THE HOPE REPORTS

WOE EV.

1900-1903

EDITED BY

BpWARD«B. POULTON, M.A, DiSe

Hoe sD PRINCETON, J -RiS;, F.L:S:, -F.Z.S.; F.G:S:
HOPE PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, OXFORD
PRESIDENT OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, NEW YORK, AND
THE SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, BOSTON

OXFORD
PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION

BY HORACE HART, PRINTER TO’ THE UNIVERSITY

1903

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EDITED BY

EDWARD B. POULTON, M.A,, D.Sc.

HONS. PRINCETON, EF Roo., E-L Ss, b.Z.S.; E-G:s.

HOPE PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, OXFORD
PRESIDENT OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, NEW YORK, AND
THE SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, BOSTON

OXFORD
PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION

BY HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

1903

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PREEACE

Tue fourth volume of Hope Reports contains a large
number of papers published in the period 1900-1903.
The Annual Reports of the Hope Professor, published in
the University Gazette, indicate that the study of African
species and of African bionomics is pursued with especial
energy in the Department, and by those who are in con-
tinual correspondence with it, especially Mr. Guy A. K.
Marshall. It so happened that several memoirs on these
subjects were published in the year 1902, and as they
were sufficient to make up a volume by themselves, No. III
of the Hope Reports, dealing with African natural history,
was issued early in 1903. Hence the years 1900-1903
have furnished material for two volumes of these Reports.

Papers 2 to 12 deal with insect bionomics and other
questions relating to evolution and natural. selection in
this group of animals. The first paper, on ‘Mimicry and
Natural Selection, is a reprint of the English address to
the International Zoological Congress at Berlin on Aug. 15,
1901. Mr. N. Annandale’s work (3) upon the material
collected in the Malay Peninsula was largely carried on in
the Hope Department. Mr. Shelford’s important memoir
(4) on Bornean mimicry was written in Sarawak, but
nearly all the specimens were sent to the Hope Depart-
ment for study and identification, and many additions to

4 PREFACE

the paper were thus brought about. Furthermore, by the
generosity of the author, the great majority of the speci-
mens, in fact all except the unique ones, have been pre-
sented to the Department, so that the monograph does
actually treat of Oxford material, and the subject itself can
be better studied in Oxford than in any other place outside
the Indo-Malayan Sub-Region. The sixth paper, a criticism
of the hypothesis of ‘Conscious Protective Resemblance,’
is in part by Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall, in part by the Hope
Professor. Dr. F, A, Dixey ‘contributes, an’ interesting
account (7 and 8) of Lepidoptera from the White Nile,
kindly presented to the Department by Mr. W. L. S. Loat,
together with further notes on seasonal dimorphism in
butterflies. Mr. Guy Marshall's demonstration, by breeding,
of the wet and dry phases of Preczs actia is described in
(10). The specimens themselves, which have historic value
and interest, have been generously presented to the
University. The first investigation ‘into insect bionomics
undertaken in the Department forms the subject of the
tenth memoir. The publication was delayed many years
because the notes and drawings were mislaid in 1894
during the alterations. Two other short papers on insect
bionomics (5 and 9) are also by the Hope Professor,
together with a brief sketch (12) of the influence of Darwin
upon Entomology.

Papers 13 to 20 inclusive deal with systematic and
faunistic questions. A valuable account (13 and 14) of
the Oxford types belonging to the Hemipterous families
Pentatomidae and Coreidae is given by Mr. W. L. Distant.
Interesting new spiders presented by Mr. Shelford and
Mr. Marshall are described (15) by the Rev. O. Pickard-
Cambridge. Papers 16 to 19 inclusive treat of the col-
lection of Balearic insects made in 1900 by the Hope

PREFACE 5

Professor, Mr. Oldfield Thomas, and Mr. R. I. Pocock; the
flymenoptera Aculeata and the Hemiptera-Fleteroptera by
Mr. Edward Saunders, the Dzpzera by Col. J. W. Yerbury,
and an Introduction by the Professor. Mr. S. A. Neave
describes (20) a new species of Lycacnzd kindly presented
by Mr. C. A. Wiggins.

The series of papers concludes with the Report (21) of
the Professor for the year 1902,

EDWARD B, POULTON.

HoPE DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY MUSEUM, OXFORD,
November 9, 1903.

CONTENTS Oty VOR.

. Preface.

. Mimicry and Natural Selection. The English Address to the Fifth
International Zoological Congress at Berlin, August 15, 1901, by
Edward B. Poulton, D.Sc., M.A., F.R.S., &c., Hope Professor of
Zoology in the University of Oxford, Fellow of Jesus College,
Oxford. (From ‘ Verhandl. d. V. Internat. Zool. Congr. z. Berlin,’

Jena t0O2,) ps 17a.)

. Observations on the Habits and Natural Surroundings of Insects
made during the ‘ Skeat Expedition’ to the Malay Peninsula, 1899-
1900, by Nelson Annandale, B.A. (From the ‘ Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London, 1900, p. 837.)

. Observations on some Mimetic Insects and Spiders from Borneo and
Singapore, by R. Shelford, M.A., C.M.Z.S., Curator of the Sarawak
Museum. With Appendices containing Descriptions of new Species
by R. Shelford, Dr. Karl Jordan, C. J. Gahan, the Rev. H. S.
Gorham, and Dr. A. Senna. (Frorh the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological
Society of London,’ 1902, p. 230.)

. Hypolimnas misippus captured at sea, by Edward B, Poulton. (From the
‘Entomologist’s Record,’ vol. xii, No. 11, Nov. 1900, p. 315.)

. Conscious Protective Resemblance, by Guy A. K. Marshall, F.Z.S.,
together with remarks on the preceding paper by Edward B. Poulton.
(From the ‘ Zoologist,’ Dec. 1900, p. 536.)

. On Lepidoptera from the White Nile, collected by Mr. W. L.S. Loat, F.Z.S.,
together with further notes on Seasonal Dimorphism in Butterflies, by
Dr. Frederick A. Dixey, M.A., M.D., Fellow of Wadham College,
Oxford. (From the ‘ Transactions of the Entomological Society of
London,’ 1903, p. 141.)

. Abstract of the above paper. (From ‘Proceedings of the Entomo-
logical Society of London,’ April 29, 1903, p. xi.)

10.

II.

T2.

ite

14.

Tig:

16.

18.

CONTENTS OF VOL IV 7

. The meaning of the ‘C’ on the under-surface of the hind-wings of

Polygonia (Grapta) C-album, together with other notes on Lepi-
doptera, by Edward B. Poulton. (From ‘Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of London,’ May 6, 1903, p. xxvi.)

Guy A. K. Marshall’s demonstration, by breeding, of the wet and dry
phases of Precis actia, an exhibit of W. J. Burchell’s Brazilian ants,
and the abstract of the succeeding paper, by Edward B. Poulton.
(From ‘Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London,’

June 3, 1903, p. Xxxii.)

Experiments in 1893, 1894, and 1896 upon the colour-relation between
Lepidopterous larvae and their surroundings, and especially the effect
of lichen-covered bark upon Odontoptera bidentata, Gastropacha
quercifolia, &c., by Edward B. Poulton. (From ‘Transactions of
the Entomological Society of London,’ 1903, p. 311.)

The Influence of Darwin upon Entomology, by Edward B. Poulton.
(From the ‘Entomologist’s Record,’ vol. xiii, No. 2, 1901, p. 72.)

Revision of the Rhynchota belonging to the Family Penfatomidae in the
Hope Collection at Oxford, by W. L. Distant. (From the ‘ Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society of London,’ April 16, 1900, p. 807.)

Revision of the Rhynchota belonging to the Family Corezdae in the
Hope Collection at Oxford, by W. L. Distant. (From the ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society of London,’ 1901, p. 325.)

On some new and interesting Exotic Spiders collected by Messrs.
G. A. K. Marshall and R. Shelford, by the Rev. Octavius Pickard-
Cambridge, M.A., F.R.S., &c. (From the ‘Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London,’ 1got, p. 11.)

Balearic Insects.—Introduction, by Edward B. Poulton. (From the
‘Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,’ Sept. 1901, p. 205.)

. Balearic Insects— Hymenoptera A culeata, collected in Majorca and Minorca

(March and April, 1900), by E. B. Poulton, Oldfield Thomas, and
R. I. Pocock, with descriptions of new species, by Edward Saunders,
F.R.S., &c. (From the ‘ Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,’ Sept.
IgOI, p. 208.)

Balearic Insects.—Hemipfera-Heteroplera, coltected as described in the
title of paper No. 17, by Edward Saunders, F.R.S., &c. (From the
‘Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,’ Oct. 1901, p. 239.)

8 CONTENTS OF BOL. IV.

19. Balearic Insects.—Dzpéera, collected as described in the title of No. 17,
by Col. J. W. Yerbury, late R.A., F.Z.S., &c. (From the ‘Ento-
mologist’s Monthly Magazine, Nov. 1901, p. 272.)

20. A New Species of Zycaenid from Uganda and Lake Victoria Nyanza,
by S. A. Neave, B.A., of Magdalen College, Oxford. (From the
‘Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,’ June, 1903, p. 136.)

21. Report of the Hope Professor of Zoology for 1902. (From the ‘ Oxford
University Gazette.’) :

MIMICRY AND NATURAL SELECTION,

. BY
EB. POULTON
HOPE PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, OXFORD

GOo—V——lr-—o’'—™>>

(SONDERABDRUCK AUS DEN VERHANDLUNGEN DES V. INTERNATIONALEN ZOOLOGEN-
CONGRESSES ZU BERLIN, 1901.)

VERLAG YON GUSTAV FISCHER IN JENA,
1902.

Mimicry and Natural Selection.
By E. B. Poulton (Oxford).

I feel itto be a great honour and pleasure to be called on to
deliver the address on behalf of the English-speaking nations at the
fifth International »Zoological Congress at Berlin. At the same
time Iam sensible of the great difficulty of the task, the attempt
to say anything adequate on so wide a subject in the narrow
compass of five and forty minutes.

In attempting to arrive at a decision upon the origin and
cause of mimetic resemblance we have no direct evidence to
assist us. We are driven to base our opinion upon the same
ground as that upon which the belief in the theory of gravi-
tation is founded. This theory finds acceptance, not because
of direct evidence in its favour, but because the facts of the cos-
mos, so far as we know them, are consistent with the theory
and none of them inconsistent with it.

It is necessary therefore first to give a brief account of
the theories which have been advanced to account for the ori-
gin of Mimicry, secondly to enquire how far each one of them
is consistent with the main facts of Mimicry. 1) The theory
of Natural Selection as an explanation, assumes that these
resemblances have been produced because they are and have been
useful in the struggle for existence. There has been according
to this interpretation a greater average survival in successive
generations of the forms in which these useful likenesses were
more strongly developed as compared with those in which they
were less strongly developed, and thus in process of time a very
high degree of resemblance has been attained. 2) The theory
of External Causes assumes that mimicry has been produced
by the direct action upon the organism of some one or more of
the various influences which exist in the locality, such as food,
moisture. dryness, heat, coldice:--3). Phe theory of In-
ternal Causes assumes that mimetic resemblances are due to
the independent arrival of different species at the same evo-
lutionary stage, as regards the characters in which such resem-
blances are manifest. 4) The theory of Sexual Selection has
occasionally been invoked to account for mimicry, the assumption
being that the selection of mates has been influenced by the
colours and patterns of other species living in the same country.

The last mentioned theory is believed to account for mimicry
by comparatively few naturalists, although it was deemed to be
worthy of consideration by Charles Darwin and Fritz Miller’).

1) See a letter from Charles Darwin describing Fritz Miiller’s thoughts

on this subject. ,,Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection.‘‘ Poulton,
London 1896, p. 202,

lo

Dritte allgemeine Sitzung.

The theory of External Causes is probably more commonly re-
ceived as an explanation than any of the others except Natural
Selection itself.

IT now propose to bring before you several illustrations, setting
forth the main aspects of mimetic resemblance, and to inquire how
far each of them is consistent with these four theories. All the
coloured illustrations were made by Mr. Sanger-Shepherd who
took photographs of the actual specimens in the Hope Department
of the Oxford University Museum and prepared from the negatives
the three-colour films which are superposed in the slides. Hence the
exact patterns of the insects are faithfully represented by physico-
chemical means.

The too-exclusive study of mimicry in Lepidoptera alone is
probably responsible for a common belief in the theory of External
Causes. Thus when we contemplate a group of many species of Heli-
conine, Ithomiine, Danaine, Erycinid, and Pierine butterflies from
British Guiana and Surinam, and find that all tend to develope dark
hind wings, it is plausible to suggest as an interpretation that we
are witnessing the common effect of local influences. But this
and every other explanation, except natural selection, leave as a
mere coincidence the fact that the first-named three groups con-
tribute the vast majority of the species, and undoubtedly provide
the models for the others. Under Natural Selection the inter-
pretration is easy; the groups in question are specially defended
by unpalatable qualities and it is to their advantage to warn their
enemies by a common advertisement. The Erycinid and Pierine
species may also be unpalatable and fall into the same Miillerian
(Synaposematic)!) combination, or they may be edible and gain
advantage by living on the reputation of the three nauseous
Nymphalid sub-families (Batesian mimicry or Pseudaposematic
resemblances). Taking all available facts into consideration
the former is the more probable view. Not in Guiana alone,
but whereever we may travel in tropical America groups of
species of these three Nymphalid sub-families tend to resemble

each other and to act as models for butterflies of other families
and sub-families. In Venezuela, for example, they are amber-
coloured black-barred insects as in Guiana but without the ten-
dency towards preponderant black in the hind-wings; in South
Eastern Brazil they all possess an especially light stripe, frequently
bright’ yellow, along the hind- wings, and a light spot, frequently
white, at the apex of the fore-wings; at Ega, on the upper Ama-
zon, they all gain a rich chestnut brown ground colour; still further
west, the brown ground colour is much less dark than at Ega,
and of a very characteristic shade. Why should these three sub-
families be so conspicuously subject to the common influence of

1) Proceedings Entom. Soc, London, 1897, p. X XIX.

Poulton, Mimicry and Natural Selection.

(oS)

locality, why should they more than all other Rhopalocera arrive
independently at the same evolutionary stage as regards visible
characters, why should sexual selection operate so exclusively
upon them in the direction of producing a common likeness?
None of these questions can be answered. The facts remain mere
coincidences under all theories except Natural Selection. In other
words Natural Selection is the only satisfactory interpretation.
Mimicry among Rhopalocera is much less common as we
pass into northern regions, but there is one excellent example in
temperate North America which serves to shew how superficial an
interpretation is that offered by the theory of External Causes and
how completely it breaks down when examined with a little care.
With comparatively few exceptions the insect fauna of the Nearctic
Region is that of the great northern circumpolar land-belt. These
exceptions are intruders from the tropical South, and among them
is the large Danaine butterfly Anosia plexippus which now
ranges over the United States and a large part of Canada. In
tropical America closely similar representative species, sub-species
or forms still persist. This abundant Danaine butterfly affords
the model which is closely resembled by an indigenous Nymphaline
butterfly which we should place in the genus Limenitis, although
some American naturalists prefer to put the Nearctic species in a
separate genus, Basilarchia. There are also other mimics
among the species of the North American Limenitis (Basilar-
chia), but two of them are non-mimetic and enable us to recon-
struct the appearance of their close ally before the intrusion of
the great Danaine model. In the New World the genus Lime-
nitis is confined to the Nearctic Region with the exception of a
single species, a form of the mimetic L. astyanax (Fabr.), which
just enters the borders of Mexico. If butterfly colours and patterns
are the expression of the direct influences of the environment, then
it is clear that the indigenous non-mimetic species of Limenitis
(Basilarchia) are an expression of Nearctic conditions, and accor-
ding to the theory of External Causes, the invader from the South
should have come to resemble them instead of drawing an ancient
Nearctic species far away from the ancestral colours and patterns
into a close superficial likeness to itself. The fact that certain
species of a single genus should thus be entirely mimetic while
others are entirely non-mimetic and preserve the ancestral
appearance, has been sometimes urged, for example by late
Professor J. O. Westwood, against the interpretation afforded
by the theory of Natural Selection. It is a real difficulty to
the theories of external and internal causes; for, as regards the
first, we should expect the closely related species of a genus to
react similarly to the local conditions rather than that certain of
them should react quite differently from the others but quite
similarly to the species of distantly related sub-families; and, as

4 Dritte allgemeine Sitzung.

regards the second, we should expect such species to reach nearly
the same evolutionary stage together, rather than that some should
reach one stage and others another entirely different one, but the
same as that reached by certain species of remote affinity. With
Natural Selection for our explanation such differences are at once
intelligible. The variation which formed the foundation for selection to
build upon may Ww ell have been present in certain species of a genus
but not in others; or slight differences in life-history or the methods
of adaptation, or the attacks of enemies may have rendered mi-
micry advantageous for this species but not for that.

When we pass from mimicry among butterflies to mimicry
between butterflies and moths the difficulties encountered by all
theories except Natural Selection become greater because of the
wider structural difference between model and mimic. To take an
example, certain species of day-flving Chalcosid moths of Borneo
mimic Danaine butterflies while others mimic Pierinae. Why should
part of the Heteroceran group be acted on by external conditions
to as to cause a superficial resemblance to Danainae the others
so as to cause a resemblance to Pierinae? Why out of the same
closely related set of species should some reach the evolutional
stage of Danainae, the others of Pierinae? Why should the
models happen to differ from butterflies in general in their slow
flight and conspicuous appearance, in the similarity of the patterns
on the under side of the wings to those on the upper side, in the
fact that they are distasteful to the generality of insect- eating
animals? Why should the mimics hi appen to belong to a day-
flying group although moths are as a rule noc turnal? All these
questions receive an obvious answer when the theory of Natural
Selection is adopted as the gr aetna of mimicry: they cannot
be answered by any other existing theory. Under any other
theory the facts are gr Gist devoid of meaning. .

When the model belongs to one insect order and the mimic
to another, difficulties of interpretation, except on the theory of
Natural Selection, become even greater. Why should the models in
the vast majority of cases happen to belong to the Hymenoptera
and to possess stings or other special modes of detence? Why under
the totally different conditions of Borneo and South Africa should
a local Xylocopid bee be mimiced by a local Asilid fly (Hyper-
echia)? Many moths come to resemble transparent-wing ed Hymen-
optera by the actual loss of scales which were present on their
wings when they emerged from the pupa. Is anyone bold enough
to maintain that a resemblance thus caused is due to External

Internal Causes or to Sexual Selection?

The assumption that local influences act uniformly on different
species is by no means justified except in the case of species with
similar habits and life-histories: Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall has sent
me a wonderful group of reddish brown or ochreous insects with the

Poulton, Mimicry and Natural Selection. -

posterior part of the visible dorsal surface black. It contains
many species of the Lycid models, and also Coleoptera belonging
to the Telephoridae, Melyridae, Phytophaga, Cantharidae,
and Longicorns, several species of aculeate Hymenoptera, a few
Hemipterous insects, two species of Lepidoptera Heterocera and
one of Diptera. We have here all kinds of habits and all kinds
of life-histories, larvae living in the open, larvae burrowing in
plant-stems, carnivorous larvae, leaf-eating larvae, larvae with special
food stored in cells. It is simply childish to appeal vaguely to
the direct action of like forces as the explanation of the remarkable
likeness which runs through the group: for the environing forces
are not like but extremely unlike, because of the very diverse
conditions under which various members of the group live and
grow.

All the butterfly sub-families which furnish the chief models
for Mimicry are remarkable for a uniformity of colour and pattern
among groups of species in each of the countries they inhabit. These
sub-families are the Danainae found all over the tropics, and
the allied Ithomiinae (Neotropinae) of tropical America, the
Acraeinae almost confined to Africa and tropical America, and the
allied Heliconinae practically restricted to the latter. A very strong
family likeness runs through long series of species, as anyone may
see by a glance at the successive drawers of a collection of African
Acraeinae or Oriental E uploeina and comparing them with an
equal number of species in any sub-family which does not provide
models for Mimicry. Compare for instance our European Van-
essidae with sets of local species of any of the four above-
named sub-families. The species of Vanessa do indeed possess
homologous markings!) and many of the gaps between them can
be filled up, but we have to hunt the world in order to do it, and
even then we only obtain a partial continuity between extreme
differences, whereas in the specially protected sub-families there is
not only continuity but uniformity in large groups of species. Mr. A.
G. Mayer?) has found that among 450 species of Neotropical
Ithomiinae and Heliconinae there are only 15 shades of colour,
whereas among 200 species of Neotropical Papilioninae there
are 36 shades. And this is not by any means due to the scarcity
of variation in the former; for individual differences in each
locality, aud geographical differences, as we pass from one district
to another, are very prevalent. Combined with the uniformity
within these sub-families is a marked tendency to resemble other
protected sub- families within the same region, a tendency which
is so pronounced in the case of the Ithomiinae and Helico-
ninae that they were long regarded as a single group although

1) See F. A. Dixey in Trans. Entom,. Soc. London, 1890, p. 89.
2) Bulletin of the Mus. of Comp. Zool. at Harvard Coll., Feb. 1897, p. 169.

6 Dritte allgemeine Sitzung.

the structural differences between them, as larva, pupa and imago,
are strongly marked and indicate that the first sub-family belongs
to one side of the great Nymphalid family and the second to the
opposite side. This remarkable uniformity in the species of certain
butterfly sub-families was first explained by Professor Meldola!)
on the lines suggested by Dr. Fritz Miiller2) in 1879, viz. as an
adaptation in order to reduce the amount of life sacrificed during
the period when young and inexperienced insect-enemies are
learning to distinguish between palatable and unpalatable (and
perhaps unwholesome) food. If two species living intermingled
and equally numerous are superficially exactly alike, and both
nauseous, each will lose only half the number of individuals which
would have been required in order to educate their enemies if they
had been dissimilar. The sacrifice of life is also reduced by the
strong general resemblance running through the species of each
spec ially protected sub-family in one country. Such resemblance
is by no means confined to the Khopalocera or the L epidoptera.
It is found abundantly in all specially defended insect orders, princi-
pally the Hymenoptera. If we look at the Australian Aculeata we
notice a large group of species in which the orange ground colour
is deeper and browner than in banded Aculeata generally, while
the black zones are broader and fewer, being in fact usually
reduced to two, one crossing the thorax, another the abdomen.
This very characteristic appearance is to be found in Abispa,
Eumenes, Alastor, Odynerus, Bembex and probably many
other genera: it also occurs in mimetic Diptera (A silidae) and
Longicorn Coleoptera. Here is a broad fact which receives an
intelligible explanation by Natural Selection but by no other theory
which has been suggested. We can well understand on the theory
of Natural Selection w hy the members of specially detended groups
should be far more alike than those of others, why they should
resemble members of other such groups in the same region, why
they should have conspicuous patterns and contrasted colours which
in Lepidoptera tend to be the same upon the under as on the upper
side of the wings, why their flight should be slow and flaunting,
why they should be remarkably tenacious of life. Here are a number
of important characters ; associated together and true of all such groups
wherever they may occur in any part of the world. One theory alone
explains all the numerous observations which are here condensed
into a brief statement. It is by no means an assumption to main-
tain that the groups in question are specially defended. This is
admitted to be the case with the Hymenoptera and there is NOW
a very large mass of experimental evidence in the Lepidoptera’).

1) Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Dec. 1882, p. 417.

2) Kosmos, May 1879, p. 100; also Kosmos, V, 188t.

3) See especially Frank Finn in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal LNIV, pt. 11,
1895, p. 344; LXV, pt. 11, 1896, p. 42; LX VI, pt. 22, 1897, p. 528; EXVIE
pt. rr, 1897, p. 614.

Poulton, Mimicry and Natural Selection. D

~

Another admitted fact of wide application is the tendency
of mimetic resemblance to appear in the female rather than the male.
Thus female butterflies of many species are associated with non-
mimetic males while the converse relationship is almost unknown.
The non-mimetic male in the species referred to maintains the
ancestral appearance which has been lost in the female, although
distinct traces of it can nearly always be recovered by the care-
ful study of individual variation, and comparison with allied species.
This is a remarkable reversal of the ordinary rule that when male
and female differ the latter is the more ancestral. This striking
exception is quite unintelligible except under the theory of Na-
tural Selection which offers the convincing explanation, long ago
suggested by Alfred Russel Wallace, that the slower flight
of the heavier females and their exposure to attack during ovi-
position render it especially advantageous for them to resemble
conspicuous distasteful species in the same locality).

Another aspect of Mimicry affords, in my opinion, perhaps
the most powerful argument of all in favour of an interpretation
based on the theory of Natural Selection. If these resemblances
are attained by selection because they are advantageous in the
struggle for life we should expect to find that they are pro-
duced in a great variety of ways; for one species would reach
the beneficial end by one path pointed out to it by the structure
it possessed at the beginning and by the trend of its variation,
while another species with a very different initial structure would
reach the same end by a widely different path. Thus many
Diptera, for example species of Ceria, gain a superficial resem-
blance to wasps by a narrowing in the anterior abdominal region
which suggests the characteristic peduncle of a Hymenopterous
insect. On the other hand Longicorn beetles of the genus Oberea
gain the same effect by a patch of white which obliterates the
anterior abdominal region with the exception of a small linear
remnant representing the peduncle. In brilliant illumination the white
is not seen as part of the insect. The resemblance of the Locustid
Myrmecophana fallax to an ant is produced in the same manner.
The Homopterous family Membracidae are characterized by an
enormous growth of the dorsal region of the pro-thorax which
spreads backwards and in many species covers the insect like a shield.
In the American species which mimic ants this shield, and not the
insect beneath it, becomes ant-like. Some of the larval Membracidae
are laterally compressed, becoming in the dorsal region as thin as a
leaf, and the body is green like a leaf, while the. head and legs
are brown. The whole appearance is singularly like that of the
tropical American ant Oecodoma cephalotes carrying its leaf
vertically in its mandibles and thrown over its back so that the

I) Trans. Linn, Soc, Lond., Vol. XXV, 1866, p. 22.

bo

S Dritte allgemeine Sitzung.

brown head, legs, and part of the body are seen beneath the
green burden!). It is manifestly absurd to attempt to account for
this series of mimetic resemblances by an appeal to the operation
of External or Internal Causes or of Sexual Selection. There
remains Natural Selection which at once offers a convincing inter-
pret tation. Ants and Wasps are known to be aggressive dominant
insects avoided by the majority of insect-eating animals, although
certain species are adapted to feed almost exclusiv ely upon them.
It is in every way probable that a superficial resemblance to
ants and wasps would be beneficial in the struggle for existence.
There is indeed some experimental evidence to prove that real
advantage is conferred’). We find that species of many seis
mimic ants and wasps in a variety of entirely different ways. The
results are exactly what might there been predicted to occur if
Natural Selection be the efficient cause of mimetic resemblance.

The attempt has been made, in recent years, to cut away the
foundation of an interpret tation based on the theory of Natural
Selection, by calling in question the conclusion that butterflies are,
as a matter of fact, attacked by insect-eating animals such as birds.
I have recently collected together a great mass evidence bearing
on this point, most of it obtained in Mashonaland, South Africa, by
the admirable naturalist Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall. This material con-
clusively proves that the wings of fresh unworn specimens of butter-
flies are constantly notched as if by the attacks of birds and lizards,
and that in a considerable proportion of the examples the notches
on opposite sides fit together, proving that the insect was seized
when its wings were in contact. The attacks are most frequently
directed to the posterior angle of the hind wing, less frequently
to the tip of the fore wing, still less frequently to the intermediate
borders and angles. The points of attack are those where special
marks and structures, probably having a directive function, are
frequently developed. Thus the tip of the fore wing is frequently
rendered specially conspicuous and the posterior angle of the hind
Wing is continually produced into so-called ,,tails* (Papilio, Cha-
raxes etc.) which in the Lycaenidae are often antenna-like and
associated with eye-spots, suggesting the appearance of a head,
a resemblance further intensified by movements of the hind
wings during the resting position which cause the apparent
antennae to pass and repass each other. Such structures and marks
are constantly injured or entirely bitten away in fresh specimens.
Direct observation of actual attack by birds and lizards has also

1) See description and figure of a specimen found by Mr. W. L. Sclater in
British Guiana. Poulton, in Proc. Zool. Soc, 1891, p. 462.

2) Poulton, ,,Colours of Animals“, London 1890, p. 247: Lloyd Morgan
» Animal Behaviour‘, London 1900, p. 164, 165.

Poulton, Mimicry and Natural Selection. 9

been made by Mr. Marshall and others!), so that it may be safely
assumed that the doubts thrown upon the reality of the struggle
for life in butterflies have their origin in the want of observation
specially directed to this end. The majority of naturalist-travellers
are chiefly concerned with collecting and it is not surprising
that many of them have not seen what they never looked for.
If time had permitted many other aspects of mimetic resem-
blance might have been dwelt upon, and it would have been
found, as it has been found with those which I have had the
honour to bring to your notice, that all are readily explicable by
the theory of Natural Selection whereas they remain mere coin-
cidences under any other alternative theory as yet suggested 2)

1) Two members of the V. International Congress who were present at my
lecture informed» me afterwards that they had witnessed such attacks. Professor
E. Pénard of Geneva saw a bird, probably a sparrow, persistently pursue and at
the third attempt capture a white butterfly (probably a species of Pieris). The in-
cident happened in the early summer of 1900, in a Park near Geneva. Mr. F. Muir
of Ipswich, England, expressed surprise that any such doubts should have been raised.
He had frequently observed such attacks at Delagoa Bay and other places on the East
coast of Africa and had seen birds waiting in trees or bushes and darting out at
butterflies as they approached.

2) Further evidence is discussed in the writer’s paper in the Journ. Linn. Soc.
Zoology, Vol. X XVI, p. 558.

1990. } ON THE INSECTS OF THE “ SKEAT EXPEDITION,” 837

From the PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZoowwGicat Socrety oF LONDON
|
December 4, 1900.]

Observations on the Habits and Natural Surroundings of
Insects made during the “Skeat Expedition” to the
Malay Peninsula, 1899-1900. By Nerson ANNANDALE,
BAY

ConvENTS.

I. Introduction, p. 837.
II. Flower-like Mantide, p. 839.
ILL. Another Harpagid Pupa, p. 848.
IV. Alarming Colour and Attitude, p. 854.
V. Sounds produced by Insects, p. 859.
VI. Insect Luminosity, p. 862.
VII. The Use of the Spines of certain Orthoptera, p. 865.
VIII. The peculiar Prolongation of the Head in certain Fulgoride, and
its use, p. 800.

I. Inrropvuctioy.

The observations which form the subject of this paper were
made in the months of April to September, 1899, while L was a
member of Mr. W.W.Skeat’s expedition to the Siamese Malay States.
I take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to the University
of Cambridge for permitting me to join that expedition as a

1 Communicated by Prof. EK. B. Poutron, F.R.S., F.Z.S.
on”

[1]

838 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dee. 4,

volunteer, and also of saying how much I an indebted to Professor
Poulton, F.R.S., of Oxford, and to Dr. David Sharp, F.R.S., of
Cambridge, who have aided me in ways too numerous for specifi-
‘ation. J also must thank Mr. Malcolm Burr, F.Z.S., F.E.S., for
identifying many of the Orthoptera mentioned. The immaturity
of many ef my specimens has made it impossible to place them
more definitely than by saying that they belony to such and such
a family; in at least one instance even this has been impossible.
In the few cases in which species are new to science I have not
ventured to name them, as that is more properly the task of the
specialist who describes them from a systematic or anatomical
point of view. The immense importance of climatic and other
physical conditions of life in the consideration of an animal’s habits
has induced me to preface my observations with a short general
account of the country through which we passed, especially as little
is known of the geography of lower Siam. I found a knowledge
not only of the native names of animals but even of the native
stories in connection with them to be of such value in my work,
both as a collector and as an observer, that 1 have treated the
etymology and what may be called the mythology of the subject
at greater length than is perhaps usual in a zoological paper.

The climate of lower Siam is extremely damp, and is not divided
into regular seasons in most districts, though more rain is liable
to fall during the winter (November, December, and January)
months than at any other time of the vear. The most northerly
State that we visited, except fora hurried trip to the Tale Noi
(Little Lake) in Ligor, was Patalung, which abuts on the Tale
Sap or Great Lake of Singora. In Patalung the rainfall is very
small in March and April, but the jungle is never parched by
drought. The interior of the eastern States is mountainous, and
is buried in deep jungle, which is only broken, along the banks of
the numerous rivers, by villages; clcarings for hill rice, bananas,
and maize ; and by Jawns, which are cropped smooth by halt-tamed
or feral buffaloes. ‘The soil on the sea-coast is sandy, and in some
places produces only a scanty vegetation. Between the mountains
and the sea there is a great plain, dotted with isolated hills, mostly
of limestone, some of which reach a considerable height, and some
of which are riddled with caves. The mountain-region is the
dampest of the three, being subject to violent thunderstorms,
which are very local and lose much of their violence before they
reach the coast. In nearly all regions rain falls almost daily for
the greater part of the year.

A very large proportion of my observations were made at Aring,
in the hill-ecountry of Kelantan, the most southerly of the States
which I visited. Aring is a village in the midst of exceedingly
dense jungle, which commences close to the houses. The specimens
which we obtained there were comparatively few in number, but
very many of the species were peculiar in one way or another.
Biserat in Jalor, the only other place where we stayed for more
than a few days at a time, is in the plains, at the base of some hills

[2]

1990.] INSECTS OF THE “SKEAT EXPEDILION,” 539

of no great height about 25 miles from the coast; it is the Siamese
headquarters of the State. At Biserat we obtained a very large
number of specimens, including probably more individuals and
species than did the rest of our land collections ; but very few of
the species were highly specialized. Every sort of environment is
to be found near a place like Biserat : swamp, lawn, orchard, open
wood, cave, river, and even jungle on the hills, but not jungle of
the densest. The animals in such a locality have no need to adapt
themselves to any very limited environment, they can choose what
environment they will, In the deep jungle, on the other hand,
though few animals of any sort are seen on the ground, the fiercest
struggle for existence rages among the upper foliage and also in
the rotten wood underfoot—though there the termites, as a rule,
far outstrip all competitors ; while, even in the clearings, the space
and the food-supply is so limited that every animal must make the
best use of its natural advantages or else disappear. Though the
clearings are of recent formation, due to man, who has become no
longer a savage, yet the struggle which goss on in them seems
already to have led in many cases to extreme modifications in habit
and structure. We can only suppose that this struggle commenced
long ago in places such as sand-spits running out into the rivers,
where vegetation was necessarily scanty, owing to poverty of soil
or constant change of conJitions.

Il. Frowgr-Ltike MaANTID ®.
Hymenopus bicornis (pupa).

Colour.— Head: very pale grey, almost white. Eyes of same
shade, but with a slightly darker longitudinal stripe running down
the centre of each. Leaf-like process between the eyes white,
with median vein of pale green. Antenne black.

Thorax: prothorax pale pink, with a tendency towards mauve ;
shading off posteriorly to white, and finally bounded by a bold
transverse bar of deep sage-green. The posterior region of the
thorax, which was usually concealed by the upturned abdomen, was
pearl-white, as were also the rudimentary wings.

Abdomen: ventral surface pale pink. Dorsal surface pale pink,
with 5 longitudinal dotted stripes of deep yellow-brown. Near
the junction with the thorax were several irregular transverse bars
of the same colour, but slightly darker. At the extreme tip of the
abdomen, surrounding the anus, was a very conspicuous dark patch,
almost black.

Limbs: 1st pair pale translucent pink. 2nd and 3rd pairs pink
of a deeper shade, with a more marked tendency towards mauve.
The distal joints were horn-coloured and almost transparent. At
the inner edge of the broad petal-like expansions on the femur of
the 2nd and 3rd pairs, more conspicuous on the 3rd than on the
2nd, was a slightly livid, bruise-like mark, such as one sees on
flowers that have been battered by tropical rain.

The whole surface of the trunk and that of the flattened

: [3]

840 MR. NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dee. 45

expansions of the femur of the posterior limbs had that semi-
opalescent, semi-crystalline appearance that is caused in flower-
petals by a purely struetural arrangement of liquid globules or of
empty cells. On the grasping-linbs and on the extremities of the
other pairs the absence of this pectliar sheen was compensated for
by the translucency of the integument and the tissues—a trans-
lucency more proper to Celenterates than to an air-breathing
insect. The petals of Melustoma polyanthum, the flower with which
the Mantis was found associated, are of mauve-pink on the upper
surface, slightly darker in tone than that of the limbs of the imsect.
Their lower surface, and consequently the visible surface of the
older flower-buds, is considerably darker than the upper, more like
that of the Mantis’s abdomen. The leaves are of the same shade
of green as the bar across its thorax. The flower was in bloom in

Pupa of Hymenopus bicornis on infloreseence of Melastoma polyanthum.
(Photographed from life.)

The Mantis is seated in an upright position, with the abdomen flexed back-
wards. ‘The photograph represents it «s it is seen on a level with the eye, and
shows the horn-like eyes of the insect (at the apex of figure), the V-shaped bar on
the thorax, the predatory limbs folded in fromt of the body, the petal-like
expansions of the femora of the 2nd and 3rd pairs of legs arranged on the
flowers, and the ventral surface and dark tip of the abdomen. The tarsus of
the left leg of the 3rd pair is seen stretching out from beneath the expansion
of the femur to a seed-yessel of the plant.

{t= }
teal

1900. ] INSECTS OF THE “ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 841

Patalung at the end of March, and not yet completely passed at
Aring in the middle of September; but possibly the flowering-
season do-s not exactly coincide in the two districts. 1 know of
no other flower at all like it in the jungle of lower Siam. A rarer
species of the same genus, very similar in general appearance, is
found in the clearings.
Halits and Attitude.—The only specimen which I obtained was
caught about midday on August 17th in a_ buffalo-lawn near
Kampong Aring, a village in the Ulu Lebeh district of Kelantan—
that is to sav, almost at “the centre of the broad part of the Malay
Peninsula. I was attracted toa bush of the ‘Straits Rhododendron”
(Melastoma polyanthum) by a curious movement among the flowers
of a large inflorescence at the height of about five feet above the
ground. On a cursory examination I could only see that one of
the flowers—so it appeared—w as swaying slow ly from side to side;
and it was not for several seconds that I Tealized that the moving

Fig. 2.

Pupa of Hymenopus bicornis on inflorescence of Melastoma palyanthum.
(Photographed from life.)

The same specimen as in figure 1, viewed from above, showing the dotted
lines on the dorsal surface of the abdomen and the bruise-like markings on the
expansions of the femora of the 3rd pair of legs. The head and fore limbs are
slightly out of focus, and part of the bar on the thorax appears behind them.
This photograph shows the difference in shape between the expansions on the
legs of the Mantis and the petals of the flower,

5]

|

842 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dee. 4,
flower was not a flower at all, but a Mantis. Even then it betrayed
itself by turning round and staring me in the face in the
manner characteristic of the Mantide. When I held the branch
on which the insect had established itself in my hand, I could not
tell exactly where animal tissue commenced and where flower
ended, so perfectly was the one assimilated to the other, not only
in colour but in surface texture, and perhaps even to some degree
in structure. The Mantis had ensconced itself in the very centre of
the inflorescence, a position which it never assumed in the three days
during which it remained alive in my hands : it will be noticed in the
fioures ( (pp. 840, 841), which are from photographs taken from life at
Aring, that the insect is clinging to the edve of a bunch of flowers.
The attitude which it adopted did not change with its position in the
inflorescence. In all cases, so long as the. insect was on the watch
for prey, the abdomen was bent backwards until its dorsal surface

almost touched that of the thorax. The head and thorax were
held upright, and the fore limbs in front of them, in the ordinary
“praying” attitude of the Mantide. The other two pairs of legs,
by which it clung to the flowers, were disposed round the upturned
abdomen, more or less at- right angles to the main axis of the body.

Sometimes this was the same as that of the inflorescence, but often
it was at an angle to it; for the Mantis seemed indifferent as to
whether its head or one of its sides was uppermost. When once
2 position had been taken up, it was never changed so long as the
insect remained on that particular inflorescence. Perfect as was the
concealment thus effected, | cannot say that the Mantis imitated a
single flower or part of a single flower with any great accuracy.

Perhaps the upturned abdomen might be taken to represent a bud
not yet opened, while the darker expansions on the femora showed a
greater resemblance to petals which had already unfurled themselves,

Phe petals of Melasioma, however, are more ‘elongated than these
structures on the legs of the Mantis, which are almost circular in
shape, though their diameter i is as great as, if not greater than, that
of the floral structures which they represent. What I can say
with certainty is, that a most marvellous resemblance is produced
between the insect Hymenopus bicornis and part of an inflorescence
of Melasioma polyanthum when the tlower and the insect are
combined, as they sometimes are in nature. I cannot say that
they are always ‘found together. An interesting point in con-
nection with this simulation of the flowers is the part played by
the green bar across the thorax of the Mantis. This bar divided
the prothorax from the rest of the body, and apparently separated
the insect into two parts, which appeared to have no connection
with one another on the inflorescence. In no ordinary in-
florescence of this plant are the flowers large enough to afford an
expanse of uniform coloration of the size of “Hymenopus.

During an unsuccessful search for further specimens in the
buffalo-lawn at Aring, the Mantis was placed, together with the
inflorescence to which it still clung, in a large box lined with dead
leaves. On the lid being taken off from this. after about half an

| 6 |

ea |

1900. | INSECYS OF THE “ SKEALT EXPEDITION.” 843

hour's interval, it was found that the insect had deserted the flowers
and was sitting quite still among the leaves at the bottom of the box.
Though its attitude was essentially the same as before, its whole
appearance was now completely changed ; for it no longer resembled
the flowers among which it had been found except in the most remote
degree, but appeared rather to simulate an orchid fallen upon the
ground. The brown lines on the upper surface of the abdomen,
which had before been concealed among the petals of the flowers,
became conspicuous from many points of view, now that the body
was seen from above. Converging as they did towards the
junction with the thorax, they bore no slight likeness to the
* honey-guides” of many orchids. The dar ker transverse bars
seen in the shadow cast by the head and thorax gave an idea of
hollowness such as might be expected round the nectaries ; while
the abdomen itself represented the labellum, and the limbs the
other petals of the orchid. The head and thorax took the place of
the stamen and anthers, their resemblance to which was greatly
increased by the horn-shaped eyes; and even the green bar on the
thorax had a new part to play, for on not a few orchids there is
just such a band at the base of this part of the flower. No change
of colour aided the change of appearance. The Mantis remained
among the dead leaves for the rest of the day of its capture and
for the night which followed, without altering its tint or losing
anything of its brilliancy. I do not know of any specific orchid
which it may have simulated; orchids of sutlicient size and
brilliancy of colour are rare, if not unknown, in lower Siam.

Karly the next morning the Mantis was placed on a packing-
case in the open air, near a large branch of the “ Rhodcedendron
fixed upright ina natural position. It deliberately walked towards
the branch, swaying its whole body from side to side as it pro-
gressed, and commenced to climb one of the twigs. This twig,
however, bore only green buds and unripe fruit. When the
Mantis reached the tip of the twig and found no flowers, it re-
mained still for a few seconds, and then turned and descended
with the same staggering gait. It proceeded to climb another
twig. This also bore no tlowers. The Mantis descended from it
and mounted a third twig ig, which was topped by a large bunch of
full-blown blossoms. To these it clung by means of the claws of
the two posterior pairs of limbs. For a few minutes it remained
perfectly still, and then began swaying its body from side to side,
as it had done while walking. (It was only during this brief
interval of rest that I was able to secure a photograph, for in a
tropical climate so damp as that of lower Siam instantaneous
photography is never satisfactory. The hghbt, in spite of its
apparent intensity, is very feelly ‘actinic, and “the moisture of the
atmosphere combined with the heat makes it impossible to keep
“rapid” plates for any length of time.) W hile the body of the
Mantis was in motion the fine hair-like antenne were also in eon-
stant agitation, sometimes being held upright, sometimes stretched
out like horns, and sometimes lying back along the thorax.

”?

slat
LS

L

8 td MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dee: 4,

Almost as soon as the Mantis had settled itself on the inflores-
cence, a sinall, dark, dipterous insect, of a kind very commonly seen
on the flowers of this species of Melastoma, alighted on one of its
hinder legs. It was soon joined by others, apparently of the same
species as itself. They settled quite indiscriminately on the petals
and on the body and limbs of the Mantis. It was then that the
significance of the black spot at the tip of the abdomen became
apparent, for at the distance of a few feet it was impossible to
distinguish it, except by its symmetrical position, from one of
these small Diptera. The Mantis made no attempt either to drive
off or to capture the small flies, for its motions seemed to attract
rather than to repel them. Aftera short time alarger Dipteron, as
big as a common house-fly, alighted on the inflorescence within
reach of the predatory limbs. Then the Mantis became active
immediately ; the fly was seized, torn in pieces and devoured, not-
withstanding the presence of a large crowd of natives who had
collected to watch what was happening. I did not see Hymenopus
actually catch an insect on its own person ; but very probably this
was owing to the short duration of my observations. The smaller
Diptera were unable to discriminate between real and simulated
vegetable tissue, and there is no reason to suppose that the larger
ones are more intelligent. I was unable to detect any secretion
from the integument or any part of the body of the Mantis which
might have attracted them. It is quite probable that they acted
gratuitously as lures for its prey, in that they made it appear that
there was no trap set, if they did not form an actual bait for
predaceous insects.

After the Mantis had been on the watch for some little time,
I noticed that the abdomen was drooping slightly and was
gradually coming to lie in line with the thorax. As it did so,
the brown lines on its dorsal surface came into sight, and they
grew more conspicuous the more it drooped. At last, only a
very few minutes after I had first noticed this movement, the
Mantis gave a sudden Jeap into the air and alighted on the
ground at the distance of several feet from the place where the
base of the stem would have been had it leaped from a real bush
of the ‘* Rhododendron.” It then staggered quietly away along
the ground. When interrupted in its progress it gave a short
jump; but it was easily recaptured, as its leaping powers were
chietly developed in the direction of jumping to the ground from
a height. I was able to watch this drooping of the abdomen and
final hasty deseriion of the flowers on four separate branches.
In each case the process commenced when the flowers began to
droop, and occupied, perhaps, two minutes in completion. The
drooping of the abdomen was primarily a preparation for leaping.
Of that I have no doubt, for the body was bent again the moment
the insect reached the ground, almost as if it were brought
into position by the action of a powerful spring. Whenever the
Mantis gave one of its short jumps on the level, the body was
previously straightened with almost the same rapidity of action.

[8]

1500. ] INSECTS OF THE ‘‘ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 845

Moreover, the upturned position of the abdomen is common to
many Mantid larve, for instance those of several species of
Hierodulu and Pseudomantis, though in the adults of these forms
it becomes an impossible attitude when the insects are at rest,
owing to the outgrowth of the wings; and these larve have the
habit of leaping to the ground when disturbed on the tree-trunks
on which they watch for prey, and always straighten their body
before they leap. But that this action has a secondary significance
in the case of Hymenopus bicornis is proved by the deliberate and
gradual way in which it takes place when the insect is seated on
an inflorescence. It seems to me that its secondary object is to
display the brown lines on the dorsal surface, in order that, as the
flowers wither, the flower mimic may appear to wither also. It
must be remembered that in the tropics the process of fading, in
the case of most flowers, is an exceedingly rapid one. It is
difficult, however, if this be the true explanation, to see why the
Mantis should leap to the ground when the flowers of a single
inflorescence begin to fade, for we can hardly assume that it looks
round to see whether other flowers on the same branch are fading
also, and Melastoma is not a plant on which all the blossoms
naturally fall off at the same time. In the case when it could find
no proper concealment on one twig of a branch, the insect did not
behave in this way. It is quite possible that its instinct may
warn it to seek for other shelter whenever the petals begin to
droop, for flowers of this plant close at night and in very bad
weather. Under either of these conditions the insect must find
it impossible to get its prey, and may be exposed to death from
cold or from the violence of the rain, should it remain in an
exposed position. Most probably it takes shelter among the
undergrowth during storm and dark. When placed in a dark box
it deserted the flowers to which it clung while they were plucked
from the bush with considerable violence.

Malay Beliefs—The Kelantan Malays call this insect “ Kan-
chong,” but they consider it so rare that my desire to obtain more
than a single specimen was ridiculed as being quite extravagant. I
was told that few men ever saw more than one such Mantis in the
course of their lives. It was agreed at Aring that the Kanchong is
not a “ belalang”' (the general term in Malay for any Orthopteron
which is neither a cockroach, “‘/ipas,” nor an earwig, “ sipit-sipit”)”,
but a flower which has become alive. ‘ Its origin is from the flowers.”
The blossoms of the ‘* Sendudok” give birth to it, in the same way as
the leaves of the “ Nanka,” or Jack-fruit tree (Artocarpus integri-
folia), give birth to Heteropterya dilatata, a large prickly Phasmid

' Belalang are named after the Lalang Grass (Imperatia koenigii), which
affords a favourite shelter to many orthopterous insects.

2 Sipit are the tweezers with which the Malays pluck out the few hairs that
naturally grow upon their chins. The reduplicatiou of a word in Malay either
gives it a metaphorical sense or turns it into a plural of indefinite multitude.
Thus, mata-mata, from mata an eye, means a policeman ; machain isa kiud or
sort, macham-macham all sorts.

[9]

S46 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THR [ Dec. 4,

of great rarity which rich men keep alive in cages in order to secure
its eggs, which they set in rings like jewels, and consider to be a
most powerful charm against evil spirits of all kinds. These eggs
are said to be of a beautiful red colour.

Remarks.—Professor Poulton has been kind enough to show me
some young larve of Hymeropus bicornis that he has lately received
from Mr. Shelford, Curator of the Sarawak Museum, Borneo,
together with some Heteroptera to which they bear a very close
and detailed resemblance. It is indeed remarkable that any animal
should be so highly specialized in two different directions of
deception during the lifetime of an individual. The imago of
this form, judging solely from dried specimens, may possibly show
a likeness in lite to a withered flower. Its long white tegmina,
with their faint brown markings, may well have this appearance
in life, if they are possessed of the flower-like glistening which
distinguishes certain parts of the body of the pupa.

The pupa of the Indian Mantis, Gongylus gong ylides ', the habits
of which have been described by Dr. J. Anderson, resembles the
AKanchong in swaying its body while waiting for prey, but differs
from it in that only the lower surface is coloured like a flower,
the back being green, and that the flower-like shape is brought
about by the expansion of the thorax. Two varieties of the
pupa of Hymenopus itself are known: the one is pink, the other
white. Any information as to whether these are seasonal forms,
whether they confine themselves to the flowers which they resemble,
and whether they are in any way modified by light reflected from
their environment, would be of the very greatest interest. Wood-
Mason reports * two specimens, the one white and the other pink,
taken at an interval of six months, apparently from the same
district, in Assam. Mr. R. L. Butler of Selangor tells me that he
has taken white specimens, and white specimens only, on the
verandah of a bungalow at Kuala Lumpur, on which white lilies
were growing in pots. Wallace* says that in India the pink
variety will settle among any flowers or leaves, and he seems to
lay stress on this point in a note which I have received from him.
In the figure* of this insect given in Poulton’s ‘Colours of
Animals ’ (p. 74) it is represented as sitting head downwards, on
a leaf, with the abdomen and thorax in a straight line ; in all of
which points the attitude of the specimen depicted differs from
that of mine, though the first is of no great importance. The
brown lines on the dorsal surface of the insect °, and the dark spot
at the tip of the abdomen, are entirely omitted by the Indian artist.
My specimen certainly refused to sit among leaves when it was in

) P. Asiat. Soe. Bengal, 1877, p. 193.
* Ent. Soc. London, 1877, p. xxix.

8 « Darwinism,’ p. 212.

* The figure is from a native drawing sent to Wallace by Wood-Mason. from
whom the information about this insect in ‘ Darwinism ’ was also obtained.

® These lines, and also the black tip to the abdomen, are just as conspicuous,
judging from dried specimens, in individuals from other parts of the East as
they were in the one observed at Aring.

10)

1909.) INSECTS OF THE “ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 847

the light; and I am sorry that I did not experiment with other
flowers than those among which it was found. It would have been
exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to find any of sufficient size
in the immediate neighbourhood of Kampong Aring.

Hymenopus bicornis, the only representative of its genus, is
an inseet which has a fairly wide dis‘ribation, being found in
Sikkim, Java, and Sarawak ; but in none of these localities does
it appear to be at all common; in Kelantan it is exceedingly rare.
During the six weeks which the expedition spent at Aring, only
One specimen was seen, though every clearing in the district was
full of the blossoms of the Sendudok. It may be said that an
animal so well able to hide itself might ea-ily exist in considerable
numbers without being detected. This would have been perfectly
true had the Mantis been in the habit of sitting still ; but move-
ment in an apparent flower is just as attractive to a biologist
as it isto alizard. After the first specimen had been captured,
hundreds of bushes were examined with the very greatest care by
three zoolugists and a botanist, but no Mymenopus was found.
Granted that the insect is as highly specialized in instinct as it
is in form—ani [ think there can be little doubt that this is
the case—it is not difficult to suggest an explanation of its rarity.
It is an animal which, for some reason, has had the greatest
difficulty in holding its own in past ages, and it has been driven
in the course of its struggle for existence to the extremes of
specialization. It has become so highly speeialized, in fact, that it
has condemned itself, as it were, to a single and very limited
environinent ; and should that environment be changed, even to
a slight extent, by external circumstances, the insect must either
perish or alter both its structure and its habits immediately, a
thing which no highly-specialized animal is likely to do rapidly.
Now in the Malay Peninsula the conditions of life are always
undergoing small changes that are apparent even to a traveller
hastening through the country ; there must be many that years of
research could not reveal. Suppose that the district of Aring
were decimated by the small-pox, as many a Malayan district has
been, and that the inhabitants who survived fled over into Pahang
with their buffaloes, in a few years the jungle would kill off all
the Sendudok bushes in the neighbourhood, for the plant can only
exist in a clearing. In olden times, before the advent of the
Malays into the Peninsula, the Sendudok must have been a rare
plant in Kelantan, as neither the Sakais nor any of the other
aboriginal tribes make clearings or keep cattle. The extremely
local nature of the fruiting-season of various semi-cultivated trees,
such as the Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), must have some
influence on the insects of the different districts, and seems to
depend not so much on local variations of climate as on the
ditterent varieties of the trees that are popular in the different
villages. One would like to know whether the variations of a
fruit of such ancient cultivation as the banana affect the insects
which liye upon it. In lower Siam over a hundred yarieties of

(ela

848 MR. NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dee. 4,

this fruit are said to be commonly grown, differing from one
another in shape, size, colour, and even smell; and it is often the
case that in two villages separated by only a few miles the pre-
dominant variety of banana is different. The introduction of a
foreign weed such as the “ Putra Malu,” or Shy Princess (Mimos«
pudica), among the teeming insect population of a tropical clearing
must have some direct effect upon the life therein, and indirectly
must influence all the surrounding country. ‘This plant has
appeared in the Peninsula since the arrival of the white man, its
natural home being South America; and has succeeded in
becoming one of the commonest and most noxious weeds in the
country, even in the districts to which the white man himself has
not yet penetrated.

Ill. ANorHER Harpacip PUPA.

Colour.—Head: pink, eyes and mandibles black. Antenne
black.

Thorax : prothorax, which is broad and slightly flattened, dull
pink, striped transversely with dingy white and pale green, and
edged with black. (There is no bar on the posterior edge of the
prothorax as there was in the other form.) Posterior region of
thorax dull pink. Rudimentary wings dingy white, with a pale
green band at the base of each.

Abdomen: pale pink, ringed with pale green, dingy white, and
black, The greev and black rings did not completely encircle the
body, but were interrupted in the mid-ventral line by a number
of prominences, one to each segment, of pale pink. At the
extreme point of the abdomen, surrounding the anus, was a black
spot, not so large or so prominent as the one on the corresponding
position in Hymenopus bicornis, but still conspicuous.

Limbs: all the limbs were ringed with bands of dingy white,
pink, and green, which completely surrounded them, including
the expansions on the femora of the 2nd and 8rd pairs. The
spines on the predatory limbs were some of them green and some
black. The black spines predominated towards the distal
extremities.

This Mantis had none of the flowery sheen of the other, and
the lappets on the 2nd and 3rd limbs are small, rounded, and in
nowise petal-like. The flowers with which it was found associated
were of a deep cream-colour. Their buds and leaves were con-
siderably darker than the green markings on the insect’s body.

Habits and Attitude.—Unfortunately I was unable to observe
this species in a state of nature, but I have no doubt that its
habits are very similar to those of the Kanchong. The natural
attitude of the two species is precisely the same, and though they
adopt different methods of concealing themselves, they were both
found hidden among flowers, presumably for the same purpose—
that of obtaining their food. The common possession of a black
tip to the abdomen is interesting. A single specimen of the
striped Mantis was brought me on August 19th, by Mr. R. H. Yapp,

[12]

1900.) INSECTS OF THE “‘SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 849

then botanist to the Expedition, together with a spray of the
flowers and leaves of an acacia among which he had found it.
The flowers of this tree are very much like thoxe of the common
Mimosa, but larger in size and of a far less brilliant shade of yellow.
The leaves are much divided. Mr. Yapp tells me that he found
the specimen on a tree near the edge of a buffulo-lawn across the
Kelantan river opposite Aring, about eleven o’clock in the fore-
noon. Hyen in the dim light of the mosque in which we were
then staying the insect was very inconspicuous among the flowers ;
and when it was taken out into the brilliart sunshine it completely
disappeared among the shadows cast by them and the leaves. The
dark bars on its body and limbs were slightly wider than the spaces
between the pinnules of the acacia-leaves, and the prominences
on the ventral surface of the abdomen were of the shape, though
not of the colour, of the prominent parts on the unopened flower-
buds ; for it will be noticed that the buds were green, while the
structures on the insect’s body were pale pink. These prominences
were conspicuous ; but the lights and shadows among the feathery
leaves and fur-like flowers were so confused that a difference in
colour detracted little from the similitude between the abdomen,
cut into as it was by the black bars which were conspicuous on its
edges but interrupted in its middle line, and the distal extremity
of one of the racemose inflorescences of the acacia.

The insect and the flower had not a single colour in common
intrinsically ; and yet, under given conditions of climate, the
colours of the two became indistinguishable from one another.

The Malays at Aring called this insect Striped Kanchong ; but
the name was evidently invented for the occasion. The plant on
which it was found being a tree and not a shrub, it was much
more liable to escape detection, even had the acacia been as
common as the “ Rhododendron.” There are plenty of similar
acacias in Kelantan, and there is no reason why the Mantis should
confine itself to one species, for its colour and form are adapted
for concealment among any flowers and leaves of this peculiar type.
The possession of leaf or petal-like expansions on the limbs is a
pecuharity shared by many Mantids with leaf-like insects of dif-
ferent groups, but as a rule their outline is not so regular as it is in
the case of this species and of Hymenopus. With regard to the
origin of such structures and their primitive function, it is worth
while noticing their rudimentary condition, whether it be a specific
or merely a pupal character, in forms like this Striped Harpagid
from Kelantan. It cannot be said that in this case they give any
direct aid in concealing the insect by resembling petals of a flower
or any other vegetable organ. But, especially where we get the
extremes of light and shade, any little irregularity of outline or
projection from the surface of the body of an animal may give it
a distinct aid in hiding itself. This is truer in the case of the
smaller invertebrates than it is in that of vertebrates, though the
principle is well exemplified by many fish, and not a few lizards,
that live among terrestrial and aquatic plants. A large nocturnal

[13]

850 MR. NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dec. 4,

snake, like the “ Ular katam tebu” (Dipsadomorphus dendrophilus) '
gliding ameng mangrove-roots beneath the moonlight, or a tiger
resting at midday in the Lalang grass, is well concealed by its
colour. gradations and its black and yellow stripes, and has no
need of an elaborately foliated tail like that of a heraldie lion ;
such a tail might be of very great advantage to a small Arthropod.
Repeated observations, more especially in the small caves of the
Koh Sih Hah, or Five Isles of the Tale Sap, have convinced me
that the extreme elongation of the spinnerets in the Araneid family
of Hersilide—the “laba-labu berekor” or tailed spiders of the
Malays Q ealment on the grey
stones and tree-trunks which they frequent, by breaking the
otherwise smooth and rounded outline of the abdomen, as the
long legs break the outline of the cephalothorax. In short
irregularity of outline bears much the same part in hiding an
animal as does irregularity of colour such as is exemplified by the
black bars on the otherwise pale and inconspicuous tints of the
striped Mantis.

But irregular protective colour is by no means confined to
definite bars and stripes, which aug ‘be said more exactly to
represent definite shadows or spaces; it possesses even more
frequently a scattered or speckled arrangement. In fact, it is very
often the case that the actual colours present are not of such great
importance as the manner in which they are arranged and their
multiplicity in a given space. It is well known that even in the
ordered light and surroundings of a picture gallery, if sufficient
brilliant colours are crowded into a sufficiently small space they
kill” one another and are no longer brilliant. This is doubly
true in the deep gloom of the jungle, where any colour has the
greatest difliculty in asserting itself, and where so many hues that
are in themselves brilliant have to contend with one another. On
the jungle floor almost all colours are present in small quantities ;
there are patches of deep blue where the sky is reflected through
a crevice in the upper foliage upon rain-water held in the hollow
of a dead leaf; among the dead leaves themselves there is every
shade of brown and yellow, and scattered black and white in plenty :
patches of scarlet caused by fungi on rotten wood are sometimes
frequent; there is the brown- -pink of the seedlings struggling
towards the light ; and the dull green of tree-stems and creepers,
and of the ferns and the few phanerogams which are adapted to
exist down below. Bright green alone is absent, except in some

' Katam tebu are little round pieces of sugar-cane from which the outer skin
has been removed. They are sold in the markets on bamboo skewers. The
term “U/ar Katam Tebu,” in the Siamese States at any rate, is generic, and is
applied to all snakes, whether marine or terrestrial, which are conspicuously
ringed and which are too big to come under the category of “ Ular Kapak” or Axe-
snakes; the dark skin of the reptile being taken to represent the spaces between
the Aatam on the skewer, and the lighter rings the. ¢edw or sugar-cane itself.
Dipsadomorphus is by tar the commonest of such snakes, and therefore the
species with which the name is most generally associated. In other parts of the
Peninsula it is probable that the “U/lar Katam Tebu” is Bungarus fusciatus,

(14)

1900.] INSECTS OF THE “‘ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 851

mosses of the minutest size; so that large Locustids of yellows
green, Pseudophyllus and others, which in the cabinet, and perhap-
in their own place, form such admirable imitations of bamboo-leaves
in colour, and to a lesser degree in form also (for doubtless they
are part of the plancton of the jungle, and only gravitate down into
its depths by misadventure), are the most conspicuous of the smaller
jungle fauna which one meets with below. Yet all these shades
are so altered and commingled in the chequer of deep shadow with
occasional gleams of sunlight that they become completely confused
to the eye. One is tempted to speculate as to whether the gorgeous
tartan-like checks in which the Malays are so fond of clothing
themselves may not have originally developed among a jungle-loving
and somewhat murderous people at constant feud with their
neighbours, as a means of secondary protective coloration, and
have become more brilliant and less useful through the vagaries of
sexual selection. On festive occasions these combinations of many
colours are chiefly worn by the men, the women preferring for
their holiday dresses simpler and more striking costumes into
which only four or five masses of colour enter as a rule. On the
jungle floor itself the most inconspicuous animals are certain long-
legged but by no means bulky Phalangiids, which appear and dis-
appear as they move or are still. Intrinsically they are of brilliant
colours ; one species is black, speckled on the body and limbs with
scarlet, white, yellow, and green. But they are less conspicuous
even than the majority of Phasmids found in similar situations,
even than the forms which have green markings resembling minute
liverworts, such as cover the stems and leaves of the jungle flora,
on their otherwise stick-like bodies; for it is generally easy to
distinguish the exact outlines of such insects if they have once been
located ; but even when the Phalangiids are moving it is rarely
possible to see either their limbs or their bodies, though their
motions are perfectly visible. Every such stick-insect resembles a
particular stick, an ideal stick it is true; the Arachnids are assimi-
lated, not to any particular object, but to their surroundings
generally, by their irregular colour, their irregular form, and by
the large extent of their surface in comparison with their bulk.
The limbs of the Phasmids are often held in angular vegetable
attitudes, but they do not always blend into their environment as
the almost hair-like legs of the Phalangiids do; for it is often the
case that the instinct of the insects is at fault in the choice of
their immediate surroundings’, whereas the protective adaptation of
the Arachnids, being general and not particular, does not necessitate
any high specialization of instinct to accompany it.

But that the object of brilliant coloration arranged in stripes
is not always the same, even ina single group of insects, is proved,
if proof were necessary, by comparing the striped pupa from Aring
with the Arabian and African imago Jdolum diabolicum?, a form of
which the natural colour and attitude have lately been described

* See Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, Dee. 1900.
* P. Cambr. Phil. Soc. vol. x. p. 175 e¢ post., plate il.

Proc. Zoot. Soc.—1900, No. LVI. 56

[15]

852 MR. NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dec. 4,

by Sharp. This latter insect makes no attempt to conceal itself,
but sits among leaves, showing, by reason of its broadened thorax
and coxe of the first pair of hmbs, a likeness to some gorgeous
flower.

In connection with these flower-like Mantids it may not be super-
fluous to mention the leaf-like form, Deroplatys trigonodera, which
is sometimes found in the deep jungle near Aring. Though the
whole visible surface of this species, including that of the tegmina
and of the legs, is coloured like a dead leaf ', and though the tegmina,
the thorax, and the two posterior limbs bear irregular leaf-lke
processes, yet the posterior wings, where they are concealed by the
tegmina, are coloured deep maroon, veined and rimmed with white.
A specimen which crawled up my leg from the jungle floor made no
attempt to fly when captured, but defended itself with its armed
predatory limbs, drawing blood from my finger. Very possibly this
species also may be nocturnal, or at least crepuscular, and only use its
wings in the evening. This is certainly the case with the various
species of large green Mantide that are common through the whole
of lower Siam. At Biserat, in the State of Jalor, specimens of
Mierodula modesta flew into our verandah in the evening on several
occasions, and settling on the whitewashed wall, would feed on the
termites and small Orthoptera attracted by the lamp, they them-
selves showing no inclination towards its flame. The insects
which they caught did not avoid them in any way, but walked
straight into their clutches. The larve of Hverodula and allied
genera are often to be seen sitting on tree-trunks in the middle of
the day; but I never observed an adult on the wing before
sunset.

Ceratomantis saussuret is another interesting Mantis which may
be taken at Aring. The head, body, and limbs of this species are
of a dingy yellowish grey, speckled with black. The wings, which
are unusually broad, are transparent, but the tegmina are marked
with curious black streaks. The head is prolonged forwards
between the eyes into a peculiar spike. The predatory limbs are
broad and flattened dorso-ventrally ; and the sides of the abdomen
are produced into several irregularly shaped lobes. On the inner
surface of the fore leg, which is concealed by that of the opposite
limb except when the insect is struggling with its prey, there is a
black bar running along the femur.

One morning in September, I found a specimen of this Mantis
at Aring in the interior of a fallen tree which I was chopping up
in the jungle. The wood was rotten and afforded a harbour to
many other insects, such as beetles and cockroaches. A few days
earlier another specimen was brought me by a Malay, together
with a dead Selaginellid among which he had found it. If this
Mantis is seated among the dead wood, its colour makes it incon-
spicuous ; but if it is among dead fern-fronds or withered Sela-
ginellids, its predatory limbs entirely disappear, owing to their

1 Numerous other species of the same genus are coloured in a similar
fashion.

[16]

1900. ] INSECIS OF THE “ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 853

colour and form. Among these leaves, the head and wings, though
they are inconspicuous, are not invisible; the wings may be detected
because they are transparent and glary, the head because it is held
well raised above the surface on which the insect is sitting. Seen in
such surroundings, there is nothing that would lead a human being
to judge that the Mantis was a predaceous animal. Indeed, it bears
a general likeness to a moth or a non-predaceous Neuropteron,
not particular enough, perhaps, to justify one in saying that it
‘“‘mimics” any other form, but sufficiently marked to deceive one as
toits real nature. The fact that a specimen of the Mantis was found
concealed in a dead tree would lend colour to the idea that it is
nocturnal, asa large proportion of the Mantide appear to be. But
it is quite possible that it may be sufficiently active in the daytime
to seize any prey which comes within its reach. If so, it affords
an instance that may be compared with that of the Kanchong.
While the latter simulates a flower, and so actually allures its prey,
the former sits still and looks harmless, so that its prey chances to
come toit uninvited. The difference seems to me to be one of degree.
Supposing that a green Mantis were seated among leaves of the
same colour as its own body, and that a phytophagous insect
alighted upon it, it might then be said to be an instance of
‘alluring ” coloration. Whereas if the insect only alighted near
it, the Mantis would scarcely come under this category. In any
case the adaptation appears to be calculated to deceive Arthropod
prey rather than mammalian enemies. The Mantide are well
adapted for self-defence, and the movements of the Kanchong, at
any rate, betray the insect to vertebrate eyes.

The curious prolongation of the head in Ceratomantis is not a
feature of any systematic value; many other Mantids, belonging
to widely separate genera, have a similar peculiarity. Undoubtedly,
however, in this case it aids in masking the characteristic shape of
the Mantid head; or, at any rate, appears to do so.

With regard to the marking on the femora of the fore limbs,
similar markings, often emphasized by yellow lines running
parallel to them or across them, occur in the same position in
a large number of Mantide. I do not know that a function has ever
been assigned to marks situated in this position except by the
Russian naturalist Porschinsky, whose interesting observations },
and imaginative explanations thereof, Professor Poulton has been
kind enough to have translated for me from the Russian.
Porschinsky has a theory that all eye-like markings on insects
represent glands, which may be imagined to excrete a noxious
fluid. He supposes that such markings simulate the liquid which
has issued forth, with the blue sky or some other object reflected
in it. He points out that the display of such spots is sometimes
accompanied by a sound which might be taken to imitate liquid
hissing out of a narrow opening such as the duct ofa gland. Mantis
religiosa is one of his examples. He says that there is a large

* Lepidopterorum Rossix Biologia, iv. (Petersburg, 1893), ee fig. 10.
00"
[17]

854 MR. NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [Dee. 4,

blue “ eye * ringed with black on the inner surface of the femur
of the fore limb in this species ; and that the “eye” is concealed
when the Mantis is at rest, because the two limbs are held folded
together in front of the body. ‘* But when danger threatens,” to
quote his own words, “the praying Mantis assumes a very peculiar
and interesting attitude, which, so far as I know, was first described
by Goureau. The long and narrow prothorax assumes a vertical
position, so that the body is supported only by its two pairs of
hind legs. Under these circumstances the insect widely separates
the front pair of legs, giving to its long femora a horizontal position,
so that the distal ends of them are directed on opposite sides. In
this way the eye-spots, which are situated at their bases, stand out
conspicuously and are most obvious, owing to their colour. The
tibie of the front pair of legs are directed vertically upwards. At
the same time the insect lifts up its tegmina and unrolls its wings,
giving them a horizontal position, and it begins quickly to raise
and lower its abdomen, which, rubbing against the posterior edge
of the wings at the same time as these continual movements,
produces a sound. The Mantis can produce the latter artificially
by rubbing its wings against some extraneous object.”

In the ‘ Entomologist’s Record’ for January 1900, Brunner von
Wattenwy! calls attention to the markings on the fore limb of a
species of Hierodula from Borneo. He speculates as to their
origin, but does not assign them a use.

TV. AnarmMiIne CoLour AND ATTITUDE.
A Hooded Locustid (Caupnoptera sp. n. near C. staudingeri),

Colour.— 2. Body and limbs dull green, marked with dark
brown. Tegmina dull green, veined and spotted with dull blue and
marked with black. Hind wings pale smoke-colour. Between
the head and the thorax there is a rectangular bladder of vivid
searlet. This is habitually concealed beneath the dorsal plate of
the prothorax, but can be everted and project behind the head
like a hood. When not in use the two corners most remote
from its point of origin are inverted. When it was displayed
these were everted, apparently by the forcing of blood into the
hollow of the structure. ¢. Similar to female, but considerably
smaller. The hood was equally well developed in both sexes.

Habits and Attitude—The species is not uncommon in the jungle
of Nawnchik, Patalung, and Jalor ; but the male is much rarer than
the female. I only obtained a single specimen of the former. So
far as I know, there is nothing peculiar about the habits of this
species when it is left to itself, except that the saltatorial legs
being less highly developed than they are in most Malayan
Locustids, it is unable to take the enormous leaps of forms, like
the “ Belalang Rusa” or Deer Grasshopper (Mecopeda), which
are found in the same environment. When the hooded locust is
taken in the hand it makes very little resistance. Leaving the
consideration of its peculiar means of defence for a moment, this

[18]

1900.} INSECTS OF THE ‘‘ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 855

is not surprising, as the chief resistance that the ordinary large
Locustid can offer is that performed with its third pair of legs,
which are incredibly powerful in some species and often armed
with formidable spines. Instead of resisting, it lowers its head, so
as to separate it from the thorax, and erects the hood. If this
does not cause its enemy to let it loose, its resources are at an end.
The sudden apparition of the vivid scarlet patch on the dull and
inconspicuous body of the insect may well be disconcerting to its
natural enemies. To a human observer it appears that he has
injured his specimen, and that some brilliantly coloured portion
of its internal anatomy is issuing from its neck.

Malay Name.—The Jalor and Rhaman Malays call this and allied
species “ Belalang Gambor,” or linage Grasshopper, perhaps because
they recognize a likeness between it in its alarming attitude and
images of Buddba overshadowed by Cobras with expanded hoods.
A colossal statue of this kind exists in a cave-temple near Biserat.
When I asked for the “ Belalang Gambor” at Aring, the natives
brought me a large Locust (Acridium succinctum), that is known to
the Malays at Biserat as “ Belalang Babi,” or Pig Grasshopper.

Remarks.—In the jungle near Kota Bharu, Rhaman, I found a

single specimen of another species (Capnoptera, sp. nu.) which had
the same peculiarity of structure and attitude as this form, but
differed from it in that the brilliant coloration was not contined
to a part of the body which was concealed when the insect was at
rest. Its head and body were of a dull neutral green; its tegmina
pale, dull translucent yellow, barred and spotted with black ; and
its legs magenta. Magenta was also the colour of the hood, which
in form and extent resembled that of the commoner species.

The action of these two grasshoppers may be compared with that
of certain caterpillars, e.g. of one which is not common on ponme-
granate trees at Biserat in the month of June. It is a fair-sized
form, probably belonging to the Lymantriide, which reaches a
length of from 4 em. to6cem. The dorsal surface is covered with
long hairs of a pale lemon-yellow colour, those on the 4th to 7th
segments being shorter and more closely set than the others.
Between the 4th and 5th segments a black bar of a peculiar velvety
appearance extends right across the body. This bar is surrounded
by a kind of white halo, and is almost completely concealed when
the caterpillar is feeding or walking ; which it does in rather a
peculiar manner, always resting after every few paces, and twisting
its body about, as if it were feeling round to see that there was
nothing wrong. If one blew upon the caterpillar, or irritated
it in any other way, it suddenly bent the anterior and posterior
regions of its body together, thus causing the black bar on the
back to become stretched and be conspicuous, and to appear like
a gaping, cavernous mouth, of which the bunches of hair behind
and before formed the jaws. The phenomenon was first pointed
out to me by Mr. D. TI. Gwynne Vaughan, then botanist to the
Expedition.

Some such cases come near to mimicry; for the one just

[19]

856 MR. NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [Dec. 4,

mentioned differs but little in essentials from that of the Sphinx
larve, which bring into prominence the eye-like markings on their
sides when alarmed, and thus seem to mimic small reptiles or
mammals. One such caterpillar’ is not uncommon in Nawncehik and
Patalung during April. It feeds ona species of Caladium? growing
in marshy localities, and is generally found on the underside of
the broad leaves, in the shadow of which it may easily be mistaken
for a small gecko which has lost its tail; though geckos do not
live in the marshes, and though its eye-spots are perfectly round,
more like the eyes of a snake than those of a gecko in the daytime.

In some cases structures which are alarming at one stage of an
animal’s existence may be mimetic or protective at another. The
case of the larva of our English Lobster Moth (Stauropus fagi)’,
which in its youth is said to mimic an ant, is so well known that
I need ouly refer to it. In lower Siam there is a common cater-
pillar, of what family it is impossible to say, which has a series of
curious long, flattened processes rising in three rows froin the
dorsal surface of the anterior part of the body. When the animal is
walking these structures are kept in constant motion. They may be
supposed to alarm its enemies by their movements, and certainly
they give the full-grown caterpillar no aid by concealing it or by
making it resemble any otheranimal. But 1 have been completely
deceived by a very young specimen of this form. It was hanging
by a thread from a tree, and looked so extremely spider-like as
it hung, that I captured it to add to our collection of spiders.
Nor was I undeceived before the insect was in my spirit-tube ;
for in the Malay jungle there are many Araneids with elongated
abdomens.

An animal which is habitually of an alarming appearance may
even lose this appearance periodically. At Aring, one afternoon
in the beginning of September, a caterpillar nearly allied to
Stauropus fagi, and probably belonging to the same genus, came
under my notice. When first I saw it I mistook it for a bird’s
dropping. It was seated on the edge of a leaf of Melastoma
polyanthum, with the anterior and posterior regions of its body bent
towards one another, with the true legs folded together upon the
under surface of the thorax, and the abdominal feet firmly
clutching the edge of the leaf. The body was bent over so that
one side lay on the upper surface of the leaf, parallel to the
mid-rib. The insect was motionless. Its skin was smooth and
shiny; intense black in colour, except for some vivid white
markings about the middle of the bedy. The likeness to a bird’s
dropping was not exact, because these white markings were at the

} The Malays do not appear to have any superstitious dread of this cater-
pillar, such as is felt by the Irish for that of the Elephant Hawk Moth
(Cherocampa elpenor), a form to which it bears a close resemblance. For the
Trish beliefs with regard to the caterpillar, see Miss Ormerod’s Reports, 1898,

. 72-73.

PE The “ Kladi mabok” or Sick Caladium, so called because, unlike some other
species, it is inedible.

8 See Poulton, Journ, Linn. Soe., Zool. xxvi. pl. 40, and ‘Colours of Animals.’

[20]

1900.] INSECTS OF THE “ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 857

centre and not towards the periphery; but, nevertheless, it was
striking and, at a first glance, quite deceptive. When disturbed
the caterpillar commenced to walk along the leaf, slowly and
irresolutely, unbending and rebending its long thoracic limbs as
it moved, and shaking the two processes with which its abdomen
terminated. I took it home, and shut it up till the next morning
with a supply of leaves, hoping to photograph it when the light
was better. During the night the insect cast its skin, and in the
morning all likeness to anything else had left it. The skin was
no longer polished and glittering, and the colour had changed to
a dull brown with dingy white bars. Moreover, all sluggishness
of movement had disappeared, and the caterpillar was now ex-
ceedingly brisk, behaving very much as a well-grown specimen of
our own English form would do. During the languor and
dangerous inactivity of the ecdysis and the period immediately
preceding it, protective coloration had been assumed ; as soon as
the operation had been safely performed, the habitual means of
defence were adopted once more.

But to return to animals which, being otherwise inconspicuous,
have the power of exhibiting brilliant colour when alarmed. This
phenomenon is not only exemplified by insects. A good instance
is that of the Toad Callula pulchra, which is found not un-
commonly in the Siamese States, among the rubbish which collects
under the houses and in hke situations. In this species, the upper
surface of which is otherwise of a warm brown colour, a broad
yellowish stripe runs along either side of the back; but the
peculiar looseness of the skin and the folds into which it naturally
falls prevent this stripe from becoming conspicuous. When the
animal is disturbed, however, it draws air into its lungs until its
body becomes almost globular, and the skin is stretched in such
a way that its contrasting colours are displayed to their best
advantage. We may compare this amphibian to the fish of the
genus Yetrodon and others, which have earned the name of
Balloon-fish among Europeans, and of “ /kan buntal,” or Pillow-fish,
among Malays, by the manner in which they gulp down air into
their stomachs, so causing the brilliant coloration of many of
them to become conspicuous, and also the spines with which they
are armed to be erected.

Another interesting example is afforded by the Lizard Liolepis
bella, which the Malays call ‘ Biawak Pasir” *, or Sand Monitor,
and which is common in all sandy plains where the vegetation is
scanty in the north of the Malay Peninsula. The male of Liolepis
is coloured in what sounds a very gorgeous fashion, and what is
in nature by no means a conspicuous one. The upper surface is
grey, mottled and eyed with green, the lower surface pale yellow
veined with blue, which is more conspicuous on the underside of
the thighs and the neck than on the rest of the body. Along each
side there are a number of transverse bars, alternately of orange

1 « Biawak” is the Malay name of Varanus.

