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THE HORSE

By J. H. WALSH, F.R.C.S.

AND

HAROLD LEENEY, M.R.C.V.S., Etc.

THE HORSE

IN THE STABLE AND THE FIELD

HIS VARIETIES

MANAGEMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, Etc.

By J. H. WALSH, F.R.C.S. (Stonehenge)

EDITOR OF 'the FIELD '
AUTHOR OF 'BRITISH RURAL SPORTS,' ETC.

REVISED BY HAROLD LEENEY, M.R.C.V.S., Etc.

WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS BX HakKISON WEIR,
ZWECKER, AND OTHERS

SIXTEENTH EDITION, IN TWO VOLUMES

WITH TOUR COLOURED PLATES

LONDON
GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, Limited

NEW YORK : E. I'. BUTTON AND CO.
1907

PRINTED BY

COWAN & CO., LTD.

PERTH

PREFACE

The demand for another edition of this work has afforded the
opportunity for a careful revision. This, however, has taken the
shape of addition rather than alteration, save in a few instances
where the discoveries of the last decade have added materially to
our scientific knowledge.

The art of equitation and the general management of horses " in
the stable and the field " have not undergone any great change since
the talented author gave to the world the present treatise, one of
the best and most complete, suitable for the private owner. His
admirable style has suffered as little as possible at my hands, the
original text being retained, save where alteration was clearly desirable.

The most generous assistance has been accorded by many well-
known authorities, a list of whom will be found elsewhere.

The chapter dealing with Arab horses is contributed by Wilfrid
Scawen Blunt, Esq., and the Hon. Miss Dillon, and extends to several
pages. The importance of Eastern blood having been so much in-
sisted on by the author, it seemed consistent with the original
character of the work to incorporate the experience of two such
acknowledged authorities on Arab horses, bred in this country for
several generations.

The description of the Clydesdale is from the pen of Lord Arthur
Cecil ; and, with Sir Walter Gilbey's kind permission, I have drawn
largely on his TFar Horse or Shire Horse for an account of that
useful animal. Captain Smyth, V.C, of the Queen's Bays, contributed
the portrait of a Dervish charger, and Slatin Pasha, of the Intel-
ligence Department, the matter referring to horses of the Sudan
generally.

viii PREFACE

Captain Hayes has afforded valuable assistance in connection with
the (to me) difficult subject of equine locomotion, and from his valu-
able Veterinary Notes frequent excerpts are made in the department
dealing Avith the diseases of the horse.

While reference has been made to many new methods of medical
and surgical treatment, the greater part of the materia medica has
been retained, as well as the bulk of the prescriptions, the latter
being of proved value, and within the capacity of the amateur to
prepare or obtain where the services of a skilled veterinarian are
not available.

Harold Leeney.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTIOK

CHAPTER T

EAULY HISTORY OF THE HORSE

The horse of Scripture— The Greek horse— That of the Romans— The Arab of
antiquity — Egyptian, Libyan, Numidian, and Moorish horses — The o"iginf.l
British liorse— Ancient methods of using the horse 1

CHAPTER II

NATURAL HISTORY AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Synonyms and classification in the scale of creation — Habits — External form as
indicated by points— Proportions — Period of maturity — Average age — Periodical
moulting— Mental development — Small stomach 7

CHAPTER III

THE HORSES OF THE EAST

The Barb — The Egyptian horse — The Dongola horse — The Burma and Manipur
ponies — Sumatra and Java ponies — Chinese and Corean ponies — Japanese horses
—The modei-n Arab — The Persian horse — The Turkish horse — Other Asiatic
horses — East Indian horses — The Australian horse — South African horses . . 19

CHAPTER IV

THE HORSES OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE

The South American horse — The Mustang — The Morgan horse — The Indian pony —
The Canadian horse — The American trotter — The American thoroughbred — The
Vermont cart-horse— The Conestoga draught-horse 38

CHAPTER V

EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL HORSES

Spanish and Portuguese horses — The Italian horse — The German horse — The French
horse-^The Flemish horse— The Hanoverian hoi'se — The Russian horse — Nor-
wegian and Swedish horses ........... 56

CHAPTER VI

THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE

General historj' — The English thoroughbred horse of 1750 — His origin — The modern
thoroughbred — Increase of size and symmetry — Comparative stoutness — Early
maturity — Object of encouraging the breed — Essentials in the thoroughbred —
Purity of blood — External formation — Height — Colour — Coat, mane, and tail —
The thoroughbred hunter and steeplechaser 67

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER VII

IIALF-BREDS, COBS, AND PONIES

PAGE

The half-bred hunter— The Irish hunter— The charger— The covert-, road-, and
park-hack— The ladies' horse — Cobs, galloways, and ponies — The carriage,
brougham, or cab-horse — The heavy machiner — The phaeton-horse, gigster, or
fast trotter 112

CHAPTER VIII

THE DRAUGHT HOKSE

The shire-horse — The Suffolk cart-horse — The improved Lincolnshire dray-horse —
The Clydesdale-horse — Other mixed breeds . . . . . . . .133

CHAPTER IX

ON THE LOCOMOTIVE ACTION IN THE VAKIOTTS PACES

Natural and acquired paces — Distribution of weight — Attitude assumed in standing
— Mode of progression — The walk — The trot— The canter — The hand gallop — The
gallop— The amble— The paces of the manege— Leaping or jumping . . .141

CHAPTER X

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE HORSE

Theory of generation — In-and-in breeding — Out-crossing — Advantages and dis-
advantages of each plan — Causes of a "hit" — Importance of health and sound-
ness in both sire and dam — Best age to breed from— The influence of the sire
and dam respectively — Choice of sire and dam— Selection of blood in eacli class
of horse — The kind of horse most profitable for the breeder to choose — Concluding
remarks on breeding 161

CHAPTER XI

THE BROOD MARE AND HER FOAL

Hovel and paddock — General management of the brood mare — Treatment when in
foal — Treatment after foaling — Early treatment of the foal — The weaning and
after treatment of the foal — Castration 182

CHAPTER XII

THE BREAKING OF THE COLT

Mr. Rarey's mode of breaking — The ordinary English method of breaking for the
saddle — Superiority of the ordinary method — Breaking to harness . . .192

CHAPTER XIII

STABLES

Situation and aspect — Foundations — Superficial area and height required — Stalls
versus loose boxes — Hay chamber and granary — Best materials for walls, floors,
doors, and windows — Drainage and water supply — Ventilation and lighting —
Stable fittings — Harness-room— Coach-house — Servants' rooms — Plans of stables
— Necessity for airing new stables 216

CHAPTER XIV

STABLE MANAGEMENT

The coachman, groom, and helper — Clothing, stable implements, etc. — Food and
water — Roots — Green food suitable for soiling horses — Artificial condimental
foods — Watering horses — The theory and practice of feeding — Bedding — Dressing
or grooming — Clipping, singeing, and trimming — Use and application of band-
ages— Management of the feet — Daily exercise ....... 245

CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XV

STABIiE MANAGEMENT CONTINUED

PAOK

Recapitulation of daily duties — Proper temperature of the stable — Remedies for
stable vices and bad habits— Preparation for work — Ordinary sweating — The
Turkish bath — Physic— Final preparation — Treatment after work — Summering —
A winter's run — The straw-j'ard— Care of saddlery and harness .... 289

CHAPTER XVI

RIDING AND DRIVING

Saddles — Bridles — IMounting and dismounting — The seat — Management of the reins
— Use of spurs — Modes of starting the horse into his various paces — Riding to
hounds — Out-door vices and bad habits — Harness — Driving a single horse^A
pair — Four-in-hand 319

INTRODUCTION

Theologians and naturalists who were content to accept the book
of Genesis verhathn et literatim were formerly agreed that all animals
sufficiently distinct to constitute a species had a separate origin. No
scientific proof of this can of course be adduced. The structure of the
horse and the fossil remains by which his past can be traced afford
evidence of transmutation.

The horse of to-day has rudimentary structures which in ether animals
perform definite functions, but to him are useless or apparently so.
The study of paleontology leads to the supposition that the horse, as
we know him now, is the product of a vexy late period in the world's
history, but through fossil remains he may be traced back through the
pleistocene, the pliocene, the miocene into the eocene, beyond which
no fragmentary evidences exist upon which to build up an ancestor.

The horse, as Sir W. H. Flower says in Modern Science, cannot be
treated of "as an isolated form, but as one link in a great chain,
one term in a vast series, one twig of a mighty tree : and to endeavour
to trace as far as our present knowledge permits what its relations are to
the rest, and by what steps of modification in its various parts it has
come to be the very singular and highly specialized animal we have now
before us, so distinct from all existing forms of life that in most of
the older zoological systems it was (at least associated only with some
very immediate allies, structurally almost identical) placed in an order
apart from all other mammals under the name of Solidungula, Solipedia,
or Monodactyla, the animal with the solid foot, or rather with a single
toe on each extremity."

The genus Equus, family Equidce, include the ass and zebra, whose
organization differs only in minor details.

The following ladies and gentlemen have afforded the editor assistance, either by
special contributions, the loan of photographs and blocks, or permission to quote
from their works.

Axe, Professor, M.R.O.V.S.

l^.aldelli. The Countess.

liellini. The Countess.

J31anc, Dr. H.

Blount, H., Esq., D.L.

Blunt, A^'ilfred Scawen, Esq.

Broad, T.D., Esq., F.R.C.V.S.

Butters, — Esq., F.R.C.V.S.

Cecil, Lord Arthur.

Charlton, A. B., Esq.

Colam, John, Esq., K.S.P.C.A.

Dillon, The Hon. Miss.

Dollar, John A. W., Esq., F.R.C.V.S.

Dnrrant, Lieut., M.R.C.V.S.

Field, Mr.

Fleming, Dr. George, F.R.C.V.S.

Freeman, Messrs.

Freyburg, Frank P. , Esq.

Gilbey, Sir Walter.

Grove, W. H., Mr.

Hawkesley, Leonard, Esq.

Haves, Captain, F.R.C.V.S.

Huish, C. H., Mr.

Hunting, W., Esq., F.R.C.V.S.

Johnstone, J. H., Esq.

Kingham, R. T., Esq.
Kroline and Seseman, Messrs.
Miller, E. D., Esq.
Musgrave, Messrs.
Nettleton and Nash, Messrs.
Patton-Bethune, Captain.
Penberthy, Professor, F.R.C.V.S.
Ringrove, R., Esq.
Robertson, Professor.
Rogers, H. G., Esq., M.R.C.V.S.
Rogerson, — Esq., F.R.C.V.S.
Sermoneta, Her Grace the Duchess.
Sheather, C, Esq., F.R.C.V.S.
Slatin Pasha.
Smith, A. Pye, Esq.
Smyth, J. C. Warrington, Esq.
Smyth, Captain N. M., V.C.
South, W. A., Esq., F.R.C.V.S.
Stock, R. A., Esq., F.R.C.V.S.
Tom.?, F., Esq.
Urquhart, George, Mr.
Vinton & Co., Messr?-.
Wheatley, — Esq., F.R.C.V.S.
Willis, William, E.sq., F.R.C.V.S.
Wilson, Miss M.

THE HORSE

CHAPTER I " .

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE

THE HORSE OF SCRIPTURE — THE GREEK HORSE — THAT OF THE ROMANS — THE ARAB OF
ANTIQUITY— EGYPTIAN, LIBYAN, NUMIDIAN, AND MOORISH HORSES— THE ORIGINAL
BRITISH HORSE — ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE.

THE HORSE OF SCRIPTURE

The earliest record of the Horse -which we possess is in the Old
Testament, where we first find him inferentially mentioned in the thirty-
sixth chapter of Genesis, as existing in the wilderness of Idumea about
the beginning of the sixteenth century before Christ. Many com-
mentators, however, render the word which is translated " mules " in
our version, as " waters," and thus a doubt is thrown upon the correctness
of the inference which is thence drawn. Moreover, in the thirty-second
chapter of Genesis, camels, goats, sheep, cattle and asses are all severally
alluded to, but no horses ; so that it is highly probable that in the
time of Jacob, whose departure from Laban is there narrated, horses
were unknown to the Israelites. It was not until after their arrival
in Egypt that the horse is clearly alluded to, Jacob, on his deathbed,
leaves us no room to doubt his knowledge of the horse, and of its
being domesticated, for he speaks of the "horse and his rider" in the
same sentence. We need, therefore, go no further for a proof of the
early existence of this animal in Egypt, and may assume that there
were large numbers of them there, for Pharaoh is recorded to have
taken "six hundred chosen chariots, and all the horses," to pursue
the Israelites to the Red Sea. It is generally supposed from the omission
of all mention of horses while the Israelites were in Arabia, that this
country, which has since become so celebrated for them, was at that
time entirely without them. The proof, however, is entirely of a
negative character, though I confess that it is as strong as any of that
nature can well be. Indeed, six hundred years later, Arabia could not
have been remarkable in any way for her horses, for Solomon, while
he resorted to her for silver and gold, mounted his cavalry from

B

2 THE HORSE

Eg3-pt. Yet the latter country could scarcely be the native land of the
hortic, not possessing the extensive plains which are peculiarly suited to
his existence in a wild state, and it is considered probable that he was
introduced from the central regions of Africa, which are undoubtedly
the native plains of the Quagga, the Zebra, and some other congeners
of the Horse ; but where, curiously enough, he is not now found in a
wild state. Thence he would naturally find his way into Egypt, and
through Arabia to Persia, Tartaiy, and Greece, ultimately reaching Great
Britain ; but in what century he was introduced there we are quite
at a loss to conjectui-e.

THE GREEK HORSE

Of the precise form of the Horse of Scripture we have no account,
beyond the glowing language of Job, which will apply to almost any
variety possessing the average spirit of the species. The horse of the
Greeks is far better known, being handed down to us in the writings
of Xenophon, and preserved in the marble friezes of the Parthenon,
which are now removed to our own National Museum. The above
Greek writer, in giving his advice on the purchase of a horse, says,
" On examining the feet, it is befitting first to look to the horny
portion of the hoofs, for those horses which have the horn thick are
far superior in their feet to those which have it thin. Nor will it
be well, if one fail next to observe whether the hoofs be upright both
before and behind, or low and flat to the ground ; for high hoofs
keep the frog at a distance from the earth, while the flat tread with
equal pressure on the soft and hard parts of the foot, as is the case
with bandy-legged men. And Simon justly observes that well-footed
horses can be known by the sound of their tramp, for the hollow hoof
rings like a cymbal when it strikes the solid earth. But having begun
from below, let us ascend to the other parts of the body. It is needful
then, that the parts above the hoof and below the fetlocks be not too
erect like those of the goat, for legs of this kind being stiff and
inflexible, are apt to jar the rider, and are more liable to inflammation.
The bones must not, however, be too low and springy, for in that case,
the fetlocks are liable to be abraded and wounded, if the horse be
galloped over clods or stones. The bones of the shanks should be
thick, for these are the columns which support the body, but they
should not have the veins and flesh thick likewise ; for if they have,
when the horse shall be galloped in difficult ground, they will necessarily
be filled with blood, and will become varicose, so that the shanks will
be thickened, and the skin be distended and relaxed from the bone;
and when this is the case, it often follows that the back sinew gives
way and renders the horse lame. But if the horse, when in action,
bend his knees flexibly at a walk, you may judge that he will have
his legs flexible Avhen in full canter; for all horses as they increase
in years increase in the flexibility of the knee. And flexible goers
rtre esteemed highly, and with justice, for such horses are much less
liable to blunder or to stumble than those which have rigid, unbending
joints. But if the arms below the shoulder-blades be thick and

THE ROMAN liORSE 3

muscular, they appear stronger and handsomer, as is the case also with
a man. The breast also should be broad, as well for beauty as for
strength, and because it causes a handsomer action of the fore-legs,
which do not then interfere, but are carried wide apart. And again,
the neck ought not to be set on like that of a boar, horizontally from
the chest, but, like that of a game-cock, should bo upright towards
the crest, and slack towards the flexure ; and the head, being long,
should have a small and narrow jawbone, so that the neck shall be
in front of the rider, and that the eye shall look down on what is
before the feet. A horse thus made will be the least likely to run
violently away, even if he be very high spirited, for horses do not
attempt to run away by bringing in, but by thrusting out, their heads
and necks. It is also very necessary to observe whether the mouth be
fine or hard on both sides, or on one or the other. For horses which
have not both jaws equally sensitive, are likely to be hard-mouthed on one
side or the other. And it is better that a horse should have prominent
than hollow eyes, for such a one will see to a greater distance. And
widely-opened nostrils are far better for respiration than narrow, and
they give the horse a fiercer aspect; for when one stallion is enraged
against another, or if he become angry while being ridden, he expands
his nostrils to their full width. And the loftier the crest, and smaller
the ears, the more horse-like and handsome is the head rendered ; while
lofty withers give the rider a surer seat and produce a firmer adhesion
between the body and shouldei\ A double loin is also softer to sit
upon, and pleasanter to look at, than if it be single ; and a deep side,
rounded toward the belly, renders the horse easier to sit, and stronger,
and more easy to keep in condition. The shorter and broader the loin,
the more easily will the horse raise his fore-quarters and collect his
hind-quarters under him in going. These points, moreover, cause the
belly to appear the smaller; which, if it be large, at once injures the
appearance of the animal, and renders him Aveaker and less manageable.
The quarters should be broad and fleshy, in order to correspond with
the sides and chest; and, should they be entirely firm and solid, they
would be the lighter in the gallop, and the horse would be the speedier.
But if he should have his buttocks separated under the tail by a broad
line, he will bring his hind-legs under him with a wider space between
them, and, so doing, he will have a prouder and stronger gait and action,
and will in all respects be the better on them."

Here we have described, in most exact terms, a cobby but spirited and
corky horse, with a light and somewhat peculiar carriage of the head and
neck, just as we see represented in the Elgin marbles.

THE ROMAN HORSE

Op the Roman Horse we know far less than of that of the Greeks,
but the fact of its inferiority to those of the surrounding nations is
established, for no sooner were they brought into collision with the
cavalry of Macedonia and Epirus than they succumbed. This could
only be owing to the quadruped, for the Roman foot-soldier was still

4 THE HORSE

unmatched. Csesar depended for his cavalry upon Gallic horses, which
were able to ride down the Roman horses of his rival Pompey without
the slightest difficulty. So also Crassus was unable to make head in Asia
against the Parthian horse ; and from his day until British horses were
transported to Oriental soil, the superiority of Asiatic horses remained
undisputed.

THE ARAB OF ANTIQUITY

The Arab of the present day is said by his countrymen to be the
same in form, in courage, and in endurance, with the horse which existed
in Arabia before the time of Christ. There is a poetry surrounding the
Arab horse which we must needs unlearn, as all scientific knowledge goes
to disprove the popularly accepted idea that the horse was originally to be
found wild in Arabia. The absence of water and of pasture have made
him remarkably dependent upon man, and as man's associate more intelli-
gent than other breeds. Professor Huxley, in a letter to Mr. Wilfrid
Blunt, says, " It appears to me certain that horses and chariots were unknown
to the old and middle empires of Egypt, while in the early age of the new
empire they abounded. Egypt, however, had a hold on Northern Arabia
from at least the fourth dynasty, or very early in the days of the old empire.
If horses were known and domesticated in Arabia at that time, how is it
for a good thousand years the Egyptians knew nothing about them 1 " I
have shown that there is every reason to believe that the Israelites who
dwelt in Arabia had no horses in the time of Jacob, and therefore it is
scarcely likely that this variety could have arrived at its pi-esent state of
excellence much before the commencement of the Christian era. But
beyond the traditional accounts which are preserved in the various tribes,
there is no means of arriving at the truth, and they are to be regarded
with considerable suspicion. BufFon comes to the conclusion, nevertheless,
that Arabia is the birthplace of this animal, and his opinions are followed
by a host of subsequent writers ; but I have already given the reasons for
the contrary conclusion. The dry nature of the country, and the scantiness
of herbage, show that in a wild state the horse could hardly exist there,
and that it is only by the care and superintendence of man that the
Arabian horse has become so famous.

EGYPTIAN, LIBYAN, NUMIDIAN, AND MOORISH
HORSES

The Egyptian Horse is handed down to us on some of the sculptures
found in the ruins of Nineveh ; the carvings of which are in a high state
of preservation, and are very elaborate and spirited. Even the superficial
veins are carefully rendered ; and hence we may place some reliance upon
the fidelity of the portraiture. In all these bas-reliefs the animal is
represented w^ith a large and coarse head, a high crest, and a heavy,
lumbering body, not very dissimilar to the Flemish horse of the nineteenth
century.

ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE 5

Op the Libyan, Numidian", and Moonisn horses which are alluded to
by classic writers, we know little beyond the cursory description of ^Elian,
who says that they were slenderly made, and carried no flesh.

