 24,780 110,700 77.510 103,925 70,795 77,650 146,080 69,180 84,800 97,890 84,970 70,430 122,580 113,020 577,390 70 6,740 Represent- atives in Congress, 1914 II II II 10 3 8 6 I 6 4 3 3 2 5 2 I 2 8 I I Electoral Votes,' 1912 13 13 13 12 5 10 8 3 5 5 4 7 4 3 4 10 3 3 See note 2 on opposite page. APPENDIX D PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES George Washington John Adams Thomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy Adams Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William Henry Harrison John Tyler A^irginia Whole people. Massachusetts... Federalists. Virginia Dem. -Rep. Virginia r3em.-Rep. Virginia Dem. -Rep. Massachusetts... Rep Tennessee Dem New York Dem Ohio Whigs Virginia Whigs James Knox Polk. Zachary Taylor Millard Fillmoie. . Franklin Pierce. . . James Buchanan. Abraham Lincoln. Tennessee Dem Louisiana Whigs . . , New York Whigs .., New Hampshire. Dem Pennsylvania . . . Dem. Illinois Rep. Two terms ; 1789-1797. One term ; 1797-1801. Two terms ; 1801-1809. Two terms ; 1809-1817. Two terms ; 1817-1825. One term; 1825-1829. Two terms ; 182C-1837. One term ; 1837-1841. One month ; 1841. 3 yrs. II mos.; 1841- 1845- One term ; 1845-1849. 1 yr. 4 mos. ; 1849, 1850. 2 vrs. 8 mos. ; 1850- One term ; 1853-1857. One term ; 1857-1861. One term and 6 wks. ; 1861-1865. Andrew Johnson Tennessee Illinois Ohio Ohio New York New York Indiana Rep Rep Rep Rep Rep Dem Rep I "em Rep Rep Ren Dem/ 3 yrs. 10 mos. ; 1865- 1869. Two terms ; 1869-1877. One term ; 1877-1881. 6 mos. 15 days ; 1881. 3 yrs 5 mos., 15 days ; I^^I-I88s. One term ; 1885-1889. One term ; 18F9-1893. One term ; 1893-1897. One term and 6)4 mos. ; 1897-1901. 3 ys. 57-3 mos. and one term ; 1901-1909. One term; 3:909-1913. Two terms; 1913-1917; 1917- Ulysses Simpson Grant Rutherford Burchard Hayes. James Abraham Garfield' Chester Alan Arthur Grover Cleveland Benjamin Harrison Grover Cleveland New York Ohio New York Ohio William McKinley Theodore Roosevelt William Howard Taft . Woodrow Wilson New Jersey 524 INDEX Abolitionists, 271-273 Acadians, removal of, 99 Adams, John, 149; presidency of, 209- 212; sketch and portrait, 209 Adams, J. Q., sketch, 245; portrait, 246; presidency of, 245-248; defends the right of petition, 273 Adams, Samuel, 138-140; 143, 149; por- trait, 149 Africa, 2, 432 Agricultural colleges, 483 Agriculture, in Colonial times, 34, 35, 39-41, 106, III, 1 13; in the South, 253, 367; in the West, 375-377, 380, 381; experiment stations in, 483; model farms in, 483 Aguinaldo's rebellion, 420 Alabama Claims, 344 Alabama, Confederate cruiser, 344 Alabama, secedes, 302 Alaska, purchase of, 384 Albany (Fort Orange), 64 Albany Plan of Union, 121, 122. See also Franklin's Plan of Union Algeria, 222 Algonquin Indians, 76, 89, 94 Alien and Sedition Laws, 211 Alleghany Mountains, 94, 168, 169 Alleghany River, 96 Allen, Ethan, 145 Allies, 448 Alsace and Lorraine, 431 America, naming of, 8; found to be a continent, 9 Americus Vespucius, 8, 9 Amsterdam, New, 64 Amusement, in Colonial times, no, 112, 113, 116 Anaesthetics, discovered, 268 Anderson, Major, 305, 306 Andre (an'dra), John, 178, 179 Andros, Sir Edmund, 59-61, 68 Antietam, battle of, 324 Anti-Federalist Party, 191, 209 Appomattox Court House, Lee surren- ders at, 347 Arbitration, 400, 401, 406, 407; court of, 428, 436 Arbitration treaties, general, 436; of United States with Great Britain and France, 436 Arc light, 480 Arid region, 380, 381 Arizona, 438 KEY T(3 PRONUNCIATION.* a as in fat. e as in mete. 0 as in note. u as in mute. a " " fate. e " " her. 0 " " move. ii German ii, French a a " " far. i " " pin. 6 " " nor. oi as in oil. a " " fare. i " " pine. u " " tub. ou " " pound. c " " met. 0 " *' not. A double dot under any vowel in dicates the short M-sounc , as in but. * According to Century Dictionary. 525 526 INDEX Arkansas, 354 Armada, Spanish, 21 Armistead (ar'mis-ted). General, 328 Army, Continental, 145, 147 Arnold, Benedict, 145, 157, 159, 163; his treason, 177-179 Arthur, Chester A., sketch, 392, 393; portrait, 392 Articles of Confederation, 185-188 Ashburton Treaty, 354 Asia, European trade with, i Astoria, 269 Atlanta Exposition, 369 Atlantic Cable, 382, 383 Atlantic Fleet, 427 Atlantic Ocean, feared by sailors, 3 Australia, 432 Australian Ballot System, 400 Austro-Hungary, 431 Automobile, 480 Bacon's Rebellion, 2>1 Bahama Islands, Columbus at, 6 Balboa discovers the Pacific, 18 Baltimore attacked by the British, 234 Baltimore, Lord, 37, 38 Bancroft, George, 486 Bank, United States, 256, 257 Bank notes, 260, 261, 262 Barbary States, war with, 222 Barclay, Captain, defeated by Perry on Lake Erie, 233 Beauregard (bo're-gard) , General, 305 Bell, A. G., 389 Bennington, battle of, 158, 159 Benton, Thomas H., 255 Bering Sea trouble, 400, 401 Berkeley, Sir William, 36, 37 Bessemer process, 454, 455 Blacklists, 395 Bladensburg, 234 Blaine, James G., 398, 400 Blanco, Governor-General, 411 Bland Silver Bill, 403 Blockade, during War of 1812, 231, 232; during Civil War, 311-314; block- ade of Cuban coast, 414; blockade of Vera Cruz, 446 ; of Great War, 448 , 449 Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom're-shar'), 173 Boone, Daniel, 169 Border rufitians, 289 "Boston Massacre," 138 Boston, settled, 48; evacuated by the British, 148 Boundaries of the United States in 1 783, 183; Northwest, 269-271; South- west, 277 Bowling Green, 315 Boycott, 395 