[21]

858 MR. NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [Dec. 4,

and of deep purple. The female is very like the male, except that
she is smaller, that her colouring is not so brilliant, and that the
blue markings are almost entirely absent from her under surface.
When the Lizard is running about the sand its brilliant shades are
not conspicuous, for the lower surface is hidden beneath the body,
and the bars on the sides are almost concealed in the folds of
loose skin which are present in the living specimen. Liolepis is
exceedingly timid and very agile; asa rule one does not see it
until it commences to run away, at the distance of several yards.
It lives in burrows, which it excavates, so the Malays say, by
means of its feet and its snout. When one of the males is taken
in the hand, it attempts to bite, for it has sharp teeth and a
strong jaw, and struggles violently. As it struggles, it flattens
out its body, by enlarging the lower angle formed by the ribs with
the vertebral column, so that the purple and orange stripes on its
sides come into view. The female tries the same tactics, but
without such great effect, for in her case neither are the stripes
so brilliant nor the ribs so mobile. It is very possible that the
male makes some display’ before the female at the time of court-
ship. The Malays say that the ‘* Biawak Pasir” is monogamous,
and on many different occasions, at Biserat and elsewhere, children
brovght me two specimens together, male and female, which they
said they had snared in a single hole. The case of the Lizard is not
quite parallel to that of the Grasshopper, for it is evident that in

1 That reptiles do indulge in nuptial dances is proved by the case of the
“ Sumpah-sumpah” (Calotes versicolor), a Lizard whose great powers of changing
its colour have caused the colonists of the Straits to misname it the Chameleon.
When the male is courting the female, he is of a pale yellow colour early in the
day, though in the afternoon he appears to become slightly darker ; and he has
a very conspicuous black patch * on either side of the throat which calls attention,
as it were, to the gular pouches, that he is constantly inflatmg. He posts
himself on some conveniently conspicuous perch, such as the top of a fence or a
banana leaf, with his tail stretched out behind him and bis fore-quarters raised
as high as possible upon the legs. The head is held very erect, but is con-
stautly being nodded up and down, very much in the same way as that of
a cock pigeon is nodded under similar circumstances. He opens and shuts his
mouth continually, as if he were chattering, but no sound is emitted ; it is
probably this habit which has given the Lizard its Malay name, which seems to
be connected with a word (swmpahk) that means to curse. In this manner the
male advances gradually towards the female, only progressing a few steps at a
time. The female remains concealed during the performance, which often
commences at a considerable distance from her retreat. I found on several
occasions that if one male was killed while dancing, his place was taken by
another before many hours had passed. If he was captured, the black spots
disappeared from his throat immediately; but they reappeared after death.
The males of this Lizard are extremely pugnacious, and when they are fighting
together they change colour repeatedly, the victor usually assuming a reddish
tinge. The females differ from the males in most species of this genus in that
the gular pouches and the nuchal and dorsal crest are smaller than in the
other sex; also they do not seem to have the power of colour-change so well

developed.

® See also Capt. Stanley Flower’s paper on “The Reptiles of the Malay
Peninsula and Siam,” in the ‘ Proceedings’ of this Society, 1899, p. 641. My
observations were made in Bangkok, Singora, and Patalung, in the months of
March and April.

[22

1900. } INSECTS OF THE ‘f SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 859

the former the exhibition of brilliant colour is primarily a sexual
attraction, being better developed in the male than it is in the
female ; but it seems probable that even in Liolepis any excite-
ment may cause a display, and that in a secondary manner this
display has come to be used as a means of alarming enemies,
though it will be noticed that the conspicuous stripes are not
exhibited suddenly, or immediately on disturbance, but only when
the animal is handled. Also it is strange if the larger, more active
male has this means of defence better developed than the female,
which must be much less agile at times. The fact that Liolepis
bellii has particularly strong teeth and jaws does not seem to me
to be of any importance in considering the case. The Cobra affords
one of the best instances of alarming coloration and attitude, and
it happens to be a particularly venomous animal; but there are
instances of similar display among animals which have no such
dangerous qualities.

The black-and-yellow Snake, Dipsadomorphus dendrophilus,
which is the commonest large Snake in Lower Siam, when driven
to extremities exhibits movements which may be compared with
the sudden display of colour by other forms. If a specimen of
this Snake is tied up so that it cannot escape, it raises its head,
gapes, hisses, strikes wildly at anything that is held near it, and
drums spasmodically upon the ground with the last few joints of
its tail, thus producing a curious noise. But I have never seen it
bite, even when a stick was held close to its mouth ; though many
Snakes, e. g. Coluber teniwrus, will snap at anything, even at their
own bodies, when they are sufficiently enraged. The Malays say
that Dipsadomorphus is not poisonous ; but they are much afraid
of its bite, because of its violent appearance.

V. SounDS PRODUCED BY INSECTS.

A Cicada (Dundubia intemerata).

There are two distinct colour varieties of this species, found
together and independent of sex; the body of one being grass-
green, and that of the other pale brown, which becomes yellow as
the insect dries. Among my dried specimens there are inter-
mediate forms more or less mottled; but this peculiarity did not
appear for some days after death, and in life all the individuals
were either one colour or the other.

At certain seasons this Cicada forms a regular article of diet
among the Siamese inhabitants of Patalung ; and as their method
of capturing it is based upon a knowledge of its habits, I cannot
do better than give an account of this method, as I saw in opera-
tion at Ban Nah, a village on the border of the hill-country of
Patalung. Immediately after the sun had set several of the
natives gathered in an open space, round a fire of brushwood or a
number of torches fastened to stakes stuck into the ground, and
commenced to clap their hands in unison, observing a regular time
and rhythm. Very soon, if they were fortunate, the Cicadie flew

[23]

860 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dee. 4,

out from the undergrowth of the surrounding orchards and jungle,
and alighted on the persons of their captors, who had no difficulty
in picking off the insects with their fingers and securing them,
still alive, in a fold of their draperies. The clapping only con-
tinued for about half an hour every evening, and when, with
considerable difficulty, I persuaded the men to recommence it
again later in the night, not a single Cicada came near them,
though the stridulating had now become loud all over the village,
like the noise of machine hair-brushes in a barber’s shop.

The insects were silent on the wing, and I only heard one
stridulate when caught. The voiceless females, as might be
expected, were in great preponderance over the males among the
specimens taken; probably the one individual which was not
dumb when captured was the only male taken that night. In
order to be sure that the fire was not the chief attraction for
the Cicade, I stood among a party of natives who were clapping,
together with another member of the Expedition, who clapped
also ; while 1 kept my hands still. In the course of a few minutes,
the natives captured many specimens, and ten alighted on my
friend’s coat ; but only one settled on mine. Afterwards I heard
from a Patani Malay that the children of Patani town have
a game in which they attract Cicadas by clapping their hands, and
without the aid of light at all; though they sing, as they clap, a
nursery rhyme, calling upon the insects to come down from the
trees. The season of the edible Cicada seems to be a very local
one in Patalung. At Ban Nah on the Ist of April, and again on
the 6th of the same month, the natives secured me as many
specimens as | wanted, besides serving a dish of them with our
curry on the second occasion. On Apr ril 3rd, at Ban Kong Rah,
which is only about eight miles further inland than Ban Nah, our
guard of native military police were unable to catch a single
individual, although they adopted exactly the same method of
procedure as the Ban Nah people had done, and clapped at the
same time of evening. On none of these three occasions had the
moon risen, and in Patalung one night is like another in the dry
season. On April 5th, I noticed that the ground in a patch
of primeval jungle near Ban Kong Rah was covered with the
cast pupal skins of a Cicada. Whether they were those of the
edible species or not, I am unable to say with certainty, but they
were of the correct size, and, so far as 1 could see, such as might be
expected to belong to this form.

Malay Name, etc.—The Malay-speaking Malays of lower Siam
call a Cicada “ Riang-riang,” confusing it with certain large
Melolonthid beetles belonging to at least four different species
Lepidiota stigma, another species of the same genus, and two
species of Leucopholis—which buzz round the tops of the cocoanut-
palms in the evening, and produce, probably in the same way as
the common Cockchafer’, a sound with a considerable resemblance

2 See Lubbock, ‘ The Senses of Animals,’ p. 67.

[24]

1900.]} INSECTS OF THE ‘‘ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 861

to the word “riang” (to call back) pronounced very rapidly and
repeatedly. All four species of beetle are on sale for food in the
local markets of Patalung, and their grubs, which are found in
the earth or under fallen trees, are eaten also. (A conventional
representation of the grubs is often carved on rice-stirrers and
other objects of household use by the Malays, who call them “‘ Ulat
Kiki.”) Both beetles and Cicade are either boiled or fried in
cocoanut-oil. The latter have very little flavour of any sort, and
what they have is vegetable rather than animal.

Remarks.—The existence of auditory organs in the Cicads has
not been demonstrated with certainty. The insects must indeed
be deaf if they mistake the sound of clapping for the squeaky
whirr of the male’s stridulation. It is evident, however, that the
females have some perception of rhythm, if not of sound. May
not this perception be due to vibrations produced in the opercula
of the stridulating apparatus? The opercula are often well
developed in the voiceless females, though they differ in shape from
those of the males. The males, supposing that the perceptive
organ were situated in the stridulating apparatus, would be
deafened by their own song; as Sharp points out when dealing
with Swinton’s theory that one of the membranes of the apparatus
itself, a membrane which apparently is only present in the male,
is an auditory organ. But there is no need for the males to hear
their own song, and no proof that they do so. Though only one
species of Cicada is attracted by the particular rhythm with which
the people of Patalung clap their hands, another rhythm might
attract another form. The several species of Cicade inhabiting
the same country undoubtedly sing in different rhythm’ from one
another. The song of this species is fairly monotonous and
unbroken, though it rises and falls to a slight extent. That of the
large form Pomponia imperatoria, which restricts itself to deep
jungle, rises in a series of trills, each of which concludes with a
kind of click. Each section of the song is faster, louder, and
clearer than the one which preceded it; until, about five minutes
after the Cicada’s settling, the noise suddenly comes to an end, as
the insect flies off to another tree, where it commences again.
The sound produced by this species is, at the beginning of the
song, like the winding-up of a large clock, and ends by being
comparable to the notes of a penny whistle. Another insect,
commonly heard at night in the jungle, presumably also a Cicada,
has a clear, loud, clarion-like ca!l which can be heard for a great
distance.

The sounds in a Malayan jungle after dark may justly be com-
pared to those in the machinery-hall of an exhibition at the busiest
time of day, and their volume increases materially before the coming
of dawn. The body of the din is the work of small Cicada, like the
edible species, but the true riang-riang and certain Locustids have
no mean share in its production. In some places the ‘“ Singing

1 See Riley, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Ady. Science, vol. xxiv. p. 331.

[25]

862 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE [ Dec. 4,

Earthworm” ', a Gryllotalpid cricket, contributes from its hole in the
ground a deep, organ-like note. | What is the meaning of all this
noise? ‘The riang-riang sing,” a Malay would say, “ because
their livers are glad”; and in many cases we are not in a position
to give any better reason. The stridulation of the male Cicada
appears to be in the main and primarily a sexual call, but may also
be used as a warning or alarming cry.

Of insects capable of producing a sound, some species stridulate
when captured, but all do not. The brilliantly coloured little black
and scarlet Huechys sanguinea, which, unhke the majority of
Malayan Cicade, is diurnal and flies about among bushes in the
open at midday, is silent when handled. The male of the large
dung-beetle Heliocopris mouhotus, a pair of which was brought to
me at Biserat by an elephant mahout, squeaks like a bat when
touched, but is silent when lifted from the ground. The female
of this species is dumb. On the other hand, many kinds of
Orthoptera only stridulate when they are left in peace and quiet.
In the Malay Peninsula the majority of stridulating species are
nocturnal, or only sing at sunset and just before sunrise. There
one does not hear the noise of grasshoppers among long grass at
midday as one does in this country, though in the jungle there is
a subdued hum of insects continually. At Belimbing in Legeh a
man brought me several specimens of the “ Belalang Rusa Zjou”
or Green Deer Grasshopper (Mecopoda elongata). Each specimen
was in a small bamboo-eage, as he said that if two were put together
they would fight. He told me that children kept this grasshopper
as a pet, feeding it on the young shoots of the pineapple, in order
that they might hear it “crow.” My specimens were silent all
day, and all the evening while the lamp was lit ; but in the middle
of the night we were awakened by their stridulations.

VI. Insecr Luminosity.
An Aquatic Lampyrid Larva.

Form and Colouwr.—The body is elongated and narrow: the head
is minute, and can be retracted within the thorax. There are
eight abdominal segments, which are little differentiated from those
of the thorax superficially. The upper surface is corrugated. The
colour is dark brown, minutely marked with dull yellow in some
specimens. The luminous organs were situated in two small oval
patches on the under surface of the last abdominal segment, just
behind the anus.

Habits—On March 30th, when eatching fire-flies by the side of
a marsh at Lampam, the chief town of Patalung, I noticed a
number of luminous points on the surface of a small stagnant pool,
We had some difficulty in ascertaining the origin of these, for they
died away slowly when the water was disturbed ; and it was not
until we examined some of the plants floating on the top of the

1 See ‘Oxford Magazine,’ Oct. 17th, 1900, p. 9.

[26]

1900.] INSECTS OF THE “‘SKEAT EXPED1TION.” 863

pool that we discovered that the light proceeded from beetle larvie,
which were clinging, dorsal surface downwards, to the floating
fronds of a small eryptogam. The luminous points were blue in
colour and very brilliant, though small. They did not flicker like
the lights of the fire-flies which flitted in hundreds over the surface
of the marsh, and when they were extinguished they died away
gradually. In the pool they did not change their position, but
they became sometimes brighter and sometimes less bright slowly,
ovcasionally dying out entirely for no apparent: cause. When the
larva was taken out of the water, its luminosity disappeared, and
did not reappear until it had been restored to its habitual element
for some minutes. The light of some specimens which were placed
with water and weeds in a glass jar, and brought near a lamp after
they had recovered from their capture sufficiently to shine again,
went out. After a longer or shorter interval of rest near the
lamp, on different trials, it reappeared again, Poking them witha
twig sometimes caused them to shine more brightly, but more often
to become entirely dark. If several individuals were in a bottle
and one of them became brilliant from any cause, the others
followed suit after a few seconds. A specimen which was put
into corrosive solution ceased to be luminous, but after about a
quarter of an hour became exceptionally bright. It was then
transferred to a weak solution of formalin ; whereupon its light
went out finally, taking several seconds to disappear.

During the day I was unable to find any of the larve on the
surface of the pool; but the captive specimens had deserted the
floating weeds before morning, and were crawling slowly on the
bottom of the jar. I did not see them feed, though the water in
the jar was full of small animals of different sorts—Copepods,
Protozoa, and water-mites. Nor, while I was watching them, did
the larve ever come to the surface to take in air or to breathe.
I can find no special respiratory organs in my specimens: when
alive no part of the body was silvery in appearance under water.

Remarks.—The question of luminosity is one even more
enigmatical than that of the sounds produced by insects. It is a
phenomenon which is manifested right down among the Protozoa,
and even in the border-land between the two great kingdoms ; it
reaches its highest development among some of the Lampyride.
In the Westmann Isles I have seen a whole village accidentally
lighted up by the action of putrefactive bacteria in cods’ heads
hanging to dry on the walls of the gardens; and a dead shark upon
the shore was visible on the darkest night from the same cause to
the distance of half a mile. Noctiluca and other marine animals—
celenterates, crustaceans, tunicates, &c.—produce even more
astonishing luminescent effects. It is not apparent what is the
object of this display among these forms; though possibly in the
case of the Medusz it may serve as a lure for prey, as it appears
to do among certain deep-sea fishes. Among the insects and
Myriapoda the purpose of luminescence is also obscure’. It

1 See Dubois, Bull. Soe. Zool. France, ‘‘ Les Elatérides lumineux ” (1886), &e,
[27]

864 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THB [ Dec. 4,

cannot be in all cases a sexual attraction, for it is exhibited by
larve and even by eggs'; neither can its object always be to
attract prey: that it is a warning to enemies seems hardly pro-
bable, for most small animals, whether aquatic or terrestrial, are
attracted rather than repelled by light. In the bacteria and
in forms like Noctiluca it appears to be an adventitious result of
metabolism rather than to bring any practical gain to the organism ;
among the adults of the Lampyride it very probably acts as a sexual
charm ; among the larve of the same group its purpose may possibly
be to attract prey. In the case of the aquatic form there must be
some reason why the larvee should come to the surface at night and
display their light on the top of the water. That purpose can hardly
be to warn surface enemies not to eat them, or to scare away aerial
aggressors. Much more probably the light attracts some surface or
aerial prey. The fact that the light disappears when the water is
disturbed also supports this view. It is not to the advantage of
the larve to attract the attention of any animal big enough to make
a commotion in the pool.

In three other species of Lampyrid larve, all terrestrial,—two,
which were both over an inch in length, being found crawling on
the ground among bushes in Patalung, and the other seated on a
cocoanut-husk under a house in Kelantan—the light, which was
situated in all cases on the ventral surface of the abdomen, was
steady, and neither flickered as it did in the winged forms, nor
slowly disappeared without apparent cause as in the case of the
aquatic larva. A small specimen which I found under the mosque
at Aring, mistaking it at first sight for luminous fungus which grew
there commonly, continued shining when picked frem the ground,
but immediately became dark when dropped into formol, and never
shone again. Professor Poulton tells me that North-American *
fire-flies lose control of their lights when placed in a cyanide-bottle,
and are no longer able to extinguish them. The same is true of
the Malayan winged forms, though occasionally a specimen becomes
entirely dark for a few minutes when first introduced into the bottle.
The aquatic larva which allowed its light to reappear after it had
been in corrosive sublimate for some minutes was probably only
just beginning to become affected, for corrosive penetrates hard
chitin very slowly. The insect allowed itself, when once affected,
to be transferred into a more pungent medium before it finally
ceased to shine.

Of all the manifestations of luminescence among animals there is
none more curious, or, in the present state of our knowledge, more
inexplicable, than the manner in which large numbers of individuals
of certain fire-flies are able to display their light with absolute
apparent simultaneity and unison aad with regular intervals of
darkness, under circumstances which make it impossible for all the
members of the swarm to see one another. Even the power,

1 See Dubois, Bull. Soe. Zool. France, xii. 1887, p. 137.

2 Darwin makes very much the same remark with regard to the Brazilian
forms, in his ‘ Voyage of a Naturalist * (p. 30).

[28]

1900.] INSHOTS OF THE ‘‘SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 865

possessed by some peculiar South-American beetles', of showing
lights of different colours on different parts of the body at the
same time is not more wonderful, or more conspicuous, than this.
The phenomenon is not common on the east coast of the Malay
Peninsula, where the soil is sandy; but it is said to be often
manifested both in Siam proper and among the mangrove-swamps
of Perak and Selangor in the west. I have only been able to see
it on one oceasion, and that was on the bank of the river near
Kuala Patani, one fine evening at the end of June.

A large tree was covered with many hundreds of fire-flies, the
majority of which seemed, judging from the similarity of their
lights, to belong to one species, or perhaps to one sex. There
were three individuals seated together, however, whose lights
were larger and bluer than those of the others. The lights of all
the specimens of the more abundant variety flickered in unison
with one another; those of the minority, the three individuals,
flickered together also, but in a different time. At one instant
the tree was all lighted up as if by hundreds of little electric
lamps; at the next if was in complete darkness, except for three
blue points. Then, again, it was covered with white points, except
for a little patch of darkness where the three blue lights had been,
and would be again immediately. A similar power of displaying
luminosity in unison is said to be exhibited by some marine
animals, even atter they have been removed from the water ; but
the questions as to how this unison is effected and what is its
exact object are obscure. The power by which it is regulated may
be somewhat analogous to that which causes all the individuals
composing a flock of birds to wheel at the same instant. As
Professor Poulton has pointed out to me, the rhythmical display
of light among a crowd of individuals appears much more
conspicuous to the eye than the simple flickering of a number of
independent points.

Malay Names.—The ordinary Malay term for a fire-fly is klip-
klip, a name which seems to suggest the rapid flickering of the
insect’s light, though the word kip is used in the sense of to
glitter. Our west-coast servants called the luminous beetle larve
with which we met in Patalung, “ klip-klip tanah,” land or earth
fire-flies. The aquatic species, which they had never seen or heard
of before, they christened ‘ klip-klip ayer,” or water fire-fly. His
Excellency Phya Sukum, the Siamese Chief Commissioner for the
Ligor Circle, to whose hospitality and administration we owed
much, tells me that he has seen, in the south of Ligor and near
Singora, a large green worm which sits on trees, and it is so
brilliantly luminous at night that it well deserves its Siamese
name of Lightning Grub. On one occasion he secured a specimen,
and was conveying it to Bangkok ; but unfortunately it was killed
on the voyage through the carelessness of a servant who closed
the box in which it was.

‘ See Haase, Deutsche ent. Zeitschr. 1888, pp. 146-167.
[29]

866 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THR [ Dee. 4

VII. Tun Usk or THE SPINES OF CERTAIN ORTHOPTERA.

The Locustid (Humegalodon blanchardi).

Colour and Form.—The whole exposed surface of this well-
known and peculiar form is coloured pale brown, speckied, but
not in any very marked way, with a darker shade. Its coloration
bears a general, and by no means highly specialized, resemblance
to a withered leaf.

The most peculiar features of its external form are the enormous
stoutness of the head and jaws, and the well-developed thorn-like
processes on the thorax.

Habits.—The only specimen secured was captured in a rice-field,
then partially flooded, at Belimbing in the Ulu Legeh, on July 22nd.
I was crossing the swamp towards a solitary tree of large size that
erew on the embankment halfway across. When about ten
yards distant from this tree, 1 noticed what appeared to be a
dead leaf falling from one of its lower branches at a height of
perhaps eight feet from the ground. Judging from the way it fell
that the leaf must have something, perhaps a chrysalis, attached
to it, I left the embankment and waded to the place where it had
touched the ground, and was surprised to find a fine male specimen
of Eumegalodon seated motionless on the damp earth. It made
no attempt to escape but did its best to defend itself with its
really formidable mandibles, a bite from which would have taken
a piece right out of the finger.

Remarks.—It. is very dangerous to generalize from a single
instance of this sort; but the behaviour of ‘the insect was interesting,
and may possibly cast some light on the use of the peculiar spines
on its back. I am sure, from the rapidity with which it fell and
from its appearance while in the air, that the wings were folded
as it dropped from the tree; I am also convinced that it dropped
and did not leap down. Supposing that its usual habit is to
descend thus—and I have no reason to suppose that the behaviour
of my specimen was at all peculiar—it is easy to see that its
spines, combined with the sturdy build of the anterior part of its
body, might assist greatly in breaking its fall, should it strike
against anything hard or sharp ; ; for necessarily it would fall head
downwards, the head and thorax being heavier than the abdomen.
This suggestion does not interfere with the view that these
structures may also be of use in defending the imsect against its
enemies, whatever they may be, should it be attacked from behind;
in which ease its jaws could not assist it; very possibly it may
drop from the tree to escape assailants. Professor Meldola has
suggested the same use for the hairs and spines on caterpillars.

VIII. Tap pucuniar PrononGatrion oF THE HEAD IN CERTAIN
FULGORID®, AND ITS USE,
Hotinus, Pyrops, &c.
The curious anterior prolongation of the head in many genera
of the Fulgoride has long puzzled entomologists, and some have

[30]

1900. } INSECTS OF THE “ SKBAT EXPEDITION.” 857

been found bold enough to suggest that in life it is luminous’ ;
being led to this suggestion, I suppose, by the lantern-like outline
of the “‘nose” in the more highly specialized members of the
family, and perhaps by the fact that some of the species at any
rate are nocturnal or crepuscular, and rest by day on the trunks
of trees in a very open manner. At Biserat in Jalor I was
fortunate enough to observe the real use of this peculiar structural
modification.

On the morning of May 30th, I noticed a specimen of Hotinus
spinole seated on the trunk of a Durian tree in the village and
incautiously attempted to catch it in my hand. The insect remained
almost still, merely drawing in its legs towards its body and
pressing the claws firmly against the bark, until I had almost
touched it. Then, it lowered its head with very great rapidity,
flew up into the air without spreading its wings, and alighted on
the roof of a house about six feet behind the tree and considerably
higher than the position on the trunk whence it had started.
When it was at rest its dorsal surface had been directed towards
the roof and its head had pointed upwards ; but it started off at a
tangent from its original station, and landed with its head,
speaking roughly, at right angles to an imaginary line drawn
through the main axis of the body as it had been on the tree.
The insect remained on the roof without moving while I went to
get a butterfly-net, in which it was easily captured by a man who
swarmed up one of the house-posts.

At the time I did not notice anything peculiar in the way in
which this Fulgorid jumped, for there are many large species
of the same family (e. g. Aphena atomaria) which, without being
provided with long noses, can leap for a considerable distance by
means of their legs only; but, as I was examining my specimen
after it had died in a cyanide-bottle, L was struck by an indenta-
tion or crease that ran across the central region of the nose, at
right angles to its main axis. Then I discovered that the chitin
was flexible at this pomt, and at this point only; and that if the
tip of the nose and the dorsal surface of the abdomen were pressed
together between the finger and thumb and then suddenly released,
the insect would not fall straight to the ground, but would be
propelled for some distance through the air before doing so; just
as would be the case if a piece of whalebone were treated in like
manner. Now supposing that the whalebone (representing the
nose of the insect) was fixed rigidly to a small rigid object (the
head), which in its turn was fastened by a flexible juncture to a
larger rigid object (the thorax and abdomen); supposing that the
larger object was then laid so that it rested for all its length
along a smooth vertical support with the whalebone pointing in
front of it, that the free extremity of the whalebone was bent
downwards by some force, and that the whole structure was
simultaneously shoved away from the support (as the body of

! For a coloured picture of a /wminous Fulgorid, see Donovan's ‘ Natural
History of the Insects of China, p. 27; also for much evidence as to its
luminosity.

Proc. Zoou. Soc.—1900, No. LVIJ. SY
[31]

868 MR, NELSON ANNANDALE ON THE { Dec. 4,

the insect might be by its legs), it is obvious that the whole
structure would fly off into the air at a tangent; only supposing
that the pressure was slightly oblique at any point. I have
no doubt that this is substantially what oecurs in the case of
Hotinus ; but in the living insect the action is far too rapid for
the eye to discriminate its details, and dead specimens cannot be
made to leap in this way, because it is impossible to force the legs
to perform their part of the action. In two specimens of Hotinus,
which I observed on tree-trunks at Aring, the wings were spread
after the insects had leapt into the air, but not immediately they
left their perch. Both of them distinctly bent down their heads
before they jumped.

The nose is perfectly hollow, and does not appear to contain
any muscle. It differs, of course, from the whalebone in respect
of its hollowness, and also in that it is only flexible at one point.
In specimens preserved in spirit it is largely filled with liquid, but
contains a bubble of air, which naturally rises to the tip when the
apparatus is in its resting position, and runs towards its base
when the head is lowered.

When I had made the discovery in my first specimen of Hotinus,
I examined some Fulgorid larve, almost certainly those of Pyrops
nobilis, which had been brought to me by a native at Ban Sai Kau
in Nawnchik, and which I had preserved in spirit. The nose was
well developed in these, although the abdomen was stil] small and
unexpanded and the wings as yet mere stumps. I found that the
joint was present in these specimens also, and still retained a
certain amount of springiness, though they had been dead for a
month.

Since coming home, I have been enabled, by the kindness of
Professor Poulton, to examine dried specimens of twenty-six
species of long-nosed Fulgoride, belonging to nine genera. In
individuals of sixteen of these species | am able to distinguish
a crease running across the nose in exactly the saine position as
it does in my specimen of Zotinus. All of the remaining ten
species in the Hope Collection, of which species Pyrops nobilis is
one, have either comparatively short, spiny, or otherwise peculiar
noses. I have no doubt that the joint would be found in
them also, were fresh specimens examined; even in my larve,
in which it is still flexible, there is no external sign of its exist-
ence except a slight translucency of the integument. The members
of the bulbous-nosed American genus Fulgora probably use their
heads in the same manner as the less highly modified Oriental
forms. There is a deep hollow across the noses of the former
which seems to correspond to the crease in that of Hotinus; and I
have satisfied myself at any rate that a certain very limited
flexibility exists at this point even in dried specimens. What
is wanted is a series of instantaneous photographs from life.

Malay Name.—At Biserat Hotinus spinole goes by the name
of “Raja Legeh,” but this is probably a corruption of some more
direct appellation.

(32

1900. ] INSECTS OF THE ‘‘ SKEAT EXPEDITION.” 869

A large proportion of the insects mentioned in this paper have
been identified by comparison with specimens preserved at Oxford
in the Hope Department of the University Museum, to the
officials of which I offer my thanks for the ready help which
they have given me. I cannot conclude without expressing my
personal gratitude to the Siamese Government for the kindness
and generosity with which it treated us throughout: to the officials
at Bangkok and Singora who arranged for our reception in lower
Siam: to the Malay Rajas through whose territory we passed,
without whose aid the Siamese Malay States are practically a closed
country to Europeans: and to Luang Phrom, Commissioner of
Patani, to Kun Rhat Wan Hussein, and to the other gentlemen
who accompanied us as agents of the Siamese Government ; at
whose hands I received much personal kindness, and whose assist-
ance and advice made it possible to travel in such a country with
physical comfort and with some degree of celerity.

[33]

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OBSERVATIONS ON SOME MIMETIC INSECTS AND
SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE.
By R, SHELFORD, M.A,, O.M.Z.S., Curator of the
Sarawak Museum. With APPENDICES containing Descrip-
tions of new Species by R. Suztrorp, Dr, Kary Jorpan,

OQ. J, Gawan, the Rev. H. 8. Gornam, and Dr. A. SENNA.

(Lrom the Procumpines or tH ZooLoaioaL Sociury of Lonvon,
November 4, 1902. |

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C
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230 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

[From the PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL Sociery OF Lonpon,
November 4, 1902. |

Observations on some Mimetic Insects and Spiders from
Borneo and Singapore. By R. Suetrorp, M.A.,
C.M.Z.S., Curator of the Sarawak Museum. With
Appendices containing Descriptions of new Species
by R. Suetvrorp, Dr. Karn Jorpan, C. J. GAnan, the
Rev. H. 8S. Goraam, and Dr. A. SENNA.

(Plates XIX.-X XIII.)

The theory of mimicry having originated and having been
further elaborated chie fly from a study of South American
insects, it is but natural that these should figure largely in all
works relating to the subject. This paper, a brief abstract of
which, arranged by Professor Poulton, appeared in the British
Association Reports, 1900, p. 795, is an attempt to bring into
greater notice the richness of the Malayan sub-region in similar
mimetic species—nearly all the ex: vmples here described and dis-
cussed having been captured within the last four years in a
circumscribed area of 10 mile radius, with Kuching, the capital
of Sarawak, as its centre. A recent collecting-trip of three
weeks’ duration to Mt. Penrissen (about 50 miles inland) was
productive of several new examples; and I feel convinced that a
‘similar reward awaits the collector on other mountains of the
island and on those of Sumatra, Celebes, and other numerous
islands of the great Archipelago, many of which are still virgin
ground to the entomologi st.

In order to summarize as much as possible our knowledge of
the mimetic insects of Borneo, I have drawn up tables of the
mimetic Longicorn Beetles and of the Lepidoptera; the latter is
a modification of a somewhat similar list given by Haase in his
‘Researches on Mimicry’ (English translation), Stuttgart, 1896,
but I have found it necessary to question certain conclusions and
to make a few additions.

1 For explanation of the Plates, see page 281.

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 231

It is frequently possible to pair a mimicking species with a
definite specific model, but perhaps more frequently the mimic
(either a Batesian or a Miillerian mimic) in its general appear-
ance resembles a whole group of known distasteful insects; or, in
other words, the general appearance of the mimic is typical of a
distasteful group, rather than exactly similar to one definite
species; and in these tables of mimetic Longicorns and their
models I have by no means included all, but merely typical
models.

The diagrammatic tables of convergent groups of pseud-
aposematic and synaposematic insects at the end of the paper
include, however, all the known distasteful insects which serve as
models in the respective groups.

In the Appendices are described a new species of Butterfly, a
new Moth, two new genera and several species of Longicorn Beetles,
two new Clerids, and two new Brenthids. I owe the descrip-
tion of all except the first-mentioned species to the kindness of
Dr. Karl Jordan, Mr. C. J. Gahan, the Rev. H. $8. Gorham, and
Dr. A. Senna.

Professor E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., has added some interesting
and suggestive remarks on my observations: these are scattered
throughout the paper, but in all cases his initials are affixed.

My task, in the absence of a large library and of named col-
lections for comparison and reference, has not been easy, but I
have received the most valuable and generous aid from Professor
Poulton, whom I feel that I can never sufticiently thank. It is not
too much to say that had it not been for his help this paper could
not have been written. Most of the specimens here described
and figured are now deposited in the Hope Museum, Oxtord,
where they can be seen by all students of the subject. Iam
much indebted to Mr. H. N. Ridley, Director of the Botanic
Gardens, Singapore, for directing my attention to some interesting
cases of mimicry observed by him and for some valuable notes
thereon. Mr. Gilbert J. Arrow, Monsieur Jules Bourgeois,
Mr. Malcolm Burr, Sir G. Hampson, Dr. F. A. Dixey, Dr. R.
Jestro, the Rev.O. Pickard-Cambridge, F.R.8., Mr. R. McLachlan,
F.R.S., Mr. W. L. Distant, Mr. C. J. Gahan, Dr. Senna, Mr. M.
Jacoby, Col. Bingham, Mr. E. E. Austen, Mr. C, O. Waterhouse,
Dr. Brunner von Wattenwyl, and Col. Yerbury have rendered
much kind assistance in identifying many of the species noted m
this paper, and to these gentlemen I tender my grateful thanks.

I. ORTHOPTERA AS MIMICS.
i. Mimic. Larva of Hymenopus bicornis (Stoll).
Plate XIX. figs. 17&19. x 2.

Model. Larva of Hulyes amena (Fab.).
Plate XIX. figs. 16&18. x 2.

The newly-hatched larve of Hymenopus bicornis, one of the

[3]

232 MR. R, SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [Nov. 4,

Harpagid Mantide, mimic the young larve of the Reduviid bug,
Fulyes amena, not only in coloration, but also in the peculiar
habit of walking about with the abdomen curled over the back
(compare figs. 16 & 17). When the young Mantides first emerge
from the ootheca they are of a brilliant red colour, the head, basal
joint of the antenna, apices of the femora, and the tibie ‘alone
being jet-black. A similar arrangement of colours is exhibited
by the young of £. @mena: im these the head, apices of the
femora, bases of the tibie, the wing-rudiments, and some spots on
the dorsal surface of the abdomen are black, whilst all the rest
is vermilion (compare figs. 18 & 19). The newly-hatched larve
of the bug are very much smaller than the corresponding stage
of the Mantis, but after the second moult the size of the
former is almost the same as that of their mimics when newly-
hatehed. The brilliant coloration of the bug is essentially a
warning signal, being correlated with an objectionable smell and
presumably a still more objectionable taste, judging from the
expressions of disgust manifested by two tame monkeys (/acacus
cynomolgus) after tasting the specimens I offered them. The
young Hymenopus they had eaten with the utmost sangfroid
a few days before, from which one may justly conclude that in
this case the coloration is deceptively warning or pseudapose-
matic (truly mimetic). [tis unfortunate that I was unable to rear,
or even to keep alive for a few days longer, the young Manti des:
but they are notoriously difficult insects to rear, and all my speci-
mens died before Iwas able to obtain the young of Fuldyes amena.
The pupa and adult of this species of Mantis are floral simulators :
the former resembles a pink Melastoma; the latter, which is
eream-coloured varied with brown, resembles the flower of an
orchid of fairly common occurrence ; and I have also seen a young
larva which bore a striking resemblance to a small pink flower of
an order not known to me, I have had this insect in various
stages of its life-history frequently under observation, and can
confirm in almost every detail Mr. Annandale’s recently es
lished account of the habits of the pupa (cf P.Z.S, 1900, pp. 8
et seg.). That the insect should mimic in the youngest stage
its life-history a distasteful and conspicuously- -coloured bug is &
fact of some interest.

|The late Mr. L. de Nicéville states, in a letter to Prof. Poulton,
that he had reared some species of Mantide ; one species when
newly hatched was remarkably like a small -black ant, the de-
ceptive resemblance being so close that a careful scrutiny was
necessary to determine the exact nature of the insect. Mr. de
Nicéville also remarks :—‘* A Mantis of fair size does not often
move but waits for its prey to come to it, but these young ones
ran about incessantly looking for their prey, just like the ants
they mimicked.”]

r4)

i 4

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 233

Mimic. Condylodera tricondyloides (Westw.).
Plate XIX. figs. 2, 4, & 6.
Models. Cicindelide. Plate XIX. figs. 1, 3, & 5.

I was fortunate enough to discover in Sarawak the remarkable
Locustid, Condylodera tricondyloides, originally described in 1837
by Westwood from Java (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 409);
the type specimen was at first placed by Westwood in his col-
lection of Cicindelide, “regarding it as an immature Colliurus
or Tricondyla” (l.c. p. 419). Another Javan specimen was
actually given the MS. name of 7’ricondyla rutipes by Duponchel,
so close is the resemblance of this highly deceptive Locustid to a
Tiger-beetle. Both these historical specimens are now in the
Hope Collection at Oxford, and have been compared with the
Sarawak specimens by Mr. Malcolm Burr.

My first specimen, which is somewhat larger than the type,
was found in jungle in the neighbourhood of Kuching, running
about on the ground amongst dead leaves and other vegetable
debris, an environment much frequented by a large Tiger-beetle,
Tricondyla cyanea (De}j.) var. wallacei (Thoms. 0s with which this
Locustid is almost identical in appearance (compare Plate XIX.
figs. 1 & 2). The shape, size, coloration, and even the gait of the
mimic so closely resembled the corresponding traits of its model,
that I did not suspect the importance of my find till a careful
examination of the collecting-box had been made some hours
after the time of capture. The colour of the head, thorax, and
abdomen of the Condylodera is a dark shining blue, the femora
of all the legs are red, the hind femora (w hich are only slightly
swollen) having in addition a proximal black band. The head
with its large prominent eyes, somewhat flattened face, and
conspicuous jaws, is very Cicindelid in appearance. The antenne
are of extreme tenuity and are about 24 to 3 times as long as
the body. The densely-punctured prothorax is globosely swollen
about its middle, the swelling being marked off from the elevated
anterior border and posterior portion by broad constrictions.
The tegminal and wing rudiments lie very closely adpressed
to the body and do not disturb the even contour of the dorsal
aspect. The abdomen, though hardly so bottle-shaped as are
the elytra and abdomen of the model, is not widely different in
appearance, and the intersegmental membranes are quite con-
cealed except on the ventral surface, where the scuta are small,
as is usual in this group of insects.

The model is so common and so well known a species that it is
unnecessary to describe its general appearance ; the above brief
description of its mimic will suffice to show in how many super-
ficial points the two insects agree, and superficiality of resem-
blance is the key-note of mimicry.

Another specimen of this mimetic Locustid of the same size was
obtained a few months later in the same locality; and both these

| o |
=

234 MR, R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

are pronounced to be fully adult by that well-known authority on
the Orthoptera, Mr. Malcolm Burr.

Bearing in mind the errors made by Westwood and Duponchel
with regard to this insect, I made a careful search through the
Sarawak Museum collection of Cicindelide, and was rewarded by
finding yet another example of this remarkable mimic placed
amongst specimens of Z’ricondyla gibba (Chaud.), which it most
closely resembles as regards size, coloration, &c. The specimen
was smaller than those described above and is evidently a younger
stage, but it differs in hardly any other way; and 7. gibba,
the model, also differs from 7’ cyanea var. wallacei principally
in size (compare Plate XIX. figs. 3 & 4).

A fourth specimen, of a very early stage, was taken in Kuching
on the flowers of a flowering tree, frequented also by numerous
insects of all orders, amongst others being the Cicindelid, Collyris
sarawakensis (Thoms.), which serves as a model to the young
Condylodera (Plate XIX. figs.5 & 6). At this stage, the insect is
entirely dark blue, except the legs which are dark brown, and the
greater part of the long antenne which are ochreous, the four
basal joints only being blue. The prothorax shows no trace of the
conspicuous puncturation of the adult, nor is it swollen as in the
later stages, but more or less cylindrical like that of its model ;
the wing-rudiments are not yet visible, and the auditory organ
on the fore-tibie can only be distinguished with difficulty. The
model is somewhat larger, of a uniform dark blue with the legs
dark brown. It is Somewhat curious that the young Cond ylodera
does not mimic Collyris emarginata (Macl.), a smi aller species with
red legs, especially since in the later stages it is red-legged species
of Cicindelide that are mimicked ; C. emarginata is, however, of
a much more brilliant blue than any other Bornean members
of the genus, or than the species of Zricondyla. This case of
mimicry appears to me to be of exceptional interest and without
a parallel. I have shown that Aymenopus bicornis, a floral
simulator throughout the greater part of its life, mimics m
its young stages the larve of a bug; but I know of no ameta-
bolous insect, except Condylodera tricondyloides, which mimics
different species of one family during the successive periods of its
growth.

Mimic. Gryllacris n. sp. vicinissima nigrate (Br.).
Plate XIX. fig. 8
Model. Pheropsophus agnatus (Chaud.). Plate XIX. fig. 7

The model in this instance is one of the “‘ Bombardier Beetles,”
and discharges, when seized or irritated, a jet of formic acid
vapour quite powerful enough to scorch the skin of the finger
severely and to leave an indelible brown stain on paper or cloth.
The insect is quite conspicuous, being black with orange spots on
the dorsal surface of the thorax and tegmina; the legs and
antenne are entirely orange. The Locustid is somewhat larger,

[6]

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 235

and though the markings do not correspond accurately with those
of the model, a general resemblance is produced. The head is
orange, the prothorax is black with large orange blotches, the
tegmina are black with an orange spot at the base of each,
corresponding to a similar spot at the base of each elytron of the
beetle, and with an orange fascia about the middle, corresponding
toa broad orange spot in a similar position on each elytron of
the beetle. The legs are banded with orange and black (compare
Plate XIX. figs. 7 & 8). The mimic is met w ith: amongst herbage in
jungle, and all the examples of the somewhat common ‘* Bombar-
dier” that I have met with were taken in the same environment.
The powerful jaws of the larger Gryllacrides furnish possibly an
eflicient protection against the attacks of vertebrate enemies,
such as small birds, lizards, and frogs, but im so small a species as
this the resemblance to a beetle c: upable of discharging a scorching
jet of formic acid vapour must be a far more efficient means of
protection.

. Mimic. Noy. gen., nov. sp. vicinissima Gammarotettigi.
Plate XXIII. fig. 34.
Model. Coccinellide. Plate XXIII. fig. 30.

In February 1901 the Museum collectors brought in a small
Locustid of a brilliant vermilion colour spotted with black. When
the insect was resting the head was bent downwards and almost
concealed by the large prothoracic shield, the abdomen was
strongly curved downwards and the legs were drawn close up
to the body, the long hind tibize being bent up under their
femora: in this attitude the resemblance of the insect to a black:
spotted red “ladybird” of a convex shape, e. g. Caria dilatata
(Fab.), was most striking (compare Plate XXIII. figs. 30 & 34),
The eyes ave intense black; the large prothoracic shield has three
black spots, one central, the others lateral; the segments of the
abdomen bear each a small dorsal black spot, decreasing in size
posteriorly ; the fore- and mid-femora bear outwardly one con-
spicuous spot, whilst the hind-femora have two such spots.

When touched, this little Locustid did not leap away, as might
have been expected, but kept perfectly still, and if further
irritated it simply rolled off the surface on which it was resting
and assumed a death-like attitude on the ground below, thus
simulating very perfectly the habits of a Coccinellid.

I have to thank the distinguished orthopterist Brunner y.
Wattenwyl for reporting on this Locustid and the Gr vilacris.

Ii. NEUROPTERA AS MIMICS.
Mimic. Mantispa simulatrix (McLachl.). Plate XIX. fig. 23.
Model. Sracon sp. Plate XIX. fig. 22.

This case offers an instance of the distastefulness of the
Hymenoptera Parasitica, a group mimicked also by insects

Le],

236 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [Nov. 4,

belonging to the most diverse orders, such as Hemiptera, Diptera,
Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera.

The model is one of those reddish-ochraceous Braconids, of
which there are many representatives in Borneo, all being more
or less common, ‘This particular species, with a conspicuous black
stigma on the fore wing, is eminently a mountain form, as the
numerous specimens in the Sarawak Museum bear witness.
Mt. Matang at any elevation above 1500 feet is its favourite
haunt, but | have never taken it below that altitude. The mimic,
which was recently described by Mr. McLachlan, was captured
in the month of August also on Mt. Matang, at an altitude of

2500-2800 feet. It, too, is reddish-ochraceous, whilst each wing
bears a black stigma, those on the fore-wings being slightly more
conspicuous than those on the hind- wings ; the sides and ventral
surface of the abdomen are pure white (in the fresh condition), so
that when the insect is seen in profile its somewhat bulky body
appears to be reduced approximately to the size of the body of
its model; as, further, the model also has the ventral surface
of the abdomen coloured white, the resemblance between the two
insects is still greater (compare Plate XIX. figs. 22 & 23). This
method of producing a thin-bodied or wasp-waisted effect by white
patches is by no means uncommon amongst insects; I shall be
able to give further examples of it in this paper (vide infra,
pp. 238, 241), and at present need only refer to the well- known
Soudanese Locustid Myrmecophana fallax ( Br.) mimicking an ant,
and to the Moth Pseudosphex hyalina which mimics a Sphex.

ii. Mimic. Mantispa sp. Plate XIX. fig. 27.
Model. Polistes sagittarius (Sauss.). Plate XTX. fig. 26.

The Wasp, P. sagittarius, is an extremely common species and
is rendered highly conspicuous by reason of a red band on the
second abdominal segment; the rest of the body is black, varied
on the head and thorax with a rich red-brown; the wings are
fuscous, becoming flavo-hyaline outwardly. The mimic is black
with the second and third abdominal segments red, the width of
these two segments closely corresponding with the large second
abdominal segment of the wasp; the wings are hyaline, but largely
shaded with fuscous at the base and along the costal margins and
flavo-hyaline at the apex (compare figs. 26 & 27). A closely allied
species from Assam is in the Hope Collection at Oxford, with the
MS. name of J. nodosa (Westw.). The specimen belonged to the
Cantor Collection.

Mimic. Mantispa sp. Plate XIX. fig. 25.
Model. Polistes sp. near diabolicus (Sauss.). Plate XIX. fig. 24.

The general colour of the Wasp is reddish-brown, the abdomen
is covered with a fine silky pubescence golden in colour; this

1 Ent. Month. Mag. (ser. 2) vol. xi. 1900, pp. 127-128.

[8]

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 237

pubescence is denser at the apices of the segments, forming here
narrow yellow bands; the wings are flavo-hyaline, sometimes with
a brown stigma.

The mimic is of a reddish hue, the abdomen is a little paler,
corresponding to the red-brown seen through the golden pubescence
of the wasp’s abdomen; the apex of each segment is narrowly
banded with yellow. The wings are broadly hyaline along the
costal margins and there is a brown stigma, A closely allied
species from Celebes is unnamed in the British Museum.

Both this and the preceding Mantispa were referred to Mr. R.
McLachlan, who pronounced them to be undescribed species.

iv. Mimic. JMJantispa ? cora (Newm.).
Model. JMesostenus sp.

A small black-and-yellow banded Mantispa was caught on the
hill, Bukit Timah, at Singapore amongst short undergrowth, and
at the same time I took also several specimens of a common
Ichneumon-fly very similarly coloured. The Mantispa wasextremely
active on the wing and at first sight almost indistinguishable from
its model. I append some colour notes on the two insects :—

Mantispa.—Ground-colour of head, thorax, and abdomen black,
the following bands bright yellow—two vertical on the face, one
transverse on the vertex, an anterior transverse and three longi-
tudinal on the prothorax, one transverse on both meso- and
metathorax, which are ventrally blotched with yellow ; abdomen
alternately banded black and yellow. Anterior legs yellow
blotched with black, mid- and posterior femora broadly banded
black and yellow. Bases of wings yellow and a distinct black
stigma on the fore wings.

Mesostenus sp.—Head yellow; prothorax black bordered with
yellow and with two central yellow stripes ; mesothorax yellow
with a central black spot; metathorax posteriorly yellow ; abdomen
banded alternately black and yellow. Legs yellow blotched with
black. Anterior wings with a conspicuous stigma.

I subsequently found the same species of Mantispa or a close
ally in Borneo, frequenting the blossoms of a Hibiscus ; the plant
was also visited in considerable numbers by a small yellow-and-
black Zearia and by a similarly coloured ichneumon-fly ; a some-
what careful scrutiny was needed to distinguish these insects one
from the other.

Ill. COLEOPTERA AS MIMICS.

I wish especially to acknowledge the kind assistance received
from Mr. GC. J. Gahan in working out this section of my paper.
Most of my examples are taken from the Longicornia, and
have drawn up tables of the mimetic species of the group occurring
in Borneo. I have made these as complete as possible, but there
are a few described species which I have not seen and which have
[9]

238 MR. R. SUELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND | Nov. 4,

never been figured. Such species have been included in the
appended tables, when their descriptions have shown that they do
not ditler in characters of mimetic importance from the closely
allied species with which I am acquainted; in every case these
are marked with an asterisk. I have not included a large
concourse of species belonging to the subfamilies Mesosine and
Apomecynine, which present in their general facies a marked
resemblance to the Rhynchophora, for, although the tyro in
entomology might readily mistake many of these longicorns for
Rhynchophorous species, I have, nevertheless, found it quite
impossible to pair any one given species with a definite model.
The resemblance is in fact, as is so frequently the case, general
and indefinite, not special as, for example, in the species of the
subfamilies Astatheinw and Saperdine, which mimie for the most
part definite species of the Phytophaga. It will therefore suftice
if I simply enumerate here those genera of the Mesosine and
Apomecynine which present most markedly Rhynchophorous
features :-—

Subfam. J/esosine:—Anancylus, Planodes, Ereis, Cacia, Mnemea,

Sorbia.

All these Coleoptera, more especially Hreis anthriboides (Pasc.),
have a general resemblance to Anthribide.

Subfam. Apomecynine :—Cenodocus, Synelasma, Ltaxalus,

Phesates, Praonetha, Sybra, Ropica.
These bear a general resemblance to Curculionide.

Nores on Taste I.—Longicorns mimicking Hymenoptera.

The subfamily Phytectine furnishes ten and probably more
species belonging to three genera which mimic the Braconide.
The models can be divided into two sections :—(1) species with
dark red head and thorax and black abdomen and wings (genus
Myosoma); (2) reddish-ochreous species (genus /phiaulax), one
of which has already been shown to be mimicked by JMJantispa
simulatrix. Seytasis nitida (Pasc.) and four species of Oberea
are coloured in identically the same way as their models, the
red-and-black Braconids. Furthermore, 8. 2i¢ida and three out of
the four species of Oberea (the exception being O. rubetra (Pasc.))
are marked with a large white patch of pubescence on the sides
of the first and second abdominal segments, which patches, when
the beetle is seen in profile, give an impression of a wasp-like
waist, from the posterior end of which the abdomen appears
gradually to swell in size. This effect is shown in Plate XIX.
figs. 13, 14, & 15, representing respectively Oberea strigosa (Pasc.)
var., O. brevicollis (Pasc.), and Oberea probably n. sp. near strigosa
(Pasc.). The thin waist of the model is not seen from above when
the insect is at rest, being hidden by the laid-back wings, and
consequently this obviates the necessity of dorsal white patches
on the mimic as in the African Locustid IMyrmecophana fallax,
whose model is a wingless ant with an abdominal peduncle plainly

[10]

239

SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE,

1902.]

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[11]

240 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [Nov. 4,

visible both in a dorsal and a profile view. A species of Oberea
near rubetra (6), and probably a form of it, is really intermediate
in character between these two sets of mimics, the elytra being
brown anteriorly (basally) and black posteriorly. The remaining
species of QOberea mentioned in the table mimie the reddish-
ochraceous Braconids. 0. insoluta and the species of Vupserha
have a pale golden pubescence on the basal abdominal segments,
and QO. sp. (10) has a similarly situated greyish pubescence: in
every case this coloration is not so effective as the white patches
of O. brevicollis, &e. ; but these unicolorous Obereas are so much
more active on the wing, so much more Hymenoptera-like in
their actions when resting on a leaf or twig, that when they are
alive one is much more apt to mistake them for their models than
their bicolorous congeners. In other words, these unicolorous
Obereas compensate for the imperfection (from a mimetic point
of view) of their coloration by their close approximation to the
actions of their models. O. consentanea (8 & 9), O. sp. near
rubetra (6), and O. n. sp. (10) have the elytra clothed with a
delicate silky-grey pubescence, especially in the posterior two-
thirds, the appearance varying according to the position in which
the insect is held; and these species mimie Braconids with the
outer third of the wings pale fuscous, the varying reflections of
the elytra giving a similar impression to that produced by the
semitransparent fuscous parts of the model’s wings.

Glenea tresine (Pasc.) is a small blue species; the middle third
of the elytra is brown, shading anteriorly into blue, posteriorly
into greyish white; the model is a small blue Hylotoma, and
when the wings are laid back the resemblance between the two
species is striking ; the blue anterior third of the beetle’s elytra
corresponds to the posterior part of the //ylotoma’s thorax, the
brown portion to the abdomen with the superposed wings, the
greyish posterior third to the tips of the wings of the model,
which project beyond the end of the abdomen.

Turning to the family Cerambycide, we find that the sub-
families Callichromine and Necydaline present in the reduction
of the elytra a marked Hymenopterous appearance. Vothopeus
Jasciatipennis (C. O. Waterh.) has already been figured and
described (Trans. Ent, Soc. 1885, p. 369, pl. x.). Vothopeus sp.
near hemipterus (Fab.) is a large black species with entirely
fuscous wings, and is an admirable mimie of a formidable
wasp, Mygnimia anthracinus (Sm.), which occurs commonly
on Mt. Matang. The buzzing flight and other movements of
these two Nothopei are remarkably wasp-like and so completely
deceived the Museum collectors that they employed the greatest
precautions in transferring the specimens from the net to the
killing-bottle.

A magnificent new species, described by Mr. Gahan in Appen-
dix I]. as WNothopeus intermedius (Plate XIX. fig. 21), was
captured near the summit of Mt. Penrissen together with several
of its models, Salius aurosericeus (Guer.) (Pl: ite XIX. fig. 20).

[12]

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 241

The general colour of the beetle is reddish ochreous, the prothorax
is clothed with a fine golden pubescence ; the prominent black
eyes, the somewhat flattened antenn, and long hind legs closely
correspond with the same organs of the Salius; further, the
elytra, though not shortened, are much reduced in width, rapidly
narrowing from a breadth of 3°5 mm. at the base to 1 mm. at the
apex, so that the clear golden wings are very imperfectly hidden
and add not a little to the general wasp-like appearance. When
seized, this beetle curved down its abdomen in the most charac-
teristic wasp-lke manner, and it was only with the greatest
reluctance and most careful precautions that my Dyak collectors,
to whom I pointed out the insect, captured it. As inthe Obereas,
no representatation has here been made in dorsal view of the
wasp-waist of the model, and for the same reason, namely, that
this is hidden, when the Salius settles, by its wings, and it is
only at such periods of rest that the full effect of the deceptive
resemblance can be appreciated ; that part, however, of the first
abdominal segment of the Vothopews which is visible from the side
and below is clothed with a golden-grey pubescence, which produces
the same effect as in the Obereas.

It is possible that this species of Vothopeus is itself distasteful
like the mimicked genera Chloridolum and Leontium (see later),
but I could distinguish no pungent odour like that emitted by
those genera, and I am inclined to think that its mimetic resem-
blance is its sole defence.

I have lately become acquainted with a mimetic species
belonging to the subfamily Vecydaline (Plate XIX. fig. 12, no. 16
in Table I.), described in Appendix II. as Psebena brevipennis, and
I therefore add some details of its habits and of the mode in which
the mimetic resemblance is attaimed. The species in question
mimics with a remarkable degree of accuracy one of the common
red-and-black Braconidee: these Hymenoptera, as already shown,
serve as models to a considerable number of species of Oberea,
but in none of these latter is a Hymenopterous appearance so
admirably borne as in this, a member of a subfamily for the most
part characterized by a reduction of the elytra. The head and
prothorax are of an Indian red, the wings are purplish-black, the
two anterior pairs of legs are testac eous, the long slender poster ior
pair black with the bases of the femora white: the body is so
slender that the necessity of producing a wasp- waisted effect by
means of lateral white patches, as in some of the above-noted Obereas,
can be dispensed with.

Most of the life of this beetle, as in all Longicorns with reduced
elytra, is spent on the wing, when it is simply indistinguishable
from its model; when it comes to rest the resemblance is still
remarkably exact, and its quick restless movements and habit of
flickering the antennz in all directions are very Bracon-like.
No specimen at all resembling this remarkable species has hitherto
existed in the British Museum.

Of the Necydaline, one species Epania singaporensis (Plate
Proc. Zoot. Soc.—1902, Vou. II. No. XVI. 16

[13]

[ Nov. 4,

MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND

242

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244 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

XXIII. fig. 40, no. 17 in Table I.), Lie its swollen pedunculate
posterior femora and white-tipped wings, resembles very closely
the common little Dammar-bee Moe vidua (Lepel.) (Plate
XXIII. fig. 41); it is remarkably active on the wing and has
doubtless often been passed over by collectors, the least important
of its foes. FH. sarawakensis (18) Wallace found er awling on
timber, and stated “that they were remarkably ant-like”; in
this species the posterior femora are not swollen.

Of the Tillomorphine, Clytellus westwoodi (20) and Halme
cleriformis (19) are almost indistinguishable from ants.

Noves on Taste II.—Longicorns mimicking other Coleoptera.

Excluding, for reasons already mentioned, the subfamilies
Mesosine and Apomecynine, it will be seen that the Saperdine
and Astatheine are essentially the mimetic subfamilies in this
section. Most of the species are extremely common and highly
conspicuous, and I have little doubt but that all are distasteful,
and therefore furnish examples of synaposematic coloration
(Miillerian mimicry). All the species of the genus / ntelopes are
mimetic. #. glauca (Gueér.), red with black spots (Plate XXIII.
fig. 32), is quite Coccinellid in appearance (compare fig. 30),
though more by virtue of its markings than of its shape. This

association of red colour with black spots is so typically a warning
coloration, as een by scores of species of Coccinellide,
that it is impossible to regard the same pattern on a Longicorn
as anything but pseudaposematic or synaposematic. Entelopes
n. sp. near wallacei (Pasc.), an entirely reddish-fulvous species,
has as its model similarly coloured species of the family Galeru-
cide, Metrioidea apicalis (compare figs. 13 & 14, Plate XX.),
which, as will be seen, serves also as model for two species of the

Astatheine. Hntelopes ioptera (Pasc.), with its yellow prothorax
ane blue elytra, and Hntelopes amena (Plate 0-4 fig. 26), with
re ldish prothor ‘ax and blue elytra, also find parallels amongst che
distasteful Galerucide (see the accompanying Table, pp. 249, 243
also Plate XX. fig. 25). Serixia modesta (Pasc.) and S, pceaiee
(Pasce.) are unlike any distasteful species with which I am ac-
quainted; the closely-allied S. prolata (Plate XX. fig. 12) and
S. aurulenta (Pase.) mimic a small reddish-fulvous "Galerucid,
Enidia sp. (Plate XX. fig. 11). The genus .Yyaste is interesting
as it mimics beetles of quite a different nature—the Lycide,
whose distastefulness I have proved by repeated trials with various
small mammals and birds. Yyaste is generically separated from
Serivia by the thickened and pilose basal joints of the antenne ;
the remaining joints, being of exceeding fineness, are more or
less inconspicuous; and it is by this means that the thickened,
flabellate, and short antenne of the Lycide are simulated, whilst
Ephies dilaticornis (Plate XXIII. fig. 18) and Hrythrus apicu-
latus var. (Plate XXITT. fig. 8), also mimetic of Ly cide, have the
antenne shortened and dilated in almost the same manneras their

(16)

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 245

models. Xyaste invida (Plate XXIII. fig. 26) and X. fumosa
(Plate XXIIT. fig. 25) are black with the basal half of the elytra
reddish ; a similarly coloured Lycid model, Melampyrus acutan-
gulus (Bourg.) (Plate XXIII. fig. 23), is common round Kuching.
X. torrida (Pase.) is brownish-testaceous with a corresponding
brownish-testaceous model—Ditoneces sp. (Plate XXIII. ae 29).
Of the Astatheine, Astathes unicolor (Pasc.) (= coccinea Pasc.), a
large species with purplish reflections on the elytra (Plate XX.
fig. 18), has unmistakable models in similarly coloured Galerucids

—Antipha sp. and Ochralea nigripes (Plate XX. fig. 17). The

next three species—A. posticalis (Plate XX. fig. 22), A, flavi-
ventris (Pasc.), A. splendida (Plate XX. fig. "20)—all closely
resemble each other, being dark shining blue anteriorly, red
posteriorly ; Toe ae as its name signifies, has a yellow ab-
domen, whilst splendida has a red head and prothorax. The
latter species mimics an equally resplendent Galerucid— Caritheca
mouhoti (Plate XX. fig. 19), and the slight differences between
A. flaviventris and A. posticalis are paralleled in two closely-allied
Galerucidee—Antipha abdominalis (Jac.) and A. ?nigra (Alld.)
var. (Plate XX. fig. 21), the former of which alone has a yellow
abdomen. A. caloptera (Pasc.), a blue species, finds a model in
Haplosonyx albicornis (Wied.) (compare figs. 23 & 24, Plate XX.,
and see explanation of this Plate for a few further examples given
in Table IT. but not again mentioned in the text).

The remaining genera of the subfamily, as represented in
Borneo, have corresponding models, also among the Galerucide,
the resemblance between Ochr ocesis evanida (Pase. )and its model,
Hoplasoma wunicolor (Ill.) var. ventralis (Baly), being very
exact. All these genera—Tvropimetopa, Chreonoma, and Ochro-
cesis—are unicolorous, and form with the unicolorous Saperdine.
and numerous’ Galerucide and MHalticide a large group of
similarly coloured beetles, all of which I consider to be dis-
tasteful.

The subfamily Hippopsine contains four species, each mimetic
of a species of the Rhynchophorous family Br enthide. The first,
Alibora sp., mimics Baryrrhynchus dehiscens (Sch.) (compare
fig. 3 with 1 & 2, Plate XX.). The general colour of both model
and mimic is a rich chestnut-brown, variegated on the elytra
with bright yellow streaks and spots ; the three basal joints of
the antenne of the Longicorn are clothed biramously with long
and close-set hairs. In the natural attitude the elongated scapes
are closely pressed together, the remaining joints gradually
diverging, the result being a remarkable resemblance to the
head with its elongated rostrum and shorter antenne of the
Brenthid, which only a closer examination proves to be deceptive ;
the short. legs of the mimic add still further to the resemblance.

All the other three species of Hippopsine mimic extremely
common species of the Brenthid genus Diuwrus (Plate XX.

T have not included in the table all the unicolorous Galerucide and Halticide
with which I am acquainted ; those that are included are merely typical examples.

[17]

246 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4

figs. 4,5, 6). The Brenthids are extremely variable in both sexes,
in the matter of size, in the shape and length of the terminal
processes of the elytra, and in the amount. of scaling on the
head and antenne. The three species here noted range in
length from *75 in. to 1:5 in.; and it is of exceptional interest
that three mimetic Longicorns of sizes corresponding closely to
these forms should be found in a more or less closely circum-
seribed area, and all belonging to the same subfamily.

In the first couple Diwrus syle anus (Senna) (a female) measures
1:5 in. in length, and the mimic /goprepis insignis (Pasc.) is of
corresponding length (compare figs. 4 & 7 on Plate XX.). Both
species are dark brown, relieved with pale ochreous streaks and
spots; the Brenthid has the prothorax and elytra densely and
deeply punctured, the punctures on the elytra being arranged in
close-set rows. Both on the prothorax and elytra each puncture
is occupied by a peculiar scale, lenticular in shape and pale
ochreous in colour; these produce the pale ochreous streaks
characteristic of the beetle (fig. 4a). The head and antenne
are covered by similar scales, more closely set and not imbedded
in punctures; each elytron terminates in a somewhat sharp
point, the homologues ‘of the long, narrow, terminal processes of
the male.

The mimic has the ground-colour of the prothorax and elytra
black, and thei dor sal surfaces ar e covered with tufts of a fine
pale ochreous pubescence (fig. 7a); these represent very well the
seales of the Brenthid, and a very similar mottled appearance is
thus produced in both species by totally different means. The
elytra of the Longicorn do not terminate in sharp points correspond-
ing to the points of the Brenthid’s elytra, as in the two species
mentioned below. The rostrum of the model is shghtly longer
thanin Baryrhynchus dehiscens, but the antenne are shorter and
thicker; and similarly we find that the antenne of the mimic,
which, when carried in the natural attitude (7%. e., pointing
forward and closely apposed), simulate the rostrum and antennie
of the Brenthid, are plumose for a greater part of their length
than in Alibora sp., whilst the free portion is short and thick,
not Jong and setaceous as in the Alibera. Both model and mimic
were taken on a fallen log close together.

Eetatosia moorei (Pasc.) is a mimic of D. shelfordi (Senna) (¢ ),
a species of medium size, 1 inch in length (compare fig. 10 with 6
and 10a with 4a on Plate XX.). The simulation is as perfectly
earried out and by the same means as in -2goprepis insignis,
with this addition, that the elytra terminate in sharp points
corresponding to the same points in the Brenthid. The length
of the mimic from elytra tips to termination of the plumosity of
the antenne is approximately the same as the length of the model
from elytra tips to tip of the rostrum. :

Another and a smaller species, Dymascus porosus (Pasc.)
(Plate XX. fig. 9), mimics—again by the same means—a small
Jriurus forcipatus (Westw.) measuring only ‘75 inch in total length

[18]

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 247

(fig. 5). The model may be a male or female, as in such small-
sized specimens the male does not bear the long elytral processes
characteristic of large or medium-sized varieties, the elytra are
merely produced into short points ; these short points are mimicked
by the Longicorn very exactly.

Stegenus dactylon (Pase. ) of the subfamily Agniine is also a fair
mimic of a large-sized Diurus sylvanus (compare figs. 8 & 4 on
Plate XX.). As in Wgoprepis insignis, the body is blackish-
brown streaked with a pale ochreous pubescence (fig. 8a); the
basal two-thirds of the antenne are clothed with a dense black
plumosity ; the remaining joints are ochreous and pale in colour.

Elelea concinna (Pase.), one of the Mesosine, also mimics in the
same manner a small Brenthid, Avrhenodes sp., as previously
noted by Wallace, who remarks that it carried its antennze
“ straight and close together, appearing like a Brenthid.”

Another of the Mesosine—Zelota spathomelina (described by
Mr. Gahan in Appendix I. to this memoir)—mimies an Endo-
mychid, a species of Spathomeles near turritus (Gerst.) (compare
figs. 57 & 56, Plate XXIII.). The model, which is not represented
in the Baitish Museum collections, is pitchy-black with two
reddish spots on each elytron; springing from each elytron is
a stout spine directed somewhat forwards, forming a very
efficient defence against the attacks of enemies. It is not
improbable, moreover, that this beetle is still further protected
by some distasteful properties, which, at any rate, are possessed
by the species of the genus Mumorphus of the same family,
an assemblage of black or purplish insects with conspicuous
yellow spots. All of these possess a very pungent though not
altogether disagreeable odour, whilst many exude a yellowish
acid fluid when seized. The mimic of the Spathomeles is
coloured in much the same way as its model: on each elytron
there is a mamilliform prominence, from which springs a poimted
tuft of delicate hairs, which is curved slightly forwards. ‘These
tufts so closely resemble the formidable spines of the model that
a near inspection with lens and finger is necessary to reveal the
deception. Another Endomychid beetle, Amphisternus mucro-
natus (Gerst.), is also a probable model of the same species of
Longicorn.

The aberrant Trachystola granulosa (Pasc.), which was placed
provisionally in the subfamily Dorcadionine, with its deeply
punctured and granulate elytra, presents the general appearance
of a large black Cureulionid, such as Sipalus granulatus (Fab.),
Ww ithout, however, exhibiting any very highly modified mimetic
characteristics, as in the species previously discussed.

Daphisia pulchella (Pasc.) is a highly conspicuous little beetle
of the subfamily Phytectine, and is almost indistinguishable from
two species of Clerid of the genus Callimerus (compare fig. 55
with figs. 53 & 54 on Plate XXIIT.).

|The resemblance of the Cleride as a group to widely different
Coleoptera and to insects of other orders is well known. Looking

[19]

248 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [Nov. 4

through the fine collection in the Hope Department, two chief
types of deceptive coloration were seen to be predominant, viz.,
that of Mutillide and Cantharide. While the constant repetition
of a single very distinctive Hymenopterous type is remarkable, it
must not be for gotten that the Cantharid appearance, orange
with black transverse bands, is furthermore strongly suggestive of
one of the commonest and most conspicuous types of colouring in
the Hymenoptera Aculeata. In addition to these predominant
types other deceptive resemblances were common, viz., to Phyto-
phaga, Lycide, ants, and apparently, in the case ‘ef certain
Australian species, to Cetoniidee. All the species of the interesting
genus Allochotes (Westw.) were Coccinelliform. The interesting
question arises as to whether these resemblances are Batesian
(pseudaposematic) or Miillerian (synaposematic). The latter
interpretation is strongly supported by the inter esting discovery
by Mr. Shelford of the mimicry by the Longicorn Daphisia of two
species of the Clerid genus Callimerus, possessing an independent
warning coloration. The conspicuous appearance, abundance,
and habits of the species of this genus are entirely consistent
with the explanation of their colours and pattern as aposematic.
Fig. 49 on Plate XXIIT. shows a Clerid, Z%llicera sp., resembling
a Mutillid, near Urania (Sm.) (fig. 48); fig. 52a Clerid, Tenerus
sulcipennis (Gahan), resembling a Lycid, ”Metriorrh ynchus atro-
Juscus (fig. 50 & 51); while figs. 53 and 54 show the Clerid species
of Callimerus resembled by the Longicorn. The whole group was
obtained by Mr. Shelford from the vicinity of Kuching, and it
strongly suggests that the Clerid mimics (figs. 49 & 52) are really
synaposematic. —KE. B. P.]

In the Cerambycide, Collyrodes lacordairei (Pasc. i is the most
remarkable mimic of the Cicindelan genus Collyris. Sclethrus
amenus (Gory) is also remarkably like ‘the genera Tricondyla and
Collyris with its dark blue body and bright red legs, of which the
hind pair are considerably elongated (compare “fig. 11 with 5
and 3 on Plate XIX.). It is much less common than its model,
but is found in the same situations and always tries to escape its
captor by running swiftly just like the Tricondyla. The other
five species mentioned in this section of the table, Zphies dilati-
cornis (Pase. )s the three species of Hrythrus, and Pyr = eximius
(Pase.), mimic species of the Lycide (see group of figs. 4 to 8,
12, 19, Plate XXIII). P. eximius with its elongated ‘prothorax
is perhaps less Lycid in appearance than the other species.

Erythrus vir idipennis, with black head, red thorax, and green
elytra, is a mimic of one of the Melyride, similarly colour ed,
Prionocerus ceruleipennis (Perty) (Plate XXIII. figs. 58 & 59).
All these species of Erythrus were taken in great abundance on
Mt. Matang, and I am strongly of opinion that the entire sub-
family Pyrestine is a distasteful one: the mimicry in this case
is therefore Miillerian. phies dilaticornis, on the other hand, I
am inclined to regard as a Batesian mimic; it 1s rare, a closer
mimic, and belongs to an essentially mimetic subfamily (ef.
Table ITT.).

rn)

249

SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE,

1902.]

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[21]

250 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

In the Cerambycide, the antenne present great diversity of
form—flabellate in Cyriopalus, thickened in “Epipedocera and
Ephies, short in Demonax, Clytus, and many other genera,
enormously elongate in Veoc erambys ceneas ; and we find, perhaps
as a consequence of this plasticity of the antennal form, a close
resemblance in structure and external appearance between the
antenne of the mimetic Cerambycide and their models (e.¢.,
compare antenne of WVothopeus intermedius and Lphies dilati-
cornis (Pasc.) with the antennz of Salius aurosericeus and the
Lycid Metriorrhynchus kirschi (C. Waterh.) respectively) : whereas
in the family Lamiide, nearly all the members of which are
characterized by setaceous or linear antenne, the simulation of
the differently constructed antennze of their models, if attained
at all, is not brought about by actual resemblances in form, but
by such devices as pilosities, modes of holding, or the thinning
away of a portion of the length until it becomes almost aeneile
im comparison with a specially thickened portion (compare the
antenne of Alibora, Lgoprepis, &c., and of Xyaste invida with
those of their respective models).

Norves on Tasxe IL1.— Longicorns mimicking Longicorns.

The only two subfamilies of the Longicornia which serve as
models to the other subfamilies are the Callichromine, a group of
metallie-green beetles protected by a powerful odour, which is
produced by glands behind the ae sternum opening to the
exterior by two pores, and the Clytine. This latter subfamily
includes the well-known Clytus arietis (.), mentioned in many
works on natural history as mimetic of a wasp. Whether this
is a case of Miillerian or of Batesian mimicry can only be
proved by experiment, but I am quite confident that the Bornean
representatives of the group are all highly distasteful. The
extremely conspicuous and strikingly coloured Chlorophorus
(Clytanthus) annularis (Plate XX. fig. 31) was the commonest
beetle on Mt. Penrissen at all elevations: some shrubs simply
swarmed with it, while its movements and its very presence in
such numbers spoke eloquently of some protective characteristic.
Species of the genus Demonax were almost equally common on
the mountain, whilst around Kue thing the species Clytanthus
sumatrensis (Plate XX. fig. 37) and Demonax viverra (Plate XX.
fig. 35) are amongst the commonest Longicorns met with. Such
few experiments | as I have conducted have yielded negative
results. During my collecting expedition to Mt. Penrissen I
naturally had no tame animals with me, and therefore was unabie
to experiment with Chlorophorus annularis, whilst in Kuching
the species of Demonax and Clytanthus, though common enough,
are never obtainable in large enough quantities at one time, a very
necessary consideration when one experiments with that most in-

quisitive of animals, the common Macaque (J/acacus cynomolgus),
[22]
22)

1902. } SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 251

which will devour a single specimen of beetle or butterfly entirely
for the sake of curiosity, only manifesting disgust or the reverse
when that curiosity is fully satisfied.

Of the mimicking species it is not necessary to say much, their
resemblances to their models being in every case most obvious.

Amongst the Lamiide, the Phytwciine again yield the majority
of mimetic species (a newly-discovered Daphisia, yellow in colour,
is banded with black in almost identically the same manner as
C.annularis) (compare figs. 34. & 31 on Plate XX.) ; and amongst
the Cerambycide, the Lepturine are also fruitful in this respect.
One species of Leptwra, with reddish head and prothorax and
yellow black-banded elytra, is closely similar to Demonaa mustela
(compare figs. 40 & 39, Plate XX.): another species allied to
Leptura histrionica (Pasc.), black with cream-coloured bands, 1s
not readily distinguishable from Xylotrechus decoratus (compare
figs. 42 & 41) and one or two species of Demonax. Plate XX.
and its explanation should be consulted for the representation of
other examples given in Table III. but not further indicated
in the text. Polyphida clytoides (Pasc.), Psalanta chalybeata
(Pase.), and Chlorisanis viridis (Pasc.) I have never seen, but
good figures of them are published in Pascoe’s paper on the
Longicornia Malayana (Trans. Ent. Soc. ser. 3, vol. in.), The
remaining mimics of the iridescent green Callichromine, viz.
Nos. (4), (10), and (12) in Table III., are shown in figs. 47, 48,
and 44 on Plate XX. and their models in figs. 45, 46, and 43.

[The mimetic resemblance to the Clytinw exhibited by so namy
species of distantly related Bornean Longicorns is of extreme
interest. The widespread species of this dominant group have
developed, ina great majority of cases, a black and yellow or black
and orange transverse banding, which superficially resembles the
characteristic appearance of wasps and hornets. This rough
resemblance is further heightened by the active movements of the
living beetle, which suggest those of a Hymenopterous rather
than a Coleopterous insect. Such an appearance is found in
Olytine of many species from the whole Palearctic and Nearctic
belt, from Mexico, Malaya, Australia, and probably many other
countries. An Australian species, Arid@us thoracicus (Donovan),
has the deep brownish-orange colour of the alternate stripes, as well
as the comparatively few broad black bands which are character-
istic of wasps from the same region. Clytanthus sex-guttatus
(Lucas) from Morocco suggests the appearance of a Mutillid or
perhaps a Clerid with a Mutillid form of colouring. The
Bornean Selethrus amenus (Gory) mimics the aggressive Coleo-
pterous Tricondyla (Cicindelide), while species of the 7'illo-
morphine, allied to the Clytinw, mimic ants, e. g., Muderces
picipes (Fab.) of N. America and Clytellus westwoodi (Pasc.) of
Borneo. Thus we witness within the limits of one large group
of Coleoptera a great development of mimicry of aggressive
specially protected forms. Such mimicry has been hitherto
assumed to be Batesian (pseudaposematic), although the dominance

[23]

252 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND | Nov. 4,

of the group in which it is manifest, the abundance and wide
range of individuals in the species as well as of the species them-
selves, together with the remarkable predominance of mimetic
resemblances among them—all tended to create a strong suspicion
that the mimicry is Miillerian (synaposematic). This suspicion
is now justified. The discovery of many Bornean Longicorn
mimics of Clytine renders it in every way probable that the
group is specially defended by some unpalatable quality, and
sometimes develops warning colours of its own which are decep-
tively resembled by other beetles, although it usually makes use
of warning colours which are common to more aggressive and
even more highly-protected insects. Thus the conclusions which
were found to hold in the case of the Cleridz (p. 248) also apply,
with equal probability, to the Clytine. Since the above was
written Mr. Gahan has shown me a beautiful example of Batesian
or Miillerian mimicry within the group of Clytine, the common
Demonax walkeri (Pasc.) being resembled in the closest manner
by the rarer Perissus myops (Chev.). Both beetles had come to
the British Museum in a single consignment from Ceylon.
There is similarly a very remarkable resemblance, probably
Miillerian, between NXvylotrechus pedestris and Demonax viverra

compare figs. 29 & 35 on Plate X X.).—E. B. P.
p g

CoLEOPTERA OTHER THAN LonGicorns AS MImics.

Mimic. Tillicera sp., near bibalteata (Gorh.) (Fam. Cleride).
Plate XXITI. fig. 49.
Model. Jutilla sp. near wrania (Sm.). Plate XXIII. fig. 48.

The Mutilla has a red head and thorax and black abdomen,
the second abdominal segment bears a white spot, the third
segment is covered with a creamy white pubescence. In the
beetle, the eyes and front of head are black, the vertex of the head
and the prothorax are red; the elytra are black with one white
band replacing the white spot and another sub-apical band
paralleling the white abdominal segment of the J/utilla. Curiously
enough, the male of this species of JJutilla bears a white band in
place of a white spot, and hence the beetle more closely approaches
the male than the female in its markings: still there is no question
as to which sex serves as the model in this case.

Several specimens of the same species of Zllicera and of a
closely-allied one are in the Hope Collection, Oxford, all collected
by Dr. A. R. Wallace in Sarawak.

IV. LEPIDOPTERA AS MIMICS.

So much has been written, by abler pens than mine, on mimicry
amongst the Eastern Lepidoptera inter se, that I have confined
myself to drawing up merely a table of such mimetic species as
occur in Borneo, with the addition of a few notes on the bionomics
of certain species. Three remarkable examples of lepidopterous

[24

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE, 253

mimics which came under my observation—namely, a sphingid larva
mimicking a snake, a noctuid larva mimicking an ant, a moth
mimicking a plant-bug—deserve, however, further notice and are
here described at length.

i, Mimic. Larva of Cherocampa mydon (Walk.).
Model. A Snake, e. g. Dendrophis picta (Gm.).

I must confess that I have always hitherto regarded as somewhat
fanciful those recorded cases of lepidopterous larvee mimicking
snakes and other vertebrate animals, though experiments have
shown that the resemblances, even when imperfect, serve to
rouse respectful curiosity, if not actual terror, in prospective
enemies. I was therefore singularly delighted to secure a larva
whose resemblance to a snake was so startlingly accurate that I
was for a moment completely deceived.