THE ORIGINAL BRITISH HORSE

The nature of the original stock which formed the foundation of the
modern European horse is extremely doubtful. Sir Walter Gilbey claims
it for the Shire Horse, and Lord A. Cecil for the Clydesdale ; both may
be right, as certain points could well have developed from the original
stock to make them now so different. In Great Britain horses' bones
are found in caves which are of extreme antiquity, but they do not define
with any certainty the form of the original British horse, nor can we,
with certainty, arrive at the exact era at which the animals to which they
belonged lived and died. It is, however, an ascertained fact that when the
Romans invaded Great Britain they found the people in possession of
horses, and using them for their chariots as well as for the purposes of
riding. After the irruption of the Goths, and the commencement of the
dark ages, we have no reliable history to guide us, and we are left to grope
in the dark from the fourth century, when Vegetius wrote on the veterinary
art, until the Elizabethan era, when more attention was paid to the im-
provement of the breed of horses in this country.

ANCIENT METHODS OF USING THE HORSE

The mode of using the horse adopted by the ancients was at first by
harnessing him to a rude chariot, without springs. In course of time the
grooms who took care of him found that they could manage him while on
his back without the aid of the saddle and bridle, which are comparatively
modern inventions. Hence, we see the horse represented in the Elgin
marbles as ridden without either the one or the other ; and thei^e is also
abundant written testimony in support of this mode of equitation being
practised by the early Greeks. This ingenious people, however, invented
the snaffle-bridle, and both rode and drove with its aid, after the establish-
ment of the Olympian games, in which chariot races formed an essential
feature. The curb-bit was invented by the Romans, or, at all events, was
first used by them ; but both that people and the Greeks were ignorant of
the use of the stirrup, and either vaulted on their hoi-ses, or used the back
of a slave as a stepping-stone, or sometimes had recourse to a short ladder
for the purpose. The earliest period when it can be proved that the
stirrup was in use was in the time of the Norman invasion of this country.
The incidents of this event in history were recorded on the Bayeux tapestry
by the wife of William the Conqueror, and on this the stirrup was depicted,
according to the authority of Berenger, as a part of the trappings of the
horse. Shoeing was not practised by either the Greeks or Romans, and
only in cases of lameness was the foot defended by a sandal, which, however,
was sometimes tipped with iron.

Until some time after the installation op the Olympian Games the

6 THE HORSE

use of tlie horse was confined to war and the chase. These games were
held every four years, and are supposed to have commenced about 774
years before Christ, and as it was not until the twenty-third Olympiad that
the horse was introduced in the arena, the birth of horse-racing may be
fixed at about the j-car G80 B.C. At first the horses were ridden, and the
distance was about four miles, but in the twenty-fifth Olympiad the chariot
was introduced, and after this time became the prevailing instrument of
testing the speed and powers of the Grecian horse. Here, also, the
distance was about four miles, but as a pillar was to be rounded several
times, the race depended quite as much on the skill of the charioteer as on
the qualities of his horses.

CHAPTER II

NATURAV HISTORY AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

SVNONYMS AND CLASSIFICATION IN THE SCALE OF CREATION— HABITS— EXTERNAL FORM A3
INDICATED BY POINTS — PROPORTIONS — PERIOD OF MATURITY — AVERAGE AGE —
PERIODICAL MOULTING— MENTAL DEVELOPMENT— SMALL STOMACH.

SYNONYMS AND CLASSIFICATION

The Horse, in English, is synonymous with lttttos, Greek ; eqims, Latin ;
p/erd, German ; cheval, French ; paard, Dutch ; heist, Swedish ; hest,
Danish ; eavallo, Itahan ; cahallo, Spanish ; loschad, Russian ; kon, Polish ;
sukh, Turkish ; hysdn, Syriac ; hozan, Arabic ; al, Toorkman ; ma, Siamese ;
fur or pzir, Bornou ; harree, Timbuctoo ; as, Pustoo.

In the classification adopted by modern natural historians he belongs
to the division Vertehrata, class Mammalia, tribe Ungulata, order PacJiy-
dcrmata, family Solij)eda, and genus Eqims.

His dental formula is as follows : — Incisors f, canine (in the male only)
^ \, molars f f, total 40.

HABITS

The Habits of the horse in a wild or free state are similar to those of
most of the gregarious and graminivorous animals. That is to say, he
places his safety in flight ; but when compelled to make a stand against
any of the larger carnivora, he fights strongly with his heels and teeth. In
all countries he feeds upon grass (green, or dried as hay), straw or grain ;
and those succulent plants generally called " roots," as swedes, mangels,
parsnips, carrots, kohlrabi, etc. None of the brassicas come amiss to him
when confined to the stable. The leaves of trees and young shoots are
particularly relished in some seasons. The habits of the horse may be so
modified by circumstances, that it has been seriously proposed to make cakes
containing a proportion of animal food for convenience of transport over
desert places and for use in beleaguered cities. Although the editor has
seen samples of such food, he is not aware of any practical trial having been
given to what certainly seems a wholly unnatural food for a graminivorous
animal. Camels' milk is given to horses in Arabia in times of scarcity of
other food.

Forage. — In a free state, where the horse has to travel far for his food,

7

8

THE HORSE

he becomes inured to fatigue, and is able to make long journeys, without
the training which the domesticated animal requires. Thus the South
American and Californian horses, as soon as caught, are able to carry their
riders for sixty or seventy miles on end at a fast pace, suflfering, of course,
from the unaccustomed pressure of the saddle, but not otherwise the worse
for their exertions. The walk and gallop are the only natural paces of the
wild horse ; the trot and canter being acquired, though to some extent
exhibited by the domesticated horse before breaking, and evidently the
result of the tendency which is always displayed to hand down from one
generation to another habits which are not natural to the species.

Most half-bred as well as cart-colts inherit the trot to such an extent,
that when approaching an unaccustomed object in which they are suddenly
interested, they will fall into that pace as an intermediate one between
walking and galloping.

EXTERNAL FORM, AS INDICATED BY POINTS

The anatomy of this animal will form the subject of a special division of
this book, but the external form may now be discussed with propriety. By
horsemen in general this is considered under certain subdivisions, which
are called " points," and which are severally represented by figures in the
following outline.

POINTS OF THE HORSE.

1. JIiuz'o.

2. NosLiil.

Toll.

3. Fori'lieal.

4. Jaw.

EXTERNAL FORM, AS INDICATED BY POINTS

NECK.

24.

24. Circumference of the chest at

6.

6. Crost.

this point, called the girth.

7.

Throttle or windpipe.

25.

26.

Loins.
Croup.

FORE-QUARTER.

27.

Jl.p.

8.
9.

10.

8. Sliouldcr-Madu,
roint of shoulder
Bosom or breast.

28.
29.
30.

Flank.
Sheath,
Eoot of the dock or tail.

11.

11. True-arm.

1

_

12.

Elbow.

niNU-QUARTER.

13.

Fore-arm (arm).

31.

Hip-joint, round, or whirl-bone.

14.

Knee.

32.

Stifle-joint.

15.

Cannon-bone

33.

33. Lower thigh or gaskhi.

16.

Back sinew.

34.

Quarters.

17.

Fetlock or pastcrn-joint.

35.

Hock.

18.

Coronet.

36.

Point of the hock.

19.

Hoof or foot.

37.

Curb place.

20.

Heel.

38.

Cannon-bone.

39.

Back sinew.

BODY OR MIDDLEPIECE.

40.

Fetlock or pastern-joint.

21.

Withers.

41.

Coronet.

22.

Back.

42.

Hoof or foot.

23.

23. Ribs (forming together the

43.

Heel.

barrel or chest).

44.

Spavin-place.

The relative proportions of, and exact shape desirable in, each of these
points, vary considerably in the several breeds. Thus, when speed and
activity are essential, an oblique shoulder-blade is a sine qud non ; while
for heavy harness it can scarcely be too upright, enabling the pressure of the
collar to be more easily borne, and allowing the animal to exert his strength
at right angles to its long axis. Many men are good judges of hunters and
hacks, but are almost wholly ignorant of the qualities desirable in a coach-
or cart-horse. There are some elements, however, which are wanted in any
horse, such as big hocks and knees, flat legs with large sinews, open jaws
and full nostrils. It will, therefore, be necessary to describe the points of
each breed ; but I shall here give those which are always to be attended to
as being of importance in any kind, whether used for racing or hunting, for
the road or for agricultural purposes.

Taking first the Head: — It should be known, that the volume of brain
contained within it determines the courage and other mental qualities of the
individual. Now as, cceteris paribus, size is power, so without a wide fore-
head (which part marks the seat of the brain), you cannot expect a full
development of those faculties known as courage, tractability, good temper,
etc. The size of the muzzle is partly regarded as an element of beauty, and
partly as a sign of high breeding. Hence, in the cart-horse, a coarse jaw
and thick muzzle are not regai^ded. A large and patent nostril can not ba
dispensed with in horses intended for fast work, and should be desired even
in the cart-horse, for in drawing heavy loads on a hot day, his breathing may
be rendered almost as laborious as that of the highly-tasked race-horse or
hunter. So also with the jaw, if there is not ample width between the two
sides for the development and play of the larynx and windpipe, the wind is
sure to be affected, and, in addition, the head cannot be nicely bent on the
neck. A defect in this last point is the usual ca*ise of that straight and
inelegant setting on of the head which is so common, and which the practised
horseman avoids, as alike unsightly and prejudicial to the wind and the

10 THE HORSE

mouth ; for ca horse which cannot give wa}^ to the pressure of the bit is sure
to become dull in his mouth, and therefore unpleasant to ride or drive.
The eye, is to be examined with a twofold purpose, firstly, as an index of
the temper, the nature of which is marked by the expression of this organ ;
and secondly, in reference to its present state of soundness, and the
probability of its continuing healthy. A full and clear eye, with soft,
gazelle-like expression, is scarcely ever associated with a bad temper, and
will most frequently continue sound, if the management of the horse to
which it belongs is proper in itself. The ear should be of medium size, not
too small, nor too lai^ge, nor should it be lopped, though many good lop-
eared horses have been known, and some very superior breeds, like that of
the celebrated Melbourne, are notorious for this defect.

The Neck should be of moderate length, all beyond a certain dimension
being waste, and even a moderate-sized head at the end of an extremely
long lever being too much for the muscles to support. It should come out
full and muscular, with a sweep between the withers and the bosom, and
should gradually diminish till it runs into the head, with an elegant bend
just behind the ear. A very narrow throat suddenly bent at the upper
part, marked as the throttle, is apt to be connected with roaring, and on
that account is objected to by horsemen.

In the Fore-quarter there are several points to be attentively ex-
amined, and among these, the shoulder is regarded as of most consequence,
when the horse under consideration is intended for the saddle. It is
evident that, unless there is length of the blade, and also of the true-arm,
there cannot be a full surface for the attachment and play of the muscles,
nor can there be the same amount of spring to take off the jar which follows
each footfall. The straighter the angle formed by the long axis of each
of these bones, the less spinng there will be. So, also, if the angle is not
sufficienb, the muscles of the shoulder-blade will not thrust forward the
true-arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently clothed with muscles (without
being loaded) to act on the fore-arm, commonly known by the hoi'seman
as the arm. Hence it is found, that with an upright shoulder, not only
is the stride in all the paces short and the action stumpy, but there is not
that elastic movement which enables the horse to carry his body along
rapidly and evenly, without rising alternately behind and before, and
thereby jarring himself or his rider. On the other hand, the upright
shoulder, loaded with a thick mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-horse,
and to a certain extent also, in the carriage-horse, in both of which the
pressure of the collar requires a steady and comparatively motionless sur-
face to bear it. The difference between the two extremes of oblique and
upright shoulders is well illustrated in the accompanying woodcut, in which
it will be seen that in the former the angle between the blade («) and the
true-arm {b) is very considerable, while in the latter it is much less.
Hence it results, that when the muscles of the blade bring the axis of the
arm into nearly the same line with its own axis, the fore-arm (e) in the
oblique shoulder will be thrust forward and raised to a greater degree
than in the upright formation, as is shown in the engraving in the parts
represented by dotted lines {de). It follows, therefore, that horses intended
to have high, and at the same time forward, action should have oblique
shoulders, for without them they will almost to a certainty either have

EXTERNAL FORM, AS INDICATED BY POINTS

11

very mean and low action, or, if they do bend tlieir knees, they will put
their feet down again nearly on the same place as they took them from,
which peculiarity we so often see displayed in the cart breed, or those
nearly allied to it. This is one of the most important uses of the obliquity
of the shoulder-blade as it seems to me, and one which has not been
generally admitted by writers on this branch of the subject, though all
ai^e ready to admit that in some way or other this formation is essential
to good action. Another reason for the obliquity of the shoulder in the
riding-horse, is that without it the saddle is not kept back in its proper
place, and the horseman's weight being thus thrown too forward, the action
of the fore-quarter is impeded. Mere obliquity, however, is not sufficient
for this purpose ; for, without a proper development of muscle, the blade

-"O

tIPKIGHT SHOULDKR.

OBLIQUE SHOULDER.

itself will not keep the saddle in its place. If, therefore, there is a hollow
just behind the top of the blade, even if this is slanting enough, you must
expect the. saddle to slip forward, and should, in all doubtful cases, be
careful to put one on before concluding a purchase. The point of the
shoulder should be well developed, but not showing any rough protubex'ances,
which are equally objectionable with a flat or ill-developed point. The
length of the true-arm is mainly dependent upon that of the blade ; but
sometimes, when this is oblique enough, the true-arm is short and upright,
and the elbow stands under, or only a little behind, the shoulder-point.
This is a very faulty conformation, and is seldom attended with good action.
The chief defect in the elbow is seen when it turns inwards, and rubs so
closely against the ribs that the finger can hardly be insinuated between
them and it. Here the elbow is said to be tied or confined, and the horse
is very apt to turn his toes out ; while the opposite formation is indicated
by turned-in, or "pigeon" toes, and turned-out elbows. It" does sometimes
happen, however, that the toes are turned in or out without affecting the

12 THE HORSE

elbow, but this is an exception to the rule. A long and muscular fore-arm
is a sure accompaniment of strong and sweeping action, and should be
carefully prized ; in other respects there is little to be noted here. Next
comes the knee, which should be broad, and when looked at from the
front should be much Avider than the limb above and below. It should
taper off backwards to a comparatively thin edge, and should have a good
development of the pisiform-bone, which projects backwards at its upper
part. The leg, immediately below the knee, should be as large as any
other part, and not " tied in " there, which indicates a weakness of this
part. A bending of the knee backwai'ds is called a " calf-knee," and is
not objected to in cart-horses, in which it is by no means uncommon ; but
it is very apt to lead to strains of this joint in the race-horse or hunter.
A knee naturally bending somewhat forward is much preferred by good
judges, though, when it is the result of over-work, it is almost equally to
be avoided with the calf-knee. Flat, and at the same time large, cannon-
bones, without gumminess, are of great importance, and if attended with
a full-sized suspensory ligament, and with strong, clean, and free back
sinews, the leg is to be considered faultless. The fetlock-joint should be
of good size and clean, whilst the pasterns should form an angle with the
ground, of between forty-five and sixty degrees. Lastly, the foot should
be well formed ; but the construction of this part being hereafter more
fully described, I shall omit its consideration here.

In the Middlepiece the withers come fii'st under notice. It is usual
to desire them high and thin, but they are very commonly too much
developed, and if the bony processes stand up like the edge of a razor,
without muscle on them, they are to be regarded us objectionable rather
than otherwise. The inexperienced horseman is apt to consider the exist-
ence of high withers as a sure sign that the saddle will be carried well
back, but there are some horses whose withers are the greatest annoyance
to the rider, for having upright and short shoulder-blades, together with
high withers, the saddle rides forward upon the latter, and chafes them in
spite of all the padding which can be introduced. In looking at this
point, I believe the purchaser should almost entirely disregard it, except-
ing to take care that it is not too high for the formation and position of
the shoulder-blades. If these are long, and therefore slanting, and espe-
cially if in addition to a proper position of the bones they are furnished
with plenty of muscle, the withers may be disregarded, and the action may
be expected to be good even if they are so low as to show no rise between
the neck and the back.

The volume of the chest is the measure not only of the capacity of the
lungs, but of that of the large organs of digestion. Hence, unless there is
a middlepiece of proper size, the wind is seldom good, and the stamina of
the individual will scarcely ever be sufficient to bear hard work. But
there is a limit to the development of this part in those breeds which are
required to move with much velocity, where weight is a great object ; and
if the body of the race-horse or hunter was as heavy as that of the dray-
horse, the speed would be greatly reduced, and the legs would give way
during the first severe gallop. So also, a wide chest interferes with the
free and rapid action of the shoulders and arms as they glide on the ribs ;
and an open bosom is almost always fatal to high speed. In the race-horse

EXTERNAL EORM, AS INDICATED BY POINTS 13

and hunter, therefore, capacity of chest must be obtained by depth rather
than Avidth ; while in the cart-horse, a wide chest and a frame roomy in
all directions is desired, so as to give good wind, and, at the same time,
enable the animal to keep vip his flesh while working eight or nine hours
per day. For light, quick draught, a formation intermediate between the
two is the proper one ; the large frame of the cart-horse being too heavy
for the legs to bear at a fast rate, and leading to their rapid destruction
in trotting over our modern hard roads. The capacity of the lungs is
marked by the size of the chest at the girth ; but the stamina will depend
upon the depth of the back ribs, which should be especially attended to.

A SHORT BACK, with plenty of ground covered nevertheless, is the desid-
eratum of every practised horseman. Unless the measurement from the
shoulder-point to the back of the quarters is somewhat greater than the
height at the withers, the action is confined, especially in the gallop, for
the hind-legs cannot be brought sufficiently forward on account of the
interference of the fore-quarter ; and, indeed, from the want of play in
the back, they are generally too much crippled in that respect. A horse
" short above and long below " is the perfection of shape in this particular,
but he is not very commonly met with. Where length below is seen,
there is generally too much space between the last rib and the hip, while,
on the other hand, coupled with a short back we too often see the legs all
" jumped up together," and the action short and stumpy. Next to these
points in the middlepiece, it is important to pay attention to the upper
line of the back, which should bend down a little behind the withers, and
then swell out very gently to the junction with the loins, which can
hardly be too wide and muscular. The inexperienced eye will often be
deceived by the hips, for if these are narrow the muscles rise above them,
and make the loin and back look stronger than they really are, the
contrary being the case where the hips are wide and ragged. This latter
formation, though not so elegant as the level hip, is prized by the man
who wishes to be carried well to hounds, and he will jump at a horse
which would be passed over with contempt by the tyro as " a great raw-
boned brute." A slightly arched loin is essential to the power of carrying
weight ; a much arched, or " hog" back, is almost sure to give uneasy action
from its want of elasticity.

In examining the Hind-quarter, so much depends upon the breed, and
the purposes to which the animal is to be put, that only a few general
remarks can be given. Thus, for high speed, there should be plenty of
length in the two bones which unite at the stifle-joint, without which the
stride must be more or less limited in extent. The exact position of the
hip-joint not being easily detected, the tyro has some difficulty in estimat-
ing the length from it to the stifle-joint, but he can readily measure the
length from the root of the tail, either with his eye or with a tape, if he
cannot depend upon his organ of sight. In a flat outline this will come to
twenty-four inches in a horse of 1 5 hands 3 inches, but measured round the
surface it will be two inches more. Again, the lower thigh or gaskin
should be of about the same length ; but if measured from the stifle to the
point of the hock it will be fully twenty-eight inches in a well-made horse of
high breeding. These measurements, however, will be much greater in pro-
portion than those of the cart-horse, who requires strength before all things,

14 THE HORSE

and whose stride is of no consequence whatever. In him, the length o£
the upper or true thigh is generally as great as that of the thoroughbred,
but the lower thigh is much shorter, and the horse stands with a much
straighter hind-leg, and consequently with his hocks making a very slight
angle. Muscular quarters and gaskins are desirable in all breeds ; for
without strong propellers no kind of work to which the horse is put can be
duly performed. The judge of a horse generally likes to look at the
quarters behind, so as to get a good view of their volume, and unless they
come close together and leave no hollow below the anus, he suspects that
there is a want of constitution, and rejects the animal on that account.
But not only are muscles of full size required, but there must be strong
joints to bear the strain which these exert, and one of the most important
of all the points of the horse is the hock. This should be of good size, but
clean and flat, without any gumminess or thoroughpins, and with a good
clean point standing clear of the rest of the joint ; the " curby place " and
the situation of spavin should be free from enlargement; but to detect these
diseases a considerable amount of practice is required. Lastly, the hocks
should be well let down, which depends upon the length of the thigh, and
ensures a short cannon-bone. The pasterns and feet should be formed in
correspondence with those of the fore extremity, to which I have already
alluded.

Such are the recognized points to be desired in the horse ; but in spite
of the general opinion of good judges being in favour of them, as I have
described, no one can predicate with certainty that a horse possessing them
all in perfection will have a corresponding degree of action out of doors.
No one who has bought many horses will be content with an inspection in
the stable, even if the light is as good as that of the open air, for he well
knows that there is often a vast difference between the estimate of the
value of a horse which he forms indoors and out. Much of this depends
upon the temper of the individual, for if he is dull and heavy he will not
" make a good show," though still he may be capable of being sufficiently
excited by hounds, and many such horses are invaluable hunters. Inde-
pendently, however, of this element, it will be sometimes found that the
frame which looks nearly perfectly symmetrical while at rest, becomes
awkward and comparatively unsightly while in motion ; and the horse
which is expected to move well will often be sent back to his stall with
" That will do, thank you," after a single run.