Braddock, General, his defeat, 98 Bradford, Governor, 46 Bragg, General, 334 Brandywine, battle of the, 162 Breckenridge, John C, 299 Brewster, Elder, 46 Brooklyn Bridge, 394 Brooks, Preston S., assaults Charles Sumner, 289, 290 "Brotherhoods," 448 Brown, General, 233 Brown, John, at Harper's Ferr}-, 296 Bryan, William J., 407, 418 Bryant, William Cullen, 486 Buchanan (bu-kan'an), James, sketch, 294; portrait, 294; presidency of, 294-304 Buell, General, 316 Buena Vista, battle of, 354 Buffalo, 245, 419 Bull Run, first battle of, 307, 308; sec- ond battle of, 323 Bunker Hill, battle of, 146, 147 Burgoyne (ber-goin'), General, his in- vasion, 157-164; his surrender, 163 Burnside, General, 324 Burr,Aaron,2i3;his conspiracy, 223,224 Butler, General, 317, 331 Cabinet, the President's, 200, 395 Cable, Atlantic, 382, 383; Pacific, 424, 425 INDEX 527 Cabot, John, seeks the Northwest Pus- sage, 6, 8 Cabot, Sebastian, explores the coast of North America, 8 Cahokia, 169 Calhoun, John C, and nullification, 253. 254; portrait, 253 California seeks admission to the Union, 281; admitted to the Union, 354 Cambridge, 51 Camden, battle of, 175 Canada, 87, 88, 102, 145, 432, 433 Canal, Isthmian, 423; Erie, 245, 246 Canary Islands, Columbus at, 4 Canonicus, 47,*55 Cape Cod, 46 Cape of Good Hope, 2 Cape Verde Islands, Cerv^era's fleet at, 413 Carolina, North and South, 41 Carpet-bag rule, 360, 361 Carranza, 446, 447 Carteret, 73 Cartier (kar-tya'), 87 Carver, John, 46 Catholics, 37, 39 Cavaliers, 36, 112 Cedar Creek, battle of, 339 Centennial Exhibition, 388, 389 Central America, 398 Cervera, Admiral, 413, 414, 417 Chambersburg, 339 Champlain (sham-plan'), 87-89, 123 Champlain, Lake, 88, 97, 123, 151, 157, 234 Chancellorsyille, battle of, 325 Charles I., 42, 43-47, 48 Charles II., 42, 43, 58, 59, 70 Charleston, 305 Charlestown, 48, 147 Charter, 28, 38, 45, 54, 60, 64, 70 Charter Oak, 60 Chattanooga, battle of, 335, 336 Cherokee Indians, 75, 385 Chesapeake, Leopard fires upon, 225, 226 Chicago, 260 Chickamauga, battle of, 333, 334 Chickasaw Indians, 75, 385 Chili, trouble with, 398 China and the "open door," 420 Chinese immigration, 377, 378 Chippewa (chip'c-wii), battle of, 233, 353 Choctaw Indians, 385 Christian Commission, 350 Church of England, 44 Cities, growth of, 481; government of, 481; commission form of go\ernment, 439; populations, 481 Civil rights, of the freedmen, 358 Civil service reform, 392, 393 Civil War, principal steps toward, 301, 302; principal events of, 305-348; results of, 351, 352 Clark, George Rogers, in the North- west, 169, 170, 183 Clay, Henry, 244, 256 Clermont, 223 Cleveland, Grover, sketch, 393; por= trait, 393; 402, 404 Clinton, DeWitt, and Erie Canal, 245 Clinton, General, 163, 166, 175, 176, 178, 182 Coal, 472; use of anthracite, 474 Cold Harbor, battle of, 337 Coligny (ko-len'ye), 15, 122 Colleges, 482 Colombia, Republic of, 423 Colonies, life in the, at the dose of the Erench and Indian Wars, 105-117; groups of, 105, iiS, 119 Colorado, 381 Colored troops in the Civil War, 332 Columbia River, 269. 270 Columbia University, 114 Columbian Exposition, 402 Columbus, Christopher, his plans, 3; f)ortrait, 3; his diffuullies, 4; first voyage of, 4; trials on his first voy- age, 5; discovers America, 6; other voyages, 6; last da>s, 6 528 INDEX Commerce, American, i86, 478, 479 Commission form of government, 439, 440 Committees of Correspondence, 138 Common storehouse, in \irginia, 29, ^2 Compass, mariner's, 2 Compromise, Missouri, 244; with South Carolina, 256; of 1850, 283, 284 Concentration, 411 Concord, battle of, 142-145 Confederate States of America, organi- zation of, 302 Confederation, Articles of, 185-188 Congress, Acts of. Alien and Sedition Laws, 211; Embargo, 227; National Road, 241, 242; Missouri Compro- mise, 244; Tariff of 181 6, 252; Tariff of 1828, 253; Compromise of 1850, 283, 284; Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 287, 288; Reconstruction, 358, 359; Ten- ure of Office, 360; Homestead Bill, 374; Civil Service Reform, 393; Presidential Succession, 394, 395; Pension Bill, 397; Bland Silver Bill, 403; Sherman Act, 403; McKinley Bill, 404; Wilson Bill, 405; Dingley Bill, 408; Isthmian Canal Act, 423; Payne- Aldrich Tariff Bill 435; Postal Savings Banks, 436; Parcel Post, 441; Currency and Banking Law, 442; Tariff of 1913; Income Tax, 442; Rural Roads Act, 449; Food Con- trol Bill, 459; Army Draft Bill, 460; Aviation Bill, 462; Interstate Com- merce, 475; Federal Trade Com- mission, 476; Sherman Anti-Trust Law, 473 Congress, Continental, first meeting of, 141; second meeting of, 145; has lit- tle power, 167, 168, 185-187 Connecticut, early history of, 50-54; and the Northwest Territory, 188 Conscription, North, 332; South, ;^:^:^ Conservation of Natural Resources, 433 Constitution captures the Guerriere, 231 Constitution of the United States, events leading to, 189; ratified, 190; slavery compromises in, 190; strict and liberal construction of, 200 Constitutional Convention, 190 Continental currency, 168 Conway Cabal, 165, 166 Cooper, James Fenimore, 485 Co-operation among nations, 433 Cornwallis, General, 154, 176, 179-183 Coronado, 122 Cortez conquers Mexico, 18 Cotton export, 311, 367-369 Cotton-gin, invention of, 204, 205 Court of Arbitration, 428 Cowpens, battle of, 179, 180 Creek Indians, 385 Creek Indians, war with, 235 Creve-Coeur (krev-ker'), 91 Crimes and punishments, 109, 115 