The general colour was a dark olive-brown, becoming lighter
anteriorly: the head, the first and second and the dorsal surface
of the third and fourth segments were pinkish; at the junction
of the third and fourth segments on each side was an ocellus, not
a huge black disc, out of all proportion to the mimicked head, as
in all the recorded similar examples, but of very nearly the exact
size of the eye in such a snake as Dendrophis picta: the lower
border of this was margined with bright gold (the colour of the
iris In many snakes), giving an upward look and a most malevolent
cast to the countenance; the black of the ocellus was so intense
and glossy that an idea of depth was given, and it was difficult to
believe that one was not looking through a cornea into a pupil.
Running through the ocellus on each side was a broad black
stripe exactly as in Dendrophis picta, while a wrinkled fold on
each side of the lower half of the second, third, and fourth
segments gave an admirable impression of the division between
the upper and lower jaws of a snake. Not the least remarkable
of these extraordinary devices was the flatness of the area bounded
by the two “eye-stripes” on the dorsal surface of the third and
fourth segments; this area together with the first and second
segments were pink, reticulated with fine brown lines and strokes,
giving an impression of the scutes on a snake’s head; they were
particularly well-marked on the first and second segments, being
there more distant and distinct, and looking extremely like the
divisions between internasal and prefrontal shields.

When the larva was moving about with the anterior segments
well expanded, the resemblance to a snake was not so startling,
but directly 1t was touched the terrifying attitude was assumed,
the anterior segments being drawn in and the front of the body
turned towards the aggressor; when, at the same time, the
posterior part of the body was hidden by leaves the deception
became complete, and if effective enough to deceive, even
temporarily, a human being, it must surely be equally effective
in deterring less highly organized and more timid foes.

[25]

254 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

Unfortunately T was unable to test the efticacy of the disguise
for fear of losing the larva, which I was anxious to rear for the
purpose of identification.

ii. Mimic. Larva of « Noctuid Moth (?Genus Tinolius).
Model. An Ant, Heophylla smaragdina (Fab.).

In Jan. 1900 a curious Noctuid larva of the subfamily Quadri-
fine was pointed out to me by Mr. H. N. Ridley in the Botanic
Gardens, Singapore, resting on a leaf of a tree much frequented
by the common red ant Gcophylla smaragdina.

Nearly all the segments of the body are furnished with fragile
tentacle-like processes which are capable of quivering movements,
and so loosely attached that very careful handling was necessary
to secure a perfect specimen.

The arrangement of these tentacles is as follows :—

Segment 1. 3 pairs: 1 pair lateral, 2 pairs dorsal pointing
forwards,
, 2. 8 pairs: 1 pair lateral, 1 pair sub-lateral, 1 pair
dorsal.
3. 2 pairs lateral.
4. Unprovided with tentacles,

” :

,, 0-10. Each with 1 lateral pair.

», ll. 2 lateral pairs.

» 12. 1 lateral pair.

,, 13. 2lateral pairs, the most anterior being very delicate,

the most posterior strong and curved backwards.

Segment 8 is dorsally produced into a sharp-edged prominence.
The anal prolegs are somewhat disproportionately large and can be
widely divaricated ; just above each is a prominent black spot :
the colour of the body is brown of the exact shade of the
(Ecophylla, with a narrow yellow line on each side. When
the larva is irritated, the posterior part of the body is immediately
reared in the air, the anal prolegs are thrown widely apart and
the tentacles, especially the most posterior pair, are violently
agitated. When the caterpillar is seen in an end-on position or
whentheanterior two-thirds of the body are hidden, the resemblance
to the ant is positively startling: the black eye-spots represent
the eyes, the widely-diverging anal prolegs, the gaping jaws and
the tentacles, the antenne and legs of the model; the posterior
pair of tentacles are so curved that they represent very accurately
the elbowed antennz of the ant.

It might be thought essential, in cases of mimetic lepidopterous
larvee such as the two examples just described, that the greater
part of the body should be concealed in order perfectly to deceive
prospective enemies: for example, in the sphinx-moth larva it is
only the head of the snake that is copied, but is it necessary for
the larva, in order to obtain immunity, that it should conceal its
disproportionate shortness of body, thus arguing for it a degree

[26]

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 955

of appreciation of its shortcomings with which such lowly organisms
are not usually credited? It seems to me more re: asonable to
compare such mimetic examples to the pictures of a painter, who
strives not to make an exact copy of a scene or object, but to give
an essential idea or impression of it, unintelligible perhaps to
many, but full of significance to those for whom a picture is more
than a mere photograph i in colours.

[It is not necessary to adopt the improbable view that the
caterpillar has any “appreciation” of the situation, even if we
may reasonably believe that the mimetic resemblance is aided by
partial concealment. A larva living among leaves is apt to be
partially concealed by them and to be protected by the conceal-
ment. The appropriate attitude would arise through natural
selection without the intervention of intelligence on the part of
the larva.—E. B. P.]

The QWeophylla, one would imagine, has firmly established a
reputation for ferocity, and consequently the mimicking Geometer
larva can the more easily deceive its enemies, in spite of its too
elongate body. Only two specimens were found, both were walking
on leaves and were readily distinguishable; but the violently
threatening attitude each assumed when irritated was unmistakable,
and the resemblance of the elevated posterior end to the ant so
striking, that it is difficult to imagine how a lizard or frog with a
previous experience of the ant could fail to be deterred,

I shall have later to draw attention to a Spider which mimics
the same ant, but this is a case with a different significance, viz.,
that the mimic may be enabled to prey undisturbed on its model.

Itis a curious coincidence that, in both the larva and the spider,
it is the posterior end that mimics the head of the
coincidence which possibly has its meaning.

Mimic. Phauda limbata (Wllngrn.). Plate XXIII. fig. 3.
Model. Serinetha abdominalis (Fab.). Plate XXIII. fig. 2.

The head, thorax, and coriaceous part of the elytra are, in this
Hemipteron, of a bright vermilion-red, whilst the membranous
part of the elytra, the legs, and antennz are black. The moth
has the head, thorax, costal margin, and basal half of the fore
wings also vermilion, with the remaining portion black, the hind
wings are coloured in the same way. I had long been familiar
with the moth from cabinet specimens, but until I went to
Singapore and saw the insect alive I had not suspected the
-significance of this very striking coloration. When the moth is in
a state of repose, resting, for example, on a plant-stem, the wings
are laid back and overlap in the characteristic moth- like manner,
and in this attitude the resemblance to the bug is very striking
(compare figs. 3 & 2, Plate XXIII.). The hind wings, although
entirely hidden, nevertheless serve the purpose of giving an
impression of complete opacity to the fore wings, the red and
black areas of which in this attitude overlap the ‘similar areas of

(271

[ Noy. 4,

MR, R, SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND

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17

Proc, Zoou. Soc.—1902, Vou. IT. No. XVII.

258 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND | Nov. 4,

the hind wings. Both mimic and model were taken in daytime

in the Botanic Gardens, Singapore, and both were equally con-

spicuous ; subsequently both species were found in Sarawak *,
The following species are discussed below :—

Mimics. Models.
( Symbrenthia hippoclus )
ene | with the mountain forms. Yellow-and-black Neptis,
~ Cl SS. hypatia var. hippocrene { e.g. N. hordonia, N. tiga §e.
Nymphaline. } ¥ Ba ene } Oar
: | and S. hypselis var. balunda, _
LAthyma spp. .........00.000002s White-and-black Weptis.
Bam. Thrive gama cee tee see eeeereseeceenes Bowylides tha ris. iz
TeGaeace Poritia plateni eveccceeees 2 § Drupadia boisduvalii var. atra.
XS" -\ Arvaotes lapithis ............§ ( Biduanda thesmia.

Notes on TABLE IV.

The females of Huripus halitherses (D. & H.) are extremely
variable, in fact no two specimens of the fine series of this species
in the Sarawak Museum collection are exactly alike, and almost
every specimen deserves a varietal name of its own, as has been
done to a certain extent for the mimetic Papilio paradoxus
telesicles (Feld.) by Rothschild & Jordan (Novy. Zool. vol. i1.).

It is possible, however, to distinguish three main groups. One,
almost entirely dark blue, isa mimic of 7'repsichrois mulciber (Cr.),
and approximates to 4. cimamomeus (Wood-Mason). Another is
dark brown with a blue gloss and an oblique discal white fascia
on the fore wings and some white streaks on the hind wings, and
is a close mimic of Danisepa lowei (Butl.) ¢ ; this group is
nearest to H. pfeiffere (Feld.). The third group, near #. eupleoides
(Feld.), corresponds closely in coloration and markings with
Danisepa lowei 2. A considerable number of variations of this
highly variable species have been separated into distinct species,
but I prefer to regard these as merely varietal names.

The females of Danisepa rhadamanthus (Fab.) (the continental
form of Danisepa lowe?) have much more white on the upper side
and are readily distinguishable from the Bornean representatives,
though the males are practically indistinguishable. In accordance
with this, the continental forms of Huripus halitherses 2 of the
eupleoides type have larger white markings on the upper side
than the insular forms; I have not seen continental forms of
Isbarta rhadamanthus (Fab.) or of Papilio caunus (Westw.),
but I expect that a parallel variation will be found in these. It
is curious that the almost identical males of D. rhadamanthus and
D. lowei are extremely common in their respective localities, whilst,
on the other hand, the female of D. lowei is very rare, and the
very different female of D. rhadamanthus 1s as common as its male.

Hypolimnas anomala (Wall.) is very Eupleeine in its flight as
well as in appearance; it is not an uncommon species and the

1 [A closely similar example of Miillerian mimicry was sent for exhibition to the
Entomological Society in 1894 by Mr. G. A. J. Rothney (see Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.
1894, p. xv). The species Phauda flammans (Walk.) and Serinetha augur (Fab.)
were observed in abundance on roots and trunks of trees in Mysore in Noy. 1893 by
Mr. Rothney.—H. B. P.|

[30 |

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE, 259

resemblance is possibly synaposematic. There are,at any rate, some
good grounds for supposing that 47, misippus (L. )is a Miillerian
mimic of Limnas chrysippus (1..). (See Poulton: “ Mimiery in
Butterflies of the Genus Hypolimnas,” Proc. Am. Assoc. Ady. Sci.
1897, vol. xlvi. p. 242.)

Elym nias nigrescens (Butl.) and allied species are in India and
elsewhere mimics of Huplainw; no Hupleina serving as models
to HL. nigrescens occur in Borneo, though the species is common
enough. The subfamily “Llymniine is an interesting one, as
affording examples of species endowed with a double means of
protection against the attacks of their enemies. The majority of
the Bornean species are on the upper side good mimics of Euploeine
or Pierine models, whilst on the under side they are mottled with
grey and brown, so that when at rest they are indistinguishable
from their surroundings,

Elymnias lais (Cr.) occurred on Mt. Penrissen, and I had
ample opportunities of observing something of its habits. The
male is black above with green streaks, a common type of colora-
tion amongst the Daniint (e52:; Radena vulgaris (Butl.), Caduga
larissa (Feld. ), Parantica eryx (Fab.), &e., &e.), whilst the under
side is mottled. The female is a mimic of 7'repsichrois mulciber
(Cr.) 2, but I have never seen this sex alive. The green-and-
black Danaines Caduga larissa (Feld.) and Parantica crowleyt
(Jenner Weir) were abundant on Mt. Penrissen, so much so,
indeed, that after two days’ collecting they were left in peace.
Their flight was leisurely and flaunting, so that they were always
readily distinguishable. Their mimic, the H/ymnias, flew more
rapidly, but even then attracted one’s attention as being remark-
ably similar to its models. By the time one had realized the true
nature of the insect, it had flown past and a critical moment was
gone. If the butterfly was followed up, it would be seen to settle
on some twig or stalk with the wings closed, but on coming up to
close quarters one might search for it in vain; any sudden move-
ment would cause it to dart away, displaying once again its
Danaine coloration, to some other resting-place, and so the hunt
would be continued ad nauseam.

Elymnias godferyi (Dist.) mimics Delias aglaia (Linn.), and
has on the under side some appropriate yellow and red markings,
which are, however, somewhat obscured by mottlings of brown.
We have here, in fact, a species which is beginning to discard a
uniform mottled under side in favour of brighter mimetic colora-
tion, such as is seen in some species from New Guinea and the
neighbouring islands, which mimic very closely on both surfaces
of the wings Eupleeine and Pierine butterflies, and have discarded
entirely a protective coloration.

Elymnias aroa, sp. n., is described in Appendix I. to this
paper: only two specimens were captured. It is a fairly good
mimie of Z’ronga crameri (Lucas), which occurred with it.

The common day-flying moths the Agaristid Scrobigera hes-
perioides (Wtk.) and the Chaleosid Hterusia obliquiaria (Ww Ik.) are’

Ve I fi
[31]

260 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [Nov. 4,

closely similar in wing pattern and colour (compare figs. 7 & 8,
Plate XXI.); their coloration recalls that of Heliconius clysonymus
(Latr.) and H. ricini (.) of S. America and of the common
Oriental Cethosia hypsea.

{The majority of the Chaleosid synaposemes named in Table LV.
are shown on Plate XXI., together with their Eupleeine, Pierine,
and Agaristid models. The resemblance to the Pierine is so much
more striking and the patterns so much more detailed and varied on
the under sides of the wings, that this aspect is alone represented
in the case of both Pierime models and their Miillerian mimics
(figs. 1 to 6, Plate XXI.). Delias cathara (Grose-Smith) is very
vare, whilst its mimic Callamesia pieridoides (W1k.) (compare figs.
5) & 6) is comparatively common,a fact which supports the Miillerian
interpretation. A comparison of the whole series of Chalcosid
mimics and their models leaves no doubt that the moth is the
mimic and the butterfly the model, even though the former be
common and the latter rare.—E. B. P.|

The species of Symbrenthia and of Athyma have a close resem-
blance to the Neptides, all of which are highly distasteful. The
association in this case is probably Miillerian.

The extremely common Lycenide Hoxylides tharis, Drupadia
boisduvalii, and ‘Biduanda thesmia are mimicked by Thrix gama,
by dAraotes lapithis, and by Poritia plateni. In this case the
mimicry is Batesian. Mr. de Nicéville, in his ‘ Butterflies of
India,’ vol. iii. p. 11, gives a list of mimetic Lyceenidee compiled
by Doher ty, but he informs me that Doherty conducted no
experiments to prove the correctness of his association of the
various species in mimetic examples. I am, however, quite
certain that 2. tharis, D. boisduvalii, and B. thesmia are distaste-
ful species, whilst the great rarity of the mimicking species
points to the conclusion that they are Batesian mimics.

V. DIPTERA AS MIMICS.

A complete list of the mimetic flies of Borneo would comprise
at least one-third of the total number of species, but inasmuch as
the hterature on the Malayan Diptera and their Hymenopterous
models is both scanty and scattered, I think it advisable to post-
pone the compilation and discussion of such a list until our know-
ledge of these two orders as represented in the East is increased
and more systematized. I therefore select for special notice and
description eight species only, each of which exhibits some note-
worthy modifications of structure and habit, produced in the
attainment of a likeness to its respective mimic.

Mimic. Zaphria sp. near terminalis (v.d. Wulp). Plate XXIT:
fig. 10.
Model. Salius sericosoma (Smith). Plate XXII. fig. 9.

This large and handsome fly is not infrequently met with in
the neighbourhood of Kuching, and the immunity which it

P39]

J

os
—_—

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE.

enjoys is doubtless due to the closeness of its resemblance to an
equally conspicuous Salius, an ally of which has already been
noted as the model of a Longicorn beetle. The fore wing of the
Laphria is large, almost as broad as both fore and hind wing
together of the Saliws and of the same clear golden-brown. The
thorax, as in the wasp, is covered dorsally with a golden pubes-
cence, whilst the abdomen, like that of the model, is black, and
terminates in a sharp tufted point very suggestive of a sting.
All the tibia and tarsi are ochreous, but the black and thickened
femora are very unlike those of the Salius. No attempt at
mimicking the long ochreous antenne of the wasp is made, as in
some other Diptera shortly to be described (compare figs. 9 & 10,
Plate XXII). The buzzing, noisy flight of this fly is very like
that of its model.

{In the natural attitude of rest it is probable that the black
femora of the ty are held upright and near to the body, so that
the ochreous parts of the legs would alone be conspicuous. It is
noteworthy that the under sides of the anterior femora are
ochreous, suggesting that the anterior limbs may in certain
attitudes be raised, or, at any rate, that they are held so that this
wrt IS More Conspicuous than any other femoral surface. It is
probable that this special colouring is directed to meet a view
from the front. It is to be hoped “hat future observations will
be specially directed to these points. This fly belongs to the
family of the Asilide (subfamily Laphrine), the most formidable
and predaceous of Diptera, and it is quite possible that the
resemblance to a wasp is Miillerian (synaposematic) rather than
Batesian (pseudaposematic).—E. B. P.]

Mimic. Hyperechia fera (v.d. Wulp). Plate XXII. fig
Model. Vylocopa latipes (Drury). Plate XXII. fig. 1.

No more remarkable proof of the plastic ity of the Dipterous
form could be advanced than this remarkable insect. The lar ge,
clumsy Yylocopa, with its bronzy wings and thick furry legs,
would seem to be an eminently unsuitable and difficult model 0
copy ; and it would be most instructive, if only it were possible, to
trace the steps by which this fly has arrived at what at first sight
appears to be the pitch of mimetic perfection. As a mi tter of
fact the fly is extremely rare, and one can only conclude that the
mimicry, exact though it seems, has failed to preserve the species
as a dominant one.

The head is characteristically Dipterous; the thorax is of
shining blue-black, clothed with a fine dense pubescence, coarser
and longer on the sides: ; the broad, flattened abdomen is laterally
herdered with a fringe GE long ae exactly as is the case w ith
the Xylocopa, and terminates in a fine tufted process suggesting
a sting. As in JY, latipes, all the legs are remarkably hairy and
sturdy, particularly the last pair, and are of much the same
length. The wings are of a bluish-bronze hue : the downwardly-

rQaQ7
| >
L e

262 MR. R, SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND | Nov. 4,

curved submedian vein in the wing of the fly represents the
junction between the fore and hind wings of the bee, and the areo-
let of the hind-wing of the bee also finds its parallel in the
alula of the fly. The halteres are quite concealed amongst the
hairs on the sides of the thorax, I have only seen one solitary
specimen of this fly (Kuching, Feb. 1899), and have nothing to
record of its habits beyond stating that both on the wing and at
vest it was exceedingly difficult to distinguish from the common
A. latipes (compare figs. 1 & 2, Plate XXIT.).

[ It is possible that the fly is constantly mistaken for a Xylocopid,
and that it is not nearly so rare as it appears to be, The genus
is widespread, and Mr, G. A, K. Marshall has sent me an equally
beautiful example from Mashonaland, In this case the insect
Is unique (it has been recently described as Hyperechia marshalli
(Austen)), but Mr. Marshall’s notes clearly indicate the reason of its
rarity. It must be remembered also that the extreme perfection
of the resemblance is aided by the rapid flight and alertness of the
fly. Hzyperechia belongs to the same family and subfamily as the
species last described, and here, too, the Miillerian interpretation
must be taken into account. ia fact Mr, Roland Trimen, to
whom I showed the African specimen, expressed the opinion, from
his experience of its allies, that it is a far more formidable insect
than its model. The strengthening and curvature of the sub-
median vein in the fly’s wing, which apparently represents the
junction between the bee’s fore and hind wings, is an instance of
the attainment of a detail in the resemblance by a very slight
alteration of form ; for the vein in the last-described species of fly
pursues nearly the same curved direction, although the line of
junction of the wings of its model is nearly straight. In both
species of fly there is a slight break in the even contour of the
margin at the point where this vein reaches it, which is very
suggestive of a junction between fore and hind wings, while the
eurve of the margin is changed on either side of the break in such
& manner as further to promote the resemblance.—E. B, P.]

Mimic. JJilesia vespoides (Wlk.). Plate XXII. fig. 14.
Model. Vespa cincta (Fab.), Plate XXII. fig, 13.

The large wasp, black with a broad red band on the second
abdominal segment, is closely mimicked by an equally large fly
with the distal half of the second segment and the proximal half
of the third segment coloured red. This red band, though
actually occupying a different position from that of the wasp, is
separated from the thorax by a black interspace nearly equal in
breadth to the wasp’s first abdominal segment, which is also black.
The wings are similarly coloured in both species (compare figs. 13

& 14, Plate XXII),
Mimic, Midas, n.sp, (Fam. Midaide.) Plate XXII. fig. 12.
Model. Macromeris violacea (Lep.). Plate XXII. fig. 11,

Macromeris violacea, a dark blue fossorial wasp, with dark blue

[34]

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 263
wings resplendent with metallic blue sheen, occurs commonly on
the mountains near Kuching. On . Mt. Santubong a fly was
recently captured affording a close resemblance to the wasp.
The body and legs are exactly of the same shade of colour as are
those of the wasp; the wings, though somewhat browner, are
more opaque and possess a ‘blue metoliie sheen sufficiently
deceptive. Their size is large (larger than the fore wing alone of
the wasp), and it is inter esting to note the same downward curve
of the submedian vein as was found in Hyperechia fera, suggesting
the line of junction between a fore and a hind wing. The
antenne are fairly long, though far shorter than those of the
wasp. I have not seen “this species in the living state, but even
as a cabinet specimen it is a remarkable case of deceptive resem-
blance (compare figs. 11 & 12, Plate XXIT.).

Specimens of this fly from the Philippines and Tenasserim are
in the British Museum collection of Diptera.

Mimic. Physocephala sp. (Fam. Conopide.)
Model. J/schnogaster micans (Sauss.).

This example has been selected at hazard from a large number
of similar thin-waisted flies, chiefly Syrphidee and Conopide, as
typical of the method by which the simil: arly built Humenide and
Vespide are mimicked. The first abdominal segment. is much
attenuated and drawn out, those following are thickened; the
transparent wings are shaded with fuscous on their anterior
borders, in accordance with a similar arrangement in the wasp ;
the head is the only part which exhibits any of the yellow
colouring of the model.

vi. Mimic. Gen. et sp.? (Fam. Stratiomyide, subfam. Raphio-
cerine.) Plate XXII. fig. 6.

Model. JWesostenus sp. near pictus (Smith). Plate XXII. fig. 5.

Both species were taken on Mt. Penrissen on the same day,
and the similarity of their external appearance was equalled by
the similarity of their method of flight and action when at rest.
The Ichneumon-fly was common enough, and was frequently seen
to hover over a plant for a few minutes, then suddenly drop
down and pitch on to a leaf, over which it would walk, moving its
white-banded antennee up and down with a quic ik flickering
movement. The fly, of which only one specimen was caught,
behaved in exactly the same manner; it would hover, then
suddenly settle and walk over a leaf on its mid and hind pairs of
legs, waving rapidly up and down its long front legs, the tibiee of
which being black and the tarsi white, most closely resembled
the antenne of the Ichneumon-fly. The femora were kept more
or less pressed against the ventral surface of the head, so that the
sham antenne seemed actually to arise from the correct position.
This method of bringing about a resemblance to long antennz is

[35]

264 MR. R, SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

also made use of by several species of Calobata and allied genera,
but in the case here deseribed the mimicry of an Ichneumon-fly
is carried still further, inasmuch as the coloration is almost
identical in both species, viz., black with yellow spots on the head
and thorax, with alternate yellow bands on the abdomen, while
the legs are ochreous with a black band at the apex o the
femora and tibie. Furthermore, the ample clear wings are very
similar in both mimic and model (compare figs. 5 & 6, Plate XXIT.).
The nearest allies of this remarkable fly occur in S. America.

Mimic. ? Vylophagus sp. (Fam. Leptide.) Plate XXIT. fig. 8.
Model. Jesostenus sp. Plate XXII. fig. 7

This example is remarkable for the great elongation of the
antenne of the fly. In the previous case it was seen that the
long antennze of the model were represented by the fore legs of
the mimic, but here there is an actual copy produced by means
of a very unusual modification amongst the Diptera. The
mimicry is so perfect that it will almost bear a close scrutiny
through a lens; the large eyes, prominent clypeus, and maxillary
palps ‘of the fly give the head, even when thus closely examined,
a characteristic Hy menopterous appearance. For the rest, the
coloration is almost identical in both species: black with yellow
spots and bands (compare figs. 7 & 8, Plate XXIT.). The larva of
the fly was found im decayed wood and presented no very extra-
ordinary features.

viii. Mimic. Sepedon sp. near javanicus (Desv.). (Fam. Scio-
myzide.) Plate XXIT. fig. 4.
Model. Collyris emarginata (Macl.). Plate XXII. fig. 3.

It is not usual to find amongst the Diptera species which
minue any other order of insects than the Hymenoptera. This
example anda species of Celyphus, which only very doubtfully
can be considered as mimicking a small bug, are the only cases
known to me.

Both of the species now under discussion were caught together
on the wing on Mt. Serambu, Sarawak, and when seen alive and
actively moving about were not readily distinguishable. As
cabinet specimens they furnish an imstance of the importance of
field-work in the study of mimicry, and of the unreliability of
dead impaled insects or mere figures unless, indeed, both are
prepared with reference to careful observations of the living
forms. ‘The fly when alive was of a very brillant blue like that
of the Collyris, but the colour has now faded to a dusky indigo,
while the abdomen being much shrunk detracts considerably
from the previous resemblanc e. The legs are brilliant red, and
constituted one of the most conspicuous fe: tures of both fly and
heetle (compare ft igs. 3s 4 Plate NOSE.)

>i

i)
for)
ou

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE,

VI. RHYNCHOTA AS MIMICS.

a. Rhynchota Hemiptera.

Mimic. A eduviid, sp.
Model. Bracon, sp.

The bug has the elytra, wings, and dorsal surface of the body
reddish ochraceous as in certain common Braconide ; the abdomen
beneath is white; the apex of the coriaceous part of the elytra
is black, thus resembling the black stigma on the fore wing of
the model; while both elytr a and wings are suffused with fuscous
as in the model. So perfect is the resemblance between the two
species that the bug was placed in a cabinet together with several
other Hymenoptera, and the mistake was only discovered quite
recently whilst attempting to arrange the museum collection of
Braconidee.

Another species, probably of the same genus of bug, mimics
another similarly coloured species of Bracon in the same manner
as above described.

[See also under section Convergent Groups for other examples
of mimetic Hemiptera. |

(. Rhynchota Homoptera.

Mimic. /ssus bruchoides (W1k.). Plate XIX. fig. 10.
Model. Alcides, sp. (Curculionidee.) Plate XIX. fig. 9.

This remarkable little Homopteron, one example only of which
is in the British Museum from Sumatra, occurs not uncommonly
at Kuching on fallen logs or on living wood, whilst the Weevil
is frequently found beneath the bark of fallen logs, sometimes in
the very logs on the surface of which is found the mimic.

The whole appearance of the mimic with its hard convex elytra
and deceptively powerful legs is very weevil-like, and the resem-
blance was evidently noted by the describer. The fore legs are
much flattened and in side-view correspond closely in appearance
to the powerful fore legs of the Alcides (compare figs. 9 & 10,

Plate XTX.).

VII. SPIDERS’ AS MIMICS.

Mimic. Cyrtarachne conica (O. Pickard-Cambridge),
Model. 4 mollusc.

The abdomen of this Spider is many times Jarger than the
cephalothorax and is dorsally produced into a cone, which appears
as if tilted backwards. The colour of the inet is creamy or
yellowish white, marked with fine black and greenish lines ‘and
mottlings, ari ranged in a somewhat concentric manner so as to

1 The Spiders here noted were described in P. Z.S. 1901, i. p. 11 ef seq. pl. v.
Cyrtarachne conica Was W rongly recorded HS occurring in Singapore.

266 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

represent very closely the whorls of a spirally coiled snail-shell,
such as [elix.

The spider occurs in Kuching, and is generally found resting on
leaves, sometimes with the cephalothorax turned right under the
abdomen, in which position it is readily mistaken for a snail-
shell, or with the cephalothorax in the normal position, In the
latter case, if disturbed, this part of the body is immediately
doubled under the abdomen and the animal usually rolls off the
leaf, especially if a small one, and becomes lost in the decaying
vegetation carpeting the ground below. I have been unable to
discover any web, nor have I seen the manner in which the
animal hunts or seizes its prey, but it seems probable that this
is an example of one of those doubly significant devices whereby
an animal is enabled not only to avoid its foes (in this case pre-
datory wasps) but also to approach its own prey unobserved.

[It is possible that this resemblance is cryptic ‘ather than
mimetic. The former interpretation seems to be valid in the
case of the British larva Aspilates gilvaria, which also resembles :

snail-shell.—E. B. P.]

ii. Mimic. Amyciea lineatipes (Pickard-Cambridge).
Model. (cophylla smaragdina (Fab.).

T am indebted to Mr. H. N. Ridley for leave to incorporate in
this paper the observations which he has made on this mimetic
species, which as yet I have failed to find in Borneo, The ant
under notice is an extremely common and ferocious species,
chiefly remarkable for its nest-building habits. Mr. Ridley has
described these habits in the Journal of the Asiatic Society,
Straits Branch, 1890, No. 22, p. 345. The spider is of the same
colour as the ant (reddish brown), and bears on the posterior part
of the rather acutely pointed abdomen a pair of black eye-like
spots, so that it is the abdomen of the spider which corresponds
to the head, the cephalothorax to the abdomen of the ant. Both
mimic and model are found together near the nest of the latter,
and so close is the resemblance between the two that the spider
is able to prey with impunity on the ants: I have taken a speci-
men of a spider with the body of an ant sucked nearly dry im
its jaws; and Mr. Ridley has seen an individual pounce on an ant
and then dropping from its foot-hold on a leaf, hang suspended
by a silk thread in order to complete its meal in safety.
No web is spun by the spider, but a round disc of silk, probably
the egg-cocoon of this species, was found on the under surface
of a leaf much frequented by the spider and its models.

ili. Mimic. Salticus attenwatus (Pickard-Cambridge).
Model. An Ant.

Mr. Ridley also sent me from Singapore a remarkable little
Attid with a well-marked constriction about the middle of the

1902.] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 267

cephalothorax and a slender abdominal peduncle, so that the
triple division of the insect-body is well imitated. The abdominal
peduncle appears to bear a small scale and the abdomen is
elongated ; the elbowed antenne of an ant are mimicked by the
anterior pair of legs of the spider. I have not been informed
whether this species, like the preceding, lives in company with
its models,

VIII. CONVERGENT GROUPS.

There are certain combinations of colours in distasteful or
otherwise specially protected insects which may be considered as
warning: such are, black with yellow bands, black with one broad
red band, black with white tips to the wings, yellow or red with
black spots, red elytra or wings more or less broadly tipped with
black ; and we find insects, belonging to the most diverse orders,
with one or other of these combinations of colours converging to
a central form, a typical distasteful insect. Some of these con-
verging forms may be non-immune and pseudaposematic (examples
of Batesian mimicry); others may be distasteful themselves and
synaposematic (examples of Miillerian mimicry). For example,
all the Lycidee are strongly distasteful, as I have proved by
repeated experiments !, and large numbers of them show the same
type of coloration, the anterior third or two-thirds of the elytra
being red, the posterior two-thirds or third black, whilst the head
and thorax are black or red. Resembling the members of this
group are ten species of Longicorns, belonging to four subfamilies,
one Clerid, two Hispids, two Elaters, one Rhipidocerid, one
Eucnemid, or seventeen Coleoptera in all, one moth and several
Hemiptera. The Lycide, then, may be considered as distasteful
insects which are characterized by a definite type of warning
coloration, whilst the coloration of the insects which resemble them
so closely can hardly be looked on as essentially typical of the
groups to which the insects belong. The conspicuous Lycid,
Lycostomus gestrot 2 ,is mimicked by three Longicorns—Lrythrus
apiculatus vav., L. rotundicollis and sternalis, and by Hurycephalus
lundi, by a moth, Phauda limbata, by at least four bugs, of which

Yetatops rubiaceus and Serinetha abdominalis alone have been
identified.

The arrangement of colours in the Lycid Metriorrhynchus
kirschi, in the Longicorns Ephies dilaticornis and Hrythrus biapi-
catus, i the Hispid Gonophora wallacei var., and in a Clerid of
the genus Tenerus (7. sulcipennis (Gahan)) is almost identical.
C laloehromess dispar is mimicked by the Longicorns Pyrestes eximius
and P. virgata, by a Rhipidocerid of the genus Hnnomates, and by
an unidentified Euenemid. The Lycids Ditoneces sp. near fusci-
cornis and Taphes brevicollis, the Lamiid Longicorn A yaste torrida,

1 A strong vitality is correlated with this distastefulness; I have seen a Lycid
beetle walk away apparently uninjured after it had been well pecked by two or three
fowls. The distasteful Endomychidx are also difficult to kill (ef. also vitality of
Danaine, Acreine, ard Heliconine noted by various authors).

[39 |

268 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND | Nov. 4

and the Hispid Gonophora wallacei are much alike in their
general appearance ; and so too are the Lycids Cautires excellens
and Metriorrhynchus acutangulus, the Elaters Agonischius pecto-
ralis and A. (%) sanguineipennis, the Longicorns Nyaste fumosa
and X. invida, and a Reduviid bug.

The association of these species in one convergent group is
represented ina diagrammatic way in Table V. (p. 269) : the species
other than Lycidee which I consider to be distasteful are indicated
by an asterisk, but it is not improbable that others may hereafter
be proved to be Miillerian rather than Batesian mimics.

[The prevalent types of Lycid coloration are very simple,
being uniform red or ochreous or one of these colours combined
with black. The same patterns have an immense range corre-
sponding with the wide distribution of the family over the
warmer parts of the world. Hence this beautiful group of
Bornean insects of many orders which adopt a colouring charac-
teristic of the Lycide could no doubt be paralleled in many
countries. Examples of Lycoid American moths belonging to
distasteful groups are given in Journ. Linn. Soe. (Zool.) vol. xxvi.
p. 969. Mr. G. A. K. Marshall has sent me a wonderful group
belonging to this type, the ground-colour being ochreous, from
Salisbury, Rhodesia. The central type is provided by seven
species of Lycide, and it is resembled by a Telephorid, au
Melyrid, two ‘Phytophaga, three Cantharide, three Longicorns,
many species of Hymenoptera Aculeata, several Hemiptera, a fly
( Yiphocer us),a Zygenid moth, and an Arctiid Moth. This group
is briefly mentioned in the Report of the British Association
(Section D), Bradford Meeting, 1900, p. 793.—E. B. P.]

A second group may be formed out of Coccinellid-lke insects.
All the well-known Coccinellide with red or yellow elytra spotted
with black are the central figures of the group, with perhaps an
excessively common Cassid, Prioptera octopuwnctata ; mimicking
these are a Longicorn, Entelopes glauca (Pasc.), two species of
Lema and a Cureulio, the remarkable new Locustid of a genus
near Gammarotettix, a Pentatomid bug of the subfam. sean,
biachia ducalis (Wlk.), and a spider with large red abdomen
spotted with black. The association is indicated diagrammati-
cally in Table VI. (p. 270); the mimics of Coccinellide, which
are believed to be Miillerian, are indicated by asterisks. Nearly
the whole of the species here mentioned are figured on Plate
XXIII. figs. 30 to 36. The Lema figured (LZ. quadripunctata) is
a less perfect mimic than Z. femorata.

The little Dammar-bee Melipona vidua (Lep.), black with white-
tipped wings, is an extremely common insect in Borneo, and, though
stingless, is protected by its ferocious biting and _ social ‘habits?.

1 A certain tree in the jungle near the Sarawak Museum was known to harbour a
nest of this species; when the bees swarmed it was impossible to approach the
tree without attracting a large number which settled on one’s hair and face and bit
so fiercely that a hasty retreat had to be made. A tame monkey, secured by a
chain and sliding ring to a bamboo pole which contained a nest of another species of
Melipona, refused after two attempts to scale the pole when the bees were swarming
round the mouth of the nest.

(403
Les

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE, 269
TABLE V.
Convergent Group 1.
(Lycoid pattern.)
HEMIPTERA. COLEOPTERA.
Serinetha ne
abdominalis * P CABAL
and LYCID.®. Subfam. Erythrus
Ectatops Pyrestine. rotundicollis. *
rubiaceus * i : Erythrus
and others. PERRIN NS apiculatus* var. Subfam.

GESTROI. “
|
LEPIDOPTERA. |

Phauda |
limbata, *

COLEOPTERA. COLEOPTERA,

Subfam,
Pyrestine.
Erythrus —
sternalis, *

Subfam.
1 7 .
Fam. Fam. CALOCHROMUS _ Pyrestine.
a ae ni p97. D
E uenemide. Rhipidoceride. DISPAR. Pyrestes
Genus & Ennomates eximius and
sp. ? sp. P. virgata.

COLEOPTERA.

Fam, Subfam.
Cleride. | METRIORRUYN- _ Pyrestine.
Tenerus cCHUS Erythrus
COLEOPTERA sulcipennis. * KIRSCHI._ biapicatus. *
Fam.
Hispide. :
fe P : Subfam.
Gonophora ™~ Lepturine.
wallacei, var. * ais
Ephies
dilaticornis.
: CAUTIRES
HEMIPTERA. EXCELLENS
Reduviid. * and
~—~METRIORRHYN-
CHUS ,
ys ia mat Subfam.
: Saperdine.
COLEOPTERA. COLEOPTERA, / Qo, 8
- x / Xyaste
am. Fam. Sumosa
Hlateride. Elateride. and
A gonischius ~ Al ischins AV. invi
? ig uineipennis. gies DisHNeCEs a oN
no sp. near
FUSCICORNIS
and NY
TAPHES
/ BREVICOLLIS. Subfam.
COLEOPTER AY \. Saperdine.
AX yaste
F: yy . es
erie y torrida.
Gonophora

wallacci. *

‘ Ruryphagine.

_— Bu: EINES I
luni. *

VINUOOIDNOT—-V YR LaOULoOo

The species mentioned in this table are figured, almost
without exception, on Plate XXIII. figs. 1 to 29.
[41]

270 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND | Noy. A,
Taste VI.
Convergent Group 2.
(Coecinellid pattern.)
ARACHNIDA.

Genus
&
sp. r
|
ORTHOPTERA. le | é
Genus COLEOPTERA. HEMIPTERA.
near Fam. Blachia
Gammarotettir.——_CoccInELLID2,—_ Se 7 ~ ducalis *.
e.g. CARIA
DILATATA.
Longicornia.
EK nte lopes
glauca.
|
Phytophaga. Curculionide.
Lema ae Apoderus
femorata * ~~ Casside. javanicus.
and Prioptera—
L. quadripunctata *. 8-punctata *. a
ae ad Z et

COLEOPTERA.

There are two species of Protoanthidium coloured in the same
way; and there is a large concourse of insects of different orders
mimicking this type of coloration, viz.: four Hymenoptera; three
species of Bracon, one with very hairy hind femora and _ tibie
simulating the dilated tibia of its model, and a Chaleid, Megalo-
colus notator (Walk.); a Longicorn, Lpania singaporensis (Pasc.) ;
a plume moth ; a Capsid, a Reduviid, and an obscure Homopterous
insect 5 two flies, Holocephala neav hirsuta (v. d. Wulp), and
Toxophora near javana(Wied.). The resemblances between these
mimics and the MJelipona ave in some cases remarkably exact ;
the Longicorn and the Holocephala were taken in the company of
the peese all the mimicking Hymenoptera are indistinguishable
from their model whilst on the wing. In this group I consider
the Melipona to be the central typical warningly coloured and
specially protected insect. Asterisks indicate the convergent
species which are probably synaposematic in the pollowing ‘dia-
grammatic arrangement represented in Table VIT. (p. 271). The
whole of the species are shown in Plate XNIIT. figs. 37 to 47.

[42]

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE.

TABLE VII.
Convergent Group 9.
( Velipona-like pattern.)

HYMENOPTERA.

_— —

yo

Bracon

sp.%*

Megalocolus Bracon
notator %. sp. *

Toxophora
sp. near
| Javana.
COLEOPTERA. |
Hpania HYMENOPTERA.

singa porensis.

VIDUA
and two
species of

——MELIPON A$ a
y

Holocephala
sp. near
hirsuta. |

PROTOANTHIDIUM.

/

LEPIDOPTERA.
Plume- é
moth.

Reduviid *.
Homoptera. \

Genus nr.

Brivia. CU BAEE

HEMIPTERA.

A fourth group is characterized by the following combination
of colours: black head, red thorax, and iridescent green elytra.
This type of coloration is well illustrated by a Melyrid, Prionocerus
ceruleipennis (Perty), a Longicorn, Hrythrus viridipennis (Gahan),
an Erotylid, a Hispid, Botryonopa cyanipennis (Baly), and a Clerid.
It is probable that the whole of these species are synaposematic, as
is indicated in the accompanying Table VIII. Group 4 (p. 272).
Four of the species are represented on Plate XXITIT. figs. 58 to 61.

A fifth group has a broad red band across the middle of the
abdomen; into this will fall two common wasps, Vespa cincta
and Polistes sagittarius, and their mimics, a Sesiid moth, a fly,
anda Mantispa. There is at present no reason for considering
any of the convergent species shown in Table VIII. Group 5 as
other than pseudaposematic. The MJantispa and Polistes are
shown in figs. 27 & 26 on Plate XIX., the Vespa and Milesia on
figs. 13 & 14 on Plate XXII.

[43]

bo
~J
lo

MR. R, SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND {| Nov. 4,
Taste VIII.

Convergent Group 4. Convergent Group 5.

(Probably modified Lycoid pattern.) | (Red-girdled aculeate pattern.)
Fam. DIPTERA, LEPIDOPTERA.
Longicornia. Hispide. Milesia Sasure
Brythrus Botryonopa vespoides. sp.
*

viridipennis. cuani-

pennis *.

| VESPA

M baie ; | CINCTA.
MeLYRID®. PonienRe
PRIONOCERUS SAGITTARIUS,
CHRULEI-
PENNIS.
\
“ \ NEUROPTERA.
"am. Fam. Wanti
5 a Mantispa
Cleride, Erotylide. sp t

gen. et sp. 7% Tetralanguria

pyramidata.* |

There isa considerable assemblage of uniformly-coloured ochreous
species of Phytophaga of the families Halticidee, Galerucide, ete.,
and of mimicking Longicorns of the subfamiles Saperdine and
Astatheine; these, however, are not included in the table, as
sufticient examples have been given clearly to illustrate the wide
distribution of a characteristic type of warning coloration.

APPENDIX I.

1. LEPrporPTrEeERA RHOPALOCERA, by R. SHELFORD.
ELYMNIAS AROA, Sp. n.

é. Dark fuscous brown, with the following cream-whute
markings :— Upper side: fore wing, a submarginal series of spots
commencing from below the discoidal nervule, the last one
double ; some indistinct notching at the external angle; the
external margin is somewhat irregularly scalloped: hind wing, a
sub-discal series of internervular spots and dashes, one of each to
each interspace, the last interspace but one carrying a double

[44]

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE, 273

set, the last a single streak; a series of large submarginal
spots, the last of w hich fuses with the above-mentioned streak,
the others partially or completely distinct ; some marginal
irregular mottlings. Wing rather deeply scalloped and sub,
caudate. Under side pale fuscous; fore wing, costal area black
barred with white, some basal white mottlings, submarginal spots
more distinct than on the upper side; hind wing, some basal
white spots, one below the first subcostal nervule, another just
below the cell, the subdiscal series very indistinct, the sub-
marginal series of large spots distinct, a marginal mottled band
of transverse streaks ‘far more pronounced than on the upper
side, inner margin blackish barred with white. Cilia white and
fuscous alternately. Hxpanse 80 min.

2. Upper side paler fuscous, markings as in the male ; wader side
as in the male but the markings more diffuse. Expanse 93 mm.

Hab. Mt. Penrissen, Sarawak.

Types in the Sar: awak Museum.

The nearest ally of the species appears to be Z. lutescens (Butl.).

CoLEoPTERA LonGaicornta, by C. J. GAHAN.

ZELOTA, gen. nov. (Jesosinarum).

Head deeply concave between the divergent antenniferous
tubers; front slightly convex, narrowed between the eyes; genx
long pad es swollen ; eyes divided, rather finely faceted
Antenne of the male scarcely longer than the body ; scape stout,
subclavate, furnished at its apex with a short spine behind and a
narrow cicatrix in front, the latter completely bounded by a
projecting rim; third joint slender, slightly curved, nearly twice
as long as the first or fourth, armed at the apex with a sharp
spine; 5th to 11th joints very short, together scarcely longer
than the 4th; last five or six joints thickly fringed with long
hairs underneath, the remaining joints being sparsely ciliate.
Prothorax transverse, rounded and unarmed at the sides. Meso-
notum without stridulating area, arcuately emarginate in front.
Elytra but little longer than their conjoined width, prominent es
the shoulders, br oadly rounded at the apex ; Been furnished ¢
little behind the base with a very prominent ridge, saeianted
by a tuft of long hairs tapering to a point in imitation of a spine.
Prosternum strongly arched, almost vertically sloped behind.
Mesosternum short and horizontal behind, subvertical in front.
Legs subequal in length; femora fusiform; middle tibiz without
notch on outer margin; claws of tarsi divergent.

This new genus comes near Cacia (Pase. ) i in the group or sub-
family Mesosine ; andin the same section with it should be placed
the genera Planodes (Newm.) and Calymmophis (Thoms.), which
Lacordaire, on insufficient grounds, withdrew from the Mesosine,
assigning them a place in his “groupe” Monohammides. The
genus Hreis (Pasc.), which was treated by him in the same way,
should also be restored to the J/esosine, finding a place near the
genus Mesosa.

Pkoc. Zoou. Soc.—1902, Vou. II. No. XVIII. 18

274 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

ZELOTA SPATHOMELINA, Sp.n. (Plate XXIII. fig. 57.)

Nigro-cyanea ; capite fere nigro, in fronte subnitido, utringue
pone oculum inferiorem macula rufo-fulvescente notato ;
prothorace transverso, lateraliter rotundato, antice transversim
sulcato, tenwissime griseo-pubescente ; elytris sat dense
punctulatis, nigro-cyaneis aut violaceis, utrisque maculis
duabus aut tribus rufo-fulvis notatis—una communi paullo
pone scutellum, secunda ad marginem externam paullo pone
basin, tertia fere ad medium disci; pedibus nigro-cyaneis aut
violaceis, sparse ciliatis ; tibiis extus in medio albo-cinereis.

Long. 7-8; lat. 34-4 mm.

Hab, Sarawak. 1 ¢ in Brit. Mus., 2 ¢ ¢ from Kuching,
Sarawak (2. Shelford), in the Hope Museum, Oxford.

In the two ¢ specimens in the Hope Museum there is a small
spot of reddish pubescence just under the anterior part of the
lower lobe of each eye, in addition to the somewhat larger rounded
spot of the same kind behind the lobe. In these specimens also
the third reddish spot of each elytron—that placed a short distance
behind the base of the large tufted tubercle, but a little more
externally—is present and distinct, and there is a cinereous patch
crossing the elytra a little in front of the apex.

APPENDIX. IT.

Descriptions of additional Species mentioned and figured in
the accompanying paper.
[Received January 5, 1903. |
1, LeprpopTeErRA Hererocera, by Kart Jorban,

MIMEUPL@A TRISTIS, sp.n. (Plate XXI. fig. 12, 2.)

3. Body olive-black, with a rather feeble greenish-blue gloss ;
under side white-spotted as in J/. rhadamantha. Wings mummy-
brown above and below, not distinctly metallic, except costal
margin of fore wing below and a small dot at base of tore wing
above. Fore wing, upper side: a series of broad creamy-white
streaks from costal margin to SM°*, separated by the brown veins,
the upper ones reaching from margin halfway to cell, the posterior
ones shorter and not quite touching margin. A series of streaks
also on hind wing, but here thin, submarginal. The streaks
present on under side of both wings, broader than above, all
reaching margin,

2. Similar to ¢ ; streaks of fore wing vestigial and narrow
above, the five posterior ones ending proximally in a small white
spot, streak M’-M* much longer than the two above and the one
below it; streaks of under side of fore wing broader than above,
but thinner than in male and much more clayish. No streaks on
hind wing above, but vestiges of them present on underside,
(Neuration of this specimen abnormal on right fore wing.)

Length of fore wing: ¢ 32, 2 36 mm.

[46]

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 27%

Hab. North Borneo: ¢& from Sandakan, June 28, 1894 (D.
Cator, in the Tring Museum); 2 from Kuching, Oct. 1895
(Sarawak Museum, Kuching).

Neuration similar to that of J/. rhadamantha.

2, COLEOPTERA LonericorNta, by C. J. GAAN.

ERYTHRUS ROTUNDICOLLIS, sp. n. (Plate XXIII. fig. 6, ¢.)

Niger, elytris a bast usque paullo pone medium rufis: antennis
quam corpore a quarta parte brevioribus, articulis 5° ad \Qv™
ad apicem antice dentatis ; prothorace lateraliter rotundato,
latitudine maximo ad medium, disco tuberculis duobus parvis
nigro-pilosis vix ante medium positis instructo ; elytris postice
rotundatim attenuatis, utrisque ad suturam breviter dentatis.

Long. 17; lat. 4 mm.

Hab. Mt. Santubong, 2600 ft., February 4, 1900. One male
specimen.

Black, with rather more than the basal half of the elytra red.
Antenne about three-fourths the length of the body, with the
joints from the fifth to the tenth produced into a tooth at the
antero-distal angle. Prothorax rather strongly rounded at the
sides and widest about the middle; the disk with two small
velvety tubercles placed barely in front of the middle. Elytra
slightly widening from the base up to about the posterior third
or fourth, and thence narrowing towards the apex, where each
ends in a small sutural spme; the disk of each with a rather
feeble costa extending from the base to a little beyond the middle.

This species most resembles #. atricollis Pase., but in the latter
the dark apical area of the elytra is less extensive ; the prothorax
is less rounded, 1s widest behind the middle, and on the disk has
but a single median cariniform tubercle.

ERYTHRUS STERNALIS, sp.n. (Plate XXIII. fig. 7, 3.)

Niger, elytris a basi usque pone medium rufis : prothoracis disco
tuberculo mediano inter medium basinque, et utringue tuberculo
parvo paullo ante basin posito, instructo; elytris postice
rotundatim attenuatis, utrisque ad suturam sat valde spinosis ;
prosterno inter coxas tuberculato, mesosterno postice minus
fortiter tuberculato.

Long. 20; lat. 43 mm.

Hab. Mt. Matang, 3600 ft., June 1900. Two male specimens;

in British Museum and Hope Collection, Oxford.

Black, with basal three-fifths of the elytra red. Antenne
about three-fourths the length of the body; fifth joint angulate,
each of the succeeding joints up to the tenth strongly toothed in
front at the apex. Prothorax strongly and thickly punctured,
with a median cariniform tubercle between the middle and the
base, and a small blunt tubercle on each side of the disk nearer to
the base. Elytra rather strongly punctured; the disk of each
with a well-marked costa reaching from the base to within about

tS?
[47]

276 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [ Nov. 4,

one-fifth from the apex. Prosternum rather strongly tuberculate
between the cox; the mesosternum with a smaller tubercle on
its hinder half.

This is the only species of the genus known to me in which the
sternal processes are distinctly caberculaee:

ERYTHRUS BIAPICATUS, sp. n. (Plate XXIII. fig. 19, ?.)

Niger, prothoracis disco et elytrorum basi rufis, nigro-vittatis :
prothorace ruguloso-punctato, sine tuberculis distinctis ;
elytris dense granulatis, postice divaricatis, utrisque in spinam
parvam terminantibus,

Long. 153 ; lat. 34 mm.

Hab. Kuching, Mt. M: atang, 3600 ft., June 1900. One female
example,

Black, with the disk of the prothorax and the basal third of
the elytra partly red, the red of the prothorax being eae
by two black bands extending from the front margin, and by a
small median spot near the base, while the red on the base of the
elytra is divided by a narrow band along the suture, and two
wider bands on each side extending forwards and eradually
narrowing from the posterior black area. Prothorax rugulose
punctate, and showing traces only of the tubercles present in most
of the other species. Elytra very densely granulate, the granules
bearing very minute black sete, which are scarcely evident except
on the rufous areas near the base. Metasternum somewhat
similarly granulate to the elytra, and the abdomen much more
finely so. Antenne of the female about half the length of the
body, with the joints from the fifth to the tenth rather broad, and
angulate at the apex on the anterior side.

The divergence of the elytra from the suture behind and the
granulation of thei surface serve to distinguish this species from
all those hitherto described belonging to the genus.

ERYTHRUS VIRIDIPENNIS, sp. n. (Plate XXIII. fig. 58.)

Niger, pr othorace toto rufo, ee is viridescentibus aut viridi-
cyaneis et opacis; antennis (¢) quam corpore paullo brevi-
ortbus, (2) medium elytrorum vix superantibus, articulis
5° ad 10%" modice dilatatis ad apicem dentatis ; prothorace
obsolete punctato, supra leviter quadri-nodoso ; elytris ecre-
berrime ruguloso-punctatis, apice subsinuatis ad sutwram
breviter spinosis.

Long. 12-16; lat. 23-3 mm.

Hab. Mount Mats ing, near Kuching in Sarawak (3600 ft. alt.),
June 1900. Five examples ; in the British Museum and Hope
Collection, Oxford.

PY othorax ved above and below, elytra of a dull green or bluish-
green colour, all the rest of the body together w ith the legs and
antenne being black. Prothorax indistinctly punctured, fur-
nished with four feeble nodules on the disk, two being near the
middle and two, more widely separated from each other, néar

[49]

1902. } SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE, 277

the base. Elytra very closely rugulose-punctate, gradually
widening from the base backwards , broadly rounded and pughtly
sinuate at the apex, with a short spine on each at the suture

NorHoPEvs INTERMEDIUS, sp. n. (Plate XIX. fig. 21, 3.)

Corpore supra, capite toto, pedibus antennisque fulvis, his versus
apicem infuscatis ; thovace subtus et abdomine nigro-cyaneis,
sed prosterno mesosternoque medio, maculis duabus metasternt
et segmento primo abdominis fulvis, hoe argenteo-sericeo ;
elytris (quod attinet ad hoc genus) perelongatis, apicem
abdominis fere attingentibus.

Long. 27; lat. (pone humeros) 7 mm.

Hab. Savawak, Mt. Penrissen, May 1899. One male example ;

in the Sarawak Museum, Kuching.

Head, antenne (except the last four joints, which are brownish),
disk of prothorax, and elytra tawny red; body underneath bluish
black, but with the prosternum, mesosternum, a spot on each side
of the metasternum, and the whole of the first abdominal seg-
ment tawny, the latter being covered with a silky pubescence
giving silvery reflexions in certain lights. The elytra, though
unusually long for this genus, extending nearly to the apex of
the abdomen, are consider: ably ed from a little behind the
shoulders, and each in its posterior half is scarcely half as broad
as itis at the base. The hind tibiw of the male are thickened
and subeylindrical, narrowed towards the base and very slightly
also towards the distal end.

This species comes nearest in structural characters to Aphro-
disiwm tibiale Rits., from Assain, but differs from it in having
the elytra still more attenuated behind and the front of the head
narrower. Ritsema placed his species in Aphrodisium as an
aberrant member of that genus; but considering the reduction
in the size of the elytra and the ‘peculiar form of the male hind
tibie, I believe it to be better placed in Mothopeus, though
undoubtedly showing strong affinities with Aphrodisiwm. His
species and the one here described are both extr emely interesting
as showing the gradual progress of that modification lending to
the very shortened elytra and the strongly mimetic forms charac-
teristic of the genus Vothopeus.

PSEBENA, gen. nov.

Head short, as broad as the prothorax; eyes finely facetted,
deeply emarginate, with the lower lobes rounded, the upper very
narrow; palpi short and slender. Antenne (?) a little longer
than the body, slender, filiform; 3rd, 4th, and 5th joints sub-
equal to one another, each twice as long asthe 1st; 6th distinctly
shorter than the 5th ; the succeeding joints evadually dimin-
ishing in length. Prothorax subcylindrical, as broad as it is
long. Elytra short, squamiform, not re aching beyond the apex
of the first Ehdominal sternite. Prosternum narrowed behind ;
front coxe prominent, their acetabula angulate outwards and

[49]

278 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND [Nov. 4,

open behind. Mesosternum much broader than the prosternum ;
acetabula of middle cox open to the epimera. Metathoracic
episterna rather broad in front, narrowed behind. Femora
pedunculate at base, gradually thickened into a fusiform club
towards the distal end. Hind legs much longer than either of
the anterior pairs ; first joint of hind tarsi longer than the three
succeeding joints together. Abdomen normal, its intercoxal
process rather broad, and obtuse in front.

This genus, which I was at first inclined to refer to Lacordaire’s
group Psebiine, seems to me, on fuller consideration of its
characters, to be better placed in the Vecydaline, although it
differs from other members of this group in having no anterior
prolongation of the head, the front from the interantennary ridge
to the clypeal suture being relatively very short, and the clypeus

searcely broader than the labium. The Psebiine have certain
Cee , wanting to the present genus, which point to an affinity
with the Auvesine and Methiine, and, through those groups, with
the @mine.

PSEBENA BREVIPENNIS, sp. n. (Plate XIX. fig. 12, 2.)

Capite, prothorace, elytris ad basin, articulo primo antennarum
et pedibus quatuor anterioribus rufo-testaceis ; metasterno
medio testaceo, lateraliter fusco ; abdomine medio et pedun-
culis femorum posticorum pallide testaceis ; ceteris nigro-fuscis
aut nigris.

Long. 13-16 mm.

Hab. Kuching in Sarawak, Sept. 29 and Dee. 4, 1899. Two

female examples ; in British Museum and Hope Oollecnan! Oxford.

Head, prothorax, first joint of the antenne, the four anterior

legs, and the base of the elytra testaceous red. Metasternum
testaceous in the middle, dark brown at the sides. Abdomen
pale testaceous along the ventral surface from the base to the last
segment, this segment and the lateral borders being, like the
upper side, brownish black. Hind legs also black, with the
femoral stalks pale testaceous or nearly white. The head and
prothorax are covered with a very faint reddish pubescence, but
the prothorax has two slightly 1 ‘aised areas on each side bare of
pubescence. The inner portion of each elytron near the base is
very closely punctul ite and covered with a faint pubescence, the
outer and apical parts being sparsely punctulate and more glossy.

CoLEoPTERA: Cleride, by the Rev. H. 8S. Goruam
and C. J. GAHAN.

CALLIMERUS CATENATUS (Gorham). (Plate XXITT. fig. 54.)

Nigro-subceruleus, sgquamis albis ornatus ; capite creberrime
subtiliter, prothorace elytrisque parce distincte punctatis ;
prothorace nitido, oblongo, lateribus parum ampliatis, utringue
uni-impressis, cum marginibus anticis et geek: albo-
sguamosis ; elytris epacis, epicibus oblique truncatis, lunulis

[00 |

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 279

duabus in singulo, externe apertis, albis ; pectore albo ; ore,
antennis, palpis pedibusque testaceis.

Long. 9 mm.

Mas? Tibiis posticis juxta apicem denticulo acuto externe

munitis.

Hab. N.W. Borneo, Kuching.

Alhed to and somewhat resembling C. mirabilis Gorh. Narrow,
elongate, and rather smaller than the unique type of that species ;
clothed (including the legs) with very fine hairs. The white
markings are (as in other species of this genus) composed of
snow-white scales. The pattern is different from that of C. mira-
bilis in that there are on each elytron but two white lunules
unconnected ; each pair form an oblong X, but are scarcely joined
at the suture. The apex is truncate, as in C. mirabilis.

A single example, apparently a male, collected Oct. 6, 1899.

'TENERUS SULCIPENNIS (Gahan),

Niger ; prothorace lateraliter nigro-viridescente, dimidio basali
elytrorum et plaga sub-semicireulare ad basin pronoti pube
rufo-velutina obtectis, dimidio apicali elytrorum atro-pubescente.
Antennis articulis 3° ad 10” antice valde dilatatis, articulo
3° quam 4° paullo angustiore ; pronoto ad medium basis
paullo gibboso ; elytris utrisque quadri-sulcatis, interstitiis sat
latis, leviter convewis.

Long. 11; lat. 23 mm.

Hab. Kuching (March 1900). Two examples; in British

Museum and Hope Collection, Oxford.

This species seems nearest allied to 7’. cingalensis White and
7. parryanus Gorh., but differs from these and from all other
known species of the genus in having the third joint of the
antenne almost as strongly dilated as the fourth, and the elytra
impressed with longitudinal grooves.

4, COLEOPTERA: Ruyncnornora, Brenthide,
by Dr. A. Senna.

Drurvs sHeLrorbr Senna. (Plate XX. fig. 6, 2.)

Moderately elongate, stoutish, black, provided with whitish
scales of differing size sunk in the punctures; the head and the
metarostrum with punctiform close-set scales, the joints of the
antenne clothed with long accumbent scales.

gd. Head slightly longer than broad, with the sides almost
straight and a fovea between the eyes, which are prominent; the
metarostrum is twice as long as the head and hardly narrowed
before the antennx ; the prorostrum is short, naked, dark reddish
brown. The antenne are inserted near the apex of the rostrum :
the 3rd joint is longer than the 4th, the 4th a little longer than
the 5th, the 7th and 8th subequal; the three apical joints are
distinct, slightly thickened and finely pubescent.

The prothorax is similarly shaped as in D. furcillatus (Gylh.),
buf comparatively broader; its upper surface is covered with

[51

280 MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND _ [Novy. 4,

large irregular punctures, and marked on each side with a longi-
tudinal line of rounded white scales, and in the middle with a line
of small scales; moreover, punctiform scales are sunk in the
punctures.

The elytra are slightly broader at the base than the prothorax
in the middle, the sides are parallel, the apex is normally
narrowed; they have above three narrow longitudinal coste, the
interstices between which are punctate and provided with rounded
scales; the sides are foveate, each fovea shows a setiform scale ;
moreover, a line of rounded scales is present along the lateral
margin; the outer angles of the elytra at the apex are simply
toothed.

The metasternum and the base of the abdomen are covered
with rounded scales; the rostrum beneath and the legs are
scattered with scale-like sete. The 3rd abdominal segment is
short and contracted in the middle.

2. Agrees with the male in all respects except the follow-
ing :—The body is broader; the head short, nearly square ; the
metarostrum is shorter, as long as the head; the prorostrum
much more elongate, longer than the metarostrum ; the antennze
are inserted between the middle of the rostrum and its base ; they
are comparatively shorter and stouter; the 3rd abdominal
segment is longer and not contracted,

Length 17-23 mmm.

Hab. Kuching (N.W. Borneo).

Allied to D. furcillatus (Gylh.), but the new species has the
head shorter and the eyes more prominent; the prorostrum is
shorter; the joints of the antenne are longer, the three apical
ones more distinct; the apex of the elytra are broader and shghtly
toothed ; the body is shorter and stouter. The female of the new
species is, moreover, distinguished by the metarostrum which is
shorter, and by the antennz which are inserted before the middle
of the rostrum.

T have named this species in honour of Mr. R. Shelford, who has
kindly presented an interesting collection of Bornean Brenthids
to the Oxford University Museum.

Drurus stLvANus Senna. (Plate XX. fig. 4, 2.)

The female of this species being hitherto undescribed, I give a
short description of it :—

The head is nearly square, with a fovea between the eyes ;
the metarostrum is short, hardly so long as the head, channelled
above, and slightly narrowed before the antennz ; the prorostrum
is slender, glossy, finely punctured, as long as the head and
metarostrum taken together, The antenne, which are conse-
quently more approximate to the base than to the apex of the
rostrum, are rather stout, with the 3rd joint longer than the 4th,
the 6th and 7th subequal, the 8th a little shorter, the three
apical joints well distinct and separate. The prothorax is strongly
contracted anteriorly, the sides towards the middle are almost

[52]

1902. ] SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. 281

parallel, The elytra are longer than twice the prothorax,
narrowed at and sloping rapidly to the apex; the tails are more
approximate than those of D. furcillatus (Gylh.) ; moreover, they
are short and almost straight.

This species, by the shape of the elytra at the apex, is allied to
D. erythropus (Rits.), but easily distinguished by the longer pro-
rostrum, by the insertion of the antennse being more approxi-
mate to the base of the rostrum, and by the three apical joints
being well distinct and separated.

Length 50 mm. (the tails excluded),

Hab. Matang (Borneo),

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Prarre XIX,

Figures 16 te 19 are about twice the natural size: the remainder
about £ of the natural size.
Big. 1. Tricondyla cyanea (Lep.), var. wallaceé (Thoms.). Kuching, Feb. 1899.
2. Condylodera tricondyloides (Westw.), mature Kuching, March 2, 1900.

individual.

3. Tricondyla gibba (Chaud.). Matang, Aug. 1892.

4, Condyledera tricendyloides (Westw.),immature Kuching, Dec. 12, 1899.

individual.

5. Collyris sarawakensis (Thoms.). Kuching, May 14, 1900,

6. Cendylodera tricondyloides(Westw.), very young Kuching, July 18, 1900.

individual.

7. Pheropsophus agnatus (Chaud.). Kuching, Aug. 20, 1897.

8. Gryllacris, n. sp. vicinissima nigrate (Br.). Sarawak.

9. Alcides sp. Kuching, April 20, 1900.
10. Issus bruchoides (Walk.). Kuching, Sept. 14, 1899.
11. Sclethrus amoenus (Gery). Kuching, May 14, 1900,
12. Psebena brevipennis (Gahan). Kuching, Dec. 4, 1899.
13. Oberea strigosa (Pase.), var., from left side. Kuching, July 26, 1899,
14. Oberea brevicollis (Pasc.), from lett side. Kuching, March 15, 1899.
15. Oberea, prebably n. sp. near stvigosa (Pase.), from Matang, March 14, 1898.

left side.

16. Larva of Bulyes amena (Fab.), from right side. Kuching, probably 1899.
17. Larva of Hymenopus bicernis (Stoll), from right Kuching, probably 1899.

side,
18. Larva of Hulyes amena (Fab.), dorsal view. Kuching, probably 1899.
19. Larva of Hymenopus bicornis, dorsal view. Kuching, probably 1899.
20. Salius aurosericeus (Guér.). Kuching, July 3, 1899.
21. Nothopeus intermedius (Gahan), ¢. Penrissen, May 1899.
22. Bracon sp. Matang, Aug. 1899.
23. Mantispa simulatrix (McLachl.). Matang, Aue. 1899.
24, Polistes sp. near diabolicus (Sauss.). Kuching, July 27, 1899.
25. Mantispa sp. Kuching, July 12, 190v.
26. Polistes sagittarius (Sauss.). Kuching, July 2, 1898,
27. Mantispa sp. Matang, 3600 ft., June

1900.
PrArr) XOX.

Figures 4.¢, 7a, 8a, and 10a are about 4 times the natural size:
the remainder about ,°; of the natural size.

Fig. 1. Baryrhynchus dehiscens (Sch.), 3. Matang, Aug. 1899.
2. Baryrhynchus dehiscens (Sch.), 2. Kuching, 1899.
3. Alibora sp. Kuching, Aug, 10, 189).
4, Diurus silvanus (Senna), 9. Matang, Aug. 1899.
4a, Left elytron of above. Dorsal view of
apex, X 4.
5. Diurus forcipatus (Westw.), ¢. Kuching, Sept. 14, 1899,
6. Diurus shelfordi (Senna), 2. Kuching, Nov. 2, 1899.

| ed

Ie We eEaopreRs insignis (Pase.).
Dorsal view of

Fig.

MR. R. SHELFORD ON MIMETIC INSECTS AND

7a. Lett elytron ot above.
apex, X 4.

8. Stegenus dactylon (Pasc.).

8a. Left elytron of above.
apex, X 4.

9. Dymascus porosus (Pase.).
10. Eetatosia mocrei (Pasc.).
10a. Left elytron of above.

apex, X 4.
11. A%nidia sp.
12. Serivia prolata (Pasc.).
13. Metrioidea apicalis (Jac.), var.

14. Entelopes, n. sp. near watlacei (Pasc.).

15. Aulacophora luteicornis (Fab.), var.
16. Tropimetopa simulator (Pasc.).
17. Ochralea nigripes (Oliv.), var.

18. Astathesunicolor (Pasc.)=coccinea (Pase.).

19. Caritheca mouhoti (Baly).

20. Astathes splendida (Fab.).

21. Antipha ? nigra (Alld.), var.
22. Astathes posticalis (Thoms.).
23. Haplosonyx albicornis (Wied.).

(Thoms.).
25. Aulacophora boisduwali (Baly).
26. Entelopes ameena (Pasc.).
27. Anidia sp. near leta (Baly).
28. Chreonoma, Pn. sp.
29. Xylotrechus pedestris (Pasc.).
30. Cylindrepomus peregrinus (Pasc.).
31. Chlorophorus annularis (Pasc.).

32. Cylindrepomus comis (Pasc.).

33. Cylindrepomus ? form of comis (Pase.).

34. Daphisia sp. &.
35. Demonax viverra (Pasc.).
36. Daphisia sp.

37. Olytanthus sumatrensis (Lap. & Gor.).

38. Cryllis clytoides (Pasc.).
39. Demonax mustela (Pasc.).

40. Leptura sp.
41. Xylotrechus decoratus (Pasc.).
42. Leptura sp. near histrionica (Pase.).

43. Chloridolwm cinnyris (Pasc.).
44. Leptura, ?n. sp.

45. Chloridolum sp. near thomsoni (Pasc.).

46. Chloridolum thomsoni (Pasc.).
47. Saperdides, ? gen. ? sp.
48. Xystrocera alcyonea (Pasc.).

PLratTE XXI.

Dorsal view of

Dorsal view of

24, Astathes caloptera (Pasc.) = eyanipennis

[Nov. 4,

Matang, Aug. 1899.
Kuching, Oct. 31, 1900.

Kuching, July 9, 1900.
Kuching, April 3, 1900.

Kuching, Feb. 1899.
Kuching, Sept. 20, 1899.
Kuching, Aug. 1, 1899.
Sarawak.
Sarawak.
Kuching, Aug. 4, 1897.
Kuching, March 28, 1900.
Kuching, Aug. 17, 1898.
Kuching, Aug. 8, 1899.
Kuching, Aug. 1899.
Kuching, Aug. 11, 1899.
Kuching, Aug. 15, 1899.
Brit. N. Borneo, Sandakan,
about 1895-6. A. L. Cook.
Brit. N. Borneo, Sandakan,
about 1895-6. A. L. Cook.
Kuching, Sept. 13, 1899.
Matang, Dec. 1898.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Kuching, March 28, 1900.
Kuching, March 28, 1900.
Pankalan Ampat, 5-6000 ft.,
base of Penrissen, May 1899
Kuching, March 29, 1900.
Matang, Aug. 1899.
Matang, 3600 ft., June 1900.
Penrissen, 4500 ft., May 17,1899.
Kuching, Aug. 4, 1897.
Trusan.
Kuching, July 17, 1899.
Pankalan Ampat, 5—6000 ft.,
base of Penrissen, May 1899.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Penrissen, 4200-4500 ft., May
1899.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Matang, Aug. 1899.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Kuching, July 20, 1900.
Matang, March 13, 1898.
Kuching, Sept. 7, 1897.

The figures are rather over 2 of the natural size.
oS 3

1. Delias pandemia (Wallace), o.
2. Isbarta pandemia (Rothsch.).

3. Delias aglaia (Linn.), 2.
4. Isbarta dissimulata (Walk.).
5. Delias cathara (Grose-Smith).

6. Callamesia (Cyclosia) pieridoides (Walk.).
7

. Serobigera hesperoides (Walk.).
[54]

Borneo.

Kina Balu Mt., Borneo, about
1896.

Brit. N. Borneo. Pryer, 1878-98.

Sarawak. Wallace.

Penrissen, 8500 ft., May 19,
1899.

Penrissen, 3500 ft., May 19,
1899.

Limbang River, N. of Sarawak,
April 1895. KE. Bartlett.

1902.]

Fig. 8.

Fig.

Fig.

. Ephies dilaticornis

SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE,

Eterusia obliquiaria (Walk.).

. Danisepa lowei (Butl.).

. Mimeuplea rhadamantha (Butl.), go.
. Penoa menetriesii (Feld.).

2. Mimeuplea tristis (Jordan), 2.

. Trepsichrois muleciber (Cram.).

. Pompelon marginata (Guér.).

PratTe XXII.

283

Saribas, 100 miles N.E. Kuching,

Nov. 1900.

Brit. N. Borneo, Sandakan,

about 1895-6. A. lL. Cook.

Kuching, Nov. 1895.

Borneo.

Kuching, Oct. 1895.

Brit. N. Borneo, Sandakan,

about 1895-6. A. lL. Cook.

Sarawak. Wallace.

Figures 1 and 2 are about ? of the natural size: the remainder
about $ of the natural size.

. Xylocopa latipes (Drury).
. Hyperechia fera (v. d. Wulp).
. Collyris emarginata (Macl.).

Sepedon sp. near javanicus (Desv.).

. Mesostenus sp. near pictus (Smith).
. Gen. et sp. ? Fam. Stratiomyide, Subfam.

Raphiocerine.

. Mesostenus sp.

. P Xylophagus sp.

. Salius sericosoma (Smith).

. Laphria sp. near terminalis (v. d. Wulp).
. Macromeris violacea (Lep.).

. Midas n. sp.

. Vespa cincta (Fab.).

. Milesia vespoides (Walk.).

Prare XXIII.

Matang, March 1898.
Kuching, Feb. 1899.
Mt. Serambu, Dec. 1898.
Mt. Serambu, Dec. 1898.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Penrissen, May 1899.

Pankalan Ampat, 5-6000 ft.,
base of Penrissen, May 1899.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Kuching, Feb. 2, 1898.
Kuching, July 29, 1899.
Matang, March 13, 1898.
Mt. Santubong, Aug. 1900.
Matang, 3600 ft., June 1898.
Kuching, April 3, 1900.

The figures are slightly reduced.

. Ectatops rubiaceus (A. & 8.).
. Serinetha abdominalis (Fab.).

. Phauda limbata (Wllgrn.).

. Lycostomus gestroi (Bourg.), 2.
. Lycostomus gestroi (Bourg.), g.

. Erythrus rotundicollis (Gahan), g.
. Erythrus sternalis (Gahan), 3.

. Erythrus apiculatus (Pase.), var.

. Rhipidoceride, ? gen. Hnnomates.

. Eucnemide, ? gen. P sp.
. Calochromus (Micronychus) dispar (C.

Waterh.), 9.

. Pyresthes virgata (Pasc.).

. Burycephalus lundi (Fab.).

. Tenerus sulcipennis (Gahan).

. Gonophora wallacei (Baly), var.

. Metriorrhynchus kirschi (C. Waterh.), 3.
% (C. Waterh.), ¢.

(Pasc.), var. ¢.

. Erythrus biapicatus (Gahan), ?.

. Agonischius ? sanguineipennis (Cand.).
. Agonischius pectoralis (Cand.).

. Reduviid sp.

. Melampyrus acutangulus (Bourg.), 3.
. Cautires excellens (C. Waterh.), 9.

Matang, Dec. 1897.

Botanic Gardens, Singapore,
Jan. 1899.

Botanic Gardens, Singapore,
Jan. 1899.

Kuching, July 12, 1899.

Mt. Santubong, 2600 ft.,
Feb. 4, 1900.

Mt. Santubong, 2600 ft.,
Feb. 4, 1900.

Matang, 3600 ft., June
1900.

Matang, Aug. 1899.

Matang, Dec. 1898.

Kuching, July 2, 1900.

Matang, Aug. 1899.

Matang, 3600 feet, June
1900.

Kuching, May 7, 1900.

Kuching, March 14, 1900.

Kuching, May 28, 1900.

Kuching, Aug. 15, 1899.

Kuching, May 28, 1900.

Matang, 3600 ft., June
1900.

Matang, 3600 ft., June
1900.

Kuching, May 16, 1900.

Kuching, May 16, 1900,

Sarawak.

Matang, Aug. 1899.

Kuching, Sept. 6, 1899.

[55]

284

Fig. 25.
26.

. Gonophora wallace (Baly).

. Taphes brevicollis (C. Waterh.), 2.

. Ditoneces sp. near fuscicornis (Gorh.).

. Caria dilatata (Fab.).

. Prioptera octopunctata (Fab.).

. Entelopes glauca (Guér.).

. Blachia ducalis (Walk.).

. Locustid of new genus near Gammarotetti«.

. Lema quadripunctata (Oliv.).

. Apoderus javanicus (Jekel).

. Pterophorid, probably near genus Coremaguia.

. Bracon sp.

. Homopteron of genus probably near Brivia.

. Epania singaporensis (Thoms.).

. Melipona vidua (Lepel.).

. Capsid sp.

. Holocephala ? hirsuta (v. d. Wulp).

. Megalocolus notator (Walk.).

. Reduviid sp.

. Toxophora, n. sp. near javana (Wied.).

. Bracon sp.

. Mutilla sp. near wrania (Smith).

. Villicera, nv. sp.? near T. bibalteata (Gorh.).

. Cladophorus atrofuscus (C. Waterh.), 9.

INSECTS AND SPIDERS FROM BORNEO AND SINGAPORE. [ Nov. 4.

Xyaste fumosea (Pasc.).
Xyaste invida (Pase.).

(C. Waterh.), 2.

33 b
. Tenerus sulcipennis (Gahan).
. Callimerus bellus (Gorh.).
. Callimerus catenatus (Gorh.).
. Daphisia pulchella (Pase.).
. Spathomeles, n. sp. near S. turritus (Gerst.).
. Zelota spathomelina (Gahan).
. Erythrus viridipennis (Gahan).

. Prionocerus ceruleipennis (Perty).
. Tetralanguria pyramidata (Fab.).
. Botryonopa cyanipennis (Baly).

[56]

Kuching, March 23, 1900.
Kuching, July 10, 1899.
Kuching, Aug. 1897.
Kuching, Jan. 24, 1900.
Kuching, Sept. 6, 1899.
Matang, March 138, 1898.
Sarawak.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Kuching, Dec. 13, 1900.
Kuching, Feb. 2, 1901.
Kuching, Oct. 12, 1899.
Kuching, April 4, 1900.
Kuching, Jan. 16, 1901.
Kuching, April 24, 1900.
Kuching, Jan. 17, 1901.
Penrissen, May 1899.
Kuching, May 8, 1900.
Kuching, June 22, 1900.
Kuching, May 3, 1900.
Kuching, April 24, 1900.
Kuching, Sept. 16, 1899.
Kuching, May 16, 1900.
Kuching, Aug. 11, 1900.
Kuching, July 17, 1899.
Kuching, Aug. 1899.
Kuching, March 16, 1900.
Kuching, April 14, 1900.
Kuching, March 30, 1900.
Kuching, Dee. 13, 1899.
Kuching, Oct. 6, 1899.
Kuching, June 19, 1900.
Kuching, Oct. 15, 1897.
Kuching, Dec. 12, 1899.
Matang, 38600 ft., June
1900.
Kuching, May 4, 1900.
Kuching, Dec. 8, 1899.
Kuching, Feb. 24, 1899.

Ps snol2.vo PP

Horace Knight del. etlth, Mintern Bros. Chron

MIME TIC BORNE AD AND THEIR MODELS

a4
KH
O
ae
c
r

J

Horace Kought delet lth

VIMELEIG BORNEAN COLEOPTERA AND THEIR: MODELS.

P.Z.5.1902;voel I Pl ae

ae
H Knight del.et hth, 13 14. Mintern Bros Chromo
MIMETIC BORNEAN CHALCOSID MOTHS AND THEIR MODELS.

PY. 1o02 voLiPR el

H Knight del et litt Mintern Bros.Chromo.

MIMETIC BORNEAN DIPTERA AND THEIR MODELS

3 54:

Hora.ce Kmpht del.et lith,

MULLERIAN MIMICRY

REPRINTED FROM

Journal of Variation

[Reprinted from The Hntomologist’s Record, Vol. 12, No. 11,
November 15th 1900.

Hypolimnas misippus captured at sea.
By Professor EDWARD B. POULTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8., &e.

Referring to the notes on this species in vol. xi., p. 822, and vol.
xii., p. 80, of The E'ntomologist’s Record, | am now, owing to the kind-
ness of Captain E. P. Ellis, able to supply a full account of the
circumstances under which he made the interesting capture of three
females (two of the variety inaria) and two males, over 500 miles from
land. The notes sent me by Captain Ellis were made by him on
the sailing ship Winefred on a voyage from Australia, and are as
follows :—

‘“May 5th, 1893. In 00° 36’ N. lat. and 26° 42’ W. long., a swarm of butter-
flies about the ship; they appear to be all of one kind.”

‘May 9th, 1893. Iu 3°56’ N. lat. and 27° 20’ W. long. Butterflies all over
the ship; the sailors knocking them down with their caps from one end of the
ship to the other.”