It is but right to say that there are many exceptions to the above general
points, and every now and again a horse as ugly as a camel turns out to be
a fine performer. One of this class which excited ridicule in the Leicester
country was taken to France by the owner, who declared that no one under
the rank of an emperor was worthy to own him, and whether on his merits
or not we cannot say, but Napoleon III. bought him on seeing him ridden
over a country by the English veterinary surgeon to whom he belonged.

PROPORTIONS OF THE VARIOUS POINTS

15

PROPORTIONS OF THE VARIOUS POINTS

The proportions of the component parts of the horse, as I have already
remarked, vary a good deal in the different breeds. The following,
however, may be taken as the most perfect ; but they refer especially to
the racer, hunter, and hack, as well as to the lighter and more blood-like
harness horses, and must not be strictly applied to the draught-horse in
any of his varieties : —

inches.

63

66

Height at withers and croup ....

Lciigth from shouMer-point to quarter.

Froiii the lowest part of chest to the
ground 36

From the elbow-point to the ground . 39

From tlic withers to the pole, just be-
hind the ears, in a straight line . 30

Tlie same measured along the crest . 32

LeuL'th of head 22

inches,
From the withers to the hip .... 22
From the stifle to the point of the

hock, in the attitude shown in

the plan 28

From the root of tail to stifle-joint . . 26
From the point of the hock to the

ground 22^

Length of arm from the elbow to the

pisiform-bone 19^

Width across the forehead .... O^ From the pisiform-bone to the gi'ound
Girth varies from 76 to 79.

Circumference of fore cannon-bone, 7i, 8, 8, 8, 8^, and 9 inches.
Circumference of arm just below the elbow, 16^ to 18 inches.

This scale is drawn in inches, and, in the outline, the horse is supposed
to be 15 hands 3 inches, or sixty-three inches high. The measurements
are the average of those carefully taken from six horses considered to be
of perfect symmetery. Two of these were celebrated stallions, two thorough-
bi'ed hunters, and two chargers of great value.

On comparing these measurements with those of Eclipse, as recorded

16 THE HORSE

I

by St. Bel, it will appear that there is some considerable variation from
those of that celebrated horse, which he is said to have measured during
life, and to have also checked his dimensions after death. Thus, though
Eclipse was very low before, and yet was sixty-six inches high, his head
was twenty-two inches long, being the same as the average length of the
six horses given by myself, though they are three inches lower at the
withers, and at least five inches lower at the croup. Again, though thus
shown to be particularly short, it must have been of extraordinary width ;
for, according to the same authorit}', it measured one foot across heloio the
eyes ; but, as Mr. Percivall remarks, this must be a mistake for above the
eyes. Indeed, I cannot help thinking, in accordance with the opinions of
the above distinguished English veterinarian, that in other respects " there
appears some discordance in his admeasurements " of Eclipse. Nevertheless,
it may safely be assumed, according to Mr. Percivall's summing up, that " he
was a big horse in every sense of the word ; he was tall in stature, lengthy
and capacious in body, and lai'ge in his limbs. For a big horse his head
was small, and partook of the Arabian character. His neck was unusually
long. His shoulder was strong, sufficiently oblique, and though not re-
markable for, not deficient in, depth. His chest was circular. He rose
very little in his withers, being higher behind than before. His back was
lengthy, and over the loins roached. His quarters were straight, square, and
extended. His limbs were lengthy and broad, and his joints large, in
particular his arms and thighs were long and muscular, and his knees and
hocks broad and well formed."

The scale which I have given likewise differs in many particulars, though
only slightly, from that which is usually found in ti'eatises on the horse ;
but I have preferred trusting to Nature herself rather than to the observ-
ations oi previous writers, which may be consulted by the i-eader at any
time.

MATURITY

The horse completes his dentition at five years old, when he may be
said to be mature. At eight or nine yeai's the lower teeth lose their marks,
or black concavities, after which there is no reliable evidence of age, which
can however be tolerably accurately guessed at from the length of the front
teeth or nippers, and from the general appearance of the horse, especially
about the eyes, as will be hereafter shown.

Mares are very commonly allowed to breed in their third year,
being put to the horse as two-year olds. They often, however, come " in
season " as yearlings, and many would then breed if allowed to be covered.
It is found by experience that the foal robs the dam of some part of the
nourishment Avhich is destined by nature to develop the maternal frame,
and hence the young mare is injured in size and substance if she breeds
before she has come very near to maturity.

AVERAGE AGE

The average age of the horse, when allowed to live without the risk
of accidents and disease which he incurs in his usual work, is about

PERIODICAL MOULTING 17

twenty-fivo years. Instances of greater longevity arc recorded on good
authority, and there is reason to believe that occasionally he has reached
to thirty-five or even forty years, but these are rare exceptions, and there
are few which live beyond the twenty-eighth year, while a large proportion
die before the twenty-fifth. Stallions are over-fed and under-exercised
in proportion, so that it is no wonder they become diseased, and seldom
die from old age ; but brood-mares are not so mismanaged, and it is found
that they become quite worn out soon after their twentieth year ; and
even if allowed to live they waste away and die by degrees, generally
somewhere between their twenty-third and twenty-eighth year. The
charger ridden by the Duke of Wellington at the battle of Waterloo is
said to have attained to the age of forty-eight years.

In 1872 there was a horse at Arundel, in Sussex, which made two daily
journeys to and from the town to the railway-station in a single-horse
omnibus, and he was well known at that time to be thirty-nine, the
greatest age the editor has been able to find that any horse actually did
serviceable work. There can be no doubt that many horses attain to a
good age, but the difficulty of getting accurate information on the subject
is owing to the fact that old horses are destroyed by the merciful, and
those not so disposed of, fall into the hands of poor men and low-class
dealers who do not sell them as older but younger than when they bought
them. An examination of dead horses at the great slaughterers' reveals
the fact that the majority die young, the middle-aged are comparatively
few, while the very old constitute a considerable proportion.

PERIODICAL MOULTING

The noRSB sheds his coat once a year in all countries, and in our
climate a second half-moult is performed in the autumn, when the summer
short coat is partially shed. This second change consists, however, chiefly
in a growth of the already existing hairs, which become coarser and longer,
especially about the legs and under-parts of the body. At the same time
the coat loses its gloss, and the colour is less rich, blacks becoming rusty
brown, and bays more yellow or sandy-coloured than before. The hair of
the mane and tail is constantly in a state of growth, and is not shed
periodically.

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT

In mental development the horse ranks below the dog, but he is
capable of a considerable degree of education, though in countries where he
is kept constantly confined he does not appear to great advantage in this
respect. That he may be made to understand what is said to him is clear
enough from the mode of managing farm-horses, which are all taught to
obey the voice. I have on one occasion seen a circus-horse walk, trot, and
gallop at the word of command, and change his paces on the instant ; but
this feat I have never known performed by any other exhibitor, nor do I
think it would easily be imitated. It requires a high order of intellect to
distinguish between the three paces and change them on the instant, and if

c

18 THE HORSE

I had not myself witnessed the performance on two several occasions 1
should scarcely have credited it. The brain of this animal does not
require much rest by sleep, and four or five hours in quiet are sufficient to
keep him in health if he is not very hard worked. He readily sleeps
standing, and some individuals never lie down ; but this habit of sleeping
standing should not be encouraged, as it greatly distresses the legs, and
tends to produce fever of the feet, or some other mischief in the lower
sxtremities.

SMALL STOMACH

One of the greatest peculiarities in the structure of the horse is the
small size of his stomach, which is also of a very simple nature. He is
likewise without a gall-bladder, showing that the digestion must be
continuous and not interrupted by distinct intervals, as in the ruminants
and carnivora. Nature has thus framed this animal, in order that he may
be at all times able to exert his utmost speed, which he could not do with
the mass of provender in his stomach which is carried by the cow or sheep.
The same provision is shown in the udder of the mare, which is not larger
than that of the goat or sheep.

All these several characteristics of the horse will be more minutely
considered under the different heads to which they each belong ; but they
are here gi"ouped together to give a better general idea of the animal which
is under examination.

CHAPTER III

THE HORSES OF THE EAST

THE BARB— THE EGYPTIAN HOHSE— THE DONGOLA HORSE— THE BURMA AND MANIPUR
PONIES — SUMATRA AND JAVA PONIES — CHINESE AND COREAN PONIES — JAPANESE
HORSES— THE MODERN ARAB— THE PERSIAN HORSE— THE TURKISH HORSE— OTHER
ASIATIC HORSES— EAST INDIAN HORSES— THE AUSTRALIAN HORSE— SOUTH AFRICAN
HORSES.

THE BARB

This kind is named after the countiy in which it is found, whicli is
rather an extensive one, comprehendhig the states of Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers,
Fez, and Morocco, all lying on the northern coast of Africa to the west
of Egypt. Vegetation is very luxurious in the valleys watered by the
streams which descend from the Atlas Mountains in their course to the
Mediterranean, and grass is abundant in the early spring and autumn, but
in the summer season the great heat burns it all up ; and therefore the
horse is dependent upon the care of man for fodder during a great part of
the yeai'. Berenger describes the true Barb as follows : —

" The fore-hand is long, slender, and badly furnished with mane ; but
the neck rises distinctly and boldly out of the withers ; the head is small
and lean ; ears, of good size, and well placed ; shoulders, light, obliquely
sloping, and broad ; withers, thin and high ; loins, straight and short ;
flanks and ribs, round, and well developed ; haunches, strong ; croup, some-
what too long ; quarters, muscular and full ; legs, clean, and the tendons
clearly marked and separate from the bone ; pasterns, somewhat too long
and slanting ; feet, sound and of good shape. In size they are lower than
the Arabs, seldom measuring more than fourteen and a half hands, and
they have not as much spirit, speed, or endurance, although in external
things they are perhaps superior to him."

The GoDOLPHiN Arabian, of which the annexed cut is a representation,
is said to have been imported into France from Barbary, and is supposed
to have been presented by the Emperor of Morocco to Louis XIV. as a
fine Barb ; but he was thought so little of in Paris that he was set to draw
a cart about the streets, from which ignoble occupation he was rescued by
Mr. Coke, and brought over to England. This gentleman gave him to a
-Mr. Williams, who kept the St. James' Coffee-house, and by him he was
presented to the Earl of Godolphin for stud purposes. It was, however,
only by chance that his value was discovered ; for being used as teazer to

19

20

THE HORSE

Hobgoblin, he was merel}' put to Roxana on the refusal of that horse to
cover her, the produce being Lath, one of the best horses of the day. The
Godolphin Arabian was of a brown bay colour, and is said to have been about
1 5 hands in height. He is supposed to have been foaled about the year
1724, and died in 1753. A remarkable feature in this horse is the height
of his crest, and he is also invariably represented with round and drooping

quarters. Several portraits of him are in existence, but all render these
points in the same manner. I am not aware that there are any reliable
grounds for considering this celebrated horse as a Barb rather than an
Arab, and according to the usual description of the former, his size is against
the hypothesis. Still, as he is generally so considered, I have added hia
description to that of the Barb, leaving my readers to draw their owii
conclusions.

THE EGYPTIAN HORSE

In the first Chapter I have shown that there is a strong I'eason for
believing that the horse was introduced to Arabia through Egypt, and that
the latter country again derived its supply from the central regions of
Africa, which probably also furnished the Barbary States. The modern
Egyptian horse is a very second-rate animal, and, according to Burckhardt,^
"is ugly, of coarse shape, and looking more like a cart-horse than a racer."
He says, "Their legs and knees, and short and thick necks, arc frequent

^ Since BurckliarJt wrote the above description, the British occupation lias had tlie
effect of greatly improving the native horses, and no doubt can be entertained that lasting
benefit will accrue from the importation of English blood-horses and Australian " Walers. '

THE DONGOLA HORSE 21

defects among them. The head is sometimes fine ; but I never saw good
legs in an Egyptian horse. They are not able to bear any great fatigue,
but when well fed their action occasionally is more brilliant than that of
the Arabian ; their impetuosity, however, renders them peculiarly desirable
for heavy cavalry, and it is upon this quality alone that tlieir celebrity has
ever been founded."

Many Egyptian ponies have been trained for polo and sent to this
country, where, if they have not distinguished themselves in competition
with the miniature blood-horses of Irish nationality, they have taken a good
place, the chestnut " Khalifa," owned by Mr. Drybrough, being deemed
worthy of a portrait in Mr. Miller's Modern Polo. In describing
Egyptian ponies that gentleman says, that "of half-a-dozen, each will
differ from the other five, and that the importation of Syrian Arabs and
continual crossing makes it diflicult to define what is or is not an Egyptian,"
as they " are of all sorts and shapes," without any special characteristics of
a well-defined breed. Those passing under the name of Bellady ponies are
believed to be Egyptian, but according to the above quoted authority the
term is used to distinguish them from Syrians.

THE DONGOLA HORSE

The Dongola Horse was formerly esteemed by Europeans in Egypt and
the Soudan on account of his height, " his one merit," according to Mr.
Wilfrid Blunt, who further states that "he is very nearly extinct as a
breed, though a specimen or two is occasionally to be seen in Egypt. I
don't think it is much loss, except as a curiosity, for he is an ungainly beast,
with all the points an Arab breeder would most avoid, a coarse head, long
cannon-bones and a drooping quarter." He is generally bay or dark bay
with four white legs, and his height as much as 15 hands 2 inches or
15 hands 3 inches, but at present he is neglected and almost unknown.

The following account is from the pen of Slatin Pasha, who, it will be
remembered, passed so many years of captivity under the Khalifa : —

" Regarding the Dervish horse, whether he be of the Dongola, the Darfur,
or the Abyssinian breed, the first fact which is impressed on the observer
is that the owner is a bad horse-master, and on further experience he will
be found to be a careless breeder and a negligent trainer.

"The Khalifa's oppression has depopulated nearly 75 per cent, of the
Sudan ; it has also rooted out the best of the once famous breed of Dongola
horses, and is answerable for the destruction of many thousands, and the
degeneracy of nearly all the horses of the Nile basin during the period of
war, famine, and brigandage, from 1885 to 1896.

" Every suitable foal, horse, and mare lias been seized by the Baggara
raiders, and frequently had its miserable existence terminated by being
ridden to death or allowed to die of thirst in the desert.

" In the recent forced march by Osman Digna, in the spring of 1896, from
Kassala to Suakin and back to the Atbara, more than half his animals and
probably most of his cavalry horses died of exhaustion.

" Of the horses captured at the battle of Firket, the foals were all in a

22

THE HORSE

miserably neglected state, and most of the horses had galled backs and
tender feet (' heffi ') from marching on rocky ground. Only the horses of
a few Emirs were in good condition. What diiTerent treatment did the
noblest of animals receive in the Sudan twenty years ago.

" Fast-trotting, upstanding pairs of Dongola horses were much prized in
Cairo, and a well-matched pair would fetch £100. The best saddle-horses

DERVISH CAVALRY HORSE.

Sjjcdmen captured at the battle of Firket, drawn by Lieut. N. M. Smyth, and sent to the
editor by Statin Pasha, 1896.

were descended from a well-known horse called Abu Dru. The Dona breed
of the island of Argo, north of Dongola, is also celebrated, and a fablo
exists that it owes its excellence to a strain of supernatural blood introduced
by a river-horse in the remote past. The peaceful inhabitants of the
Dongola province, always Avith an eye to the main chance, were naturally
careful of so valual>le an inheritance in horseflesh. The Dongola horse
was stabled in a well-built thatched shelter, brick houses being considered
ill-ventilated ; in summer-time he was picketed out at night. The winter

THE DONGOLA HORSE 23

coat was often clipped once in tlic season. Dhura, or barley for pref(!rence,
was fed to the horse before and after daylight, and milk was often given in
the evening. During four months of the spring the horse was put out to
grass, and dates were given as a change in season. Water was kept in a
jar always standing in the stable, and the horse would often be given a
fresh drink before and after the heat of the day.

"In size the Dongola horse ranges from 16 hands to about 14^? hands —
the usual height. The head is coarse and long from eye to muzzle, the ears
large, the withers high, sides somewhat flat, the hips ragged, the quarters
weak, the tail put on too low ; long fetlocks are preferred for speed, short
fetlocks for long marches. The hocks are coarse and curved, the legs
deficient in bone. The feet are not shod. Another fact fully appreciated
by the Sudani is that wdiite hoofs are less suitable for work in rocky
districts than black feet. The feathered heels, want of bottom, and under-
bred character of the horse, which is only a three-furlong courser, and has
not a point in common with the Arabian, tend to cause me some astonish-
ment at the claim to Arab descent which has been put forward by a French
author. The colour varies : browns, bays, and chestnuts are commonest,
and greys comparatively rare, though thought well of.

" The Darfur pony bears little resemblance to the true Dongola horse, bu;
an admixture of the breeds has taken place since most of the Dongola
hoi'ses were taken south by the Dervishes. The head is more shapely, the
jowl more pronounced and the face less heavy ; the back is shorter than
that of the Dongola horse, the quarters more powerful and not sloping, the
hocks are straighter, the bone is more compact, the animal hai'dier, smaller,
but of stronger frame, well let down behind, and faster in proportion to its
height, which is from 13 hands 1 inch to 14 hands 1 inch as a rule. The
fastest runners ai-e reputed to be chestnuts ; the royal colour of the Sudan
is bay ; blacks are the strongest and most commonly seen, and, as in most
Arab-speaking countries, various superstitions are connected with the
combinations of colour. Thus a horse with four white feet and a blaze is
much admired. Three white feet, two being on the near side, is considered
lucky, but if the dark foot be on the near side the horse is ill-fated. If the
white extends to above the hock or knee of one leg only the rider will be
wounded in battle. If the blaze be not straight the horse will be unlucky
for a single owner, and he should arrange a part ownership.

*' A proof of the quality of the Darfur horse is to be found in the method
of hunting ostriches in vogue among the Hamr, Saiadia, and Maharia
Arabs. An ostrich on being sighted is immediately pursued at full speed ;
the bird taking fright runs away for three or four miles. Meanwhile the
horseman reins in and proceeds to track the bird slowly. The ostrich
finding itself no longer followed and prompted by curiosity now runs back
at speed along its tracks ; on sighting it the horseman again pursues at a
gallop for a short distance, the bird dashing away as before at full speed and
eventually returning again at the same pace. The tactics may be repeated
three and four times until the ostrich shows signs of exhaustion by dropping
its wings instead of holding them extended above its back, at which the
Arab literally rides a finish up to the bird and clubs it.

" The Darfur horse is usually picketed under trees and fed on corn
and camels' milk, being watered once a day, late in the afternoon, or by

24 THE HORSE

some tribes only every second day ; but careful training precedes a hunting
excursion which may continue for one or two months during which no corn
is obtainable, and the rider's life may depend upon the fettle of his mount.
For two months in the winter the hunter is given no work but as much
corn and grass as he can eat. A drench of six to eight gallons of boiled
butter is administered to the horse, cast for the purpose, as a preliminary
and at intervals of two or three times a fortnight. After nearly two
months have elapsed grain only is fed and water once or twice a day for
about ten days, during which the horse is schooled and the size of the
stomach reduced. The horse is now considered fit for the chase of the
giraffe, elephant, antelope, or buffalo.

" It may be added that the Saiiidia and Hamr tribes of camel Arabs keep
the best animals, the former owning a cross between the Darfur and
Arabian called the Gyouliat breed.

" During the rainy season no horses are taken south of the eleventh degree
north latitude as an approximate line, owing to the prevalence of the tse-
tse fly.

" In Abyssinia, contrary to the general rule in the Sudan, most horses are
cut, and mule breeding is extensively carried on. The horse is shaped like
tiiat of Darfui', but is smaller and up to very little weight. The Galla
country is the principal breeding-ground, to the north of which the royal
breed named Gena Fingan is to be found, though said to have degenerated
very much from in-breeding, since for a long time it was kept entirely apart.

" As I have no experience and little exact information of the Abyssinian
horse, I will merely add that it does not hold a very high place in the
estimation of the wild horsemen who roam the pastures of the Sudan and
Central Africa."

THE BURMA AND MANIPUR PONIES

The Burma Poxy is a stout useful little fellow, up to great weight, not
by any means fast, but a good jumper and very hardy. The Shan Hills
are the home and birthplace of this variety, but he is called a Pegu as
often as not.

The Manipur is a distinct breed, smaller, quicker, and better looking.
This pony is famous for polo, which may almost be said to "run in the
blood," as polo has been played in his country for centuries.

SUMATRA AND JAVA PONIES

A COMPACT BREED OP PONIES about "11 to 13 " hands are found in these
countries. They have handsome heads, high crests, plenty of spirit, and
great muscular power. It is a common sight to sec one of these cobby
ponies trotting away with a four-wheeled carriage containing four persons,
and apparently doing it with all the ease in the world.

The Javanese are of the same type, but decidedly inferior to those of
Sumatra, whether Deli or Acheen.

THE MODERN ARAB 25

CHINESE PONIES

These are mostly bred in Manchuria, and are strong useful animals
about 13 hands in height. They have good feet and legs, are sure-footed,
and with fair shoulders ; are not bad mounts for steady work. Racing is
much appreciated by the populace, but Europeans consider them too slow.