Cromwell, Oliver, 43 Crown Point, Fort, loi; Americans capture, 145; Burgoyne captures, 157 Cuba, island of, 6, 286, 410 Cuba, Republic of, 421-423 Cuban Reciprocity Act, 423 Cubans rise against Spain, 410 Cumberland destroyed by the Merrimac, 313 Cumberland River, 315 Cunard Steamship Line, 264 Cushing, Lieutenant, 328 Dakota, North, 375 ];akota. South, 375 Dale, Sir Thom.as, 32 Darien, Isthmus of, 18 Daughters of Liberty, 131 Davenport, John. 52 Davis, Jeff'erson, sketch, 302; portrait, 302; elected President of the Confed- eracy, 303; flight and capture of, 348 Dawes Act, 386 Dawes, William, 143 Declaration of Independence, 148-150 "Decre23," 226 INDEX 529 De Kalb (de kalb), John, 165 Delaware, early history of, 74 Delaware, Lord 32 Democratic Party, 209, 248, 299, 404, 407, 418 Democratic-Republican Party, 209, 211, 230 Deposits, removal of, 257 De Soto (so'to), lands in Florida, 14; discovers the Mississippi, 15; por- trait, 16 Detroit, 232 Dewey, Admiral George, 412, 413 Diaz, 2 Dingley Tariff, 408 Dinwiddle, Governor, 96 Discoveries, by Portugal, 2, 8; by the Spaniards, 4-6, 13-15, 18, 19; by the English, 8; by the Dutch, 63; by the French, 87-91 Discovery, aids to, i District of Columbia, slave^ry in, 283 Dorchester Heights, 148 Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island, 354 Douglas, Stephen A., 288, 299 Dover (N. H.), 62 Draft riots, 332 Drake, Sir Francis, 22, 26 Dred Scott decision, 294, 295 Dutch, in New Netherland, 63-68; rea- sons for their failure, 68 Dutch West India Company, 64 Eads, Captain, and the Mississippi jet- ties, 366 Early, General, his raid in the Shenan- doah, 338 Eaton, Theophilus, 52 Education, 109, iii, 112, 114, 482, 483 El Caney, 416 Electoral Commission, 389, 390 Electoral Count Bill, 390 \ Electricity, 459 I Elizabeth, Queen, 20, 23, 27 I Emancipation Proclamation, 330, 331 1 Embargo, 227 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 486 Endicott, John, 47 England, her need of America, 25; and the American Revolution, 126-183; impresses American seamen, 225; in- jures American commerce, 226; and the Civil War, 309-311 and 343-345; and Venezuela, 405-407; friendship of, 407; a colonizing nation, 431, 432 Era of good feeling, 247 Ericsson, John, and the Monitor, 313 Ericsson, Leif, 11 Erie Canal, 245 Erie, Lake, battle of, 232, 233 Eutaw Springs, battle of, 192 Expansion, territorial: backwoodsmen in the Revolution, 169-171; purchase of Louisiana, 220; purchase of Flor- ida, 239; annexation of Texas, 274; Mexican Cession and Gadsden Pur- chase, 277, 278; purchase of Alaska, 384; Hawaii annexed, 401; Spanish cessions in 1899, 4^7 Exploration, Portuguese, 2; Spanish, 4-6, 9, 13-^5, 18, 19; English, 8, 23, 26, 27, 30; Dutch, 63; French, 87- 92; Lewis and Clark, 221, 222 Exports, 451, 452, 478, 479 p]xpress companies, 441 Factory System, 473 Fair Oaks (Seven Pines), battle of, 322 Faneuil Hall, 129 P'ar East, 420 Farragut, Admiral David G., at New Orleans, 317; sketch, 342; at Mobile Bay, 342 Federal Reserve Banks, 443 Federal Reserve Board, 443, 476 Federal Reserve System, 442 Federal Trade Commission, 476 Federalist Party, 191, 198, 209, 211, 230, 237, 238 Fifteenth Amendment, 360 P'ilibastering Expeditions, 286 Filipinos, rebellion of, 420 530 INDEX Fillmore, Millard, sketch, 281; portrait, 283 Fisheries, in colonial days, 61, 106; Newfoundland fisheries dispute ar- bitrated, 436 Five Forks, battle of, 346 Five Nations (see Six Nations), 76 Flag, American, 164, 488 Flatboat, 216 Florida, purchase of, 239; admitted to the Union, 354 Flying machine, 480 Foote, Commodore, 315 Foreign trade, growth of, 478 Forest reservations, 381 Fort Dearborn, 260 Fort Donelson, 315 Fort Du Quesne (du-kan'), 91, 98, 100 Fort Edward, 158 Fort Henry, 315 Fort le Boeuf, 96 Fort Lee, 152, 153 Fort McHenry, 234 Fort IVIoultrie (mol'tri), 150 Fort Necessity, 97 Fort Niagara, 98 Fort Orange (Albany), 64 Fort Stanwix, 159 Fort Sumter, 305, 306 Fort Ticonderoga, loi, 129, 145, 157 Fort Washington, 96 Fort William Henry, 1 24 Fortress Monroe, 321 Fourteenth Amendment, 360 France, her struggle with England for control of America, 93-103; American treaty with, 164; aids the Americans with her fleets, 172, 181; at war with England, 206; regains Louisiana, 219; injures American commerce, 226 Franco-Prussian War, 431 Franklin, Benjamin, 98; his plan of union, 121; sketch, 121; and the Declaration of Independence, 150; portrait, 162; in France, 164 Franklin Plan of Union, 121, 122 Fredericksburg, battle of, 324 Freedmen, and Southern legislation, 358; and education, 370, 371 French forts, 95 French Revolution, 207 French War, Last, 94-103"; causes of, 94; principal events of, 96-102; treaty of peace, 102; other results of, 103 Fugitive Slave Law, 284 Fulton, Robert, 223 Fur trade, 64-66, 91, 113, 114 Gadsden Purchase, 278 Gage, General, 140, 142, 143 Gang-plow, 376 Garfield, Harry A., 465 Garfield, James A., portrait, 390; sketch, 392 Garrison, William Lloyd, 271, 272 Gates, General, 163, 175 Genet (zhe-na). Citizen, defies Wash- ington, 208 George III., 135-140, 183 Georgia, early history, 41 ; secedes, 302 Georgian Bay, 90 Germantown, battle of, 192 Germany, United, 431, 432 Gettysburg, battle of, 325-329 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 23 Gold, discovery of, in California, 279, 280 Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 62 Gosnold, Bartholomew, 26 Gourgues (gorg), Dominique de, in Florida, 16 Government, colonial, 11 8-1 21 Grant, Ulysses S., at Fort Donelson, 315; at Shiloh, 315, 316; at Vicks- burg, 329, 330; at Chattanooga, 334, 335; sketch, 335; portrait, 337; in campaigns about Richmond, 337-348; captures Lee's army, 347, 348; Presi- dent, 362; his Indian policy, 384, 385 Great Meadows, 97 Great War in Europe, 451-468 INDEX 531 I Greater America, 429 Greater England, 432 Greater France, 432 Greater Germany, 432 Greater Russia, 432 Greeley, Horace, 348 Greenbacks, 390-392 Greene, General, 1 79-181 Greenland, 11 Grenville, Lord, 129 Griffin, 90 Griffin's Wharf, 140 Guam, 417 Guantanamo, 415 Guerricrc (gar-ryar), captured, 231 Guilford Court House, battle of, 180 Gulf of Mexico, 17 Gunpowder, i Guthrie, 397 Hague, The, 427, 428, 436 "Hail Columbia," 210 Hale, Nathan, 152 Half Moon, 63 Halifax, 148 Hamilton, Alexander, favors a strong union, 200; financial policy of, 202; portrait, 202; killed by Burr, 223 Hamilton, Colonel, 169, 170 Hampton Roads, 312-314 Hancock, John, 143, 145, 150 Harper's Ferry, 296 Harrison, Benjamin, 396; sketch, 402; portrait, 402; elected President, 404 Harrison, William Henry, 228; sketch, 267; portrait, 268 Hartford, 51, 54, 60 Hartford, at Mobile Bay, 43 Hartford Convention, 236, 237 Harvard College, 109 Havana, 411 Hawaii (ha-wT'e), revolution in, 401, 402 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 486 Hay, Secretary, 421 Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 423 Hayes, Rutherford B., sketch, 365; with- draws troops from the South, 365; portrait, 366; election of, 389, 390 Hayne, Robert Y., 254 Hayti, 6 Hennepin, 123 Henry, Patrick, 131, 141, 191 Henry VH., 8 Hessians, 149, 155 Higher education, 462 Hobson, Lieutenant, 415 Holland at war with England, 167 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 486 Holy Alliance, 240 Homestead Bill, 374 Hood, General, 341 Hooker, Joseph, 325, 335 'Hooker, Thomas, 51-52 Hoover, Herbert C, 459 Horseshoe Bend, 235 House of Representatives, elects Jefifer- son as President, 213; impeaches An- drew Johnson, 360; in the Constitu- tion, 487-492, 507-512 Howe, General, 146, 152, 160-163, 166 Ho wells, W. D., 486 Hudson, Henry, discovers the Hudson River, 63 Hudson Bay Company. 270 Hudson River, 63. 64, 67, 150, 157 Huerta, General, 444-446 Hughes, Charles E., 449 Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), in France, 15; their settlements, 16; Spanish de- stroy settlements of, 16 Hull, Captain Isaac, 231 Hull, General William, 232 Hutchinson, Anne, 55 Iberville (e-ber-vel'). 123 Idaho, 375 Illinois, 353 Immigration, foreign, tabic of, 259; 290, 291, 372, 373 Impeachment, President Johnson's, 360 Imports, 252, 253, 478 532 INDEX Impressment of American seamen, 208, 225 Incandescent light, 480 Income tax, 442 Indentured servants, 34 Independence Hall, 150 Independence of the United States, 183 Independent Treasury, 262 Indian Territory, 390, 391 Indiana, 353 Indians, division of, 75; character of, 76; occupations of, 77; their canoes and snow-shoes, 77; wampum, 78; religion, 79; clan and tribe, 80; com- munal living, 80; number of, 82; in- fluence of, upon the whites, 83; early wars with, 84-86; aid Burgoyne, 158; use of, by the English, 168; reserva- tion system, 386 Industrial revolution, 472 Initiative, 440 Intercolonial Wars, 94-103 Internal improvements, 246, 247, 261 Interstate Commerce Act, 475 Interstate Commerce Commission, 476 Inventions: gunpowder, mariner's com- pass, printing-press, 1,2; cotton-gin, 204; steamboat, 222; reaping ma- chine, 264; friction matches, 264; tel- egraph, 267; wireless, 424; cable, 382, 424; steam plow, 376; telephone, 389; sewing machine, 473; spinning ma- chine, power loom, 473; Bessemer process of making steel, 474; X-ray, 480; automobile and flying machine, 480 Iowa, 354 Iron, 473-475 "Ironsides, Old," 231 Iroquois (ir-6-kwoi') Indians (see Five Nations and Six Nations), 64, 65; and Champlain, 88; enemies of French, 89; and fur trade, 93; and St. Leger, 159 Irrigation, 380, 381 Irving, Washington, 485 Isthmian Canal Act, 423 Italy, trouble with, 398 Italy, United, 430 Jackson, Andrew, at battle of New Orleans, 235, 236; in Florida, 239; 240; presidency of, 250-262; sketch, 250; portrait, 251 Jackson, C. T., 268 Jackson, Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), in the Shenandoah, 322; sketch, 325; and portrait, 327 James I., 30, 42-44 James II., 42, 43, 59 James, Henry, 466 Jamestown, settlement of, 29 Japan, treaty with, 285; new treaty with, 437 Japanese immigration, 438 Jay, his treaty with England, 208 Jefferson, Thomas, 132; writes Decla- ration of Independence, 150; opposes a strong union, 200; presidency of, 213-227; sketch, 213; portrait, 216 Jesuit missionaries, 90 Johnson, Andrew, presidency of, 356- 363; sketch and portrait, 357; his plan of reconstruction, 357, 358; im- peached, 360 Johnston, Albert Sidney, 315 Johnston, Joseph E., 307, 322, 329, 337, 340, 348 Joliet (zho-lj-a'), 90 Jones, John Paul, 164, 173, 174 Kalb, John, 165 Kansas, struggle for, 287-289; admitted to the Union, 354 • Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 287, 288 Kaskaskia, 169 Kearsarge, sinks the Alabama, 344 Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 341 Kentucky, Resolutions presented by, 211; life in, 216 Key, Francis Scott, 234 King George's War, 94 King Philip's War, 85, 86 INDEX 533 King William's War, 94 