Captain Ellis also informs me that during these days the ship had
passed through the region of the doldrums with calms and rain squalls
between the N.E. and S.E. trade winds. To the best of Captain
Kllis’s recollection and opinion all the butterflies belonged to one
swarm and were of the same kind on both occasions. The ship was
then nearly on the line between Cape St. Roque and Sierra Leone, and
680 miles from the former, 960 miles from the latter. Although the
African coast was far more distant than the South American, I cannot
doubt that the insects came from the former. Indeed, I put down
tropical West Africa as first among the suggestions thrown out in my
note (vol. xii., p. 80). The only other possibility is tropical South
America, a country in which H. misippus has comparatively recently
established itself and is spreading rapidly. The insufficient observa-
tions that have been made in South America do not justify the belief
that the maria form of the female is present in large proportion,
while two out of the three females captured at sea belonged to this
variety—a proportion entirely consistent with our much more exten-
sive series of observations upon this species in West Africa. Further-
more, the species is not sufficiently abundant in South America to
render it probable that these vast swarms can have come from there.
The observation throws much light upon the comparatively recent
intrusion of the species into South America, and its even later
spread to the Canary Islands, and goes far to explain its extraordinarily
wide distribution in the Old World.

Tam making a special study of this most interesting species, and

516

should greatly value the help of any of your readers on two points. (1)
Any information which may lead to the establishment of the inclusive
dates between which the late Thomas Belt was at the Montes Aureos,
Brazil. (A specimen in the British Museum from the Godman-Salvin
collection was collected there by Belt, and is, as far as I am aware, the
earliest recorded example from the New World.) (2) The capture of
large series of the species, especially of females, in any of its American
localities. These are British Guiana and Brazil in South America,
and the Island of Trinidad, Southern Florida in North America, and
many West Indian Islands. ‘The specimens are best sent in ‘‘ papers,”’
with exact dates and localities written upon each. The African form
of the female is said to be slightly darker than the Oriental, corres-
ponding with the darker richer colouring of its model, Limnas chrysippus,
and, however this may be, the proportion of the inaria form of female
differs greatly in different parts of the geographical range. A
sufficient series of New World females, carefully examined and com-
pared, may be expected to throw light upon the direction of recent
lines of migration.

The specimens brought by Captain Ellis are in the Hope Depart-
ment, where they can be seen at any time.—Oxford University
Museum. November, 1900.

-- Reprintep From ‘Tue Zooroaist’ ror Decemper, 1900.

y

536 THE ZOOLOGIST.

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE.
By Guy A. K. Marsnaun, F.Z.S.

In the second portion of his ‘ Biological Suggestions’ (Zool.
(1899) pp. 289, 341, 448, 529; (1900) p. 116), Mr. Distant has dealt
at some length with the pheuomena of animal colouration, generally
described under the terms of Protective and Aggressive Resemblance.
It is not altogether obvious why these phenomena should have been
ranked by him under the term Mimicry. Iam aware that this latter
word, as first used by Kirby and Spence at the beginning of the
century, included all cases of resemblance of what kind soever; but
seeing that, with our increasing knowledge of the subject, students of
animal colouration have found it both useful and advisable to dis-
eriminate between resemblance in order to attract attention (Mimicry)
and resemblance in order to obtain concealment (Protective and
Aggressive Resemblance), there seems to be no sufficient reason why
we should revert to an earlier and less exact definition, which is only
apt to cause confusion.t (These numerals refer to some concluding notes
by Prof. Poulton.) In his review of the matter, Mr. Distant has
brought together a large number of interesting facts and observations
bearing on the subject of general and special resemblance (a distine-
tion, however, which he overlooks), containing examples from all
classes of animal life. A consideration of these facts has led him to
offer the suggestion that ‘‘animals of their own volition, and in their
efforts to avoid their enemies, place themselves where possible in such
adaptation to their surroundings, that protective resemblance and some
forms of mimicry are due to animal intelligence, and not so entirely
to what is generally understood as the unconscious process of natural
selection”’ (/.c. 1899, p. 465). It is proposed to designate this
conscious action by the somewhat unsatisfactory name of “ active
mimicry”’ ;* it seems doubtful whether any special name is really
required for this process, but, if it be so, I would suggest that ‘‘ con-
scious resemblance ”’ is more suitable and more in conformity with the
recognised terminology. t

*The term ‘active’? was not invented, but adopted from Kirby and
Spence (cf. 1899, p. 464).—Ep.

+ ‘‘Conscious mimicry” was also a term stated to have been proposed
by Prof. Henslow (cf. ib. p. 465).— Ep.

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 537

This ‘‘ active mimicry”’ is apparently regarded by Mr. Distant as
something apart from natural selection, a separate factor in evolution,
for he says: ‘‘If the process of natural selection was to be applied,
according to a very frequent method, as universal, then birds arising
from these white and prominent eggs would seem in course of time to
be doomed to destruction. But we find nothing of the kind. Natural
selection is here replaced by the evolution of intelligence or active
mimicry. True, it may be argued that birds laying white eggs would
become extinct without they had gradually acquired the intelligent or
automatic powers of concealment through a process of natural selec-
tion. But this is only begging the question” (/.c., 1899, p. 546).
(The italics are my own.) Seeing that this attitude permeates the
whole discussion, it is somewhat disconcerting to read in the concluding
remarks that, ‘to fully understand mimicry, we must appreciate
general animal intelligence, and then we shall probably comprehend
how much activity has been displayed by animals seeking protection
by adaptive and assimilative efforts. This in no way contradicts, but
supports, the doctrine of Natural Selection. The animal survives
which can best hide from its enemies, and this implies that the varia-
tions which tend to adaptive and assimilative efforts, not only succeed
in the battle of life, but by the selective process become dominant, and
more and more accentuated with a greater need” (/. c., 1900, p. 124).
It is scarcely necessary to point out that the latter position, which is
essentially that of those very selectionists? whose views Mr. Distant is
combatting, is quite at variance with the former. It will therefore be
necessary, for the purpose of this discussion, to neglect this remarkable
contradiction.

The whole question of conscious resemblance must necessarily
depend upon our ideas of animal intelligence, and in the present state
of our knowledge these are unavoidably hazy and obscure. It must be
reeollected that our conception of mind, even in our fellow men, is
based entirely on analogy, and thus the further we depart from the
human type, the lower we go in the organic scale, the weaker and
weaker must that analogy become, and the more careful must we be to
avoid the conception that any apparently purposive actions we may

- Observe in these lower organisms must be due to trains of reasoning
such as we find in ourselves. The whole subject is, at present, merely
hypothetical ; but, on the other hand, we must not forget that even
our most definite scientific facts are only very high probabilities.*

* T observe that Mr. Distant has strongly criticised (/. c., 1899, p. 361) a
somewhat similar remark by Prof. Tyler, who says that ‘‘ Natural Science

does not deal in demonstrations, it rests upon the doctrine of probabilities ;

just as we have to order our whole lives upon this doctrine.”’ To this Mr.
B2

538 THE ZOOLOGIST.

It is probable that no evolutionist would deny that there must be a
certain measure of truth in the contention that some animals are
capable of appreciating the protective value of their colouring ;* for,
apart from observational evidence on the point, we should antecedently
expect a certain amount of reasoning power in this direction according
to the ordinary principles of evolution. The question is, however,
whether, in the suggestions under consideration, this power has not been
considerably over-estimated. An examination of the examples referred
to ‘active mimicry ’’ would certainly lead to this conclusion, for the
arguments used in these instances are equally applicable to every case
of protective or aggressive resemblance. There would be little difficulty
in demonstrating the untenability of such a position, but this is
unnecessary, as we are expressly warned that the suggestion of active
mimicry must not be made too absolute, although no suggestion is
offered as to its probable limits.

It may, perhaps, be possible to define roughly certain limits within
which such consciousness cannot be recognised. Resemblances have
been aptly divided by Prof. Poulton into two categories, viz. : ‘ Special
Resemblance, in which the appearance of a particular object is copied
in shape and outline as well as in colour; and General Resemblance, in
which the general effects of surrounding colours are reproduced”
(‘ Colours of Animals,’ p. 24); and in connection with this distinction
it is interesting to note that in the most intelligent section of the
animal kingdom, namely, the higher vertebrates, we find little but
general resemblances, and the lower we go in the scale of intelligence,
the more frequently do we observe special resemblances, that is, where
colour is utilised for protective purposes.’ But, quite apart from this,
it is evident that it is practically impossible to include cases of special
resemblance under the term ‘“‘ active mimicry,” as here discussed.

Distant replies that ‘‘ This is a cardinal doctrine in natural and apologetic
theology, but is the very antithesis of science, natural or otherwise. The
man who orders his whole life on probabilities will probably arrive at the
conclusion that hope is a very good breakfast, but a most indifferent dinner.”
Prof. Tyler’s remark appears to my mind as a sufficiently evident truth, but
I may perhaps be permitted to adduce in its support the opinion of so virile
a thinker as the late Prof. Huxley, who says: ‘* We find, practically, that
expectations, based upon careful observations of past events, are, as a rule,
trustworthy. We should be foolish indeed not to follow the only guide we
have through life. But, for all that, our highest and surest generalizations
remain on the level of justifiable expectations, that is, very high probabilities.”
(‘ Collected Essays,’ vol. v. p. 204.)

On the other hand, Prof. Huxley, in thanking Bateson for his well-known
volume on ‘ Variation,’ writes how glad he is to see “that we are getting back
from the region of speculation into that of fact again” (‘ Life and Letters,’
vol. i. p. 872).— Eb.

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 539

For instance, in those wonderful cases which are found so frequently
among insects, the habits of each species are so intimately correlated
with its abnormal structure and colouring,‘ that it is unreasonable to
believe that these characters have been developed independently by
different factors; the latter by natural selection, and the former by the
‘evolution of active mimicry,’ whatever that may mean. These
special structures cannot be accounted for by ‘‘ active mimicry,” neither
can they be explained by any general theory of internal or external
causes, for, as the late Mr. Romanes hag well remarked, ‘‘ Were it not
that some of Darwin’s critics have overlooked the very point wherein
the great value of protective colouring as evidence of natural selection
consists, it would be needless to observe that it does so tin the minute-
ness of the protective resemblance which in so many cases is presented.
Of course, where the resemblance is only very general, the phenomena
might be ascribed to mere coincidence, of which the instincts of the
animal have taken advantage. But in the measure that the resem-
blance becomes minutely detailed, the supposition of mere coincidence
is excluded, and the agency of some specially adaptive cause de-
monstrated ” (‘Darwin and after Darwin,’ p. 318, note).

Thus a strong objection may be lodged against the whole suggestion
of active mimicry, as opposed to that of natural selection, in that
the former suggestion is essentially incomplete and cannot explain all
the facts of the case. Let us take the instance of the leaf-butterflies
of the genus Kallima, of which Mr. Distant says: “The partiality of
this insect for settling on dry and withered leaves appears a true
instance of active mimicry ”’ (/. c., 1899, p. 581). Upon the theory of
natural selection (granted the undisputed facts of variation and the
struggle for existence), it is easy to understand that any marked varia-
tions in the direction of leaf-like shapes or markings, which would
afford better concealment, would tend to be preserved and further
augmented, both by heredity and by the increased keenness of enemies,
until the present admirable resemblance had been arrived at. ‘‘ But,
as Mr. Badenoch has well enquired, ‘Of what avail would be the dis-
guise were the insect prone to settle upon a flower, or green leaf, or
other inappropriate surface ?’”’ (/. c.). Quite true; and the fact that
the insect is not so inclined is readily explainable by the Darwinian
theory ; for it is clear that a much greater proportion of those
individuals which were prone to render themselves conspicuous by
settling on inappropriate surfaces would be picked off by their enemies
than of those which selected suitable resting places; and thus, by a
gradual process of elimination, the progeny of those individuals, which
possessed a well-defined instinct to settle upon withered leaves, &c.,

540 THE ZOOLOGIST.

would eventually supersede those whose instincts were not so well in
harmony with their colouration. On the other hand, for the suggestion
of ‘active mimicry,” it is contended that the actions of these insects are
apparently so purposive that it is difficult to believe that they are not
due to ‘conscious volition” on their part; and, in support of this conten-
tion, a large number of other similar cases are adduced, all, be it noted,
equally, or more fully, I consider, explicable on the theory of natural
selection. But when we stop to enquire why, or how, these butterflies
have developed this peculiar colouration, the supporters of the suggestion
of ‘‘ active mimicry”’ can vouchsafe us no reply. According to this
suggestion, the tiger selects the bamboo-thicket, the leopard the leafy
forest, and the lion the open veldt, simply because they have individu-
ally discovered, by their own reasoning powers, that these respective
localities are best suited to their particular styles of colouration ;* and
the question why one is striped, another spotted, and the third uni-
colourous, reverts to an open problem. Thus all the beautiful explana-
tions of adaptive colouring, afforded us by Darwin’s grand conception,
are to be thrown to the winds if “active mimicry’’ be logically
applied.

It will be thus seen that it is only among the most generalised types
of resemblance that we may seek for signs of conscious adaptation, as
opposed to quasi-mechanical instincts. But even here the foregoing
objection also applies, though with less force, since the contention of
coincidence may be put forward in some cases, as indicated by Mr.
Romanes. But it must be borne in mind that this contention is
nothing but an argument from ignorance, and, as such, is not scientific-
ally permissible where any other reasonable and adequate explanation
can be advanced. The mere citation of a number of instances of
protective colouring, however purposive the actions of the animals may
appear, are in themselves no proof of conscious resemblance; neither
do they in any way weaken the theory of natural selection in this
regard ; for this theory not only consistently explains the reasons for,
and the development of, the colouration, but also accounts for that very
purposiveness upon the occurrence of which the former proposition is
alone based. Again, in the case of special resemblances, if it be con-
ceded, as a result of the arguments adduced above, that both the
morphological and psychological characters have been contemporane-
ously perfected through the mechanical action of natural selection (and
in fact the structural peculiarities cannot well be explained on this
principle without the instincts), then this alone would form strong

** This is an apparent inference to Mr. Marshall, but no statement of the
kind appears in the suggestions criticised.—Ep.

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 541

presumptive evidence that, at least, the great majority of cases of
general resemblance are due to the same factor. For it is evident that
all cases of special resemblance must, at some time or other, have
passed through a general phase, and therefore we must necessarily
apply the same explanation in both categories.

Nevertheless, while the orthodox Darwinist may maintain that
protective colouration, together with the appropriate instincts which
are necessary to render it of any use, have been ultimately developed
through natural selection (save, perhaps, in a very few exceptional
cases),’ yet it iscompetent for him, without any contradiction, to admit
that probably some few of the most intelligent animals may, in the
course of their mental evolution, have arrived at such a standard as to
be able to appreciate the value of their own protective actions, which
were originally merely instinctive—a very different position, however,
from that suggested by Mr. Distant.

But even for such an admission some definite proof is required.
On looking through the large number of instances quoted by Mr.
Distant in support of his suggestions, there appears to be only one case
which affords anything like real proof, as opposed to mere suggestion.
I refer to Mr. E. 8. Thompson’s account of the actions of a fox: “A
fire had swept the middle of the pasture, leaving a broad belt of black;
over this he skurried until he came to the unburnt yellow grass again,
-when he squatted down and was lost to view. He had been watching
us all the time, and would not have moved had we kept to the road.
The wonderful part of this is, not that he resembled the round stones
and dry grass, but that he knew he did, and was ready to profit by it’
(‘Wild Animals I have known,’ p. 193).§ This is a good example from
Mr. Distant’s point of view, but the fox is notoriously one of the most
sagacious and cunning of animals, and, even if we believe that many
of its actions are due to conscious intelligence, this does not in any way
prove the occurrence of such intelligence in insects, fishes, or even
other mammals, each of which cases would require independent proof.
Further, it may be as well to point out that probably the process of
reasoning in the fox would be quite different from that which would

‘prompt a man to put on a khaki-coloured shirt when going out to shoot
buck. It is improbable that any of the lower animals have any real
conception of their own appearance, and it is likely that any conscious-
ness they may exhibit in their protective actions consists rather in the
general recognition that they are freer from attack in certain particular
spots or types of country, than from any true appreciation of the
optical phenomena to which they really owe their safety.

But it must be noted that a mere desire to hide, apart from any

542 THE ZOOLOGIST.

colour consideration, cannot be regarded in itself as any evidence of
conscious resemblance. For example: if we break a piece off a
termite-heap and see that the inmates at once run back into the nest
or avail themselves of the nearest cover they can find, we cannot
assume that this is due to their intelligent recognition that their
colours are out of harmony with their then surroundings, but we should
rather attribute it to the instinctive avoidance of light shown by all
such nocturnal creatures, an instinct which is preferably explained by
natural selection.°

As a matter of fact, the most satisfactory style of evidence would
probably consist in a careful and exact observation of the demeanour
of protectively-coloured animals, which find themselves, by a natural
accident or necessity, in an environment to which their colour is
quite unsuited ; or, conversely, of the behaviour of striking sports or
variations of such species, when occurring in their normal surround-
ings. If, in such cases, the animals show a distinct appreciation
of the danger of their position and alter their normal habits accord-
ingly, then the suggestion of active mimicry will be sufficiently
proved, so far as those animals and their immediate allies are
concerned. But if, on the other hand, they show no such appre-
ciation and merely adopt their usual attitudes of concealment, which
in that case would egregiously fail in their purpose, then this sug-
gestion will be very strongly discounted. It seems that a careful
collection and discussion of all the authenticated observations of
this description would add considerably to our knowledge of animal
psychology. Perhaps, however, this has been already done, for it is
impossible to keep abreast of scientific thought and work when living
on the very outskirts of civilisation. I may here refer to one or two
examples of this kind which tend to show that many cases of protective
actions on the part of the higher vertebrates must be attributed to
UNREASONING INSTINCT rather than to conscious volition.

The late Mr. Romanes very truly remarked, that ‘‘ Every sportsman
must have noticed that the somewhat rare melanic variety of the
common Rabbit will crouch as steadily as the normal brownish-grey
type, notwithstanding that, owing to its normal colour, a ‘mgger
rabbit’ thus renders itself the most conspicuous object in the land-
scape. In all such cases, of course, there has been a deviation from
the normal type in respect of colour, with the result that the inherited
instinct is no longer in tune with the other endowments of the animal”
(‘Darwin and after Darwin,’ p. 320). Again, to quote Mr. Distant
himself, in reference to the crouching habits of the South African
Francolinus, he says: ‘‘ Subsequently I observed how this action

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 548

could become habitual without a suitable environment. I flushed a
pair of Francolinus subtorquatus, one of which squatted in the same
manner, but, by force of circumstances, among the short, black and
charred remains of a grass fire. Here its colour stood out in bold
relief, and I easily bagged it’’ (Zool. 1899, p. 545, note). I have on
several occasions observed a similar behaviour on the part of this same
bird in Mashonaland ; and, indeed, the blackening of the veldt by grass
fires not unfrequently gives one opportunities of realising that at least
some protectively coloured animals have no mental appreciation what-
ever of the real relation between their own colouring and that of their
environment.

There are few birds in this country which show a stronger apparent
reliance on their protective colouring than the little Rufous-capped
Lark (Tephrocorys cinerea) or the Cape Long-claw (Macronya capensis) ;
they will readily permit one to approach within a few yards of them,
and will then merely run on ahead in their curious, crouching, rat-like
manner. This action is certainly of considerable protective value in
their ordinary surroundings, but they will do precisely the same on
the open ‘burns,’ where it must be rather detrimental than other-
wise. Did they really comprehend the contrast exhibited by their
plumage in such spots, they would assuredly escape by flight instead
of by running. Not long ago I noticed a similar case on the part of
our common Side-striped Jackal (Canis lateralis). While travelling on
a post-cart we passed a fire burning not far from the road, and strongly
outlined against the burnt grass we saw the forms of two Jackals.
They were a little distance apart, one sitting on its haunches, the
other standing, and they were evidently watching for the rats, young
birds, &c., which the fire would disturb. At our approach they merely
looked round at us without concern, and so, without stopping the cart,
one of my companions tried a shot with his rifle. The bullet whizzed
close over the head of the standing animal, which promptly bounded
into the long, unburnt grass; the other, however, which had only
heard the report without feeling the shock of the bullet, merely
crouched to the ground, when it was quite as conspicuous as before,
and did not move until a second bullet knocked up the dust close by
its side. I have further seen an identical instance of the misapplica-
tion of the protective crouching instinct on the part of the Aard Wolf
( Proteles cristatus) in Natal; and, doubtless, such observations could be
multiplied were special attention paid to them.

Anyone who has had many opportunities of observing animals must
have been struck by the fact that even though they may possess a con-
siderable amount of intelligence, this is curiously limited in many

544 THE ZOO0LOGIST.

directions. This may even occur in an unexpected way, as in the
observation of Col. Pollok, cited by Mr. Distant, that the Tiger has
not yet learnt that in pursuit of game nothing can be done down wind.
Considerations such as these must lend a certain measure of support
to the mechanical conception of natural selection. Thus, in the matter
of conscious resemblance, although many animals may show undoubted
intelligence in other directions, it is highly probable that, in the great
majority of cases, their reasoning powers would not be sufficient to enable
them to decide whether, or no, their own colouring would have a pro-
tective value in any new or unusual environment, It is far more
reasonable to suppose that such knowledge as they may have in this
respect would be acquired through their experience of their liability to,
or immunity from, attack under such conditions, quite apart from any
colour considerations. ‘The former process would be a true instance
of ‘active mimicry,’’ as defined by Mr. Distant, but the latter cannot
be included under that term; indeed, in such cases, experience in the
individual is the equivalent of natural selection in the species.

In the preliminary portion of his paper, Mr. Distant has given us
many excellent examples and arguments to show that mimicry and
protective resemblance probably existed in very remote antiquity ;™
and he has done well in drawing attention to the matter, which is apt
to be overlooked. But I must certainly join issue with him when he
states that: ‘The present attitude of many champions of the cause,
who seek to find, or to invent, present factors for producing these
phenomena, seems fraught with peril for the whole theory; and, with
the same weariness and perseverance with which the original promul-
gators thought out the doctrine, we must go on searching for further
proofs, which will necessitate our appealing to the Cesar of the past—
the ever-growing science of paleontology ”’ (/.¢., p. 802). I must con-
fess that this appears to me to be a very remarkable assertion. In the
first place, the vast majority of cases generally referred to mimicry and
resemblance are concerned with colour and movement alone, structure
playing but a very subordinate part therein.* Mr. Distant has himself
been at some pains to show the very evident futility of appealing to

* The point discussed was the strwetwral characters of the Phasmide. The
exact quotation requires this antecedent: ‘We still have abundant reason
for believing that, though the protective resemblance of these Phasmidz was
already acquired in Carboniferous times, the presence of Amphibia in an
evolutionary sense is quite sufficient to account for it. This prompts two
reflections: one, that we ought to look a long way back for the origins of
these protective and mimetic guises; and the other, that we may reason-
ably hope to find them” (p. 302).—Eb.

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 345

paleontology for evidence as to these phenomena ; thus, if we are denied
the right of attempting to explain them by causes acting at the present
time, we shall have to abandon the whole question in despair. But,
what is more important, mimicry and resemblance are only particular
aspects of the principle of natural selection, and therefore if the factors
of mimicry do not exist to-day, then, a posteriori, neither do those of
natural selection. A single glance at nature is sufficient to justify the
rejection of such a conclusion, and we must, therefore, admit that the
factors of mimicry are in actual operation now; were they not, we
should have no grounds for assuming that they had operated in past
geological epochs. If, therefore, we find that certain cases appear
difficult of exact explanation in the present state of our knowledge, we
are by no means justified in disposing of the difficulty by referring them
to causes operating only in the dim past, which we can neither prove
nor disprove. Rather must we continue the laborious search for further
evidence, not by a study of the anatomy of extinct animals, but by
seeking a deeper and more intimate knowledge of the real life-histories
of living organisms ; for we are still profoundly ignorant of the im-
mensely complex factors which go to make up the conditions of life of
the very commonest animal upon this earth.

Nevertheless, it must be conceded as possible that there may be
certain cases of mimicry or resemblance which cannot be attributed to
exact causes acting at the present time; but these would be only ex-
ceptional, and would probably be due to a recent change in the enemies
or the general environment of the species. I say ‘‘ recent” advisedly,
for we have very good grounds for believing that complicated protective
characters would gradually disappear soon after the need for them
ceased, whether this disappearance be attributed to pammixis or to
disuse.

Later on, in the papers under consideration, we find an excellent
suggestion that all examples of mimicry and resemblance should be
classified under various headings, such as—Demonstrated—Suggested
or Probable—Disputed or Mistaken—Purposeless—or Active. If such
an arrangement could be thoroughly and carefully carried out, it
would be of considerable value to students of these phenomena. Mr.
Distant could, of course, only give us a mere sketch of the subject ;
but it is remarkable that there is not even a reference to the lengthy
and important paper by Prof. Poulton, who has so thoroughly identi-
fied himself with this line of research, on ‘‘ The Experimental Proof
of the Protective Value of Colour and Markings in Insects in reference
to their Vertebrate Hnemies” (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887, pp. 191-274), in
which all the reliable experiments on British insects, up to that date,

546 THE ZOOLOGIST.

are tabulated and discussed.* Unfortunately, however, the classifica-
tion of several of the cases given by Mr. Distant is open to criticism.
For example: in the instances of resemblances in birds, given by Mr.
J. H. Gurney (l.¢., 1899, p. 460), every case relates to species of the
same genus inhabiting different areas—in fact, representative species,
or even local races ; and the resemblances between them are simply due
to close kinship, and have nothing whatever to do with the subject of
mimicry. Again, a reference to the suggested mimicry of the Cape Hunt-
ing Dog (Lycaon pictus), of the Spotted Hyena (Hyena crocuta), is placed
under the heading of ‘‘ Suggested or Probable Mimicry”’ (J. ¢., p. 449),
although Mr. Lydekker’s remarks, showing the difficulty of accepting
this proposition, are quoted. Indeed, I have always been at a loss to
understand how such a strong and fearless animal as the former—of
which Selous has recorded that it ‘‘is capable of overtaking and
attacking single-handed such a powerful animal as a male Sable
Antelope’ (‘ Hunter’s Wanderings in Africa,’ p. 857)—could be sup-
posed to derive any benefit from resembling a cowardly brute like the
Hyena. To anyone acquainted with the two animals in nature, it is
abundantly evident that, whatever mimicry there may be between
them, it would be in just the reverse direction; that is, the skulking
Hyena would materially benefit by being mistaken for the bold and
gregarious Hunting Dog.™

I need only refer to one more example—namely, that of the Honey
Bee (I. c., p. 856). It is well known that various species of the dipterous
genus Mristalis mimic Bees; and Mr. Distant quotes the experiments
of Prof. Lloyd Morgan with Chickens, and Mr. R. J. Pocock with
Spiders, which demonstrate the value of this mimicry. Yet this
instance is not placed in the ‘‘ Demonstrable”’ category, but in that
of ‘‘ Suggested or Probable,’’ on the ground that ‘ the Bee itself is not
absolutely protected by its sting.”’ If such a classification were adhered
to, there never would be a case of demonstrated mimicry; but it must
be noted that, on the same page, it is explained that: ‘‘ By the term
‘Demonstrable’ is implied all those instances where protection, abso-
lute or partial, has been, or ean be, demonstrated by experiment or
actual observation.” *

It now only remains to discuss the objections raised by Mr. Distant

* The writer may not have referred to every paper that Prof. Poulton
has written, but he certainly did write (p. 451): ‘“ Poulton has focussed many
observations respecting instances in the Insecta, largely augmented by in-
formation received from the well-known coleopterist C. J. Gahan” (ef. Journ.
Linn. Soe. xxvi. pp. 558-612 (1898) ); a much later paper than that referred
to by Mr. Marshall.—Ep.

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 547

to certain cases which are generally referred to protective resemblance.
After stating that ‘“‘ colour alone may prove a false analogy to protec-
tion” (I. c., p. 850), and referring to the strongly protective colouring
of a certain South American butterfly, Ageronia feronica, he says:
*‘This observer, however, at the same time refers to the statement of
Bigg Wither, that this very insect is called the Whip-Butterfly, owing
to the sharp whip-cracking sound made by its wings when battling
by its fellows in the air,” and that this sound makes it the easy prey
of a forest bird, locally known as ‘the Suruqua,’ who thus detects
and secures it. Here the apparent protection by ‘‘ protective resem-
blance’’ is invalidated by a peculiar and unusual sound-producing
quality, which is as equally dangerous as its colour is reported protec-
tive. A similar remark may be made as to the musical Cicadide. How
often have the usual green and brown colours of these insects been
adduced as an example of protective resemblance; . . . but when we
desire to capture them the shrill noise proclaims their retreat, and
their assimilative colouration avails them little.”’ Again, in comment-
ing upon Mr. Tutt’s graphic account of the protective colouring of the
Lappet Moth (Lasiocampa quercifolia), he says: ‘‘ Here the expression,
‘trained eye,’ of the entomologist, would suggest a more developed
‘trained eye’ of the moth’s natural enemies, and hence any theory of
protective mimicry is much discounted (/.c. p. 455). From these quo-
tations it may be gathered that Mr. Distant’s attitude towards the
subject is somewhat as follows :—When we find that the colouring of
any animal assimilates well with that of its environment, but, at the
same time, that this animal is apt to render itself more or less notice-
able by certain movements or noises, then we are not justified in
regarding its colouration as an efficient protection, and the case must
therefore be removed from the category of protective resemblance.
Tempting as such a conclusion may be to the opponents of Darwinism,*
it appears to me to be wholly erroneous. The fundamental fallacy
lies in the gratuitous assumption that the protection afforded must be
absolute ; for otherwise there is no ground whatever for the objection
raised. In the first place, I am not aware that such absolute protec-
tion has been anywhere observed in nature, and, indeed, were the
above proposition a sound one, the principle of protective resemblance
would have to be entirely abandoned. But, as a matter of fact, this
principle predicates no such complete immunity from attack; in truth,
the very essence of the theory of natural selection negatives any such

* Darwinism does not derive its sole support from theories of ‘‘ mimicry,”

and the writer of the papers criticised was not aware that he was to be counted
among ‘‘the opponents of Darwinism.’’—Eb.

548 THE ZOOLOGIST.

supposition ; for, according to this theory, protective resemblance, as
we now see it, has been arrived at by the gradual accumulation and
improvement of colour variations which make for concealment, and
the protective value of such variations must essentially be, or have
been, of only a partial character. Admitting that the gambols of the
Whip Butterfly (presumably of a sexual character) lead the insect into
a certain amount of danger, yet, to ask us to believe that it thereby
‘invalidates ’’ the protection afforded it, when at rest, by its assimila-
tive colouring, against other enemies, and perhaps even against the
*« Suruqua”’ itself, is, as Mr. Bateson puts it, referring to a different
assumption, ‘‘ to ask us toabrogate reason.’’ Further, the not unusual
fact, that animals exhibiting a very high grade of resemblance are yet
subject to a considerable amount of persecution, in no way invalidates,
but rather strengthens, this principle; for it is evident that such a
degree of resemblance can only have been developed in response to a
similarly high degree of persecution, acting either now, or within
recent times.

It will thus be seen that, on general considerations alone, the
above objections to the principle of protective resemblance must be at
once ruled out of court. It may be as well, however, to discuss the
case of Cicadas in more detail. In the first place, I cannot agree
with Mr. Distant that these insects are easily captured owing to their
shrill cries. All high-pitched, vibrating sounds of this kind are very
difficult to localise exactly, and with Cicadas I have noticed very
frequently, both with myself and others, that the distance of the insect
is invariably much underestimated.“ But even when the tree on
which the Cicada is sitting has been ascertained, it must be very
cautiously approached, for many species are able to detect one’s
presence at a distance of fifteen to twenty yards in open country, and,
on so doing, they will at once cease their call; and although they will
generally permit a much closer approach than this, yet it is always
extremely difficult to locate the exact position of the sound on the
tree. Their habits, however, vary in this respect, and among the
dozen or more species which I have observed in various parts of South
Africa, I have found it to be a very general rule that their wariness is
inversely proportionate to their protective resemblance; those species
which live on rough, knotted bark, or among dense foliage, permitting
one to approach much nearer than do those that rest on bare, smooth
trunks or small twigs. The above remarks apply to the calling of a
single insect ; but, when a number are calling together, it is still more
difficult to localise any particular cry; and, indeed, I have on several
occasions been driven out of a patch of machabel bush by the con-

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 549

tinuous ear-piercing scream of a number of the large Pweilopsaltria
horizontalis, Karsch, which seems to make the whole air pulsate, with-
out betraying the exact locality of a single individual. Although in
many cases I have actually tracked down individuals by their cry, in
order to learn the calls of the different species, yet such a method is
far too laborious for ordinary collecting purposes. So experienced a
collector as Dr. Perey Rendall says: ‘‘In the Transvaal I have also
taken them at rest on tree-trunks, but I do not think they were taken
in consequence of their song having thus localized them. At Zomba
I caught a large species by actually localizing its noise, but that was
the only instance of the kind that I remember ” (‘ Zoologist,’ 1897,
p. 520).

1t must not be supposed that I do not recognize that the Cicada’s
cry must, under certain circumstances, be dangerous for individuals
as, indeed, are many other secondary sexual characters; but Mr. Distant
appears to have overestimated the danger, and the contention that this
noise invalidates their admirably protective colouration appears to be
an inverted way of looking at the question. It is more reasonable to
suppose that the protective resemblance of these insects is so effica-
cious, that they have been able to develop these extraordinary cries
through the process of sexual selection (or perhaps even natural
selection, supposing xsthetic appreciation on the part of the female be
denied), without unduly endangering the safety of the species. On this
view, the Cicada’s song, far from proving that the insect’s colouring is
inefficient for protective purposes, would stand as a testimony of its
very high efficacy. In fact, I venture to think that, in the vast majority
of cases in which animals produce conspicuously loud sounds, they will
be found to possess either highly protective colouration or habits, or else
distasteful or other qualities which render concealment unnecessary.

In conclusion, I can only hope that sufficient has been said to show
that there are good grounds for opposing the suggestion that active
mimicry is of any general occurrence in the animal kingdom; and,
further, that the attempt to minimise certain phenomena of ordinary
protective resemblance, in order to bring them within the scope of that
principle, is not justifiable upon the evidence adduced. The subject,
however, is such a wide one, that it is impossible to deal adequately
with all its aspects within the limits of a paper such as this.

550 THE ZOOLOGIST.

REMARKS ON THE PRECEDING PAPER.

By Epwarp B. Poutrton, M.A., F.R.S.
(Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford ; Hope Professor of Zoology in the University.)

My friend Mr. Marshall has asked me to make any alterations or
corrections in his paper. I find, however, that I so entirely agree with
the whole of the argument that I have merely added a few confirma-
tory notes to certain passages in the paper, which are in each case
marked by a number.

1H. W. Bates, in his classical paper, also used the term mimicry
in the wider sense employed by W. L. Distant. The majority of
naturalists have since followed A. R. Wallace in keeping Protective
and Aggressive Resemblance distinct from Mimicry—a course which
appears to be convenient, inasmuch as the distinction in terms cor-
responds to a real distinction in the modes of defence. In the former,
an animal resembles an object which is of no interest to its enemy,
and in so doing becomes concealed ; in the latter, an animal resembles
an object which its enemy knows well and fears or dislikes, and in so
doing becomes conspicuous. Other superficial resemblances—such as
those produced by protective resemblances in common, warning colours
in common (Millerian mimicry), and functions in common (analogical
or adaptive resemblances of Darwin)—are excluded from mimicry as
here defined.

* See the discussion on ‘* Organic Selection,’ reported in ‘ Science,’
N.S. vol. vi. No. 146, Oct. 15, 1897, where this view was sustained.

8 Probably most evolutionists would hesitate before committing
themselves to such a conclusion. Highly intelligent animals, such as
birds, crouch and hide when very young at every unusual sound. This
action is performed instinctively and unintelligently, and is apparently
an automatic response to stimulus. When the stimulus has been
repeated, and no danger is apparent, the young birds cease to crouch.
We are not justified in considering that their intelligence has done
more than enable them to inhibit an unnecessary response. There is
no reason to think that they have any understanding of the meaning
of the response itself. See Lloyd Morgan's ‘Habit and Instinct’
(London, 1896).

Tt should be remembered that the structure and colouring are
themselves made up of many complex factors, all of which must
co-operate if the mimetic or protective resemblance is to be effective.
See Linnean Soc. Journ., Zool., vol. xxvi. pp. 576-578.

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 551

5 That is to say, where the high cerebral development exists which
would, according to W. L. Distant, tend to produce mimicry and
protective resemblances, precisely there these adaptations are lowly
developed as compared with Insecta, where we meet with far less intel-
ligence and far more of the unvarying repetitions of pure instinct,
incapable of improvement by learning, and, within their rigid limits,
too perfect to require it. Where the conditions are most favourable
for ‘active mimicry,’ mimetic and cryptic adaptations are least
prominent; where they are least favourable, these adaptations become
most conspicuous.

6 So far as I have been able to collect evidence, Kallima does not
rest on dry and withered leaves, but in situations, such as trunks and
branches, in which dead leaves would not attract attention. H. J. Elwes
has stated that it freely expands its wings when settled, and looks any-
thing but leaf-like; but this is probably when it is thoroughly on the
alert, during the short pauses between successive flights. C. Swinhoe
has informed me that it invariably rests head downwards, like a dead
leaf hanging by its stalk, so that all the figures and preparations seen
in this country representing its natural attitude are wrong.*

It is quite impossible to explain the protective attitude of this or
any other insect on the principle of ‘ active mimicry,”’ unless we are
going arbitrarily to assume that certain defensive activities are to be
explained in this way, while others, equally necessary and equally
elaborate, cannot be thus interpreted. Consider, for instance, the
concealment often brought by the cocoon—the selection of an appro-
priate situation, the building into the walls of a part of the surrounding
surface, &c., &e. Upon the principle of ‘ active mimicry,” ‘the view
would be, I suppose, that the ancestral larva spun a cocoon which was
not much of a success, and was in consequence attacked by enemies ;
that the larva observed these attacks, and accordingly improved its
cocoon. But that is not the way in which the struggle for existence is
waged with insects. If the larva failed, it failed, and that would be
the end of the matter. ~It has no chance of improvement; it has no
opportunity of learning by experience. Its only chance of survival is
to avoid experience of foes altogether ; experience is the most danger-
ous thing in the world for an edible insect. This becomes still more
obvious when we remember that failure or success is almost always
determined long after the cocoon is made. The caterpillar, perhaps,
spins the cocoon in autumn, but the real stress of competition will
come in winter, when insect-eating animals are pressed hard with
hunger, and search high and low for food. But the caterpillar is by

* Cf. Eha, ‘ Natural Science,’ vol. ix. p. 299.—Ep.
B

552 THE ZOOLOGIST.

this time a chrysalis, and of course has no opportunity of improving
the cocoon. ‘The selective test is applied long after the operation has
been performed, and when there is no possibility of gaining by experi-
ence. We are thrown back, then, solely upon natural selection, which
acts on the nervous system of the caterpillar, and thus compels it to
make the cocoon in a certain way. In other words, those caterpillars
which are impelled by their nervous system to make ill-formed con-
spicuous cocoons have no chance of living, and, in future stages,
producing offspring. Hence the selection caused by the keen sight of
foes first raises, and then maintains at a high level, the standard of
cocoon-making.” ‘

‘This contention as to the uselessness and danger of experience
applies to the whole of those smaller defenceless animals which have
no chance of fighting with their enemies, or of escaping when once they
have been detected "’ (‘ Proce. Boston Soe. Nat. Hist.’ vol. xxvi. p. 391).

It would be a most gratuitous indulgence in unnecessary hypothesis
to insist that the appropriate attitude which gives a meaning to form
and colour, and itself receives a meaning from these, originated in one
way in the caterpillar, and in another and totally different way in the
imago which develops from it.

7 See note (3).

* The observation does not prove more than that the fox seeks cover
and hides when he sees that he is observed by man. The burnt sur-
face did not afford cover, and the fox sought it elsewhere. It would be
very rash to assume from the observation that the fox knew anything
about his own protective colouring.

® Or the numberless examples of insects which fall motionless when
their food-plant is shaken.

© There are many reasons for considering that colours and patterns
change very rapidly when no longer sustained by natural selection.
When animals become cave-dwellers, or inhabit the greatest depths of
the ocean, their colours are profoundly modified and often tend to
disappear. This happens in forms closely allied to others which still
retain the normal colouring and live in the light.

The majority of domestic animals have been immensely modified in
this respect in a measurable number of years. In some cases these
changes have been brought about without the aid of specially directed
artificial selection. Thus a large proportion of our fowls produce
white eggs instead of the brown of the ancestral species.

Again, the enormous difference between the colours and patterns of
certain closely.allied species is evidence for ease and rapidity of change
rather than stability in this element of structure. The argument
becomes stronger when we consider the cases of sexual and seasonal,

CONSCIOUS PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCE. 553

and other di- or poly-morphism in the different individuals of the same
species. A single instance will make this clear. There are certain
genera of butterflies, such as Dismorphia (in the wide sense), Pseud-
acrea, and Hypolimnas (also in the wide sense), of which almost the
whole of the numerous species are mimetic. Within the limits of each
genus the most divergent models have been followed, so that utterly
different colours and patterns have been produced in forms which are
still closely related, and in other structural features exhibit no corre-
sponding differences. In the most extreme case known to me, immense
differences occur in the different races of a form which systematists
consider as a single species, viz. Hypolimnas bolina. If we compare
the Indian form of female with those of the Malayan region, Australia,
and Polynesia, including Fiji (in which the local race itself con-
tains the most widely divergent forms), and remember that no corre-
sponding differences exist which would justify us in conferring specific
rank in any of the cases, we are driven to the conclusion that colour
and pattern are the most superficial of all specific characters,—of all
the least likely to persist unchanged when the models upon which they
were founded have long since disappeared.

In one special case which I have observed, there is evidence that
changes in the nervous system have outlasted the markings which once
gave a meaning to them. Some of the remarkable larve of the genus
Ophideres have two eye-spots at the junction of the anterior and middle
third of the body. They have the instinct of bending the anterior
third so that it rests under the middle one, and thus the eye-spots are
brought into an appropriate position apparently at the anterior end of
a somewhat snake-like body. But a caterpillar of this genus which I
found in Teneriffe assumed the attitude, on irritation, although the
eye-spots were almost completely wanting.

1 Tt is worth considering whether the Mullerian principle may have
been operative in this case.

2 Of course, no natural selectionist has ever been so unreasonable
as to contend for absolute protection. In every species, whether
defended by the most distasteful or dangerous qualities, or the most
effective concealment, no more can be achieved than to keep up the
average numbers under average conditions, and this means that an
immense majority of individuals are doomed to failure. As regards
concealment, success merely means that enemies have so far to work
for their living that in the time at their disposal they cannot do more
than reduce the number of individuals to the average. Warning
colours and unpalatable or otherwise unpleasant qualities are more
complex as a means of defence, depending as they do for their success
upon the co-existence of other more desirable food. Their operation,

>

554 THE ZOOLOGIST.

under favourable circumstances, is probably to reduce the number of
enemies, this success being compensated, however, by the more per- __

sistent attacks of certain special enemies—the result being the same as
in the cryptic colouring, namely, to keep up the average number of
individuals.

* Darwin remarks on the sound made by this species (‘ Voyage of
the Beagle’), which he witnessed during his travels in South America.
He believed that the sound was of sexual significance, and in his essay
on sexual selection compared it to that made by the males of Halias
prasinana during courtship—a sound which I have myself once heard.
The display or exercise of secondary sexual characters is probably often
a danger to the individual, although I fail to see how it is possible
to argue from this that the cryptic colouring and attitudes of other
phases of life are thereby rendered inoperative and valueless. The
sound-producing time is one of high activity and rapid movement in
both the species of Lepidoptera mentioned ; in the case of the common
English moth it is indulged in so rarely, that comparatively few
naturalists have ever heard it, while in dAgeronia it is not likely to be
produced during more than a very small proportion of the life of the
male. As to its cryptic colouring and, of even more importance, the
corresponding instinctive attitudes and movements, Darwin made
special remark in the volume already mentioned.

* T have noticed the same thing in North America. Not only was
the distance very difficult to estimate, but the direction from which the
sound came equally hard to trace.

[In closing this discussion, which has now extended beyond the limited
space of ‘ The Zoologist,’ as writer of the incriminated “ Suggestions,” I ought
perhaps to make some rejoinder. This is unnecessary to my friend Mr.
Marshall's objections, as they principally express an ably stated difference of
opinion, and I have merely added footnotes to make his quotations from my
suggestions a little more ample and representative. Prof. Poulton, in for-
warding his ‘‘ Notes,’ with his usual fairness, wrote: ‘*‘ My remarks are more
of a reinforcement of Marshall’s arguments than a direct answer to your
paper, which I have not seen. I expect, however, from Marshall’s MS., that
they do affect the drift of your argument, and are therefore in the nature of a
reply.” This statement of course disarms any rejoinder. Besides which a
comparison of Poulton’s notes to Marshall’s opinions also discloses a diversity
of view, though the first named states he entirely agrees with Mr. Marshall’s
argument. Thus Mr. Marshall writes (ante, p. 538), “It is possible no
evolutionist would deny,” and Prof. Poulton to this adds the note, ‘‘ Probably
most evolutionists would hesitate before committing themselves to such a
conclusion.” Again, they both differ as to the active mimicry of the Fox
(cf, pp. 541, 552). A triangular discussion is therefore out of the question,
and we may continue to differ in opinion and search together for facts.— Ep. }

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College, ‘Oxford: ”

LEPIDOPTERA | FROM, THE WHITE NILE,
COLLECTED BY MR. W. L. S. LOAT, F.ZS.;
TOGETHER WITH FURTHER NOTES ON og
_ SEASONAL DIMORPHISM IN BUTTERFLIES.

y (Ff ‘om ie Transactions OF THE Ewnromonocica Society or Lonpon,
- June 2, 1903. ]

Paste Mena. ae” GAY as “* a ae ty

er iat”)

IX. On Lepidoptera from the White Nile, collected by My.
W. L. S. Loar, F.Z.8.; together with further notes
on Seasonal Dimorphism in Butterflies. By Dr.
Freperick A. Drxry, M.A., M.D., Fellow of Wad-

ham College, Oxford.
[Read March 18th, 1903.]
PEATE Vik

Mr. W. L. 8. Loat, during his tenure of office as super-
intendent of the Nile Fish Survey under the Egyptian
Government, spent more than three years in a scientific
investigation of the waters of the Nile and its tributaries.
Though his biological activities were mainly engaged in
other directions, he took several opportunities of collecting
butterflies; and the specimens captured by him in April
1901, and in January and March 1902, are in many
respects of great interest. They are generally in excellent
condition, and are accompanied by ample data; but the
collection (which has been liberally presented by Mr. Loat
to the Hope Museum at Oxford) derives what is perhaps
its greatest value from the fact that the specimens are
marked in such a manner as to allow all those caught at
one time and in one spot to be grouped together. The
captor informs me that on these occasions no voluntary
selection was made oa his part; that he tried, in fact, to
catch all he saw; so that each of his “ bags” may be taken
as a fair sample of the butterfly life that was at that
particular time on the wing.

The localities of Mr. Loat’s captures are as follows :—

J. Wuitrrt NILE; GHARB-EL-AISH, near KAKA; about
Hite NES bats
IJ. Wurre NILE; near Kaka; about 10° 30’ N. Lat.
III. BAwR-EL-GEBEL (Nile); near MANGALA; about 5°
Ne Dhak
IV. BAHR-EL-GEBEL (Nile); GonpoKkoro; 4° 43’ N. Lat.

Several of the species obtained from all these localities
are well known to be seasonally dimorphic. As will be
seen later, the present collection contains a preponderance

TRANS. ENT. SOC. LOND. 1903.—PART II. (JUNE) 10

142 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

of “dry-season” forms. The large proportion of Pierines
to the whole number is remarkable ; as also is the general
resemblance borne by the whole assemblage to the butter-
‘fly fauna of Aden. It was remarked by Dr. ‘Butler in
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1901, p. 25, that the collection made by
Captain Dunn on the Bahr-el-Zeraf (White Nile) had a
very Aden-like aspect, and in particular that it contained
all the forms of Limnas chrysippus, Linn., just as they occur
at Aden. In Somaliland, as is well know n, the prevailing
form of L. chrysippus is L. klugti, Butl., w ith a sprinkling of
its modification L. dorippus, Klug; in other respects the
present collection recalls the Somaliland fauna almost as
distinctly as it does that of Aden.

It will be noticed that Mr. Loat’s insect-collecting was
limited to a very few occasions, and to only three months
in the year. This will no doubt account for the absence
from his collection of a few species which occur in that of
Captain Dunn (Joe. cit.). Among such are Precis bodpis,
Trim., Atella phalantha, Drury, and especially Hypolimnas
misippus, Linn. There is no new species among Mr. Loat’s
captures, but they include the male of Pnacopteryx
venatus, Butl., of which the female only has hitherto been
known to science.

Subjoined is an account of the places and dates of
capture, as carefully recorded by Mr. Loat, together with a
list of the specimens taken on each occasion. It has been
thought worth while to preserve his details, even to the
time of day at which the captures were made.

J. WHItE NILE; GHARB-EL-AISH, near Kaka; about
Li INS ak:
1901, April 13.

A, Between 1 and 2 p.m.
PIERINA.
TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.

Teracolus glycera, Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876, p. 144; Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., 1897, vol. 11, p. 461; Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1901, p. 25

42,39. This, as Dr. Butler remarks, is a form of the

T. antigone group. It is barely, if at all, distinguishable

from 7’ evagore, Klug (7. saxeus, Swinh.). See below, p. 161.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 143

HESPERITD.E.
GEGENES NOSTRODAMUS, abr.
1%; with sharper wings and paler than Mr, Bennett’s
Socotran example (also a 2).*

Lb, Between 3 and 5 p.m.
DANAIN
LIMNAS CHRYSIPPUS, Linn,
L. chrysippus, Linn., 4 2; aleippoides, Moore, 22; alcippus,
Cram., 12; klugit, Butl, 13; dorippus, Klug, 1 &.

These are of the colouring usual in examples from the
northern districts of the “Kast African” subregion.
The chrysippus are duller and darker in hue than speci-
mens from Socotra, and the subapical white spots are
less discrete. The specimen of Adwgit is somewhat paler
than the average of that form. It is remarkable that
all five variations of chrysippus are represented in these
nine examples taken at the same time and in the same
place.t

NYMPHALIN A.

BYBLIA ILITHytA, Drury,

1¢; intermediate between “wet” and “dry.”

PRECIS CEBRENE, Trim.
12; wet.
PIERIN A,
TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.
Goo:
BELENOIS MESENTINA, Cram.
Bie ce) Pee WO
LYCANIN A.
CHILADES TROCHILUS, Ireyer,
1 get ae Sa
TARUCUS THEOPHRASTUS, Fabr.
1 2; rather small and dark.
* Proc. Zool. Soc., 1898, p. 382.
+ On the varying forms of Limnas chrysippus, Linn., with their
distribution, see Poulton in Trans. Ent. Soe, Lond., 1902, pp. 473-

482, ibique citata, to which may be added a note by the present
writer in Proc. Zool. Soc., 1900, pp. 10, 11.

144 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

PoLYOMMATUS B&TICUS, Linn.
2) small:
HESPERITD 2
GEGENES NOSTRODAMUS, Fabr.
ees
April 14.
Between 9 and 10 a.m.
DANAINA.
LIMNAS CHRYSIPPUS, Linn.
L. klugit, Butl, 1 f.
NYMPHALINE.
VANESSA CARDUI, Linn.
1
PIERIN A.
TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butt.

Lg, 12

BELENOIS MESENTINA, Cram,
1 gf; wet.
LYCANIN A
TARUCUS THEOPHRASTUS, Fabr.
1 Sa
TARUCUS TELICANUS, Lang.

1 f; rather small.

POLYOMMATUS BZ TICUS, Linn.
aS
HESPERIID.2®.

GEGENES NOSTRODAMUS, Fabr.
» he

At the time of the two days’ collecting above recorded,
the dry weather was breaking up. ‘Thunder was heard in
the distance, and the rains were just about arriving. The
next batch of butterflies was caught at a point on the
Nile a little further south, and a week later in the season.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 145

II. Waite NILE; near Kaka; 10° 30’ N. Lat.
1901, April 21.
A, Between 9 and 11 a.m.
DANAIN/AN.
LIMNAS CHRYSIPPUS, Linn.
LL. alcippoides, Moore, 2 f; alcippus, Cram., 1 2; klugit,

Butlers...
NYMPHALIN,

PRECIS CEBRENE, Trim.
1 f; wet.
PIERIN A.
TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.
it Bee
TERACOLUS DAIRA, Klug.
3 4,22; all somewhat lightly marked.

TERACOLUS LEO, Butl.
1 f, “dry,” but with no pink shade beneath; 1 2, white,
with very slight orange flush. Inclined towards “ wet.”

TERACOLUS PHISADIA, Godt.
12; with orange flush on upper surface of fore-wing,
and decided reddish shade beneath.

TERACOLUS PROTOMEDIA, Klug.

De,

In 1 nN
>ELENOIS GIDICA, Godt.

Northern form (2. abyssinica, Luc.), 2 4, 3 9. The males
tend to the wet form; one has the wings very sharply
pointed. Of the females, one is wet, one intermediate,
and the remaining one verges towards dry.

BELENOIS MESENTINA, Cram.
ae POs wet,
LYCAININ Ab.
CHILADES TROCHILUS, Freyer.
| ae
POLYOMMATUS Ba&TICUS, Linn.

29.

146 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

HESPERITD®.
CHAPRA MATHIAS, Fabr.
le
Bk Between 3 and 5 p.m.
DANAINA,
LIMNAS ctTirystePus, Linn.
LL. chrysippus, Linn. 1%; aleippus, Cram., 3 2; hlugii,
Butl. 32.
PIERINA,
TERACOLUS PHLEGYAS, Butl.
1f%,1@ (yellow); both wet.

TERACOLUS EUPOMPE, Klug.

1¢,12. Both of these are “dry” in character, but the
male is without the pinkish shade beneath, and the female
only has it to a moderate extent. Mr. Loat describes the
flight of the male in this and the preceding species as
Salas

TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.
LD easy
TERACOLUS DATRA, Klug.
Las
TERACOLUS LEO, Butl.
1 2; yellow, with orange flush. Under-side pinkish, as in
the dry-season form.
TERACOLUS PLEIONE, Klug.
12; mtermediate, verging towards wet.

TERACOLUS PHISADTA, Godt.

5%, 1 2 Three of the males are full wet-season
forms, the other twa show an infusion of flesh-colour in
the yellow of the under-side. The female is less reddish
beneath than the specimen of the same sex taken earlier
on the same day.

* Cf. Mr. G. A. IX. Marshall’s observations on the flight of “ purple-

tips.’—Trans. Ent. Soe. Lond., 1902, pp. 354, 871; see also Trimen,
* South-African Butterflies,” vol. ili, 1889, p. 107.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 147
TERACOLUS AMELIA, Lue.
1 ~. Dry-season; no basal duskiness on the upper
surface.

TERACOLUS PROTOMEDIA, Klug.
Se
BELENOIS Grprca, Godt.
Northern form (B. abyssinica, Luc.). 1 2, wet; 2 9,
dry.
BELENOIS MESENTINA, Cram,

2g, 2 22 all wet.

)

III. Banr-EL-GEBEL (Nile); near MANGALA; about 5°
N. Lat. More or less open wooded country,
with scrub and dried grass in places; near the
river.

1902, January 8.
Between 3.30 and 5 p.m.
PIERIN A.

TERACOLUS EUPOMPE, Klug.

1¢, 1 9, intermediate; 1 9, dry. All these have more
or less basal duskiness.
TERACOLUS EVARNE, Klug.

ae le alldny:
TERACOLUS EPIGONE, Feld.
T. microcale, Butl. See Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1897, ii,

p. 472.

32; all dry.
TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.

TO, 49.
TERACOLUS DAIRA, Klug,

ae le Oe
BELENOIS SEVERINA, Cram.

Form boguensis, Feld. 1 2, intermediate.

148 Dr. F, A. Dixey on

January 9.
Between 9 and 11 a.m.

PIERINA.
TERACOLUS EUPOMPE, Klug.
2f,12, intermediate ; 12 dry.
TERACOLUS EVARNE, Klug.

19 ¢,3 9; all dry. The dry-season character especially
well-marked in the females.
TERACOLUS EPIGONE, Feld.

eee pe llediny.

TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.

1 ea
TERACOLUS DATRA, Klug,

Sia &,

BELENOIS SEVERINA, Cram.

12, wet. Form boguensis, Feld. 32, 19 (yellow); all
dry.

BELENOIS MESENTINA, Cram.

2,12, wet; 12, intermediate.
ERONIA CLEODORA, Hiibn.

1 Z, wet.

LYCAININ 4.
TARUCUS THEOPHRASTUS, Fabr.

1 ¢, 1 ¢. The male corresponds very closely with
specimens in Coll. Hope from Syria. The female, which is
of the blue form, comes very near to 7. sybaris, Hopff.

AZANUS JESOUS, Gueér.
1 Ree
LYCENESTHES AMARAH, Guer.

He

In a letter to Prof. Poulton, which he kindly permits
me to quote, Mr. Loat describes the present collecting-
ground as follows:—“The country was flat, ground hard
and dry, very little undergrowth, a few large trees, open
bare patches of ground, a good deal of thorny scrub in

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 149

clumps, and every here and there tufts of dried grass.
The thorny scrub was mostly composed of a low-growing
shrub bearing a small whitish flower with a slight nonde-
script scent; this seemed rather attractive to the whites
and their allies.” The great preponderance of Pierimes in
this two-days collection at Mangala will be noticed.

The remaining captures were all made at Gondokoro or
in its immediate vicinity. With respect to them Mr. Loat
writes as follows:—“ The series caught at Gondokoro
[Jan. 12, 16] were collected on a strip of land cleared of
elephant-grass and weeds, and turned into a kind of garden
with sweet potatoes, etc., growing in it, and a few wild
flowers about, close to the edge of the river. The Z.
chrysippus, with hardly an exception, and also the Acrewas
were obtained on, or close to, the same strip of ground,
some of the remainder [Jan. 13, March 8] were taken on
ground like that described at Mangala. The weather on
January 8, 9, 12, 13, was dry, sunny and warm. The
rainy season generally begins [at Gondokoro] about the
15th of March, but this year (1902) it commenced about
one month earlier; that is to say, we had occasional
showers and squalls, with long intervals of fine weather.
About the end of March the rains start with a certain
amount of regularity, and last off and on till about October.”
In the neighbourhood of Kaka, 6° further north, the rains
are later. As was stated above, at Gharb-el-Aish, on April
13 (1901), they were only just beginning.

IV. BAHR-EL-GEBEL (Nile); Gonpbokoro; 4° 43’ N.
Lat. Strip of ground by the river.
1902, January 12.
Between 3 and 4 p.m.
| DANAINE.

LIMNAS CHRYSIPPUS, Linn.

LL chrysippus, Linn., 4 % (one with slight white powdering
round gland-patch) ; a/eippoides, Moore, 1 2; alcippus,
Cram., 2 $; klugii, Butl., 2 3; dorippus, Klug, 1

ACRASIN Ai.

ACRZA VINIDIA, Hewits.

2 ip ie | ¢. “Very numerous; takes a long time to die
when put in the killing-bottle.’—W. L. S. L.

150 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

NYMPHALIN®.
NEPTIS AGATHA, Cram.

lf.
PIERINA.

TERIAS BRIGITTA, Cram.
1 2g, wet. The occurrence in January of this well-
marked wet-season form is remarkable.
PAPILIONIN &.
PAPILIO PYLADES, Cram.
12. “Rare’—W. LS. L:
LYCENIN &.
POLYOMMATUS BaeTicus, Linn.

19.

V. GonpdOKORO and neighbourhood. Ground as at
MANGALA.
January 13.

Between 3 and 3.30 p.m.
DANAINA.
LIMNAS cHRysripPpus, Linn.
L. chrysippus, Linn., 2¢; klugi, Butl., 1 ¢ and 1 &.
Mostly on the strip of ground by the river.
ACRAINA.
ACREA VINIDIA, Hewits.
3% On the strip of ground by the river.
PIERIN A.
TERIAS SENEGALENSIS, Boisd.
1 @, dry or intermediate.
TERACOLUS EUPOMPE, Klug.
2 f,1 9; all somewhat “ dry.”
TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.
1 Baa
BELENOIS GIDICA, Godt.
Northern form. 1 9, dry.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 151

BELENOIS MESENTINA, Cram.

tS dry
LYCAININ AB.
TARUCUS THEOPHRASTUS, Fabr.
i igen

Jan. 16.
A. Between 10 and 11 a.m.
DANAIN/A.

LIMNAS CHRYSIPPUS, Linn.

L. chrysippus, Linn., 8 ¢, of which two are small, and
several have a faint white powdering on the hind-
wing ; aeippus, Cram. 1 f; kelugit, Butlhy 3° ¢; one
with faint white powdering on hind-wing.

EB. Between 11 and 12 a.m.
DANAIN A.
LIMNAS CHRYSIPPUS, Linn.
L. chrysippus, Linn., 3 2,123 aleippus, Cram.,.1 2; klugi,
Butl., 1 Zand 1 Q, the latter with a slight powdering
of white on the hind-wings; dorippus, Klug., 1 2.

ACRAIN Ai.
ACREA ENCEDON, Linn.

1 ¢. This specimen is intermediate between typical
A. eneedon and the form A. daira, Godm. & Salv. The
apical area is dusky, but the subapical bar is scarcely
paler than the general ground-colour. On the various
forms of 4. encedon, and their relation with the correspond-
ing forms of LZ. chrysippus, see Poulton and Marshall in
Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902, pp. 479-484, etc., Plates
DEV; XVe

NYMPHALIN A.
PRECIS CLELIA, Cram.

1 f¢; rather small, intensely coloured; no trace of ocelli

on upper surface ; under-side looks “ dry.”

NEPTIS AGATHA, Cram.
liye
PIERIN&.
TERIAS BRIGITTA, Cram.
1 2; wet or intermediate.

152 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

TERIAS SENEGALENSIS, Boisd.
2 g, dry, one small; 1 2 dry or intermediate, also
small.
TERACOLUS EUPOMPE, Klug.
1 9, rather worn; dry or intermediate.
BELENOIS GIDICA, Godt.
Northern form. 1 2%, dry or intermediate.

BELENOIS SEVERINA, Cram.
1 ff, dry or intermediate.

All the captures on Jan. 16 were made in the “ garden
strip,’ on a patch of ground 50 yards square.

Jan. 18.
PIERIN A.
TERACOLUS PROTOMEDIA, Kluge.
i ¢3and 1 2s -paired:
March 8.
Between 9.30 and 11.30 a.m.
DANAINA.
LIMNAS CHRYSIPPUS, Linn.
L. klugw, Butl., 1 &.
PIERIN®.
TERACOLUS EUPOMPE, Kluge.
5 #,1 9; intermediate and dry.
TERACOLUS EVARNE, Klug.
15 ¢,1 9; all dry, most of them markedly so.

TERACOLUS GLYCERA, Butl.

See
LEUCERONIA BUQUETII, Boisd.
le.

PINACOPTERYX VENATUS, Buti.

1 f. This interesting Pinacopteryx is represented in
the National Collection by only two specimens, both
females. The first of these is the type, described and
figured by Dr. Butler in Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1871, p.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 155

169; Pl. VIL, fig. 7. It was collected on the White Nile
by Petherick. The second is Captain Dunn’s, and was
captured in 1900 on the Bahr-el-Zeraf (Giraffe River,
White Nile). The former is much the more heavily
marked. Mr. Loat’s male corresponds rather with the
second specimen, which has more sharply-pointed and
narrower wings than the type, and probably belongs to
the dry-season phase of the species. The male appears to
be hitherto undescribed.

Pinacopteryx venatus, Butl.—Male.—General aspect somewhat like
that of P. Liliana, Grose Smith ; but smaller, and with fore-wings
narrower and more sharply pointed.

Exp. al. 40 mm.

Upper surface :—Wings white. Fore-wings with inner third of costa
and basal half of cell greyish ; a marginal black point at the
extremity of the third median branch, and marginal black spots at
the extremities of the first and second median, the two radial
branches, and the third subcostal. These spots increase in size from
behind forwards, and those belonging to the first radial and the
subcostal branches become fused, together with a costal spot, into a
dark apical patch, in which however the separate constituents are
still visible. A thin dark costal streak unites the apical black patch
with the basal grey. In the hind-wing, the marginal extremity of
each vein or branch, except the internal, is marked by a small black
spot ; the spots belonging to the second subcostal, radial, and second
and third median, are somewhat linear, being elongated in the
direction of the vein. Lower surface :—Fore-wings white, shghtly
greyish along costa and towards base ; a small roundish black spot
on lower disco-cellular venule. A fuscous mark, wedge-shaped with
the base uppermost, passes downwards from the second subcostal
near its termination to the space between the first and second radial
veins, crossing the common trunk of the third and fourth subcostals ;
and a large roundish dark spot is situated between the second and
third median branches, about half-way between cell and margin.
All the veins and their branches, except the submedian, are beset
near the margin with a slight powdering of fuscous scales, which at
the extremity of each vein or branch become collected into a more
or less definite spot. Hind-wings creamy white towards base and
costa, elsewhere white like the fore-wings ; costa edged with pale
yellow. A dark oval spot, several times larger than the discoidal
spot on the fore-wing, occupies the anterior half of the lower disco-
cellular vein, the latter forming its long axis. There is a large
fuscous spot on the costa at the termination of the costal vein,

154 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

continued posteriorly by another similar spot in the interspace
between the subcostals. From the posterior extremity of the latter
spot a fuscous band passes across the wing as far as the interspace
between the median and submedian veins, half-way across which it
terminates. This band is of irregular width and runs generally
parallel with the margin of the wing, about half-way between the
cell and border. The veins are more richly powdered with fuscous
scales than in the fore-wing, and the marginal spots are more
preminent, all but that on the submedian being linear, like most of
those on the upper surface. The fuscous powdering is more strongly
marked on the third median branch than elsewhere, and is continued
inwards along two-thirds of the posterior area of the cell as a definite
dark streak. There is a rudimentary light fuscous spot in the
interspace between the costal vein and the cell, a little internal to
the origin of the first subcostal.

In the Hope Collection, Oxford. This form appears to
be quite distinct from P. simana, Hoptt, and P. liana,
Grose Smith. On the whole it most resembles the dry-
season phase of the latter; but the absence of veining on
the upper surface, and the much paler costal margin in
P. wenatus f , together with the well-developed apical dark
patch and the dark marginal spots, seem to be distinctive.

BELENOIS SEVERINA, Cram.

ie diye

A few moths were included in Mr. Loat’s collection.
They are as follows :—

SYNTOMID.
SYNTOMIS, sp.
LYMANTRIID.

DASYCHIRA ACRISIA, Plotz.
PYRALID.
SURATIHA, sp.

The above were all taken by Captain Bell on board a
White Nile steamer between 5° and 6° 30’ N. Lat., Feb.—
March, 1902.

ARC. IDA.
DEIOPEIA PULCHELLA, Linn.
22; near Kaka, April 21, 1901.
GEOMETRIDA.
C2ENINA AURIVINA, Butl.
Gondokoro, Jan. 14, 1902.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 155

FURTHER NOTES ON SEASONAL DIMORPHISM, SUGGESTED
BY THE ABOVE COLLECTION.

It will have been noticed that Mr. Loat’s specimens fall
roughly into three series; the first (4) consisting of the
butterflies captured near Kaka from April 13 to April 21,
1901; the second (#) comprising those collected at
Mangala and Gondokoro from Jan, 8 to Jan. 18, 1902;
and the third (C) being the final batch from (ondolern
caught on March 8, 1902, From the accounts that have
been given above of the meteorological conditions prevalent
at these periods in the several localities, we should expect
ull three series to show a preponderance of dry-season
forms, though some specimens in series 4 might exhibit
the influence of the early rains. The facts are well in
accordance with this expectation, but it will be seen that
series B, though belonging in point of time to the height
of the dry season, affords examples of the statement that
“in many cases where the existence of seasonal modifica-
tion has been reasonably presumed, or even actually
demonstrated, the seasonal relation is far from being
rigidly fixed.” *

Thus, the two January specimens of Zerias brigitta are
both wet-season forms; and the same series (/) contains
several wet-season examples of Delenois mesentina aud one
of B. severina. But the most curious instance of apparent
seasonal irregularity occurs in the case of Zeracolus daira.
All the specimens of this form caught at Mangala on Jan.
8 and 9 are heavily marked on the upper surface, and
would certainly be pronounced at once by most authorities
to belong to the wet season. Those on the other hand
taken near Kaka on April 21, when the rains had well
started, are lightly marked, and bear all the appearance of
dry-season examples. Facts of this kind help to emphasise
the need that exists for still fuller and more accurate data
than we at present possess, if the problems of seasonal
dimorphism are to be satisfactorily unravelled.

Persistence of dry-season coloration in the females of
seasonally dimorphic species—Myr. G. A. K. Marshall has
lately drawn attention to the fact that in the genus Acrwa
“where the summer males exhibit any particular brilliancy,
as petra, atolmis, or nohara, it is always compensated for
by an exceptional dulness on the part of their respective

* Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902, p. 193.

156 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

females.” * This dulness of coloration in the wet-season
females mentioned is with some hesitation interpreted by
Mr. Marshall as being protective in its object. The present
is perhaps a fitting opportunity for pointing out that the case
of these three Acrwas seems to bear some relation to a far-
reaching principle which has met with less notice than it
deserves, and as to the significance of which no suggestion
has hitherto been made. The principle I refer to is
this :—that the dry-season garb of a seasonally dimorphic
butterfly, at least as regards its under-surface, is often far
better marked and more persistent in the female than in
the male. This is obviously of interest in view of Professor
Poulton’s interpretation of the cryptic character of dry-
season and desert forms.- It would accord with all that
we know as to the special importance attaching to the
life of the female, and the means that are taken for
preserving it, that the more efficient mode of protection,
such as on Professor Poulton’s hypothesis the dry-season
colouring must be, should be mere completely and persist-
ently adopted by the sex whose safety from enemies is of
such vital moment to the species. The interest of the
point perhaps justifies a slight digression, and I propose to
give here a few instances which will serve to support the
above generalization.

NXanthidia nicippe, Cram. North and Central America.
The wet-season female retains on the under-surface a
tinge of the dry-season purple.

LIvias pyrene, Linn. siete etc. Here also the wet-
season female usually retains the dry-season mottling.

Tvias marianne, Cram. India. The wet-season female
is nearly always brown beneath, as are both sexes in the
dry season. The under-side of the wet-season male is
yellow.

Catopsilia pomona, Fabr. Oriental and Australian
Region. In the wet-season form (C. cvocale, Cram.)¢ the
female often retains in some degree the dry-season

* Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902, pp. 433, 434. It is hardly neces-
sary to remark that the peculiar need for protection experienced by
the female sex was first pointed out by Mr. Wallace. Some of the
provisions towards this end were recognized by him as cryptic (as
in many birds); others were supposed to be pseudaposematic. It
is now known that synaposematism may also play an important part
in the special protection enjoyed by female insects. See Trans, Ent.
Soc. Lond., 1902, pp. 466, 467, ibique cit.

+ Ibid., pp. 481-433, ete. t Ibid., p. 109.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 157
ocellation and other characters, though there is an extreme
erocale-form in which they are lost. The “dry-season ”
form C. catilla, Cram., which is probably strongly cryptic,
belongs solely to the female sex.

Pyrisitia proterpia, Fabr. Central and South America.
This is a wet-season form of which there is every reason
to suppose that P. gundlachia, Poey, is the dry-season
modification, The seasonal changes of this species afford
an interesting parallel with those in the genus /recis
which have lately been so completely dealt with by Mr.
Marshall and Professor Poulton.* The cryptic under-side
of the dry phase is rendered still. more leaf-like by the
uncination of the fore-wing and the prolongation of the
hind-wing into a tail-like process, as in Precis archesia and
P. antilope. This applies to both sexes, but is better marked
in the female, as can be seen in the specimens figured (PI.
VII, figs. 1-4). In the wet season both sexes have lost their
leaf-like contour, but the female remains of a duller hue than
the male. A somewhat similar case is that of Zeracolus
auxo, Lue., both sexes of which in the dry-season form (7
topha, Waller., or 7. keiskamma, Trim.) often show a slight
uncination in the fore-wing, though in this species “ tails”
are not developed. The cryptic colouring of the dry-season
under-side is to some extent retained by the wet-season
female (Pl. VII, figs. 5-8).

This latter is a common feature in the African and
Indian genus Zeracolus. T. phlegyas, Butl., T. ione, Godt.,
T. regina, Trim., 7. danae, Fabr., 7. eucharis, Fabr., 7. eris,
Klug, are all cases in point, for in each of them the wet-
season female shows beneath at least a trace of the
characteristic dry-season tinge. Even where this does not
occur, the under-side of the female in the wet season is
usually more cryptic than that of the male, as may be
seen, ¢.g., in 7’. omphale, Godt., and 7. achine, Cram.

In Teracolus phisadia, Godt., and 7’. puellaris, Butl. (Pl.
VII, figs. 9-12, 13-16) the principle receives perhaps its
highest development. The female of the latter species
retains its cryptic sand-coloured under-side at all seasons,
the under-side of the male in the wet season being bright
yellow. In the former species the female is always, on the
under-side, a cryptic, sand-coloured, “ dry-season” form ;
the male in the dry season may be similarly cryptic, or

* See Trans. Ent. Soe. Lond., 1902, pp. 424 et sequ., Pl. XII, XIII.
TRANS. ENT. SOC. LOND. 1903. II. (JUNE) Il

158 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

may possess, as it always does in the wet season, a
bright yellow under-surface, hke that of 7. puellaris.

Simultaneous occurrence of diverse seasonal forms.—
Attention has frequently been called to the fact that at
Aden, and probably in other arid districts, “dry,” “ wet”
and “intermediate” forms may all be found on the wing
together. Colonel Yerbury remarks with reference to
Aden that “seasonal dimorphism does not seem to occur
to any extent in the neighbourhood; though it may
possibly do so in the case of Zeracolus calais and dynamene.” *
We may take this to mean, not necessarily that the
different phases usually associated with different times of
year are never found at Aden (for the occurrence of some
of them at that spot is well attested), but that they do not
there undergo, as in many places, a regular alternation in
correspondence with the change of season. On the excep-
tional case of 7’. calais Colonel Yerbury remarks further
as follows:—‘The year 1883 was very wet, heavy rain
having fallen in May, consequently in July a large number
of Butterflies appeared—among others, a very brightly-
coloured form of 7" calais (all, I believe, females however):
this may point to 7. calais being the rainy-season form
and 7’. dynamene the dry. I never met with this unusually
brightly-coloured form in after years.”

It may be noted in this record that at least a month
must have elapsed between the heavy rain and its supposed
effect on the numbers and aspect of the butterfly fauna ;
this seems to point (like the facts recounted by Poulton
for the genus Precis +) to the larval being the susceptible
stage. On the other hand, the effect of rain may in some
instances be less remote, as appears from another state-
ment by Colonel Yerbury,t as follows :—*“ Few passen-
gers (for the matter of that, no great number of the
residents) have any idea of the effect on ‘the barren rocks
of Aden’ of a few heavy showers; how almost immediately,
as if by magic, vegetation springs up in every ravine and
watercourse, accompanied by a tolerably abundant insect
fauna.” In the discussion that followed the reading of
the author's paper on “ Seasonal Dimorphism ” (Proe. Ent.
Soe. Lond., March 19, 1902), Colonel Yerbury further ob-
served that “a temporary rainfall in a dry season in dry

* Proc. Zool. Soe., 1896, p. 257.

+ Trans. Ent. Soe. Lond., 1902, p. 457, ete.
t Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. vii, 1892, p. 208.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 159

places had a marvellous effect in producing intermediate
and wet-season forms.” That the meteorological conditions
prevailing at or about the time of emergence may in some
cases influence the aspect of a brood appears also from
many experiments of Mr. Merrifield, especially those with
Selenia tetralunaria, Hufn., by which it was conclusively
proved that for certain effects of seasonal coloration “the
later days of the pupal period were especially important.”*
It is worthy of notice that the rule which obtains in Precis,
as to the superiority in size of the dry-season form, is not
of universal application. Mr. Marshall rightly points out +
that Mr. Barker’s statement as to the generally smaller
size of dry-season forms is too sweeping; but there can be
no doubt that in many instances the statement in question
holds good. This is perhaps especially the case among the
Pierine, concerning the Indian species of which group
Captain Watson says:—“In all genera the dry-season
forms are as a rule smaller than the rainy-season forms.” ¢
In other instances there appears to be no constant ditierence.

The superiority in bulk of the dry-season form in
certain species of Precis, resting as it does upon the result
of a careful series of weighings of the two forms by Pro-
fessor Poulton, is quite beyond doubt; but it may be well
to remember that in other instances a difference in size may
sometimes be more apparent than real. This may possibly
be the case with the broods mentioned by Mr. Merrifield
in Trans. Ent. Sog. Lond., 1892, pp. 40, 41, on which,
together with a similar experience of Weismann’s, he
bases a guarded opinion that both size and shape may
be individually altered during the pupal state. This is
a point that no doubt calls for further investigation, but
in the meantime it will probably be allowed that, whatever
may be the case with Precis, there is reason to believe
that the seasonal aspect is not in all imstances deter-
mined before the assumption of the pupal condition. It
is, as has just been remarked, by no means certain that
the differences in size noticed by Mr. Merrifield were as
real as those in Pvecis, but, whether they were so or not,
they could not under the circumstances have originated
in the larval state.§

* Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1891, pp. 155-167.

tT Ibid., 1896, p. 551 ; 1895, p. 413.

{ Journal Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. viii, 1894, p. 492.

§ In considering the case of Precis it should not be forgotten that

160 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

The foregoing may perhaps help us towards an explan-
ation of the well-attested facts relating to the simultaneous
occurrence of seasonal forms in generally dry localities
like Aden. A feature in Colonel Yerbury’s graphic
description of a temporary rainfall and its effects is the
rapid springing-up of vegetation and the accompanying
increase of insect life. As Professor Poulton has shown,
these are the exact conditions which allow of the assump-
tion of aposematic colouring and habits in exchange for
those of a cryptic character. Now if we assume, as it
seems from Colonel Yerbury’s observations we may, that
many of the Aden species are in a condition to respond
almost immediately to a sudden access of moisture, the
occurrence of the more conspicuous “ wet-season”’ con-
temporaneously with the cryptic “dry-season” forms
receives some explanation. Where there is a regular
alternation of long periods of drought and humidity, the
seasonal phases of “the insect fanna fall into a correspond-
ing regularity of succession; brt where, as at Aden, a
general state of aridity is liable to be occasionally dis-
turbed by heavy rainfalls of a temporary character, the
intermittent meteorological conditions are apt, we ‘may
suppose, to be reflecte din a similar intermixture of apose-
matic and cryptic forms of insect life. It would not be
difficult for residents in such localities to test the
suggestion here offered.*

Note on Teracolus daira and T. evagore, Alug.—Dr.
Butler, in his “Revision of the Genus Zeracolus” (Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., 1897), distinguishes Zeracolus yerburit,

the usual rule as to the superiority in weight of the sesamus form
did not obtain in the instance of Mr. Marshall’s P. sesamus and P.
natalensis bred from two eggs laid by the same mother. The weights
as determined by Professor Poulton (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902,
p. 451) show that in this case the natalensis form was the heavier of
the two. Whatever then may have been the influence which caused
the diversity between the two offspring, it did not find expression
in any increased bulk of the sesamus larva. It should also be borne
in mind that the larval conditions of the first dry- or wet-season
brood will probably differ from those of the second and subsequent
broods (should there be more than one) of the same season.

* See Mr. G. A. K. Marshall’s account of the simultaneous flight
of different seasonal phases during an eet season In Mashona-
land (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1901, vol. ii, p. 402), and compare the
discussion of the succession of cerns phases in Precis by Pro-
fessor Poulton and Mr. Marshall in Trans. Ent. Soe. Lond., 1902, pp.
443-449.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 161

Swinh., from 7. daira, Klug. Specimens of 7. yerburvi,
however, collected at Lahej, Arabia, by Captain Nurse and
determined by Colonel Swinhoe, who presented them to
the Hope Collection, correspond closely with 7. daira as
figured by Klug. The locality given by Klug for 7’. dara
being “ Arabia felix,” it seems improbable that 7. yerburw
can be more than a synonym for 7. daira, though Mr.
G. A. K. Marshall and Professor Aurivillius agree with Dr.
Butler in keeping them distinct. 7’. evagore, * Klug, which
is no doubt identical with Z. sazews, Swinh., is regarded
by Butler as the dry-season form of 7. yerburii. Whether
T. glycera, Butl., be considered as a species, or as a mere
local race of 7. antigone, there is no doubt that it is barely,
or perhaps not at all, separable from 7’. evagore. Hence,
if 7. evagore be the dry- season form of the Arabian 7’.
yerburii (i.e. 7. daira), T. glycera should be the dry-season
phase of the form of 7’. daira occurring in the same locality
with itself, viz. on the White Nile. When, however,
Captain Dunn’s collection arrived from the Bahr-el-Zeraf
branch of that river, it was found to contain 7. glycera
in different seasonal phases, all of which were quite distinct
from the specimens of 7’. daira captured in the same
district. In dealing with Captain Dunn’s collection Dr.
Butler * makes no attempt to unite these two forms, and
the examination of Mr, Loat’s specimens convinces me that
he is right in keeping them distinct. But this seems to
carry with it a similar conclusion with regard to the Arabian
T. evagore, which, if the foregoing be correct, cannot be con-
sidered as the dry-season form of “ 7’ yerburii” or 7. daira.
The only piece of evidence that seems to make against this
view is the supposed breeding of 7. yerburii and 7’. evagore
by Captain Nurse from similar larvee. Since writing the
note in Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902, p. 195, I have been
strongly disposed to think that the inference drawn from
Captain Nurse’s account needed confirmation, and I was
accordingly quite prepared to agree with Colonel Yerbury
when [I found him urging in “Miss Sharpe's very useful
“Monograph of the Genus Zeracolus” (p. 137) that “too
much stress should not be laid on the fact that Captain
Nurse bred a specimen of 7. evagore from a caterpillar
taken with the larvae of 7. yerburw. ... T. evagore and
T. yerburit may be seasonal forms [of each other], but

* Proc. Zool. Soc., 1901, pp. 25, 26.