COREAN PONIES

In this country of the comfortless, a very pretty pony is to be found,
built as it were on Arab lines, but as diminutive as those of Iceland, 9
or 10 hands being a common size. He is said to be a good little worker,
and for pluck and endurance much admired by those who have had the
opportunity of putting him to the test.

JAPANESE HORSES

In the matter of horseflesh, Japan has not gone ahead as she has in
nearly everything else, and her native horse is still a wretched slab-sided,
weak, long-legged pony. The stout cobby ponies of Manchuria are imported
and used to a considerable extent in the treaty ports. AVith the establish-
ment of a race club^ there is a prospect of ear"ly improvement.

THE MODERN ARAB

The controversy relating to the value of this breed in the stud has
raged with such vehemence that it is difficult to obtain an unprejudiced
opinion upon it. One thing, however, is quite clear, namely, that to
it in great measure we owe the pre-eminence of our English thoroughbred.
But how long ic would take to bring a modern Arab, even of the highest
caste, to the state of perfection in which we find our own Ormes and
Persimmons it would be difficult to say. This subject, however, will be
better discussed in treating of the English breed itself.

The answer given to the above question by the late eminent veterinary
surgeon, Mr. Mannington of Brighton, was " two hundred years." The
editor, meeting him at a sale of Mr. Wilfrid Blunt's at Crabbet Park,
asked Mr. M. if he were a buyer, and he replied that he would breed
out roaring from English thoroughbreds if he had two hundred years to
live. His opinion, like that of many other breeders and trainers of
thoroughbreds, was that tlie Arab was no good in competition with the
greater size of his English rival, but that for wind and endurance he
could not be surpassed. It was formerly claimed for the Arab that his
failui'e to ineet English horses on equal terms was due to adverse climatic
conditions, but the position has been frequently reversed and with the

^ The "Nippon."

26 THE HORSE

same result, the English thoroughbred horse maintaining his supremacy
in every fair trial of speed.

When the earlier editions of this work were brought out, no large
studs of Arab horses existed in this country, but we have now the
advantage of seeing the effect of climate and conditions other than those
with which this breed is associated. IMr. Wilfrid Blunt of Crabbet
Park, and the Hon. Miss Dillon of Pudlicote, have bred Arabs for many
years, and probably possess greater knowledge on the subject than any
other two persons living. Both have favoured the editor with their
opinions, which we insert in extenso : —

Mr. Blunt says, " In answer to your question about the effect of climate
on Arab horses bred in England, I may say that my experience is that
where the breeding is carried on, on the same rigid principles of blood-
relation as in Arabia, the type remains unchanged and with it the
native advantages of the breed. I do not find any falling off in the
points of constitutional hardiness and freedom from disease. On the
contrary, the English-bred stock seems less liable in some ways to suffer
than the stock I originally imported. This is especially the case with
the eyes, where several of my imported mares have suffered from cataract
without their produce being at all so affected.

" Of defects in the respiratoiy organs, roaring, whistling, and the like,
we have not had a single case, nor do I think there is the least
tendency in that direction.

"My mares and young stock after the first year stand out in open
yards or in the fields all through the winter, and are none the worse for it.

" As to speed and endurance, I do not put my colts into training for
racing, but as far as my experience goes there is little difference
between the home-bred and the imported Arab. On the road and in
the hunting-field they seem to have the same qualities. I have found
home-bred ones do as long journeys in harness as those I brought from
Arabia. Their action is certainly better than those bred in the desert.

" I am, however, of opinion — and on this point I acknowledge to a
change of mind some fifteen yeai-s ago — that increased size and probably
increased speed can only be obtained by a sacrifice of qualities of greater
importance. The tallest Arabs are seldom those of the best blood, and to
choose a stallion for his height to breed from, or even as a rule for his
speed, is contrary to Bedouin practice, and in my experience is attended
with poor results. Every inch over 14 hands 2| inches takes away some-
thing from the purity of the type and the perfect organization of the
animal, nor would I breed from a stallion over 14 hands 3 inches. In his
own country it would be safer to put the standard two inches lower. The
blood and the type are the essential things in a sire, next to them thickness
(not height) and action. I find these two last qualities improve in England,
and weed out my tallest ones. It is a departure from this principle in
the search for superior inches for military purposes that has caused the
decay of some of the once excellent Arab studs abroad, notably those in
Russian Poland. In the matter of courage and sagacity they are mainly
inherited with the skull formation, but are also due in some measure to
education. A horse brought up on the English system in paddocks and

THE MODERN ARAB 27

loose boxes cannot be expected to have the same fearless knowledge of
the world as the same animal bred and handled in a Bedouin camp.
The home-bred stock I believe to be precisely as teachable as the desert-
bred. They certainly inherit the original kindness of temper, and are
less likely than horses of other blood to lose their heads in moments of
difficulty.

" I may add that I consider the practical value of the Arab in England
and the world in general, especially in Southern Europe and the hotter
colonies, is for cross-breeding. Here in England I prefer the cross with
the Suifolk Punch, which gives handsome carriage stock 15 hands 2 inches
to IG hands in height."

The Hon. Miss Dillon says, " I consider no horse is the equal of the
Arab or Barb in power of endurance and long-continued work." Miss
Dillon is our authority for stating that many horses of this type, under

14 hands 3 inches, are imported into France from Algeria at a cost of
about £12, English, and they have the reputation of being very enduring
and plucky. " Among my own high-bred horses I find the same indomitable
spirit ; they never seem to have enough, and, what is more, impart their
most valuable virtue to their half-bred descendants. The size is decidedly
very greatly increased in England by breeding from the largest specimens,
due consideration being given to the alliances being in every other way
suitable ; still, sometimes the stock of an unusually big mare will fall short
of her height. I have now a young horse that measured at three years

15 hands 2| inches, and I believe he will reach 15 hands 3 inches. I
have never had but one case of whistling or anything like it ; that was
after a very severe attack of influenza. Strange to say he entirely
recovered and is now absolutely sound. I am siire that the Arab, large
or small, is the weight-carrier of creation."

This lady speaks with a very great experience, her own stud-groom
being well carried in the first flight on a 14 hands 1 inch horse with not
less than thirteen stone above him.

Ali Bey, who has investigated the subject with great acuteness, and
who has had opportunities beyond the reach of ordinary writers, describes
six distinct breeds of Arabs. " The first," he says, " named the ' Dgelfe,' is
found in Arabia Felix. They are rare at Damascus, but pretty common in
the neighbourhood of Anaze. They are remarkable for speed and fire, yet
mild as lambs ; they support hunger and thirst for a long time, are of
lofty stature, narrow in the chest, but deep in the girth, and with long ears.
A colt of this breed at two years old will cost in its own country two
thousand Turkish piastres.

" The second breed, called ' Seclaoni,' comes from the eastern part of the
Desert, resembles the ' Dgelfe ' of Anaze in aj^pearance, but is not quite so
highly valued.

"Next comes the 'Mefki,' handsome, though not so swift as the two
former breeds, and more resembling the Andalusian in figure. They are
very common about Damascus.

"Then the ' Sabi ' resembles the 'Mefki'; and the fifth breed, called
'Fridi,' is very common, but it is necessary to try them well, for they

28 THE HORSE

are often vicious, and do not possess the excellent qualities of the other
breeds.

" Sixth comes the ' Nejdi,' from the neighbourhood of Bussorah, and if
they do not surpass, they at least equal, the ' Dgelfe of Anaze, and Seelaoni.'
Horses of this breed are little known at Damascus, and connoisseurs assert
that they are incomparable ; thus their value is arbitrary, and ahva3's
exceeds two thousand piastres."

The first and last of these breeds are those which are most sought after
by East Indian sportsmen ; and Colonel Bower, who is one of their
strongest admirers, tells that he once possessed a three-year-old colt
which stood 15 hands 1 inch at that age. He describes him as having
'' the stereotyped assortment of Eastern beauties : could stick his nose in a
tumbler, and looked the gentleman all over ; remarkably musculai', and as
stately in his bearing as an autocrat, but his clean flat wiry legs, measuring
eight inches round the shank below the knee, had nothing English in their
composition. This was a pure Anaze Arab, but his career in the field was
cut short by his casting himself in his stall, and dislocating his hip." It
will be seen that no mention is here made of the breed which has been so
long familiar to those who read our modern histories of the horse as that
called " Kochlani " or *' Kailhan," descended from the stud of Mahomet,
who is supposed by many historians to have laid the foundation of the
Arabian pedigrees. There is a tradition that the Prophet, being desirous
of selecting mares for his stud, had a number of them which had been used
as chargers kept for two days without water. At the end of that time, when
mad with thirst, they were set at liberty, and at the moment when they
were close to the coveted water, his trumpets sounded a war charge, which
had such an effect upon five of them that they abandoned the water, and
galloped to the spot where they expected to meet with the still greater
excitement of war. These five were therefore selected to form the founda-
tion of his stud, and from them it is supposed that the race called
" Kochlani " are descended. There is a slight similarity between this name
and that of the second in the list enumerated by Ali Bey, and perhaps his
" Seelaoni " may be identical with the " Koclilani " of previous writers.
It is asserted by Oriental travellers that pedigrees exist which can be
traced five hundred years back, and in the highest breeds there is no doubt
that at present great care is taken, and many ceremonies performed at the
covering of the mare. After the birth of the foal, a certificate is always
duly made out by the local authority, and this must be done within seven
days of its being dropped.

Arabia is, in great measure, made up of rocky mountains and sandy
deserts ; but in Arabia Felix there are numerous valleys of remarkable
fertility ; though it is chiefly on the limited oasis surrounding each well or
spring of water that the Arab horses are dependent for their food. It is
found even in this country that a very luxuriant herbage does not suit the
horse, whose frame becomes coarse and heavy if he is reared upon the
succulent grasses of rich meadows, and therefore it is probable that much of
tlie wiriness of leg and lightness of frame in the Arab is due to the sandy
soil in which the grasses of these oases take their roots. Besides this, the
dry air may have something to do with the development of muscle and
tendon, while the soft sands of the desert render it unnecessary to protect

THE MODERN ARAB

29

the feet with iron shoes, and tlius they arc enabled to grow into the form
which nature has designed for them as the most suitable to bear the super-
incumbent weight.

Pure Arabs are considerably smaller than our modern thoroughbreds,
seldom exceeding 14 hands 2 inches in height. The head is remarkable
for the width across the forehead, which is also full and square, while the
muzzle is finer, the face more hollowed out, and the jaws more fully
developed in their proportions than in any other breed with which we
are acquainted. The eye is full and soft, yet sparkling with animation
on the slightest excitement ; the ear is small ; the neck arched ; the
shoulders obliq^ue, but muscular : the withers moderately high and thin ;

' CIIAEAN " AN AEAB STALLION.

the chest rather light in girth, but the back ribs deep in proportion, and
the hips, though narrow, well united to the back by a rounded mass of
powerful muscles. The croup is high, and the tail set on with a consider-
able arch. The bones of the leg are large in proportion to the size, and the
tendons full and free, the suspensory ligaments being particularly strong
and clean. The hocks are large and free both from curbs and spavins ; and,
lastly, the feet, though small, are sound, and capable of bearing an amount
of battering which few well-bred English horses can sustain. The prefixed
engraving of " Chaban," an Arabian stallion shows most of these points
extremely well, and the general characteristics of the breed are particularly
well indicated by the artist, who took the sketch from a celebrated Arabian
of high caste in the stud of the King of Wurtemburg.

30 THE HORSE

From the full development of the brain in this breed it might bo
expected, a jyrlori, that the amount of intelligence and courage possessed by
them would be far above the average ; and such is the result of experience.
]\Iost of them are extremely docile, and in their native plains, where they
pass their lives in constant communion with their masters, they are pos-
sessed of fine tempers ; but if they are highly fed, and at the same time
deprived of exercise and cruelly treated, their nervous system is so sensitive
that they rebel, and when they fight they persevere to the death. A
vicious Arabian is, therefore, a very unmanageable brute, and difficult to
cure of his bad propensities. Good treatment, however, has its effect upon
him, and when he once shows his forgiveness he may be depended on by the
individual that he takes into his good graces. This trait was well exempli-
fied in the savage Arabian tamed by Mr. Rai-ey, and in a still more marked
manner in former years in the case of Chillaby, who was, if possible, more
savage than Cruiser, and yet was so completely tamed by Hughes, the
celebrated circus-horse trainer, that he was able to exhibit him as a trained
horse, and was never once disappointed by him.

TuE FOOD of this kind of horse is of a very dry though nourishing nature,
and neither when at liberty nor when tied up can he get much water, the
prevalent opinion being that an unlimited supply?- of this fluid injures his
shape, and interferes with his wind. It is said that the Arab horse is only
fed twice a day ; but I conclude that this only i-efers to his allowance of
corn, and that in the intervals he is permitted to pick up what little dry
herbage the soil affords. Wonderful stories are told of the distances which
young colts are compelled to go when first mounted, but I confess that I
look with gi'eat suspicion upon these travellers' tales. About five or six
pounds of barley or beans, or a mixture of the two, constitute the daily
allowance of corn, which is about the weight of half-a-peck of good oats,
and would be considered poor feed by our English horses, unless the
proportion of beans is very large.

The colours of the Arabian horses are mostly bay, chestnut, and grey,
but occasionally black. The skin itself of the grey horses is of a deep
slate colour, and the manes and tails are dai^ker than the rest of the body.

The speed of the Arabs, which have recently been brought over to this
country, is undoubtedly not nearly equal to that of our thoroughbred horses
for courses of moderate length, that is, not exceeding two miles ; and there
is no reason to believe that at longer distances there would be any essential
difference in the result. In the Goodwood Cup an allowance is made them
of a stone, yet no Arab has ever had a chance of winning, and as far as
this test goes they are proved to be inferior to the French and American
horses. In India a difference of weight, varying from 1 stone to 1 stone
7 pounds, is made in favour of Arabs as against imported English horses,
" in order to bring the two together " in racing parlance, yet even then few
Arabs can compete with the second-rate horses which are imported from
this country. Colonel Bower tells us that " in India the weights range
from 7i stone to 10 stone, and no uncommon timing for Arabs is 2 minutes
and 54 seconds the mile and a half ; 3 minutes and 52 seconds the 2 miles
— it has been done in 3 minutes and 48 seconds, and the Arab that did it
was once my property, and his name was the Child of the Islands. He
was a daisy-cutter, and yet I have ridden him over the roughest ground and

THE MODERN ARAB 31

never detected him in a trip. A pleasanter, safer hack could not be, and a
fleeter Arab the world never saw. He stood 14 hands 2 inches, bay with
black points, wiry limbs, very muscular all over, and measured 7f inches
round a fore-leg of the finest bone and flattest sinew." This time is as good
as that of the average of our Derbys, but the test is a very fallacious one,
and unless the time is taken over the same course, and that in the same
running condition, no comparison can possibly be drawn.

Captain Shakspear, in his work on the Wild Sports oj India, gives the
following most minute description of the Arab, as he is now met with in
India. As it differs in some particulars from the accounts of other observers,
I extract it entire. The price of a good Arab, he says, varies from £150 to
£200, and there is plenty of choice in the Bombay and Bengal markets.

" The points of the highest caste Arab horse, as compared with the
English thoroughbred, are as follow : — the head is more beautifully formed,
and more intelligent ; the forehead broader ; the muzzle finer ; the eye
more prominent, more sleepy-looking in repose, more bi'illiant when the
animal is excited. The ear is more beautifully pricked, and of exquisite
shape and sensitiveness. On the back of the trained hunter, the rider scarcely
requires to keep his eye on anything but the ears of his horse, which give
indications of everything that his ever-watchful eye catches sight of. The
nostril is not always so open in a state of rest, and indeed often looks thick
and closed ; but in excitement, and when the lungs are in full play from
the animal being at speed, it expands greatly, and the membrane shows
scarlet and as if on fire. The game-cock throttle — that most exquisite for-
mation of the throat and jaws of the blood-horse — is not so commonly seen
in the Arab as in the thoroughbred English race-horse ; nor is the head
quite so lean. The jaws, for the size of the head, are perhaps more apart,
giving more room for the expansion of the windpipe. The point where the
head is put on to the neck is quite as delfcate as in the English horse. This
junction has much more to do with the mouth of the horse than most
people are aware of, and on it depends the pleasure or otherwise of the
rider. The bones, from the eye down towards the lower part of the head,
should not be too concave, or of a deer's form ; for this in the Arab as in
the English horse denotes a violent temper, though it is very beautiful to
look at. Proceeding to the neck, we notice that the Arab stallion has
rarely the crest that an English stallion has. He has a strong, light, and
muscular neck, a little short perhaps compared to the other, and thick. In
the pure breeds, the neck runs into the shoulders very gradually; and
generally, if the horse has a pretty good crest, comes down rather per-
pendicularly into the shoulders ; but often, if he is a little ewe-necked,
which is not uncommon with the Arab, it runs in too straight, and low down
in the shoulders. The Arab, however, rarely carries his head, when he is
being ridden, so high in proportion as the English. He is not so well
topped, which I attribute to the different way he is reared, and to his not
being broken in regularly, like the English horse, before he is put to work.
His shoulders are not so flat and thin, and he is thicker through in these
parts generally for his size than the English tl oroughbred horse. His girth
does not show so deep, that is, he does not look so deep over the heart ; but
between the knees and behind the saddle, where the English horse very
often falls off, the Arab is barrel-ribbed ; and this gives him his wonderful

32 THE HORSE

endurance and his great constitutional points. This also prevents him from
getting knocked up in severe training or under short allowance of food, and
in long marches. His chest is quite broad enough and deep enough for
either strength or bottom. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is both in length
and backwai'd inclination, compared to the humerus, or upper bone of the
arm, quite as fine in the high-caste Arab as in the English horse ; while
both bones are generally better furnished with muscles, better developed, and
feel firmer to the hand. But some of the very fastest Ai^abs have their fore-
legs very much under them ; indeed, so much that no judge would buy an
English horse so made. Yet, whether it be that this form admits of the
joints between these bones becoming more opened, when the horse extends
himself, or whatever be the cause, it is a fact that blood-horses thus made
are almost always fast horses. The upper part of their shoulder-blade seems
to run back under the front part of the saddle, when they are going their
best. This formation is most common in the lower-sized Arab, and appar-
ently makes up to him for his deficiency in height. The very finest-actioned
Arabs have had this peculiarity of form. They are rather apt to become
chafed at the elbow-points by the girths, and almost require to have saddles
made on purpose for them. The elbow-point, that essential bone, which for
the sake of leverage should be prominent, is fine in the Arab, and generally
plays clear of the body. The fore-arm is strong and muscular, and is pretty
long ; the knee square, with a good speedy cut for the size of the animal,
equal to the English horse ; while below the knee the Arab shines very
conspicuously, having a degree of power there, both in the suspensory
ligaments and flexor tendons, far superior, in proportion to his size, to the
English horse. These are distinct and away from the shank -bone ; they
give a vei"y deep leg, and act mechanically to great advantage. The bone
looks small, but then it is very dense, the hollow wliich contains the
marrow being very small, and the material solid, more like ivory than bone,
heavy, and close-grained. The flexor tendons are nearly as large and as
thick as the cannon-bone. The pasterns and their joints are quite in keeping
with the bones above them, and are not so long, straight, and weak as those
of the English horse. The feet are generally in the same proportion : but
the Arabs themselves appear to be very careless in their treatment of them.
The body or centre-piece of the Arab horse has rarely too great length.
This is a very uncommon fault in the pure bi-eed ; and there is no breed of
horses that arc more even in this respect than the Arab. Behind this,
we come to a great peculiarity in the breed — his croup. I might say
an Arab horse is known by it : he is so much more beautifully made in hia
hind-quarters, and in the way his tail is put on, than most other breeds.
His loins are good ; he is well coupled ; his quarters are powerful, and his
tail carried high ; and this even in castes that have very little more than a
high-bred stallion to recommend them. The straight-dropped hind-leg is
always a recommendation, and almost all racing Arabs have it; and this,
when extended, brings the hind-foot under the stirrup, and the propellers
being of this shape give a vast stride, without fear of over-reach. The
thighs and hocks ai^e good ; the latter very rarely know either kind of
spavin or curbs. The points and processes are pre-eminently well adapted for
the attachment of the muscles ; while the flexor tendons of the hind-legs
generally correspond with those of the fore. The hocks are not so much

THE MODERN ARAB 33

let down, nor the hind-legs so greyhound-like, as in the thoroughbred
English horse. In stride, too, he is somewhat diflfercnt, inasmuch as it is a
rounder way of going, and is not so extended or so near the ground, but is
more like a bound. However, there are exceptions ; and I have bred pure
Arabs whose stride, for their size, was very extended, and quite like that of
English race-horses."