King's Mountain, battle of, 176 Knickerbocker History of Neiv York, 465 Knights of Labor, 395 Knox, Henry, 200 Kosciusko (kos-i-us'ko), 165 Ku-Klux Klan, 361, 362 Labor, in Virginia, 34, 35; in the North and South, 292, 293; railroad strikes, 387, 388; Knights of Labor, 395 La Fayette (la-fa-yet'), portrait, 160; sketch, 162; in Virginia, 181 Lake Erie, Perry's victory on, 232, 233 Lands: railroad and Western, 258; speculation in Western, 260, 261; public lands and Western expansion, 373-375; arid region and irrigation, 380; forest reservations, 381 La Salle (la-sal'), explores the Missis- sippi, 90; his aims and work, 91, 92 Las Guasimas, 415 Latin- American states, 446 Lawrence, Perry's flagship, 232, 233 Leather stocking Tales, 485 Lee, Charles, 153, 154, 160, 165, 166 Lee, Richard Henry, 149 Lee, Robert E., sketch, 322; in Penin- sular campaign, 322; portrait, 324; at Antietam, 324; at Fredericksburg, 324; at Chancellorsville, 325; at Gettysburg, 325-329; in campaigns of 1864 and 1865, 337-347; his surren- der, 347 Leisler (lis'ler), Jacob, leads an uprising against Andros, 69 Lewis and Clark's Expedition, 221, 222 Lexington, battle of, 142-145 Liberator, William Lloyd Garrison's, 271, 272 Liberty Loans, 462, 463 Lincoln, Abraham, sketch, 299, 300; portrait, 300; presidency of, 305-348; assassinated, 348 Lincoln, General, 175 "Line of Demarcation," 6 Linotype, 484 Literature, 485, 486 London Company, 28, 29 Long Island, battle of, 151, 152 Longfellow, Henry W., 486 Lookout Mountain, battle of, 335 Louis XIV., 91 Louisburg, 94 Louisiana, 353 Louisiana Purchase, 220, 221 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 425 Lovejoy, Elijah P., 273 Lowell, James Russell, 486 Loyalists, 134, 151 Lumber trade, 61 Lundy's Lane, battle of, 233 Lusitania, 453 McAdoo, William G., 465 IVIcClellan, George B., in the Penin- sular campaign, 319-323; at Antie- tam, 324 McCormick's reaping-machine, 264, 375 McCrea, Jane, 158 McDonough (mak-don'o), Thomas, on Lake Champlain, 234 McDowell, General, 307, 321 McKinley, William, author of McKin- ley Bill, 404; portrait, 404; sketch, 408; conduct of Spanish War, 411; assassination of, 418 Madero, 444 Madison, James, portrait, 228; sketch, 228; presidency of, 228-238 Magellan (ma-jel'an), wonderful voyage of, 9 Mails, 198 Maine, 244 Maine, 411 Malolos, 420 Malvern Hill, battle of, 322 Manassas (ma-nas'as), battle of {see Bull Run) Manhattan Island, 64 534 INDEX Manila, 412, 413, 420 Manufactures, in New England, 61, 227; in the North, 252; in the South, 253, 367, 368 ]\Iarion, Francis, 176 ISIarquette (mar-ket'), Father, 90 ISIarshall, Chief Justice, 212 ]\Iaryland, early history of, 37-40; and the Northwest Territory, 188 Mason, John, 84 Mason and Dixon's Line, 39 ]Mason and Slidell seized on the Trent, 309 Massachusetts Bay Company, 47, 48 ]\Iassachusetts, early history of, 44-59 ]\Iassasoit (mas-a-soit'), 47 INIaximilian, Archdj.ke, in Mexico, 345 MayJIower, Pilgrim vessel, 45 Mayo, Admiral, 445, 446 Meade, George G., portrait, 329; at Gettysburg, 325-329 Mediation, 446 Menendez in Florida, 16 Merrimac, Confederate ironclad, 311- 314 Merrimac, United States collier, 415 Merrimac River, 47 Merritt, General, 413 Mexican War, 274-277 Mexico, Cortez conquers, 18; secures in- dependence, 240; troubles with Texas, 274; at war with United States, 275- 277; ]\Iaximilian in, 345; troubles in, 444-447 Michigan, 354 Middle Colonies, 113-116; mixed pop- ulation of, 113; occupations of people in, 113; education in, 114; crimes and punishments in, 115; life and man- ners of the Dutch in, 115 Miles, General, 420 Mills Bill, 404 Mimms, Fort, massacre at, 235 Mining, 279, 280, 472 Minnesota, 354 ]\Iinutemen, 143 Mission stations, 90 Mission to Russia, 463 Missionary Ridge, battle of, 336 Mississippi, 353 ]\Iississippi River, discovered by De Soto, 15; explored by French, 89-92; flatboats on, 217; navigation, 220; in War of 1812, 235; importance of, in Civil War, 314-318; jetties, 366 Mississippi Valley, French in, 89-92; settlement of, 213-222 Missouri, 244 Missouri Compromise, 244, 245 Mobile Bay, battle of, 342, 343 ]\Iohawk River, 89, 157 IMoney, during Revolution, 167, 168; Shays's Rebellion, 187; Jackson and United States bank, 256; wild-cat banking, 260; in Civdl W^ar, 390, 391; resumption of specie payment, 390; silver legislation, 403 Monitor, Union ironclad, 311-314 Monmouth, battle of, 166 INIonroe Doctrine, 240, 241, 405, 406 Monroe, James, presidency of, 239-245; sketch, 240; portrait, 241 Montana, 375 Montcalm, General, 99, 102 ]\Iontgomery, 145 IMonticello, 213 Montreal, 145 Moore's Creek Bridge, battle of, 192 ]\Iorgan, Daniel, at battle of Co\vpens, 179, 180 Mormons, 376, 377 Morris, Robert, 156 Morristown, 156, 160 Morse, Samuel F, B., and the telegraph, 267, 268 Morton, W. T. G., 268 Motley, John Lothrop, 486 Mound Builders, 81, 82 Mount Vernon, home of Washington, 196 IMunicipal reform, 461 IMurfreesboro, battle of, 324 INDEX 535 Napoleon I., 218-220, 229 Napoleon III., and the Confederate navy, 344; and Mexico, 345 Narragansett Indians, 47, 55 Narvaez (nar-va-ath') explores Florida, 19 Nashville, battle of, 355 National Council of Defense, 458, 459 National Republican Party, 248 National road, 241, 242 Natural resources, 433, 435 Navigation Laws, 36, 59, 126 Navy, United States, in the Revolution , 172; in War of 181 2, 230; our new, 399, 400; increase of, 460, 466, 467 Nebraska, 