162 Dr. F. A. Dixey on

at present the fact is not proved.” Mr. Loat’s collection
appears to me to bring positive evidence against the view
ot their identity, and from the above considerations I think
there can be little doubt that Mr. G. A. K. Marshall is
right in entirely dissociating 7’. evagore in all its forms
(including 7. nowna, Lue.) from 7. yerburii (i.e. LT. daira).

I am indebted to Professor Poulton, F.R.S., for the
opportunity of working out Mr. Loat’s interesting col-
lection, and also for the Plate which accompanies this
paper.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fic. 1. Pyrisitia proterpia, Fabr., wet-season form, male.
ae 8 a i _ $ female.
. 3 P. proterpia, dry-season form (P. gundlachia, Poey), male.
? t 1 ? e b 5)
Ape te ~ zs female.

The wet-season 9 (Fig. 2) is less brightly coloured than the
corresponding ¢ (Fig. 1).

In the dry season both sexes adopt cryptic colouring on
the under-side, accompanied by leaf-like shaping of the
fore- and hind-wing, more pronounced in the @ (Fig. 4)
than in the g (Fig. 3). ,

Iie. 5, Leracolus auao, Lucas, wet-season form, male.
aan iO: 5 56 55 female.

T’. wuaxo, dry-season form (7. topha, Wallgrn, = T. keiskanma,

Trimen), male,
a female.

The wet-season 2 (Fig. 6) retains some of the colouring of
the dry-season form.

Both sexes in the dry season (Figs. 7 and 8) show slight
uncination of the fore-wing.

The specimens represented in Figs, 6 and 8 were bred by
Mr. Mansel Weale, and belong to the series referred to in
Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1902, p. 201.

CO

lrans. Lint. Soc., Lond., rgo;. PL. Vill.

tier > Je is

ath ew liu 2 = os

iy s { =

~ ‘ vei) - 6.).¢ =
; ry cy _* oe) ‘ .

‘ t / f 4 ~
) o filme .

Bf \ } =
\ ie

S

3

Y

a

a3)

Ze.

All the figures ave about % of the natural si:

Sexual and Seasonal Dimorphism in Pierine.

5 Ie):
14,
15.

16.

Lepidoptera from the White Nile. 163

Teracolus phisadia, Godt., wet-season form, male.

” ” ” ” female.

. T. phisadia, dry-season form, male.

‘ 7 female.

The under-side of the hind-wing in the ¢ (Figs. 9 and 11)
is generally bright yellow, especially in the wet season.
The under-side of the hind-wing in the ? (Figs. 10 and 12)

is sand-coloured at all seasons,

Teracolus puellaris, Butl., wet-season form, male.
” ” ” ” female.
T. puellaris, dry-season form (7. ochreipennis, Butl., = 7.
rorus, Swinh.), male.
5 >i female,
The under-side of the ¢ is bright yellow in the wet season
(Fig. 13), sand-coloured in. the dry (Fig. 15).
The under-side of the 2 is sand-coloured at all seasons.

See pp. 157, 158 above. In all the figures, the under-side
alone is represented.

It should be borne in mind that in the absence of colour it
is impossible to represent the tone-values with complete
accuracy. The difference, e.q., between the clear yellow
of Figs, 9, 13, and the sandy tint of Figs, 10, 14, is far
more conspicuous in nature than in the Plate.

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EXTRACT FROM THE PROCEEDINGS

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON

(APRIL 29, 1903.)

Dr. Freperick A. Dixy, M.A., M.D., read a paper, illus-
trated by lantern slides, “On Lepidoptera from the White
Nile, collected by Mr. W. L. 8. Loat, F.Z.S. ; with further
Notes on Seasonal Dimorphism in Butterflies.” He said that
the collection of butterflies which had been made at intervals
by Mr. Loat during his tenure of office under the Egyptian
Government was of special interest on account of the accurate
data which accompanied the specimens. Mr. Loat’s collecting
grounds were in the neighbourhood of Kaka, about 11° N. lat, ;
and of Gondokoro, about 6° further south. The meteorologi-
cal conditions at the time of collecting were generally those of
the dry season, though at Kaka the rains were just beginning.
Most of the examples of seasonally dimorphic species belonged
to the “dry-season” phase ; but there were some curious ex-
ceptions. Perhaps the most remarkable of these was 7eracolus
daira, Klug, specimens of which caught in January, during the
height of the dry season, were of the full “ wet-season ” colour-
ing ; while some of those taken at the beginning of the rains
were much “drier.” The large proportion of Pierinx to the
whole number of captures was noticeable, as also was the
general likeness of the whole assemblage to the butterfly fauna
of Aden; the different forms of LZ. chrysippus, for example,
were found by Mr. Loat all flying together at the same spot,
just as is thé case at Aden. The collection brought to light
no new species ; it contained, however, a single example of
the male of Pinacopteryx venatus, Butl., of which only two

( exii =)
specimens, including the type, both females, have hitherto been
known to science.

Mr. Loat’s series did not seem to favour the opinion that
had been held that Teracolus evagore, as described and figured
by Klug, was the dry-season form of 7) yerburti, Swinh. It
appeared from this and other evidence that Mr. G. A. K.
Marshall was right in dissociating the two forms. ‘The weak-
ness of the reasons given for the contrary view had lately been
pointed out by Col. Yerbury.

With regard to the general question of Seasonal Dimorphism,
a point that deserved notice was the greater intensity and
greater persistence of the cryptic dry-season coloration of the
under-surface, which often characterizes the female sex. This
might be illustrated from among Mr. Loat’s specimens ; but
the principle was of wide application, and was operative in
both hemispheres. In the genus Zeracolus especially, the
‘‘ wet-season ” female often retained some of the ‘“ dry-season ”
garb, and in certain cases (as in 7’. pwellaris and 7’. phisadia)
the female could scarcely be said to have a ‘‘ wet-season”
phase at all. The significance of these facts lay no doubt in
the special need for protection experienced by the female sex.
Prof. Poulton had lately given strong grounds for believing
that on the whole concealment was a more efficacious means of
defence for moderately distasteful forms than the display of
warning colours, especially when the pursuit was keen; and
the instances here adduced seemed to show that it might in
some cases be of advantage for the female of a given species to
remain cryptic in the wet season, even though the male should
assume brighter colours with the advent of a more copious
supply of insect life. An interesting parallel with the seasonal
changes in Precis antilope and P. archesia, so carefully worked
out by Mr. Marshall and Prof. Poulton, was furnished by the
Central and South-American Pyrisitia proterpia, Fabr. (a
Pierine form allied to 7erias), with what is doubtless its dry-
season phase, ?. gundlachia, Poey. Here, as in Precis, the
dead-leaf appearance of the under-surface in the dry-season
form is enhanced by the faleation of the forewings and the
development of “tails.” These changes of shape are found
in the gundlachia form of both sexes, but are intensified in

( -xiii )

the female; in the wet-season or proterpia form they are
retained by neither sex, but the under-surface of the female
is duller than that of the male.

The simultaneous occurrence in generally dry localities, such
as Aden, of forms which in other places are associated with
contrasting seasons, was not easy to explain. Prof. Poulton
had shown that in several species of Precis the dry-season form
was larger than the wet, and had on that fact founded the
inference that the dry-season form must have been predeter-
mined in the larval stage. But there was reason to believe
that in many genera, and perhaps even occasionally in Precis,
the assumption of the characteristic seasonal garb was not
determined until a later period—in some cases, the last few
days before emergence from the pupa. If it might be assumed
that the Aden species in question were in a state so sensitive
to meteorological conditions as to respond almost immediately
to a few heavy showers, such as were reported to fall there
not unusually from January to May, the intermixture of
“wet” and ‘‘dry-season,” which in many cases meant an
intermixture of aposematic and cryptic forms, might possibly
be accounted for. This suggestion could only be verified by
observers on the spot.

vu . 4 :
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ie ath i “ue
; re rede ¥

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,
May 6th, 1903.

Professor Poutton showed a specimen of Polygonia (Grapta)
C-album in the attitude of prolonged repose, together with
specimens of Anxa moeris set in different ways to illustrate
its probable resting position. Upon these specimens he read
the following notes :—

“Many years ago I came to a conclusion as to the
probable meaning of the ‘C’ or ‘comma’ on the under
surface of the hind-wings in butterflies belonging to the genus
Polygonia (Grapta). I believe that it represents, in bright,
strongly-reflecting ‘body-colour, the light shining through
a semi-circular rent in a fragment of dead leaf,—the rent pro-
duced when a little segment of leaf has broken away along
a curved line, but still remains connected with the rest
across the chord of the arc. Unless such a segment remains
precisely in the plane of the leaf, light may pass through
a curved and often a semi-circular slit-like window. Such
curved cracks are extremely common in old weather-beaten
dead leaves. They are probably produced by drying and
shrinkage after much wetting and some decay.

“On April 25rd last I had the opportunity of testing how far
the whole attitude of Polygonia C-album, during profound re-
pose, is consistent with the interpretation suggested above. By
a curious coincidence I had been speaking of the differences
between temporary and prolonged resting attitudes in butter-
flies, at the meeting of the Entomological Society of France
on the evening of April 22nd, and the very next morning saw
for the first time in my life the position of this species during
complete repose. The day was excessively cold for this time
of the year, and the butterfly was hanging perfectly torpid
from the horizontal rail of a wood fence in a street at Passy.
Several excellent but very small photographs were taken with
my daughter’s camera: enlargements have been made, and
from these the actual specimen has been set and photographs

(ai)
of the natural size taken by Mr. Robinson in the Oxford
University Museum.

‘* The specimen which is now exhibited affixed to a piece of
stick in precisely the same manner in which it hung from
the rail, shows that the two anterior wings are held so far
forward that a deep wedge-shaped notch appears between them
and the hind-wings. On each side of this notch the well-
known ragged outline of the wings is extremely distinct.
The two posterior pairs of legs by which the butterfly clings
to the supporting surface are light-brown in colour and
unexpectedly conspicuous. The antenne are concealed, and
the contour of the head does not break that of the costal
margin of the anterior wings so as to interfere in any way
with the general effect. The whole appearance is consistent
with a single interpretation—concealment effected by resem-
blance to a weather-beaten fragment of dead leaf, deeply
notched and ragged, and hanging by two denuded fibro-vascular
‘veins’ standing out far beyond one of the edges. The kind
of injury suggested by the ‘comma’ only adds another
convincing detail to a perfectly harmonious cryptic effect.

“Tt is interesting to compare this mode of concealment with
that which is far commoner in Nymphaline genera (Aallima,
Doleschallia, Anxa, Precis, etc.), viz. the resemblance not to a
fragment but an entire dead leaf, with midrib and suggestion of
lateral oblique venation. In this latter form of disguise, holes
are frequently suggested in the apparent leaf, either by opaque
‘body-colour’ as in Doleschallia, by transparent windows as
in Aallima, or by actual discontinuity, as is probably the case in
certain species of Anza in which the deeply-cut bay in the inner
margin of the fore-wing may be converted into the likeness
of a hole by closure along its open side by the costal margin
of the hind-wing, in the manner indicated in one of the
specimens exhibited. In certain parts of the under surface of
Kallima a hole is suggested by ‘body-colour,’ in other parts
by transparency, and the latter is undoubtedly the more recent
and more highly-specialized method ; for when the transparent
window is examined under the microscope scattered opaque
white scales can still be seen in abundance over its surface,
not thickly placed so as to prevent the passage of light, but

Cet)
witnesses to an earlier and less perfect Papeeeentabion of light
shining through a hole.

“Tt is interesting to note that the holes represented in these
apparent dead leaves seem to have been produced by gnawing,
whereas in the leaf-fragment suggested by C-album the
forces of the inorganic environment, which by their prolonged
action have produced the wear and tear of the margin,
have also been responsible for the more centrally-placed dis-
continuity. Comparing various species of the genus Polyyonia
(Grapta), it is seen that the curved C-like window occurs in
several; in some the suggested rent is V-like, while occasionally
the stalk appears to represent a hole of a reniform shape.”

Professor Poutron also exhibited a pair of /Mypolimnas
misippus taken “in coitu” on Feb. 3rd, 19038, by Mr. Horace
A. Byatt, B.A. (Lincoln College, Oxford), near his highland
home ata height of 4500-5000 feet, in Dedza, Central Angoni-
land, British Central Africa. The specimens are remarkable
in that the female is excessively worn and old, far more so
than the male. Such an observation tends towards the econ-
clusion that pairing occurs more than once in the life of an
individual of this species.

Mr. Byarr also writes (Feb. 15th, 1903) concerning the
species—‘‘ Close round my house //. misippus is in vast numbers
just now, but other species are not very numerous. You will
see that at Dedza L. chrysippus is quite rare—at least at this
season, I have sent you only two, I think, and my eyes are
always open for it.” This observation of relative abundance
certainly suggests the Miillerian rather than the Batesian
interpretation of the mimicry of the former for the latter
species ; although quite near to Dedza the proportions may be
entirely different. The following passage shows how rapidly
Mr, Byatt can pass from one kind of area into another. ‘“ You
must understand that I have two distinct climates to work in.
IT am about 4500 to 5000 feet up—the top of Dedza is 7000
—and I drop straight down into what is really tropical Africa.
on the lake level: tropical foliage, swamp, damp atmosphere
and intense heat. This station might be in 8S. Africa—say
the Orange River Colony, Consequently Lepidoptera are widely
different; in this open country ey are fewer and more sober

Cie}
in colouring ; down below they are plentiful, more varied,
larger and more gaily coloured. /vecis so far seems to be
below 8000 feet, and extremely rare up here.”

The observations of another friend further to the north in
Africa also show the great abundance of H. misippus and
how far it is from occupying the subordinate numerical
position assigned to mimics by the late H. W. Bates. Between
January 20th and 25th of the present year Mr. C. A. Wiggins
captured at Kisumu, near the terminus of the Uganda line,
on the N.E. shore of Lake Victoria Nyanza, the following
specimens of this model and mimic :—

Limnas chrysippus. HHypolimnas misippus (females).
Type-form 10, Type-form 27.
klugiviform 20, inaria-form 16.

And again at the end-of January and the beginning of
February :—

L. chrysippus. H. misippus (females).
Type-form 73. Type-form 18.
klugit-form 85. inaria-form 15.

These results are roughly compiled from the unset specimens,
but no serious modification of the proportions is to be expected.
Mr. Wiggins’ very large and interesting series of captures,
bearing upon many bionomic problems of the highest interest,
are now being studied in the Hope Department by Mr. 8. A.
Neave, B.A., of Magdalen College.

EXTRACT FROM THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON

(JunE 3, 1903.)

The Presipenr exhibited the dry form of Precis actia bred
by Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall from an egg laid by a female
of the wet form. The parent was captured by Mr. Marshall
at Salisbury, Mashonaland (5000 ft.), on February 14th, 1903:
the egg was laid on the following day. It hatched February
20th, the larva pupated March 16th, the perfect insect, a
male, emerged March 28th. The differences between these
two forms are as astonishing as those between the two phases
of Precis antilope, bred, the dry from the wet, by Mr. Marshall
last year (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1902, pp. 418-20). In
fact, upon the upper surface of the wings the differences are
much greater than in this latter species, the dominant colour
upon the black background of the dry form of actia being
blue, as it is in the dry form of sesamus, while the red is of
so deep a shade as to be sombre and inconspicuous. In the
wet form these blue markings are only represented by
marginal, submarginal, and apical traces, while the dull red
becomes a bright and vivid reddish-brown, which forms a
startling contrast with the background and the row of black
spots which crosses both wings. Within these spots, in the
position of the chief blue band of the dry form, the reddish-
brown band of the wet form passes into a brilliant pearly white
in the female, into a pale reddish-brown in the male,—forming
in each case a startling contrast with the nearly black basal
half of both wings against which it terminates abruptly.
Intermediate forms are probably much commoner than in
P. sesamus. In one dry male out of four in the Hope Depart-
ment, the chief blue band is in large part replaced by an
intrusion of dull red. The extraordinary differences in shape

are the same as those between the two forms of P. antilope
(compare Fig. 3 on Plate XII of Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902,
with Figs. 3a and 35) and much greater than those between
the forms of P. sesamus (compare Fig. 1 with la or 2 with 2a
on the same plate). In the dry phases of actia and antilope
the hooked tip of the fore-wing is even more recurved than
in that of sesamus, while the prolongation of the anal angle
of the hind-wing which is so marked a character in the two
former is wanting in the latter species. These characteristic
features in the contour of the wings in the dry antilope and
actia are related to the beautiful and detailed resemblance of
their under-sides to dead leaves, while the greenish-black under-
side of the dry sesamus is well concealed by a general harmony
with the dark shady environment which it seeks for pro-
longed rest, rather than by any detailed special protective
resemblance. Hence the necessity for a profound modification
of shape is far less imperative in this latter. It has been
pointed out that the upper-side differences between the two
phases of actia are greater than in antilope. As regards
their under-sides the reverse is the case, because this surface
is so much Jess conspicuous in the wet phase of the former
when compared with that of the latter species. It is, however,
very far from being cryptic, attaining nearly the same degree
of conspicuousness as Precis triment which Mr. MarsHauL
considers to be another of the wet forms of antilope (l.c. pp.
419, 420). The representation of a dead leaf by the under-
side of the dry actia is slightly more elaborate than in antilope.
Both species have an equally beautiful mid-rib-like stripe, but
the former alone possesses the representation of two holes, the
posterior minute, near the tip of the simulated leaf—due to
white semi-transparent spots. Equally elaborate detail is seen

in P. cuama, of which P. triment is the wet form. In Mr.
Marshall’s opinion, however, P. antilope and P. cuama are
two dissimilar dry forms and sima and triment two dissimilar
wet forms of a single species. It is much to be hoped that
the point will soon be settled by breeding.

Mr. Marshall is to be warmly congratulated on this third
South African species of the genus Precis, in which he has
produced incontrovertible evidence of the specific identity

(111, ~)
of forms widely separated in colours, patterns, shape, relation
of upper- to under-side, etc., and even instinct, including
the selection of a particular type of country.

The PrestpENT also showed a small series of ants, part of
a much larger collection made by the late W. J. Burchell in
Brazil between the years 1825 and 1830. They were obtained
with his other vast zoological and botanical collections at Rio
or its neighbourhood, or in the course of the long journey from
Santos to Parad. Considering their great age the specimens
were wonderfully well preserved and are accompanied by
remarkably exact and detailed data, and, in many cases,
interesting notes on habits, instincts, ete. Hardly anything
in the whole of the zoological material, all of which was pre-
sented by Miss Anna Burchell to the University of Oxford
in 1865, has as yet been published. Arrangements were now
being made to ensure that these interesting results may, with
as little delay as possible, be given to the scientific world.

The Presipent, Professor E. b. Poutton, gave a summary
of his paper on the effect of lichen-covered bark, etc., upon
certain Lepidopterous larvee. He explained that these results
were now being brought forward about ten years after the
experiments had been begun. The delay was to be explained
by the disorganization of the library and papers of the Hope
Department during the building operations in 1894. As a
result the notes of the Professor and Mr. Holland, as well
as the beautiful water-colour drawings made by Mr. P. J.
Bayzand, were mislaid, and when everything necessary had
been recovered the press of other work for a time prevented
this memoir from being undertaken.

The chief object of the investigation was to test the efficiency
of lichen-covered bark as a stimulus for the production of a
lichen-like appearance in certain larve. It was found that
Gastropacha quercifolia was highly sensitive to such a stimulus
up to the beginning of hybernation, but that during and
after hybernation, all such susceptibility entirely ceased. The
larvee were also sensitive, during the same period, to brown
and black bark, which caused the appearance of corresponding
tints. In all experiments the food made use of was the same,
viz. the leaves of the hawthorn.

tera,

Odontopera bidentata was also sensitive to the same sur-
roundings, lichen in the environment producing the well-
known green patches on the dorsal surface.

The rigid restriction of the sensitive period to the earlier
part of larval life in the case of quercifolia suggested a set
of transference experiments on the highly sensitive larva of
Amphidasis betularia, carried out in the summer of 1896. The
result was to prove that this species remains sensitive, at least
to the strongest stimuli, viz. those provided by dark bark, for
nearly the whole of larval life.

(loa EL > }

XVIII. Lxperiments in 1893, 1894, and 1896 upon the
colour-relation between lepidopterous larve and
their surroundings, and especially the effect of
lichen-covered bark upon Odontopera bidentata,
Gastropacha quercifolia, etc. By Epwarp B.
Pou.ton, D.Sc., M.A., LL.D. (Princeton), F.R.S.,
‘etc., Hope Professor of Zoology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford, Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford.

[Read June 3rd, 1903. ]

Prates XVI, XVII, anp XVIII.

THE circumstances under which the experiments re-
corded in the present memoir were undertaken, afford a
good example of the stimulus and encouragement to work
rendered possible by that mutual intercourse and exchange
of experience and ideas which are promoted by meetings
of scientific societies.

In the year 1892 I conducted an extensive series of
experiments upon the adjustment of the colours of the
larvee of Amphidasis betularia to those of their environ-
ment (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1892, pp. 337-369). Living
examples of the chief results obtained were shown at the
meeting of Section D of the British Association at Edin-
burgh, on August 9th (Report of the 1892 Meeting, p.
786, where however the word “pup” is erroneously
printed instead of “larve”). After the larve had been
exhibited, Dr. Stacey Wilson, of Birmingham, asked if I
had tried the effect of lichen-covered bark. Dr. Wilson
stated that he had once beaten the larva from a food-
plant with twigs covered by lichen, and that its appear-
ance was entirely different from that usually borne by
betularia. He looked upon it, in fact, as the larva of
some other species, and was only convinced by breeding
the moth (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1892, p. 360). The
idea of making use of an environment of lichen-covered
bark had not occurred to me, and I determined to try

TRANS. ENT. SOC. LOND. 1903.—PART III. (OCT.) 21*

| Ge

312 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

the experiment on this and other suitable larvze on the
first opportunity.

I propose to state the results of these experiments
forthwith, referring to the plates which accompany the
paper. Hence it will be possible to gather the conclusions
by looking at the few first pages, while those who desire
to study the evidence in detail will find it recorded in the
later part of the memoir.

The first larva which appeared suitable for the purpose
was Odontopera bidentata, and Mr. G. 'T. Porritt very kindly
consented to look out for eggs. Mr. Porritt had himself
suggested to me that the larva would probably prove to
be especially suitable for the purpose of this enquiry, and
he wrote on May 9th, “the larva varies so very much in a
wild state according to its food, that I fancy it will form an
interesting subject for your experiments.” * On May 9th,
1893, he kindly sent me from Huddersfield a batch laid by a
single female, and, on June 13th, asecond consignment laid
by two females, from Sledmere on the Yorkshire Wolds.
The first set afforded the material of Experiments I to IX
(including VA) described in this paper. The second mixed
set formed the subject of Experiments X to XVIII.
The chief results of both experiments will be gathered by
a glance at Plate XVI, in which figs. 1 to 5 represent
larvee from the first set of eggs, figs. 6 to 11 larvae from the
second set. At the same time results like those shown in
the former figures were produced in larvze of the second set
and like those in the latter figures, in larvee of the first set.

The detailed account of the experiments shows the
number of days which elapsed before the influence of each
environment became visible, and the time which was
necessary in order to produce the full effect. A very large
number of records proves that the larvee, in the great
majority of cases, rested by day upon the object which

* Dr. T. A. Chapman wrote to me (June 14, 1903), concerning the
forms and habits of bidentata :—‘‘ About forty years ago, I took
three or four beautifully green latticed larvee off the lichen-covered
trunk of an old alder-tree in Glen Messen (Argyleshire). They
were quite new to me, and though very like (of course) bidentata,
I thought they must be something else, a lichen-feeder. When they
produced bidentata, I got no further than wondering whether bidentata
was sometimes a lichen-feeder. I remember well their resting-place
was near the ground, many feet from any leaves,—as long a journey
for feeding as the larva of Aprilina makes.”

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 313

they afterwards came to resemble. This, however, is pro-
bably not the case in the earliest stages, when the larve
doubtless rest on the leaves and stalks.

The extreme sensitiveness of this larva is clearly shown
by a glance at Plate XVI. The four first figures indicate
a power of adjustment about equal to that of the most
sensitive larva hitherto known, Amphidasis betularia (com-
pare Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1892, Plate XIV). The effect
of green leaves and shoots, shown in fig. 5, is however
very inferior to that produced upon betwlaria, which
becomes bright green in this environment. The effect of
green leaves alone upon /identata is the same as that
observed in many other larvae, Noctuz as well as Geometre,
viz. the reduction of the brown ground-colour to a very
pale tint which would be far less conspicuous than the
more ordinary appearance. The contrast between the
results of an effective environment of green, and nothing
but green, as shown in fig. 5, and of green scattered over a
brown background of bark, as shown in figs. 6 to 11, is very
striking, and suggests renewed exper iments with an artificial
arrangement of combined colours. Another interesting fact,
suggesting the restriction of larval susceptibility to the
immediate surface upon which the resting periods are
passed, is the entire absence of any effects traceable to the
green leaves of the food-plant when present with the
other forms of environment employed in these experiments.
The complex nature of the result produced is well seen in
the oblique white lateral marks which are found in larve
with the green lichen-like patches (figs. 6, 9), and probably
assist in the general effect by breaking up the larval
surface. The green markings are developed in the vicinity
of and include the projecting ridges, etc.—a fact which
is of obvious significance in promoting the resemblance
to small scattered masses of lichen, The various kinds
of lichen made use of did not produce corresponding
effects.* Thus the green dorsal patches shown on the
larvee which had been exposed to orange lichen (figs. 8,
9) did not differ in any marked degree from those in
which a green lichen had been chosen. It is by no means

* My friend Professor S. H. Vines, F.R.S., has very kindly given
me the probable names of the lichens made use of. They will be
found in the detailed account of the experiments, and in the
description of Plates XVI to XVIII. The names could not be given
with certainty because the specimens themselves had been lost.

314 Professor E. B. Poulton on colour-relation

unlikely, however, that under entirely normal conditions
special detailed adjustments of this kind may be brought
about. With regard to the sensitiveness to lichen, bidentata
appears to be as superior to betwlaria, as it is inferior to the
latter larva in sensitiveness to green leaves, so that the
two species may be considered about equal in the power
of colour adjustment. It is interesting to observe that
dark purplish-brown twigs with white spots, although
producing lighter larvae than those upon unspotted but
otherwise similar twigs (compare figs. 4 and 3), did not
lead to the appearance of white marks upon the larvee
(fig. 4).

Dr. Stacey Wilson’s experience led me to try the same
experiments with an environment of lichen in the case of
A. betularva. My friend Mr. Arthur Sidgwick kindly gave
me a small batch of eggs in the summer of 1893, and the
fourteen young larve which hatched from them were sub-
jected, together with bidentata, to this form of environ-
ment, in Experiments XII to XV. It will be seen
however that eleven of the resulting larva were yellowish-
green, two brownish-green, and one grey mottled with
brown.

The same experiments produced the larvee of bidentata
of which typical examples are represented in Plate XVI,
figs. 6—11. So far as any conclusion can be drawn from
these four small experiments, ledwlaria does not seem to be
nearly so sensitive or so specialized to this form of environ-
ment as bidentata. At the same time lichen must have
been the cause of the betularia larvee, with one exception,
becoming green; for ordinary bark tends strongly to
the production of dark forms of this species, even in
the presence of a great preponderance of green leaves
(Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1892, pp. 331, 332). It will be
of interest to repeat these experiments upon a much
larger scale, and to introduce the larve immediately after
hatching ; but it does not appear to be probable that this
species often exhibits the kind of susceptibility to lichen
observed by Dr. Wilson; for (1) it is remarkably sensitive
to other surroundings almost throughout its life-history
(see pp. 318—320), and (2) the four small experiments,
conducted in 1893, do prove considerable sensitiveness to
lichen although they did not lead to the production of
hchen-like larvee.

The fortunate discovery of a company of young larve

between lepidopterows larve and their surroundings. 315

of Gastropacha quercifolia by Mr. W. Holland, on July
22nd, 1898, enabled me to experiment on this interesting
species, which is well known to present grey and lichen-
hike forms. The company, evidently the product of a
single batch of eggs, was so numerous that I was able to
start four experiments with fifteen larvae in each, on
July 28th. All were fed on hawthorn, the food-plant on
which the larvze had been found. This in three cases was
intermixed with environments more or less harmonizing
with known varieties of the larva—the rough black-barked
twigs of the Turkish oak, bramble-stems of a rich reddish-
brown colour, and sticks bearmg an abundant growth of
lichen (probably Ramalina farinacea in all cases). In the
fourth case the larvee were as far as possible restricted to
the green leaves and youngest shoots of their food-plant.
It was, however, impossible altogether to exclude shoots
of greyish and reddish-brown shades, and these probably
produced some effect.

At first the young larve rested chiefly on the food-
plant, but soon preferred the bark of the older wood. The
change took place simultaneously in each of the three
sets containing dark bark and lichen, as will be seen by
a glance at the following summary of Mr. Holland’s careful
notes :—

| |
is I. UI.
Hinton: Food- Black Food- | Hehen’ | Pood- | Reddish-
plant. bark. plant. oe c ¢ plant. brown bark.
bark.

Aug. 1. 12 3 14 1 14 1

Aug. 5. 4 I 3 i hr ie uaa
Aug. 9. 3 12 1 14 hy AS

* 3 on muslin roof, + 1 missing.

There is no reason to suppose that these effects were
due to any gradual recovery from disturbance. The re-
cently hatched larvae were found at the tip of a young
shoot on July 22nd, and it is probable that by August 5th
the period had been reached when they begin to seek the
older wood for the diurnal rest. After August 9th only
single larvee were found except upon the environments
which had been provided, and it is probable that, under

316 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

entirely natural conditions, larvee of the same age would
never be found upon the leaves or green shoots.

It is of interest to note that the larva never rested upon
the lichen itself, but upon the bark of the sticks between
the masses of lichen. This position is consistent with
the larval appearance, which is that of bark partially
grown over with lichen.

There can be little doubt that the larva is influenced by
the colours of the environment from the time at which it
first seeks the older wood, but a certain period is required
before the effects become visible. A very obvious adjust-
ment to the three forms of environment was recorded on
August 14th—-so obvious indeed that the first trace of a
visible result might probably have been detected some few
days earlier. The adjustment continued to become more
complete right up to the beginning of hybernation. On
Aug. 31st it was noted that the effects of the three environ-
ments had greatly increased. On Sept. 21st a careful
comparison of all the larvae was made upon a white paper
background. It was then thought that the adjustment
was as complete as it was likely to be before hybernation,
and for many larve this conclusion was justified. In
others however the effects continued to deepen right on
into October, as will be seen in the complete account of
the experiments. The latest changes probably took place
after the larve had ceased to feed; indeed they had eaten
very little for some time previous to October 3rd. The
degree of cryptic adjustment to the three environments
which had been reached by the beginning of hybernation
can be seen by a glance at the upper part of Plate
XVII, where examples of all the types of colouring are
represented.

In arranging the larve for hybernation many of the
environments were shifted, in order to test the existence
of any larval susceptibility during this period; and, as no
effects were visible when the larvae were compared after
the winter, these same surroundings were continued in
each case, right up to the time when the nearly mature
larvee were sent to Lord Walsingham for preservation, in
May. The results of various comparisons point to the
conclusion that the larve of G. quercifolia are not sus-
ceptible to the colours of the environment after the begin-
ning of hybernation. Thus Plate XVII, fig. 1 represents
a nearly mature larva, of which the appearance before

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 317

hybernation is shown in either fig. 4 or fig. 9 on Plate
XVII. The latter appearance was a response to an en-
vironment of lichen-covered sticks; but after October 16th
these were replaced by black-barked twigs, which it is seen
produced no effect at all. Again, Plate X VIII, fig. 2 repre-
sents a later stage of Plate XVII, fig. 6. Here too the
resemblance between older and younger larve is very close,
although the former had been subjected to the same black
environment after October 16th. The negative result
of a transfer experiment in the opposite direction is seen
in Plate XVII, fig. 14, the representation of a larva which
had been exposed to lichen-covered sticks after October
3rd. All the larvee did not remain as uniform throughout
their life-history as these three. Thus Plate XVIII, fig.
3 represents a nearly mature larva of which the appear-
ance before hybernation is seen in Plate XVII, figs. 4
or 9. In this case the larva darkened considerably after
the winter, although its environment had not been shifted,
but consisted of lichen-covered sticks throughout.

It is probable that the power of adjustment to environ-
ment possessed in so marked a degree by this species is
specially directed to protection during hybernation, when
the food-plants are leafless, and when enemies are often
pressed by hunger. But it is doubtless also of importance
later on when the larva becomes so much larger and would
on this account be far more conspicuous. It is probable,
however, that the caterpillar does not wander from its
food-plant, and that complete adjustment to the old wood
before hybernation is an adequate defence in the following
spring and summer. If this be correct there would be no
advantage in a prolonged larval susceptibility.

The same relationship between susceptibility and the
particular needs of each species is seen in the eftect of
an environment of green leaves and shoots upon G. quer-
cifolia, O. lidentata, and A. betularia. The first-named
probably invariably rests by day, except for a brief period
after leaving the egg, upon the older wood, and the power
of adjustment to leaves and young shoots, being altogether
useless to it, has never been acquired. The last-named,
with its remarkable range of food-plants, including many,
such as broom or rose, in which green shoots are a
prominent feature, is frequently in a position in which
a green colour would best conceal its nearly smooth and
cylindrical form; and we find that, as a matter of fact,

318 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

it always responds in this way to an environment of the
kind described above. Bidentata doubtless occupies an
intermediate position between the other two species in
this respect. The occasions are probably rare, but not
altogether wanting, in which it is compelled to develop in
a green environment. We find that it has the power of
making some considerable approach towards such surround-
ings, but not of attaining any high degree of resemblance to
them. It is probably the case, however, that the tint which
it produces on green leaves and shoots is of great value
on a pale yellowish-brown bark, which may often form its
environment; and it may well be that it is something
in common between the lhght reflected from this and from
green leaves which explains the similarity in the effects
produced upon the larvee

Typical examples of all the forms of quercifolia larvee
produced in these experiments were shown alive at the
meeting of the Entomological Society of London on May
2nd, 1894, and also at the Soirée of the Royal Society in
the same month. A brief account of the exhibit is printed
in the Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1894, p. xvi. Itis also referred
to in Mr. C. G. Barrett’s “Lepidoptera of the British
Islands” (Lond., 1896, vol. 101, p. 45).

The nearly mature larvae of quercifolia, forming the
subject of the experiments described in this memoir, were
in almost every case sent to Lord Walsingham, and, with
the exception of one which was spoilt, were kindly preserved
by him. The specimens are now to be seen in the Hope
Department, Oxford University Museum, and in the British
Museum of Natural History.

The last series of experiments described in this paper
grew out of the surprising restriction of susceptibility to
the younger stages of G. quercifolia. The results naturally
suggested further experiments upon other species well
known to be highly sensitive, and I immediately fixed
upon Amphidasis betularia as the most suitable for the
purpose. The investigation was carried out entirely by
the present writer, in the laboratory at Wykeham House,
Oxford. The results are clearly shown in the accompany-
ing diagram and summary. ‘he Roman figures represent
the corr responding stages of larval life. The shaded squares
indicate stages passed 1 in a black environment, the unshaded,
stages passed i in the green surroundings.

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 319

Experi-

ment.

I. | Il. Ill.

Colour of mature larvee.

5 green, 1 intermediate.

ae

1 dark smoky-black.
1 greenish-brown (inter- |
mediate). |
1 greyish smoky-black. |

ag5

_

oe

__

|
|
|

9 black ( 1 dark brownish, |
3 with dull greyish patches). |
1 grey. |

5 black (overspread with

grey).
1 brownish-black.

=

)

“

2

/greenish on sides, and

6 dark
patches).
3 intermediate.

(with grey

3. dark

overspread

(respectively
with grey,

with pale yellowish spots).

1 green (with brown
dorsal line and lateral
patches).

_

2 black.
2 dark overspread with

grey. —
1 bright green.

2

2

2 green, sprinkled with
grey, 1 greenish inter-
mediate.

1 whitish, 2 blackish
with grey markings.

1 distinct but dull green
with brown broad dorsal
line and shght lateral traces.

stages of this species.

A glance at the diagram and results proves conclusively
that there is no restriction of susceptibility to the younger

Experiment B® shows the strong

influence of a black environment applied only to the two
latest stages, while A! shows considerable effects traceable

to black which was present in the 2nd stage only.
TRANS. ENT. SOC. LOND. 1903.—PART IU.

When

(cy) 22

320 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

we furthermore take into account the more intense effects
which were produced as additional stages were exposed to
a dark environment, we may feel confident that every stage
except the Ist and the 5th or 6th, is sensitive. These
require further experimental testing.

A very interesting and unlooked-for effect was produced
in many of the transferred larvee, viz. an overspreading
greyness or the appearance of grey patches. Thus, although
the effect of the earlier surroundings appeared at first
sight to be entirely obliterated, the larvae were nevertheless
unable to develop their full and characteristic response to
the later environment. Details will be found in the account
of the experiments. It only remains to point out that
experiment A! probably indicates that these larve are
susceptible to the colours of the branches at a period when
they are at any rate chiefly to be found upon the leaves
and leaf-stalks, and that there was some evidence to show
that the influence of environment may be largely a question
of time, so that of several larvee passing the same stages in
given surroundings, those which grow most slowly are, on
the whole, the most affected.

First EXPERIMENTS WITH LARV OF
O. BIDENTATA (1893

The larvee from the first set of eggs sent by Mr. Porritt
from Yorkshire hatched at about the same time, so that
nearly all the experiments recorded on pages 322—325 in
a tabular form were started on the same day, May 22nd.
The observations were in part conducted by Mr. Holland and
in part by me, as is indicated by the initials or name under
the dates in the left-hand column of the table. Hence in
the account of each experiment there is the opportunity of
comparing two independent sets of observations.

The food-plant made use of in all these experiments wa
the black poplar (Populus nigra).

A careful comparison of the results of the 10 sets of
experiments (viz. I to TX, mcluding VA) was made by the
present writer on July 6th, 1893, all the larvee bemg placed
on a background of white. At this time all except one
were in the last stages, and many in all the cylinders were
appro: oe maturity. Of the forms of environment made
use of, 7 had produced dark larvae, and 3 hght.

between lepidopterous larve and their surrowndings. 321

A. DARK LARVZ OF BIDENTATA ON JULY 6TH.

I. Black sticks—Fourteen out of the 15 larvee were very
black, the exception being quite small and probably in the
3rd stage. These larve were the darkest of all the sets.

I Deep blue paper spills-—These 12 larvae were very
dark, coming next to those upon the black twigs in this
respect. The dark purplish-black colour was also very
uniform over the whole larval surface corresponding to the
unvarying tints of the environment.

IIT. Purplish-brown twigs.—These 15 larvae were slightly
more variegated than II, in correspondence with the less
uniform darkness of their environment. Except for this
slight introduction of rather lighter shades these larvae
were as dark as II.

IV. White spotted purplish-brown twigs.—These 16 larvee
were dark, but distinctly lighter than those of the three
previous sets. They also varied a little, whereas the
groups first described were more uniform. Although the
relative lightness and the darkness of these larve, as
compared with III, corresponded to the general effect of
their respective environments, there was no marked
resemblance to the special details of the twigs which
had been carefully selected for Experiment IV.

V. Brown twigs—The 17 larvee were distinctly brown
and not nearly so black or purplish as the preceding sets.
The shade of brown varied, being much lighter in the
smaller larva. The brown larval surface was also some-
what variegated with different shades of the same colour.

Va. Bark overspread with a bright yellowrsh-green powdery
lichen.—The 18 larve varied very greatly, some being as
dark as the blackest of set I; many were variegated with
shades of brown, harmonizing well with the environment ;
for the lichen soon lost its green tint and became various
shades of brown. This is the only note relating to this
experiment which has been found. There is no doubt that
the young larve were introduced on May 22nd or 23rd.

VI. Lichen-covered stichs—The lichen was probably dead
and had become much paler. These larvee too were much
lighter than any of the previous sets, although a few
were quite dark. Nearly all were light brown and much
variegated with shades of brown, harmonizing well with
the environment.

Of the 7 sets of larva described above, the degrees of

Professor E. B. Poulton on

r I.
Dates in 1893. Black twigs of Deep blue paper
Turkish oak. spills.

colour-relation

White- spotted
purplish-brown twigs
of birch.

TIT.
| Dark purplish-brown
glossy twi igs probably |
of birch.

| May 22 15 Young larve; (May 238.) 15)
| (E. B. P.) | introduced. | young
| troduced.

June 11. (June 9.) Re-fed. | 12 larve counted;

]

15 larve in-) 16 young larve

larve in-/troduced (just introduced.

hatched).

(June 16). All| 15 counted.

(E. B. P.) Pees very | 15 dark like the |
dark. twigs, but not,
markedly purplish. |
June19. | (June 17.) All} All 12 very| All15on ae 12 larve on
(E. B. P.) 15 very black like dark. very dark and! twigs, 4 on green.
the twigs. purplish, |All dark, but
| greyer than those
in III, and not so
dark as latter.
x |e = “2 ee ee
June 25. | lane 22.) As| As before. All |
(E. B. P.) before. All at rest | on spills,
| on twigs.
|
|
panic 7 xa, i ae ae TGS EEICT a —
July 1. As before: all (June 27.) All| (June 27.) Re-fed.
| (E. B. P.) jon twigs. (15 dark brown. |
} } } |
| | be |
July 6. 2 at rest on) 9on spills, 1 on | All 15 on twigs. | 18 on twigs, 3|
Careful com- | green, 13 on twigs. green, 2 not noted. | All very dark. ‘on green. Dark, |

parison on | All 12 of a uniform

white paper.

All very black.

dark purplish: |

but “much lighter
/and less constant
than III. |

(E. B. P.) black.
|
| ly : 2 at rest on| 8 on spills, 4 on |
| (W. Holland.) | green, 13 on twigs. | green. All very |
All very black. dark.

July12. |
(W. Holland.) |

= :
15 on twigs. |} 9 on spills, 3 on
| ereen.

aa

14 on twigs, 1) 15 on twigs, 1)

ongreen. Alldark on green. The

purplish-brown, (larve remain
lighter in tint
than III.

13 on twigs, 2
on green,

13 on twigs, 3
on leaves.

hetween lepidopterous larve and ther swrrowndings.

V.
Reddish-brown
twigs.

| 17 young larva |
introduced,

| All 17 evidently

becoming brown
like the twigs.

ae like the
twigs.
is

As before. 14
fea twigs, 2 on

| green, 1 uncertain,

| All 17 on ee
| They become much
lighter when
changing skin.

_——e

17 on twigs.
| Distinetly brown,
and not purplish
like II] and IV.

| 16 on twigs, 1
on green. All
Aa as before.

{

16 on twigs, 1
(on green,

)
|

but darker brown.

|

VI.
Lichen-covered
sticks.

}
14 young larve |
‘introduced.

VII.
Weathered pale grey
barkless twigs.

(June 3.) 15
‘young larve in-|
troduced.

(June 9.) Re-fed.

14 jae vie 3 var'i-
able, with no
‘marked resem-

| blance to lichen.
|

|

10 on sticks, 4
on green. Some
(distinctly — varie-
gated light and
‘dark brown, but

no green marks
yet.

"Apparently ad
‘coming light}
brownish and ap-

|muslin roof, 1 on

resemble twigs.

(June 22.)
on twigs, 1 on
muslin, 3 on green,

9 on sticks, 5
on green. Larvae
still very varie-
ee

12 on sticks, 2
on green, A few
dark but mostly
light and varie-
gated with shades
of brown.

12 on sticks,
on green. Two
larve variegated
with dark green:
the rest as before,

9
~

13 on sticks, 1
on green. 4 larvie
with dark green
patches, strongly
developed in 2 of
them.

13 on twigs,
on green.

}

proaching colour
of eee

(June 18.) 13 |
on twigs, 1 on

shoots of food-plant|

|green. All closely | ‘faintly greenish.

mn

1

|

323

VIII. | Ix |
Green leaves and | Orange } oaper
spills.

|
|

(Populus nigra).

5younglarve| 15 young larve |
Sntraduce | introduced.
Al 15 very |

pale brown

|
!
t
|
|
|
=|
|

(June17.) All. 6 on spills, 1

15 very pale} on muslin roof, |
| brown, some 8 on green. All|
very light brown. |

|
|

(June 22). As 14 on spills, 1

All 14 light grey
and
perfectly
twigs.

10 on twigs,

harmonizing very
with brown, ee not | VIII,
| greenish.

— | ——_____

4|
on green. 1 larva
injured. Appear-

ance as before.

11 on Digi 2]

on green.

|

before. on green, Colour.

_as before. |

|

14 eats All| All 15 on vieainet
ight|Larve resemble |

only not’
quite so light.

11 on spate,

on green. Very)
light yellowish- |

brown.
|

_|
12 on J apattee 3|
/on green. |

|

Dates in 1893.

Professor E. B. Poulton on colour-relation

I.
Black twigs of
Turkish oak.

Il.
Deep blue paper
spills.

IIT.
Dark purplish-brown |
glossy twigs probably |
of birch.

Dy.
White-spotted
purplish-brown twigs
of birch.

July 15.

(W. Holland. )

All,

15 on twigs.
very black.

July 18.
(W. Holland.)

July 23.
W, Holland.)

As before.

As before.

|

10 on spills, 2
/on green. All very
“dark.

“_

As before,

Some mature
and spinning up.

14 on twigs, 1
on green. All very
dark purplish-
brown.

12 on twigs, 4
on green, Colour
darkish brown but
distinetly paler
than III.

As before.

As before,

As before.

As before.

\ =
|

July 27.
Careful com-

Some pupating. |
All black, but one

6 larve remain,
nearly mature. All

parison has very faint very dark purplish,
(EK. B. P.) | traces of green on almost black, as
| sides anteriorly. /on many previous
‘These larve) occasions.
| ‘blacker and less
| purple than those
with blue _ spills
(UH).
| July 28. 8 larve still| 5 still feeding.
(W. Holland.) | feeding. All on) 4 on spills, 1 on
_twigs. leaf.

Allavery uniform
dark purplish-
brown, almost
black, but not so
much so as those

All dark greyish-
brown and very
uniform.

with

spills.

the

blue

9 still feeding; |

12 still feeding :

all on twigs.jall on twigs.
(July 30.) A\ (July 30.) A
typical larva;typical larva

painted ; shown in | _ painted ; shown in
Plate XVI, fig. 3 | Plate XVI, fe. 4,

Aug. 3. | (July 31.) \ A] 5 still feeding. 6 feeding. All
(W. Holland.) |typical larva 4 on twigs, 1 on on twigs.
| | painted ; shown in green.
| Plate XVI, fig. 1.
| (Aug. 4.) Re-fed. |
(Aug. 8. Re-fed. One or | As before. All5, 5 feeding: all
W. Holland.) | two still feeding. | on twigs. 'on twigs. Colour
as before. (Aug.
19.) 3 still feed-
ing.

between lepidopterous larve and ther surroundings. 325

| |
| | p
Vill
v. VI. 00 ae IX.
Reddish-brown Lichen-covered | Weathered pale grey | es, t Orange paper
twigs. | sticks. barkless twigs. | (Populus nigra). | spills.
|
ee | _ SP ee eS Lae Ee
r . . . | .

10 on twigs,7on| 10 on sticks, 4| 12 on twigs, 1) 11 on spills, 4
green. All brown | on green. 6 with | on green, All very | jon green. All
like twigs. green patches, | pale and extremely | pale yellowish-

very marked in 2. | like twigs. brown. |
|
As before. As before. Some As before. As before. |
larve mature.
/ |
|= a | a = |
| | |
| Some larve | Others mature. | As before. | Some larve |
mature. | mature.
| = a |
| . | . |
Some larvie have | 3 or 4 with| All now much| Larve very| Very light

become of a much | green patches, 3 darker, but still light brown, | brown, like VIII.
darker brown or 4 with brown. like the darker | like IX. |
| |

lately. The change | twigs in the,
probably due to cylinder. Some |
maturity. mature.

10 still feeding. 7 feeding. All| 10 feeding; all) (July 31.) A. 7 feeding, all

8 on twigs, 2 on on sticks. on twigs. Atypical) typical larva on spills.
green, larva was painted ; | painted ; shown
|shown on Plate|on Plate XVI, _
/ | XVI, fig. 2. | fig. oa.
4 feeding. All| 2 feeding. | 6ontwigs,lon| 6 feeding. All| 5 feeding. 4)
on twigs. | | green. pale brown. on spills, 1 on)
| muslin.

(Aug. 19.) 1| (Aug. 18.) All| 7 still feeding.| 5 feeding, 1| As before. All|

still feeding. _pupated, |(Aug. 19.) 2 still} dead. (Aug.19.)| 5 on spills. (Aug. |
feeding. '5 feeding; all| 20.) All pupated. |

very pale brown,
4 feeding on |
Aug. 26, and 1
or more on Aug.
31.

326 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

darkness follow in the same order as that in which the
results are recorded, except that V and VA were much
alike, the brown differing in tint rather than in depth.
VI were much lighter than any of the others.

B. LIGHT LARVZ OF BIDENTATA ON JULY 6TH.

VII. Weathered grey barkless twigs—The larvee were
very light; of a distinct grey colour, harmonizing perfectly
with the environment.

VII. Green leaves and shoots of food-plant—The 14
larvee were all very light brown but not at all greenish.

IX. Orange paper spills—The 15 larve closely re-
sembled VIII, but were not quite so light. .

Some of the results of this comparison have been
incorporated in the tabular statement. Another careful
comparison was made on July 27th, but in this case it
was possible to include the whole in the table.

SECOND EXPERIMENTS WITH LARVA OF O. BIDENTATA.
EXPERIMENTS WITH LICHEN ON LARVZ OF
A. BETULARIA (1898).

In sending the second mixed set of eggs of bidentata,
Mr. Porritt wrote on June 18th, 1893—“TI certainly had
no expectation of seeing any more Odontopera bidentata
this season. However, when collecting on Saturday, at
Sledmere, in a high wood on the Yorkshire Wolds, I found
several! ‘Two of the females have deposited a few eggs,
which I forward at once with this. Sledmere is on the
chalk, and bidentata there is quite of a different type to
our West Riding moth, being of the pale, ochreous banded,
distinctly southern form.”

The eggs were placed in a single cylinder, and as soon
as a sufficient number of larvee had hatched, I started
Experiments X to XV, between June 27th and July 3rd,
the 14 larvee of A. betwlaria received from Mr. Arthur
Sidgwick being divided between Experiments XII to XV.
Experiments XVI to XVIII were started on August 3rd
by Mr. Holland, with the latest larvae of didentata. All
the observations on Experiments X to XVIII recorded
in the tabular statement on pages 328—331 were made by
Mr. Holland. The food-plant used throughout was Populus
nigra. When flat pieces of bark were introduced (XII,

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 327

XIII, XIV, as well as VA in the first series of experiments),
they were tied together in pairs with the lichen-covered
surfaces outwards.

EXPERIMENTS XVI, XVII, anp XVIII with THE LaRvz
OF O. BIDENTATA UPON GREEN LEAVES AND SHOOTS
OF THE FOOD-PLANT (Populus nigra).

The results of these experiments were uniform, and
require so little description that a tabular form of
presentation is unnecessary.

Experiments XVI (10 young larvee), XVII (17 larvee),
and X VITI (14 larvae) were begun by Mr. Holland on August
3rd, 1893. He recorded that the larvee of XVI were pale
brown, 2 of them rather variegated; while of XVII, 14
were pale brown and 3 rather variegated. Of XVIII no
record was made. ‘The larvae were the last hatched from
the mixed batch of eggs which supplied the material for
Experiments X to XV.

August 8th. All re-fed. Sixteen larvee in XVII.

August 12th, XVI and XVIII re-fed ; the latter noted
as nearly all pale brown, a few rather variegated.

August 15th and 19th. XVI and XVIII re-fed; larvae
10 and 14 respectively.

August 17th. XVII re-fed; 16 larve.

August 21st. XVII re-fed; 8 larvze had escaped. The
10 larvee in XVI were all of a pale brown colour.

August 22nd. XVIII, 13 larvee pale brown, 1 darker
with a few green markings.

August 26th and 31st. All re-fed; larvee 10, 8, and 14
respectively.

September 5th. XVI, becoming mature (2 still feeding
on 9th and 13th; no further notes on this set). XVII, 7
larvee, all pale brown. XVIII, 14 larve.

September 8th. XVII, 2 mature (all mature on 13th).
XVIII, 1 mature, 1 dead. Of 12 still feeding, 10 pale
brown, 2 rather darker brown. Two out of the 12 slightly
tinged with green.

September 13th. XVIII, 6 still feeding. On the
18th they were neither pupating nor feeding, and on the
23rd the last died. It appears possible that there was
a tendency towards hybernation on the part of the larve
with the slowest rate of growth.

328 Professor EK. B. Poulton on colowr-vrelation
| XII. |
X. XI * Bark covered with |
Dates in Dark purplish-brown EGE henner bright yellowish-green
893. glossy twigs, eee powdery lichen, the colour
probably of birch. ae of which faded and left
the dark bark,
= = a
| (July 2.) 13 small | _ (July 3.) 20 larve |} 3 betwlaria, smaller |
larvie introduced, introduced, at begin-|than in XIII and!
a mostly in 2nd stage. | ning of second stage.| XV, introduced. 15 |
une 27, The smallest about] bidentata, similar to |
| .5°5 mm. long, and/those introduced in|
none much longer. XIII. |
e fi... Ue, dell es ees
| |
| Half of the larve 20counted. Afew| 3 betularia, pale,
‘becoming purplish. becoming — reddish- | yellowish- green. 15
July 12. _ brown. | bidentata variegated.
|
|
|
os ee |
July 15. | Re-fed. | Re-fed. 20 counted. | Re-fed. 3 and 15
| | counted.
| — |
9 on twigs, 4 on) 10 on twigs, 8 on} 2 betwlaria, mature. |
July 18. green. green. Larve becom- | 14 bidentata, all
ing dark vreddish- | darkish, variegated.
brown and variegated. |
_—
| | |
| (July 24.) 12 on} 15 om twigs, 1 on| Last betularia |
twigs, 1 on green. green, 1 on muslin. mature. 10 bidentata
| Almost all dark. As before. ; on bark, 1 on green, 3
| July 23. }on muslin. All varie- |
gated brown, slightly |
‘touched with green
| and with white dashes
| along Hae
| ORR ised : 4
| 12 on twigs, 1 on| (July 27.) 12 on| 13, all on bark (as|
| green. 10 dark brown, | “twi igs, 4 on green, 1 | alsoon Aug. 1). About |
| July 28. variegated ; 3 paler | on muslin, 8 changed | half darker, but all

and less variegated. skin and of a more
| ' uniform brown colour.

still variegated. All
except 2 with more |
or less green.

Aug. 3

| 11 on twigs, 2 on

12 on twigs,
'green, 1 on muslin,
| As before.

14 on |

| (July 31.)

|green. 11 dark brown ae 1 on green.
and more uniform | |8 yrown like the
than before, 2 rather) twigs; 4 paler and
paler. One or two Jess uniform ; 3 varie-
have patches of pale gated and patched |
green. with green. (Aug. 4.) |

12 on bark, 1 on
|muslin. As _ before,
but have become
darker. This is the
darkest set of Experi-
ments XII to XV.

2 on}

|
|
|

between lepidopterous lurve and their

surroundings.

329

XIII.
Bark covered with
bluish-green lichen, probably
Physcia pulverulenta.

|
|
= |
|

3 betularia, about 12 |

mm. long, introduced, |
12 bidentata, about 6}
‘mm. long, introduced, |

{
|

mostly changing skin.
| |

XIV.
Bark covered with orange
lichen, probably Physcia |
parietina, combined with
P. pulverulenta.

Lichen-covered sticks.
The lichen probably
Ramalina farinacea,

(June 25.) 4 betularia,
about 7 mm. long, intro-
duced. 1 changing first
or second skin, others)
rather larger. 8 bidentata, |
about 6 mm. long, in-

| bidentata

betularia and 10
introduced. |
30th similar to those in

XIII.

4

| troduced. |
| 2 betularia yellowish-| 3 — betularia pale | 3 betularia yellowish- |
green, 1 brownish-green. | yellowish-green, 1 grey green, 1 dark brownish-
/10 = bidentata much | mottled with brown. 2, green. Bidentata
variegated. | much smaller than others. mottled.
Bidentata rather pale, |
yariegated. |
| el |
Re-fed. 3 and 10} 2 _ yellowish - green| 4 and 10 counted, |
' counted. betularia still feeding. | Betularia as before. |
Betularia, all mature. All betularia mature.| 3 betularia mature, |

9 bidentata much |
variegated. |

|

4 bidentataw on bark, 3)

on green. All brightly | dark,
green on sides,

variegated.

8 on bark, 1 on green.
-2seemed unhealthy. All
much variegated with
/pale brown and _ green.
Small white dashes on
sides.

|
|
|
|
|
|

7 on bark, 1 on green. |
Colours as before. Typical
larve painted, Aug. Ist
and 3rd, shown in Plate |
XVI, figs. 6 and 7. |

|

8 on bark. 1 unhealthy.
6 brown, lighter than in
XII, brightly mottled
‘with paler brown and
'green. 1 paler, less varie-
gated, with little green.
1 small and pale, without
‘green. White lateral |
dashes only on former 6. |

4 on bark, 3 on green. |

1 escaped. 10 bidentata
mottled; some)

(July 24.) 8 on sticks,

All brightly variegated | 1 on green, 1 on muslin. |
with shades of brown, | Nearly all patched with |

and patched with green. | green.

| 10onsticks. 6 darkish
brown mottled with green

and paler brown: white
‘dashes on sides. 3
similar but paler.
| without green.

6 on bark, 1 on green. |
As before.

7Zonbark. Allchanged| 7 brown, more or less

skin. 1 blackish-brown, | patched with green, some
4 darkish brown, 2lighter| very strongly. 1 grey
brown; all variegated) and brown _ strongly

1

|

|

|

with much green, and the | patched with pale green. |

darker ones also with|2 pale brown with little
paler brown. All with green. Most show white
lateral white dashes, lateral dashes.

330

Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

Dates in
1893,

glossy twigs,

Dark a eatte brown
probably of birch,

Aug.

| 9 on twigs, 4 on
| green. All dark brown,
some with
green.

Aug.

(Aug. 10.)
twigs, on green.
11 purplish-brown, 2
rather paler. Several
larve with green
patches on sides,

9

=

Aug.

12 on twigs, 1 on
green. As before.

11 on|

| XI.
| Reddish-brown
twigs.

(Auigs ie), 4
twigs, 1 on green.

on

a little |

(Aug. OS) als on:
twigs, 2 on green.
All brown, mostly
rather darker than
| twigs, but 4 rather
paler, Several patched
|W. vith green.

12
green.

on twigs, 3. on
As before.

Aug.

10 on twigs,
green. Purplish-
brown, several with a
little green, 2 rather
paler brown.

2 on|

10 on n twigs, 5 on
green. <All brown,
several patched with
| green.

8 on twigs, 4 on
green. 10 purplish-
brown, 2 brown. Only
1 or 2 slightly marked
with green.

(Aug. 25.)
sticks.

9 on sticks, 2 on
green. 1 mature.

12 on|

(Aug. 22.) 12
twigs, 3 on green.
All brown, 8 resemb-
ling twigs, 2 rather
darker, 2 ~~ rather
lighter.

Re-fed.

on

XI. |

Bark covered with = |
bright yellowish-green

powdery lichen, the colour

of which faded and left |

the dark bark. }

——}

|

10 on bark, 3 on)
green. 10 of a rich
dark brown patched |
with lighter brown |
and green: 3 lighter
brown variegated with |
still paler brown and.
green. All but one of |
these paler larvee with |
little white dashes on
sides. The greenmarks |
less pronounced than

in XIII and XIV.

10 on bark, 2 on;
green, 1 on muslin.

|
|
|
{

—}
10 on)

~ (Aug. 14.)
bark, 2 on green, All|

but 2 very dark brown, |
with far less green |
than XIII and XIV,

|

12 larvie, as before.

(Aug. 22.)\" (Seon

bark, 3 on green.

10 on bark, 2 dead.

2 mature, and
more on Aug. 31.

2

“

2
All

Mostly mature.
feeding Sept. 8.
mature Sept. 13.

(Sept. 4.) Nearly |

all mature. Only 1
feeding Sept. 9.

6 on bark, | 4 on
green. The colour of
the tichen had faded,
and left the dark
bark.

(Sept. 4. vn Larvie
becoming mature. <A
few still feeding Sept.
9 and 13.

|

hetween lepidopterous larve and their

XIV.
Bark covered with orange
lichen, probably Physcia
parietina, combined with
P. pulverulenta.

XIII.
Bark covered with |
bluish-green lichen, probably |
Physcia pulverulenta.

5 on bark, 2 on green. |
_ As before. Typical larve painted
| Aug. 4 and 5, shown in
Plate XVI, figs. 8 and 9.

; (Aug. 14.) 7 on bark.|
'As before, except that.
| smallest larva now marked |

surroundings.

7 on bark. As before. |

331

Lichen-covered sticks. }
The lichen probably
Ramalina farinacea. |

| |

10 on sticks.
| before.

(Aug. 10.) A typical
larva painted, shown in|
‘Plate XVI, fig. 10. |
|

(Aug. 14.) 10 onsticks.
8 grey-brown mottled
with darker brown and
‘much green, so that some
“are half green ; 2 similar
but browner.

with green.
| =
(Aug. 14.) 7 on bark.

Lighter and — greyer

| ground - colour. Green
patches very marked.

7 on. bark. Brown, 5 on bark, 2 on green.

variegated with paler | Colour as before.

brown and with green

| (strongly 5, less strongly

2). |

6 on bark, 1 on green. 6 on bark. All varie-

Colour as before. gated greyish - brown,
strongly patched with
green. White lateral
dashes.

10 on sticks. Colour
| as before.
{

|
10 on sticks. As|

| before.

(Aug. 25.) 6 on bark, ni (Aug. 25.) 6 on bark.
1 on green.

(Aug. 25.) 9 on twigs,
1 on floor.

2 mature. A typical 6 on bark. Colour as
larva painted Aug. 31, |on Aug. 21.
shown in Plate XVI,

fig. 11.

(Sept. 4.) All mature.
Last mature Sept. 8.

‘All mature: except one.

Larve becoming mature.

All mature.
} |
| 1

332 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

EXPERIMENTS UPON THE LARV& OF GASTROPACHA
QUERCIFOLIA (1893-4).

On July 22nd, 1893, Mr. W. Holland found a company
of young larvee of this species crowded together towards
the end of a shoot of hawthorn near Steeple Aston, Oxford-
shire. They were all the same size, and had evidently not
long before hatched from a single batch of egos. Thus was
afforded the opportunity of trying another set of experi-
ments upon a larva which is known sometimes to assume
a lichen-like appearance. Furthermore, there was the
additional interest of testing larval susceptibility to en-
vironment before, during, and after hybernation. The
food-plant employed throughout was hawthorn. The
present writer 1s responsible for the starting of the experi-
ments, the arrangements for hybernation,and the comparison
of larvee on September 21st, October 3rd to November 3rd,
March 26th, April 27th, May 7th and 25th. The other
records were chiefly made by Mr. W. Holland, in much less
part by the present writer.

I. G. querevfolia.

July 28th, 1893. Fifteen larvae of quercifolia placed
with intensely black twigs of the Turkish oak (Quercus
cerv2s), intermixed with their food- plant, hawthorn. They
were re-fed and examined on the following dates.

August 1st. Twelve larve on the green leaves and
shoots, 3 on the black twigs. All blackish-grey in colour.

August 5th. Four larvee on the leaves and shoots, 11 on
the black twigs.

August 9th. Three larvee on the leaves and shoots, 12
on the black twigs.

August 14th. Fifteen larve counted; all on the black
twigs. The colours were black and white with a little
grey.

August 19th. All 15 larve on black twigs.

August 22nd. All 15 Jarvee on black twigs.

August 31st. All 15 larvee on black twigs. The larvae
were now much blacker, but white markings were still
present.

September 4th. Fifteen counted.

September 7th. Fifteen larvee on black twigs.

September 9th. Fifteen larvae on black twigs.

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 333

September 14th. Fifteen larve on black twigs, 2
blackish, 13 black with white markings.

September 16th. Fifteen larvae on black twigs.

September 18th. Fifteen counted.

September 21st. Fourteen larvee on twigs, and 1 little
one on leaf. The larve were re-fed on September 26th
and 30th.

Il. G&. queretfolia.

July 28th, 1893. Fifteen larvee of quereifolia placed with
sticks profusely covered with lichen (probably Ramalina
farinacea was employed thoughout) intermixed with their
food-plant, hawthorn. They were re-fed and examined on
the following dates.

August 1st. One larva on lichen-covered stick ; all the
others on leaves and leaf-stalks. All blackish-grey in colour.

August 5th. Twelve larvee on lichen-covered sticks; 3
on food-plant.

August 9th. Fourteen larve on lichen-covered sticks ;
1 on food-plant.

August 14th. Fourteen larvee on lichen-covered sticks.
Colours black with white and grey markings; the latter
larger than on the larvee of the other experiments.

August 19th. Thirteen larvee on sticks; 1 on food-
plant.

August 22nd, Thirteen larvie on sticks.

August 26th. Thirteen larvee on sticks.

August 31st. Thirteen larve on sticks. The white
and grey markings had now developed to a much greater
extent.

September 4th, Thirteen larvee on sticks.

September 9th, Thirteen larve on sticks.

September 14th. Twelve larve on sticks Colours
white and grey and black, except in the case of 2 larvee
without any black.

September 16th. Twelve larvee counted.

September 18th. Twelve larve on sticks.

September 21st. Nine larvie on sticks; 3 on the twigs
of hawthorn. At this time of the year it was almost
impossible to get a sufficient quantity of the green shoots
of the hawthorn, so that darker twigs were sometimes
included, and upon these the larve occasionally rested.
The larve never rested upon the lichen itself, but on the
surface of the bark between the masses.

334 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

The 12 larvae were re-fed on September 26th and 30th,
and on October 8rd and 7th.

IIL. G. querctfolia.

July 28th, 1893. Fifteen of the quercifolia placed with
red-brown stems of the bramble, intermixed with their
food-plant, hawthorn. They were re-fed and examined
on the following dates.

August 1st. Only 1 resting on bramble stem, others on
leaf-stalks. Blackish-grey in colour.

August 5th. Seven on stems, 5 on green parts of food-
plant, 3 on gauze top of cylinder.

August 9th. Thirteen on stems, 1 on green parts of
food-plant, 1 missing.

August 14th. Fourteen on stems. Some black with
white markings, some grey and some mottled reddish-
brown.

August 19th. Fourteen on stems.

August 22nd. One missing, all on stems.

August 26th. Thirteen counted.

August 31st. Thirteen on stems. All were now grey-
brown with black and white markings.

September 4th. Thirteen on stems.

September 7th. Thirteen on stems.

September 9th. Thirteen on stems.

September 14th. The colours were now as follows :—
1 brown and grey with white markings, 2 brown with white
markings, 3 brown with various shades of grey, 3 grey and
brown Seilh white an aes 2 grey with white markings
and brown patches, 2 2 dark grey with white markings.

September 16th. Thirteen counted.

September 18th. Thirteen on stems.

September 21st. Twelve on stems; 1 on hawthorn
twig.

They were also re-fed on September 26th, 30th, October
3rd and 7th.

IV. G. quercifolia.

July 28th, 1893. Fifteen larvae of quercifolia placed
with green leaves and shoots of the hawthorn. They were
re-fed and examined on the following dates.

August 4th. Fifteen counted. Blackish-grey in colour.

August 8th. Fifteen counted.

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 335

August 14th. Fifteen counted. Rather variable in
colour, but somewhat greyer than at first.

August 19th. Fifteen counted.

August 22nd. Fifteen counted.

August 26th. Fourteen counted.

September 1st. Fourteen counted.

September 5th. Fourteen counted.

September 9th. Fourteen counted.

September 13th. Fourteen counted. Colour variable:
3 black and white; 9 grey and black-and-white ; 2 grey
and brown-and-white.

September 16th. Fourteen counted.

September 18th. Fourteen counted.

September 21st. Fourteen counted. All on the shoots
of the hawthorn.

September 26th. Fourteen counted.

October 3rd. Fourteen counted.

October 7th. Fourteen counted.

October 18th. Fourteen counted. Colour unchanged,
but rather darker than when last noted. Arranged for
hybernation in two muslin bags on the hawthorn tree
described on p. 387; one bag containing the 7 darkest, the
other the 7 lightest.

First GENERAL COMPARISON (SEPTEMBER 21ST), ALL
THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVA BEING PLACED UPON A
UNIFORM BACKGROUND OF WHITE PAPER.

T. G. quererfolia.

As regards the larva with black twigs of Turkish oak, it
should be noted that the moisture in the glass cylinders
had encouraged the growth of small whitish spots of mould
upon the dark bark, and it is possible that some effect may
have been produced by their presence in the environment.

Of the 15 larve, 6 were remarkable for the very slight
development of light markings upon the intense black
ground-colour: in one larva mdeed the light markings
were altogether wanting. The remaining 9 larvge were
black, chequered with white markings, which were however
far less developed than in the former group which had
been with lichen-covered sticks. The ground-colour of
these 15 larve differed strongly from that of all the others
in its deep black shade.

TRANS. ENT. SOC. LOND. 1903.—PART UI. (OCT.) 23

336 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

Two of the 6 caterpillars described above, including the
uniformly dark one, were selected for painting, together
with a representative of the 9 chequered larvee. The larva
without white markings was painted by Mr. Bayzand on
September 23rd, and is shown on Plate XVII, fig. 2; the
one with minute white markings on September ‘26th
(Plate XVII, fig. 3), and the chequered larva on September
25th (Plate XVII, fig. 1).

Il. G. quercifolia.

By far the most marked result was seen in the 12 larvie
with an environment of lichen-covered sticks. Not one of
the 12 could be mistaken for any larva of the other
eroups. In the case of 4 larvee the effects were especially
marked, these being of a light colour over nearly the whole
of the exposed surface, the black ground-colour quite
replaced by a pale brownish tint in one and by grey in the
others. The 8 rem: uining larve closely resembled each
other, being dark chequered with white; but the ground-
colour, although dark, was not black like that of the larvee
with Turkish oak (1), while the white markings possessed
a greyish tinge in one larva and a bluish in another.

‘The 4 larve first mentioned were separated from the
others for painting at this date, together with the one m
which the markings were bluish- white, and another repre-
sentative of the commonest type of appearance, viz. a dark
eround-colour with white markings.

iG: quererpolra,

The ground-colour of all the larvee with brown bramble-
stems was very dusky and brownish. Five of them had a
distinct brown patch on each side of the 2nd abdominal
segment, partially extending on to the Ist, and another
patch on the dorsal surface of the 5th abdominal. The
dorsal hump on the 8th abdominal, and in some larvae the
area surrounding its base, were also brown. In the remain-
ing larvee the light markings were more generally greyish
than white, and were often evanescent. Of the first-named
5 larvee only one had the light markings well developed, and
this was selected for painting together ‘with another in which
these markings were almost absent. The remaining larvee
were similarly represented by the larva with the white
markings best dev eloped and ‘the one in which they were

feeblest,

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 337

IV. G. quercifolia.

The larvz with green leaves and shoots were very
varied, showing tendencies in the direction of all the other
groups, but chiefly resembling the chequered black-and-
white larvee with the black twigs of Turkish oak, although
the ground-colour was not nearly so dark. A few tended
towards the greater development of the light markings
which was characteristic of the group with the lichen-
covered sticks, while all of them approached the larvae
with the brown stems in the dusky tint of the dark ground-
colour. There was no reason for painting any of these
larve,

ARRANGEMENTS FOR HYBERNATION AND FINAL
JOMPARISON OF THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVA
BEFORE HYBERNATION.

I. G. quereifola.

October 3rd. Larvie with black twigs. It was evident
that the larvae were ready to hy bernate. They had eaten
very little, and some of them were spinning a foot-hold.
The size was that shown on Plate XVII, figs. 1 to 3. A
great change had taken place since the last comparison on
September 21st: only 3 larve instead of 9 were now
chequered black-and-white, 6 having become nearly as dark
as 5 out of the 6 darkest members of the group. The
white patches of the chequered individual painted on
September 25th were now far duller and less conspicuous.
The larvee of this and all the other series were specially
arranged so as to test for the existence of any susceptibility
to the colours of the environment during hybernation. All
were enclosed in muslin sleeves upon a large hawthorn
tree, with pink double flowers, in the garden of Wykeham
House, Oxtord. It should be noted that the branches
enclosed in the sleeves were very dark, although not so
intense a black as the twigs of the Turkish oak.

A. The 3 chequered black-and-white larvee were enclosed
with an abundance of black twigs of Turkish oak.

B. The 5 darkest were similarly placed with lichen-
covered twigs.

C. Six dark larvae, but not quite so dark as the last lot,
were similarly enclosed with black twigs.

338 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

Il. G. querezfolra.

October 16th. Larvee with lichen-covered sticks. Many
of these larve had also undergone considerable changes
since September 21st 5 so much so indeed in certain cases,
that two of the examples set aside for painting had to be
changed for others which better represented the appear-
ance borne by the former when they were selected. Of
the 4 lightest larvae on September 21st only one remained
greyish (painted October 2nd, shown in Plate XVI, fig. 6);
3 were now of a brownish tinge (painted October 3rd, fig.
4, and October 7th, fig. 9, Plate XVII); while the 4th
had become so much darkér that another brownish larva
was substituted for painting (painted October 6th, fig. 5,
Plate XVID). The latter was not, however, as light as any
of the other 3 set aside on Sept. 21st. Of the other 2
darker larvee previously selected for painting, the one with
bluish-white spots had altered, and another more like its
former appearance was substituted (painted October 9th,
Fig. 8, Plate XVII). The remaining 6 dark, white-marked
unpainted larve had not changed, except that the white
marks upon two of them had become smaller and less
conspicuous,

These 6 larvae, with the dark, white-marked one which
was painted on October 10th, and is shown on Plate XVII,
fig. 7, were divided ito two groups for hybernation.

D. Four dark, white-marked larvee, including the darkest
larva of all the 7 with the smallest white spots, were
enclosed with lichen-covered sticks.

KE. Three dark, white-marked larvee, including the
darkest larva but one of all the 7, were enclosed with
black twigs of the Turkish oak

The 3 lightest larves were thus treated.

F. One larva was enclosed with lichen-covered sticks
(Plate XVII, figs. 4 or 9).

G. Two larvee, including the greyish one (Plate XVII,
fig. 6), were enclosed with black twigs. The other larva
is represented in Plate XVII, figs. 4 or 9.

H. The two remaining larvee which had been substituted
for painting, viz. the brownish larva (Plate XVII, fig. 5),
and the dark one with bluish-white marks (Plate XVII,
fic, 8), were enclosed with lichen-covered sticks.

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 339

Ill. G. quercifolia.

November 3rd. The larvee with brown bramble-stems were
compared and arranged for hybernation. The larvae were
more distinctly brown and more uniformly so than when
last compared. The brown patches on three parts of the
surface of certain larve, viz. the 2nd, 5th, and 8th
abdominal segments, were still evident and more distinct
than ever. On some individuals they had increased in
size. In only a single larva were the light patches at all
large and conspicuous. Seven larvee were very uniform
in appearance—dark brown with light brown patches
generally present. The remaining 4 larvee were also dark
brown, but 1 was distinctly marked with white, 2 less
distinctly marked with brownish-white, while the dorsal
surface of 1 was overspread with grey. The latter larva
was painted on October 17th (Plate XVII, fig. 12). One
of the brownish-white-marked larvee was painted on October
13th (Plate XVII, fig. 10); and 2 of the 7 first described
were painted on September 30th (Plate XVII, fig. 11) and
October 16th (Plate XVII, fig. 13).

This group of larvee was arranged for hybernation as
follows :—

I. Four of the 7 uniform larve were enclosed. with
lichen-covered sticks.

J. The remaining 3 were enclosed with black twigs.

K. The 4 more spotted or lighter larva: were enclosed
with brown stems.

First GENERAL COMPARISON AFTER HYBERNATION,
Marcu 26th, 1894.

The weather was very warm on March 25th and 26th,
and the buds of the hawthorn were well out.

I. THE 14 QUERCIFOLIA LARVA ON BLACK TWIGS BEFORE
HYBERNATION,

A. The 3 chequered larvxe with black twigs.—All three
larvee were quite healthy, and freely moved about when
disturbed. Two were at rest on the black twigs, 1 was
walking about, probably disturbed by the exanfination.
They had eaten many of the buds, and one had changed

.

340 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

tf

its skin probably since hybernation: the old skin was
found in the muslin bag.

B. The 5 darkest larve with lichen-covered sticks.—AlIl
the larvee were in the same healthy and vigorous condition
as those just described, and had eaten the buds of the
hawthorn. Every trace of the winter torpor had dis-
appeared, and they moved freely when touched. The
larvee were uniformly dark brown, and quite unaffected by
the presence of the lichen. Four were resting on a branch
of the hawthorn, while one was on the muslin.

C. The 6 dark larve with black twigs—Three were dead
and dried up, 2 in the bag and 1 still fixed to a branch of
the hawthorn. Of the hving larvie, 2 were fixed to the
muslin and 1 to a branch. One larva appeared to be
unhealthy. One had changed its skin, and the hawthorn-
buds had been eaten. All the Jarvee, including the dead
ones, were uniformly dark.

It was clear from this comparison that no change had
been wrought by the winter surroundings.

IJ, THE 12 QUERCIFOLIA LARVA WITH LICHEN-COVERED
STICKS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

D. The 4 dark, white-marked larve, including the darkest
of the 12, with lichen-covered sticks ——These larvee had
evidently eaten, and were healthy and easily disturbed.
Three were on branches of the hawthorn, and 1 on a
lichen-covered stick, but all had left their silken foot-holds.
All retained the appearance they possessed before hyberna-
tion: the contrast between dark ground-colour and lght
markings was weakest in the larva on the lichen-covered
stick.

K. The 3 dark, white-marked larve, including the darkest
but 1 of the 12, with black twigs—All 3 larvee were on the
hawthorn branch, and were in the same condition as the
above-described set (D). One was resting on a silken
foot-hold, but this was probably accidental, as there was
no trace of torpidity. All possessed the lichen-like
appearance borne before hybernation.

F. One of the 3 lightest larvx, with lichen-covered sticks.—
The larva was resting on the muslin. It was doubtful
whether anything had been eaten, but the larva readily
moved on disturbance, and was not resting upon a foot-hold.,
It still semained one of the three lightest larvae, and had
not undergone any change during hybernation.

between lepidopterous larve and their swrrowndings. 341

G. Two of the 3 lightest larve, with black twigs.—Both
larvee were healthy and irritable; they had evidently eaten.
One was resting on the hawthorn branch and 1 on a
black twig. They still remained very light, like that
described above (F), and were quite unaffected by their
dark surroundings during hybernation.

H. Zhe 2 larve—the brownish one and that with bluish-
white spots—with lichen-covered sticks,—It is improbable
that anything had been eaten, and these larve did not
appear to have emerged from hybernation. The one with
bluish-grey marks was upon a lichen-covered stick: it was
shrunken, and it appeared doubtful whether it would
survive. The other was still attached to its foot-hold on
the hawthorn branch, and had evidently not moved during
the winter. It was very lichen-like, and entirely unchanged
by its winter environment.

III. tHe 11 QUERCIFOLIA LARVA WITH BROWN
BRAMBLE-STEMS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

I. Four of 7 uniformly brown larve, with lichen-covered
sticks.—All were healthy and had eaten freely: 3 were
on the hawthorn branch, 1 on the muslin, All were
distinctly brown.