The Maee is commonly supposed to be more highly prized by the Arabs
than the stallion ; but this idea is said to be unfounded by the celebrated
Abd el Kader, in a highly interesting letter to General Daumas, which is
published in the fifth number of Baily^s Magazine of Sports. He remarks : —

"It is true that the foal proceeds from the sire and from the dam, but
the experience of ages has proved that the essential parts of the body —
such as the bones, the tendons, the nerves, and the veins — proceed always
from the sire. This is beyond all doubt. The meanest Arab knows now
that any malady specially belonging to the bones, under which the sire
may be suffering at the time of covering, will be perpetuated in his produce,
such as splints, bone and blood spavins, the shape of the bones, and all
diseases of the vertebral column. The dam may give to her produce colour,
and a certain amount of resemblance in form, the foal naturally partaking
of some of the qualities of the animal which had so long borne it ; but it is
an incontestable fact, that it is the sire who gives strength to the bones,
substance to the tendons, vigour to the nerves, rapidity of pace, in short,
all the principal qualities. He also communicates what may be called
moral qualities, and if he be unquestionably of high blood the foal is pre-
served from vice. Our fathers have said. El aond por ma audouche Mela —
' A horse of noble race has no vices.' An Arab will lend his stud horse
gratuitously ; he never accepts payment for his services. To hire out a
stud horse for money is, in the eyes of an Arab, an unworthy action, and is
contrary to the generosity for which he is renowned, and although the law
allows it, I have never known an instance of it. But though the Arab
lends his stud horse gratuitously, he does not do so to the first comer, nor
for any mare. No ; the suppliant is often obliged to make use of the inter-
cession of persons of great interest, or even of his wives, if he would not
see his request refused. On the other hand, the Arabs are very difficult in
their choice of a stud horse, and if they cannot find one of pure blood, they
prefer leaving their mares unproductive rather than put them to a common
horse. To procure a good sire they do not hesitate to travel any distance.
The proceeding has already intimated to you my conclusion, that the sire
has more to do with the foal than the dam. And my conclusion is identical
with the universal opinion of the Arabs. They say. El hor ilehal el fahal —
'The foal follows the sire.' "

In corroboration of this opinion, he describes the Arab horses as dis-
tinguished under the following heads : — " El Horr, El Hadjim, El Mekueref,
and El Berdoune. El Horr is that in which sire and dam are both of noble
race ; that takes the lead. El Hadjim is that in which the sire is noble
and the dam of common race ; it is considered less than El Horr, its name
Hadjim, 'defective,' being derived from the word ^ Hurdjissj' which signifies
faulty. El Mekueref is that in which the dam is high-bred and the sire is
half-bred j although this approaches the Hadjim, it is of much less value.
The name of this class is derived from ' haraf mixed. El Hadjim is

D

34 THE HORSE

superior in quality on the same principle that a man whose father is white
and whose mother is a negress is superior to him whose mother is white
and whose father is a negro. El Berdoune is that class in which both
sire and dam are badly bred. This animal is a stranger to our country.
The value of a horse is in its breeding."

THE PERSIAN HORSE

Sir John Malcolm and Sir Robert Ker Porter, both of whom resided
many years in Persia, are the chief authorities on this subject. The former
says : — " A vai'iety of horses are produced in Persia. The inhabitants of
the districts which border on the Gulf still preserve here those races of
animals which their ancestors brought from the opposite shore of Arabia.
In Pars and Irak they have a mixed breed from the Arabian, which
though stronger is still a small horse compared with either the Toorkoman
or Khorassan breed, which are most prized by the soldiers of Persia.
Both these latter races have also a great proportion of Arabian blood."
Sir Robert thus alludes to them : — " The Persian horses never exceed
fourteen or fourteen and a half hands high ; yet certainly on the whole
they are taller than Arabs. Those of the Desert and country about Hillah
seem very small, but are full of bone, and of good speed. General custom
feeds and waters them only at sunrise and sunset, when they ai'e cleaned.
Their usual provender is barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals
are picketed, is put into a nosebag and hung from their heads ; but if
stabled, it is thrown into a lozenge-shaped hole, left in the thickness of the
mud wall for that purpose, but much higher up than the line of our
mangers, and then the animal eats at his leisui-e. Hay is a kind of food
not known here. The bedding of the horse consists of his dung. After
being exposed to the drying influence of the sun during the day, it becomes
pulverized, and in that state is nightly spread under him. Little of it
touches his body, that being covered by his clothing, a large nummud from
the head to the tail, and bound firmly round his body by a very long
surcingle. But this appai'el is only for cold weather ; in the warmer season
the night-clothes are of a lighter substance, and during the heat of the day
the animal is kept entirely under shade. At night he is tied in the court-
yard. The horses' heads are attached to the place of security by double
ropes from their halters, and the heels of their hinder-legs are confined by
cords of twisted hair, fastened to iron rings and pegs driven into the earth.
The same custom prevailed in the time of Xenophon, and for the same
reason, to secure them from being able to attack and maim each other, the
whole stud generally consisting of stallions. Their keepers, however,
always sleep in their rugs amongst them to prevent accidents, and some-
times notwithstanding all their care they manage to break loose, and then
the combat ensues. A general neighing, screaming, kicking, and snorting,
soon rouse the groom, and the scene for a while is terrible. Indeed no one
can conceive the sudden uproar of such a moment who has not been in
Eastern countries to hear it, and then all who have must bear me witness
that the noise is tx-emendous. They seize, bite, and kick each other with
the most determined fury, and frequently cannot be separated before their
heads and haunches stream with blood."

OTHER ASIATIC HORSES 35

THE TURKISH HORSE

This variety seems to be merely the Arab developed by higher food
into a larger size and more massive proportions. The horses of Constanti-
nople are often 16 hands in height, v/ith very elegant proportions and
a crupper more highly developed than that of the Arab. They are
said to be extremely docile, and the two specimens which I have seen
imported into this country certainly bore out this character, both of
them, though stallions, being as quiet as any English geldings. They
had very high crests and arched necks ; and this is said to be one of
the characteristics of the breed. In the records of the turf in this
country, many of the most celebrated sires are mentioned as Turks ;
but though imported from Turkey, it is very probable that some of
these were genuine Arabs.

OTHER ASIATIC HORSES

The Horses of Toorkistan are described by Sir R. K. Porter as
scanty in barrel, long in the leg, with ewe necks and large heads. When
crossed with those of Persia, they, however, are said by him to produce
a most magnificent animal, all elegance and elasticity, and of a stronger
form and somewhat larger size than the best Arabians. Sir Alexander
Burns attributes to them, on the other hand, a very high crest, and
large and bony though somewhat long bodies. He says, also, that in
Bokhara there is a breed of Kuzzak horses, sturdy and small, with shaggy
coats and very long manes and tails, much and deservedly admired.

The Tartar Horses are small and narrow, with long necks, weak
legs, large heads, and light middles. Nevertheless they are described
as fast and untii'ing, and of the most hardy nature, so that they can
support themselves on a quantity and quality of food upon which even
our donkeys would starve.

In various parts of Tartary horses are found in a wild state, and
present a rough inelegant form not unlike that of our New Forest
ponies. In them the characteristics of the domesticated Tartar horse
already described are exhibited in a marked manner, and there is every
reason to believe that the two breeds are identical, and that the ranks
of the latter are recruited from the enormous herds of wild horses which
are found in countless thousands on the edges of the vast deserts of
the country. They are generally of a red colour, with a black stripe
along the back, and manes and tails of the latter colour, but almost
always reddish at the roots of the dock and edges of the mane. The
Tartars eat the flesh both of the wild and domesticated horse, and
are said to cook the meat under their saddles. They also manufacture
a drink called koumiss from the milk obtained from the mare, which
is fermented and distilled into an intoxicating beverage.

Visitors to the Health Exhibition in London will perhaps remember
a not very attractive corner of the grounds where these mares were
kept and attended to by natives not at all remarkable for cleanliness,
but in a condition fairly representative of their country.

36 THE HORSE

In so vast a country as India, it might be expected that numerous
breeds of horses would be found, varying ahnost as much as the climates
and soils of Bengal and Cabool. In the immediate ueiglibourhood of
the three presidencies imported and country-bred Arab, as well as Persian
and Toorkoman horses are common enough, as also are importations from
the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and Van Diemen's Land.

EAST INDIAN HORSES

The native horses are small and hardy, and should not exceed fourteen
and a half hands if quality and staying power are expected. They have
good fore-hands, are clever jumpers, quick in turning, and consequently
in request for sporting purposes as pig-sticking and polo. Though able
to sustain a lot of work their legs are often ugly from such defects as
cow-hocks, calf-knees, and turned-out toes. They can endure thirst and
hunger, long marches, and carry heavy weights in proportion to their size.

THE AUSTRALIAN HORSE

The Irishman's fifth quarter of the world is now abundantly sup-
plied with horses of the first class, in size, speed, and stoutness, though
less than a century ago the animal was altogether unknown there. At
first, from the pioximity of India and the Cape of Good Hope, the horses
of these colonies, and those of inferior value onlj^, were imported into the
new settlement; but about the year 1835 great efforts were made by
several enterprising settlers, both in the island of Van Diemen and also on
the continent of Australia, and several horses of good breeding were im-
ported from this country, especially by Mr. Wilmore in the former island.
It was soon found that the climate is admirably suited to this animal, and
there are now colonial -bred horses, adapted for the turf and the road, as
well as for agricultural purposes, superior in soundness and probably in
stoutness, even if they are deficient in pace, as compared with the British
th jroughbred. Still I am inclined to believe that as the soil and climate
are admitted to improve the appearance of the imported horses, as indeed
they do all our domestic animals, and as disease of all kinds is extremely
rare, so it will be found that in all good qualities the Australian horse is
at least on a par with our own. Their breeders are so spirited and deter-
mined that neither money nor trouble is spared in procuring the best blood,
an evidence of which is afforded by the fact that at the sale of Lord
Londesborough's stud, the large sum of 3120 guineas was invested for
Australia. This, probably, is the heaviest price yet paid at one sale by
any colonial breeder, but numerous smaller speculations have been going
on for years. Hence, the position attained by our friends over the water
they entirely owe to the parent country; and I strongly suspect that
before long we shall have to go to them^ to procure sound horses of high
breeding for our own studs.

^ " In many parts of the interior of New South Wales and Queensland large mobs of wild
horses (or warrigals, as they are called) infest the outlying stations, to the great annoyance

SOUTH AFRICAN H0R8ES 37

In loin, bari'el, and croup Australian horses are not perhaps equal to
our own, but they are superior in endurance and better jumpers, being
lighter in the forehead and enjoying longer freedom on big runs, not being
taken up for work as a rule until four years old. There are more thorough-
bred horses capable of carrying weight in Australasia than in England, but
it is found that imported sires are more successful in getting winners than
those bred in the colonies. The racing ponies can be beaten by those brea
in Ireland, but as a rule they are remarkably good.

SOUTH AFRICAN HORSES

Are weedy and slow, and have the appearance of a cross between the
blood-horse and the Arab. For light weights and long journeys they are
useful animals, as they have good legs and feet, and there are large tracts
of country admirably adapted for horse-breeding, but here sickness is so
prevalent that there is not much inducement to embark capital in it.
" Salted " horses which have gained immunity from the disease fetch good
prices, and it is probable that in coui'se of time the virulence of the plague
will die out, or a preventive be discovered.

The Basuto pony is a short-legged hardy little animal, but there is no
pace in him as compared with English animals of his size.

and loss to the owners of the property, not on]y on account of the feed they consume, but
also because the horses on the stations clear out and join their ranks. On many of the
runs where large mobs are known to exist, the station hands are put on to run them into
specially prepared yai'ds, where the entires and old ones are destroyed and the balance
broken in for station use or sent away to some market for sale. For some nights before the
muster all the water-holes where they are known to drink are watched and the wan'igals
kept away from them, so that when they are tackled by the mnsterers they are more easily
run down than they would otlierwise be." {The Graphic, April 1896.)

CHAPTER IV ••

THE HORSES OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE

Tin: SOUTH AMEPaCAN HOUSE— THE MUSTANG— THE MORGAN HORSE— THE IXDIAN PONY
—THE CANADIAN HORSE— THE AMERICAN TROTTER— THE AMERICAN THOROUGHBRED
— THE VERMONT CART-HORSE — THE CONESTOGA DRAUGHT-HOl'.SE.

THE SOUTH AMERICAN HORSE

For some time after the DiscovERr of America, at the conclusion of
the fifteenth century, the horse was entirely unknown in that hemisphere,
but according to Azara a few specimens were introduced there by the
Spaniards in the year 1535, and in the year 1537 several v/ere shipped to
Paraguay. From these have been bred the countless herds which have
since spread over the whole southern part of the western world, and
passing the Isthmus of Panama have wandered into North America. In
both these divisions the horse runs wild, wherever thei'e are plains suitable
to him, and not yet brought under cultivation ; but it is in the south that
the wild horse is to be found in the greatest numbers, on the extensive
plains which stretch almost unbroken from the shores of La Plata to
Patagonia. Here herds numbering some thousands in each are to be met
with, each under the guidance of a master stallion, who enforces entire
submission to his will as long as he has the power to do so. Here the
native Gaucho has only to throw his lasso, and he can at any time supply
himself with a horse which will carry him for miles at a hand gallop,
when he changes him for another, and is thus always mounted at a cheap
and easy rate. In this way Captain Head rode all across the continent from
one shore to the other, nearly using up one horse in the course of fifty or
sixty miles, and then looking out for another before the first was so spent
as to be unable to assist him in making the exchange. These wild hoi'ses
greatly resemble their Spanish ancestors in make and shape. They are
said to be possessed of a fair amount of speed, but not above the average
of foreign breeds. They are, however, from their roving habits, in excellent
wind, and it is said that a Gaucho has been known to ride one fresh caught
nearly a hundred miles without drawing bit.

A few consignments of South American horses have been sold in England
and at low prices. The venture seems to have been a failure, as many
proved vicious and intractable. A more careful selection and preliminary

38

THE MORGAN HORSE 39

education might have conduced to greater success, but the general verdict
in this country was that they are a slab-sided, " three-cornered " lot, and
unable to compete on any sort of terms with our own.

THE MUSTANG, OR WILD HORSE OF NORTH
AMERICA

Like the wild horses op South America, those of Mexico and Call
fornia are in all probability descended fi-om Spanish blood, and indeed it
is impossible now to discover, with anything like certainty, the source of
the Indian ponies, large herds of which run wild in the northern and
north-western parts of this extensive continent. So little do the Americans
now know or care about these wild horses, that the late Mr. Herbert, who
has treated of the American Horse in two vols, quarto, omits all mention
of them, excepting the most cursory allusion to the Mustang as the origin
of the Indian pon}^, in common with the Canadian horse. I shall, there-
fore, not weary my readers with extracts from Mr. Catlin's somewhat
fanciful writings, but at once proceed to allude to the modern domesticated

'O'^J

breeds of horses met Avith in the United States and Canada.

THE MORGAN HORSE

The Morgan Horse has been paraded in America as a distinct strain,
kept pure in its own district for more than half a century, and descended
from a single horse in the possession of Mr. Justin Morgan, a school-master
in Vermont. In the year 1856 the Agricultural Society of Vermont offered
a prize for the best essay on the subject, which was awarded to Mr. Lindsey,
an inhabitant of the same state. According to this authority, the founder
of the family, or strain, was got by a horse called " True Briton," which
was said to have been stolen, and whose pedigree is therefore doubtful.
Mr. Lindsey endeavours to prove, however, that he was a son of the English
thoroughbred horse Traveller, which he assumes to be identical with the
son of Partner, known as Moreton's Old Traveller, giving as his authority a
pedigree inserted in the Albany Cultivator of 1846. The same authority
is also adduced to prove that the dam of True Briton and also of Justin
Morgan's horse were of nearly pure English blood, and that the latter was
descended from the famous " Cub " mare ; but the facts adduced seem of
the most doubtful nature, and I believe that the Morgan horse would in
this country be considered as undoubtedly half-bred.

Mr. Lindsey describes the founder of the Morgan strain in the follow-
ing terms: — He "was about 14 hands high, and weighed about nine
hundred and fifty pounds. His colour was dark bay, with black legs,
mane, and tail. He had no white hair upon him. His mane and tail were
coarse and heavy, but not so massive as has been sometimes described ; the
hair of both was straight, and not inclined to curl. His head was good,
not extremely small, but lean and bony, the face straight, forehead broad,
ears small and very fine, but set rather wide apart. His eyes were medium
size, very dark, and prominent, and showed no white round the edge of the

40 THE HORSE

lid " (Qy. iris T). " His nostrils were very large, the muzzle small, and the
lips close and firm. His back and legs were, perhaps, his most noticeable
points. The foi-mer was very short, the shoulder-blades and thigh-bones
being very long and oblique, and the loins exceedingly broad and muscular.
His body was rather long, round, and deep, close ribbed up ; chest deep and
wide, with the breast-bone projecting a good deal in front. His legs wei-e
short, close-jointed, thin, but very wide, hard and free from meat, with
muscles that were remarkably large for a horse of his size, and this super-
abundance of muscle manifested itself at every step. His hair was short,
and at almost all seasons soft and glossy. He had a little long hair about
the fetlocks, and for two or three inches above the fetlock on the back side
of the legs ; the rest of his limbs were entirely free from it. His feet were
small, but well shaped, and he was in every respect perfectly sound and
free from blemish. He was a very fast walker. In trotting his gait was
slow and smooth, and his step short and nervous ; he was not what in these
days would be called fast, and we think it doubtful whether he could ti'ot a
mile much, if any, within four minutes, though it is claimed by many that
he could trot it in three. Although he raised his feet but little, he never
stumbled. His proud, bold, and fearless style of movement, and his vigorous
untiring action, have perhaps never been surpassed."

He describes him as being fast for short distances, by which he explains
that he means a quarter of a mile, which he says was the usual distance
run in those days. From this celebrated horse are descended, more or less
remotely, " Black Hawk," " Ethan Allen," "American Eagle," and a host of
horses celebrated for gameness, and many of them for fast-trotting powers.
But those who dispute the claims of Mr. Justin Morgan's horse to be con-
sidered the founder of the family, assert that before his time a similar horse
prevailed in this district, which was made up of crosses between the
Canadian horse and the English thoroughbred. I shall, however, leave this
much-vexed question for the Americans to settle among themselves, con-
tenting myself with a description of the modern Morgan horse as he is
recognized throughout the states of America. He is generally, though not
universally, admitted to be very stout and enduring, with good action,
especially in the trot, and great hardness of constitution. He shows very
little evidence of pure blood, indeed, it may be said that the reverse is the
case, as he invariably possesses a thick and long mane and tail, with a
considerable curl in both, signs which may be truly said are fatal to his
claims. In height he seldom exceeds 15 hands. His frame is corky, but
not remarkably well put together, there being generally a deficiency in the
coupling of the back and loins. The forehead is very light, and carried
high, somewhat in the fashion of the Canadians, but not so heavy in the
crest and junction of the neck to the shouldei', though the setting of the
head is equally thick. On the whole, the Morgan horse may be described as
extremely useful, but deficient in what we call " quality," in proportion to
the absence of thorough blood.

According to Mr. Herbert, who seems to have taken great pains to
arrive at the truth, " with the one solitary exception of the Norman horse
in Canada, no special breeds have ever taken root as such, or been bred,
or even attempted to be bred, in their purity, in any part of America. In
Canada East the Norman horse, imported by the early settlers, was bred

THE CANADIAN HOltSE 41

for many generations entirely unmixed ; and, as the general agricultural
horse of the province, exists, yet so stunted in size by the cold climate and
the rough usage to which he has been subjected for centuries, but in nowise
degenerated, for he possesses all the honesty, courage, endurance, hardihood,
soundness of constitution, and characteristic excellence of feet and legs of
his progenitor." Besides this native Canadian there are also, among the
more active kinds, the Morgan horse, the American trotter, and the
thoroughbred descended from English imported horses, with scarcely any
admixture of native blood ; and of the agricultural varieties, the Vermont
and Conestoga draught-horses, in addition to several others not so easily
made out.

THE INDIAN PONY

The Indian Pony, which seldom or never exceeds 13 hands in
height, is remarkable for activity and strength, as compared with its size,
appearing, like its Scotch congener, to be almost overwhelmed with its
rider, whose feet nearly touch the ground, yet moving under its load with
freedom. It has a high crest, and a flowing mane and tail, with a proud
carriage of the head of a very pleasing character. The body is strongly
built, and the legs and feet are made of the most lasting materials. Large
herds of these ponies run wild in the prairies of the north-west, and many
are brought into Canada for the use of the inhabitants.

THE CANADIAN HORSE

The Canadian Horse is a remarkably hardy animal, capable of travel-
ling very long distances, but in his pure condition not above the average
in speed. When ci'ossed, however, with a thoroughbred horse, he combines
the speed of the latter with his own endurance and iron constitution and
legs, and in this way a great many of the best Amei'ican trotters are bred.
Mr. Herbert says, "His crest is lofty, and his demeanour proud and
courageous ; his breast is full and broad ; his shoulder strong, though
somewhat straight, and a little inclined to be heavy ; his back broad, and
his croup round, fleshy, and muscular ; his ribs are not, however, so much
arched, nor are they so well closed up as his general shape and build
would lead one to expect ; his legs and feet are admirable — the bone large
and flat, and the sinews big and nervous as steel springs ; his feet seem
almost unconscious of disease ; his fetlocks are shaggy ; his mane voluminous
and massive, not seldom, if untrained, falling on both sides of his neck, and
his tail abundant, both having a peculiar crimpled wave, if I may so
express myself, the like of which I never saw in any horse which had not
some strain of his blood." I append a sketch of one of these hCrses,
showing the shape and action peculiar to them. It is said by good judges
to be an excellent likeness.