288 Negro suffrage, 360 Negroes, in Union army, 332; freedmen in reconstruction days, 358-363; progress, 370, 371. See also Slavery Nevada, 355 New England, industries and trade of, 61; occupations of the people in, 106; religion and church worship in, 106; education in, 109; crimes and punish- ments in, 109; life and manners in, 109, no; and protection, 254 New England Confederacy, 55, 56 New France, the founding of, 87-92; in the Intercolonial Wars, 93-102; given up to England, 102. See also Canada New Hampshire, early history of, 62 New Haven colony, 52 New Jersey, early history of, 73 New Mexico, 438 New Netherland, early history of, 64- 68; becomes New York, 68 New Orleans, battle of, 235, 236; cap- ture of, 316, 317; Cotton Centennial, 368, 369 New Sweden, 74 New York, under English governors, 68, 69; and the Northwest Territory, 188 New York City, 246 New Zealand, 432 Newfoundland, fisheries dispute, arbi- tration of, 436 Newspapers, 117, 263, 484 Niagara Falls, 446 Nina, ship of Columbus, 4 Non-Importation agreements, 133, 139 Non-Intercourse Act, 227 Norfolk Navy Yard, 311 North, economic conditions in, 293; ad- vantages of, 303 North America, mainland discovered, 8; claimed by England, 8 North Carolina, early history of, 41; secedes, 306 North Dakota, 375 North German Confederation, 431 North Sea, 452 Northern point of view, 301 Northmen, 11 Northwest Boundary, 269 Northwest Passage, 8 Northwest Territory, conflicting claims to, 188 Nova Scotia, 8, 11, 99 Nullification, 211, 253-256 Ocean Steamships, 264 Oglethorpe (o'gl-thorp), James, 41 Ohio Company, 96 Ohio River, Fort Du Quesne on, 97; flatboats on, 217; value to Western- ers, 216,217; part of boundary lines, 242 Oklahoma (ok-la-ho'ma), territory opened to settlement, 396 Old North Church, 143 Old South Church, 130, 139 Olncy, Richard, 407 "Open Door," 420 "Orders in Council," 226 Ordinance of 1787, 188, 189 Oregon, 354 Oregon, 414 Oregon Country, 269-271 Ostend (os-tend') Manifesto, 286, 287 Oswego, 159 Otis, James, 128 536 INDEX Pacific Cable, 424 Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 18 Pacific railroads, 378-380 Pack-horse, 217 Paine, Thos., writes Common Sense, 149 Pakenham (pak 'en-am), Sir Edward, 236 Palo Alto (pa'lo al'to), battle of, 354 Palos, 4 Panama, Isthmus of, 18 Panama, revolution, 423; treaty, 424 Panama Canal, 423, 443, 450, 451 Panama tolls, 443 Pan-American Congress, 397 Pan-American Exposition, 419 Pan-American Union, 451 Panic, financial, of '37, 262; of '57, 294; of '73, 386, 387; of '93, 403 Paper money, 168, 187, 390, 391 Parcel post, 441 Parkman, Francis, 486 Parliament, English, 126, 127, 134, 135, 136, 139, 186; Acts of, 186; Sugar Act, 127, 136; Stamp Act, 128-133, 149; Townshend Acts, 136-138; Bos- ton Port Bill, 140, 149, 164; Massa- chusetts Act, 140 Parties, Federalist, 191, 247; Anti-Fed- eralist, 191; Republican, 209, 299; Democratic-Republican, 209; Demo- cratic, 209, 299; National Repub- lican, 247, 248; Whig, 290; Free Soil, 290; Progressive, 439 Partisan warfare in the South, 176 Patroons in New Netherland, 64, 65 Payne-Aldrich Bill, 435, 436 Peabody, George, 370 Peace Conference, first, 427, 428; sec- ond, 427 Peace movement, 427-429 Peking, 421 Pemberton, General, 329, 330 Penn, William, proprietor of Pennsyl- vania, 70-72; portrait, 70 Pennsylvania, early history of, 70-72 Pennsylvania, University of, 115 Pensacola, 240 Pension Bill, 397 Pepperell, Colonel, 94 Pequot Indians, 84 Periodicals, 464 Perry, Commodore, in Japan, 285, 286 Perry, Oliver H., his victory on Lake Erie, 232, 233 Pershing, General, 446, 461, 464 Personal Liberty Bills, 284, 285 "Pet Banks," 257 Petersburg, explosion of mine at, 338 Petition, right of, 273 Philadelphia, 71 Philippine Islands, 417, 420 Pickett, General, 328, 329 Pierce, Franklin, portrait, 286; sketch, 286; presidency of, 287-294 Pilgrims, go to Holland, 44; aims and character of, 45; voyage to America, 45; settle at Plymouth, 46; covenant and democracy, 46 ; relations with the Indians, 46, 47 Pinckney, Charles C, 210 Pinta, ship of Columbus, 4 Pitt, William, 100, 133 Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 315, 516 Pizarro (pi-za'ro), conquers Peru, 19 Plains of Abraham, 102 Plantation system in early colonial days, 35, 39; in later times, 253, 292 Plymouth colony, 46, 56 Plymouth Company, 28 Pocahontas, 31 Poe, Edgar Allan, 486 Polk, James K., sketch and portrait, 275; presidency of, 275-281 Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on'), dis- covers Florida, 13, 14 Pontiac, his conspiracy, 103 Pope, General, 323 Population, in 1790, 195; table of, 372 Port Bill, Boston, 140 Port Hudson, surrender of, 330 Porto Rico, 417, 418 Portugal leads in discovering an eastern route, 2 INDEX 537 Postal savings banks, 436 Postal service, 117, 198 Potomac, Army of, 319 Power loom, 473 Powhatan (pow-ha-tan'), 31 Prescott, Colonel, 146 Prescott, William H., 486 Presidency, change in form of election, 213; the joint high commission, 389, 390; Presidential Succession Act, 394, 395; in the Constitution, 512, 513 Primaries, 439 Princeton, battle of, 156 Princeton College, 115 Printing-press, 484 Prisoners, difficulties about exchange of, in Civil War, 332 Privateering, in Revolution, 172; in War of 181 2, 232 Problems of the hour, 487 Progressive Party, 439 Prohibition, 450 Proprietary colonies, 38, 41, 62, 70, I 18-120 Protective TarifT, 203, 252-254, 404, 405, 407, 408, 418, 423, 425, 435, 439 Providence, R. I., 55 Provincial Congress, 142 Prussia, 430. 