J. Three of 7 wniformly brown larve, with black twigs.—
One larva was dead, while 2 healthy ones had evidently
eaten. Both were on the black twigs, and possessed the
same dark brownish ground-colour with brown patches as
the 4 last-mentioned larvee (1).

K. The 4 most distinetly spotted or lightest larve, with
brown stems.—One larva was dead, while 3 healthy ones
had evidently eaten. All 3 were on the hawthorn-branch.
This set still included the most distinctly white-spotted
individuals of the whole 11. It was evident that no
change occurred during hybernation.

IV. THE 14 QUERCIFOLIA LARVA UPON GREEN LEAVES
AND SHOOTS OF THE HAWTHORN.

L. Seven larve enclosed in a muslin bag containing a
branch of the hawthorn.—One larva was dead, 3 were on
the branch, 2 on the muslin, while 1 became detached in
removing the bag. All had left their foot-holds, with the
doubtful exception of one on the branch. All 6 were
healthy and irritable, and most of them had evidently fed ;

342 Professor E. B. Poulton on colour-relation

in fact one of those on the branch was eating when the
examination was made. The larve were on the whole
darkish but very variable.

M.. Seven larve arranged as in the last set (). One
larva was dead, 2 were on the branch, and 4 were on the
muslin. All had left their foot-holds and were healthy
and irritable. They had evidently eaten. Their appear-
ance was similar to that of the set last described.

A complete history of the larve of each set, I to IV,
subsequent to hybernation, will now be given, followed by
an account of the careful comparisons of the whole which
were made from time to time, all the larve being then
placed on a uniform background of white paper.

I. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVZ ON BLACK TWIGS BEFORE
HYBERNATION.

A. The 3 chequered black-and-white quercifolia larve on
black twigs throughout.

April Tth—Re-fed. Three black larve with small
white patches. Unchanged when re-fed on the 10th: all
on twigs.

April 16th—Re-fed. Two larvee on twigs, 1 on haw-
thorn: appearance unchanged, as also when re-fed on 20th,
23rd, 27th, and May 3rd: all larve invariably resting on
the twigs.

May 7th—Re-fed. One larva unaltered, while 2 had
changed skin, and the white markings had become less
bright. In one of these the old skin was still adherent
anteriorly, This larva was removed to cylinder C (p. 344).
The other older darker larva was sent to Lord Walsingham
-on May 11th.

May \\th.—Re-fed. The single remaining larva was at
rest on twig; it was still black with white markings, and
was unaltered when re-fed on the 17th, 22nd, and 25th,
its position on the twig being noted on the two former
dates. It was sent to Lord Walsingham on May 31st.

B. The five darkest quercifolia larve with lichen-covered
sticks during and after hybernation.
April 7th. Re-fed. All 5 larve black, 3 of them with
white spots.

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 343

April 10th. Re-fed. Four larvee on sticks. Appear-
ance unchanged.

April 16th. Re-fed. Four on sticks, 1 on hawthorn.
Only 1 larva was now entirely black, the remaining 4 had
acquired large white patches. Two larva, including the
first-mentioned, were removed to cylinder Bl.

April 20th. Re-fed. All 3 on sticks, appearance un-
changed and on sticks, as also when re-fed on the 23rd.

April 27th. Re-fed. Two on sticks, 1 on hawthorn.
It was noted that in one of the larve the white marks
were less developed than in the others.

May ist. Re-fed. The last-mentioned larva had
changed skin and the white markings were reduced to a
single anterior pair and were quite small. The 2 others
remained as before, and no further change was seen when
the 3 larve were re-fed on the 3rd, 11th, 17th, 21st, and
25th. They were noted as at rest on the sticks on all these
dates, except the first and last. The darkest larva was
painted by Mr. Bayzand on May 19th, and is shown in
Plate XVII, fig. 14. Of the two others, the one with the
more intensely black ground-colour was painted by him
on the 22nd, and is shown in fig. 15 of the same plate.
Both these figured larvee were sent to Lord Walsingham
on May 25th, and the third was sent on May 31st.

B!. The two quercifolia larve separated yrom cylinder B on
April 16th.

April 16th. The larvee were respectively entirely black,
and black with white patches.

April 20th. Re-fed. Both on sticks, colour unchanged.
Similar results were noted when re-fed on the 23rd and
27th.

May 1st. Both larvee had apparently changed skin.
The darker one had gained a pair of small white marks
anteriorly. On May 5th the larvee were brought back
from London. No further change.

May 11th. Re-fed. The black-and-white larva was
sent to Lord Walsingham. The single dark larva, on stick ;
appearance unchanged. Similar notes on the 17th, 22nd,
and 25th, except that it rested on the hawthorn on the
first-named date, and its position was not recorded on the
last-named. The larva was sent to Lord Walsingham on

May 31st.

344 Professor E. B. Poulton on colour-relation

C. Three dark quercifolia larvx (out of 6) on black twigs
throughout.

April 7th. Re-fed. Two larvie dead. The third at rest
on twig; black. When re-fed on the 10th it was on twig
and unchanged.

April 16th. Re-fed. At rest on twig. It had changed
skin and was black with a few whitish spots) When
re-fed on the 21st, 23rd, 27th, and May 3rd it was un-
changed, and on e: 1ch occasion resting on a twig.

May 7th. Re-fed. At rest on twig ; unchanged. A
rather darker larva from cylinder A was added. Part of
the skin of the previous stage was adherimg to the anterior
part. When re-fed on the 11th, 17th, 21st and 25th,
these larvez were unchanged in appearance. Upon all
dates except the last it was noticed that they were both
upon twigs. Both larve were sent to Lord Walsingham
on May 31st.

Il. THE QUERCIFOLIA, LARVA ON LICHEN-COVERED
STICKS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

D, Four dark, white-marked quercifolia larve, including the
darkest of II, on lichen-covered sticks throughout.

April Tth. Re-fed. Four larvee, of which one appeared
to be unhealthy. All were darkish with large white
patches.

April 10th. Re-fed. One larva had died, 3 upon sticks.
Two had changed skin, 1 remaining unaltered, the other
with a further extension of the white patches.

April 16th. Re-fed. Two larve upon sticks, 1 upon
hawthorn. All were dark with large white patches, and 1
larva was very small.

April 21st. Re-fed. The 2 larger larva on sticks, the
small one on hawthorn. The former dark grey and pale
ereyish-brown respectively; both with very large white
patches. The small larva was brownish-grey with pale
marks. When re-fed on the 23rd all were on sticks and
unchanged, as also on the 26th, except that the small larva
was on the hawthorn.

May 3rd. Re-fed. The pale greyish-brown larva had
changed skin and was now a darker blackish- brown, with
large pale markings. The other larvee were unaltered.

May 11th. Re-fed. Two on sticks, the third, the large

between lepidopterous larve and ther surroundings. 345

dark grey larva, having been sent to Lord Walsingham on
this date. The remaining large larva was dark brown
with large yellowish markings; the small larva had
changed its skin and was bluish-grey. The larve were
re-fed on the 17th and 22nd, when they were on sticks
and unchanged in appearance. The larger larva appeared
to be unhealthy on the 22nd and died on the 23rd.

May 15th. Re-fed. The colour of the small larva was
unchanged, as also on June Ist and 7th. It continued to
grow slowly without further change, and finally spun up
on July 28th.

E. Three dark, white-marked quercifolia larve, ineluding
the darkest but one in II, on black twigs during and after
hybernation. .

April 7th. Re-fed.

April 10th. Re-fed. All 3 larve on twigs. ‘Two larvee
had changed skin, but the appearance of all 3 remained
the same, viz. black with very conspicuous white markings.
They were unchanged and at rest on the twigs when
re-fed on the 16th, 21st and 23rd.

April 26th. Re-fed. All on twigs. The dark colour of
the larvae appeared to have become more distinctly grey—
dark grey in two cases, grey in the third. As before, the
dark shade was combined with white markings.

May 2nd. One dark grey and white larva had changed
skin and was blackish and white,

May 11th. Re-fed. The largest larva with a rather
darker ground-colour than others was sent to Lord
Walsingham. The 2 remaining larve on twigs; both
blackish and white. Re-fed again on the 17th, when they
were on the twigs and unchanged. ‘The smaller larva did
not seem healthy and had not grown like the other. The
larger larva, the darkest of all in set IT, was painted on
May 17th, and is represented in Plate XVIII, fig. 4.

May 22nd. Re-fed. Two larvie on twigs. The appear-
ance unchanged, but neither looked healthy. The larger
larva died on the 25th and the smaller on June Ist.

F. One light quercifolia larva on lichen-covered sticks
throughout.
April 7th. Re-fed. White and pale grey.
April 10th. Re-fed. On stick. The larva had changed
its skin, and had become white with markings of two

346 Professor E. B. Poulton on ecolowr-relation

shades of brown. It was re-fed on April 16th, 21st (mark-
ings of two shades of pale brown), and 23rd, and was
always found on sticks with appearance unchanged.

April 26th. Re-fed. On stick. The larva was now
white with grey and brownish markings. On May 3rd it
was re-fed, the appearance being unchanged.

May 7th. The larva had changed skin; the white parts
had become yellower. It was re-fed on "May Lith; T7th.
and 22nd, and was noted as at rest on stick on the 11th
and 22nd. It remained to the end of a yellowish-white
with markings of grey and brown.

May 25th. ”The larva was painted by Mr. Bayzand and
is shown in Plate XVIII, fig. 3. It was sent to Lord
Walsingham on the same date.

G. Two light quercifolia larve on black twigs during and
after hybernation.

Apri Tth. Re-fed. Both lichen-hke.

April 10th. Re-fed. Both at rest on twigs. One had
changed skin, and the greyish markings had become rather
darker. Both were at rest on twigs with appearance
unchanged when they were re-fed on the 16th.

April 21st. Re-fed. Both on twigs. One larva was
white with pale grey markings, the other creamy-white
with markings of a brownish-grey. Unchanged and on
twigs when re-fed on the 23rd.

April 26th. Re-fed. Both on twigs. The white colour
of the larva first mentioned on the 21st had gained a faint
bluish tinge. The other larva unchanged.

May 5th. Re- fed, after having been brought back from
London. The creamy-white larva had changed skin and
was rather paler in tint. Both were on twigs and un-
changed when re-fed on the 11th. The creamy-white
larva was painted by Mr. Bayzand on the 14th, and is
shown in Plate XVIII, fig. 1

May 17th. Re-fed. Both on twigs. One larva large
and pale creamy-white with greyish-brown markings.
The other much smaller, white with bluish-grey markings,
but with tints duller than they were formerly. It had not
grown much, nor changed its skin. Both larva were un-
change ed in appearnce, “and were resting on twigs when
they were re-fed on the 22nd. The creamy larva was sent
to Lord Walsmgham on May 25th. The smaller bluish-

between lepidopterous larvae and their surroundings. 347

grey larva was painted on May 28th, and is shown in Plate
XVIII, fig. 2. It was sent to Lord Walsingham on

May 31st.

H. The brownish quercifolia larva and the larva with bluish-
white marks on lichen-covered sticks throughout.

April Tth. Re-fed. One larva dead; the other grey
and white. The larva was re-fed on the 10th, 16th, 20th,
23rd, 26th, and on May 3rd. Its appearance remained
unchanged. On all these dates except the last it was
noted that the larva was at rest on the sticks. On May
5th it was dead.

III. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVA ON BROWN BRAMBLE-
STEMS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

I. Four uniform quercifolia larve on lichen-covered sticks
during and after hybernation,

April Tih. Re-fed. All 4 dark brown, 2 rather darker
than the others.

April 10th. Re-fed. All 4 at rest on sticks: 2 un-
changed, and 2 had changed skin, becoming respectively
dark grey with white patches and blackish-grey with white
patches and brown marks.

April 14th. Re-fed. Larve on sticks. The larger ones
unchanged. The 2 smaller had now changed skin, be-
coming respectively very dark blackish-brown with white
marks, and dark brown mottled with pale grey.

April 16th. Re-fed. Larvee on sticks. The 2 larger
darker larvae were now placed in another cylinder. The
two remaining were respectively—mingled shades of dark
and light grey with brown patches, and a uniform grey
with large white patches. These 2 larvae were re-fed on
April 21st and 23rd without change. They were always
at rest on the sticks.

April 26th. Re-fed. Both larve on sticks. One larva
retained same appearance, grey with brown patches; the
other was of a pale brownish-grey with paler marks.

May Ast. The latter larva had become of a much darker
brownish-grey with brown and pale marks. On May 3rd
they were re-fed, and both were, on sticks: appearance
unchanged.

May 11th. Both larve on sticks. The last described

348 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

larva unchanged. The other had now also darkened,
becoming blackish-grey with paler marks. The larve
were re-fed on May 17th, 21st, and 25th, without further
change in appearance. It was noted that they were at rest
on the sticks on the 17th and 21st. On May 31st both
larvze were sent to Lord Walsingham.

I. The two larger darker quercifolia larve separated from
I on April 16th.

April 16th. One larva was now blackish-brown with
white marks, the other very dark grey with white and
brown marks.

April 21st. Re-fed. One larva on sticks, 1 on twigs
of hawthorn. Appearance unchanged, as also on April
23rd and 26th, when they were re-fed and both found on
sticks,

May 1st. The dark grey larva had changed skin and
become blackish-brown with pale and brown spots. On
May 3rd they were re-fed and found unchanged in appear-
ance on the sticks.

May (1th. The larva with pale and brown spots was
sent to Lord Walsingham. The remaining larva was at
rest on stick, and blackish with two pale marks. It was
re-fed on May 17th (on stick) and 25th. On the 31st it
was sent to Lord Walsingham. There was no further
change in its appearance.

J. Two uniform quercifolia larve on black twigs during
and after hybernation.

April Tth. Re-fed. One larva purplish-brown and black,
the other had changed skin and was black with small
white patches and minute brown points. Both were resting
on twigs and unchanged in appearance when re-fed on
the 10th.

April 16th. Re-fed. Both on twigs. The purplish-brown
and black larva appeared to be even darker, the other
unchanged. Both were on twigs and unaltered when
re-fed on 21st and 25rd.

April 26th. The black larva with small white patches
and minute brown points was dying.

April 27th. The last-mentioned larva was dead. The
other purplish-black larva was at rest on a twig.

May 1st. The larva had changed skin, and was black with

hetween lepudopterous larve and their surroundings. 349

a pair of small white marks. It was on a twig unchanged
when re-fed on the 3rd.

May 25th. The larva was sent to Lord Walsingham.
Mr. Bayzand completed his painting of it on the 11th, and
the larva is represented on Plate XVIII, fig. 6.

K. Three of the more spotted or lighter quercifolia larve on
brown bramble-stems throughout.

April 7th. Re-fed. One larva brown, 1 brown with few
white marks. The third grey-brown one had changed
its skin and become brown-grey with white patches.

April 10th. Re-fed. Larvae resting on stems. The
brown larva had become brown and very dark grey with
white patches. The other two remained the same.

April 16th. Re-fed. Larve resting on stems. The brown
larva with a few white marks had become darker, and was
now black along the median dorsal area and very dark
brown on the sides: the white patches large. The two
other larvee remained the same.

April 20th, 23rd, and 27th. The larve were re-fed on
each of these dates, and were invariably found upon the
stems. The appearance was unchanged.

May 1st. One of the brownish-grey larve changed its
skin, becoming rather browner in shade.

May 3rd. Re-fed. Three larvee resting on stems. Ap-
pearance unchanged.

May 11th. Re-fed. Two larve on stems. Appearance
unchanged. Mr. Bayzand finished painting the brownest
larva which is represented on Plate XVIII, fig. 5. The
brownish-grey larva sent to Lord Walsingham for pre-
servation. puother brown one was sent on the 12th.

May 17th, 22nd, and 25th. The single remaining larva

was re-fed on “each of these dates. It was noted as at rest
upon a stem except on the 25th. Its appearance was the
same on all occasions, viz. blackish with pale grey marks
and brown spots. It was sent to. Lord Walsmgham on

May 31st.

IV, THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVZ ON LEAVES, TWIGS, OR
SHOOTS OF THE HAWTHORN THROUGHOUT.

L

April Tih. Re-fed. One brown larva dead. Appearance
of others unchanged, viz. 3 brown and 2 blackish-brown.

350 Professor E. B. Poulton on colour-relation

April 10th. Re-fed. Three larvee unchanged. One brown
and 1 blackish-brown larva had changed skin and become
blackish-grey with large white patches.

April 16th. Re-fed. The two largest larvee last described
removed to another cylinder, L!. The three others un-
changed. One of two smaller brown larvze appeared
unhealthy.

April 20th. Re-fed. One larva had changed skin and
grown much. Of the others, neither of which had changed
skin, one was dead and one appeared to be dying.

April 23rd. The single healthy larva was brownish-black
with white marks.

April 27th. The small larva was dead. The appearance
of the other unchanged, as also on May 8rd and 11th, when
it was again re-fed. On May 17th the larva had died.

lal

The two larvae separated from L on April 16th were
re-fed and examined on April 21st, 23rd, and 27th, the
appearance remaining the same throughout, viz. dark
grey with large white patches. On May ‘Brd the larger of
the two larvae looked sickly ; on May 5th it was dead and
the smaller one seemed unhealthy. The latter died on
May 7th.

M

April 7th. Re-fed. Five larve alive, all greyish-brown.
One of two unhealthy-looking larva had died.

April 10th. Re-fed. Four larve unchanged; the fifth
had changed skin and had developed larger white patches.

April 16th. The 2 largest larvee were now separated
and placed im another cylinder, M’. The remaining 3
were brownish-grey, 2 of them with pale patches. The
smallest was browner than the others and appeared to be
unhealthy.

April 21st. Re-fed. The last-mentioned larva was dead ;
the others unchanged in appearance although one had
changed skin during the interval.

April 23rd. Re-fed. Unchanged.

April 27th. Re-fed. One larva had become darker, viz.
blackish-grey with white patches. The larvae were re-fed
and compared on May 8rd, 11th, and 17th, without change
in appearance.

May 22nd. Re-fed. The brownish-grey larva had died,
the darker one unchanged.

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 351

May 25th. The last-named larva had died. Neither of

these larvee had grown large.
M!

The 2 largest larvee separated from M on April 16th.
Both were greyish-brown with distinct white patches.

April 21st. Re-fed. Unchanged. The larve were also
re-fed on the 23rd, 27th, May 8rd, 11th, 16th, and 22nd,
and examined on each occasion. The appearance remained
the same throughout. On the 25th both were sent to
Lord Walsingham.

SECOND GENERAL COMPARISON AFTER HyYBERNATION.

April 27th, 1894. The larvee were carefully compared
and were all placed upon a background of white paper.
Nearly all of them were sluggish, probably preparatory to
the last ecdysis.

I. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVA WITH BLACK TWIGS BEFORE
HYBERNATION.

A. The three chequered larve with black twigs——These
larvee were unchanged and still remained the lightest of
the whole of series I. Hence the black twigs had _pro-
duced no effect during hybernation.

B. Lhe five darkest larvx enclosed with lichen-covered sticks
during hybernation.—One was very dark, the darkest of
the whole group; 1 was dark with faint light spots; 3
were black chequered with white markings, which however
were less developed than in A.

It is possible that these last-mentioned three larvae may
indicate some susceptibility to the effect of the lichen-
covered sticks after they were enclosed upon the tree and
before the commencement of hybernation.

C. The six dark larve with black twigs—Only one
larva was alive, and this was dark with very faint dull
white spots.

All the above described 9 larva were healthy and
well up to the average size.

II. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARV& WITH LICHEN-COVERED
STICKS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

D. Lhe four dark, white-marked larve, with lichen-covered
sticks,—Three larvae were alive and unchanged: one was
very small.

TRANS. ENT, SOC, LOND. 1903.—PART Il. (OCT.) 24

352 Professor E. B. Poulton on colour-relation

EK. The three similar larve, with black twigs—These also
were practically unchanged and lke D. One of these
was now the blackest larva, but the smallest in D was
almost exactly the same. It is possible that some very
slight effect was produced by these black twigs before
hybernation,

F. One of the three lightest larve with lichen-covered sticks,
—The larva was quite unchanged.

G. Two of the three lightest larve with black twigs.—No
effect had been produced by the black surroundings. The
bluish-grey larva remained very distinct.

H. Zwe larve with lichen-covered sticks—The brownish
larva had died. The other still remained the darkest
individual of the lighter part of the group (F, G, H) as
it was when the ar rangements for hybernation were made.

Comparing these two important groups I and II as a
whole, it was seen that the lightest larva of I (m A) was
almost precisely similar to the darkest of IL (in EK) :—in
fact they could not have been distinguished as regards the
size of the light patches. On the other hand, the larva in
T was healthy and of the average size, while that in II
was rather small. The smallest in D was not considered in
this comparison, as it had grown but little and was a stage
behind the others. Its light patches, although very dull
and grey, were almost exactly the same size as those of the
darkest larva in D, The remaining nine larve in II were
all large and healthy, and much lighter than the lightest
larva in I,

III. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARV WITH BROWN BRAMBLE-
STEMS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

Comparing these as a whole with sets I and IJ it was
obvious that the lghtest of them was distinctly darker
than the darkest of the group just described (IT) and exposed
to lichen before hybernation. The larva were perhaps as
dark as those in group I, exposed to Turkish oak before
hybernation, but they were not so black, and, except in two
larve, the light markings were less white, beg greyish
and clouded over.

T, The four uniform dark larve with lichen-covered sticks.
—Two larve were very dark with a dull blackish ground-

between lepidopterows larve and their swrrowndings. 353

colour. The two others were not so dark and bore brown
points and patches, which tended to fuse at their edges
with the dark greyish ground-colour.

J. The three similar larve with black twigs.—Only one
larva was alive, and this was rather darker than the darkest
of the set just deseribed (I), having a dull blackish ground-
colour. One dead larva had a very black ground-colour
with brown dorsal points and distinct although small white
patches. It is probable that some slight effect was
produced by the black twigs just before hybernation
began.

K. The four lightest and most distinctly spotted larve,
with brown twigs—Three larvee were alive. The smallest
one possessed the blackest ground-colour and the whitest
patches of any in the whole series (III). The other two
closely resembled the two lighter larvee in I.

IV. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARV UPON GREEN LEAVES AND
SHOOTS OF THE HAWTHORN.

L, M. There was no distinction between the two lots.
The larvee, as before hybernation, presented a great range
of variation, but the ground-colour was upon the whole
greyish. The lightest individual was rather lighter than
the darkest of those upon lichen before hybernation (I1),
while the next in order was about the same as the darkest
of Il. Four others were rather less ight, while a fifth was
a distinctly dark form. Hence the set was upon the
whole intermediate between I and II and distinctly
lighter than III.

April 28th. The length of all those larvee which had
ceased to feed preparatory to a change of skin was about
56°0 mm. <A few days later the cast skins were examined,
and were seen to possess the white markings as well as the
dark ground-colour. Hence these characters are in part,
if not entirely, cuticular in position.

THIRD GENERAL COMPARISON OF THE LARVA MADE
AFTER HYBERNATION, May 7TH.

I. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVA WITH BLACK TWIGS BEFORE
HYBERNATION.

A. The 3 chequered larve with black twigs—Two larvee

were dark, and 1 black chequered with white markings,

which were larger than those of any other larvee in J, but

354 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

much smaller than any in II, except the small larva in
E and 1 in D.

B. The 5 darkest larve with lichen-covered sticks—Three
larvee, 1 of which was changing its last skin, were black
chequered with white markings, which were not quite so
large as those of the larva in A. Two larvee were very
dark and unspotted.

C. The single dark larva with black twigs was changing
its last skin, and was still dark.

Hence probably no effect had been produced by the
surroundings to which the larvie had been exposed since
hybernation,

II. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVZ EXPOSED TO LICHEN-
COVERED STICKS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

D. The 3 dark, white-marked larvxe with lichen-covered
sticks —Two larvee were large in the last stage. One of them
became much darker after changing its last skin, but still
remained black with light markings. The effects of their
dark and light tints were more brownish and yellowish,
and on the whole darker than those of the 2 large larvee
in K. In fact, a comparison of D and E did not support
the conclusion that the larvae were sensitive to their
environment after hybernation.

The small larva in D which had lagged behind the
others had changed its skin and was rather lighter. It
was still in an earlier stage than any of the others, but
apparently healthy

KE. The 3 similar larve with black twigs during and
since hybernation—Two larvie were large in the last stage
and remained black-and-white. The third larva was smaller
and had been injured. It was probably unable to change
its skin in consequence.

F. One of the lightest larve with lichen-covered sticks
throughout—This larva was in last stage, and its lght
markings had become much darker in tint, being of
yellowish-brown colour.

G. Two of the lightest larve with black twigs during and
since hybernation.—The lighter of the 2 remained about
as in the previous stage ; the other, the bluish-grey larva,
had not yet changed its last skin, but was apparently

hetween lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 355

rather darker. These 2 larvae were upon the whole
somewhat lighter than those in F and H.

H. The larve with bluish-white spots exposed to lichen-
covered sticks throwghout.—This larva was dying. It was
now lighter than the larva in F, but this difference was
entirely due to changes in the latter.

III. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARVA WITH BROWN BRAMBLE-
STEMS BEFORE HYBERNATION.

I. The 4 uniform larve with lichen-covered sticks during
and since hybernation.—Three larvee were in the last stage,
2 of them brownish with small white spots like those in K,
but with the ground-colour darker. The 8rd was con-
siderably darker. The 4th larva was changing its skin.
It possessed a deep brownish-black ground-colour, which
appeared to be overspread with grey.

J. The uniform larva with black twigs during and since
hybernation.—The larva was very large in the last stage,
and very uniformly dark and unspotted, although rather
less black than those which had been exposed to black twigs
before hybernation (1).

K. The 3 spotted or lighter larve upon brown stems
throughout.-—Two larve in the last stage were dark
brownish with small light patches. The third, in the last
stage but one, was more black-and-white, resembling the
larvee which had been exposed to black twigs before
hybernation (1).

Compared as a whole the larvee of I were blacker than
III, although these were very dark. The latter were
distinguished by greyish-brown shades absent from the
ground-colour of I. The light patches, when present,
were distinguished in III by a brownish tinge, and were
more clouded and less distinct than in I.

Comparing carefully the darkest larva of II (viz. the
4 darkest in D) with those of I, it was seen that the pale
patches were of the same size as those of the larvee in which
they were most developed of all exposed to black twigs
(viz. the lightest larvee in A). But although the patches
were of the same size, those of the former were yellowish-
brown and clouded, and those of the latter white. The
ground-colour of the larva in II was, however, much lighter,
being a brownish-black, than that of the lightest larva in
I. Hence the darkest larva in II was distinctly darker

356 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-velation

than the lightest in I as regards its pale patches, but
distinctly lighter as regards its ground-colour, And this
comparison only holds for a single exceptional dark larva,
All others in II were far lighter than any in either I or ITI.

1V. THE QUERCIFOLIA LARV EXPOSED THROUGHOUT TO
THE LEAVES AND SHOOTS OF THE HAWTHORN.

Only 6 larvee remained alive, and of these but 2 were in
the last stage. Four larvae possessed a ground-colour very
like that of series III, but the white patches were far
larger, and tended to spread as a greyish shade down the
sides. The light patches were, however, much smaller
than in the larvee of series II. One of the smallest larvae
was dark with very small white patches, like one of the
darkest of III. A dying larva, unable to change its skin,
was intermediate between this latter and the 4 first-
mentioned larve.

The colours of these larvae in series ITV seem to have
been influenced by the brownish and greyish twigs and
shoots of the hawthorn.

Last GENERAL COMPARISON OF THE QUERCIFOLIA
LARVE AFTER HYBERNATION, MAY 25TH.

Of series I it was recorded that the single larvae in A
and 2in B were black with conspicuous white markings ;
while 1 in B, 1 in B?!, and 2 in C were dull black with
only a pair of small inconspicuous white markings.

Of series IT nothing is recorded which is not contained
in the description of cylinders D to G.

Of the 4 larve then remaining in III it was noted that
the larvee in K much resembled the black-and-white ones
in A and B; while the 3 in I and [' were dull blackish
with the pale markings very inconspicuous.

Only 2 larvee remained alive in IV. The brownish
ground-colour of both was much clouded and overspread
with grey, and the pale patches tended much to spread
downwards, becoming grey and clouded especially towards
the ventral surface.

TRANSFER EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LARVA OF
AMPHIDASIS BETULARIA IN 1896.

A female moth, captured at Oxford, laid a small batch
of eggs, which provided the material for the following

between lepidopterous larve and thew surroundings. 857

experiments, undertaken in order to attempt to ascertain
the susceptible stages of this highly-sensitive larva.

The experiment started on May 10th, when the young
larvee were first fed upon the leaves of Popwlus nigra, all
dark twigs and branches being at first rigidly excluded.
It must be remarked, however, that for a few days after
May 10th the leaves had only just expanded and were
somewhat brownish. Various sets of larvee were withdrawn
from the stock, and the transference experiments were then
conducted in the following manner. All measurements
were taken when the larve were stretched and straight.
A convenient summary of the results of the following
experiments will be found in the table on page 319.

A. A. betularia.

May 16th. Twenty betularia larvee at the end of the 1st
stage, and nearly all changing the first skin, and 5°0 mm.
long, were transferred from green to black surroundings
(the twigs of the Turkish oak). Up to this date the green
leaves of P. nagra upon which they had been placed on
May 10th were somewhat brownish, because the buds had
only just opened.

May 20th. The larvee were examined from time to time
between the 16th and this date, and had always been found
upon the leaves and never upon the twigs. On the 20th
every single larva was found upon the leaves. They even
avoided the stem of the food-plant. Ten larve changing
the 2nd skin, and 8°5 mm. long, were re-transferred into
green surroundings (A!). The 10 remaining larve had
attained various degrees of development in the 2nd stage,
3 being at the end of it, but not yet changing the 2nd
skin. From this date to the 29th these 10 larve were fed
upon Balsam Poplar, but from the latter date onwards
upon P. nigra.

May 25th. Only 1 on the twigs, the rest on the leaves.
One larva was changing the 2nd skin, and none had yet
entered the 3rd stage.

May 29th. Two larvee on the twigs, and both these
were changing the 3rd skin. Of the rest 1 was changing
the 3rd skin and 12°5 mm. long, and 2 had just changed
it. These 5 were re-transferred to green surroundings
(A?). The remaining 5 were in the 3rd stage, 4 nearly at
the end of it, and 1 very small.

May 31st. Only 1 on twigs. Four changing 3rd skin,

3a¢ Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

the 5th still small in the 3rd stage. The black twigs were
removed at this date, and the 5 larve by this means
re-transferred to green surroundings.

June 2nd. Four in 4th stage, and 1 nearly at the end
of 8rd stage. Four distinct medium brown colour; 1 very
black.

June 5th. One changing 4th skin and light reddish-
brown; 2 in 4th stage, both darkish brown ; lat beginning
of 5th stage and medium brown; the 5th small one was
only 9:0 mm. long.

June 14th. One small in 6th stage, and dark brown
with distinct grey markings prominent on it; 1 changing
5th skin and hght brown with ventral surface rather
greenish ; 2 at end of 5th stage, 1 imtermediate and 1
similar to but rather darker than the larva changing its
skin.

June 20th. Four in 6th stage, 2 dark, overspread with
greyish, 1 green with brown dorsal line and_ lateral
patches, 1 dark form becoming greenish on the sides,

June 26th. One dark larva mature and removed.

July 2nd. The green larva and the one with greenish
sides mature and removed. ‘The remaining larva was very
dark, with distinct sharply-marked pale yellowish spots on
its sides, and one on each side of the dorsal surface of each
segment.

July 12th. The larva described above had _ been
accidentally drowned.

CONCLUSIONS.

The effect of the dark surroundings is evident. The
green environment of the three last stages was doubtless
the cause of the greyish tint, the oreenish sides, and the
yellowish spots on the 3 dark larve. In the case of the
4th larva the effects of the latter surroundings were pre-
dominant, although the larva still retained strong traces of
its earlier environment in the brown markings. Comparing
this result with that of A‘, the relative unimportance of
environment in stage IT becomes clear.

Al. A, betularia.

May 20th. The 10 betularia larvee re-transferred from
black into green at the end of the 2nd stage, changing the
2nd skin, and 8:3 mm, long.

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 359

From this date to the 29th the larve were fed upon
Balsam Poplar, and then again upon Populus nigra.

May 25th. Most of the larvee were changing the 3rd
skin, and all were apparently dark.

May 29th. All had changed the 3rd skin except 2,
which were changing it. All were dark brown except
the 2 latter, which, together with 1 which had just changed,
were light brown. The average length was 14°25 mm.

June 2nd. Four were changing the 4th skin; 5 were
at various points in the 4th stage, with an average length
of 20°75 mm.; 1 was in the Sth stage. All were brown,
although not very dark.

June 5th. Four were changing the 5th skin, 33:0 mm.
long, and 1 at end of 5th stage. The latter was medium
brown, the others 3 light brown and 1 green with light
brown markings. The remaining 5 were much smaller,
being all in the 4th stage, 8 dark brown and 2 light brown.

June 14th. Five were nearly mature, 2 green sprinkled
with distinct greyish dots much more numerous in the
larger larva, which was practically mature and 55:0 mm.
long. The ground-colour of this latter larva was bright
green, the dorsal tubercles dark grey. Of the other 3
large larvee, 1 was very light grey, almost whitish with
darker dots and mottling, 2 were much darker, blackish
rather than brown, with light grey markings. The largest
of the set of smaller larvae was changing its 5th skin and
ereenish-brown, 1 smaller in the 5th stage was green with
dorsal brown line, 1 smaller still, chocolate brown. Two
larve were still quite small, viz. 12°25 mm., and probably
still in the 4th stage. Both were dark brown, but they
appeared to be unhealthy.

June 15th. The greenest, the whitish, and 1 dark larva
had become mature and were removed.

June 20th. One green larva mature and removed. Two
in 6th stage, 1 dark with greyish markings not greatly
developed, 1 intermediate, brownish-green ; 1 changing
5th skin, green, 2 in 5th stage and lightish brown.

June 22nd. The dark larva in 6th stage mature and
was removed. Two larvie in 6th stage, 1 on green side of
intermediate, viz. green clouded over but not entirely
obscured by brown, 1 distinct green with a brown dorsal
line and a little brown on the sides. Of the 2 smaller
larvee, 1 was in the 5th stage and brownish-green, 1 in
the 4th and lght brown.

360 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

June 26th. The brownish-green larva in the 5th
stage was dead. The 2 large ones as last described.

July 2nd. The greenish intermediate larva had become
mature and was removed. The distinct green one was
very large, being 64°6 mm. long. The green 1 ground- -colour
was somewhat dull, and the brown dorsal line broad but
not dark. The remaining larva was in the 5th stage and
intermediate.

July 12th. The last-mentioned larva was dead. The
other had pupated.

CONCLUSION.

The effect of a dark environment during the 2nd stage
alone, although slight, is very remarkable. The grey
which overspread the green forms may be compared to the
grey patches on the dark form in this and so many of the
other experiments.

A2. A. betularia.

May 29th. The 5 betularia larvee re-transferred to green
surroundings after they had been in black during the 2nd
and 8rd stages.

May 31st. All 5 larvee were advancing in the 4th stage,
and all dark or distinct brown.

June 2nd. Two larvee were changing the 4th skin and
22°0 mm. long; the 3 others advancing in the 4th stage.
Appearance unchanged,

June 5th. One larva changing 5th skin and medium
brown ; 2 half-grown in 5th stage and 1 nearly at end of
it; 2 dark brown, 1 of the larger pair light brown. The
5th larva in 4th stage and dark brown.

June 14th. Four approaching the end of the 6th stage ;
2 very black and 2 similar, except that the ground-colour
was overspread with light grey, in one case slightly, in the
other thoroughly. The latter was nevertheless a darkish
larva. The 5th larva was changing the 5th skin, and
green with a brown median dorsal line.

June 15th. One dark larva had become mature and
was removed.

June 20th. One dark larva mature and removed. The
remaining 3 larve were all in the 6th stage. The grey
colour of one of the dark larvae was still very distinct.
The brown dorsal line was pronounced upon the green
larva,

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 361

June 26th. The 2 dark larve mature and removed.
The 5th larva had now became a typical and distinct
bright green form, the brown dorsal line having almost
disappeared.

July 2nd. The green larva mature and removed.

CONCLUSIONS.

This is a deeply interesting little set, showing the effect
of the dark surroundings persisting unaltered in the 2
larvee which were first to pupate, the green environment
producing some effect in the greyness overspreading the
next 2, and predominating altogether in the last.

B. A. betularia.

May 20th. The 51 betularia larvee remaining in the stock,
with green leaves and shoots of Populus nigra, were care-
fully examined. Two larvz had just entered the 3rd stage,
having changed the 2nd skin, 5 were small in the 2nd
stage, while all the rest were changing the 2nd skin, and

-thus at the end of the 2nd stage. Twenty of these latter
were transferred to a cylinder (B!) with an abundance of
black twigs of the Turkish oak, while the remainder were
put back into the green environment. From this date to
the 25th all the larvee were fed on Balsam Poplar.

May 25th, Thirty larvee counted at this date. Of these,
15 changing the 3rd skin were transferred to a cylinder
(B*) with black twigs. The remaining larvee were smaller,
but even in the 3rd stage a small proportion of green in-
dividuals had begun to appear among the brown. All
the larvae were fed on Populus nigra from this date
(May 25th) onwards.

May 29th. The 15 larve remaining in the green environ-
ments were mostly at the end of the 8rd stage and many
were changing the 3rd skin. They were mostly lght
brown but some were green.

June 2nd, Six larve had reached the end of the 4th
stage, although they were not changing their skins. Of
these 5 were green with slight traces of brown, while the
6th, although green, retained a larger amount of the darker
shade. Six larvee were smaller, having reached various
points in the 4th stage. Of these 2 were green with
slight traces of brown, while four were brownish-green or
light greenish-brown. Three larve were still in the 3rd

362 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

stage, and of these the smallest was dark brown while the
other 2 were light greenish-brown.

June 3rd. The five largest larvae were changing the 4th
skin, and were placed in a cylinder (B*) with ‘black sticks.
Their colour was as described on June 2nd, and their
length 20°5 mm. The colours of the remaining 10 larvae
had not altered.

June 5th. Only 9 larvee were found. Two larve were in
the 5th stage and bright green. Five were more or less
advanced in the 4th stage, and were distinctly green with
a variable degree of development of brown patches. Two
were much smaller in the 4th stage and lhght greenish-
brown in colour.

June 20th. Three larve were large in the 6th stage, and
all very bright green with eae a trace or no trace at all
of a brow nish tint along the median dorsal line. The other
6 larvee were not noted on this date.

June 26th. Only 8 larve were found. Two of the
largest green larvee had become mature, and were removed
for pupation. The remaining 6 were of various sizes, but
all were bright green except one.

July 2nd. One green larva was mature and was re-

moved. Three were in the 6th stage,2 bright green, one of

them with a little brown on the sides and a brown dorsal
line; the 3rd was intermediate, with a brown dorsal line,
and green and brown patches alternating on the lateral
surfaces. One was changing the last skin and one in the
5th stage, both bright green.

July 12th. One green larva mature and removed.
The 2 small ones were dead. Of the two remaining larvee
in the 6th stage 1 was bright green and 1 intermediate.

CONCLUSIONS.

The only point which calls for remark is the occurrence
of a single intermediate larva. This was a_ probable
result of the large numbers of the young larvie in a single
cylinder: so that some effect in a specially susceptible
individual followed from the presence of other young
brownish caterpillars.

B.A. betularia.

May 20th. The 20 betularia larvee changing the 2nd skin
transferred from green leaves and shoots to an environment

between lepidopterous larve and their surroundings. 363
of black twigs. The larve were of a very uniform length
of 85 mm.

May 25th. Six were found on the black twigs, the rest
on the leaves. Ten larvie, all about 140 mm. long, at the
end of the 3rd_ stage, and mostly changing the 38rd skin,
were transferred to green surroundings (C). The remain-
ing larvie were fed on Balsam Poplar from May 20th until
the 29th. Green forms had begun to appear among the
brown.

May 29th. Only 1 on black twigs. Seven larvee were at
the beginning of the 4th stage, 6 dark and 1 greenish.
Two were changing the 3rd skin and 1 nearly mature in
the 3rd stage.

June 2nd. Four larvee on the twigs. Two were chang-
ing 4th skin, and 8 at various degrees of development in
the 4th stage. All brown and the largest larvee very dark
brown.

June 3rd. Only 1 on the twigs. Two had now changed
4th skin on the 2nd, and were transferred to green sur-
roundings (C1): 1 was very black, the other a medium
brown.

June 4th. Three on twigs. All larvee in 4th stage, all
brown of various shades: those on the twigs very black.

June 5th. Only 1 on twigs and that a hght brown one.
One light brown larva changing 4th skin and transferred to
green surroundings (C'). Five in the 4th stage, including
1 dark brown larva which had just died, 1 in 3rd stage.
All brown (more or less dark).

June Tth. 'Two on twigs, dark and medium brown. The
latter was changing its 4th skin and was transferred to
green (C1), together with another dark brown larva
which had just entered the 5th stage. The remainder
were as last described, and all were advancing in the 4th
stage.

June 14th. Two were on the twigs; both in the 5th
stage, one dark greyish-brown and the other dark chocolate-
brown. ‘Two were on the leaves, both in the 5th stage and
greyish-brown, lighter than the former two.

June 20th. Two large in the 6th stage and very dark.

June 26th. Four in the 6th stage and all very dark
indeed.

July 2nd. Two of the dark larvee had become mature
and were removed. The remaining larvee were very black
and nearly mature.

364 Professor E. B. Poulton on colour-relation

July 12th. The 2 last larvee had forced their way through
the hole in the plate and were drowned. Their appearance
had not changed, and it is probable that they had become
mature and began to wander.

CONCLUSIONS.

In the final result we probably see the full and char-
acteristic effect of the black twigs unmodified by the green
environment in which the two youngest stages were
passed.

B?. A. betularia.

May 25th, Fifteen betularia larvee transferred from green
to black; all changing the 3rd skin and 140 mm. long.
Some were becoming greenish, but most were brown,

May 29th. Allexamined: the colour varied very greatly,
but none were altogether green although there was much
green ground- colour on some. All were in the 4th stage ;
1 only on the black twigs and that happened to be a
particularly green one. Many light brown and many dark
brown

June 2nd. Five on twigs, 3 in the 5th stage, 1 chang-
ing 4th skin, and 1 nearly at end of 4th ‘stage. The
latter and 1 in the 5th stage dark greenish- -brown, the
remaining 3 very dark brown. On the leaves and green
stems there were in the 5th stage, | green, 3 light brownish-
green, and 2 ight brown (1 slightly greenish); in the 4th
stage, 2. brownish-green and 2 medium brown.

June 5th. On the black twigs there were 8 larvae, 7 in
the 5th stage (8 of them changing the 5th skin), 5 dark
brown, | bright green (changing skin), and 1 brownish-
green (half-grown in stage); 1 im 4th stage and brownish-
green. On the light brown stem of P. nigra was a single
larva which harmonized with it very exactly. On the
leaves were 5 larve, 2 small in the 5th stage and light
brown, 3 in the 4th, 1 dark (changmg the 4th skin), u
brownish- green, and 1 greenish-brown.

June 14th. Six larve in the 6th stage were on the
twigs and very deep black, some of them with a small
amount of greyish markings. One similar larva on
green: 1 larva in the 6th “stage on green was of a
uniform dull light grey tint: of 2 larvee in the 5th stage,
1 was changing the 5th skin and hght brown overspread

between lepidopterous larve and ther surroundings. 365

with grey, 1 smaller and darker with less grey. Two
smaller larvae, probably in the 4th stage, or perhaps at
the beginning of the 5th, were respectively lightish and
darkish-brown.

June 15th. One of the darkest larvae had become mature
and was removed.

June 18th. One of the darkest larvae become mature and
was removed,

June 20th. Two very dark larvee mature and removed.
One very small one dead, Of the 6 in the last stage, 4
were very black, in 3 cases overspread with dull greyish
patches; 1 was greyish on the dorsal surface, lighter
grey elsewhere ; the 6th and smallest somewhat resembled
that last described.

June 26th. All had become mature except that last-
mentioned, which had become a dark brownish-black.

July 2nd, No further change.

July 12th. The larva had become mature and was
removed,

CONCLUSIONS.

The power of the black surroundings is evident, the in-
fluence of the green being only seen in the occasional grey-
ness on the black larvze,and especially in the one larva which
was entirely grey. The brownish shade of the larva which
was the last to reach maturity is unusual on the twigs of
Turkish oak. These probable effects of the green on the
larvae which had been longest exposed to the influence of
black (being the last to pupate), are contrary to the results
observed in the other experiments.

Bs, A. betularia.

June 3rd. Five betwlaria larvee in green surroundings
up to the end of the 4th stage were transferred to
black. They were changing the 4th skin and 20°5 mm.
long.

June 5th. One larva, a green one, was on a black twig,
the others on the leaves. Four were brownish-green and
1 medium brown, All were advancing in the 5th stage
and about the same size,

June 20th. Three large in the 6th stage, 1 dark smoky-
black ; 1 greyish smoky-black, and 1 intermediate, greenish-
brown. One small one dead, 1 missing,

366 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation

June 26th. One had pupated, and 1 was mature and
removed. The 3rd larva was greyish smoky-black.
July 2nd. The last larva had become mature and was

removed.
CONCLUSIONS.

The great power of a black environment is well shown,
in the production of 2 dark larvee and 1 intermediate.
At the same time the dark larvee were not quite the
characteristic forms produced by black-barked twigs.

C. A. betularia.

May 25th. Ten of the 20 betwlaria larvee transferred from
green to black for the 8rd stage, and re-transferred to
green at the end of it when they were changing the 3rd
skin and 14:0 mm. long.

May 29th. All in 4th stage and all dark.

June 2nd. Four in Sth stage, 5 changing 4th skin, 1 not
quite mature in 4th stage. All dark brown.

June 5th, Four changing 5th skin and 33:0 mm. long ;
2 nearly mature in 5th stage; all lightish brown over-
spread with a greyish cloud. Three small in the 5th stage,
2 of them as above and 1 dark brown. One in 4th stage
and very black.

June 14th. Six nearly mature in the 6th stage and all
very dark smoky-black with a pair of distinct grey patches
on the dorsal surface of each segment. Three in the 5th
stage, 2 as above and | lighter and really intermediate.

June 15th. Three dark larvee had become mature and
were removed.

June 18th. One dark larva mature and removed.

June 20th. Two larvee large in the 6th stage, very dark
smoky-black with the paired segmental light grey patches

distinct.
June 26th. The 2 larvee above described had become

mature and were removed. Of the 3 remaining larvee, 2
were large in the 6th stage, one bright green with brown
dorsal line and a small brown patch on anterior part of
each side of the segments, the other smaller and darker
with more brown upon it, but still with a bright green
ground-colour. ‘The third larva in the 5th stage and
chocolate-brown.

July 2nd. All 3 in 6th stage, but the smallest was now
intermediate. In view of the considerable development of

between lepidopterous larve and their surrowndings. 367

brown markings the other 2 can only be considered as
rather on the green side of intermediate.

July 12th. The smallest larva was still feeding and still
intermediate. The other two had become mature and
were removed. There was no further change.

CONCLUSIONS.

These results are deeply interesting. The 6 larve
which first became mature were certainly influenced by the
green environment of the three last stages, inasmuch as
the final appearance was a dark smoky-black with a pair
of distinct grey patches on each segment, instead of the
well-known intense dead black which is the characteristic
effect of the black-barked twigs of Turkish oak. At the
same time, the remarkable susceptibility to this stimulus is
seen in the pronounced darkness of these 6 larva after only
a single stage (of 5 days’ duration) had been passed among
black twigs. It is interesting to note that the 3 inter-
mediate larvee grew more slowly after May 25th, and
thus passed a relatively longer time in the green
environment.

Cl. A. betularia.

June 3rd. Two betularia larvee at the beginning of the
5th stage re-transferred to green surroundings after they
had been in black for the 3rd and 4th stages,

June 5th. A third larva, changing its 4th skin, was
similarly re-transferred. It was of a light brown colour.
Of the 2 former, 1 was nearly at the end of the 5th stage
and dark brown, the other rather smaller and darkish
brown overspread with grey.

June Tth. A fourth larva changing its 4th skin and a
fifth at the beginning of the 5th stage were similarly
re-transferred,

June 14th. Three larvee in 6th stage, smoky-black with
prominent light grey markings especially distinct in one
of them. One in 5th stage and 1 changing 5th skin, both
dark chocolate-brown with a little grey.

June 20th. Four large in the 6th stage, smoky-black
overspread with grey. The black ground-colour resembles
that of the larvee still in black surroundings.

June 23rd. Two had become mature and were removed.

June 26th. Two mature and removed. The 5th was

TRANS. ENT. SOC. LOND, 1903.—PART lI. (ocT.) 25

368 Professor E. B. Poulton on colowr-relation, ete.

now large in the 6th stage, a dark brownish-black rather
than the dead black of the other 4 and those still on the
black twigs.

July 12th. Mature and removed. No further change in
appearance,

CONCLUSIONS.

In this case the grey which overspread the black
ground-colour of 4 larvee must be regarded as an effect of
the green environment during the 2 2 last stages. The 5th
larva took longer to develop, and there was a slight
departure from “the characteristic dead black of the other
four.

‘
im

= A ey ‘
Wye pee aes
, a . |
aa . 4 :

Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1903. Pl. XVI,

8

P. J. Bayzand, del. André & Sleigh, Limited

Results of Experiments in 1893 upon the Colour-relation between the
larvze of Odontopera bidentata and their environment.

Explanation of Plates. 369

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.

Results of Experiments in 1893 upon the colour-relation between
the larve of Odontopera bidentata and their environment.
All the figures are of the natural size.

Fig. 1. Nearly mature larva of O. bidentata showing the effect of
an environment of black-barked twigs (Quercus cerris).
This typical example of the results of Experiment I was
painted by Mr. P. J. Bayzand on July 31st, 1893. All the
larvee figured on this plate were fed upon the leaves of
Populus nigra, but they nearly always rested by day on
the twigs or pieces of bark made use of in the experi-
ments here illustrated. The larva represented in this
figure is not in its normal diurnal resting position, having
been disturbed ; and the same is more or less the case
with Figs. 3, 5, 7 and 9.

2. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of an environment
of weathered pale grey barkless twigs. This typical
example of the final results of Experiment VII was
painted on July 28th. A little earlier the larvee had
been rather paler and resembled more closely the majority
of the twigs made use of.

3. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of an environment
of dark purplish-brown, glossy twigs, probably of birch.
This typical result of Experiment III was painted on
July 30th.

4. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of an environment
of white-spotted, purplish-brown twigs of birch. This
typical result of Experiment IV was painted on July
30th. Although the details of the environment were
not reproduced, the larva was distinctly less dark than
that shown in Fig. 3.

5. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of an environment
of green leaves and shoots. The food-plant (Populus
nigra) was employed for this purpose, all dark-barked
twigs being carefully excluded. A comparison of this
figure with the others on the same plate indicates that
the leaves of the food-plant produce no effect when they
are combined with dark twigs or lichen-covered bark ;
while a reference to Experiments I to XV shows that
the great majority of the larvae rest by day upon these
latter objects in preference to the leaves. This typical
result of Experiment VIII was painted on July 31st.

370 Explanation of Plates.

Fie. 6. About half-grown larva showing the effect of an environ-
ment of bark covered with bluish-green lichen, probably
Physcia pulverulenta. This typical result of Experiment
XIII was painted on August Ist.

About half-grown larva showing the effect of the environ-
ment last described. This second typical example of the
results of Experiment XIII was painted on August 3rd.

8. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of an environment
of bark covered with orange lichen, perhaps Physcia
parietina, probably combined with P. pulverulenta. This
typical result of Experiment XIV was painted on
August 4th.

9. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of the environment
last described. This second typical example of the
results of Experiment XIV was painted on August 5th.

10. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of an environment
of lichen-covered sticks, The lichen was probably
Ramalina farinacea. This typical result of Experiment
XV was painted on August 10th.

11. Nearly mature larva showing the effect of the environment
described in Fig. 6. This third typical example of the
results of Experiment XIII was painted on August 31st.

Comparing the last six figures of larve together with the repre-
sentation of the various forms of lichen-covered bark employed in
the experiments, it is seen that there was no special resemblance to
the characteristic features which distinguished one form of environ-
ment from the others. Thus the orange colour of the lichen did not
produce any corresponding effect upon the larva shown in Figs. 8
and 9.

The whole results prove that bidentata is a larva with remarkable
susceptibility to the colour of its environment. In this respect it
is equal to the most sensitive of all larvae hitherto tested—-dAmphi-
dasis betularia. The latter is more susceptible to green leaves and

ss

shoots, becoming bright green when restricted to their influence.
When exposed to lichen-covered bark, however, bidentata was shown,
in Experiments XII to XV, to be far more sensitive.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Results of Experiments in 1893-4 upon the colour-relation between
the larvee of Gastropacha quercifolia and their environment.

All the figures are of the natural size, and all represent the
normal resting position, except that the larve more frequently rest

Explanation of Plates. 371

with the head downwards than is shown in the plate. Perhaps the
young larve under normal conditions invariably rest in this position.
Figs. 1—13 represent the larve in the autumn of 1893, just before
the beginning of hybernation.
Figs. 14 and 15 represent the larvae, nearly mature in the last
stage, in May 1894.

Fia. 1. Larva of Gastropacha quercifolia just before hybernation,
showing the effect of an environment of black-barked
twigs (Quercus cerris). This typical example of the nine
black larvae, chequered with white, described on Septem-
ber 21st, 1893, was painted by Mr. Bayzand on September
25th. Although these larvae had eaten very little, and
had not grown appreciably by October 3rd, the white
marks on six out of nine of them had become reduced
almost to the condition represented in Fig. 3. The white
patches on the larva shown in Fig. 1 had also become
much duller and less conspicuous. The persistence of
the process of colour-adjustment right up to the begin-
ning of hybernation is very interesting, and contrasts
remarkably with its entire cessation during and after
hybernation. The difficulty with which the contour of
the larvae could be made out against the black bark is
correctly rendered in Figs. 1—3.

2. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same environ-
ment as that shown in Fig. 1. The figure represents the
darkest larva, without any trace of white markings,
described on September 21st. The painting was made
on September 23rd.

3. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same en-
vironment as that shown in Fig. 1. This typical ex-
ample of five out of the six darkest larvae, described on
September 21st, was painted on September 26th.

4. Larva just before hybernation, showing the effect of an
environment of lichen-covered sticks. The lichen was
probably Ramalina farinacea. The figure represents
one of the four lightest coloured larvee produced
in this environment and separated for painting on
September 21st. The larva was painted on October 3rd.
By October 16th, when the larve of series II were
arranged for hybernation, many changes had taken place,
but this larva remained among the lightest throughout.

5, Larva at the same period and exposed to the same environ-
ment as that shown in Fig. 4. The figure represents

372 Explanation of Plates.

one of the four lightest larvae on October 6th when it
was painted. It was not among the four lightest larvae
on September 21st, but changes took place after this date.

Fic. 6 Larva at the same period and exposed to the same en-

vironment as that shownin Fig. 4. The figure represents
one of the four hghtest larvae separated for painting on
September 21st, and the only one which remained of a
greyish tint, the others becoming brownish. It was
painted on October 2nd.

7. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same en-
vironment as that shown in Fig. 4. The figure repre-
sents one of the commonest types of appearance on
September 21st, viz. the group of six dark white-marked
larve. The drawing was made on October 10th.

8. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same
environment as that shown in Fig. 4. Among the
eight darkest larve of this series [1 on September 21st,
was one in which the white markings possessed a bluish
tinge. This was set aside for painting. But changes
took place later on, and one of the other seven larvee was
found more nearly to represent the previous appearance
of the separated larva. The former, which had become
greyish, was therefore painted on October 9th.

9. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same en-
vironment as that shown in Fig. 4. The description of
Fig. 4 apples in every respect except that the larva here
represented was painted on October 7th.

10, Larva just before hybernation, showing the effect of an
environment of reddish-brown stems of bramble. The
larva represented was one of the two mentioned on
October 16th, in which the light patches were well
developed and of a brownish tint. It was painted on
October 13th. ;

11. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same en-
vironment as that shown in Fig. 10. The larva repre-
sented was the lightest of the seven very uniform dark
brown larvee with lighter brown patches and small white
marks mentioned on October 16th. These light patches,
which are not very distinct in this figure and in Fig. 13,
were generally present on the 2nd, 5th, and 8th abdominal
segments. ‘The larva was painted on September 30th.

12. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same en-
vironment as that shown in Fig.10. The larva repre-
sented was the brown individual with the dorsal surface

Trans. Ent. Soc., Lond., 1903. TA PA

P. J. Bayzand, del. André & Sleigh, Limited,

Effects of lichen, of black twigs, and of reddish brown sticks upon
the larve of Gastropacha quercifolia (1893-4).

Hxplanation of Plates. 373

overspread with grey mentioned on October 16th. The
greyish appearance does not come out in the figure, the
effeet being merely to render the brown of a paler tint.
The larva was painted on October 17th.

Fic.13. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same envi-
ronments as that shown in Fig. 10. The description of
Fig. 11 applies in every respect, except that the larva
here represented was a specially dark example, and was
painted on October 16th.

14. Larva, nearly mature in the last stage, showing the effect
of an environment of black-barked twigs up to the
beginning of hybernation. During and after hybernation
the larva was placed (I, B) in an environment of lichen-
covered sticks, but, as the figure indicates, it had ceased
to be susceptible to such influences, and no effect was
produced. Before hybernation it had been one of the
five darkest larva. The painting was made on May 19th.

15. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same environ-
ments (I, B) both before and after hybernation as that
shown in Fig. 14. Although conspicuous white patches
appeared on this and other larve subsequent to hyber-
nation, it is improbable that this effect was due to the
lichen which formed the surroundings after the begin-
ning of hybernation. The comparison of the whole
of the larvae indicates that they had then ceased to be
susceptible to the colours of the environment. The
larva was painted on May 22nd.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.

Results of Experiments in 1893-4 upon the colour-relation between
the larvee of Gastropacha quercifolia and their environment.

All the figures are of the natural size, and all represent the
natural resting position.

All the figures represent the larvae in the last stage, and all but
one nearly mature, in May 1894.

Fia. 1. Larva of Gastropacha quercifolia, nearly mature in the last
stage, showing the effect of an environment of lichen-
covered sticks up to the beginning of hybernation,
The lichen employed was probably Ramalina farinacea.
During and after hybernation the larva was placed in an
environment of black-barked twigs (II. G) which, it is

374 Keplanation of Plates.

obvious, produced no effect whatever. The appearance
of this same larva just before hybernation is represented
in Plate XVII, fig. 4 or 9. The painting of the nearly
mature larva was made on May 14th.

Fra, 2. Larva, small but probably in the last stage, exposed to the
same environments (II, G) both before and after hyber-
nation, as that represented in fig. 1. Here too it is
clear that the black-barked twigs which surrounded the
larva during winter and spring produced absolutely no
effect. The appearance of the same larva just before
hybernation is represented on Plate XVII, Fig. 6. The
painting of the more mature larva was made on
May 28th.

3. Larva, nearly mature in the last stage, showing the effect
of lichen-covered sticks throughout (II, F). The lichen
was probably Ramalina farinacea. The appearance of
this same larva just before hybernation is represented in
Plate XVII, fig. 4 or 9. The painting of the nearly
mature larva was made on May 25th.

4. Larva at the same period and exposed to the same
environments both before and after hybernation as that
represented in Fig. 1. The larva here represented (from
Il. E) was the darkest of all the mature larva which
had been exposed to an environment of lichen before
hybernation (series Il). There is no reason to sup-
pose that the black twigs produced any effect in winter
and spring. The larva was one of the seven darkest
in series Il before hybernation. The painting was made
on May 17th.

Larva, nearly mature in the last stage, showing the effect
of reddish-brown stems of bramble throughout (ITI, K).
The specimen represented was one of the four more
spotted or lightest larve before hybernation, and the
same relationship towards the other divisions of this
series (IIT) was maintained during and after hyberna-
tion. The painting was finished on May 11th.

6. Larva, nearly mature in the last stage, showing the effect
reddish-brown stems of bramble before hybernation.
During and after hybernation the larva was placed in an
environment of black-barked twigs (III, J). It had
been one of the uniform brown larve before the winter,
and there is no reason for the belief that the black twigs
introduced later produced any effect. The painting was
finished on May 11th.

on

.

Zrans. Ent, Soc., Lond., 190?. Plan VALLES,

P. J. Bayzand, del. André & Sleigh, Limited.

Effects of lichen and of reddish brown sticks upon the larve of
Gastropacha quercifolia (1893-4).

may
a re
I 7

wee. Mi:

en

REPRINTED FROM

The Entomologist’s Record

AND
Journal of Variation

Vol. XH, No. 2, 1901.

j i - 72

[Reprinted from the Entomologist’s Record, Vol. XIIT., No. 2.}

The Influence of Darwin upon Entomology.
By Professor EDWARD B. LOULTON, M.A., F.B.S., F.Z.8., &e.

The published letters of Charles Darwin show that he had a very
poor opinion of systematic work in zoology. His labour in preparing
the Monoyraph on the Cirripedia showed him that a large proportion
of the descriptions of species are slovenly and superficial, and he thought
that this bad work was encouraged by the custom of appending the
describer’s name to the species. Thus he wrote to Sir Joseph Hooker (then
Dr. Hooker), October 6th, 1848 :—‘‘I have lately been trying to get up
anagitation . . . . against the practice of Naturalists appending
for perpetuity the name of the jirst describer to species. I look on
this as a direct premium to hasty work, to naminy instead of
describing. . . . Botany, I fancy, has not suffered so much as
zoology from mere naming; the characters, fortunately, are more
obscure. . . . Why should naturalists append their own names
to new species when Mineralogists and Chemists do not do so to new
substances?”’? (Life and Letters, London, 1887, vol. i., pp. 864,
865.) A little later he carried on a correspondence with Hugh Strick-
land on the same subject. I quotea large part of his concluding letter.
He writes on February 4th, 1849, ‘‘of the evil done by the ‘ mihi’
attached to specific names; I can see most clearly the excessive evil it
has caused; in mineralogy I have myself found there is no rage
merely to name; a person does not take up the subject without he
intends to work it out, as he knows that his only claim to merit rests
on his work being ably done, and has no relation whatever to naming.

I think a very wrong spirit runs through all Natural History,
as if some merit was due to a man for merely naming and defining a
species; I think scarcely any, or none is due; if he works out minutely
and anatomically any one species, or systematically a whole group,
credit is due, but I must think the mere defining a species is nothing,
and that no injustice is done him if it be over-looked, though a great
inconvenience to Natural History is thuscaused. Ido not think more
credit is due to a man for defining a species than to a carpenter for
making a box. But Iam foolish and rabid against species-mongers,
or, rather, against their vanity; it is useful and necessary work which
must be done; but they act as if they had actually made the species,
and it was their own property’’ (loc. cit., 1., 3870, 371). Again
writing to Sir Joseph Hooker, on April 9th, 1849, he speaks of ‘ the
miserable and degrading passion of mere species-naming ”’ (cc. cit.,
1., 376). Although these strong opinions and expressions were roused
in Darwin by the contemplation of bad systematic work in the
Crustacea, the future student of the Insecta will find his task much
lightened if they are considered to have a general bearing. Systematic
labour is certainly ‘‘ useful and necessary work which must be done,’’ and
there are reasons of expediency why the authorship of a name must
be readily available (as Darwin himself felt compelled to admit). But
if this ‘‘necessary’’ entomological work is not to lose much of its
usefulness due regard must be paid to the warning conveyed in
these early letters of our great English naturalist.

\

73

A few years later Darwin had done with his systematic monograph,
and soon became entirely absorbed in the work which was to cul-
minate in 1859 in the Oriyin of Species. These enquiries led him to
believe that too exclusive attention to systematic work injures the
reasoning faculties and the powers of generalising. Thus, he wrote
to Sir Joseph Hooker, on September 25th, 1853, shortly before the
appearance of the last Cirripede volumes: ‘‘ How few generalisers
there are among systematists; I really suspect there is something
absolutely opposed to each other and hostile in the two frames of mind
required for systematising and reasoning on large collections of facts ”’
(loc. cit., ii., 39, 40). Again, he wrote to A. R. Wallace, on
December 22nd, 1857: ‘‘I am a firm believer that without speculation
there is no good and original observation. . . . So few naturalists
care for anything beyond the mere description of species”’ (loc. cit.,
ii., 108). Ina letter to Sir Joseph Hooker on November 21st, 1859,
he emphasises the value of generalisation: “It is an old and firm
conviction of mine that the naturalists who accumulate facts and
make partial generalisations are the real benefactors of science. Those
who merely accumulate facts I cannot very much respect” (loc. cit.,
ii., 225). The same ideas are conveyed in a letter to H. W. Bates on
December 3rd, 1861, referring to his paper on ‘“ Mimicry”’ in the
Trans. Linn. Soc.: ‘*1 can understand that your reception at the
British Museum would damp you; they are a very good set of men,
but not the sort to appreciate your work. In fact, I have long thought
that too much systematic work [and] description somehow blunts the
faculties. The general public appreciates a good dose of reasoning, or
generalisation, with new and curious remarks on habits, final causes,
&c., far more than do the regular naturalists ’’ (loc. cit., 11., 379).
He wrote again on November 20th, 1862, after reading the paper on
‘‘Mimicry ’’: ‘ Your paper is too good to be largely appreciated by
the mob of naturalists without souls, but rely on it that it will have
lasting value, and I cordially congratulate you on your first great
work ”’ (loc. cit., 11., 893). Although the earlier reflections on systematic
work came out of his study of the Cirripedes, the later were at any rate
partially due to his experience of the students of insects. He seems,
indeed, to have a somewhat poor opinion of entomological work,
perhaps due to his experience with his own collections made on the
‘«‘ Beagle.’ At any rate, he wrote to Sir Joseph Hooker on September
Qnd, 1860: *. . . . If you get tothe top of Lebanon ... .
you ought to collect any beetles under stones there ; but the Ento-
mologists are such slow coaches. I dare say no result could be made
outof them. [They] have never worked the Alpines of Britain”? (loc. cit.,
ii.,837). ‘ [They] ” inthe last sentence is substituted for words of mock
abuse, with no doubt a basis of truth intended to be expressed beneath
the jest. Darwin evidently considered that the entomologists, as a
whole, would be among the most uncompromising opponents of his
views on evolution and natural selection. ‘Thus he wrote to Sir
Charles Lyell on March 17th, 1863, arguing that evolution would
ultimately prevail: ‘‘ But this result, I begin to see, will take two or
three lifetimes. The entomologists are enough to keep the subject
back for half a century ”’ (loc. cit., ii1., 17). Such remarks in letters are,
of course, not intended to be criticised as deliberate expressions of
mature opinion, and there can be little doubt that in this case much

74

too despondent an attitude is assumed. A study of the Transactions
of the Entomological Society of London from 1858 onwards will reveal
numerous papers by well-known adherents of the new views, such as
H. W. Bates, A. R. Wallace, and Sir J. Lubbock. One paper of H.
W. Bates on South American butterflies is of peculiar interest. It
was written as a letter to Adam White, from Ega, on the Upper Amazon,
on May 20th, 1857, over a year before the Darwin- Wallace paper on
natural selection was read before the Linnean Society on July Ist,
1858. Mr. Bates’ letter is published as the first paper in vol. v of
series li (1858-1861) of the 7ransactions. Speaking of the Heliconiidae,
he says: ‘‘ This family I look upon as mostly a modern creation, the
species unfixed, very susceptible of change, in conjunction with the
least modification of local circumstance ; but these theoretical notions
I suppose you do not care about.”’ This must be one of the first, if
not the very first expression of opinion in favour of evolution pub-
lished by a London scientific society. Not only did the Entomo-
logical Society publish a large number of papers by these great
pioneers, but again and again they filled the most important offices.
Thus, although Bates was a corresponding member of the Society when
he wrote the paper from which I have quoted, he was on the Council
in 1864, 1866, 1867, 1872, 1877, was a Vice-President in 1870,
1873, 1876, 1879, 1880, and President in 1868, 1869, and 1878.
Wallace was a member of Council in 1866, 1872, Vice-President in
1864, 1869, and President in 1870, 1871. Lubbock was a Vice-
President in 1862, 1868, and 1881, and President in 1866, 1867,
1879, 1880. The majority of the senior members of the Society
were undoubtedly opposed to the new views, but there was evidently
no attempt to boycott those who were known as strong and convinced
supporters of them.

Although Darwin had written in such depressing terms of the
entomologists in 1863, only four years later he went to the opposite
extreme in a letter to Professor Haeckel. Writing on May 21st, 1867,
he said: ‘‘ No body of men were at first so much opposed to my views
as the members of the London Entomological Society, but now I am
assured that, with the exception of two or three old men, all the
members concur with me to a certain extent’ (loc. cit., ill., 69).
The words ‘to a certain extent’’ are, of course, elastic, but,
stretching them to the utmost, it must be conceded that this
last letter is as optimistic as the former is pessimistic. The
members of the Society were fair, and gave a hearing and an im-
portant position to an opponent; but he still remained an opponent.
A convinced evolutionist did not feel himself in the congenial society
of those who agreed with him in principle even if they differed in detail
in 1867, nor, for that matter, in 1877. By 1887 an immense improve-
ment had been effected, but Darwin’s words could only be used of this
date by those of a very sanguine temperament. However, the changes
were well under weigh which were to make them entirely appropriate
before the end of the next decade.

It is interesting to remember that the three epoch-making papers
on mimicry by H. W. Bates, A. R. Wallace, and R. Trimen appeared
respectively in 1862, 1866, and 1870, in the Transactions of the
Linnean Society and not in those of the Entomological Society. This
fact is no doubt partly due to the special suitability of the quarto form

75

of publication for these monographs and partly to the appropriate
channel afforded by the Society, which first gave natural selection to
the world in 1858, but it probably also indicates that the Ento-
mological Society was not at that date exactly a congenial home for
the free discussion and subsequent publication of such hypotheses. I
well remember, about the year 1875, when I was an undergraduate, the
gravity and, indeed, almost consternation with which Professor West-
wood, when he enquired what I was studying, received my reply
that I was reading the Origin of Species. He told me that it was a
book which so young a man ought not to read except under the most
careful guidance, and he seemed to think that there was some failure
of duty or, at any rate, some want of caution in my being allowed to
have the book all!

The great change in relation to these opinions which has gradually
come over the Society and over British entomology generally is espe-
cially due to the energy, zeal, and ability of a single man. Darwin
described Huxley as his « general agent’; in relation to entomology
his agent was Raphael Meldola. He became a member of the Society
in 1872, was elected on the Council in 1874 and 1875, becoming
Secretary in 1876, an office which he retained till 1880. In 1884 he
was a Vice-President, and on the Council in 1885. I do not refer to
the offices he has held at a later date, because the struggle was then
practically over. Throughout the whole of the period included between
the above-mentioned dates, and especially during his tenure of the office
of Secretary, he was unremitting in his efforts to interest the Society
in evolution and natural selection as applied to the problems of insect
life and structure. Darwin received many letters from Dr. Fritz
Muller containing most interesting and suggestive observations. These
were translated by Meldola and brought before the Society. In 1879
he brought before the Society, and published i in the Proceedings (p. XxX),
a translation of Fritz Miuller’s paper, which had only just appeared in
Kosmos (May, 1879, p. 100), making known his suggestion as to. the
reason for resemblances between protected species in the hypothesis
which has since been known as Miillerian mimicry, or the hypothesis
of common warning or synaposematic colours. This new sug-
gestion he sustained even against H. W. Bates, who had himself
suggested the older theory of mimicry, and later against W. L.
Distant. In 1882 (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Dec.) he extended the
suggestion to explain broader resemblances between the species of
distasteful groups generally. The outcome of his energy has been that
the Mullerian suggestion has produced far more effect here than in its
native country, and that the natural centre for controversy for the
discussion of such questions shifted from the Linnean to the Ento-
mological Society. In 1882 Meldola published a translation of Weis-
mann’s Studies in the Theory of Descent, which had also been brought
before his notice by Darwin, who, indeed, suggested the English
edition. ‘This work has strong personal interest to the present writer
inasmuch as it was the cause of his gradual absorption in the problems
of insect bionomics, and abandonment of the histological researches on
the lower Mammalia upon which he had up to that time been engaged.

When we enquire as to the effect produced by these changes upon
the direction and scope of entomological enquiry, the answer is both
interesting and in many ways curious and unexpected. The result
has been a return of the spirit which animated the older enquirers

76

before zoological science became locked fast in the paralysing grip of
pure systematics. When we read Réaumur or De Geer, the whole
point of view is entirely familiar. In describing some of the wonderful
means of defence of the larva of Cerura vinula, De Geer merely speaks
of the “‘ caterpillar of the sallow.’’ Our sympathies are with Lyonnet,
who carefully describes the anatomy of ‘ the caterpillar which eats the
wood of the willow.”” These men were naturalists, interested in the
infinitely difficult and infinitely numerous problems presented by
living nature. We find the same spirit in the early Darwinian
writers ; it shines forth clearly not only in the bionomic monographs,
but also illuminates the systematic papers of Bates, Wallace, and
Trimen, and now it has become the common heritage of entomology.
Systematic work is as ‘‘ useful and necessary ’’ as ever, indeed even
more so, for it becomes a necessity not only as an end in itself, but
as the foundation for endless other inquiries. This, then, is the great
gain which British entomology owes to Darwin’s influence, received
first through the early Darwinian writers, and then through the energy
and ability of Raphael Meldola—that we are inspired to become
naturalists and observers, rather than collectors, that we describe and
distinguish species as the means for knowing more about them as living
animals, and that endless new lines of observation are opened up to us
from the high vantage ground which we occupy as firm believers in
the doctrine of evolution and the process of natural selection as its
motive cause.

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1900. | ON THE RHYNCHOTA IN THE HOPE COLLECTION. 807

[From the ProcuEprnas oF THE ZooLocicaL Society or LonpDon,
November 20, 1900.]

Revision of the Rhynchota belonging to the Family
Pentatomide in the Hope Collection at Oxford. By

"Gag ihe Disrant.
(Plates LI. & LIT.)

In the years 1837 and 1842 there were published at Oxford
Parts I. and II. of ‘ A Catalogue of Hemiptera in the Collection
of the Rev. F. W. Hope, which still form part of the well-known
* Hope Collection ” in the Oxford Museum. Part I. bears no name
of author, and the descriptions therein have very often been ascribed
to Hope, as his name is appended to the nomenclature. Part II.
is stated to have been written by the late Prof. Westwood, and
there is no doubt that he was the author of both, and that conclusion
is now generally followed by entomologists.

The publication consists of short Latin descriptions of a con-
siderable number of species considered as then undescribed; but
of these many now rank only as synonyms and mostly require
generic revision—a result which causes little surprise when the

{1

9

808 MR, W. L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [ Noy. 20,

fragmentary knowledge of the Order in those days is considered,
with the obscurity that then enshrouded the Fabrician species,
which Westwood seems to have almost ignored. Much of this
synonymy has been elucidated, especially by the late Dr. C. Stl,
who in 1862 visited this country, examined the_ collection and
made notes thereon, which were published in the Ofv. Vet.-Akad.
Forh. 1862, p. 501. These were again given, sometimes in a
revised form, in his subsequent ‘ Enumeratio Hemipterorum.’
Like all Stal’s work, this casual examination produced reliable
correction, but much was still left in an obscure condition, and
our catalogues contain many doubtful references to a number
of Westwood’s species described from this collection.

I have to thank Prof. Poulton, who has succeeded Prof. West-
wood at Oxford, for placing the whole collection in my hands for
comparison and revision. I have carefully compared all the types
with those contained in the British Museum and my own collection,
with the result of finding that though many of Westwood’s species
must rank as synonyms, he has on the otber hand priority in
many cases over the descriptions of more recent workers, who
have failed to recognize his species by their short descriptions
and unrevised generic position. It 1s probable that Continental
desecribers may also be compelled to withdraw some of their
own descriptions for a similar reason, and the figures with which
the Society has allowed me to illustrate this communication may
facilitate that result.

Some few species are in such indifferent condition as to render
generic identification impossible—at least with certitude; but in
most cases these are figured, and thus eventually, when better
specimens reach the hands of w orkers, they can be recognized and
then generically disposed.

Subfam. DiscocePHALIN &.

DINOCORIS UNICOLOR.

Dinidor unicolor Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 25 (1837).

Antileuchus piceus Dall. (part.) List Hem. i. p. 165. n. 6 (1851).

Dinocoris unicolor Stal, En. Hem. ii. p. 9. n. 16 (1872).

Dinocoris piceus Dist. (part.) Biol. Centr.-Am., Rhynch. 1. p. 46.
n. 2 (1880).

In the Biol. Centr.-Amer. I had followed Dallas in placing the
D. unicolor Westw. as a synonym of D. piceus Pal. Beauv. On
examination I find the two species are quite distinct, that of
Westwood having a greater width of abdomen and the upper
surface distinctly rugose.

DINOCORIS TESSELLATUS.
Dinidor tesselatus Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 24 (1837).
Dinocoris tessellatus Stal, En. Hem. ii. p. 9. n. 14 (1872).

A species closely allied to the D. amplus Walk., but having the
second and third joints of the antenne wholly black.

[2]

1909, ] IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD, 809

Subfam. PenraToMIn ®.

Spup£us parvuius. (Plate LIL. fig. 1.)

Halys parvula Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 22 (1837).

The species identified with this by Dallas (List Hem. i. p. 169,
1851) is altogether different, and must not be treated as the same,
as has been enumerated by Stal, and catalogued by Lethierry and
Severin.

DaLPADA CLAVATA,

Cimex clavatus Fabr. Ent. Syst. Suppl. p. 532 (1798).
Halys latipes Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 23 (1837).
Halys concinna Westw. loc. cit.

NEVISANUS ALTERNANS.

Halys alternans Westw. in Hope Cut. i. p. 22 (1837).

Nevisanus orientalis Dist. Anu. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 6, vol. xi.
p- 391 (1893).

ORTHOSCHIZ0PS ASSIMILIS. (Plate LIL. fig. 2.)

Halys assimilis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 21 (1837).
Orthoschizops assimilis Stil, En. Hem. vy. p. 49. n. 8 (1876).

ORTHOSCHIZOPS ? RUGOSUS. (Plate LIL. fig. 3.)

Atelocerus rugosus Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 21 (1837).

The type and only specimen which I have seen is without the
abdomen, and is consequently unable to be strictly identified in a
generic sense. It seems, however, to belong to the genus
Orthoschizops.

(?) Hatys Rurrscuns Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 24 (1837).

This species is recorded by Stal (En. Hem. v. p. 42, 1876) as
belonging to the genus Pecilometis. It is not, however, contained
in the type collection forwarded to me from Oxford.

(?) Hatys penripes Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 24 (1837).
I have the following note from Oxford relating to this species—
“ dentipes is missing, space empty, specimen not to be found.”

KALULA, gen. nov.

Body elongate. Head long, about two-thirds the length of the
pronotum, the lateral margins sinuate and slightly widened,
rounded, and moderately laminate at the apices of the lateral
lobes, which are a little longer than the central lobe and cleft
centrally ; antennz moderately short, first joint not nearly
reaching apex of head, second joint considerably passing it, fourth
and fifth joints distinctly thickened; ocelli much nearer eyes
than to each other; rostrum reaching tke posterior coxe. Pro-
notum distinctly depressed from between the pronotal angles, which

3]

810 MR. W. L, DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Nov. 20,

are obtusely prominent at about the centre of the lateral margins,
from which the margins are concavely sinuate to apex. Scutellum
about half the leneth of abdomen. Abdomen unarmed.

I have placed this genus near Ocrophara Stal, from which, apart
from other differences, it may be distinguished by the shape and
structure of the head.

KaLULA VARICORNIS. (Plate LII. fig. 4.)
Glia varicornis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 33 (1887).
Hab, Gambia.

DICTYOTUS SEMIMARGINATUS.

Pentatoma semimarginata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 42 (1837).

Westwood gave no locality for his species, but the British
Museum possesses specimens from Baudin Island, West Australia.

Antenne with the first and second joints ochraceous, third,
fourth, and fifth joints piceous, apices of third and fourth joints
ochraceous.

DICTYOTUS CENOSUS.

Pentatoma cenosa Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 42 (1837).

Pentatoma vilis Walk. Cat. Het. i. p. 809. n. 147 (1867).

Dictyotus vilis Dist. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 7, vol. iv.
p- 454 (1899).

T have previously given the full synonymy of this species, but
now, from an examination of the Hope Collection, am compelled
to remove it one stage further back.

Dicryotus PaLtirns. (Plate LIT. fig. 9.)

Pentatoma pallipes Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 41 (1837).

In size and general appearance allied to D. roet Westw., but
having the head more elongate and not prominently cleft at the
apex, the central lobe being longer.