Since the above paragraph was written quite a large trade has sprung
up in Canadian horses. The first few consignments of 500 each were
carefully selected by Mr. Ffoulkes, M.R.C.V.S., and on landing in England
were as carefully nursed through strangles and other ti^oubles so often
incurred in transit, and when offered by Messrs. Freeman at St. Martin's Lane

42

THE HORSE

realized something like 70 guineas apiece. They were well bred as a rule,
with many of the points we usually associate with the English blood-horse,
who doubtless had a share in their production. Many of them were
15 hands 3 inches and 16 hands high, with admirable tempers, fair action,
and, as a rule, fast in harness. These may have been said to give general
satisfaction, the " trade " having bought freely and taken kindly to them.
The difficulty of procuring high-class horses and the expense of importation
deterred the original company from prosecuting the business, but a very
large trade has since sprung up in the useful kinds, and in London a

CANADIAN HOKSE.

special sale yard for bi-weekly consignments. Some 40,000 so-called
Canadian horses were imported into this country in the year 1897, but
rather more than three-fourths of them came from the United States.
They appear to be the result of several crosses with the original horses
mentioned in the earlier editions of this work ; many Clydesdales,
Percherons, and other European sires contributing to the useful breed now
all but established. It is thought that America will have always to
renew her blood from Europe, as there is a tendency in horses as well
as cattle to revert to the type of the country. The severe winters and
hot summers are very trying to the constitution, and by the rule of the
survival of the fittest there should be developed a breed more hardy than
the stock from which they are derived. Nature, however, seeks compensa-
tion in some other direction, and stature is sacrificed, as in the hardy
Shetland and Iceland pony, unless, as suggested above, the blood is
recruited from the original stock.

THE AMERICAN TROTTER 43

THE AMERICAN TROTTER

The true modern trotting horse is a most remarkable instance of
what may be done by keeping an animal to one kind of work for generations,
and selecting the specimens best fitted for it to breed from. In this country
a thoroughbred horse, or even one of nearly pure blood, could not be found
at any price to trot a mile in three minutes, yet in America there are
plenty, of blood almost entirely derived from the English turf horse, which
will perform the distance in 2 minutes and 40 seconds, and some in
considerably less time. In America private and public trotting matches
in harness have been for many years the chief amusement of the town
population, and, until very recently, when flat racing or running, as it is
called there, has been more developed, a fast trotter fetched a higher price
than any other description of horse. Trotting matches are, in fact, the
national sport, just as racing is that of our own country.

The trotting time given in the original edition of this work, when Flora
Temple did a mile in 2 minutes 19f seconds, was thought too marvellous
an achievement to be ever surpassed, yet we have seen the record broken
by Maud S. and plenty of others since. " Jay Eye Sie " did the mile in
2 minutes 8f seconds in 1885, and more seconds have been chipped off the
record in this last decade of the nineteenth century.

The most extraordinary performances of these trotters, as recorded in
the American Racing Calendar, are as follows : —

MILE HEATS.

iiiin. sec.

Flora Tenii)le, b. m. in liarness . . . Kalamazoo, Mich. . . Oct. 15, 1859 . 2 19|

Ditto ditto . . . Cincinnati Oct. 7, 1859 . 2 21i

Ditto ditto . . . Eclipse Course, L. I. . Aug. 9, 1859 . 2 21^

Tacony and Mack in 1853, Lancet iu 1856, and Patchen in 1859, each iu harness . 2 25^

Ethan Allen, stallion, 105 lb. wagon . Union Course, L. I. . . Oct. 28, 1858 . 2 28"

TWO MILE HEATS.

Flora Temple in harness L.I Aug. 16, 1859. 4 50i

Ditto to wagon L.I July 6, 1859 . 5 7"

Lady Franklin, ro. m. to wagon . . L. I July 30, 1858 . 5 11

THREE MILE HEATS.

Dutchman, b. g. imder saddle . . . Beacon Course, IST. J. . August 1839 . 7 32^
Ditto in harness .... Beacon Course, N. J. . July 1839 . . 7 42"

FOUR MILES.

Trustee, ch. g. in harness L. I June 13, 1849. 11 6

Sally Green, br. m. 250 lb. wagon . . L. I May 6, 1850 . 13 56

FIVE MILES.

]\rary Warren, b. m. to road wagon . L. I July 5, 1854 . 14 42

Lady Agnes, gr. m. in harness . . . L. I Nov. 25, 1850. 15 18

TEN MILES.

^1veTgh?65U;s.'\^'™\'^"^^^^ Oct. 20, 1849 . 28 SJ

TWENTY MILES.

Trustee, ell. g. to ord. trotting sulky, 1 ^ t -nt h ioco er> oei

weighing 150 lbs., driverl45 lbs. .7 L-^ Nov. 11, 1853. 59 35^

Lady FultoD^ b. m. in harness . . . L. I July 12, 1855 . 59 65

44 THE HORSE

FIFTY MILES.

lis. min. sec.

Ariel, b. m, in harness, drivcv wi'ish-l Bull's Head Course, Al-"\ -.r - ,0^^ o rr ^m
ingeOlbs . . . ./ bany, N. Y. . . .) May 5, 1846 . 3 55 40^

Spangle, sji. g. a
weighing 400 lbs.

urgle, sp. g. wagon and driver | ^^ j Oct. 15,1855

59 4

ONE HITNDKED MILES.

Conqueror, b. g. in harness .... L. I Nov. 12,1853 . 8 56 1

Fanny Jeuks, in harness (feather-1 Bull's Head Course, AlO T,r ^-,01^- ,^ .•> r*,
weight). . .1 bany, N. Y. . . .) May 5, 1845 . 9 42 57

Pacing is considerably faster than trotting, as will be shown in the
following recorded feats : —

MILE HEATS,

min. sec.

Pocahontas, ch. m. in wagon weighing"\ yy t micro-t-i

265 lbs. ;-ith driver. ° , .°. !} L- I June21,lSo5. 2 1/i

Pet, r. g. in harness L.I Sept. 9,1852. 2 IBJ

Hero, g. g. in harness L. I May 17, 1853. 4 56|

Young America, b. g. wagon . . . S. Francisco .... Jan. 10, 1859. 4 58|

The extent to which match trotting is carried on in America may be
guessed from the fact that Lady Suffolk won, at various times, 35,311
dollars, or more that £7000. The exact value of the stakes which have
fallen to the lot of the owner of Flora Temple I do not know, but three
years ago it amounted to 46,850 dollars. Mr, Herbert in his quarto work
on The Horse of America clearly shows the reason why our transatlantic
cousins excel us in their trotters, and why they take to this species of
amusement in preference to others. After enumerating several which do
not appear to us quite so cogent as to him, he more pertinently says,
"Another reason, inferior in practical truth to the others adduced, but
physically superior, is this — that before American trotters could be gener-
ally used in Great Britain, the whole system of British road-making
must be altered, which is not likely to occur. On an ordinary English
macadamized turnpike, which is exactly the same as the hardest central
part of the New York Third Avenue, without any soft track alongside of
it, an American trotter would pound his shoes oif in an hour's trot, and
his feet off in a week's driving ; and this is doubtless, whatever may
be said of the objections heretofore offered, one which must operate
for ever against the general use of trotters after the American fashion,
unless they be trained and kept exclusively for sporting purposes. This,
however, is no more, but even less likely to occur than the total alteration
of the whole system of English road-making, and the entire change of the
tastes and habits of the English people : since the point which renders
the trotting horse so popular here would then be wanting, namely, his
equal adaptability to ordinary road driving and purposes of general utility,
and to occasional matching and turf amusements of a peculiar though
inferior description," This is the true cause of the " decline and fall " of
trotting horses in England, for in the early part of the nineteenth century
there were ten good performers on the trot for one now. The pace is not
a natural one, and in its highest perfection, especially, it must be developed
by constant practice. But this is forbidden on our modern roads, which,
as Mr. Herbert truly remarks, would ruin the legs and feet of any horse

THE AMERICAN TROTTER 45

ridden or driven at such a pace as to do a mile in two minutes and thirty
seconds. I fully believe that the horses of America have sounder logs and
feet than those of our own country, partly from being kept cooler in their
stables, partly from their being less stimulated by inordinate quantities of
oats and beans, but chiefly from their ancestors having been less injured
by hard roads than those of our own. If this is the case we must have
in every succeeding generation more and more difiiculty in getting sound
roadsters, and such, I believe, is really the fact.

By many people it is supposed that the American trotter is a distinct
breed or strain of horses, and that we can in this country easily obtain
plenty of horses able to do their mile " within the thirties," by importing
individuals and breeding from them. This hypothesis, however, appears to
be unfounded according to the evidence of Mr. Herbert, as recorded in his
" magnum opus," and that of other writers in the New York sporting press.
The former gentleman, who is " well up " on this subject, says : — " And fix'st
we shall find that the time-trotter in America is neither an original animal
of a peculiar and distinct breed, nor even an animal of very long existence
since his first creation. Secondly, we shall find that in an almost incredibly
short space of time, owing to the great demand for and universal popularity
of the animal, united to a perfectly devised, and now ubiquitously under-
stood, system of breaking, training, and driving him so as to develop all his
qualities to the utmost, the trotting horse of high speed, good endurance,
showy style of going, and fine figure, has become from a rarity a creature
of every- day occurrence, to be met with by dozens in the eastern and
middle states, and scarcely any longer regarded as a trotter, unless he can
do his mile in somewhere about two minutes and a half. Thirdly, it will
appear that the trotting horse is, in no possible sense, a distinct race, breed,
or family of the horse ; and that his qualities as a trotter cannot be
ascribed or traced to his origin from, or connection with, any one blood
more than another. It is true, and it is to be regretted, that of trotting
horses the pedigrees have been so little alluded to, and probably from the
nature of circumstances are so seldom attainable, that few, indeed, can be
directly traced to any distance in blood. Enough is known, however, to
show that some horses of first-rate powers have come from the Canadian or
Norman-French stock ; some from the ordinary undistinguished country horse
of the southernmost of the midland states ; some from the Vermont family ;
some from the Indian pony ; and lastly, some mainly, if not entirely, from
the thoroughbred. To no one of these families can any superiority be
attributed as producing trotters of great speed. All have shown their
specimens by means of which to claim their share in the production. Only it
may be affirmed, generally, that while some very famous trotting horses have
been nearly, if not entirely, thoroughbred, the low, lazy, lounging, daisy-
cutting gait and action of the full-blooded hoi'se of Oriental blood is not
generally compatible with great trotting action or speed. Still it is true
that the best time-trotters have not the I'ound, high-stepped action which is
prized in carriage-horses, or parade-horses for show, and which probably
originated and existed to the greatest extent in the Flemish or the
Hanoverian horse of the coldest of all imaginable strains of blood ; and that
they have in a great measure the long-reaching stride, the quick gather, and
the comparatively low step of the thoroughbred."

46

THE HORSE

In order to estimate the truth of this statement it is only necessary to
investigate the pedigrees of the chief public performers in trotting and
pacing. Among those most celebrated in the " fifties " may be mentioned
Flora Temple, whose portrait is here reproduced.

FLORA TEMPLE.

This celebrated mare was got by a horse of doubtful pedigree, called
" One-eyed Kentucky Hunter," out of a clever and fast-trotting mare,
Madame Temple, who was said to be by a spotted Arabian sire. She was
foaled in 1845, at Langerford, Oneida County, New York, and was sold by
her breeder to Messrs. Richardson and Kellog, of Eaton, INIadison County,

flora temple.

New York, who used her for livery purposes for nearly two years, when
she was resold to a Mr. Velie, and finally to Mr. G. E. Perrin, of New
York City, who speedily developed her extraordinary i^owers by constant
trials against the trotters of the various gentlemen of that city. In
September 1850 she won her first public match over the Union course,
since which, with the exception of the year 1851 when she was lamed
by an accident, she has had an almost uninterrupted series of victories,
winding up with her defeat of Geo. M. Patchen, in June 1860. She was a
rich blood bay, with black points, and no white. In height, 14 hands
2 inches, with great power and wiriness of frame. Her head, as will be
seen by reference to her portrait, is as light as that of an Arab, and has,
indeed, all the characteristics of that blood. Her shoulders are veiy long
and sloping, and, though standing over a deal of ground, she is very short

THE AMERICAN THOROUGHBRED 47

in the back. Indocc], her shape is faultless in all essentials, and lier
action is remarkably long, yet as her pace tells you it must be particularly
quick.

THE AMERICAN THOROUGHBRED

Until the English Thoroughbred Horse is described, it is scarcely
possible to enter fully into the pedigree of the American, descended as
the latter is from stock imported from the mother country. But, taking
the fact for granted, I may proceed to allude to the progress which has
been made in the United States, from the date of the first importation.
It appears that shortly prior to the year 1750, a Mr. Ogle, the Governor of
Maryland, was in possession of Spark, presented to him by Lord Balti-
more. About the same time he also imported Queen Mab, by Musgrove's
grey Arab ; and, soon afterwards. Colonel Tasker obtained Selima, daughter
of the Godolphin Arabian ; while Colonel Colville's Miss Colville, known
in the English Stud-book as Wilkes' Old Hautboy mare, Colonel Taylor's
Jenny Cameron, and Routh's Crab, were severally introduced into the
colony. In 1747, Monkey, by the Lonsdale bay Arab, though in his
twenty-second year, crossed the Atlantic, and got some good stock, followed
during the next year by Jolly Roger, by Roundhead, out of a Partner
mare. About 1764, Fearnought, a son of Regulus and Silvertail, and
therefore of the very highest English blood, went to America, and within
a few years of that date Morton's Traveller, by Partner, out of a mare by
the Bloody Buttocks Arabian, which completes the list of the importations
prior to the War of Independence. It must be observed, that, before the
year 1829, no Turf Register existed in America, and hence there is not
the same guarantee for the fidelity of a pedigree as in England, where there
are authentic records which reach to a much earlier period. Moreover,
the war upset the homes of so many families, that multitudes of documents
were lost; but, nevertheless, I believe sufficient has been preserved to
prove the authenticity of the pedigrees belonging to the horses which I
have enumerated, and whose progeny can be traced down to the present
day, their blood being mingled with that of numerous importations of a
more recent date. The love of racing was very soon implanted in the
colonists of Maryland and Virginia, from whom it spread to North and
South Carolina, and in these southern states the sport has been kept up
to the present day with great spirit. Tennessee was inoculated with the
virus of the racing mania soon after its first settlement, as also may be
said of Kentucky, both states having possessed some very celebrated horses
at various times. New York joined in at a much later period than the
southern states, no organized racing club existing there until after the
commencement of the present century; although there were small race-
courses at Newmarket and Jamaica before the Revolution. But the energy
of the true Yankee sent the New Yorkites ahead, and they soon became
worthy rivals of the southern statesmen. From 1815 to 1845 the great
stables of the North and South were carried on under a most honourable
rivalry ; but at the second of these dates it so happened that a vast number
of the most energetic supporters of the turf in the northern states withdrew
from the arena, and, as they disappeared, none filled the gaps, except a few

48 THE HORSE

professed trainers and jockeys, who carried racing on entirely as a business,
and regardless of that honourable spirit which had previously distinguished
it. Trotting also came into fashion, and the fanatics preached a crusade
against both, which took double effect upon the sport, already tottering to
its fall. It may indeed be said, that from 1845 to 1855, racing in
America was confined entirely to the south; but about 1855 or 1856 a
new jockey club was established in New York, and its members laid out
a new racecourse on Long Island.

In order to show how largely the Americans are indebted to English
blood, I insert here the following list of horses imported by them from
this country, for which I am indebted to Mr. Herbert : —

Abjer, 1817, by Old Truffle— Briseis by Beninboroiigli.

Actceon, 1837, by Comus or Blacklock — Panthca.

Admiral, 1799, by Florizel — Spectator mare.

Admiral Nelson, 1795, by John Bull — Olivia,

Ainderby, 1832, by Velocipede — Kate.

Alderman, 1778, by PotSos— Lady Bolingbroke.

Alexander, by Alexander, sou of Eclipse; dam's pedigree unknown.

Alexander, 1791, by Champion— Countess.

All Pours, 1772, by All Fours— Blank mare.

Ambassador, by Emilius— Trapes by Tramp.

Americus, 1755, by Babraham — Creeping Molly.

Amurath, 1832, by Langar — Armida.

Apparition, 1827, by Spectre — Young Cranberry.

Archduke, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle— Horatia.

Archer, 1760, by Faggergill — Eclipse mare.

Archibald, 1801, by Walnut — Bay Javelin.

Arrakooker, 1789, by Drone— Camilla.

Autocrat, 1822, by Grand Duke— Olivetta.

Bachelor, 1753, by Blaze — Smiling Tom mare.

Barefoot, 1820, by Trar.ip— Rosamond.

Baronet, 1782, by Vertumnus— Penultima.

Bay Richmond, 1769, by Feather — Matron.

Bedford, 1752, by Dungaunon — Fairy.

Belshazzar, 1830, by Blacklock—Manuclla.

Beigamot, 1788, by Highflyer— Orange Girl.

Berner's Comus, 1827, by Comus— Rotterdam.

Black Prince, 1760, by Babraham — Riot.

Blossom, 1795, by Bordeaux — Highflyer mare.

Boaster, 1795, by Dungannon — Justice marc.

Bolton, 1752, by Shark — Partner mare.

Brilliant, 1791, by Phenomenon — Faith.

Bryan O'Lynn, 1756, by Aston — Le Sang mare.

Brutus, 1748, by Regulus — Miss Layton.

Buflcoat, 1742, by Godolijhin Arab — Silverloeks.

Buzzard, 1787, by Woodpecker — Misfortune.

Camel, 1822, by Whalebone- Selim mare.

Cannon, 1789, by Dungannon — Miss Spindleshauks.

Cardinal Pu(f, 1803, by Cardinal— Luna.

Celer, 1774, by Old Janus — Brandon.

Centinel, 1758, by Blank — Naylor, by Cade.

Cetus, 1827, by Whalebone— Lamia.

Chance, 1787, by Lnrcker — Recovery.

Chariot, 1789, by Highflyer — Potosi, by Ecli[)sc,

Chateaux Margeaux, 1822, by Whalebone— Wasp.

Citizen, 1785, by Pacolet — Princess.

Claret, 1850, by Chateaux Margeaux — Partizan mare.

Clifdeii, 1797, by Alfred — Florizel mare.

Clifton, 1797, by Abbe Thulle— Eustatia, by Highllycr.

Clockfast, 1774, by Gimcrack— Miss Ingram,

Clown, 1785, by Bordeaux — Eclipse mare.

Ca3ur de Lion 1789, by Highflyer— Dido.

LIST OF IMPORTED HORSES 49

Commodoi-o, 1820, by Caleb Quot'em — Mary IJrowu.

Consol, 1828, by Lottery — Cerberus mare.

Consternation, 1841, by Confederate — Curiosity.

Content, 1823, by Catton— Helen.

Cormorant, 1787, by Woodpecker — Nettle.

Coronet, 1828, by Catton— Paynator mare.

Crab, 1736, by Crab— Councillor mare.

Crawler, 1792, by Highflyer— Harriet.

Creeper, 1786, by Tandem— Crawler's dam.

Cub, 1739, by Old Fox— Warlock Galloway.

Cynthius, 1799, by Acacia — Yarico.

Dancingmaster, 1787, by Woodpecker — Madcap.

Dare Devil, 1787, by Magnet — Hebe.

David, 1756, by Gower Stallion — Fox Cub mare.

De Basb, 1792, by King Fergus— Highflyer mare.

Denizen, 1836, by Actceou— Design.

Derby, 1831, by Peter Lely— Urgunda.

Diomed, 1777, by Florizel— Spectator mare.

Dion, 1795, by Spadille— Faith.

Doncaster, 1834, by Longwaist — Muley mare.

Don John, 1835, by Tramp or Waverley— Sharpset's dam.

Dou Quixote, 1784, by Eclipse — Grecian Princess.

Dormouse, 1753, by Dormouse — Diana, by Whitefoot.

Dragon, 1787, by Woodpecker — Juno.

Driver, 1784, by Driver — Dorimont mare.

Drone, 1778, by Herod— Lily.

Druid, 1790, by PotSos- Maid of the Oaks. _

Dungannon, 1793, by Dungannon — Miss Spindleshanks.

Eagle, 1756, by Volunteer — Highflyer mare.

Eastham, 1818, by Sir Oliver— Cowslip.

Eclipse, 1778, by Eclipse— Phoebe.

Emancipation, 1827, by Whisker — Ardrossan mare.

Emilius colt, 1836, by Bourbon — Fleur de Lis.

Emu, 1832, by Picton— Cuirass.

Englishman, 1812, by Eagle— PotSos mare.

Envoy, 1827, by Comus — Aline.

Escape, 1758, by Precipitate — Woodpecker mare.

Espersykes, 1837, by Belshazzar — Capsicum mare.

Eugenius, 1770, by Chrysolite— Mixbury.

Expedition, 1755, by Pegasus— Active.

Express, 1785, by Postmaster — Syphon mare.

Exton, 1785, by Highflyer— lo.

Fairfax Koan, 1764, by Adolphus — Tartar mare.

Fallower, 1761, by Blank— Partner mare.

Fearnought, 1755, by Regulus — Silvertail.