431 Public debt, 260, 261 Public land, 259, 260, 373-375 Public schools, 263, 482 Pullman boycott, 405 Puritans, 47-59; obtain a charter, 47; settlements, 48; government, 49; re- ligious intolerance, 54-58; persecute the Quakers, 56, 57; have trouble with England, 58, 59 Putman, Israel, 103, 146 Quakers, 56, 57, 69, 70 Quebec, capture of, by Wolfe, loi, 102 Queen Anne's War, 94 Railroads, 257, 258, 367, 378-380 Railroad rate regulation, 448 Raleigh , Sir Walter, portrait, 2 1 ; sketch, 22; colonies, 22-25 Rapidan River, 337 Recall, 440 Reconstruction, Johnson's plan of, 357, 358; congressional plan of, 358, 359; work of, complete, 359; difficulties and results of, 363 Red Cross, 463 Referendum, 440 Religion, motive for colonization, 37, 44; Puritan intolerance, 49, 54, 55- 57. See also Catholics, Religious intolerance among the Massa- chusetts Puritans, 54-59 Representative assemblies, ^t,, 38, 39, 49, 50, 118-120, 131, 134 Republican Party, 290, 299, 404, 407, 418 Reservations, Indian, 386 Resumption of specie payments, 390- 392 Revere, Paul, 143 Review of the army at Washington, 355 Revolution, American, causes of, 126- 141; principal events of, 142-183; re- sults of, 183 Rhode Island, settled, 54, 55; religious toleration in, 55 Rice, cultivation of, 41 Richmond, Va,, Confederate capital, 302; evacuated by Lee, 346 Right of search claimed by England, 225 Rio Grande River, 275 Rivers, twofold use of, 217 Roanoke Island, 23-25 Rochambeau, 182 Rolfe, John, marries Pocahontas, 31 Roosevelt, Theodore, portrait, 417; sketch, 419; 424, 425, 426, 439 Root, Elihu, 463 Rosecrans (roze-cranz). General, ^^^^ 334 Ross, General, 234 "Rotten boroughs," 134 Rough Riders, 415 53^ INDEX Roxbury, settled, 48 Royal colonies, 41, 62, 74, 119 Russia, 432 Sacramento River, 279 St. Augustine, 16 St. Lawrence River, 87 St. Leger (sant lej'er), in western New York, 159 St. Mary's, settlement at, 38 Salem witchcraft, 108 Sampson, Admiral. 415, 418 San Francisco, 280 San Juan Hill, 416 San Salvador, 6 Sanitary Commission, 350 Santa Maria, ship of Columbus, 4 Santiago, battle of, 416 Savannah, Sherman captures, 341 Savannah, 264 Say-and-Sele, Lord, 52 Saybrook, 54 "Scalawags," 361 Schley, Commodore, 411, 414 Schuyler, General, 158, 163 Schuylkill River, 165 Schwab, Charles M., 467 Scott, General, 233 Scrooby, England, 44 Seal fisheries, 400, 401 Secession, of South Carolina, 300; doc- trine of, 301 ; of the remaining Cotton States, 302; of Virginia, North Caro- lina, Tennessee, and Arkansas, 306 Seminole Indians, 239, 240, 385 Semmes (semz), Captain, 344 Senators, United States, elected by the people, 441 Separatists in England, 44 Sera pis, 173 Seven Days' battles, 322 Seven Pines, battle of. See Fair Oaks Seven Weeks' War, 431 Seven Years' War, 94 Seventeenth Amendment, 441 Sewing machine, 473 . Shafter, General, 416 Shays's Rebellion, 187, 188 Shenandoah Valley, Jackson in, 322; Early in, 338; Sheridan in, 339 Sheridan, Philip H., in the Shenan- doah, 339; portrait, 339; at Cedar Creek, 339; sketch, 339; at Five Forks, 346 Sherman Act, 403, 478 Sherman, James S., 435 Sherman, Roger, 150 Sherman, William T., sketch, 340; por- trait, 341; captures Atlanta, 341; his "March to the Sea," 341; captures Johnston's army, 348 Shiloh, battle of, 315, 316 Shipbuilding, in the colonies. 61, 106 Short ballot, 439, 440 Silver, Spanish search for, 19; silver leg- islation, 403 Sims, Admiral, 461 Six Nations. See Five Nations and Iroquois Indians Sixteenth Amendment, 442 Slater, John F., 370 Slater, Samuel, 473 Slavery, in Virginia, 34, 35; cotton-gin and, 204, 205; in the North and the South, 243; and the Civil War, 301 Slidell, seized on the Trent, 309 Smith, Captain John, his services to the Virginia colonists, 30; sketch, 31; por- trait, 31; returns to England, 31 Smith, Joseph, 377 Smuggling, 127, 128 Solid South, 365 Sons of Liberty, 131 South, economic conditions in, 292, 293; advantages of, 303; seizes national property, 304; condition at the close of the Civil War, 356; the new, 365- 371; troops withdrawTi from, 365 South America, discovered and ex- plored, 8-10, 18, 19; colonies in re- volt from Spain, 240; and the United States, 397, 446 INDEX 539 South Carolina, 41; objects to Protec- tion, 252, 253; and State Rights, 255, 256; secedes, 300 South Dakota, 375 South Sea. See Pacific Ocean Southern Colonies, 111-113; occupa- tions of the people of, 1 1 1 ; education in, II I ; life and manners in, 112 Southern point of view, 300 Spain claims Florida, 16; advantages of, in the New World, 16, 17; reasons for failure, 17; relations with England, 20, 21; rise of Cubans against, 410 Spaniards, precious metals main object of, 13; and the Indians, 15; destroy Huguenot settlements, 16 Spanish-American War, 410-417 Specie Circular, 261 Specie payments, 390, 391 Speedwell, 45 "Spheres of Influence," 431 Spinning machine, 473 Spoils system, 251 Spottsylvania Court House. balLle of, 337 Stage coaches, 117, 197 Stamp Act, 128-131; Stamp Act Con- gress, 132; repeal of, 133 Standard Oil Company, 477 Standish, IMyles, portrait, 48 Stanton, Secretary, 349 Star of the West, 305 Star-Spangled Banner, 234 Stark, John, 159 State Rights, 254-256, 300, 301 Statue of Liberty, 396 Steamboat, Fulton's first, 222; launched on the Ohio River, 223 Steel, 473-475 Stephens, Alexander H., sketch, 303 Steuben, Baron, 165 "Stonewall" Jackson. See Jackson, Thomas J. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 285 Straits of ^Magellan, 9 Strikes, railroad, 387, 388, 405 Stuyvesant (stiVe-sant), Governor, 68 Submarine, 452, 453, 454, 456, 461 Suffrage, for negroes, 359-361 Suffrage, for women, 483, 484 Sugar and Molasses Act, 127 Sugar Trust, 477 Sullivan, General, 152 Sumner, Charles, assault on, 289, 290 Supreme Court, 200, 295, 513, 514 Surplus, 404 Sutter, Captain, 279 Swedes, settlement made by, 74 Taft, William H., sketch of, 435; por- trait of, 435; and revision of the tariff, 435; and arbitration, 436, 437 Tampico, 445 Tariff, 203, 252-256, 404, 405, 407, 408, 418, 423, 425, 439, 442 Tariff Commission, 436 Tarleton, 179 Taxation, 39, 43, 130; without repre- sentation in America, 134; without representation in England, 134 Taylor, Zachary, 276; portrait, 280; sketch, 281 Tea, tax on, 139, 140 Tecumseh (te-kums'e), 228 Telegraph, 267, 268, 379, 424 Telephone, 389 Temperance movement, 264, 265, 450 Tennessee, life hi, 216 Tennessee, Confederate ironclad, 342 Tennessee River, 315 Tenure of Office Act, 360 Territories, slavery in, 287, 288, 295, 299 Texas, annexation of, 274; admitted to the Union, 354 Textile industry, 472, 473 Thames Riv^r, battle of, 233 Thanatopsis, 486 Thanksgiving Day, no Thirteenth Amendment, 358, 360 Thomas, General, 7^2,2,, 336 540 INDEX Tilden, Samuel J., 389 Tippecanoe, battle of, 228 Tobacco, 33-35, 40 Tories. See Loyalists Township, New England, 4?., 49 Trade, Colonial, 126-128 Trade Schools, 463 Travel, modes of, 117, 197, 215, 217, 223, 241, 242, 257 Treaty at close of Last French War, 102 ; at close of Revolution, 183; Jay's 208; at close of War of 181 2, 238; with Mexico, 277; Hay-Pauncefote, 423; with Japan, 437, 438 Trent Affair, 309 Trenton, battle of, 154, 155 Trolley-cars, 480 Trusts, 476-478 Tuscaroras (tus-ka-ro'ras) , 76 Tyler, John, sketch, 267, 268; portrait, 269 "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 285 Underground Railroad, 285 Union, steps toward : New England Con- federation, 55, 56; Franklin's Plan of Union, 121, 122; Stamp Act Congress, 132; Committees of Correspondence, 138; first meeting of the Continental Congress, 141; second meeting of the Continental Congress, 145; Declara- tion of Independence, 148-150; Arti- cles of Confederation, 185-189; Con- stitutional Convention, 189, 190; re- sults of Civil War, 351, 352; results of Spanish-American War, 417 United States, a world-power, 429. 430 United States, natural advantages of, 471,472 United States Bank, 256, 257 United Staites Bureau of Agriculture, 483 United States Steel Company, 477 Universities, 482 University of Pennsylvania, 115 Utah, 375 Valley Forge, suffering at, 164, 165 Van Buren, Martin, sketch and portrait, 262; presidency of, 262, 263 Venezuela (ven-e-zwe-la') and England, 405-407 Vera Cruz (ve'ra kroz), 354, 446 Vermont, 352 Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'no), 87 Vespucius, Americus, 8 Vicksburg, capture of, 329, 330 Victor Emmanuel, 430 Vincennes, 169 \' inland, Northmen visit, 11 Virginia, early history of, 29-37; and the Northwest Territory, 188 Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 211 Vocational schools, 449, 483 Viilkire, 178 Wabash River, 89 Wallace, Lew, 338 Waltham, 473 Wampanoag Indians, 47 Wampum, 78 War of 181 2, causes of, 229, 230; princi- pal events of, 231-236; results of, 238 Wars: Indian, 84-86; Intercolonial, 94; Last French, 94-103; Pontiac's, 103; Revolution, 126-183; Barbary States, 222; Tecumseh's conspiracy, 228; of 181 2, 229-238; Creek, 235; Mexican, 275-277; Civil, 301-352; Spanish- American, 410-417 War zone, 452, 453 Warren, Joseph, 143, 146, 147 Washington, D. C, made the national capital, 203; captured by the British, 234 Washington Elm, 144 Washington, George, his journey to the French forts, 96; at Great Meadows, 97; with Braddock, 99; takes com- mand of the American army, 147; in the Revolution, 147-183; presidency of, 194-209; sketch, 195; inaugu- INDEX 541 rated, 195; formality of, i98-2cmd; his cabinet, 200 Wasiiington, Lawrence, 96 Webster, Daniel, and the Union, 254; portrait, 255 Wells, Horace, 268 West, rapid growth of, 259; influence of, in favor of nationalism, 293; ex: pansion of, 374-376 West Point, 177, 178 West Virginia admitted to the Union, 307 Western lands, speculation in, 260 Western migration, 213-224 Wethersfield settled, 51 Weyler, General, 411 Whig Party, 290 Whiskey Rebellion, 203, 204 White Plains, battle of, 192 Whitney, Eli, invents cotton-gin, 204, 205 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 486 Wild-cat ban'dng, 260 Wilderness, battles of, 337 Wilkes, Captain, 309 Williams, Roger, 54, 55 Williamsburg, 131 Williamsburg, battle of, 321 Wilmot, David, 278 Wilmot Proviso, 278 Wilson Bill, 405 Wilson, Woodrow, sketch, 438; por- trait, 438; and the troubles in Mex- ico, 445, 446, 447; and the railway disputes, 448; re-election, 448; ad- dress to Congress, 454-457 Windsor settled, 51 Winthrop, John, 51 Wireless telegraphy, 424 Wisconsin, 354 Witchcraft, Salem, 108 Wolfe, General, captures Quebec, toi, 102 Woman suffrage, 483, 484 World-powers of Europe, 430 World's Columbian Exposition, 402 Wright Brothers, 481 Writs of Assistance, 128 Wyoming, 484 X-Ray, 480 "X Y Z Papers," 209, 210 Yale College, 109 York town, McClellan at, 321 Young, Brigham, 377