Westwood’s type is unlocalized, and I have not seen another
specimen.

DIcryorus ROET.

Pentatoma roet Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 42 (1837).

Dictyotus affinis Dall. List Hem. i. p. 141. n. 4 (1851).

This is not the species identified by Dallas as roet Westw. (List
Hem. i. p. 140), which is an ally of D. tasmanicus Dall., and is
the D. equalis Walk.

NIPHE SUBFERRUGINEA.

Pentatoma ferruginea Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 85 (1837).
Pentatoma cephalus Dall. List Hem. 1. p. 245. n. 82 (1851).
Pentatoma lateralis Walk. Cat. Het. ii. p. 301 (1867).
Niphe cephalus Dist. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 7, vol. iv.
p. 435 (1899).
[4]

1900. ] IN THD HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD. Sil

TROPICORYPHA DEPLANATA,

Pentatoma deplanata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 35 (1837).

Agonoscelis rufescens Walk. Cat. Het. iii. p. 546 (1868).

Tropicorypha rufescens Dist. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. Ti:
vol. iv. p. 435 (1899).

PALOMENA PRASINA.

Comex prasinus Linn. Faun. Suec. p. 241. n. 931 (1761).

Pentatoma confusa Westw. (MS.) in Hope Cat. i. p. 9. n. 65
(1837).

This species stands, as Westwood pointed out, under the name
of juntperinus in the Banksian Collection. Westwood apparently
substituted his name confusa, but did not describe the species.

PALOMENA VIRIDISSIMA.

Cimex viridissima Poda, Ins. Mus. Gr. p. 56. n. 10 (1761).

Pentatoma rotundicollis Westw. (MS.) in Hope Cat. 1. p. 9. n. 66
(1837).

This appears to be a name substituted by Westwood for
“prasinus Wolff nec Linn.,” and with no published description.

PALOMENA UNICOLOR. (Plate LIL. fig. 5.)
Pentatoma unicolor Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 41 (1837).
A species allied to P. spinosa Dist. and P. angulosa Motsch.

PENTATOMA SENILIS.

Pentatoma senilis Say, New Harm. Ind., Dec. 1831; Compl. Writ.
i. p. 316. n. 8 (1859); Leth. & Sev. Cat. Gén. Hém. i. p. 120
(1893).

Tnioderma (Rhytidolomia) senilis Stal, En. Hem. p. 33. n. 2
(1872).

Pentatoma ovalis (oblonga) Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 39 (1837).

Pentatoma grisea Dall. List Hem. i. p. 246. n. 33 (1851).

This is not the P. oblonya Westw. loc. cit. p. 37, as stated by
Stal (En. Hem. ii. p. 33) and repeated by Lethierry and Severin
(Cat. p. 120), which is a Javan species, and a synonym of Nezara
viridula Linn.

MorRMIDEA SCUTELLATA. (Plate LII. fig. 7.)
Pentatoma scutellata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 37 (1837).

EUSCHISTUS SURVUS.

Pentatoma serva Say, New Harm. Ind., Dee. 1831; Compl. Writ.
vol. 1. p. 314 (1859),

Pentatoma spilota Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 42 (1837).

Westwood’s habitat is “ Brasilia ?,” but it is doubtless a North
American specimen which forms the type of his P. spilota.

[5]

812 MR. W. L, DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [ Nov. 20,

EUSCHISTUS TRISTIGMUS.

Pentatoma tristigma Say, New Harm. Ind., Dec. 1831 ; Compl.
Writ. i. p. 314 (1859).

Pentatoma inconspecta Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 42 (1887).

Iuerpa pauLescens. (Plate LIL. fig. 10.)

Pentatoma pallescens Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 41 (1837).

A species allied in structnre to 7. sudana Dist.

CARBULA OBSCURA.
Pentatoma obscura Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 35 (1837).

CARBULA INSOCIA.
Eysarcoris insocius Walk. Cat. Het. ii. p. 556 (1868).
Pentatoma bimaculata Westw. MS.

In the Hope Cat. i. p. 35, under the MS. name Pent. bimaculata
Westwood unites “Species delenda, varietas precedentis,” referring
to his Carbula (Pent.) obscura. The two species are, however,
quite distinct and easily distinguished by the shape and structure
of the pronotal angles.

CARBULA DIFFICILIS.
Pentatoma difficilis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 35 (1837).
A species resembling largely the C. imsocia Walk.

CARBULA MELACANTHA.

Cimew melacanthus Fabr. Ent. Syst. iv. p. 103 (1794),
Pentatoma hostilis Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 40 (1837).
CARBULA INDICA.

Pentatoma indica Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 42 (1837).
Carbula fusca Dist. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1887, p. 346.
THYANTA ANTIGUENSIS.

Pentatoma antiguensis Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 36 (1837).
Peniatoma teniola Dall. List Hem. 1. p. 250 (1851),
THYANTA VITREA.

Pentatoma vitrea Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 36 (18387).
Type in bad condition, without abdomen.

MURGANTIA VARICOLOR.

Pentatoma varicolor Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 37 (1887).

Strachia munda Dall. List Hem. i. p. 264. n. 19 (1851).

Murgantia tessellata? Leth. & Sev. Cat. Gén, Hem. t. 1. p. 156
(1893).

NEZARA CHLOROCEPHALA.

Pentatoma chlorocephala Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 38 (1837).

Lethierry and Severin (Cat. Gén. Hem. t. i. p. 167) bave

(6)

1900.) IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD. 813

placed this species as a synonym of JN. viridula Linn. From that
species VV. chlorocephala ditfers by its elongate form, and particu-
larly by its more elongate and narrower head.

Westwood localized it as “ Brasilia?” The British Museum
possesses specimens from Nyasaland collected by Mr. A. Whyte.

NEZARA CHLORIS.

Pentatoma chloris Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 38 (1837).

Pentatoma mentiens Walk. Cat. Het. ii. p. 296. n. 92 (1867).

Stal (En. Hem. ii. p. 41, 1872) places this species as a
synonym of Nezara viridula Linn. In this case, however, he has
fallen into error. NV. chlovis is a smaller, more elongate, narrower,
and much more convex species ; the head is large and broad.

I possess specimens both from Congo and Nyasaland.

NEZARA CAPICOLA.

Pentatoma capicola Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 39 (1837).

Pentatoma lata Westw. loc. cit.

Pentatoma frontalis Westw. loc. cit. p. 37.

Rhaphigaster capicola Dall. List Hem. i. p. 276. n. 5 (1851).

Nezara capicola Stal, Hem. Afr. i. p. 195. n. 5 (1864).

Pentatoma africana Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 89 (1837).

P. frontalis and P. africana are colour varieties. In the strict
usage of the laws of priority, frontalis is the earliest name; but as
this is clearly a variety or “sport,” I do not disturb the arrange-
ment of Dallas and Stal.

NEZARA VIRIDULA.

Cimex viridulus Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 10, i. p. 444. n. 28 (1758).
Pentatoma oblonga Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 37 (1837).
Pentatoma unicolor Westw. loc. cit. p. 38.

Pentatoma berylina Westw. loe. cit.

Pentatoma subsericea Westw. loc. cit.

Pentatoma levi Westw. loc. cit.

Pentatoma tripunctifera Westw. loc. cit.

Pentatoma proxima Westw. loc. cit.

Pentatoma chinensis Westw. loc. cit.

Rhaphigaster subsericeus Dall. List Hem. i. p. 275. n. 3 (1851).
Nezara viridula Stil (part.), En. Hem. ii. p. 41. n. 6 (1872).

JETIUS, gen. nov.

Body moderately short, broad, and convex. Head long, almost
as long as the pronotum, lateral margins strongly sinuate, lateral
lobes a little longer than the central lobe and cleft at apices ;
antenne four-jointed, basal joint not quite reaching apex of head,
second joint very long, third and fourth joints subequal in length ;
ocelli placed somewhat near the eyes; rostrum reaching the
posterior cox, second joint longest. Pronotum broad, the
lateral angles produced in long robust spines directed forward

[7]

814 MR. W, L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Nov. 20,

and somewhat upward ; anterior lateral margins coarsely dentate,
a somewhat larger and lobate tooth at anterior angle. Scutellum
broad, sinuate about centre. Connexivum prominent; abdomen
beneath with a broad central sulecation, which does not extend to
apex.

ZETIUS VARIEGATUS. (Plate LIT. fig. 8.)
Atelocerus? variegatus Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 21 (1887).
Hab. Australia: Swan River.

PLAUTIA FIMBRIATA, ;

Cimex fimbriatus Fabr. Mant. ii. p. 295 (1787).
Pentatoma fimbriata Westw.in Hope Cat. i. p. 32 (1887).

PLAUTIA VIRIDICOLLIS.

Pentatoma viridicollis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 35 (1837).
Plautia viridicollis Leth. & Sev. Cat. Gén. Hém. i. p. 169
(1893).

Pentatoma inconspicua Dall. List Hem. i. p. 250. n. 42 (1851).

CRESPHONTES MONSONI. (Plate LIT. fig. 6.)

Raplhigaster monsont Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 31 (1837).

Cresphontes nigro-maculatus Haglund, Stett. ent. Zeit. xxix.
p- 157 (1868).

Westwood recorded a wrong locality (‘* Caput Bone Spei’’) for

this species. I have compared the types of both Westwood and
Haglund.

ANTESTIA CRUCIATA.

Cumex cruciatus Fabr. Syst. Ent. p. 714 (1775).
Pentatoma pantherina Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 34 (1887).

Westwood undoubtedly was led astray by the wrong habitat
“Georgia Amerwe” in redescribing this well-known Oriental
species.

ACTUARIUS, gen. nov.

Body oblong. Head with the lateral lobes considerably longer
than the central lobes, and very distinctly cleft at their
apices, which are obhquely rounded, their lateral margins mode-
rately sinuate ; ocelli situate between the eyes and nearer to them
than to each other. Antenne with the second joint a little
shorter than either third or fourth, which are subequal in length ;
rostrum about reaching the posterior coxie, second joint longest,
third slightly shorter than the fourth. Pronotum long, moderately
convex, the lateral margins sinuate, the posterior angles rounded
and subprominent, the anterior angles shortly dentate. Scutellum
about half the length of the abdomen, slightly gibbous at base,
narrowed towards apex. Corium distinctly moderately widened

at about one-third from base; membrane with longitudinal veins.
rQT

1900. ] IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD. 815

Abdomen probably spined at base, but mutilated there by pin in

type and only specimen.
Allied to Menida Motsch.

AcTUARIUS ALBoNoTATUS. (Plate LIT. fig. 11.)
Pentatoma albonotata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 37 (1837).
Hab, Gambia.

MENIDA HISTRIO.
Cimex histrio Fabr. Mant. i. p. 296. n. 176 (1787).
Pentatoma bengalensis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 36 (1837).

OctrRHO: RonI. (Plate LIL. fig. 12.)

Rhynchocoris roci Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 380 (1837) ; Leth. &
Sev. Cat. Gén. Hém.i. p. 181 (1898).

The species identified by Dallas (List Hem. i. p. 297. n. 4, 1851)
is not conspecific.

OctrrHo: ? virescens. (Plate LILI. fig. 7.)

Raphigaster virescens Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 31 (1837).

The type and only specimen is in a very mutilated condition,
wanting the abdomen, but the species apparently belongs to the
genus Ocirrhoé.

AVICENNA, gen. nov.

Head deflected, moderately broad, lobes of equal length, apex
rounded, lateral margins moderately sinuate at about centre.
Antenne with the second and third joints subequal in length, or
second slightly shorter than the third. Pronotum strongly de-
flected anteriorly from between the area of the lateral angles ;
Jateral margins moderately concavely sinuate, punctate before
anterior margin, posterior margin strongly concave at base of
scutellum ; posterior angles subprominent, lateral angles produced
in long acute spines. Scutellum broad, distinctly narrowed a
little before apex. Rostrum with the second and third joints
about subequal in length. Sternal process extending beyond base
of head. Spines at apices of sixth abdominal segment and anus
strongly developed.

This genus agrees with Morna in the concave posterior margin
of the pronotum, but differs in not having the posterior pronotal
angles acutely produced. It is allied to Vitellus by the shape and
production of the sternal process, but differs by the less triangular
and elongate head, the longer and non-triangular scutellum, &e.

AVICENNA INQuUINATA. (Plate LILI. fig. 1.)

Rhynchocoris inquinata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 29 (1837).

Cuspicona inguinata Walk. Cat. Het. i. p. 387. n. 29 (1867).

Vitellus inquinatus Leth. & Sev. Cat. Gen. Hem. p. 182 (1893).
[9]

316 MR, W. L. DISTANT ON THD RHYNCHOTA [Nov. 20

EDESSA LINEATA,
Edessa lineata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 28 (1837).

Allied to H. saturata Dall., differing by the unicolorous con-
nexivum and the non-apically excavated scutellum.

EDESSA MINIATA.

Edessa miniata Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 28 (1837).

Edessa scutedlata Herr.-Schiff. Wanz. Ins. v. p. 101, fig. 552
(1839); Stal, En. Hem. ii. p. 55. n. 36 (1872).

Var. Edessa lurida Dall. List Hem. i. p. 328. n, 28 (1851) ; Stoll,
Pun. fig. 148.

EDESSA FLAVIDA.

Edessa flavida Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 28 (1837); Stal, En.
Hem. ii. p. 53. n. 21 (1872).

Edessa lutea Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 28 (1837).

Edessa simplex Herr.-Schiiff. Wanz. Ins. v. p. 103, fig. 554
(1839).

Edessa jutea Stil, En. Hem. i. p. 59. n. 76 (1872).

This is quite distinct from the species recorded as FZ. flavida and
E. lutea by Dallas.

FE.DESSA CARNOSA.

Edessa carnosa Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 29 (1837).

Aceratodes costalis Stil, Eug. Resa, Ins. p. 231. n. 29 (1859).

Edessa senilis Walk. Cat. Het. i. p. 450. n. 128 (1868).

Edessa fulvipes var. costalis Stal, En. Hem. i. p. 58 (1872); sDist:
Biol. Centr.-Amer., Rhyn. vol. i. p. 458. n. 39 (B) (1893).

Var. Aceratodes fulvipes Dall. List Hem. i. p. 335. n. 6 (1851).

The form costalis Stil has hitherto been recorded as the variety
of EL. fulvipes Dall. Now that Stal’s costalis is found to be
synonymic with H. carnosa Westw. the oldest name, the sub-
sequently described E. fulvipes Dall. must be regarded as the
varietal form.

Subfam. ASOPINA.

Dorycoris FUSCOSUS.

Asopus fuscosus Germ. in Silberm. Rev. v. p. 187 (1837).

Pentatoma niniata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 43 (1837).

Both these descriptions were published in the year 1837, and
there is no evidence as to which appeared first. ‘lhe species has
been hitherto known and recorded under Germar’s name, and it is
therefore better to make no alteration.

AUDINETIA SPINIDENS.

Cimex spinidens Fabr. Mant. Ins, ii. p. 285 (1787).
Pentatoma aliena Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 40 (18387).
[10]

1900.) IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD. 817

Grypsus spaRsus. (Plate LIII. fig. 5.)

dha sparsa Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 33 (1837).
Atlia assimilis Westw. loc. cit.

Popisus Ne@LEcTUS. (Plate LIII. fig. 4.)

Raphigaster neglectus Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 31 (1837).
Podisus neglectus Stal, En. Hem. i. p. 53. n. 29 (1870).

Subfam. TESSARATOMIN ®.

THSSARATOMA PAPILLOSA,.

Cimex papillosus Drury, Ill. Nat. Hist. i. p. 96, tab. 43. fig. 2
(1770).

Tesseratoma proxuma Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 27 (1837).

Stal (En. Hem. i. p. 67, 1870) treats 7. prowima as a synonym
of 7’. javanica Thunb., restricting 7’. papillosa to China only. This,
in my view, is clearly incorrect.

Subfam. PHyLLocerHALIN 2.

MELAMPODIUS, gen. nov.

Head with the lateral lobes very much longer than the
central, projecting forward and somewhat upward, their apices
wide apart ; ocelli placed very close to the eyes. Antenna of five
joints ; basal joint very stout, reaching to about half the length of
the lateral lobes; apical joimt somewhat thickened. Rostrum
passing the anterior coxe, stout, third joint longest. Pronotum
with the lateral angles produced forward in long, slightly di-
verging horns, which are strongly toothed internally. Scutellum
broad, narrowed about midway to apex. Membrane with longitu-
dinal veins. Legs stout and pilose.

Allied to Cressona Dall.

MELAMPoODIUS CERVICORNIS. (Plate LILI. fig. 10.)
Atelocerus cervicornis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 21 (1837).
Hab. Sierra Leone.

BASICRYPTUS TRRORATUS. (Plate LIII. fig. 6.)
Phyllocephala wrorata Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 27 (1837).

Subfam. ACANTHOSOMIN 2%.

ACANTHOSOMA LATERALIS.
Edessa lateralis Say, New Harm. Ind., Dec. 1831 ; Compl. Writ.
i. p. 312. n. 2 (1859).
Acanthosoma affinis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 80 (1837).
Acanthosoma picicolor Westw. loc. cit.
[11]

818 MR, W. L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [ Nov. 20,

ACANTHOSOMA CRUCIATA.

Edessa cruciata Say, New Harm. Ind., Dec. 1831 ; Compl. Writ.
i. p. 311 (1859).

Acanthosoma borealis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 30 (1837).

SASTRAGALA VARIOLOSA. (Plate LIII. fig. 3.)

Acanthosoma variolosa Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 30 (1837).

A species allied to S. binotata Dist.

SPECIES OF UNCERTAIN POSITION.
2? arricorNIs. (Plate LILI. fig. 8.)

Atlia atricornis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 32 (1837).

I do not quite see my way to generically locate this species. The
antenne are in too mutilated a condition for the foundation of a
new genus, and as the species is now figured, it will be well to wait
for more perfect material before deciding its classificatory position.

? NIGRIPES.

Pentatoma nigripes Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 41 (1837).

The solitary type specimen is without abdomen and lacking also
half the scutellum. It is thus in too mutilated a condition for
figuring or for generic identification.

? HARRISI. (Plate LIII. fig. 2.)

Pentatoma harrisit Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 41 (1837).

Westwood gives the habitat of this species as ‘ Georgia
America,” a locality we have already seen, as in his P. pantherina
= Antestia cruciata, he had applied to an Oriental species. I can
find no trace of this species in the descriptions of North-American
Pentatomidse, which are now presumably fairly complete, and am
inclined to consider that the locality is also incorrect. It is
therefore perhaps better to figure the species and leave the genus
an open question till its locality is authenticated.

? LATERALIS. (Plate LIII. fig. 9.)
Pentatoma lateralis Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 43 (1887).

The typical and only specimen is in a bad condition, with the
rostrum wholly absent. Generic identification is thus impossible.

Summarized Disposition of the Hoperan Genera and Species.
PENTATOMID&.

NEw GENERA DESCRIBED,
Plataspis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 16 (1837).
Hoplistodera Westw. loc. cit. p. 18.
Aplosterna Westw. loc. cit. p. 26.
Lyramorpha Westw. loc. cit. p. 27.
Rhynchocoris Westw. loc. cit. p. 29.
Urolabida Westw. loc. cit. p. 45.
Urostylis Westw. loc. cit.

[12]

IN THH HOPH COLLECTION AT OXFORD, 819

SPECIES AND GENERA REMAINING UNDISTURBED.

Podops spinifera Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 16.
Plataspis nigrita Westw. loc. cit. p. 17.
Coptosoma maculata Westw. loc. cit.

- transversa Westw. loe. cit.

a nepalensis Westw. loc. cit.
Hoplistodera testacea Westw. loc. cit. p. 18.
Cydnus indicus Westw. loc. cit. p. 19.

, wnsularis Westw. loc. cit.

,, obscurus Westw. loc. cit.

», caprcola Westw. loc. cit.

» nigricans Westw. loc. cit.

nepalensis Westw. loc. cit.

Megarha ynehus truncatus Westw. loe. cit. p. 20.
Atelocerus sticticus Westw. loc. eit. (Atelocera stictica).
Aspongopus ochreus Westw. loc. cit. p. 25.

“s nubilus Westw. loc. cit.

* cuprifer Westw. loc. cit.

- nigrwentris Westw. loc. cit. p. 26.
sanguinolentus Westw. loe. cit.

Ab fuscus Westw. loc. cit.

nepalensis Westw. loc. cit.

Megymenum insulare Westw. loc. cit.
Aplosterna virescens Westw. loc. cit. p. 27.
Lyramorpha rosea Westw. loc. cit. p. 23.
Edessa lineata Westw. loc. cit. p. 28.

» jugata Westw. loc. cit.

» jflavida Westw. loc. cit.

5 miniata Westw. loc. cit.

» loxdaliu Westw. loc. cit. p. 29.

» prperitia Westw. loc. cit.

», carnosa Westw. loc. cit.
Urolabida tenera Westw. loc. cit. p. 45.
Urostylis punctigera Westw. loc. cit.

SPECIES REQUIRING GENERIC REVISION.

Trigonosoma subfasciutum Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 11,

belongs to genus Hotea.
gambie Westw. loc. cit.

” 9 ”

affine Westw. loc. cit. p.12 _,, "3 Ancyrosoma.

a. rufum Westw. loc. cit. a i Bolbocoris.
Scutellera rubro-lineata Westw. loc. cit. ,, * Graphosoma.
Pachycoris lobata Westw. loc. cit. 55 Lobothyreus.

PS attenuata Westw. loc. cit. p. 13°
Spherocoris lateritia Westw. loc. cit.
Tectocoris hardwickii Westw. loc. cit.

purpurascens Westw. loc. cit. — ,,

» tterrupta Westw. loc. cit. p. 14 ,

5 oblonga Westw. loc. cit.

Proc. Zoou. Soc.—1900, No. LIV.

”

Solenostethium
Hyperoncus.
Peecilocoris.

”

B rachya ulas,
od
[13}

820 MR, W. L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Noy. 20,

Callidea purpurea Westw. loc. cit. p. 15
belongs to genus Chrysocoris.

» marginella Westw. loc. cit. ie - <

» obtusa Westw. loc. cit. p. 16 ie = Lamprocoris.

» roylit Westw. loc. cit. e < ~

» purpurata Westw. loc. cit. Eo BS Cantao.
Plataspis hemispherica Westw. loc. cit. p. 17 5 Brachyplatys.

be nitida Westw. loc. cit. re ? a

3 subceenea Westw. loc. cit. 5% - a

Ke nigr wventris Westw. loc. cit. p. 18 - .
Cydnus piceus Westw. loc. cit. p. 18 35 » Adrisa.

" latipes Westw. loc. cit. s » Scoparipes.

» serripes Westw. loc. cit. p.19 __,, “ Pangeus.

» subferrugineus Westw. loc. cit. ,, e Amnestus.
Megarhynchus acanthurus Westw. loc. cit.p.20 ,, Diploxys.
Atelocerus furcatus Westw. loc. cit. i es Diplorhinus.

» centro-lineatus Westww. loc. cit. ,, Re Omyta.
» rugosus Westw. loc. cit. p.21 ,, ey Orthoschizops ?
» cervicornis Westw. loc. cit. Ke 5, Welampodius, g.n.
5 varicornis Westw. loc. cit. 3 » Alceus.
variegatus Westw. loc. cit. = a Atius, gn
Halys assimilis Westw. loc. cit. p- 21 % . Orthoschizops.
» parvula Westw. loc. cit. p. 22 . he Spudeus.
» negricollis Westw. loc. cit. ag es Dalpada.
,, alternans Westw. loc. eit. - a Nevisanus.
» lata Westw. loc. cit. p. 23 x f Atelocera.
» apealis Westw. loc. cit. 3 i, Eumecopus.
, strigata Westw. loc. cit. a 9 Peecilometis.
,, reticulata Westw. loc. cit. p. 24 ,, es Spudeus.
lineata Westw. loc. cit. ee a Peecilometis.
Danton melanoleucus Westw. loc, cit. = - Dinocorrs.

5, tesselatus Westw. loc. cit. _ es .

» variolosus Westw. loc. cit. p. 25 ,, - FE

» dispar Westw. loc. cit. Pe - Hyrmine.

4» unicolor Westw. loc. cit. ie Dinocoris.
Aspongopus siccifolius Westw. loc. cit. _,, ae Cyclopelta.
Phyllocephala irrorata Westw. loc. cit. p. 27 . Basieryptus.
Eusthenes laticollis Westw. loc. cit. = es Mattiphus.
Tesseratoma cuprea Westw. loe. cit. . <a Eusthenes.

a taurus Westw. loe. cit. + - Emblosterna.
Edessa nodifera Westw. loc. cit. p. 28 _,, Peromatus.
Rhynchocoris inquinata Westw. loc. cit. p. 29 4, Avicenna, g.n.

- unimaculata Westw. loc. cit. ,, x Ocirrhoé?

< thoracica Westw. loc. cit. p. 30 ne Cuspicona.

3 roeit Westw. loc. cit. a + Ocirrhoé.
Acanthosoma variolosa Westw. loc. cit. ,, . Sastragala.
Raphigaster neylectus Westw. loc. cit. p. 31 4 Podisus.

“4 luteus Westw. loe. cit. ue = Platacantha.

. guildingit Westw. loc. cit. ,, s Piezodorus.

. flavolineatus W estw. loc. cit. ;, a

[14]

1900.]

IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD,

821

Raphiguster virescens West w. loc. cit. belongs to genus Ocirrhoé?

ms monsont Westw. loc. cit. a

x longitudinalis Westw. loc. cit. ,,

Alia nasalis Westw. loc. cit. p. 382 4
, erosa Westw. loc. cit. p. 33 A

5, melanoleuca Westw. loc. cit. 3

5 sparsa Westw. loc. cit. _

os conspicud Westw. loc. cit. fe
varicornis Westw. loc. cit. -
Pontatomea formosa Westw. loc. cit. p- 34 ,,
Fis ‘violascens Westw. loc. cit. as

de gloriosa Westw. loe. cit. ne

varia Westw. loc. cit.
deplanata Westw. loc. cit. p. 35. ss

obscura Westw. loe. cit. 3
difficilis Westw. loc. cit. e
subferruginea Westw. loc. cit. ,,
viridicollis Westw. loc. cit. ,,

ventralis Westw. loc. cit. p. 36 ,,
lineaticolis Westw. loc. cit. ,,
caffre Westw. loe. cit. $5
antiguensis Westw. loc. cit.
vitrea Westw. loe. cit.

39

albo-notata Westw. loc. cit. p. 37

varicolor Westw. loc. cit.
marginalis Westw. loc. cit. ,,
seutellata Westw. loc. cit.
chloris Westw. loc. cit. p. 38 ,,
chlorocephala Westw. loc. cit.
capicola Westw. loc. cit. p. 39 ,,
crassa Westw. loc. cit.
pavonina Westw. loc. cit. i.
bronzea Westw. loc. cit. p. 40
lutetpennis Westw. loc. cit.
atrox Westw. loc. cit. a
crocipes W estw. loc. cit.
3-maculata Westw. loc. cit.
3-notata Westw. loc. cit.
umcolor Westw. loc. cit. p. 41
pallescens Westw. loc. cit.
pallipes Westw. loc. cit.

roci Westw. loc. cit. p. 42
indica Westw. loc. cit.
semimarginata W estw. loc. cit. ,
cenosa Westw. loc. cit.
purpurea Westw. loc. cit. p. 48
varipennis Westw. loc. cit.
platygaster Westw. loc. cit. ,,
aculeata Westw. loc. cit. p. 44
rufo-spilota Westw. loe. cit.

”

Cresphoutes.
Axona.
Cermatulus.
Agonoscelis.
Platynopus.
Glypsus.

”
Kalula, g.n.
Menida.
Murgantia.
Stenozygum.

”
Tropworypha.
Carbula.

rh)
Niphe.
Plautia.
Kysarcoris.
Asliomorpha.

99
Thyanta.
”
Actuarius, g.0.
Murgantia.
Oplomus.
Mormidea.
Nezara.
99
bb]
Zangis.
Dorycoris.
99
Lowa.
Euchistus.

9
Daipada.
Tolumnia.
Palomena.
Tlerda.
Dictyotus.
39
Carbula.
Dictyotus.

+

Afrius.

Menida.

Candace.

Myrochea.

Lineus.
54*

[15]

822 MR. W. L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Nov. 20,

Pentatoma rugicollis Westw. loc. cit. belongs to genus Basteryptus.

me cummingit Westw. loc. cit. he Ditomotarsus.
2 marginclla Westw. loc, cit. p. 45 5) Lubentius.
luteo-varia Westw. loc. cit. ,, “3 Anischys.

33
Urostylis histrionica Westw. loc. cit. p. 46 ,, _ Urolabida.
SPECIES TREATED AS SYNONYMIC.

Eurygaster cognatus Westw. in Hope= Eurygaster maurus Linn.
(Cat. 1. p. 11.

u ortentalis Westw. le. =H. maurus Linn., var. pictus
[ Fabr.

Trigonosoma apicale Westw. ISe: = Hotea gambie Westw.
Agonosoma bicolor Westw.1.c.p. 12 =Agonosoma trilincata Fabr.,
[ var.
Pachycoris linnei Westw. |. ¢. = Pachycoristorridus Scop., var.
nitens Westw. l.c. = Pachycoris fabricii Linn.,var.

< pumila Westw. 1. ¢. = i 4 fe

pe flavescens Westw.l.c. — = Dioleus irroratus Fabr.

» piperitia Westw. 1.c. p.18 = Ascanius hirtipes Herr.-Sch.
Spherocoris annularis Westw. l.c. =Spherocoris annulus Fabr.
punctaria Westw. lc. =Spherocoris testudo-grisea

[De Geer, var.

4-notata Westw. ].c. =Steganocerus muliipunctatus

”

”
(Thunb., var.
is polysticta Westw. lic. =Spherocoris testudo-grrsea
[De Geer, var.
Tectocoris affinis Westw. |. c. = Pecilocorishardwichii Westw.
» gambia. Westw.1l.e. p. 14 = Tectocoris lineola Fabr., var.
» javana Westw. l.c. = Chrysocoris atricapillus Gueér.
» nepalensis Westw. lc. =Scutellera fasciata Pana.
» obscura Westw. lL. c. = Calliphara excellens Burm.
vl binotata Westw. 1. c. p. 15 = Philea senator Fabr., var.
Callidea abdominalis Westw. l.c. =Chrysocoris dilaticollis Guer.
»» formosa Westw. 1. c. = Chrysocoris eques Fabr., var.
» taprobanensis Westw. 1. c. = Chrysocoris stockerus Linn.
» aurifera Westw. l.c. = Chrysocoris auratus Guér.
» bengalensis Westw. ].c. = Chrysocorts patricius Fabr.
» dispar Westw.l.c.p.16 =Cantao ocellatus Thunb.
» regia Westw. l.c. = Calliphara imperialis.
» pulchra Westw. 1. c. = Graptophara reynaudii Guer.
Augocoris gigas Westw. |. ¢. = Augocoris gomesi Burm.

Plataspis flaviceps Westw.1.c. p. 17 = Brachyplatys flavipes Fabr.
Stiretrus rubro-maculatus Westw.=Stiretrus decemguttaius Lep. &
iciap 3: [Serv.

Sciocoris capensis Westw. 1. c. = Pododus orbicularis Burm.

Megarhynchus 4-spinosus Westw.= Tetroda hasteroides Fabr.
[ic pelos

marginellus Westw. = Macrina juvenca Burm.
(ites.

29

[16]

1900. ] IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD. 823

Halys humeralis Westw. |. c. p. 21 = Euoplitus laciniatus Spin.
5 carolinensis Westw.l.c. p. 22 = Brochymena annulata Fabr.

» timorensis Westw. l.c. = Halyomorpha picus Fabr.
» obscura Westw. I. c. = Dalpada nigricollis Westw.
$5 serrigera Westw. l.c. p. 23 = Halys dentata Fabr.
» concinna Westw. |. c. =Dalpada clavata Fabr.
» serricollis Westw. l.c. = Halys dentata Fabr.
latipes Westw. l.c. = Dalpada clavata Fabr.
Dinidor punetiger West. l. ce. p. 25= Dinocoris tr ipterus Fabr.
Aspongopus vicinus Westw.l.c. == Aspongopus ganus Fabr.
* alternans Westw. l,c.=Cyclopelta obscura Lep. &
[p. 26. (Serv.
Tesseratoma prowima Westw. 1. c.= Tvssaratoma papillosa Dru.
[p- 27.
Lyramorpha pallida Westw. |. ¢.=Lyramorpha rosea Westw.
28s
Edessa lutea Westw. |. 2 = Edessa flavida Westw.
» vena Westw.l.c.p.29 = Piezosternum calidum Fabr.
Acanthosoma luterccornis Westw. 1. ¢.= Arvelius albopunctatus De
[p- 30. [ Geer,
i prcicolor Westw. 1. c. = Acanthosoma lateralis Say.
a affinis Westw.l.c. =
3 borealis Westw. 1. ¢. a Acaniicona pee tata Say.
Raphigaster transversalis Westw.= Platacantha lutea Westw.
[lSesp: oie
$ punctulatus Westw.l.c. = Piezodorus incarnatus Germ.
e abdominalis Westw. |.c. = Vulsirea violacea Fabr.
[p- 32.
Atlia crucifera Westw. |. c. = Agonoscelis nubila Fabr.
» sanguinea Westw. 1. c. = Agonoscelis venosa Thunb.
» gambiensis Westw. l. c. = Agonoscelis versicolor Fabr.
» mfuscata Westw. 1. c. = ; Ls
» depressa Westw. 1. c. = Dolycoris baccarum Linn.

assimilis Westw. l.c. p. 33 =Glypsus sparsus Westw.
Picci equinoxialis Westw. 1. c.= Arocera acroleuca Perty.

re nitida Westw. l. c. = Nezara marginalis Herr.-Sch.

3, pantherina Westw. 1. c.= Antestia cruciata Fabr.
[p. 34.

- binotata Westw. |. ec. = Dismegistus sanguineus De

[ Geer.

= wilkinson Westw. 1. ce. = Carpocoris nigricornis Vabr.
[p. 3d.

3 bimaculata Westw. l.c. =Carbula insocia Walk.

- pennsylvanie W estw.l.c.= Hymenarcys nervosa Say.

i orbitals Westw. ].c. = Antestia variegata Thunb.

+ nepalensis Westw. 1. c. = Eysarcoris guttiger Thunb.
[p. 36.

» punctipes Westw.l.c. =

5 bengalensis Westw. 1. ¢. = Menida histrio Fabr.

[17]

824 MR. W. L, DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Nov. 20,

Pentatoma 3-fasciata Westw. 1. c.= Murgantia bifasciata Fabr.

'p. 37.
2 Frontalis Westw. l.e. = Nezara capicola Westw., var.
ue oblonga Westw. |. c. = Nezara viridula Linn.
i uncolor Westw.l.c.p.38= ,, £
4 berylina Westw.l.c. = ,, 2
_ subsericea Westw.l.c. = ,, a
“ leti Westw. l. ce. = 0 oe *
se 3-punctigera Westw.le= ,, 33
a provuna Westw. l.c. = " A
Bs chinensis Westw.l.c. = ,, if
a lata Westw.l.c. p.39 = Nezara capicola Westw., var.
# africana Westw.l.c. = ,, 33 “
- ovalis Westw. l.c. = Pentatoma senilis Say.
in Jimbriata Westw. loc. == Plautia fimbriata Fabr.
a concemna Westw. |.c. = Zicrona cerulea Linn.
a“ violacea Westw. l.c. = e .
+ aliena Westw. l.c. p. 40 = Audinetia spinidens Fabr.
x crudelis Westw. l. e. =Veterna sanguineirostris
[Thunb.
+ hostilis Westw. 1. ¢. =Carbula melacantha Fabr.
x collaris Westw. ]. ¢. =Thyanta perditor Fabr.
- sublurida Westw. 1. ¢.=Podisus luridus Fabr.
p. 41.
es spilota Westw. |. c. p. 42 = Euschistus servus Say.
Pe inconspecta Westw. |. c. = Huschistus tristaymus Say.
Be pulchella Westw. lie. =Stiretrus anchorago Fabr.
Re anchorago Westw. le = x *
eS miniata Westw. |.c. p.48 = Dorycoris fuscosus Germ.
# miniaticollis Westw. |. c.=Agonoscelis venosa Thunb.
os bifida Westw. |. ¢. = Macropygium reticulare Fabr.
ot bufo Westw. l.c. p. 44 =Aypogomphus bipunctatus
| Guér.
xe interrupta Westw. |. c. = Basicryptus rugicollis Westw.
ee angularis Westw. |.e. = Dalsira modesta Fabr.

SPECIES WITH GENERIC DETERMINATION STILL UNDECIDED.

Alia atricornis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 32.
Pentatoma harristi Westw. loc. cit. p. 41.

a nigripes Westw. loc. cit.
lateralis Westw. loc. cit. p. 43.

5D)

TYPES NOW MISSING FROM COLLECTION.

Halys rufescens Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 24.
» gravis Westw. loc. cit.
», dentipes Westw. loc. cit.
Pentatoma pulchra Westw. loc. cit. p. 34.
[18]

1900.]

SHAD Por =

IN THE HOPE COLLECTION Al’ OXFORD. 825

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Puate LIT.

. Spudeus parvulus, p. 809.
. Orthoschizops assimilis, p. 809.

” ? rugosus, p. 809.
Kalula varicornis, p. 810.
Pailomena unicolor, p. 811.

. Cresphontes monsoni, p. 814.

. Mormidea scutellata, p. 811.

. Aitius variegatus, p. &14.

. Dietyotus pullipes, p. 810.

. Ilerda pallescens, p. 812.

. Actuarius albonotata, p. 815.
. Ocirrhoé roet, p. 819.

Puate LIII.

1. Avicenna inguinata, p. 815.

2. gen. ? harrisii, p. 818.

. Sastragala variolosa, p. 818.

. Podisus neglectus, p. 817.
Glypsus sparsus, p. 817.

. Basieryptus irroratus, p. 817.

. Ocirrhoé ? virescens, p. 815.

. gen. ? atricornis, p. 818.

., lateralis, p. 818.

10. Melampodius cervicornis, p. 817.

© 00 SI Ss CU C9

[19]

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Horace Knight delet lith West, Newman chromo

RHYNCHOTA OF THE FAMILY PENTATOMID~A

C TAT

t ‘ West, Newman chramo
Dn ’

YA T\ =
i LAT

1901.) ON THE RHYNCHOTA IN THE HOPE COLLECTION. 325

[From the PRocerDINGS oF tHE ZoonocicaL Socrnry oF Lonvon,
April 16, 1901.]

Revision of the Rhynchota belonging to the Family
Coreide in the Hope Collection at Oxford. By
W. L. Distant.

(Plates XXIX. & XXX.")

This communication concludes the revision of the Rhynchota
briefly described by the late Prof. Westwood in the only two
parts published of “A Catalogue of Hemiptera in the Collection
of the Rev. F. W. Hope,” which forms an integral portion of the
well-known “ Hope Collection” at Oxford. I have now, by the
kind permission of Prof. Poulton, examined the Coreide which

2 For explanation of the Plates, see p. 335.

Proc, Zoot. Soo.—1901, Vou. I. No. XXII. 22
[1]

\3

P

326 MR. W. Li, DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [ Apr. 16,

constitute the material described in the second part of that
Catalogue ; the revision of the Pentatomide treated in the first
part, the Society has already done me the honour to publish in
their ‘ Proceedings ’ (1900, p. 807). The introductory remarks there
given are also applicable to this concluding instalment and need
not be repeated.

Owing to the very attenuated descriptions given in _ these
catalogues, considerable synonymy has been created by other
workers, which under the circumstances may cause regret but no
surprise.

Subfam. Micrinz.
MELANTA, gen. nov.

@. Body oblong, compressed. Head subqnadrate, distinctly
excavated between the apices of the lateral lobes ; antenne simple,
third joint not dilated, first and fourth joints subequal in length ;
rostrum passing the anterior coxe, third joint shortest ; pronotum
about as long as broad at base, lateral margins not denticulated,
lateral angles not produced. Abdomen distinctly broader than
corium, its lateral margins dentate, apical angles of second, third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth abdominal segments distinctly spinous ;
abdomen beneath at junction of second and third abdominal
segments armed with two long diverging spines. Posterior femora
wide apart, regularly incrassated, about “equally thick throughout,
armed above and on sides with four series of spinous tubercles,
and with a short but robust spine near apex beneath; posterior
tibie dilated on each side, convexly outwardly, and angulately and
truncately narrowed on inner margin at about one fourth from
apex.

This genus is allied to Pternistria, Cipia, and Odontoloba, from
all of Hnee. apart from other characters, if may be separated by
the dentate lateral margins of the abdomen and the spinous apical
angles of the abdominal segments. The tuberculated posterior
femora reflect a character in Prionolomia. In the female the
posterior tibie are simple, the posterior femora less tuberculate
than in the male, the abdomen unarmed, and the abdominal
margins much less denticulate and spinous than in the other sex.

MELANIA GRACILIS. (Plate XXIX. fig. 4, 2.)

Q. Myctis gracilis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 11 (1842).

6. Dark castaneous, finely ochraceously pilose; connexivum
piceous; eyes, abdominal spines, apex of scutellum, and sub-
quadrate spots to connexivum pale ochraceous ; antenns, anterior
and intermediate legs, and the posterior tarsi ochraceous. Abdomen
above black, with two discal longitudinal series of ochraceous
spots.

The-antenne have the first and fourth jeints subequal in length,
the second a little longer than the third, the first and fourth
longest ; the pronotum is granulate and coarsely punctate; the
scutellum is irregularly transversely rugose, its apex levigate ; the

[2]

}

1901.] IN THE HOPE COLLECLION AT OXFORD. 327

corium is thickly and finely punctate ; the lateral areas of the pro-
and mesosterna, the centre of the mesosternum and the disks of
the metasternum, and first, second, and third abdominal segments
are thickly ochraceously pilose, the sternum coarsely punctate, the
abdomen finely tuberculate ; other structural characters as detailed
in generic diagnosis.

Long. ¢ 25 millim. Exp. pronot. angl. 64 millim. Max.
abdom. lat. 84 millim.

Hab. Java (Hope Mus. Oxon. 2); Singapore (Atkinson Coll.
Brit. Mus. ¢ ).

In the female (figured) the body beneath is more uniformly
greyish or ochraceously pilose than in the other sex,

MIctTis TENEBROSA.

Lygeus tenebrosus Fabr. Mant. ii. p. 288 (1787).
Myctis fasciatus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 11 (1842).
ANOPLOCNEMIS PHASIANUS,

Lygeus phasianus Fabr. Spec. ii. p. 861 (1781).
Myctis punctum Westw. in. Hope Cat. ii. p. 10 (1842).

Myctrs affinis Westw. loc. cit.
Myctis bicolor Westw. loe. cit.

ANOPLOCNEMIS VARICORNIS. (Plate XXIX. fig. 3.)
Myctis varicorms Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 12 (1842).

ANOPLOCNEMIS FUSCUS.

Myctis fuscus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 13 (1842).
Myctis ventralis Westw. loc. cit.
Mictis similis Dall. List Hem. ii. p. 887. n. 4 (1852).

PACHYLIS LATICORNIS.

Lygeus laticorns Fabr. Ent. Syst. Suppl. p. 538. n. 15 (1798).

Pachylis grossus Westw. in Hope Cat, ti. p. 13 (1842).

Thasus grossus Stal, En. Hem. i. p. 183. n. 4 (1870); Leth &
Serv. Cat. Gén. Hém. t. ii. p. 14 (1894). ;

Westwood’s type is a unique specimen, a dark variety, and in
bad condition. Along with it were mixed up some specimens of
Thasus heteropus Latr. var. This is the circumstance which
probably misled Stal as to the genus (supra).

NEMATOPUS NERVOSUS.

Nematopus nervosus Lap. Ess. Hém. p. 30 (1832).

Nematopus ventralis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 14 (1842) (2).

Nematopus punctiger Dall. List Hem. ii. p. 427. n. 13 (1852)
(2).

Stal (En. Hem. i. p. 142) rightly opined of the NV. ventralis
Westw., ‘an femina WV. nervost ?” ; this is also the sex of WN. punc-
tiger Dall., and both agree with the female specimen of NV. nervosus
which I recorded from Panama (Biol. Centr.-Amer., Rhynch. i.
p- 307).

328 MR, W. L, DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Apr. 16,

Subfam. AMORBIN &®.
A™MORBUS BISPINUS.
Physomerus bispinus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 9 (1842).

AMORBUS RHOMBIFER.

Physomerus rhombifer Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 9 (1842).
Amorbus rhombeus Dall. (nee Westw.) List Hem. ii. p. 411. n. 7
(1852).

AMORBUS RILOMBBUS.

Physomerus rhombeus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 10 (1842).

Amorbus rhombifer Dall. (nee Westw.) List Hem. ii. p. 411.
n. 8 (1852).

A, rhombifer and A. rhombeus are very closely allied and doubt-
fully distinct. Beyond a generally darker hue and greater ineras-
sation of the posterior femora in the male of A. rhombeus, there is
scarcely a character to separate the two forms.

AMorBUS ANGUSTIOR. (Plate XXIX. fig. 2.)

Physomerus angustior Westw. in Hope Cat. il. p. 9 (1842).

This species can be separated from A. obscuricornis Westw.,
to which it is closely allied, by the colour of the posterior
tibix. Dr. Mayr (Reise Novara, Hem. pp. 86-7) separates the
species by the colour of the antenna, and by the presence or
absence of a small black apical spot on the red upper surface of
the abdomen. These characters are, however, both inconstant, and
this distinetlion cannot be maintained. Westwood omitted to
describe the colour of the posterior tibiae in his A. angustior, but
the unique type is now figured.

AMORBUS SUBSERRATUS. (Plate X XIX. fig. 5.)

Physomerus subserratus Westw.

The only really distinguishing feature of this species from the
above is found in the character described by Westwood as ‘“ tibiis-
que pone angulum medium marginis interni 4-serratis.”

Subfam. DALADERIN®.
DALADER RUBIGINOSUS.
Acanonicus rubiginosus Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 8 (1842).
Dalader parvulus Dist. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) xii. p. 122
(1893).
Subfam. ACANTHOCEPHALIN &.
ACANTHOCEPHALA UNICOLOR.

Metapodius unicolor Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 15 (1842).
Metapodius distincta Walk. Cat. Het. iv. p. 5U. n. 21 (1871).
Connexivum brownish ochraceous. <A species allied to A. gran-
ulosa Dall.
[4]

1901. ] IN LH HOPE COLLECLION AT OXFORD 329

ACANTHOCEPHALA FEMORATA.

Cimex femoratus Fabr. Syst. Hut. p. 708 (1775).

Metapodius bispinus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 15 (1842).

ACANTHOCEPHALA £QUALIS. (Plate XXIX. fig. 1.)

Metapodius equalis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 14 (1842).

Allied to A. latipes Dru., from which it differs by the more
attenuated and less notched posterior tibive.

ACANTHOCEPHALA CONSOBRINA. (Plate XXIX. tig. 7.)

Metapodius consobrinus Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 15 (1842).

Metapodius nigricans Westw. loc. cit.

Westwood’s types are unlocalized; the British Museum also
possesses two specimens of the species, but both without. habitats.

ACANTHOCEPHALA APICALIS.

Metapodius apicalis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 15 (1842).

Form and size of A. consobrina, pronotal angles less produced,
colour different, &c.

ACANTHOCEPHALA ANGUSTIPES,

Metapodius angustipes Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 15 (1842).

Metapodius constrictus Walk. Cat, Het. iv. p. 47. n. 4 (1871).

Westwood’s type is unlocalized; Walker's typical specimen is
from Barbadoes ; another specimen in the British Museum is
from Cayenne. The Colombian specimen identified by Dallas
(List Hem. ii. p. 430. n. 6, 1852) as A. angustipes is not West-
wood’s species.

EMPEDOCLES TENUICORNIS. (Plate XXX. fig. I.)

Metapodius tenuicornis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 16 (1842),

Empedocles tenuicornis Stal, Kn, Hem. i. p. 152 (1870).

Both Westwood’s type and Stal’s representative are unlocalized,
so that the habitat of this species is still to be discovered.

STENOSCELIDEA ALBOVARIA. (Plate XXX. fig. 7.)
Stenoscelidea albovaria Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 18 (1842).

Subfam. Homaocerin ®.
HoM@O0ceRUS BIGUTTATA.
Homeocerus 2-guttatus Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 22 (1842).
Homeocerus sikkimensis Dist. Ent. Month. Mag. xxv. p. 231
(1889).

HoM@OoCERUS SERRIFER.
Coreus serrifer Westw. in Hope Cat. it. p. 24 (1842).
Homeocerus parvulus Walk. Cat. Het. iv. p. 101. n. 32 (1871).
Homeocerus unipunctatus Dall. (nee Thunb.) List Hem. ii.
p. 447. n. 11 (1852).
[4]

330 MR. W. L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Apr. 16,

Subfam, CLORESMIN #.
NorToBITUS SEXGUTTATUS.

Nematopus 6-guttatus Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 13 (1842).
Nematopus longipes Dall. List Hem. ii. p. 423. n. 2 (1852).

Subfam. CoLPpuRIN #.
CoLPURA VARIPES.

Gonocerus varipes Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 25 (1842).
Lybas annulipes Dall. List Hem. ti. p. 464. n. 2 (1852).

Subfam. ANISOSCELIN.

LEPTOGLOSSUS PHYLLOPUS.

Cimex phyllopus Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x1., 1, u. p. 731 (1767).
Anisoscelis fraterna Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 16 (1842).
LEPTOGLOSSUS FULVICORNIS. (Plate XXX. fig. 4.)

Anisoscelis fulvicornis Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 17 (1842).

Subfam. PHYSOMERIN #.

ACANTHOCORIS SCABRATOR,

Coreus scabrator Fabr. Syst. Rhyng. p. 195. 19 (1803).

Crinocerus fuscus Westw. (part.) in Hope Cat. 11. p. 21 (1842).

ACANTHOCORIS SCABER.

Cimea scaber Linn. Cent. Ins. rar. p. 17. 48 (1768).

Crinocerus fuscus Westw. (part.) in Hope Cat. ii. p. 21 (1842).

ACANTHOCORIS AFFINIS. (Plate XXIX. fig. 6.)

Crinocerus affinis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 21 (1842).

The female specimen is figured showing the rugosity of the
posterior femora.

Subfam. GONOCERIN 4,
PLINACTHUS BASALIS.

Coreus basalis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 24 (1842).
Plinacthus peltastes Stil, Stett. ent. Zeit. xxii. p. 144. 1 (1861).

Subfam. PspuDOPHL@IN &.
CERALEPLTUS GRACILICORNIS.

Coreus gracilicornis Herr.-Schatt. cont. Panz. Deutschl. Ins. 135.
5, t. 182 (1835).
Arenocoris ? tibialis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 25 (1842).
CERALEPTUS ©GYPTIUS.
Arenocoris ? egyptius Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 25 (1842).
Gi

1901. | IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD. 331

Ceraleptus squalidus Costa, Cimic. regni Neap. Cent. 2 a, p. 12,
pl. 4. f. 7 (1847).

Horv. (Rey. d’Ent. xvii. p. 278) considers the specific name
obtusus Brull. (1838) as taking precedence ; but I know neither
the species nor the description.

Subfam. Lerrocorisin &.

LEPTOCORISA TIPULOIDES.

Cimex tipulordes de Geer, Mém. iii. p. 354, pl. 35. f. 18 (1773).
Leptocorisa crudelis Westw. in Hope Cat. il. p. 18 (1842).

LEPTOCORISA ACUTA.

Ormex acutus Thunb. Nat. Ins. Sp. ii. p. 34 (1783).
Leptocorisa bengalensis Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 18 (1842).

Subfam. ALypIn ®.
HYALYMENUS DENTATUS.

Alydus dentatus Fabr. Syst. Rhyng. p. 249 (1808).
Alydus ichneumoniformis Westw. in Hope Cat. il. p. 18 (1842),

MerGALOLTOMUS RUFIPES.

Alydus rufipes Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 19 (1842).
Alydus consobrinus Westw. loc. cit. p. 20.

Alydus pallescens Stal, Rio Jan. Hem. i. p. 34 (1860).
Alydus debilis Walk. Cat. Het. iv. p. 160. n. 12 (1871).

MzGALoromus PARVUS. (Plate XXX. fig. 5.)
Alydus parvus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 19 (1842).

ALYDUS GRACILIPES Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 20 (1842).

This species is represented only by the unique type, which is in
far too mutilated a condition for generic allocation.

Head, pronotum, and prosternum pale castaneous; head be-
neath and base of prosternum black; a luteous fascia traversing
each lateral area of head and prosternum; meso- and metasternum
very pale ochraceous. Abdomen wanting.

ALYDUS SIMPLEX Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 18 (1842).

The type and only specimen possesses neither head nor pronotum.
Judging from the remaining portion of the body, it is almost
certain that this is a synonym of Megalotomus rufipes Westw.?

MirPERrvUs TORRIDUS.
Alydus torridus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 20 (1842).
Alydus albidens Westw. loc. cit.

It is very doubtful whether this species can be really separated
from M. jaculus Thunb. Certainly not by locality, as specimens
from both South and West Africa entirely agree. The structure

[7]

332 MR, W, L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA (Apr. 16,

of the first joint of the antenna is distinctive in some specimens,
but seems to fail when a larger number are examined ; the color-
ation of the antenne is an entirely variable character.

RiProrTUS ABDOMINALIS.

Alydus abdominalis Westw. in Hope Cat. 1. p. 19 (1842).

Alydus obscuricornis Dall. List Hem. ii. p. 475 (1852).

Hab. Australia: Port Essington (Brit. Mus.).

The types of Westwood’s species are unlocalized. “ Habitat in
Brasilia? ”

Subfam. Corizin ®.
Corizus ropustus. (Plate XXX. fig. 2.)
Corizus robustus Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 26 (1842).
CoriIzUs VINCENTII. (Plate XXX. fig. 3.)
Corizus vincentit Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 26 (1842).

SERINETHA FRATERNA. (Plate XXX. fig. 6.)
Pyrrhotes fraterna Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 26 (1842).
The unique type is without legs, antenne, or habitat.

SERINETHA GRISEIVENTRIS.

Pyrrhotes griseiventris Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 26 (1842).

Serinetha chevreuxi Noualhier, Bull. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Paris,
1898, p. 233.

Stal (Hem. Afr. ii. p. 114) describes this species, of which it is
stated ‘“ Exemplum typicum Westwoodi haud examinavi,” as having
the “ rostrum coxas posticas attingens.” The rostrum, however, is
much longer and generally reaches the third abdominal segment.
This is the real distinguishing character which separates the species
from S. hematica Germ.

Summarized Disposition of the Hopetan Genera and Species.
CoREID&.

GENERA REMAINING UNDISTURBED.
Brachytes Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 8 (1842).
Stenoscelidea Westw. loc. cit. p. 17.
GENUS TREATED AS SYNONYMIC,
Ceratopachys Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 22 (1842)
= Homeocerus Burm.
SPECIES AND GENERA REMAINING UNDISTURBED.

Menenotus unicolor Westw. in Hope Cat. 11. p. 8 (1842).
Brachytes bicolor Westw. loc. cit.
Myctis (Mictis) longicornis Westw. loe. cit. p. 11.

[8]

1901.]

Nematopus fasciatus Westw. loc. cit. p. 14.

A obscurus Westw. loc. cit.
Leptoscelis tricolor Westw. loc. cit. p. 17.

IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD.

333

Stenoscelidea albo-varia Westw. loc. cit. p. 18.

Leptocorisa apicalis Westw. loc. cit.

Homeocerus angulatus Westw. loc. cit. p. 22.

e 2-quttatus Westw. loe. cit.
Corizus robustus Westw. loc. cit. p. 26.
vincentit Westw. loc. cit.

9

SPECIES REQUIRING GENERIC REVISION,

Spartocerus scutellatus Westw. in Hope Cat. i. p. 7 (1842)
belongs to genus Hubule.

Acanonicus planiventris Westw. loc. cit. p.8 ,, -
x rubiginosus Westw. loc. cit. Le #
Physomerus angustior Westw. loc. cit. p.9 ,, is
ES subserratus Westw. loc. cit. _,, -

A obscuricornis Westw. loc. cit. ,, 3

> bispinus Westw. loc. cit. 9 4s

- rhombifer Westw. loc. cit. - 55
rhombeus Westw. loc. cit. paler a

Myetis lobipes Westw. loc. cit. p. 11 - =
», alhiditarsis Westw. loc. cit. - _

» gracilis Westw. loc. cit. pS £

» granulipes Westw. loc. cit. 45 -

» alatus Westw. loc. cit. p. 12 % .

» scutellaris Westw. loc. cit. 3 y

» varicornis Westw. loc. cit. is -

» fuscus Westw. loc. cit. p. 13 oe ag
Nematopus dorsalis Westw. loc. cit. “ Ps
a 6-guitatus Westw. loc. cit. ‘5 :,

“s marginalis Westw. loc. cit. p. 14,, a

ts nepalensis Westw. loc. cit. - ie

ss javanicus Westw. loc. cit. me i
Metapodius equalis Westw. loc. cit. 4 x
sg unicolor Westw. loc. cit. p. 15 ,, ie

Pe apicalis Westw. loe. cit. - _

5 consobrinus Westw. loc. cit. _,, 95

E. an qustipes Westw. loe. cit. 3 Be
tenuicornis Westw. loc. cit. p. 16 a

Anisoacetan quadricollis Westw. loc. cit. p. 17 55
53 fulvicornis Westw. loc. cit. A ae
fasciata Westw. loc. cit. _ .

Alydus parvus Westw. loc. cit. p. 19 o if
» rufipes Westw. loc. cit. i. 3

» abdominalis Westw. loc. cit. “ a3

» torridus Westw. loc. cit. p. 20 a c
Hypselonotus centrolineatus Westw. loc. cit. p. 21 ,,
Crinocerus affinis Westw. loc. cit. Ee +
Chariesterus regalis Westw. loc. cit. p. 22 ,, ms

Dalader.

Amorbus.

”

”9
Petillia.
Ochrochira.

Melania, g.n.
Elasmomia.
Holopterna.
Anoplocnemis.

9

99
Notobitus.
33

9

Cloresmus.

39
Acanthocephala,

39
3”

”

”°
Em pedocles.
Leptogl ossus.

”

9
Megalotomus.

99
Riptortus.
Mirperus.
Cebrenis.
Acanthocoris.
Paryphes.

19]

334 MR. W. L. DISTANT ON THE RHYNCHOTA [Apr. 16,

Homeocerus diversicornis Westw. loc. cit.
belongs to genus Savius.

Coreus varicornis Westw. loc. cit. ns f. Anasa.

» apicalis Westw. loc. cit. a - is

» bipunctatus Westw. loe. cit. p. 23 ,, ne Cletus.

» rubidiventris Westw. loc. cit. 9 - -

» punctulatus Westw. loe. cit. * *0 *

» capensis Westw. loc. cit. » a3 a

» basalis Westw. loc. cit. p. 24 * » Plinacthus.

» serrifer Westw. loc. cit. i as Homeeocerus.

5, tenuicorris Westw. loc. cit. ie . Hydara.

» scutellaris Westw. loc. cit. 4 PA Clavigralla.
Gonocerus varipes Westw. loc. cit. p. 25 ,, » Colpura.
Arenocoris ? egyptius Westw. loc. cit. + » Ceraleptus.
Pyrrhotes griseiventris Westw. loc. cit. p. 26 - Serinetha.

4 obscura Westw. loc. cit. > » dadera.
a fraterna Westw. loc. cit. & » NSerinetha.

SPECIES TREATED AS SYNONYMIC.,
Spartocerus bimaculatus Westw. in Hope=Sephina erythromelena

(Cat. ii. p. 7 (1842). [| White.
“5 lateritius Westw. 1. e. =Spartocera fusca Thunb.
i affinis Westw. l. c. = = i
E subfuluus Westw. l. c. p. 8= S cinnamomea
[ Hahn.
Physomerus affinis Westw. l.c.p.9 ==Amorbus rubiginosus Guér.
Myctis punctum Westw. 1. c. p. 10 = Anoplocnemis phasianus
[ Fabr.
» affinis Westw. l. c. = 5 2
» bicolur Westw. 1. ¢. aa 3 a
» fasciatus Westw. |. c. p. 11 = Mictis tenebrosus Fabr.
» parallelus Westw.l.c. p. 12 =Anoplocnemis pectoralis
[Germ.
» apicalis Westw. |. c. = i, curvipes Fabr.
», Aorrificus Westw. |. ¢. = » pectoralisGerm.
» religiosus Westw. |. c. = Cossutia flaveola Dru.
5 annulicornis Westw.l.c.p.13 = Anoplocnemis westwoodi
[ Dist.
ventralis Westw. |. c. == e fuscus Westw.
Pachylis grossus Westw. |. c. = Pachylis laticornis Fabr.

Nematopus ventralis Westw. |. c. p. 14 =Nematopus nervosus Lap.
Metapodius bispinus Westw. |. ¢. p. 15= Acanthocephala femorata

[ Fabr.
4 obscurus Westw. 1. ¢. = es e
= nigricans Westw. |. ¢. a i consobrina
[ Westw.
os gemmifer Westw. |. c. p. 16= Petalops azureus Burm.
Anisoscelis fraterna Westw. |. e. = Leptoglossus phyllopus
{| Linn.
& indocta Westw. l. ¢. = . stigma Herbst.

[10]

del et hth.

RHYNCHOTA OF THE FAMILY

Noantern Bros

COREITDA: .

AL

1X,

Horace Knight del.et lith, Nintern Bros .Chromo
RHYNCHOTA OF THE FAMILY COREIDA.

aie -
a

Wy

1901.] IN THE HOPE COLLECTION AT OXFORD. 330

Leptoscelis rubro-picta Westw. |. c. p.17 = Phthia lunata Fabr., var.
Stenoscelidea bicoloripes Westw. |. c.= Placoscelis fusca Spin.

[p. 18:
Leptocorisa bengalensis Westw. 1. ¢. = Leptocorisa acuta Thunb.
Pe furcifera Westw. 1. ¢. 4 filiformis Fabr.
nN crudelis Westw. |. ¢. ,», tipulordes de Geer.

Alydus ichneumoniformis Westw. 1. c.
» diversipes Westw. |. c. p. 19
» affinis Westw. 1. c.
» obscurus Westw. |. ¢.
» consorbrinus Westw. l. c. p. 20=Me -galotomus rufipes

Hyalymenus dentatus Fabr.
a tarsatus Fabr.

bb ”

Hu wt we ue tl

[ Westw.
» ventralis Westw. 1. e. = Riptortus fuscus Fabr.
» undulatus ae . cs = Camptotus laterals Germ.
albidens Westw. = Mirperus torridus Westw.
Mer opachus sublur Sey l.¢e.p.21 =Hiraleus gracilis Burm.
re dorsiyer Westw. 1. ¢. = ,, variolosus Burm.
Hypselonotus bilineatus Westw.l.c. =Hypselonotus interruptus
{ Hahn.
Crinocerus fuscus Westw. (part.) 1. ec. = Acanthocoris scabrator
[Fabr.
“s - (parts) ye. — is scaber Linn.
Ceratopach ys capensis Westw. l.c. p. 22= Homeocerus nigricornis
[Germ.
Coreus parvulus Westw.l.c.p. 23 = Cletus capitulatus H.-Schaff.
» wmmaculatus Westw. |. e. = Cletus ochraceus H.-Schaff.
», alicrnans Westw. |.c. p. 24 =Homeocerus pallens Fabr.
Neides trispinosus Westw. l. ¢. =Jalysus spinosus Say.
Gonocerus dorsiger Westw. l.c. p. 25 = Catorhintha guttula Fabr.
5 angulatus Westw. l. ¢. =Sethenira testacea Spin.
Arenocoris ? tibialis Westw. |. ¢. = Ceraleptus gracilwornis
[H.-Schiatf.
Pyrrhotes bicolor Westw. l.c. p. 26 =Jadera sanguinolenta Fabr.

TYPES MUTILATED AND THEREFORE OF DOUBTFUL POSITION.

Alydus simplex Westw. in Hope Cat. ii. p. 18 (1842).
» gracilipes Westw. loc. cit. p. 20.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Pratm XXIX. | PuateE XXX.

1. Acanthocephala equalis,p.829. | Fi

2. Amorbus angustior, p. 328.

3. Anoplocnemis varicornis,
p. 327.

4, Melania gracilis, p. 326.

5. Amorbus subserratus, p. 328.

6. Acanthocoris affinis, p. 330.

7. Acanthocephala consobrina,

p. 329.

. Empedoeles tenuicornis, és 329.
. Corizus robustus, p. 332
vincentit, p. 332.

. Leptoglossus fulvicornis,

p. 339.

. Megalotomus parvus, p. 381.

. Serinetha fraterna, p. 332.

. Stenoscelidea albovaria, p. 329.

(11]

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1901. ] REV. 0. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE ON EXOTIC SPIDERS. ll

[From the PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLUGICAL Society oF Lonpon,
January 15, 1901.}

On some new and interesting Exotic Spiders collected by
Messrs. G. A. K. Marshall and R. Shelford. By the
Rev. Octavius Pickarp-CamBripGE, M.A., F.R.S., &e.

% ee

(Plate V.')

Order ARANEIDEA.
Fam. DRASSID &.
Gen. ProstHesima L. Koch.

PROSTHESIMA ALBOMACULATA, sp. n. (Plate V. figs. 2-2.)

Adult female, length 23 lines (4°5 mm.).

Cephalothorax flattish, oval, truncate at each end, fore end
rather the narrowest, lateral marginal impressions at caput very
slight, profile-line nearly level. Colour deep black-brown, softening
to yellowish brown round the thoracic indentation ; surface thinly
covered with grey adpressed hairs.

Eyes in two transverse rows of very nearly equal length. Curve
of posterior row slight and its convexity directed backwards.
Anterior row almost straight, laterals of this row largest of the
eight, the two centrals being placed on a slight prominence,
and further from each other than from the laterals. The two
centrals of the posterior row are much further from each other
than from the laterals and are slightly the largest. The four
centrals form a quadrangle as long as broad, the fore side being
shortest.

Legs moderate in length and strength, 4, 1, 2, 3. Colour
yellow to yellow-brown ; the tibiw, femora, and genue of the tirst
pair black-brown, these joints of the second pair yellow-brown,
and of the third and fourth pairs more or less deeply marked
longitudinally and suffused with black and brown, furnished with
coarse hairs and spines, the latter most numerous and strongest
on the tibiz and metatarsi of the third and fourth pairs.

Falces, mawille, and labiwm deep brown.

Sternum oval, pointed behind ; colour reddish yellow-brown.

Abdomen oval, somewhat flattened. black, with four conspicuous
white spots forming a quadrangle on the fore half of the upperside,
the two hinder spots largest and nearly round, the anterior, near
the fore margin, oval or subtriangular and forming a shorter
transverse line than the hinder spots. On each side of the under-
side, about the middle, is a large somewhat irregular triangular-
shaped white patch, whose inner angles are nearly contiguous a
little way behind the middle. Spinners of the inferior pair much
wider apart than the superiors. Genital aperture simple but
characteristic in form.

Hab. Salisbury, Mashonaland, S. Africa, 5000 feet, Nov. 1898
to Jan. 1899 (@. A. K. Marshall).

' For an explanation of the Plate, see p. 16.

[1]

12 REV. O, PICKARD-CAMBRIDGH ON EXOTIC SPIDERS. [Jan. 15,

Gen. nov. Trrvs.

Cephalothorax elongate-oval, rounded behind, broadly and a
little roundly truncate before; lateral marginal impressions at the
eaput gradual but distinct ; upper surface "strongly convex ; from
the fore part of the caput to the hinder slope the rise is strong, a
little curved and even, with a very slight dip at the thoracic
junction. The sides of the cephalothorax project over the bases of
the legs, making them appear to be articulated on the same plane
as the sternum. ‘The thoracic indentation is very minute, and the
other normal ones obsolete; hinder slope steep; height of the
clypeus, which projects, is half that of the facial space, its fore
margin overhanging the base of the falces.

Eyes moderate and not greatly unequal in size; in two trans-
verse curved rows; the hinder row considerably longest, its eyes
are very nearly equally separated, and the convexity of its curve 1s
directed forwards, while that of the anterior row is backwards.
The hind-lateral eyes are larger than the hind-centrals and are
placed outside a strong tubercle ; those of the anterior row on a
well-marked transverse prominence or ridge. The fore-centrals
are very nearly if not quite of equal size, the interval between
them being about double that which separates each from the fore-
lateral eye on its side. The central quadrangle is slightly broader
than long, and its anterior side shortest.

Legs short, rather slender, 4, 1, 2, 3; the femora strongly
clavate or tumid at their posterior end, furnished with hairs and
spies ; two pairs of these are beneath the metatarsi and three
pairs beneath tibiz of the first pair. Tarsi end with 2 claws.

Palpi (Q). The digital joint is double the length of the radial,
rather claviform, and ending with a very minute, slightly curved
single claw.

Fulces moderate in length, powerful, subconical.

Mawille rather short, strong, straight, but inclined to the
labium ; rounded at their outer extremity, and a little impressed
and obliquely truncate at their inner extremity.

Labium short, broader than jong, narrowest at the apex, the
onter corners of which are rounded, and the middle a little im-
pressed.

Sternum longer than broad, oval, slightly hollow-truncate in
front, bluntish pointed behind, and its margins strongly indented
by the basal joints of the legs. From the hinder end a chitinous
plate runs between the coxe of the fourth pair of legs and
spreading out behind them joins in with the upperside of the
cephalothorax.

Abdomen short, broad, its upper surface covered with a strong
kind of agearnllosts coriaceous shield furnished with plumose and
other hairs; sides, especially backwards, protuberant and tumid,
these parts connected behind by transverse rug or folds, in the
midst of which the spinners are placed and almost hidden in a
circular cavity.

ee

1901. | REV. O. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE ON EXOTIC SPIDERS. 13

TITUS LUGENS, sp. n. eae V. figs. 3-3 ¢.)

Adult female, length 21 lines.

Cephalothorax bright red- brown, suffused with a darker hue on
the sides and on the: caput, the fore part of which is nearly black ;
the surface is thickly covered with small round shining tubercles
or granulosities, and it is thinly clothed with hairs, of which some
on the sides and hinder part are white and of a plumose nature.

Legs yellow tinged with brown; the femora much strongest,
granulose, as also are the uppersides of coxee. Colour of the femora
of Ist pair black-brown, of the second pair not so dark, of the
third and fourth pairs paler and indistinctly banded with darker.
The tarsi are enlarged slightly and gradually to the ends, which are
furnished with two claws and a compact claw-tuft.

Falces deep reddish black-brown, paler at the fore extremity,
furnished in front with bristly bairs.

Mawxille and labium yellow-brown.

Sternum yellow-red, covered thickly with small granulosities like
the cephalothorax.

Abdomen coriaceous, covering of the upperside black with a
central triangular patch of white plumose hairs, two patches of the
same on the lateral margins, and one at the hinder extremity, sides
and underside of a paler browner hue. The fore extremity on the
underside is covered with a coriaceous granulose integument (the
granulosities much strongest and becoming tubercular at the fore
end), which forms a short sheath, covering most of the connecting
pedicle as wel! as the spiracular openings and the genita] aperture.
For the peculiar form of the abdomen, see generic characters
wbove ; but whether this is only specific or whether generic, it is

hard to say in the absence of allied species.

Hab. Salisbury, Mashonaland, 8. Africa, 5000 feet, Nov. 1898
to Jan. 1899 (GA. A. Marshail).

Fam. EPEIRIDA.
Genus Neruitencys L. Koch.
NEPHILENGYS MALABARENSIS Walck.

An adult female of this common and widely dispersed Epeirid
from Karkloof, Natal (@. A. K. Marshall).

Fam. GASTERACANTHIDA,.

Subfam. HurycoMin 2.
Gen. CYRTARACHNE Thor.
CYRTARACHNE CONICA, sp.n. (Plate V. figs. 1-1 c.)

Adult female, length rather over 32 lines, or 8 mm. ; leneth of

abdomen 23 lie a width 33 lines.

Cephalothorax short, sightly louger than broad, broadest and

iZ REV. 0. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE ON EXOTIC sPrIpERS. [Jan. 15,

rounded behind, truncate before; the profile-line forms a con-
tinuous curve ; the lateral marginal impressions at the caput are
very slight. Colour yellowish brown.

Eyes small, in the ordinary Epeirid position; the four centrals
form as nearly as possible a square, its posterior eyes slightly
largest. The lateral pairs are close to the anterior corners of the
caput, minute; those of each pair are contiguous to each other and
form nearly a straight line with the anterior pair of the central
quadrangle.

Legs short, not very strong, 1, 2, 4, 3, devoid of spines, furnished
with fine hairs only; colour brownish yellow, tinged with orange.

Falces short, strong, subconical ; colour like that of the cephalo-
thorax. Maxille and !abium normal in form, and similar in colour
to the cephalothorax, perhaps rather paler.

Sternum similar in colour to the legs.

Abdomen coriaceous, large, subtriangular, broader than long,
rounded in front, the fore corners rounded, though scarcely to be
described as forming distinct prominences ; upper surface consider-
ably elevated in a subconical form; colour yellowish white, that
of the cone tinged with yellow-brown. Near the middle of the
anterior margin, quite visible but not very distinct, are tliree
sigillitorm markings with two others behind, halfway to the
summit of the conical abdomen; behind these last, and one on
either side of the base of the cone, are two others similar, in a
transverse line, and forming a line equal in length to that formed
by the three anterior sigille ; the upper part of the cone is encireled
by some indistinct fine darker concentric lines. The underside
is dark dull yellow-brown, and from the outer margins of it sundry
fine dark lines issue upwards in groups of two or three, converging
until they meet about one-third of the way towards the top of the
cone. Genital process broad and very characteriStic in form.

Hab. Singapore (2t. Shelford).

Fam. THOMISIDA4,

Subfam. AMYCIIN®.
Genus Amycr#a Sim. (Amycle Cambr.).

AMYCLEA LINEATIPES, sp.n. (Plate V. figs. 4-4 d.)

Adult female, length 23 lines.

This Spider is nearly allied to A. forticeps Cambr. (P. Z. 8.
Lond. 1873, p. 122) from Ceylon, and bears a close general
resemblance to it; but it may be distinguished by the shorter legs,
by the area of the four larger outer eyes, of which the anterior is of
the same length as the posterior side, and the four anterior eyes
forming a straight transverse line. ‘The markings on the legs,
palpi, and abdomen, and the form also of the abdomen, differ from
those of A. forticeps, though it is possible that this last character
may only be sexual.

The palpi have a longitudinal black streak on their inner sides.

[4]

1901. ] REY. O. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE ON EXOTIC SPIDERS. 15

The legs have a longitudinal red-brown streak on the outer
side of the femora of the first pair, and a blackish one on
the inner side of those of the fourth pair, a white line also runs
along the side of the tibie and metatarsi; the tarsi of the first
and second pairs are white; the general colour of the legs is dull
orange-yellow.

The abdomen is joined to the therax by a distinct jointed pedicle ;
it is of an oval form, broadest behind and pointed in front, and
without any lateral transverse constriction. It is of a dull
yellowish hue tinged with reddish ; on either side towards the hinder
extremity is a large black spot ; along the middle of the upperside
on the hinder half are two converging rews of small white spots,
with some other white ones towards the fore extremity ; on each
side also of the fore half are two broadish, but not very strongly
defined, oblique brownish stripes, the hinder ones meeting at an
angle in the middle and continued in the median line to the fore
end. The genital aperture is well marked and of a very charac-
teristic form.

Hab. Singapore. Sent to Mr. Shelford by Mr. H. N. Ridley,
Director of the Botanic Gardens, Singapore.

The type of the genus, A. fortceps Cambr. (Ceylon), has two
similar spots on the abdomen.

This Spider was found in company with the ant Weophylla
smaragdina, the habits of which have been described by Mr. Ridley
(Journ. Asiat. Soc., Straits Branch, 1890, No. 42, p. 345).

Fam. SALTICIDA.

Genus Santicus Latr. (sensu restricto).

SALTICUS ATTENUATUS, sp. n. (Plate V. fies. 6-6 c.
> 5} 8

Female (immature), length (including falces) 33 lines = 7 mm.

Cephalothorax oblong, narrowing gradually to the posterior end,
which is truncate. Caput flat, rather longer than the thorax and
rather longer than broad, divided from the thorax by a deep inden-
tation or constriction. Colour deep black-brown on the thorax ;
caput black ; in the constriction are three short lines or patches of
white hairs, one on each side and one in the middle.

Eyes normal, ocular area longer than broad.

Legs rather short, furnished with short hairs, and a few fine
spines in pairs beneath the tibie of the first and second pairs ;
these are of a pale yellow colour; the outer side of the tibiz, meta-
tarsi, and tarsi of the first pair, and of the tibiz and metatarsi of the
second, marked with a longitudinal black stripe; the cox, femora,
tibizw, and base of the metatarsi of the third pair black, the rest
pale yellow; the fourth pair have the cox pale yellow, with an
exterior longitudinal black line en the outer side, and the femora
and tibia black, the metatarsi and tarsi being yellow.

Palpi yellowish ; radial joint blackish ; digital joint large, oval,
flattish and tumid.

[5]

16 REY. 0. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE ON EXOTIC SPIDERS. [Jan. 15.

Falces rather shorter than the caput, strong, prominent, of a dull
yellow-brown colour.

Maaille dull blackish, extremities pale yellowish.

Labium dull black, apex pale.

Sternum elongate, narrow; the basal joints of the legs are
articulated around it on the same plane, the first two pairs with
their coxee almost contiguous on their inner sides.

Abdomen narrow, elongate-oval, strongly and broadly constricted
towards the fore extremity; pedicle as long as the caput, two-
jointed, the posterior joint longest and set in a circular cavity
or socket at the extremity of the abdomen. Colour black, a little
paler at the constricted part, just below the sides of the constriction
white.

Hab, Singapore. Sent by Mr. H. N. Ridley to Mr, R. Shelford.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Cyrtarachne conica, @ (p. 18). 1a, profile; 16, eyes and falces from
in front; le, genital aperture.

2. Prosthesima albomaculata, 2 (p. 11). 2a, profile; 26, eyes and falces
from in front; 2c, genital aperture.

3. Titus lugens, 7 (p. 18). 8a, profile; 34, eyes and falces from in front ;
3¢, maxillx, labium, and sternum; 8d, cephalothorax and eyes from
above and behind ; : 3e, genital aperture.

4. Amyciea lineatipes, 2 (p. 14). 4a, profile; 40, eyes and falees from

in front; 4c, eyes and cephalothorax from above and behind; 4d,
genital aperture.

5. Geophylla smaragdina (p. 15).
lives.)

6. Salticus attenuatus, 2 (p. 15). 6a, profile; 66, cephalothorax and
connecting pedicle from above ; 6, genital aperture. (It is doubtful

whether this example is quite adult.)

(Ant with which Amyciea lineatipes

Reprinted from “ The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,’ Second Series, Vol. xii.]

September, 1901). 205

BALEARIC INSECTS.
INTRODUCTION, BY EDWARD B. POULTON, MA., F.R.S.,
Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford,
Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford.

Having recently paid two visits to Majorea, the first in the spring
of 1900, the second in the summer of the present year, I hope that
the material obtained may be gradually worked out by specialists, and
published. Thus a systematic beginning, at any rate, of the study of
the little known insect fauna of Majorea will be undertaken. The
results of a couple of days’ collecting in Minorea, April 6th and 7th,
1900, are also included, together with material obtained later, in the
summer of the same year, and kindly sent me by Sef. Mauricio
Hernandez of Mahon. The insect fauna of Minorca is, however,
comparatively well known, especially the Coleoptera, a very complete
list having been published (Mahon, 1872) by the late Dr. D. Francisco
Cardona of Mahon.

The island of Majorca is about 60 miles in greatest length by
40 in greatest breadth. From the zoological aspect it presents three
types of country :—

(1) The level plains, which are cultivated with remarkable dili-
gence, so that the indigenous and derived insect faunas are almost
confined to the road-sides, the beds of streams, occasional gardens,
the neighbourhood of irrigation tanks, and the very few fields in
which wild flowers have been permitted to remain.

(2) The mountains, chiefly developed and loftiest along the
straight N.W. coast of the island, but also rising from the plains in
isolated ridges and rounded masses. Here too the slopes are terraced
and cultivated with extraordinary care, but numerous flowers exist,
especially in the neighbourhood of the corn fields, and woods of low
trees are to be found in many places. The higher steeper slopes are
largely made up of bare rock with a scanty vegetation. A coarse
grass growing in tufts is fairly abundant on some of the slopes. Some
of the hills are almost covered with the palmetto, affording very barren
ground to the collector. Pigs and goats are fed where the ground is
not cultivated, even on the steepest and rockiest hill-sides.