Fellow, 1755, by Cade — Goliah mare.

Felt, 1825, Langar— Steam.

Figaro, 1830, by Figaro — Catton mare.

Figure, 1747, by Standard — Beaufort Arabian mare.

Firebrand, 1802, by Braggart— Fanny.

Firetail, 1755, by Phenomenon — Columbine.

Flatterer, 1830, by Muley— Clare.

Flexible, 1822, by Whalebone— Themis.

Flimnap, 1765, by South — Cygnet mare.

Florizel, by Florizel — Alfred mare.

Fop, 1832, by Stumps— Fitzjames mare.

Frederick, 1810, by Selim— -Englishman's dam.

Friar, 1759, by South— Sister to Lowther Babraham, by Babvaham.

Fylde, 1824, by Antonio — Fadladinada.

Gabriel, 1790, by Dorimant — Highflyer mare.

Genius, 1753, by Babraham — Aura.

Gift, 1768, by Cadormus— Old Cub mare.

Glencoe, 1831, by Sultan — Trampoline, by Tramp.

Gouty, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle— Tandem mare.

Gran by, 1759, by Blank— Old Crab mare.

Grecian, 1821 (Brother to Alasco), by Clavalino — Pioneer mare.

Grey Highlander, 1787, by Bordeaux— Teetotum mare.

R

50 THE HOKSE

Uicyliound, 1796, by Sweetbriar— Miss Green, by Highflyer.

Hambletou, 1791, by Dungannon— Snap mare.

Hamilton, 1793, by son of Highflyer — Eclipse raare.

Hector, 1745, by Lath — Childers mare.

Hedgeford, 1826, by Filho-da-Puta— Miss Craigie.

Hark Forward, 1S40 (Brother to Harkaway), by Ecanouiist— Naboclish mare.

Hibiscus, 1834, by Sultan— Duchess of York.

Highflyer, 1782, by Highflyer— Angelica.

Honest John, 1794, by Sir'Peter Teazle— Magnet,

Hugh Lupus, 1836, by Priam— Her Higlmess.

Humiihrey Clinker, 1822, by Conius — Clinkerina.

Invalid, 1822, by Wliisker — Hamilton mare.

Jack Andrews, 1794, by Joe Andrews — Highflyer mare..

Jack the Bachelor, 1753, by Blaze — Gallant mare.

James, 1746, by Old James — Little Hartley mare.

John Bull, 1799, by Fortitude— Xantippe.

John Bull, 1833, by Chateaux Margeaux— Woful mare.

Jolly Pioger, 1741, by Roundhead — Partner mare.

Jonah, 1795, by Escape — Lavender mare.

Jordan, 1833, by Langar — Matilda.

Julius Cicsar, 1757, by Young Cade — Snip mare.

Juniper, 1782, by Babraham — Anna.

Junius, 1752, by Starling Crab — Monkey mare.

Justice, 1782, by Justice— Cariosity.

Justice, 1759, by Blank — Anna, by Stamford Turk,

King William, 1777, by Herod— Madcap.

King AVilliam, 1781, by Florizel — Milliner.

Knowsley, 1795, by Sir Peter Teazle— Cupella, by Heroc?.

Kooli Klian, 1772, by The Vernon Arab — Rosemary.

Langar colt, by Langar — Malvina.

Langford, 1853, by Starch— Peri.

Laijclog, 1823, by Whalebone — Canopus mai'e.

Lath, 1763, by Shepherd's Crab— Lath mare.

Leopard, by Liverpool — Sneaker, by Camel.

Leviathan, 1823, by Muley — AVindle mare.

Lofty, 1753, by Godolphin Arab— Croft's Partner mare.

Ludford, 1832, by Wamba— Idalia.

Lurcher, 1832, by Greyleg — Harpalice, by Gohanna.

Luzborough, 1820, by Williamson's Luzborough— Dick Andrews' mare.

Lycurgus, 1767, by Blank — Snip mare.

]\iagic, 1794, by Volunteer — Marcella.

Magnum Bonum, 1774, by Matchem — Snip mare.

]\Ianfred, 1796, by Woodpecker — Jlercury mare,

Mark Antony, 1767, by Spectator — Rachel.

Margrave, 1829, by Muley— Election.

Marraion, by Whiskey — Young Noisette.

Marplot, by Highflyer — Omar mare.

Master Robert, 1793, by Star — Young Marskc marc.

Matchem, 1773, by Matchem — Lady.

Matchless, 1754, by Godolphin Arab— Soreheels.

Medley, 1766, by Gimcrack— Arminda, by Snap.

Mendoza, 1778, by Javelin — Pomona.

Merman, 1835, by AVhalebone — Orville mare.

Merryfield, 1808, by Cockfight er— Star mare.

Messenger, 1778, by Mambrino — Turf mare.

Meux, 1816, by Chorus— Diana.

Mexican, 1775, by Snap — Matchem mare.

Molock, by Muley Molock — Sister to Puss.

Monarch, 1834, by Priam— Delpini mare.

Monkey, 1725, by Lonsdale bay Arab — Curwen's Bay Barb mare.

Mordecai, 1833, by Lottery — Miss Thomasina.

Moro, by Starling — Brown Slipby.

Morven, 1836, by Rowton— Naneen, by Selim.

]\Ioscow, 1746, by CuUen Arab— Croft's Starling mare,

Mousetrap, 1772, by Careless — Regulus mare.

Mufti, 1783, by Fitzlierod — Lifant mare.

Nicholas, 1833, by St. Nicholas— Moss Rose.

LIST OF IMPORTED H0R8ES 51

Nonplus, 1824, by Catton— Miss Garfortli, by Wultoii.

North Star, "1768, by Matchcm— Lass of the Mill.

Northumberlaud, by Old Bustard — Old Ci'ab mare.

Onus, 1835, by Camel — Tlie Etching, by Kulicus.

Oroonoko, 1745, by Old Crab— Miss Slanicrkin.

Oscar, 1795, by Saltram — Highflyer mare.

Othello, 1743, by Crab— Miss Slamerkin.

Pam, 1757, by Regulus — Cade mare.

Pantaloon, 1778, by Plerod— Nutcracker.

Partner, 1760, by Partner — Camilla.

Partner, by Duke of Hamilton's Figure -Old Figure mare.

Passenger, 1836, by Langar — My Lady.

Passaic, 1836, by lieveller— Puachel.

Paul, 1807, by Saltram— Virago.

Phenomenon, 1780, by Herod — Frenzy.

Pharaoh, 1753, by Moses — Godolphin marc.

Phil Brown, by Glau< us — Bustle.

Phoenix, 1798, by Old Dragon— Portia.

Pilgrim, 1762, by Samson^Regulus marc.

Play or Pay, 1791, by Ulysses— Herod marc.

Pleuipo, 1837, by Plenipotentiary — Polly Hopkins.

Portland, 1834, by Recovery — Caifacaratmladdcra.

Post Captain, 1835, by The Colonel — Postl.uma.

Precipitate, 1787, by Mercury — Herod maro.

Priam, 1827, by Emilius — Cressida.

Priam, 1834, by Priam — Soothsayer mare.

Prince, 1773, by Herod— Helen.

Prince Ferdinand, by Herod — Matchem mare.

Punch, by Herod — Marske mare.

Regulus, 1747, by Regulus — Partner mare.

Restless, 1788, by Phenomenon — Duche.-s.

Reveller colt, 1836, by Reveller— Rachel.

Rutland, 1810, by Stamford— Worthy mare.

Riddlesworth, 1828, by Emilius- Filagree.

Roan colt, 1802, by Sir Peter Teazle— "iMercnrv mare.

Robin Redbreast, 1796, by Sir Peter Teazle— Wriu.

Roman, 1815, by Camillus — Leon Forte.

Rosalio, 1836, by Vanish— Rose Leaf.

Rotherham, 1838, by Grey Conqueror — CaniiUa maro.

Rnwton, 1826, by Oiseau — Cathtrina.

Rovvton colt, 1836, by Ronton — Nannie.

Royalist, 1790, bv Saltram— Herod mare.

Ruby, 1836, by Emilius— Eliza.

St. George, 1789, by Higbllyer- Sister to Soldier,

St. Giles, 1829, by Tramp— Arcot Lass.

St. Paul, 1789, by Saltram— Purity.

Saltram, 1780, by Eclipse— Virago.

Scout, 1836, by St. Nicholas— Blacklock u are.

Scrub, 1821, by Phantom — Jessie.

Scythian, 1851, by Orlando— Scythia.

Selim, 1780, by Bajazet— Miss Thigh.

Shadow, 1759, by Babraham — Bolton Starling mnre.

Shakspeare, 1823, by Smolensko — Cliarmingaiolly.

Shamrock, 1827, by St. Patrick— Fairy.

Shark, 1771, by Marske— Snap mare.

Silver, by Mercury — Herod mare.

Silver Eve, by CuUen Arab — Curwen's Bay B;irl).

Sir Harry, 1794, by Sir Peter Teazle— :\I at ion.

Sir Peter Teazle, 1802, by Sir Peter Teazle— Mercurv mav,'

Sir Robert, 1833, by Bobadil— Fid alma, by Waxy I'onr.

Skylark, 1826, by Waxy Pope— Skylark,

Slender, 1779, by King Herod — Rachel.

Slim, 1768, by Wildman's Babraham — Babraham mare.

Slouch, 1745, by Cade— Little Hartley mare.

Sloven, 1756, by Cub— Bolton Starling mare.

Sorrow, 1836, by Defence— Tears,

Sour Crout, 1786, by Highflyer— Jewel

52 THE HORSE

Sovereign, 1836, by Emilias — Flour de Lis.

Spadille, 1784, by Highflyer— Flora.

Spark, by Honeycomb Punch — Miss Colville.

Speculator, 1795, by Dragon— Herod mare.

Spread Eagle, 1792, by Volunteer — Highflyer mare.

Staflbrd, 1833, by Memnon — Sarsaparilla. ,

Star, 1786, by Highflyer — Snap mare.

Starling, 1800, by Sir Peter Teazle— Magnet.

Stirling, 1797, by Volunteer— Harriet.

Stork, by Stork — Partner mare.

Stork, 1729, by Jig— Snake mare.

Strap, 1800, by Beuinborough— Higliflyer mare.

Stratford, 1834, by Shakspeare— Pheasant.

Swiss, 1821, by Whisker— Shuttle mare.

Tarquiu, 1720, by Hampton Ct. Arab — Leeds mare.

Telegi-aph, 1795, by Guildford— Fame.

Tickle Toby, 1786, by Alfred— Ca;lia, by Herod.

Tom Crib, by Gladiator — Jemima.

Tom Jones, 1745, by Partner — True Blue mare.

Tranby, 1826, by Blacklock — Orville mare.

True Blue, 1797, by Walnut — King Fergus mare.

Truffle, 1825, by Truffle— Helen.

Trustee, 1829, by Cattou — Emma.

Tup, 1756, by Javelin— Flavia.

Valentine, 1823, by Magistrate— Miss Forester,

Valparaiso, 1831, by Velocipede — Juliana.

Vampire, 1757, by Regulus — Steady mare.

Vanish, 1834, by Vanish — Elephant's dam.

Victor, 1838, by Defence— Vivid.

Voluey, 1833, by Velocipede — Voltaire's dam.

Volunteer, by Volunteer — Whipcord mare.

Whale, 1830, by Whalebone— Rectory.

Whip, 1794, by Saltram — Herod mare.

Wildair, 1753,*by Cade — Steady mare.

William the Fourth, 1825, by Blacklock — Juniper mare.

Wonder, 1786, by Florizel — Saccharissa.

Wonder, 1794, by Phenomenon — Brown Fannj'.

Wrangler, 1794, by Diomed — Fleacatcher.

Vorkshire, 1834, by St. Nicholas — ]\Iiss Rose.

Zinganee, 1825, by Tramp— Folly.

Zinganee colt, 1840, by Zinganee — Miss Andrews.

The list of imported mares is most probably still more numerous, but
they are not so easily ascertained, as, prior to the establishment of the
American Turf Register, there was no record of them, whereas most of
the stallions are mentioned in our English Stud-book as having been sent
out. Mr. Herbert, it is true, gives a long list of them, but many of tliese
he himself I'ejects as apocryphal ; and there are some of those accepted by
him as correct which I have reason to believe have never left this country.
So also in his list of stallions, even such a well-known English covering
stallion as Launcelot (brother to Touchstone) is included as having been
imported into America ; but still, on the whole, I believe that his list of
mares is not far from the truth.

The American thoroughbred horse is said to be much stouter than
the modern English strains ; and without doubt Mr. Ten Broeck's Prioress
could stay better than most English horses, though she was not considered
by the Americans themselves to be quite up to the best staying form which
they possess. This subject, however, will be better considered after the
performances of the English horse are carefully examined. It must be
remembered that, with the exception of the horses brought over to this

THE VERMONT CART-HORSE 53

country, we have no means of comparison beyond the time-test, which is
not a reliable one; firstly, because we have no time-races here; and,
secondly, because none of our long distances are run from end to end.
As far as I have had an opportunity of seeing, and with the single exception
of Charleston, all Mr. Ten Broeck's horses were extremely narrow, the
crack Umpire in particular being " like two deal boards nailed together,"
as the " men of stable mind " say here. His hips were the narrowest I
ever saw in a horse supposed to be of first-class, and those of Prioress are
not much more developed. The celebrated horse, Lexington, who was out
of the same mare as Umpire, was also reported to have been very narrow
in the hips, so that px'obably tliis peculiarity runs throughout that strain of
blood, but whether derived from Alice Carneal or from Boston (who got
both Lexington and Lecompte, the latter the sire of Umpire) I cannot say.
Nevertheless, unless the time-test is utterly fallacious, both Lexington and
Lecompte must have been stout, for they have each done four miles, under
7 stone 2 lbs., in 7 minutes 26 seconds, with a start similar to that
adopted in England. Lexington, with the same kind of start, performed
the same task in 7 minutes 2 3 1 seconds, and with a running start against
time, in the extraordinarily short time of 7 minutes 19f seconds. The
American Journal, Sinrit of the Times, says (1893), "The success of
imported English sires within the past twentj'- years, beginning with
Lennington, has certainly impressed many breeders with a belief in their
superiority. Glenelg, Australian, Bullet, King Bon, The Ill-Used, Great
Tom, King Ernest, Bonnie Scotland, Rayon d'Or, Pi-ince Charlie, Phreton,
Eclipse, St. Blaise, etc., have well-nigh driven the native stallions into
exile. Virgil may be said to be the only stallion who was native bred on
both sides of his pedigree, and who has held his own against the imported
horses. Longfellow, Spendthrift, Enquirer, Eolus, King Alphonso, and
other successful native sires were the sons of imported horses. The English
mares have also succeeded in a great degree." This native testimony to
the superiority of the English horse for racing purposes must not be under-
stood to imply all-round points, for both American and Australian horses
are in some respects better (see Australian horses, p. 36).

THE VERMONT CART-HORSE

A DISTINCT BREED of drauglit-hoi'ses under this name is described l:)y
Mr. Herbert as existing in Vermont and the adjacent country, though
now, he says, less marked than it was prior to the introduction of railroads.
I cannot, however, find any other authority for it, nor do I quite agree with
the above writer in thinking the breed, if he rightly describes it, as identical
with the Cleveland Bay. He says, " These are the very models of what
draught-horses should be ; combining immense power with great quickness,
a very respectable turn of speed, fine show, and good action. These animals
have almost invariably lofty crests, thin withers, and well-set-on heads ;
and although they are emphatically draught-horses, they have none of that
shagginess of mane, tail, and fetlocks which indicates a descent from the
black horse of Lincolnshire, and none of that peculiar curliness or waviness
which marks the existence of Canadian or Norman blood for many genera-

54

THE HORSE

tions, and which is discoverable in the manes and tails of very nian}^ of the
horses which claim to be j^Ji^-e Morgans. The peculiar characteristic, how-
ever, of these horses is the shortness of their backs, the roundness of their
barrels, and the closeness of their ribbing up. One would say that they
are ponies until he comes to stand beside them, when he is astonished to
find that they are oftener over than under 16 hands in height." Now
these are just the peculiar points of the Clydesdale cart-horse, as we shall
find in examining into that breed, when I come to treat of the English
horse, and as may at once be seen by an inspection of the engraving
accompanying the description of him.

THE CONESTOGA DRAUGHT-HORSE

The last on the list of American horses is that known under the above
name, which was given to it from being pi'oduced in the valley of Conestoga,
within the state of Pennsylvania. It is a very large muscular horse, often

CONESTOGA DRAUGHT-HORSE.

reaching to 17 hands and upwards, and closely resembling the heaviest
breeds of German and Flemish cart-horses. The early settlers of this part
of the United States were mostl}'- Germans, and they either brought over
with them some of the horses of their country, or else they have since
selected from those within their i-each the animals most i^esembling in
appearance their old favourites when in their fatherland. There is, how-
ever, no record of the origai of the breed, and all that can be done is to
describe it as it Dow exists.

THE CONESTOGA DIIAUGHT-IIORSE 55

The accompanying sketch embodies the genei-al appearance of thche
horses, and by comparing it with the London dray-horse, it will be seen
that it differs only slightly, having the same heavy outline of form, united
with similar comparatively light limbs, but not burdened with the mountains
of flesh and heavy crests which have been produced in England for purposes
of show. In Pennsylvania, these horses are chiefly used for wagons, and
some few of them, when of inferior shape, for the canal traffic. They
are good honest workers, and are quicker and lighter in their action than
might be expected from their weight. Indeed, some of them are still used
for heavy carriages ; but even in Pennsylvania, for quick work, they are
generally replaced by the Vermont horse, or some nondescript of mixed
blood, with which America is completely overrun.

In colour they follow the Flemish horses, except that black is rare
among them, but like the Flemish they are free from chestnut, and the
larger proportion of them are bay, brown, or iron greys.

CHAPTER V

EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL HORSES

'ANISU AND POrXUGUKSE UORSES— THE ITALIAN HORSE — THE GERMAN HORSE— THE
FREXCU HORSE— THE FLEMISH HORSE — THE HANOVERIAN HORSE— THE RUSSIAN HORSE
— NORWEGIAN AND SWEDISH HORSES.

SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE HORSES

Throughout Spain and Portugal there formerly existed a hardy and
useful breed of horses, of different degrees of lightness and activity,
according to the use for which they were designed. But in both
countries they have greatly degenerated from their former excellence,
and in Portugal they have dwindled down in size and appearance until
they can scarcely now be recognized as belonging to the same class of
animal. The old breeds were greatly improved by the Moors during
their occupation of Spain, by importing the Barbs of their own country,
and hence those provinces which were most overrun by that people
possessed the best breeds of horses. The Spanish Jennet has always
been celebrated for easy paces and gentle temper, and these have been
the characteristics of all the breeds of the Peninsula, united in most
of them with a high courage which would induce them to face either
the dangers of war or of a bull fight without flinching. One chief
peculiarity of the Spanish horse is the fulness and width of the bosom,
which has always made them slow in the gallop, Ijut extremely easy,
while their powerful shoulders have rendered their action good and safe.
In the present day the Spanish horse is seldom seen out of his own country.

THE ITALIAN HORSE

Like those of Spain the Italian horse is supposed to be descended
from the Barb, but in the last two or three centuries the breed has
greatly degenerated from the original type. The horses used for the
saddle are light and active, and at Rome as well as at Florence^ public

1 The custom was suppressed at Rome about the year 1891, aud at Florence also by
the Queen of Italy's personal disapproval and by tlic energetic action of the Duchess
Sermoneta (the English wife of tlie Minister of Foreign Affairs). Mr. Leonard llawkesley
states on the authority of the Countess Baldelli that "the custom has long ceased."
Only in a few provincial towns does it now linger.

56

THE GERMAN HORSE 57

I'aces take j)]iiCG between them without riders. These are managed by
goading them in the only direction which they can take by suspending
balls covered with sharp points from a surcingle passed round the body,
in such a way that at every stride they rebound against the sides of
the animal and prick him severely. A street is chosen for the purpose,
and in one end of this they are confined by a rope drawn across it till
the moment of starting, when it is dropped, and the whole lot getting
away gallop to the other end, where again they are stopped by an im-
passable barrier. The horses employed for this purpose are called
Berberi, though none of them in the present day are pure Barbs,
but they retain the appellation as indicative of their Oriental origin.
The Italian horse seldom attains the height of 15 hands, the average
probably being little more than 14. He is thick in the shoulder and
wide in the bosom, but has a tolerably light forehead, good legs and
feet, and short drooping hind-quarters.

THE GERMAN HORSE

In Austria Proper, Hungary and Prussia, horses are bred in ex-
tensive studs for military purposes, and of late years the rulers of those
countries have been largely indebted to English blood for the improve-
ment which has been made in the horses of the respective countries.
The Emperors of Austria have also caused races to be established at
Yienna, Pesth, Buda, Breslau, etc. Some idea may be formed of the
extent to which the sport is carried on at these meetings, when it is
stated that at the meeting at Yienna, in May 1860, nine races were
run, the value of the stakes being more than 2000 sovereigns, while
at Pesth they amounted to .£3320. Even the latter of these is a poor
sum when contrasted with our own Epsom, Newmarket, and Doncaster
meetings, where five times the amount are won by the hoi'ses engaged
in them; but as compared with foreign races of an older date, it is a
magnificent one, and the spirit which has been displayed shows that
the present state of things is doubtless a forerunner of still greater
successes in turf proceedings. The plan of breeding stallions for the
supply of the provinces, adopted by the Austrian Government, is ex-
cellent, and I should much like to see a similar one introduced into
this country. From 100 to 200 stallions are annually bred for this
purpose, and sold for about 100 guineas apiece, which price is quite
sufficient to cover all expenses, and leave a slight surplus to the
imperial treasury towards lowering the cost of the cavalry horses, bred
at the same studs.