(3) The low marshy land lying along the N.E. coast, bordering
a portion of the circumference of the bays of Alcudia and Pollensa.
This is probably the richest collecting ground in the island, and it has
been unfortunately very little worked. Mr. Oldfield Thomas and
Mr. R. I. Pocock collected for a day at Albufera, near the Bay of
Aleudia, in the spring of 1900, and found the insects more abundant

C71

206 ; September,

and varied than elsewhere. T eollected in the smaller area, called the
“Little Albufera,” adjoining the Bay of Pollensa in 1900, and again
on two occasions, with Mr. W. Holland and Mr. A. H. Hamm, in July
of the present year. We much wished to collect systematically in
the larger and more. important tract visited by Mr. Thomas and Mr,
Pocock, but the prevalence of malaria at Aleudia prevented us. Even
at Pollensa, where there is a little malaria, we were regularly bitten
by numbers of mosquitos every night (although, as Mr. Theobald
informs me, the specimens we brought home were only Culea pipiens,
L.), and finding that mosquito curtains were unknown at the Fondas
in Alcudia, I decided that the risk was too great. Had I been aware
of the conditions I should -have arranged to take portable mosquito-
proof coverings. .

From the above account it will be clear that only a small pro-
portion of the indigenous insect fauna can now be looked for in
Majorca. Excessive cultivation, continued from a remote historic
period, cannot fail to have destroyed by far the larger number of the
species. At the same time there is reason to hope that the remainder
will exhibit many features of interest.

Minorca is probably relatively much richer than Majorca. There
is not that excessive devotion to agriculture which is so characteristic
of Majorca, but grass is grown freely, and with it a varied and
tolerably luxuriant vegetation. The surface of the island is much
flatter and less interesting, the highest hill, Mount Toro, being only
1150 feet.

The first two sections, by Mr. Edward Saunders, contain an
account of the Hymenoptera Aculeata and the Hemiptera collected in
the spring of 1900 by Mr. Thomas and Mr. Pocock, and presented to
the British Museum of Natural History, and those collected by me
at the same time and presented to the Ilope Department of the
Oxford University Museum. The specimens described below may be
seen in these two Institutions. I have added a few notes of locality,
habits, &e. The third section, by Col. J. W. Yerbury, will contain
an account of the Diptera collected by the same naturalists at the same
times and places as the //ymenoptera and Hemiptera.

The following is an account of the route I followed in 1900.

March 24th, 25th and part of 26th —Palma. Collected at Porto
Pi, and especially in the grounds of Bellver Castle (150 to 400 feet),
where flowers were very abundant. This was the most favourable
locality I met with during the visit in 1900. Weather fine and sunny.

March 26th and 27th—Valldemosa and Miramar. High ground

1901.] 207

with mountains behind and sea in front; weather sunny. Col-
lected (27th) by road-side from Miramar to Valldemosa, and in
Arch-Duke’s garden and the cliff below. Then drove to Soller.

March 28th and 29th—Soller. Excessively cultivated valley,
surrounded by high mountains. Weather cold and cloudy, unsuitable
for collecting. Returned to Palma on 29th.

March 30th—Bellver Castle in the morning (sunny): then to
Manacor.

March 31st—Manacor, cloudy and cold: travelled to Pollensa,°
collecting in a field at Empalme on the way.

April lst, 2nd, 8rd and 4th—Pollensa. Collected on low hills
near the town (1st and 2nd), and on the way to the Castillo del Rey
on the 3rd, the road rising to a considerable elevation as it approached
the coast. ‘These three days sunny and warm. On the 4th (cloudy)
collected on the low ground and in the ditches by the Port of Pollensa.
Left for Minorea at night.

April 5th, 6th and 7th—Mahon, Minorca. Hard rain on 5th.
On the Gth and 7th collected at a low elevation near Mahon; very
windy and cloudy (gleains of sun on the 6th).

Mr. Thomas and Mr. Pocock collected at Inca, Majorca (March
24th to April 2nd, 1900), a small town lying towards the centre of
the island in the richly cultivated plain, but near to the N.W. chain
of mountains. They collected insects chiefly on the hill-sides, near
the water-tanks, and in the copses in the neighbourhood of the town,
making one excursion to the Albufera near Alcudia, and another to
the caves of Manacor.

In Minorca they collected at San Cristobal (April 6th to 15th,
1900), a small village lying from two to three miles distant from the
southern coast of the island at an altitude of about 300 feet. The
country round is given over to cultivation; but on the slopes of the
deep limestone gullies that run from the village down to the sea, as
well as on the sides of a rugged hill a mile or so to the north of the
village, the soil has been left to a considerable extent undisturbed.
Here and along the sides of the main road, where wild flowers,
especially a species of clover, grew luxuriantly, most of the Hymen-
optera were procured (see also P. Z.S., L901, pp. 35, 36).

This account will make clear the captors of any of the specimens
mentioned below, but it may be stated generally that when no name
is given after the locality the capture was made by me.

Oxford: July, 1901.

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Reprinted from “ The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,” Second Series, Vol. xii.

1901.] 208

BALEARIC INSECTS.—HYWUENOPTERA ACULEATA
COLLECTED IN Masorca AND Minorca (March AND Apri, 1900) By E. B.
Poutton, OnprieLp Tuomas, AND R. I. Pocock, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW

SPECIES.
BY EDWARD SAUNDERS, F.L.S., &c.
ee

Camponotus Sicheli, Mayr, 9, 2, Monte Sentuiri, near Pollensa, Majorca,
April 2nd.

Lasius niger, Linn., 9, 2, Pollensa, April 1st and 2nd.

Aphenogaster barbara, Linn., §, 11, Palma, Majorca, March 24th.——testa-
ceopilosa, Linn., 9,9, Palma, Majorca, March 24th.

Mutilla quinquemaculata, Cyr., 2 , 1, near Mahon, Minorca, April 6th.

Elis ciliata, Fab., $, 26, 2,1. This species was excessively abundant in the
grounds of Castle Bellver, Palma, Majorea, March 25th, 26th, and 30th. It was in
this locality that the only female out of 39 individuals captured was secured (March
25th). Specimens were also obtained from the summit of the Puig de Maria,
Pollensa, April 2nd, and from the summit of the Talayot of Trepuco, near Mahon,
Minorea. The species was thus never seen except on hills and mounds. The
insects flew close to the ground, continually alighting on the earth and stones, E. B.
P.; 3 g,1 9, not localised, Thomas and Pocock, 1900.

Pompilus viaticus, L., 9 , 5 (wings very dark), Castle Bellver, March 26th and
30th ; below Castle del Rey, Pollensa, April 3rd ; Monte Sentuiri, Pollensa, April
2nd.

Ammophila hirsuta, Seop., 2,9, Palma, March 24th; Bellver, March 25th,
26th, and 30th ; Miramar, March 27th (Hernandez).

Pelopeus spirifex, L., 8 2, Minorca.

Odynerus parietum, Li., g, 2, Pollensa, Monte Sentuiri, and Puig de Maria,
April 2nd; g, 2, Minorca, near Talayot of Trepuco, near Mahon, April 6th; ¢,
Inca, Majorca, and San Cristobal, Minorea, March and April, 1900, Thomas and
Pocock.—sp.?, g,2. I should not like to name this for certain without seeing
both sexes. Minorca, N. of Port Mahon, April 7th.

Polistes gallica, L., 9, 5, Minorca, near Talayot of Trepuco, April 6th.—
9, 8, Majorea, Palma, Porto Pi, March 24th; Castle Bellver, March 25th and
30th ; Miramar to Valldemosa, March 27th; Pollensa, April 2nd and 3rd (very
abundant) ; Albufera and Inca, Majorca, March and April, Thomas and Pocock.

Prosopis, sp.?, 3, closely allied to Masoni, Saund., but on a single example I
cannot determine it for certain. Pollensa, Monte Sentuiri, April 2nd.

Sphecodes fuscipennis, Germ. (var. with red legs), 3 ¢, 3 2, Pollensa, base of
Monte Sentuiri, April 2nd (on flowers); Castle Bellver, March 25th and 30th.
é and 2 9, not localised Thomas, and Pocock, 1990.

Halictus scabiose, Rossi, 2 , 6, Castle Bellver, March 25th and 30th; Miramar,
March 27th (on flowers); $, Inca, Majorca, March, and 1 ? not localised,
Thomas and Pocock, 1900. malachurus, K., 9, 1, Pollensa, Puig de Maria,
April 2nd. villosulus, K., 9, 8, Castle Bellver, March 30th ; Pollensa, Monte
Sentuiri, April 2nd. sp.?, 9, 6, Castle Bellver, March 25th, 26th, and 30th ;
Pollensa, April 3rd. cephalicus, Mor., 9, 1, Pollensa, Puig de Maria, April 2nd.

209 i (September,

HALictus soror, n. sp., 9, 2, Castle Bellver, March 26th and 30th.

?. H. morioni, aflinis, obscure viridi-niger, capite thoraceque albopilosis opacis,
ereberrime punctatis, facie sat elongata, plus minus ut in punctatissimo formata,
elypeo plus quam dimidio latitudinis sui ultra oculis projecto, abdominis segmenti-
bus submicantibus, viridi-nigris crebre punctatis, apicibus, praesertim in lateribus,
valde impressis, marginibus posticis piceis; pedibus nigris. Long., 6—7 mm., a
Morioni differt facie valde elongata, corpore opaco, colore viridi-nigro non seneo-

nigro crebriore punctato, preesertim in segmento basali abdominis.

g. a morioni differt capite elongato, clypeo valde producto.

I have received both sexes of this species from Algeria, taken by
Rey. A. E. Eaton, and I have made my remarks on the ¢ from one of
his captures.

Andrena morio, Brullé, 2, 4, Castle Bellver, March 30th; g and ?, Inea,
Majorea, Thomas and Pocock, 1900.
March 27th. sp. ?, 2 (stylopized), Miramar, March 27th.— Gwynana, K., 9,
var.?, very obscure in coloration, Miramar, March 27th (on flowers). nigro-
olivacea, Dours, 8 $,1 92. The males, Miramar, March 27th (on flowers) ; female,

Pollensa, April 3rd. The males are of the ordinary type of this species, but the ?

rose, Pz. (v. Trimmerana), 2 , 1, Miramar,

is peculiar in having the tibie black instead of testaceous. flavipes, Pz., =
fulvicrus, Kirb., ¢ 2, 9 6, Castle Bellver, March 25th and 30th; Pollensa, April
2nd.— var.?, 2, 1; not localised, Thomas and Pocock, 1900. sp. ?, group of
Afzeliella, &c., 9, 3, Castle Bellver, March 30th ; Pollensa, April 2nd and 38rd.
Dioyxs cincta, Jur., 2, 2, San Cristobal, Minorca, April 6th to 14th, 1900,
Thomas and Pocock.
Nomada fucata, Pz., var. iberica, 2 , 1, not localised, Thomas and Pocock, 1900.

Nomapa Povuttont (n. sp.), ¢ 1, 9 3, Castle Bellver, one female, March 25th,
all others March 30th (on flowers), all were captured on the summit of the hill
(400 ft.) outside the castle.

3. Caput nigrum opacum, creberrime rugoso-punctatum ochraceo-fusco dense

hirsutum, clypeo antice, faciei lateribus, macula minuta supra clypeum lineaque pone
oculis, mandibulis (apicibus piceis exceptis), labroque flavis, hoc inermi; antennis
fulvis, scapo, articulisque 83—9, supra plus minus nigris, flagelli articulis 2¢0 340
que subsequalibus, 3tio, quarto, paullo longiore. Thorax niger, seulptura vestituque
capiti simillimus, tegulis, callis humeralibus, maculaque pleurali sub tuberculis,
maculisque duabus minutis scutellaribus flavis, alis subinfuscatis, nervis piceo-
testaceis. Abdomen superne punctatissinum, fere ut in fucata, Pz. coloratum,
segmento basali omnino lete ferrugineo, reliquis fascia integra, medio subcon-
stricta, flava ornatis, 5,6, 7, fere totis flevis; septimo apice emarginato; subtus
testaceum, nitidum, segmento sexto valde punctato, ceteris fere impunctatis ; pedibus
fulvis, coxis, trochanteribas, femoribusque linea subtus nigra; tibiis posticis prope
apicem unco uno munitis, metatarsorum luteribus subparallelis.

2. Nigra, clypeo, macula supra clypeum, faciei lateribus, mandibulis (apicibus
nigris exceptis) labro, antennis, linea pone oculis, tegulis, callis humeralibus, macu-
laque obscura antice pleurale sub callis, scutelli tuberculis, linea subscutelli,
abdomine, pedibusque leete ferrugineis ; abdominis segmento quarto basi transverse

nigro maculato, eapite et thorace obscuris valde et creberrime punctatis, pilis fusco-

1901.) 210

nigris dense vestitis, alis saturate infuscatis; abdomine submicante subtilissime et
ereberrime punctato, tibiis posticis apicibus productis, uncis duobus incurvatis
nigro-fuscis armatis. Long., 13—14 mm.

This fine species, which I have much pleasure in naming after its
talented captor, is somewhat allied to pacilonota, Perez, but is very
different in the black pubescence of the head and thorax and the

general coloration.

Xylocopa violacea, L., g, 1, Valldemosa, Majorca, March 27th.

Ceratina Dallatorreana, Friese, 2, 1, Inca, Majorca, March, 1900, Thomas
and Pocock.

Chalicodoma sicula, Rossi, ¢ 22, 15, Minorca, near Mahon, April 6th.
g 10, 2 15, Majorea, Porto Pi, March 24th; Castle Bellver, March 25th and 30th ;
Pollensa, April 2nd; between Pollensa and Castle del Rey, April 3rd; Miramar to
Valldemosa, March 27th. In Majorca these insects were found in stony hilly

country, frequently settling on the ground. They were extremely hard to catch.
In Minorea, on the other hand, they were far more abundant and easily captured.
The difference may have been due to the colder, more windy, weather in the latter
island (E. B. P.). San Cristobal, Minorca, and Inca, Majorca, March and April,
1900, Thomas and Pocock.

Anthidium 7-dentatum, Latr., 2 , Castle Bellver, March 26th.

Osmia cornuta, Ltr., 9? , 1, Miramar, March 27th (on flowers). 2 ,not local-
ised, 19J0, Thomas and Pocock. Latreillei, 8, 2, Castle Bellver, March 26th
(on wall) ; Minorca, near Talayot of Trepuco, April 6th.

submicans, Mor., 2,
near Talayot of Trepuco, Mahon, April 6th; San Cristobal, Minorca, April 6th to
14th, 1900, Thomas and Pocock. cerulescens, L., ¢ , 2, San Cristobal, Minorca
April 6th to 14th, 1900, Thomas and Pocock.

Eucera numida, Lep., 2, 1, near Mahon, April 6th (M. Hernandez).
labris, Lep., 2, 10, Palma, March 24th (on cruciferous flowers) ; Castle Bellver,
March 25th and 380th.——grisea, Fab., 2, 1, Minorca, near Talayot of Trepuco,
April 6th; 2 g,1 2, Inca, Majorca, Thomas and Pocock ; 5 9, no locality, Thomas
and Pocock.— ¢ 14, 2? 21, Porto Pi, March 24th; Castle Bellver, March 25th
and 30th (on flowers).

Melecta luctuosa, Scop., g 2, § 1, Castle Bellver, March 25th; Miramar to
Valldemosa, March 27th; Pollensa to Castle del Rey, April 3rd; Inca, Majorca,
Thomas and Pocock, 1900.—plurinotata, Brullé, g 1, Castle Bellver, March 23rd.

Podalirius quadrifasciatus, Villers, 5, Minorca, 1900 (Hernandez).
pilipes, F., 8 7, 2 23, Palma, March 24th; Castle Bellver, March 25th, 26th, and
30th ; Miramar, March 27th; Valldemosa, March 27th (colonies flying round their
nests in holes in walls); Pollensa, April 3rd and 4th, A very abundant species,
always found on flowers except at Valldemosa. @ 1, not localised, Thomas and
Pocock, 1900.—— nigrocinetus, Lep., ? 2, Minorca, near Talayot of Trepuco, April
6th.—- fg 3, 9 11, Castle Bellver, March 25th, 26th, and 30th (abundant on
flowers). @, Inca, Majorca, March, 1900, Thomas and Pocock. balearicus,
Friese, g 1, 9 2, Castle Bellver, March 30th; Pollensa to Castle del Rey, April 3rd.
1 g, Thomas and Pocock, 1900.

nigri-

ila (September,

Bombus terrestris, L., var. ferrugineus, Schmied., ¢, 14, 9, 5, 9 1, Castle Bell-
ver, March 25th, 26th, and 30th ; Miramar, March 27th; Pollensa, Puig de Maria,
April 2nd and 5th (abundant on flowers). All the specimens taken of B. terrestris
were of this form, which differs from the type in having the hairs of the tibiz
fulvous ; it occurs in 8. W. France, Spain, and Portugal, but the specimens I have
of this species from Algeria, are of the type form.

Apis mellifica, Linn., § , 33, abundant everywhere in Majorca, Minorca, Talayot
of Trepuco, April 6th. 1 9, Thomas and Pocock, not localised, 1900.

Thus 48 species were obtained. ‘The number captured in June
and July of the present year will turn out to be far larger.

Woking: July, 1901.

Reprinted from “ The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,” Second Series, Vol. xii.]

239-240 (October,

BALEARIC INSECTS.—HEMIPTERA-HETEROPTERA

CotLEcTED IN MAgorcaA AND Minorca (MArcH AND ApRit, 1990) By E. B.
Poutton, OnprieLtp THomas, AND R. I. Pocock.

BY EDWARD SAUNDERS, F.L.S., &c.
oe

Solenosthedium lynceum, Fieb., 1 9 , not localised, 1900 (Thomas and Pocock).
IA0 Eurygaster nigrocucullata, Goeze, 1 2, Palma, Majorca, March 24th, 1900
(Poulton).

Graphosomea lineatum, L., 1 g, not localised (Thomas and Pocock).

Brachypelta aterrima, Forst., 2 ¢, Pollensa, N. Majorica, under stones, April
Ist, 1909 (Poulton) ; Mahon, Minorea, April, 1900 (Poulton).

Sehirus morio, L., 1 g, Mahon, Minorea, April 7th, 1900 (Poulton).

Stenocephalus agilis, Scop., 2 6,2 2, Miramar Grounds, N. W. Majorca (Poul-
ton), March 27th, 1900.——1 9, Inca, Majorca, March 24th, 1900 (Thomas and
Pocock). All these are of the variety with the apical half of the posterior femora
black.

Lygeus pandurus, Scop., Majorca. Many of both sexes taken in Miramar
Grounds, March 27th, 1900; and outside Castle Bellver, elev. 400 ft., March 26th,
1900, all of the variety with milky-white unspotted membrane, like those from
Algeria ; five pairs captured in cop. in the latter locality (Poulton).——1 g, Inea,
Majorca, March, 1900 (Thomas and Pocock).

Pyrrhocoris egyptius, L.,2 8,3 2, along road from Miramar to Valldemosa,
N. W. Majorca, March 27th, 1900 (Poulton). apterus, L., 1 g , Mahon, Minorea,
April 6th; 1 9, Palma, Majorca, March 24th, 1900 (Poulton); ¢ ¢, Albufera,
Majorca, April, 1900 (Thomas and Pocock).

Hydrometra stagnorum, Ltr., 1 g,3 2, Soller, N. W. Majorca, March 29th,
1900 (Poulton) ; ¢ 9, Inca, Majorca, March, 1900 (Thomas and Pocock).

Velia rivulorum, Fab., 2 6,2 2 (macr.), 1 ¢ (brach.), and larval forms. ditch
near Port of Pollensa, N. Majorca, April 4th, 1900 (Poulton); 1 ¢,5 9, and
larva, Inca, Majorca, March, 190U {Thomas and Pocock).

Gerris najas, de G., 1 ¢ (macr.), Albufera, Majorca, April, 1900 (Thomas
and Pocock). thoracica, Schum., 1 g, Inca, Majorea, March, 1900 (Thomas
and Pocock).

Ploiaria domestica, Scop., 1 g, Inca, Majorca, March, 1900 (Thomas and
Pocock).

Pirates strepitans, Ramb., 1 9, Albufera, Majorca, April 15th, 1900 (Thomas
and Pocock).

Lopus lineolatus, Brullé, 1 g, Palma, Majorca, outside Castle Bellver, March
25th, 1900 (Poulton).

Pachytomella Passerini, Cost., 2 g, 1 9, Mahon, Minorca, April 7th, 1900
(Poulton).

Pachyxyphus lineellus, Muls. and Rey, 1 g, Palma, Majorca, March 25th, 1900
(Poulton).

Naucoris conspersus, Stal, 2, Inca, Majorca, March, 1900, not localized (Thomas
and Pocock).

Notonecta glauca, L., y. maculata, 5 and 2 larvee, Mahon, Minorca, April, 1900
(Poulton) ; 7, Inca, Majorca, March, 1900 (Thomas and Pocock).

Anisops producta, Fieb., 2,5, Majorca, ditch, near Port of Pollensa, April,
1900 (Poulton).

As in the case of the Aculeata, a far larger number of species
were obtained in June and July of the present year,

Woking: July, 1901.

a

it at

Fi aM} ath

ir

1901.) 272

BALEARIC INSECTS.—DIPTERA.

CoLLEcTED IN MAgorca AND Mryorca (Marcu AND APRIL, 1900) BY

E. B. Poutron, OLpFietp THomaAs, anp R. I. Pocock.

BY COL. J. W. YERBURY, tate RB.A., F.Z.8., &c.

ee

The Diptera collected by Professor Poulton and Messrs. Thomas
and Pocock are not of any particular interest, but are such as may be
collected in any part of Europe; the most interesting species are
Phorantha subcoleoptrata and Bombylius pallens.

Where the name of the island is omitted, Majorca is always to
be understood ; where a reference to the collector is omitted, Poulton
is to be accepted. The names Thomas and Pocock are indicated by

their initial letters.
BIBIONID&.

humer-

Dilophus humeralis, Zett.?, 2 9, Pollensa, slope of Puig de Maria.
alis,? Zett., April 2nd, 1900, 2 ?, Miramar, garden of Hospideria, March 27th,
1900, in bad condition (gummed on card), and therefore difficult to determine.

Bibio Marci, L., g and 9, Pollensa, base of M. Sentuiri; 2 g and 1 @.

Miramar, garden of Hospideria, March 27th, 1900; 1 Palma, March 25th, 1900,

outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft.——sp. inc., 1 8, Pollensa, Puig de Maria, April 2nd,

1900, gummed on card.
CHIRONOMID.

Chironomus, sp. inc., Albufera, April 13th, 1900 (‘T. and P.), fragment.

CULICID®.
Culex, sp. ine., 2 2 specimens, 1 near Maracor, Porto Cristo, March 31st,
1900 ; 1 Palma, near Porto Pi, March 24th, 1900, different species in bad condition.
TIPULIDE.

Pachyrhina maculosa, Meig., g and ?, in coitu, Pollensa, slopes of Monte
Sentuiri, April 2nd, 1900; 1 g, Pollensa, April 2nd, 1900, slopes of Puig Maria;
1 g and 2 9, Inca (T. and P.).

Zhe (November,

ASILIDH.
Dysmachus trigonus, Meig., Castle Bellver, 350 feet, March 26th, 1900, single

specimen,
BOMBYLIDZ&.

Bombylius pallens, Meigen (Eur. Zweif. Ins., vol. ii, p. 214), g , Pollensa, slopes
of Puig de Maria, April 2nd, 1900; Inca, March, 2 ¢ and 1 ? (T. and P.);

originally described from Portugal.
SYRPHIDR.

Melanostoma, sp. inc., 9, Palma, March 24th, 1900, sp. ine., 2 2, Miramar
grounds, March 27th, 1900, and Pollensa Road to Castillo del Rey, April 3rd, 1900
(these three specimens being all 9 are difficult to identify, and in the absence of any

guide for the identification of 2 Melanostoma and Platychirus, even the genus
of the specimen must be left in doubt).

Syrphus lasiopthalmus, Zett.?, 2 immature 2 specimens, San Cristobal, Min-
orea, April 10th, 1900 (T. and P.); Miramar grounds, March 27th, 1900.——niti-
dicollis, Meig., Inca (T. and P.) ; Pollensa, April 1st, 1900.

Catabomba pyrastri, L., 9 , outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March 26th, 1900.

Eristalis tenax, L., 7, Castle Bellver, 250—400 ft., March 25th, 1900; 2,
outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March 26th, 1900; 1, Miramar grounds, March 27th,
1900. eneus, Scop., 4 ¢, Miramar grounds, May 27th, 1900.

Myiatropa florea, L., Inca, Majorca, March, 1900 (T. and P.).

Syritta pipiens, L., 2, Inca, Majorca (‘T. and P.), g Pollensa, base of Monte
Sentuiri, April 2nd, 1900; ¢, San Cristobal, Minorca, April 10th, 1900 (T. and P.),
the last specimen seems aberrant ; the hind femora being without any light marking.

It is, however, carded, and is moreover in such bad condition that it is impossible
to state definitely the species to which it belongs.

Chrysochlamys cuprea, Scop., Miramar grounds, Majorca, March 27th, 1900,
a single very dark specimen of the var. nigricornis.

Chrysotoxum intermedium, Meig., , 1, outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March
30th, 1900 ; ¢, Pollensa, Monte Sentuiri, April 2nd, 1900.

CoNOPID.
Zodion cinereum, F., outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March 30th, 1900.
Myopa dorsalis, F., outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March 26th, 1900, Mahon,
Minorea, near Talyot of Trepuco, April 6th, 1900.

Muscipm. (TACHININZ.)
Allophora (Phorantha) subcoleoptrata?, single specimen, Miramar grounds,
March 27th, 1900.
Pelleteria tesselata, F., 2, grounds, Castle Bellver, 300-400 ft., March 30th,

1900.
(DEXIN#.)

Nyctia halterata, Pz., 1, outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March 30th, 1900.

(SARCOPHAGINE.)

Sarcophaga vulnerata, Schin., 1 g, Palma, March 24th, 1900, 1 9 , Miramar
grounds, March 27th, 1900; 9, Inca, March, 1900 (T. and P.).
2 g, in Castle Bellver grounds, 250—400 ft., March 25th, 1, outside Castle, 400 ft.,
March 26th. hemorrhoa ?, Minorca, Mahon, April 6th, 1900, near T. of Trepuco.

albiceps, Meig.,

1901.] 274

The Sarcophagine are a family which requires the services of an expert for correct
identification. The above should therefore be taken with caution.
Cynomyia sepulchralis, Meig., Singleton, g, outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft.,

March 30th, 1900.
(Muscin®.)

Calliphora erythrocephala, Meig., 4, Pollensa, April Ist ; 2, Miramar grounds,
March 27th, and 1, Palma, March 24th. vomitoria, L., 3 specimens, Pollenza,
April Ist, 1900.

Musca corvina, F., near Manacor, Porto Cristo, March 31st, 1900, 1 spec.
domestica, L., Palma, March 24th, 1900, three specimens.

Idia lunata, ¥.,1 9 outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March 30th, 1900.
Graphomyia maculata, Scop., 4 g, Pollensa, base of Monte Sentuiri, April
4th, 1900.

Cyrtoneura stabulans, Fall. ?, San Cristobal, Minorea, April 10th, 1900 (T. and
P.), single specimen ; spoilt by grease and therefore difficult to identify with cer-
tainty. Although the nomenclature adopted by Brauer and Bergenstann has been
followed, still for the sake of convenience the species have been located in the old

sub-families.
ANTHOMYID2.

Hyetedosia scutellaris, Fall., Soller, March 29th, 1900.
2, Manacor, Porto Cristo, March 31st, 1900; 1, Soller, Biniarach, March 28th, 1900 ;
1, Miramar grounds, March 27th, 1900.

Ophyra anthrax, Meig., 1 2, Majorca, Pollensa, slopes of Puig de Maria, April
2nd, 1900; 2 2, Minorca, San Cristobal, April 10th, 1900 (T. and P.).

Spilogaster ?, sp. inc , near depuncta, Fall., Inca, March 24th, 1900 (T. and P.),
headless.

Pegomyia, sp. ine., 2 9 , Manacor, Porto Cristo, March 31st, 1900, carded, and
therefore difficult to identify.

Caricea tigrina, F., 8, Albufera, Majorca, April 15th, 1900 (T. and P.).

Fucomyia, sp. inc., Palma, March 24th, 1900, following Becker; this genus has

been placed among the Anthomyide.

semicinerea, Wied. ?,

CoRDYLURIDR.
Scatophaga stercoraria, L., Inca, March, 1900 (1. and P.).

TRYPETID®.
Acidia heraclei, L., Miramar grounds, March 27th, 1900.

SEPSID®.

Sepsis, sp. ine., probably cynipsea, Linn., Majorca, Sollen, March 29th, 1900 ;
8, Minorca, Mahon, near T. of Trepuco, April 6th, 1900; 4 gummed specimens,
difficult to identify.

Piophila, sp. ine., 1, outside Castle Bellver, 400 ft., March 30th, 1900, gummed.

BorBoripDm.

Limosina, sp. ine., Minorca, Mahon, 1 near I. of Trepuco, April 6th, 1900 ; 1,
Palma, March 24th; 1, Pollensa, Ap. 4.

Three gummed fragments of different families quite undecypherable.

St. James’s, 8S.W.:
October, 1901,

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136 (June,

\". A NEW SPECIES OF LYCAINID FROM UGANDA
AND LAKE VICTORIA NYANZA.

BY S. A. NEAVE, B.A.

Reprinted from “ The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine,’ Second Series, Vol. xiv.

PENTILA CLARENSIS, 2. sp.

(Type ¢ from Toro Uganda, in the Hope Collection, Oxford
University Museum).

Allied on the one hand to P. amenaida, Hew., and P. mombase, Grose-Smith,
and on the other to P. pauli, Staud., the affinity to the latter species being the
more pronounced. 2. Expanse, 38°5 mm.

Upper-side: pale fulvous orange, with a few black spots. Hind margins of
both wings bordered with dull black. This border is smooth across the apex of the
fore-wing but serrated elsewhere. There is also a narrow black border along the
costa of the fore-wing. In both wings a terminal discocellular spet.

The fore-wing has three sub-costal black spots immediately above the upper
border of the cell. Below the cell is a larger spot between the Ist and 2nd
median nervules. There are no spots within the cell Along the hind marginal
border is a small discal row of two, or sometimes three minute spots. These are
evanescent in the specimen from Nyangori.

The hind-wing has two spots on the costal margin, which may or may not be
somewhat evanescent. Running parallel with the black hind margin is a discal
row of small spots, usually five in number, of which the one nearest the costa is

137 much the largest. With the exception of the latter, these spots are evanescent in
the specimen from Nyangori, in which however distinct traces of the corresponding
spots upon the under surface of the wing are visible.

Under-side: paler than the upper-side ; the whole of the hind-wing and the
costa, apex and hind margin of the fore-wing being a dull buff. The rest of the
fore-wing is of the same colour as the upper-side. The black border of both wings is
absent, but there is a narrow black marginal line inside the black fringe. ‘The
fringe is interrupted opposite the internervular spaces by the spreading outwards
ofthe ground colour. In the fore-wing these buff sections of the fringe are smaller
than in the hind-wing where they may be much larger than the black sections.
Within the fringe the narrow black line is thickened opposite the black sections,
interrupted opposite the buff. A series of internervular black more or less linear
markings occupies a submarginal position. In the hind-wings these markings are
oval or moniliform spots; in the fore-wing they become more and more linear towards
the apical angle. The spot nearest the inner margin of the fore-wing is especially

1903.] 137

rounded in one specimen from Toro and of exceptionally large size, recalling the
appearance in P. amenaida var. nyassana, Auriv. Kach inwardly directed angle
of the serrated margin on the upper-side coincides with the position of one of these
marks on the under-side, as can be easily seen when the specimen is held to the
light.

All the spots upon the upper surface are represented by corresponding ones
(which are generally better marked) on the under-surface. ‘This is especially the
case in the discal rows of spots on both wings. ‘That on the fore-wing comprises
six spots, two of them being in the apical region, and that on the hind seven
similar spots.

Additional marks on the under-surface are, in the fore-wing, a fourth distally
placed subcostal spot, and in the hind-wing three large spots, placed just beyond
the posterior margin of the discoidal cell.

In the reduction of the number of spots and in the sub-marginal
streaks on the under-surface, P. clarensis exhibits an approach to P.
pauli, Staud., but the reduction in the number of spots is not carried
to the same extent, nor are the submarginal marks on the under-
surface so linear in form as in that species. It is also interesting to
note that in some specimens of P. tropicalis, Boisd., there is a feeble
representation of the same serrated border to the hind-margin of the
fore-wing which occurs in P. clarensis.

There can be but little doubt that P. clarensis provides an
instance of Millerian association with the very plentiful and widely
distributed Pardopsis punctatissima, Boisd., to which it bears a marked
general resemblance.

Three specimens of this Lycenid, all ¢’s, have recently been
presented to the Hope Collection by Mr. Clare Aveling Wiggins, of
Kisumu, after whom the species has been named. Two of them
were collected by natives for Major Rattray in the Toro district in
Western Uganda, in November and December, 1900, and presented by
him to Mr. Wiggins. The third specimen was captured by Mr.
Wiggins himself at Nyangori, near the east shore of the Victoria
Nyanza, November 1--8, 1902. Mr. Wiggins is a most ardent
Entomologist, and has, within the last six months, sent several
thousand specimens of Lepidoptera from this district to the Hope
department.

In conclusion, I should like to express my thanks to Mr. H. H.
Druce for his kindness in giving his opinion upon this species.

Magdalen College, Oxford :
May, 1903.

138

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oe ee

Report of the Hope Professor of Zoology, 1902.

Many fine additions to the Hope Collections were made in
1902, but the following record must necessarily be incomplete
because of the salutary change which has taken place in the
date of appearance. The Report for 1901 appeared in June
of last year and contained an account of the work which was
done up to a few days before publication. It follows that, as
regards labour spent in preparing, labelling, cataloguing, and
incorporating the specimens presented during 1902, the present
Report can only contain the complete records of about three
quarters of a year.

The most important accessions during the year have been
the great series of South African insects of many orders, and
especially the bionomic material presented by Guy A. K.
Marshall, Esq.; the fine collection of butterflies from Toro,
Uganda, Lake Victoria Nyanza, and Mombasa, presented
by C. A. Wiggins, Esq.; the South African Hymenoptera
Aculeata, by Dr. F. N. Brown; the Oriental Heterocera, by
Colonel C. Swinhoe; and the insects of many orders from
Central Spain, by the Professor. Important donations have
also been received from C. J. M. Gordon, Esq. (Southern
Nigeria), Herbert Druce, Esq., F.L.S. (many localities),
Lieut.-Colonel J. W. Yerbury (many localities), E. L. Meyer,
Esq. (North Germany), W. J. Kaye, Esq. (British Guiana),
W. L. S. Loat, Esq. (Blue Nile, Soudan, and North Uganda),
F. A. Bellamy, Esq. (Tenerife), W. R. Allen, Esq. (North
America), Hamilton H. Druce, Esq. (Russia).

The most important accessions to the British Collections
have been due to the kindness of Lieut.-Col. J. W. Yerbury,
Horace S. J. Donisthorpe, Esq., Professor T. Hudson-Beare,
Major R. B. Robertson, W. C. Boyd, Esq., W. J. Lucas, Esq.,
Mr. W. Holland, and Mr. A. H. Hamm.

Valuable gifts to the Hope Library were made by a large

B

~
A

2

number of donors. A detailed account appears as the con-
cluding section of this Report. The works presented by
F. D. Godman, Esq., Hon. D:C.L., F-R:S:, and theyian
Walter Rothschild are of exceptional importance.

The work of the Department has suffered considerably
from ill-health, Mr. Holland having been kept away for many
weeks in the autumn as the result of an accident, and both he
and Mr. Hamm having had influenza in the early part of
1903. In spite of these difficulties a great deal has been
accomplished. Mr. Holland has finished the final arrange-
ment of the great sub-family of the Vymphalinae, which has
occupied him so long and absorbed so much of the space
in the new cabinets, Seven cabinets with sixty drawers each
contain the species of this group. This work finished, the
arrangement of the remaining groups of the Rhopalocera
is being rapidly completed, the chief difficulty being the want
of cabinet accommodation. The S//eliconinae have been
arranged with ample space for addition for many years to
come in forty drawers ; and the Acracinae, the last Nymphalid
sub-family, are now being transferred to another series of forty
drawers which are all that remain unoccupied of the last
consignment of ten 20-drawer cabinets purchased for the
Department. When this work is finished, as it must be in
a few days, the necessity for more cabinet space will become
pressing—and all the more so because six months must elapse
before another order can be completed. The important sub-
family of the Papilioninae has been worked out and arranged
in temporary quarters in the old cabinets. The Lycaenidae,
with the exception of the South American Theclas, have also
been provisionally placed in an old cabinet with very small
and too shallow drawers.

One chief piece of work rendered necessary by recent
accessions has been the labelling of the vast collection of
many thousands of Bornean insects of various orders presented
in 1899, Igoo, and 1901, by R. Shelford, Esq., M.A. This
great demand upon the time of the Assistants has now nearly
been met. Another task of perhaps greater magnitude has been
the pinning, setting, and labelling of the large collection made

3

in Majorca and Spain (1g01) by the Professor, Mr. Holland
and Mr. Hamm. This too is now nearly complete. Mr.
Hamm’s time was also much occupied in preparing cabinet
drawers, mounting specimens, and labelling for Colonel Yer-
bury’s invaluable work upon our collection of Diptera, and
also in specially preparing specimens to be photographed
for the plates accompanying memoirs which have been written
in the Department during the year. Other pieces of work
are sufficiently indicated in the record of catalogued accessions
which is given on pp. 20-22. Among these I must specially
allude to the large amount of work which has been expended
upon the valuable collection of British Coleoptera presented
by Horace S. J. Donisthorpe, Esq. Precise data accompany
all the specimens, but each form of label only applies to com-
paratively few, so that in printing, the type required to be
altered hundreds of times for date or locality or both. The
resetting of the old collection has unfortunately been entirely
at a standstill during the year.

Dr. Dixey has now arranged the whole of the Pzerinae
in five 60-drawer cabinets. The work must not, however,
be regarded as complete save for the incorporation of new
material as it is received, for Dr. Dixey has set so high
a standard in this part of our collection that considerable
time must still elapse before the labour on the existing
specimens is finished. It must be still many months before
the instructive maps, which show at a glance the distribution
of genera and species, will have been coloured and fixed in
their places. The determination of the boundaries of the area
of distribution of each species and genus involves prolonged
and patient inquiry, and yet the result when expressed in
colour on a map can be comprehended almost at a glance.

Colonel Swinhoe completed the arrangement of the Pyrales
just before leaving Oxford. I take the opportunity of again
saying that the warm thanks of the University are due to him
for all that he has done for the Hope Collection of moths,
during the many years of his residence in Oxford, and for the
large number of specimens which he has added to the col-
lection.

B 2

4.

Early in the year Colonel J. W. Yerbury most kindly
worked out by far the larger part of our general collection
of Asilid flies and those of the British collection, residing
in Oxford during some weeks for this purpose. That part of
our collection has been rescued by his kind help from a con-
dition of chaos, and it is now one of the best worked out and
best arranged sections of the more difficult orders of insects.
It is greatly to be desired that Colonel Yerbury may be able
to renew his kind assistance.

At the end of 1902 and beginning of the present year,
Mr. W. J. Lucas kindly undertook the naming and arrange-
ment of our collection of British dragon-flies (Odonata). The
British collections are a very important section of the Depart-
ment, and it is most satisfactory to know that another group has
now been brought into a condition of great practical utility.

Much kind help has also been afforded by naturalists to
whom specimens from the Hope Collection have been carried
or sent.

Mr. Hamilton H. C. J. Druce completed the working out of
our Lycaenidae, and the specimens have now been brought
back to Oxford. It is hoped that this last part of the family,
including the American Theclas, will soon be arranged in
the cabinet which contains the species previously named
by the same distinguished authority on the group. The
warmest thanks of the University are due to Mr. Druce
for his great kindness, which has brought ordered arrange-
ment and trustworthy determination into a difficult part
of the collection, where there was so much confusion as to
render it useless for all practical purposes.

The fine collection of Hymenoptera Aculeata made in
Greece by the late Sir S. S. Saunders is being gradually
worked out by his cousin Mr. Edward Saunders, F.R.S., who
has always helped the Hope Department with the utmost
kindness. When the work is finished it will constitute a memor-
able addition to our knowledge of the Mediterranean insect
fauna.

The Professor took the opportunity afforded by a visit
to Spain in July of last year to convey a large collection

5

of unnamed South African Orthoptera, presented to the
Department by Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall, to Seftor Don
Ignacio Bolivar of Madrid, the eminent authority on this
order of insects, who with the utmost kindness put aside
other work and determined the great majority of the species
in about ten days, so that they could be brought back to
Oxford by hand on the return journey. One new genus and
several new species were found in the collection. Don
Ignacio also kindly presented to the Department a most
valuable collection of named Spanish Orthoptera and insects
of different orders from tropical West Africa.

Very kind help has been afforded to the Department by
Monsieur Jules Bourgeois of Ste. Marie aux Mines, Alsace,
the distinguished authority upon the Malacoderm Coleoptera,
to whom numerous specimens of this group from Borneo and
South Africa have been sent for identification. Many new
species have been found by M. Bourgeois in the material
sent, and these are being or have been described by him
as Lycocerus mimicus, Lycus marshalli, L. podagricus, L. con-
formis, L. poultoni, Lygistopterus barkeri, and Cladophorus
natalensis. In returning the boxes of identified specimens
M. Bourgeois also kindly included specimens from his own
collection presented to the Department.

A typical collection of Brenthidae, presented by Mr. R.
Shelford, was very kindly worked out for the Department by
the distinguished coleopterist Dr. A. Senna, of Florence,
who determined and described the following new species in
our series, Diurus shelfordi, D. silvanus (female, the male
having been previously described), and D. pozltonz.

In the Transactions of the Entomological Society for 1902
(pp. 541-9), many new species in the Hope Collection are
described: a unique example of a splendid new Asilid fly,
fTyperechia marshall, described by Mr. E. E. Austen ; a new
genus, AJegapetus, and four new species of Hemiptera by
Mr. W. L. Distant; four new Hymenoptera by Col. C. T.
Bingham ; a very interesting and unique example of a carabid
beetle, Polyhirma bennettii, by Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall; and
the Telephorid, Lycocerus mimicus, alluded to above, by

6

Monsieur Jules Bourgeois. All these specimens are South
African and, with the exception of the carabid, were captured
and presented by Mr. Guy Marshall. Polyhirma bennettii
was captured at Somerset West, Cape Colony, in Jan. 1900,
by Mr. E. N. Bennett, M.A., Hertford College.

A few Hispidae were kindly named by Dr. Gestro, of Genoa,
and one new species was found in the little Bornean collection
which was sent to him.

Six members of the Council of the Entomological Society
were able to accept the invitation for the first Saturday to
Monday in July. There were present on July 5 to 7 the
Treasurer, Mr. R. M¢Lachlan, F.R.S.; one Secretary, Mr.
H. Rowland Brown, M.A., University College; two Vice-
Presidents, Dr. David Sharp, F.R.S., and the Professor;
Rev. F. D. Morice, M.A., Queen’s College; Mr. Arthur J.
Chitty, M.A., Balliol College ; and Col. C. Swinhoe, Hon. M.A.,
Wadham College ; together with the following entomologists,
Professor RK. Meldola, F.R.S., Mr. H.S. J. Donisthamae
Mr. Hamilton H. Druce, Mr. M. Jacoby, and Mr. Guy A. K.
Marshall. I have to thank many friends, and especially the
Vice-Chancellor, the Proctors, and Dr. F. A. Dixey, for their
kind help in promoting the success of a visit which is of
inestimable value to the Department.

An unusual number of African naturalists have been in
England during the year 1902, and the Department has been
visited by many kind friends who have presented specimens
and sent notes and observations from various parts of the
continent. Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall (Rhodesia) came many
times and worked out our collection of the Rhynchophorous
coleopterous genus, //ipporrhinus, of which he is making a
special study, and the collections have also been seen by
Mr. Horace A. Byatt, B.A., Lincoln College (Central African
Protectorate), Mr. C. J. M. Gordon, B.A., Balliol College
(Southern Nigeria), Mr. S. L. Hinde (East African Protecto-
rate), and Mr. W. L. S. Loat (Soudan and N. Uganda).

Other kind friends of the Department have inspected some
part of the collections at various times during the year :—

7

Mrs. W. B. Pryer, Mr. W. C. Boyd, Dr. Karl Jordan,
Dr. Francis Jenkinson, Hon. D.Litt., and Dr. H. J. Hansen of
Copenhagen, who brought back some types which had been
lent him for study. Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S., Prof. James
Mie Eis rath PakeS: Prof. Charles. S: Minot, Hen. Dice:
of. Harvard University, Prof. Arthur Dendy of The South
African College, Cape Colony, and Dr. G. R. Parkin of
Toronto, have also visited the Department.

As regards the publication of researches, the year 1902 has
been by far the most fruitful of any in the last decade. This
is mainly due to the fact that the work of many previous
years reached its culmination in the appearance of a memoir
on the “Bionomics of South African Insects,’ by Mr. Guy
A. K. Marshall and the Professor (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.,
1902, pp. 287-584, Plates IX-XXIII). The final arrangement
of the manuscript of this publication was greatly helped by
the presence of Mr. Marshall in England during the last
summer, and his visits to Oxford. The chief part of Dr. Dixey’s
paper on “Seasonal Dimorphism in Butterflies” (Trans. Ent.
Soc. Lond., 1902, pp. 189-218, Plate IV) also dealt with.
Mr. Marshall’s experiments and observations in South Africa
in the years 1896-1901. A third paper by Mr. S. L. Hinde
on “The Protective Resemblance to Flowers borne by an
African Homopterous Insect” (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902,
pp- 695-698, Plates XXVI, XXVIJ), contained further obser-
vations on the interesting “cluster of insects grouped to
resemble a flower spike,” figured by Professor J. W. Gregory,
in the “Great Rift Valley” (London, 1896), and in some
respects corrected the conclusions of this naturalist. The
plates are of the highest importance, being reproductions in
“three-colour”’ and half-tone, respectively, of sketches of the
perfect insects and the larvae in their natural surroundings
made upon the spot by Mrs. Hinde. In this, as in the other
memoirs, the described material is deposited in the University
Collections, and the authors, when non-resident, have been
in continual communication with the Department. These
three publications have been issued as the third volume of
“ Hope Reports,” which has just appeared. Inasmuch as these

8

papers, dealing almost exclusively with African natural history,
were amply sufficient to make up a volume, it appeared con-
venient to withhold a number of earlier publications con-
cerned with material from other parts of the world. It is
consequently anticipated that Vol. IV will be issued at no
distant date, perhaps towards the end of the present year.

It was much hoped that another important memoir on the
bionomics of Bornean Insects by Mr. R. Shelford, MEAS
Curator of the Sarawak Museum at Kuching, Borneo, would
have appeared in 1902, but there was some difficulty in the
production of the five coloured plates. The paper will be
published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society in
April next.

In the preparation of all these publications written in the
Department, or by naturalists in various parts of the world in
constant communication with the Department, the kindest
assistance has always been received from Sir George Hampson
and the whole staff of the Insect Department of the British
Museum of Natural History. I particularly wish to thank
Mr. C. O. Waterhouse, Mr. C. J. Gahan, Mr. G. J. Arrow, Mr.
F, A. Heron, Mr. E. E. Austen, and Mr. R. I. Pocock (of the
Arachnid Department), from all of whom I have received con-
stant help. The following naturalists working in the British
Museum have also rendered the kindest assistance, Colonel
C. T. Bingham in the Hymenoptera, Colonel J. W. Yerbury
in the Diptera, and Mr. W. L. Distant in the Hemiptera.
All three naturalists contributed important sections to
Mr. Marshall’s memoir. I also desire to acknowledge the kind
assistance of Mr. M. Jacoby, the Rev. H. S. Gorham and
Dr. Karl Jordan.

The measure of success in research achieved during the
past year by the Department is above all due to the efficient
help of my assistants, Mr. W. Holland and Mr. A. H. Hamm,
who have taken the keenest interest in the progress of the
work, to Dr. F. A. Dixey in Oxford, and to Mr. Guy Marshall
both in South Africa and in England.

Of the plates which illustrated the publications of the year

9

1902, no less than fourteen were reproduced from admirable
photographs of the actual specimens taken by Mr. Alfred
Robinson in the University Museum.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTION IN 1898,

A set of 37 butterflies and 1 fine Elaterid beetle, from
Sarawak, Borneo (unknown date), presented by Dr. F. A.
Dixey, M.A., D.M., Fellow of Wadham College, have now
been incorporated. The series includes Euploeine butterflies
and their Papilionine mimics, an interesting addition to the
bionomic collection.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTION IN Igoo.

Since the last Report a great deal of work has been
expended upon the splendid series of Bornean insects pre-
sented by R. Shelford, Esq., M.A., but it has only been
possible to catalogue a small proportion of the accessions of
the year Igoo.

An interesting set of 47 insects (Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera,
Hemiptera, Neuroptera), 39 from various localities in the
Faroé Islands, and 8 from Iceland (1900), were presented
by the captor, N. Annandale, Esq., B.A., Balliol College.
A fine series of 11 males and 4 females of Hepzalis humuli (the
English “ Ghost Swift”) compare in an interesting manner
with the form feth/andica of the same species, from the
Shetlands.

Forty-five insects of various orders from Port Elizabeth,
South Africa, were presented by Malcolm Burr, Esq., B.A.,
New College, together with 34 Orthoptera from various
localities (S.E. Europe, Ceylon, N. and S. America, and
Madagascar), and 3 Phryganidae (Neuroptera) from Deal
(1897) for the British Collection.

The remaining donations provisionally acknowledged in
previous Reports are still uncatalogued, although it is hoped
that this work may be completed during the present year.

B3

10

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS IN 1901.

The specimens presented in 1901 and provisionally acknow-
ledged in the Report of last year are, with few exceptions,
still uncatalogued ; but an immense amount of time and labour
have been expended upon the two chief donations, the speci-
mens from Majorca and Spain presented by the Professor,
Mr. Holland and Mr. Hamm, and those from Borneo pre-
sented by R. Shelford, Esq., M.A. The following have been
catalogued and incorporated :

A specimen of Sphinx convolvuli captured (July 1900) on
a steamer between Hull and Bergen and presented by Col.
Swinhoe, together with 2 moths taken by him in Norway
(1900).

Three Lepidoptera, Tonset, Norway (Sept. 1901), were pre-
sented by the captor, E. N. Bennett, Esq., M.A., Hertford
College.

Six Forficulidae from Japan were presented by Harold
Hornsey.

A specimen of Melitaca aurinia was bred in the Depart-
ment (June Io, 1g01); presented by Miss R. Butler, who had
found the larva at Mt. Vinaigre, Var, France, in February
1gOI,

ADDITIONS TO THE BRITISH COLLECTIONS IN Igol.

The whole of the uncatalogued material acknowledged in
the Report for 1g01 has now been catalogued and incorporated,
with the exception of the valuable collection of British Lepi-
doptera presented by W. C. Boyd, Esq., upon which a con-
siderable amount of work in the way of printing must be
expended.

Six specimens of the “ Mullein Shark Moth” (Cucullia ver-
basci), bred (May, 1901) from larvae found in the Parks (July,
190), were presented by the captor, Mr. J. Mullis.

Forty-six insects of various orders from the neighbourhood
of Oxford, and a moth (Acidalia marginepunctata) from Wey-
mouth, were presented by the captor, Mr. W. Holland. The

flit

data of all specimens are most precise, and the series includes
interesting sets of species with the same general type of
colouring, for the bionomic series. All these insects and those
recorded below, unless otherwise stated, were captured in the
year IgOl.

Twenty-one insects of various orders, almost entirely from
the neighbourhood of Oxford, were presented by the captor,
the Professor; two moths from near Rugby by the captor,
E. P. Poulton, Esq., Balliol College; two beetles from near
Oxford by Ronald W. Poulton ; and a moth from the same
locality by Janet Poulton.

A moth, from Oxford, was presented by the captor,
Mr. A. Robinson.

Fifteen insects of various.orders, from Oxford and near
Wantage, were presented by the captor, Mr. H. Trim.

An Arachnid, from Oxford, was presented by the captor,
W. G. Pogson Smith, Esq., M.A., St. John’s College.

A Locustid, from near Oxford, was presented by the captor,
C. J. Bayzand, Esq.

A specimen of Sphinx convolvuli (the convolvulus Hawk-
moth), from Headington, was presented by the captor,
Mr. T. Baines.

A specimen of Szvex gigas, from Headington, was presented
by the captor, Mr. W. D. Rowles.

A specimen of Dytiscus marginalis, from Oxford, was pre-
sented by the captor, Mr. J. Baylis.

A hybernated queen hornet (Vespa crabro), from Stanton
Harcourt, was presented by the captor, Mr. W. Alder.

A series of two queen hornets, two workers, and two males,
from Mortimer, Berks., were presented by the captor,
E. P. Poulton, Esq., Balliol College.

A male “ glow-worm” (Lampyris), and a species of Raphidia,
from the New Forest, were presented by the captor, Major
R. B. Robertson.

A specimen of Szrex gigas, from Littleham Rectory, near
Bideford, was presented by the captor, Rev. G. B. Simeon.

12

A wasp ( Vespa, sp.) and two mimetic Diptera taken together
near Cambridge, on June 9, Igo1, were presented by the captor,
Miss Cora B. Sanders, Lady Margaret Hall.

Ninety-four insects of various orders from the Oxford
district, Devon, Suffolk, and Wicken Fen, Cambridge, were
presented | by: the ‘captor, Mr: A: Hi. Hanmim. (Phe senes
includes the following moths:—A set of five bred specimens
of Caradrina ambigua, six Apamea leucostigma, and four
Nonagria helmanni. Among the butterflies are two Papilio
machaon (the “ Swallow-tail”’) from Wicken Fen.

Sixteen insects of various orders, from Hampshire, Berk-
shire, and South Devon, were presented by W. J. Lucas, Esq.,
the captor in all cases except one.

Four specimens of Vanessa polychoros (the “ Large Tortoise-
shell’), bred from larvae found near Oxford, were presented
by the captor, Harold Thompson, Esq.

A large spider (Lycosa, sp.) apparently introduced into the
country in bananas, and found at Way & Sons, Oxford, was
presented by H. Ward, Esq.; and a fine species of “cock-
roach” (Llatta, sp.), found at Oxford under similar circum-
stances by W. Hazell, was presented by Mr. E. Wheal.

A set of five beetles (7rigonogenius globulum) captured,
1900, at Oldham, by Mr. F. Taylor, were presented by
Brocton Tomlin, Esq. It is believed that the species has
been recently introduced into the country in American grain
(Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine, 1900, p. 64).

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTION IN 1902.

Many hundreds of duplicates kindly presented by the
Trustees of the British Museum were included in the Collec-
tion in the course of the year. The great majority of the
specimens are however in poor condition, so that they will be
replaced when better can be obtained. Hence it was not
considered advisable to catalogue them. In the meantime
many are useful for the purpose of identification.

13

A bee, Melipona apicalis, together with an Asilid fly
(Damalina, sp.) which was devouring it, were presented by
the captor, Colonel C.T. Bingham. From the Ataran Valley,
L. Tenasserim (April, 1898).

Col. Bingham also presented a Mantis, Creoboter urbana,
captured by him in the act of eating a Pierine butterfly,
Delias descombesi, North Shan States, Upper Burma (Oct.,
1900), and a fine Asilid fly (A72crostylum, sp.), Taunghu Valley,
L. Tenasserim (May, 1893).

Two Hemiptera (Redwviidac), falling into the great South
African group of distasteful insects, exhibiting warning
colours of the type characteristic of Ethiopian Lycid beetles,
were presented by W. L. Distant, Esq. Captured by Guy
A. K. Marshall, at Salisbury, Mashonaland, 5,000 ft.

Thirteen Diptera of the genus Bombylius, including six
B. pictus, from Hyéres (Feb.Apr., 1898), were presented by
the captor, Col. J. W. Yerbury; also eight specimens of
species of the same genus from South Spain (1901) and
Portugal (1896), and three Diptera of the genus Coops, from
Lahej near Aden (Mar., 1895).

A fine set of eighty-nine Diptera of the family Asz/dae,
from Karlsbad (1900), Mentone (1900), Simla (1897-8), Firoz-
pur, Punjab (1898), Bombay (1879), and Disa (1897), was
presented by the captor, Major G.C. Nurse. I have to thank
Col. Yerbury for his kind help in suggesting to the donor
the needs of the Department.

Sixty-nine butterflies, including a series of the extremely
local Erebia zapateri, together with a pair of the Asilid fly
Laphria gibbosa, of which the female was devouring a beetle,
Buprestis flavomaculata, Albarracin Mountains, Spain (1901),
were presented by the captor, Dr. T. A. Chapman.

A form of the female of the mimetic Pierine butterfly,
Euterpe curytele, Honduras, was presented by Col. Swinhoe,
Hon. M.A., Wadham College.

A very valuable set of 336 insects, almost exclusively
Lepidoptera, Southern Nigeria, West Africa (1902), was
presented by C. J. M. Gordon, Esq., B.A., of Balliol College.

14

The rapidly growing and fine collection of African Lepidoptera
in the University Museum is weakest in representatives with
authentic data from the rich West Coast, so that this con-
signment is especially welcome. The Lycaenidae include
three new species, which have been described by Mr. Hamil-
ton H. Druce (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1903) as Larino-
poda brenda, Epitola gordoni, and Pseuderesia gordont. In
addition to these unique specimens many other Lycaenid
species are new to the collection, while all are greatly wanted.
The small series of Hesperzdae and Satyrinae are also of great
value to the collection. In the fine series of the dominant
group of the Vymphalinae the species of the genera Charaxes,
Euryphene, and Diestogyna are a most important accession.
The data are superior to those of any specimens in the
collection from this part of the world, and the great majority
of specimens were captured by Mr. Gordon himself. The
series also contains some valuable additions to the bionomic
series: one set including two species of the genus Ewphaedra,
£. eleus, and £. ruspina, and a pair of the day-flying Hypsid
moth, Phaegorista similis, all captured within the limits of
two days (Mar. 1-2, 1902) near Benin City. All four insects
possess a striking coloration belonging to a single type, and
upon the wing they must closely resemble each other.
Another interesting set of convergent Pierine butterflies was
captured at one place and time. Other specimens illustrate
the struggle for existence among insects. They include
examples of two species of the distasteful genus Acraca, the
only specimens out of a lot of about twenty left intact by
ants, all the others having been devoured. The Hope Depart-
ment has very rarely received so many interesting and much-
needed specimens in a collection of this size.

A valuable series of 175 Lepidoptera from Central British
Guiana was presented by W. J. Kaye, Esq., F.E.S. All the
specimens have excellent data of locality, and a large propor-
tion bear exact dates. Many will be of great use in the
General Collection, but the chief value to the Department will
be the fine addition to the bionomic series. This part of
South America is remarkable for an immense and complex

15

group of distasteful species with varying degrees of relation-
ship, and yet possessing warning colours in common. The
great feature of this group is the tendency towards the
extension and fusion of the black markings in the hind wings,
until in the most extreme forms the wing is almost com-
pletely suffused with black. There is probably no group
of the kind in the world which suggests more interest-
ing problems in the past history of evolution than this
association of black-hind-winged butterflies from British
Guiana, and Mr. Kaye’s donation will enable the Department
to illustrate many aspects of the question in an admirable
manner. The specimens were chiefly collected in the forest
near the Potaro River, 30 miles above its junction with the
Essequibo, and many of them were captured by Mr. Kaye
himself.

A Gryllotalpa from Paraguay was presented by A. Wilkinson,
Esq.

A small collection of 62 Lepidoptera and 1 beetle from
British Central Africa (1901-2) was presented by the captor,
Horace A. Byatt, Esq., B.A., Lincoln College. The locality
renders the specimens of much value to the Department.

Eleven Coleoptera from Port Said were presented by the
captors, N. Annandale, Esq., B.A., Balliol College, and H. C.
Robinson, Esq.

A moth (Dianthecia carpophaga) from Sark (1897) was
presented by the captor, W. G. Pogson Smith, Fats MEE.
St. John’s College.

A specimen of the hawk-moth Chaerocampa cuphorbiae
was bred in the Department (July 15, 1902); presented by
Miss O. Butler, who had found the larva (Aug., 1901) near
Innsbruck,

Seven butterflies from the Kenya District of the East
African Protectorate (1901) were presented by the captors,
S. L. Hinde, Esq., and Mrs. Hinde. They include four speci-
mens of an Acraea (A. alicia) new to the University Collection.

Fourteen insects of various orders collected in the Cal-
vinia District of Cape Colony by H. L. Lake, Esq., and one

16

beetle from Tripoli, captured in 1899 by A. E. Richardson,
Esq., were presented by W. J. Lucas, Esq.

In addition to the above, many kind donations of great
value to the collection have not yet been catalogued and can
only be provisionally acknowledged. One of the most im-
portant of these arrived close upon the end of the year from
Uganda and Lake Victoria Nyanza, the gift of C. A. Wiggins,
Esq. It consists of several boxes of butterflies in “papers,”
and the contents illustrate and help to solve many Ethiopian
bionomic problems of the highest interest. It is hoped that
the conclusions which follow from an examination of the
specimens will be published at no distant date. It is also
clear that the collections both systematic and bionomic will
be very greatly enriched by this donation. From many
points of view it is one of the most interesting sets of Lepi-
doptera ever received by the University Collections.

A large collection of insects of various orders was made by
the Professor at La Granja and El Escorial in the Sierra
Guadarrama, Central Spain (July, 1902). The specimens
have been “set,” but still require their printed labels. The
collection includes a fine series of Asilid flies captured with
their prey.

A splendid collection of insects of various orders was pre-
sented by Guy A. K. Marshall, Esq., on his return from
South Africa, including an especially fine series of Diptera,
Lepidoptera Rhopalocera, and Neuroptera Odonata. The
specimens were captured in the neighbourhood of Salisbury,
in Gazaland, and in Natal. They include many fine additions >
to the bionomic series as well as to the systematic collection.
The first incontestable evidence obtained by breeding, that
Precis simia is but the “summer” or “wet phase” of Preczs
antilope, was obtained by Mr. Marshall early inthe year. A
female szmza was observed to lay eggs, two of which were
successfully reared and together with the parent presented to
the Hope Department. This astonishing seasonal change is
figured in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of
London for 3902, Plate XII, Figs. 3 (parent), 32 and 36
(offspring), Plate XIII, Figs. 4, 4a, and 46, respectively,

17

representing the under sides of the wings of the insects shown
on the former plate.

A valuable series of insects, chiefly butterflies from the
reaches of the White Nile in the neighbourhood of the northern
boundary of Uganda (1902), was presented by the captor,
W. L. S. Loat, Esq., together with a collection of insects of
various orders from the Blue Nile. The localities render these
collections of high interest. The whole of the specimens are
now “set” and provided with printed labels containing full data.
The cataloguing and incorporation is only deferred until the
insects have been shown at a meeting of the Entomological
Society of London. Dr. Dixey has studied the Lepidoptera
from the White Nile and has found the seasonal forms of
much interest. It is hoped that his memoir upon the subject
will appear in the course of the summer.

An interesting collection of insects of various orders with
excellent data from Tenerife was presented by the captor,
F. A. Bellamy, Esq. -

Coleoptera from Siam were presented by N. Annandale,
Esq., B.A., Balliol College.

Insects of various orders from South Africa and Norway were
presented by E. N. Bennett, Esq., M.A., Hertford College.

Rhopalocera from Switzerland were presented by R. W.
Lloyd, Esq.

Cocoons of five species of moths of the genus A/tacus were
presented by Mark L. Sykes, Esq., and many fine specimens
were successfully bred in the Department.

A large collection of insects of various orders from tropical
West Africa was presented by Dr. E. J. Crosse. Many of the
specimens will be of much value to the collection. Miss
E. M. Sharpe kindly suggested the needs of the Department
to the donor.

Specimens of Arthropoda from tropical South America were
presented by Mrs. E. S. Craig.

A valuable collection of Lepidoptera from Florida and
British Columbia was presented by Dr. H. P. Allen, M.A.,
D.Mus., New College. The specimens were captured by his

18

brother, W. R. Allen, Esq., of Kaslo, Kootenay, B. C., Canada
and a large proportion will be of much value to the Depart-
ment.

A very fine and extensive collection of South African
Hymenoptera Aculeata, from the Orange River Colony and
Natal, was presented by Dr. F. N. Brown. The needs of the
Hope Department were represented to the generous donor by
Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall, who has done so much to enrich
the University Collections.

Butterflies from Greece were presented by W. M. Geldart,
Esq., M.A., Trinity College, in augmentation of the collection
given by him in 1901.

Colonel Swinhoe, Hon. M.A., Wadham College, presented
a fine series of 598 specimens of Pyralidae to the general
collection of Lepidoptera Heterocera.

The collection of Diptera was enriched by a fine collection
of Indian Asilidae from the neighbourhood of Poona, collected
about 1888 by T. B. Fry, Esq.) Presented (by .Coll ave
Yerbury. ;

A valuable and carefully collected series of insects from
various localities in N. Germany was presented by the captor,
EB. L. Meyer, Esq. The Hope Collections are singulaghy,
deficient in specimens from this part of Europe, so that the
donation will be of unusual value.

A collection of insects from Russia was presented by the
captor, H. H. Druce, Esq. In this case also the locality is
hardly represented by any specimens in the University
Collections.

Oriental Diptera and Hymenoptera, chiefly from Burmah,
were presented by the captor, Col. C. T. Bingham.

A very fine collection of butterflies from many localities,
and nearly all well “set,’ was presented by Herbert Druce,
EsquiLso:

A small collection of insects from Switzerland (1902) was
presented by Miss C. B. Sanders, Lady Margaret Hall, and
of insects from Kansas, U.S.A., by C. L. Pribble, Esq.

1g

Many insects from the Eastern United States (1902) were
presented by A. H. Thayer, Esq., and interesting specimens
of Bornean insects for the bionomic series by R. Shelford, Esq.,
M.A., Curator of the Sarawak Museum, Kuching.

The following specimens were purchased in 1902. A fine
series of 199 butterflies from the Kikuyu Escarpment, East
African Protectorate (6,500 to 9,000 ft.) collected by the late
William Doherty during Sept.-Nov., Ig00, were purchased
from Mr. W. F. Rosenberg and presented by the Professor.
The series included 3 specimens of the Danaine butterfly
Melinda formosa and 4 specimens of its mimic Papilio rex,
3 specimens of Mzmacraea dohertyi, a beautiful Lycaenid
mimic of the k/ugiz form of Limnas chrysippus, all new to the
collection. The J/zmacraea was of much interest for com-
parison with the Rhodesian species, JZ. marshalli, a mimic of
the type form of Lzmnas chrysippus which is dominant in that
part of Africa. These specimens have been of much service

in the discussion of Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall’s material (Trans.
Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902, pp. 470-99). There is also included
a fine set of 4 males and 16 females, including all the diverse
mimetic forms, of Papilio cenea, and many other species
hitherto unrepresented in the Hope Collection.

A series of 150 Lepidoptera from La Merced, Peru (Chancha-
mayo and Rio Toro), was purchased from Mr. Rosenberg.
Many of the specimens exhibit mimetic or Miillerian resem-
blances, while some possess interesting cryptic characters.

A small series of 15 butterflies was purchased from Messrs.
Watkins & Doncaster. The specimens were specially wanted
to add to the collection illustrating mimicry and to increase
the series of forms of the Danaine genus Limzas which is a
emarked feature of the Hope Collection. Among the mimetic
species is Papilio tdeoides and its Danaine model, NVectaria
leuconoe, from the Philippine Islands, the mimic being one
of the finest examples in the world and hitherto unrepresented
in the collection.

An interesting set of butterflies from New Guinea purchased
from Mr. H. S. Rohu has not yet been catalogued.

20

ADDITIONS TO THE BRITISH COLLECTIONS IN 1902.

Four Asilid flies, Eastbourne (1900), were presented by the
captor, Major G. C. Nurse. .

Twenty-eight Asilid flies from many British localities,
Kent, Surrey, Hampshire, Devonshire, Lancashire, Merioneth,
Co. Kerry (1878-97), were presented by Col. Yerbury, the
great majority having been captured by him.

Twenty-five Asélidae from the Oxford and Reading dis-
tricts, East Ilsley, and South Devon (1898-1901), were
presented by the captor, Mr. A. H. Hamm.

Seven Diptera, including 6 Asilids, from the Oxford dis-
trict (1895-1901), were presented by the captor, Mr. W.
Holland.

Two specimens of Sirer gigas, N. Devon (Aug. 1902),
were presented by the captor, the Rev. G. B. Simeon, of
Littleham Rectory, Bideford.

Four specimens of Plusia moneta, Sandhurst (July, 1902),
were presented by the captor, Lieut.-Col. A. F. Mockler-
Ferryman.

Eleven specimens of Hymenoptera of various groups and
one Dipteron, Berkshire (June, 1902), were presented by the
captor, Mrs. L. J. Veley.

Five Hymenoptera, 11 Coleoptera, and 1 Hemipteron, Berk-
shire (June, 1902), and a specimen of Cetonta aurata, Oxford
(July, 1902), were presented by the captor, Miss Claridge.

A valuable set of 140 insects of different orders, and
2, Arachnids, from various localities in the New Forest
and Bournemouth districts (1902), were presented by the
captor, Major R. B. Robertson.

A hornet (Vespa crabro) from Summertown (1902) was
presented by the captor, Mr. C. A. Matthews.

Dr. W. H. Jackson, M.A., D.Sc., presented the following
insects captured by him in 1890-2: Reduvius sertus and
an Ophion from the Oxford University Museum, a fine set
of 12 Culex annulatus and 2 C. pipiens from Weston-super-
Mare. These very delicate insects had been captured and

21

preserved with the greatest care and are in beautiful con-
dition.

A specimen of Reduvins sertus from Jesus College (July 5,
1902) was presented by the captor, A. J. Chitty, Esq., M.A.,
Balliol College, together with a mutilated specimen of Vanessa
urticae from the Faversham district of Kent (1902), for the
bionomic series.

An Arachnid from Oxford was presented by the captor,
Mr. B. Lewis.

A large Arachnid (Lycosa, sp.) with its egg-cocoon, was
presented by Messrs. Gee Brothers. It had certainly been
introduced.

A “tick” found on a recently imported tortoise was
presented by T. T. Wildridge, Esq.

A hybernated specimen of Vanessa polychloros from Oxford
was presented by the captor, Mr. W. J. Clarke.

Three specimens of Phyllodromia germanica found in the
Randolph Hotel were presented by the proprietors. The
date marks the arrival in Oxford of this rapidly spreading
* cock-roach,’ which was introduced into England many
years ago.

A pair of the rare dragon-fly, Lestes dryas, from Hanwell
(1902), were presented by the captor, Stanley W. Kemp, Esq.

Nine insects of various orders from the neighbourhood
of Oxford (1902) were presented by the captor, J. E. Pogson
Smith, and 2 by W. G. Pogson Smith, Esq., M.A., St. John’s
College.

The “embryo nest” of a wasp (Vespa, sp.) built inside
a deserted bird’s nest, found by the River Loddon, near
Reading (probably in May, 1892), was presented by E. G.
Broome, Esq: B.A.,Ch. Ch.

Sixteen rare or local Micro-Lepidoptera from Herefordshire
(1895-1900) were presented by the captor, Dr. J. H. Wood.

A very fine addition to the British Collection is due to the
generosity of H. St. J. K. Donisthorpe, Esq., F.E.S. The numer-
ous specimens all bear accurate and detailed information of

22

locality and date, and constitute a most valuable accession. The
insects, which are now catalogued and supplied with printed
labels, include 431 Coleoptera, 117 Hymenoptera, 67 Diptera,
54 Rhynchota, 2 Orthoptera and 2 illustrations of bionomic
principles. The localities are very numerous and widespread,
including many in Ireland. Irish specimens have been until
lately almost absent from the collection, but now the kindness
of Colonel Yerbury and Mr. Donisthorpe has provided the
nucleus of an Irish collection which it is hoped will continue
to increase.

A valuable series of British insects has also been presented
by W. J. Lucas, Esq. The insects include 20 dragon-flies
(Odonata) much wanted in the collection, 4 Coleoptera,
37 Hymenoptera, 6 Diptera, 18 Orthoptera, all with excellent
data. Nearly all the specimens were captured in Surrey
or the New Forest, the majority in 1902. Mr. Lucas also
presented two Asilid flies with their prey, from the New
Forest (1902), for the bionomic series.

Important additions to the British Collections have also
been presented by the following donors, and will be acknow-
ledged in detail in the next Report :—W. G. Pogson Smith,
Esq., M.A., St. John’s College ; W. C. Boyd, Esq. ; Professor
T. Hudson Beare, B.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Major R. B. Robertson ;
Mr. W. Holland and Mr. A. H. Hamm.

A valuable collection of insects of various orders, including
many fine additions to the bionomic series, from Hereford-
shire and the neighbourhood of Barmouth (1902), has been
presented by the captor, Col. J. W. Yerbury.

Single specimens and small collections of British insects
have also been presented by the following donors :—Mr. H.
Trim; W. . Sharpe, Esq.; J.“ W.> Date, Esq: 5 thie avers
H. A. Pickard, M.A., Ch. Ch. ; the Professor, and members of
his family.

An interesting collection of insects and Arachnida accident-
ally introduced into Bristol from Jamdica was presented by
G. C. Griffiths, Esq.

23

ADDITIONS TO THE HOPE LIBRARY IN 1902.

The dangerous condition of many hundreds of old and
valuable monographs in their original paper wrappers was
brought before Convocation, and a grant of £50 was voted in
order to assist in making up the arrears of binding. Many
series have now been bound down to the last complete
volume, and a large number of monographs have been
rendered secure, especially in the Diptera, where the need
was exceptionally pressing.

Two very valuable gifts have been made to the Library
during the past year. The two volumes on the Rhopalocera,
together with the volume of Plates (1879-1901) in the “ Bio-
logica Centrali-Americana,’ by F. D. Godman, Hon. D.C.L.,
F.R.S., and the late Osbert Salvin, F.R.S., were presented by
F. D. Godman, Esq. These volumes, which are of the utmost
assistance to the work of the Department, being the classical
monograph on Central American butterflies, cannot be obtained
apart from the costly series of which they form an important
part. The Hon. Walter Rothschild gave as a generous
exchange for two duplicate Indian hawk-moths a set, from
its beginning in 1894, of the “ Novitates Zoologicae,”’ of which
volumes i to viii are complete, and kindly consented to
exchange future numbers for the “ Hope Reports.”

Both these accessions are now bound and in constant use.

The Secretary of State for India in Council presented the
volume on Arachnida by R. I. Pocock (London, 1900), and
that on Rhynchota (Heteroptera) by W. L. Distant, vol. i.
(London, 1902), in “ The Fauna of British India” series.

The Smithsonian Institution (United States National
Museum, Washington) presented The Annual Report of
Regents for the year ending June 30, 1900 (Washington,
1902), and valuable memoirs by the following writers :—
August Busck, Esq. ; James E. Benedict, Esq. (two memoirs) ;
William Schaus, Esq.; Ralph V. Chamberlin, Esq.; Miss
Mary J. Rathbun (two memoirs); Warren Elmer Hindes,
Esq.; Miss Harriet Richardson; Charles Branch Wilson,
Esq.; William Perry Hay, Esq.(two memoirs) ; Henry Ulke,

24

Esq.; Harrison G. Dyar, Esq.; Nathan Banks, Esq.; Dr.
John B. Smith, Sc.D.; D. W. Coquillet, Esq.

The University of the State of New York presented a fine
set of Reports of the State Museum for 1898 and 1899 (52.1,
52.25 5311, 53.2).

The Radcliffe Librarian, Oxford, presented the Catalogue
of Books added during Igor.

The United States Department of Agriculture presented
“A Biological Investigation of the Hudson Bay Region,’ by
Edward A. Prebble, Esq. (Washington, 1902).

The Boston Society of Natural History and the Bombay
Natural History Society presented their publications for the
year 1902. The latter series, complete from the beginning,
was in the original paper covers and most unsafe. It has
now been bound down to the last complete volume. The
early volumes of the Boston Society of Natural History were
bound, and in arranging the others for the binder it was found
that many parts were wanting. The Professor wrote to the
Secretary of the Society, who very kindly supplied the missing
numbers so far as they were still available. All complete
volumes have now been bound.

The Superintendent of the Museum of Zoology, Cambridge,
presented the Report of the Syndicate for gol.

“Studien zur Descendenz-Theorie” (Leipzig, 1875, 1876),
by Dr. August Weismann, Hon. D.C.L., was presented by Pro-
fessor Raphael Meldola, F.R.S. The copy is that used in the
preparation of the well-known English edition of the work,
and it is rendered interesting and valuable by the inclusion
of a number of manuscript notes from the author, and of
marginal notes by the translator and editor of the English
edition, Professor Meldola.

Parts III and IV of the “ Monograph of the Membracidae”’
were presented by the author, George Bowdler Buckton, Esq.,
1 RE Sop eel sey

A Monograph on “The Tettigidae of North America”
(Chicago, 1902) was presented by the author, Joseph Lane
Hancock, Esq.

25

“A List of British Diptera” (Second Edition, Cambridge,
1901) was presented by the author, G. H. Verrall, Esq.

“ The Moths of South Africa” (Part II), from the “ Annals
of the South African Museum” (1902), a supplementary paper
to “ The Moths of India,” and ‘“ New Species of Syntomidae
and Arctiadae,’ were presented by the author, Sir G. F.
Hampson, Bart., M.A., F.Z.S., &c.

A fine series of twenty-nine memoirs chiefly dealing with
the Malacoderm beetles, including the monograph “ Faune
Gallo-Rhénane: Coléopteres,” tome quatri¢éme (Caen, 1894),
was presented by the author, M. Jules Bourgeois.

A fine series of eighteen memoirs, chiefly upon the Ortho-
ptera, including “ Catalogo sindptico de los Ortdpteros de la
Fauna Ibérica ” (Coimbra, 1900), was presented by the author,
Sefior Don Ignacio Bolivar.

Six memoirs, principally from the Proceedings and Trans-
actions of the Royal Society (1895-1900), were presented by
the author, H. M. Vernon, Esq., M.A., D.M., Magdalen
College. These papers, containing an account of the author’s
experiments on fertilization, hybridization, the effect of environ-
ment, variation, &c., will be a valuable addition to the section
of the Hope Library including works on evolution, bio-
nomics, &c.

The same part of the Library was enriched by Dr. A. G.
Mayer, who presented his memoir, “ Effects of Natural Selec-
tion and Race-tendency upon the Colour-patterns of Lepido-
ptera”’ (New York, 1902), and by Guy A. K. Marshall, Esq.,
who presented three papers dealing with various bionomic
problems presented by the insect fauna of South Africa.

Five memoirs upon Coleoptera, one upon the Homopterous
family MWembracidae, and the Presidential Address to the
Entomological Society of London (Jan. 15, 1902), were pre-
sented by the author, the Rev. Canon Fowler, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.L.S., Jesus College.

Two memoirs on Crustacea, including “South African
Crustacea” (Part II, 1902), were presented by the author,
the pheveybomas: Ri keeotebbing, M.A FR.S., Fsi.5.,
Worcester College.

26

Dr. H. J. Hansen presented his monograph “ On the Genera
and Species of the Order Pauropoda”’ (Copenhagen, 1902).

Of special interest and value to the Department are the
separate copies of publications in which new species in the
Hope Collection are described. Thus two papers on Coleo-
ptera, one of which contains a description of Spodistes hope,
were presented by the author, Gilbert J. Arrow, Esq., F.E.S.;
and a memoir upon many new and little-known Lycaenid
butterflies was presented by the author, Hamilton H. Druce,
Esq., F.Z.S., F.E.S. Among the new Lycaenidae, the types
of Waigeum ceramicum, Horaga amethystus (female), and
Lalmenus clementi are in the University Collection.

Original papers have also been presented by the following
authors :—Frank Collins Baker, Esq.; Lieut.-Colonel C. T.
Bingham (two papers); Professor N. Leon; Lieut.-Colonel
J. W. Yerbury (late R°A.)) F-Z:S., PS. ; Prank Bouskell
Esq., F.E.S., F.R.H-S);- Edward “Saunders, Pisq, hese
EIS); ‘Colonel “J. "G, ~ Pilcher, (FR. CS.4° and = \Valliaang
Schaus, Esq.

The parts of Barrett’s “British Lepidoptera,’ the Ray
Society Volume, the volume of the Zoological Record for
the year 1902, and the numbers of the “ Entomologists’
Monthly Magazine,” the “ Entomologist,’ and the “ Entomo-
logists’ Record’ were purchased for the Department, together
with Dr. J. R. Schiner’s “ Die Wiedemann’schen Asiliden ”
and five supplementary parts of Macquart’s ‘‘ Diptera exo-
tique,’ thus completing the imperfect copy of that valuable
work.

EDWARD 8B. POULTON.

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