There is a considerable variety in the native breeds of the thiec
countries mentioned, but they are all u.-jeful in their several ways.^ In
speed and stoutness they cannot compete with our thoroughbreds, nor
with our "half-bred" hunters, many of which have at least sevcn-eiglitlis
of pure blood. They are generally light in the middlepiece, with

^ Since the above words were written, we have Ijccome lar<;cly dependent on carriage
liorses of German and Hungarian origin. The majority of matched pairs seen in London
have crossed the silver s:tr;ak.

58 THE HORSE

drooping qucarters, and somewhat long in the leg — qualities which urS
all opposed to stoutness at a high pace. But they are veiy hardy, and
can live on food which would starve an English horse, so that in a
campaign they are not by any means to be despised. The German
cart-horses are thick, strong, and useful, of great size, but somewhat
slow in their movements, and flat in their feet.

THE FRENCH HORSE

The Norman Charger or Destrier has been celebrated for ages as
the type of horse for the purposes of show and utility combined. With
a fine upstanding fore-hand he unites a frame of the most massive
proportions, and this is moulded in a form as elegant as is consistent
with his enormous power. Even the diligence horses of many parts
of France are of very handsome frames, and their legs and feet are so
sound that they are able to trot over the paved roads at a pace which,
slow as it is, would speedily lame our English horses of similar size
and strength. Their tempers, also, are so good that the stallions may
be used together with mares in all kinds of work, and though vice in
its various forms is not altogether unknown, yet it is comparatively
rare. Their countrywoman, Rosa Bonheur, has made this variety of
horse familiar to most of my readers, and I need not, therefore, trouble
myself to describe them minutely. The Limousin is chiefly used for
the saddle, and is supposed to be descended from some one of the
Eastern horses introduced by the Crusaders. He was not, however,
in high i-equest until the invention of gunpowder caused heavy cannon
to go out of use, when a lighter horse was required, and the old heavy
animal bred between the Flemish and Norman cart-horse went entirely
out of fashion. The true Norman horse is large, powerful, suflSciently
active, and very hardy. He has, however, the disadvantages of a heavy
head and long cannon-bones. The valley of the Meuse is supplied witli
a small, active horse, generally of a roan colour, with strong limbs,
clothed with an abundance of hair, and a large heavy head. The
Lingone horse, in the valley of the Marne, is still smaller, with lop-ears,
drooping quarters, and cat-hams, which latter qualities enable him to
display the activity and sure-footedness of the goat in scrambling over
the rough mountain passes bounding the district. Lastly, the Barrois
variety, in the valley of the Arne, is a mere pony, but makes up for
his want of size by his agility, hai'diness, and good temper.

As in Austria and Prussia, so in France, the Government has done
its utmost to encourage the breeding of horses for cavalry purposes, and
numerous " haras " have been established throughout France. For a
long time purchases have annually been made of first-rate English blood
stock, chosen, like those selected by the Americans, chiefly for their
stoutness and soundness of constitution. Still there are so many
drawbacks in the shape of bad hay, hard training-ground, etc., in the
way of the breeder and trainer, that though their horses run us hard,
we are still enabled to give them a lump of weight. Throughout nearly
the whole of France there is no upland grass in the summer months,

LIST OF FRENCH STALLIONS IN 1858 59

and neither meadow grass nor meadow hay is suited to the horse intended
for fast work. We may, therefore, hope still to be able to maintain
our supremacy in horses intended for the racecourse or the hunting-
field ; but, as far as I can learn, the French cavalry are gradually
obtaining a class of animal bred out of their lightest and stoutest
Norman mai-es crossed with thoroughbred, horses of pure English blood,
some imported direct, and others bred with great care in France. The
produce are of good size, very hardy, and possessed of excellent legs
and feet, indeed in every way calculated for troop-horses, and should
our cavalry ever come in contact with them, and any advantage is to
be gained, it must be through supei'ior horsemanship alone.

The following list op Stallions at the various " haras " in France
during the year 1858 will show the extent to which English blood has been
used in that country. Many of them are bred in France, but a very large
proportion, as will be evident, are of English descent, and as thoroughbred
as any in our Stud-book. The importance of carefully examining this
list will be apparent to all those who know the value of this breed as a
cross for low-bred mares.

LIST OF GOVERNMENT STALLIONS IN FRANCE, 1853

AT ABBEVILLE.
Aucklaud, by Touchstone — Maid of Honour.
Bedford, by California, dam by The Colonel.
Maryland, by Royal Oak^Pecra.
Mulatto, by Royal Oak— Egle.
Eemunerateur, by The Baron — Marguerita.

AT ANGERS.
Aquila, by Gladiator — Cassandra.
Badpay, by Caravan — Miss Rainbow.
Caravan, by Camel — Wings.
Fontaine, by Mr. Waggs — Lanterne.
Geometrician, by Theou — Jew Girl.
Grog, by Nautilus — Discrete.
Hernandez, by Pantaloon — Black Bess,
lago, by Don John— Scandal.
Jules, by Pickpocket — Amazone.
LucuUus, by Harlequin — Crochet.
Madrigal, by Napier — Celeste.
Sliylock, by Simoom — The Queen.
Spartacus, by Gladiator — Discrete.
Stroiigbow, by Touchstone — Miss Boavc.
The Prime Warden, by Cadland — Zaiiua.
Tivioli, by Heemus — Folic tte.

AT ARLES.

Fortunatus, by Piccaroon — Lucia.
Gringalet, by Mr. AVaggs— Mareella.
Sophiste, by Tarrare— Miss Sophia.

AT AURILLAC.

Arion, by Royal Oak — Agar.
Exil6, by Brandyface — Phenice.
Marengo, by Alteruter. — Young XJrgauda.
Miuotaure, by General Mina— Pulchra.
Nuncio, by Plenipotentiary — Folly.
Orphelin, by Napier — Mademoiselle Diipare.

60 THE HORSE

AT BESANCON.

Petrarque, by Caravan — Lauretta.
Vanton, by Napoleon or Jeroboam — Danae.

Attorney, by Brocarilo — Mazzia.
Bind, by Prince Cavadoc— Molina.
Buckthorn, by Venison — Lelia.
Constellation, by Lanorcost — Moonbeam.
Minotaur, by Taurus — Lyrnessa.
Ronald, by Polecat— Regatta.
Saint Germain, by Attila — Currency.
Velox, by Velocipede, dam by "Whisker,

AT BRAISNE.

Bataclan, by Lanercost— Basinoire.

Delegate, by Nuncio — Loisa.

Elthiron, by Pantaloon— Phryne.

Fagus, by Elthiron— Discretion.

Faust, by Loutherbourg, dam by Rambler.

Firstborn, by Nuncio— Biens^ance.

AT CHARLEVILLE.

Napier, by Polecat — Bella.
Rabelais, by Royal Oak— Emeliua.

AT CLUNY.
Fitz Touchstone, by Touchstone— Rose of Sliar
Lutino, by Nuncio— Discretion.
Marlborough, by Tragedian — Urania.
Profil, by Nelson — Silhouette.
Tragedian, by Sir Isaac — Fanny Kemble.
Valbruant, by Nuncio — Wirtbschaft.
Young Lanercost, by Lanercost — lo.
Zephyr, by Young Emilius — Miss Tandem.

AT LAMBALLE.

Avron, by Nuncio — Coquette.
Craven, by Giraffe — Mab.
Duguesclin, by Caravan — Midsummer.
Eleetrique, by Young Emilius — Kermesse.
Geranium, by The Emperor — Anemone.
Horace, by Mameluke — Bellone.
Nautilus, by Cadland — Vittoria.
Punch, by Paradox — Marionette
Ulysse, by Elis— Deception.

AT LANGONNET.

Antithese, by Napoleon — Dclphine.
Artenay, by Polecat — Camelia.
Cassique, by Young Emilius— Cassica.
Croque-cn-Bouche, by Lottery — ]\Iargar:ta.
Diamant, by Prince Caradoc — Opale.
Lieutenant, by Royal Oak — Lydia.
Mars, by General Mina or Dangerous — Foila,
Prince, liy Napoleon — Moselle.
Yricix, by Prospero — Iris.

AT LIBOUKNE.

Artisan, by Lanercost — Skilful.
Black Brown, by Nunnykirk, — Tanais.
Brocard, by Brocardo— Lac Dye.
Cataract, by Hornsea— Oxygen.
Felix, by Accident, dam by Mameluke.
Gogo, by Terror— Kate Nickleby,

LIST OF FRENCH STALLIONS IN 1858

Lugaito, by Crispin — Venus.

Mors-aux-dents, by Napier— Cuil.

Saucebox, by St. Lawrence— Priscilla Tomboy.

Teleniaque, by Ali Baba — Calypso.

Yorick, by Commodore iSTajjier— Katinka.

Yves, by Prospero — Dulcinee.

Zadig, by Commodore Napier — Jocasie.

AT MONTIER-EN-DER.
Buzzard, by Napier — Teresina.
Croissant, by Caravan— Discrete.
Eremos, by Young Emilius — Agar.
Saint Leger, by Attila — Cassandra,
Sword, by Gladiator — Defy.
Wagram, by Napoleon — Bellona.

AT NAPOLifiON VEXDJ^E.

Arc-en-Ciel, by Brocardo— Iris.

Brctignolles, by Caravan — Margaret.

Dash, by Polecat — Aline.

Florist, by Fancy Boy — Malay.

Frolisdorff, by Copper Captain — Almee.

Johann, by Young Emilius or Garry Owen — Miss Jenny

Monsieur de Saint Jean, by Commodore Napier— Joeasie.

Scliamyl, by Redshank — Currency.

Sir Benjamin, by Lanercost— Queen of Beauty.

The Roue, by Claret— Roulette.

Tippler, by Tipple Cider — Emelina.

AT PARIS.

Cossack, by Hetman Platoff— Joanniua.
Ion, by Cain — Margaret.
Priasse, by Terror — Miss Scheneitz-Hoeffer.
The Baron, by Birdcatcher — Echidna.
"Womersley, by Birdcatcher— Cinizelli.

AT PATJ.
Ali Baba, by Holbein— Cloton.
Astre, by Ali Baba— Stella.
Baladin, by Commodore Napier— Nymphrea.
Caen, by Mr. Waggs — Destiny.
Capharnaum, by Touchstone— Sweetlips.
Fitz-Carolus, by Charles XII.— Revival.
Gelos, by Ali Baba— Celina.
Gibbon, by Skirmisher— Mademoiselle de Brie.
Iron, by Sting — Margaret.
Jumeau, by Terror or Eylau— Lily.
Make Haste, by Ionian — Mademoiselle Rejart.
Marc Antoine, by Mameluke — Cleopatre. '
ilemory, by Nuncio — Pam(51a,
Met^ore, by Jocke — Jessica.
Napier, by Gladiator— Jlarion.
Nelson, by Garry Owen — Zamira,
Opera, by Terror, dam bv Waverley.
Papillon, by Gladiator— Eflfie Deans.
Pasha, by Ibrahim II.— Melissa.
Prince Eugene, by Young Emilius— Adamantine.
Sampson, by Young Emilius — Belladonna.
Tibi, by Eylau— Silvie.
Tic Tac, by Caravan— Miss Rainbow.

AT LE PIN,

Bolero, by Young Emilius— Doria.
Brocardo, by Touchstone— Brocade.
Dirk Hatteraick, by Van Tromp— Blue Bonnet,
Eperon, by Sting— Maid of Fez,

GI

B-2 THE HORSE

Faugli-a-Ballagh, by Sir Hercules — Gniccioli.

Fitz I'autaloon, by Pantaloon — Rebull".

Lanercost, by Liverpool — Otis.

Lully, by Ti[)ple Cider — Pecora.

Mastrillo, by Sylvio — Miss Anna.

Prince Colibri, by Sylvio — Fraga.

Ramsay, by Sylvio — Emelina.

Schaniyl, by Rough Robin — Ivate Kearney.

Stoker, by Steamer — Motley.

Tipple Cider, by Defence — Deposit.

AT POMPADOUR.

Alpha, by Caravan — Emerande.

]5aba, by Commodore Napier — Mcrc6des.

Brocard, by Brocardo — Maltzia.

Commodore Napier, by Royal Oak — Flighty.

Garry Owen, by Saint Patrick — Excitement.

Ionian, by Ion — Slalibran.

Mokauna, by Gladiator— Zenobia.

!Malton, by Sheet Anchor — Fair Helen.

Nunnykiric, by Touchstone — Beeswing.

Point-et-Virgule, by Brandyface — Sylvandiro.

Quaker, by Napoleon — Follette.

Uriel, by Nunnykirk — Oi)ale.

Victor, by Mr. Waggs — Destiny.

Yedo, by Commodore Napier — Venezia.

AT RODEZ.

Brandyface, by Inheritor — TifiFany.

Lodin, by Terror — Eugenia.

Jloka, by Frivole — MeJine.

Philosopher, by Voltaire — Mina.

Slc<lmere, by Sleight of Hand— Hamptonia.

William the Conqueror, by Charles XII.— Emerald.

AT ROSliiRE.S.
Backgammon, by Prince Caradoc— Poulette.
Chesterfield Junior, by Chestcrlield, dam by GlaucnS.
Hasard, by Chance — Filagree.
Mytheme, by Caravan — Miss Rainbow.

Peu-d'Espoir, by Sting, The Baron, or The Emperor— Bclvidi
Tender, by Strongbow — Miss Tarrare.
Yatagan, by Ionian — Jocaste.
Young Caravan, by Caravan — Olinga.

AT SAINTES.

Accroche Cocur, by Malton — Jocaste.

Alerte, by Brocardo — Belle Poule.

Babiega, by Attila — Essler.

Emilien, by Royal Oak — Corysandre.

Meriadee, by Prince Caradoc — Fretillon.

Nathaniel, by Mr. Waggs— Nativa.

Piedestal, by Commodore Napier — Sylvina.

Ronconi, by Sting— Lydia.

Scarborough, by llatan, dam by Mulcy Moloch.

Sir Charles, by Sleight of Hand, dam by l\lacbi:th.

Soulouque, by Beggarman — Molokino.

Topinamboor, by Ionian — Eugenie.

Ulric, by Terror— Luna.

AT SAINT LO.
Adolphus, by Royal Oak — Anna.
Assault, by Touchstone — Ghuzneo.
Ballinkeelo, by Birdcatcher — Perdita.
Bravo, by Sylvio — Belle de Nuit.
Debardeur, by Young Emilius — Donar Pilar.
Don Quicliotte, by Sylvio— Moinar.

LIST OF FRENCH STALLIONS IN 1858 03

Eylau, by Napoleon — Dulpliiuo.
Gui(,'nolet, by Gladiator or Sting — Discrete.
Isolier, by Nunnykirk or Tlie Ijarou — Dec('[itioa.
Jocko, by Harlequin — Priestess.
Marengo, by Napoleon — Cloris.
Omar I'asha, by Brocardo— Cochlea.
Pcnkam, by Caravan — Mariquita.
Pioyal Quand-mcme, by Gigos— Eiisebia.
Sharavogue, by Freney, dam by Skylaric
Tais-toi, by The Emperor— Serenade.
The Caster, by Emilius — Castaside.

AT SAINT MAIXENT.

Alcide, by Nunnykirk — Tanais.
Arnac, by Brocardo — Didon.
Clubstick, by Royal Oak — Vesper.
Incertain, by Tipple Cider — Emerald.
Saint Simon, by Gladiator — Swcctliis,
Sans Fa9on, by Morok — Symmetry.

AT STRASBOURG.

Bon Voyage, by Malton — Friuginto.
Clevis, by Tipple Cider — Danaide.
Coustranville, by Gladiator — Bi'eswing.
Cupidon, by Nelson — Vesper.
Landry, by Young Emilius — iliss King.
L&ard, by Caravan — Polyxene.
Quadrilateve, by Mameluke — Nodmi.
Young Talisman, by Garry Owen — Skirmish.

AT TARBES.

Assassin, by Taurus — Sneaker.

Beaucens, by Sting — Eccola.

Canton, by Cain, dam by Bustard.

Collinwood, by Sheet Anchor — Kalraia.

Corazon, by Swinton — Duet.

Coucron, by Caravan — Penance.

Ethelwolf, by Faugh-a-Ballagh — Espoir.

Farfadet, by Saint Francis — Samphire,

Flight Away, by Gladiator — Fliglity.

Fragile, by Young Emilius — Eloa.

Fulger, by Young Emilius — Candida.

Grey Tommy, by Sleight of Hand, dam by C'omus.

Kremlin, by Napoleon — Danae.

Lindor, by The Emperor — Suavita.

Mardain, by Slane — Misere.

Marly, by Attila — Maria.

J\Iorok, by Beggarman— Vanda.

Moirstique, by Sting— Essler.

Premier Aoiit, by Physician — Princess Edwis.

Prospectus, by Camel — Jenny Vcrt[ire.

Saint Bernard, by Napoleon — JMidsummer.

Slane, by Royal Oak — Naiad.

Sting, by Slane — Echo.

Tlie Ban, by Don John — Young Defiance.

Toison d'Or, by Prince Caradoc — Honeymoon.

Vcndredi, by Cain — Naiad.

Zoile, by M. d'Ecovillc.

AT VILLENEUVE,

Aramis, by Royal Oak — Chimh'e.
Clown, by Commodore Napier — Hoema.
Epervier, by Caravan — Emilia.
Lilliput, by Sting— Miss Lot.
Lamartine, by Epiinis— Grace Darlin".
Philip Shah, by The Shah— Philip's dam.
Sir Roland de Bois, by Touchstone— Falernia,

64 THE HORSE

The French Governaie\t, ever alive to the importance, from a military
point of view, of keeping up the quality and quantity of horses in the
country, continue from time to time to import English blood, but not to
the extent that was necessary when the above list was first published.

The number of English thoroughbreds now imported into Erance is
comparatively few, as will be s-;een by the following official information
kindly supplied by Mr. Henry Blount : —

" The French Jockey Club sends each year a commission to England
with the intention of purchasing thoi'oughbred stallions. Names of some
of those purchased in recent years are appended, but it will be seen that
none have been purchased since 1893.

1888.

No purchase.

1889.

Magician for Saint Lo (dead).

,,

The Minstrel Boy for Lo Pin.

,,

Bob Sawyer for Blois.

1890.

No purchase.

1891.

Sacramento to Pompadour.

,j

Ham to Saiut Lo.

j^

Gambler to Saint Lo.

1892.

Homewood to Le Pin,

From 1893 to 1896.

No purchases."

THE FLEMISH HORSE

The Netherlands have a great advantage over most of the countries
nto which the continent of Europe is divided, in the possession of exten-
sive meadows which are not flooded, and in which the fine clovers, so
z'equisite to the development of the horse, are produced in tolerable
abundance. For this reason chiefly, I believe, the Flemish horses have
long enjoyed a high reputation, second only to our own, and to them we
owe many useful crosses among our dray and heavy agricultural draught-
horses. Both their light and heavy breeds are remarkable for high crests,
small heads, somewhat narrow across the eyes, heavy shoulders, and round,
powerful, but very drooping quarters. Their hocks are comparatively
small, but clean, and their legs light and free from hair. Their worst
point lies in the feet, which almost always have flat and thin soles,
unfitting them for fast work on hard roads. Just prior to the introduction
of railroads the English system of coaching was introduced into Belgium,
and I have sat behind several teams of mares drawing a heavy diligence
more than ten miles within the hour. We now possess a class of animals
in our heavy omnibuses, a pair of which will draw the enormous weight
of four tons at the rate of six or eight miles per hour ; but they do not run
more than six miles in one stage, nor, as far as I am aware, does any
omnibus travel nearly as fast as the crack Belgian diligences Avhich were
running between 1830 and 1840.^ Indeed, I hardly think any horses
could have been found in this country at a price suited to coaching work,

^ Large numbers of these horses were imported into London and other great cities in the
"sixties" and ".seventies," but proved incapable of sustaining the concussion of roads
which at that time were chiefly stone and macadam. Their feet were flat and weak, which
gave rise to much Lameness. With heavy heads, light middlepicces, and goose rumps,
they must have been but sorry representatives of the class described by the author. A few
years after tlie importations ceased they disappeared as it were from the streets of London.

THE RUSSIAN HORSE 65

which would have done the work of these Flemish mares. Almost all
wei'e bay with black points, and their legs were nearly as clean and free
from hair as those of our thoroughbreds. They were extraordinarily good-
tempered, and suffered their attendants to "put them to" all together, being
all attached to a splinter-bar, which was turned over the quarters of the
wheelers. In this way the change was effected even in less time than by
our crack coaches, when one and a half minutes was considered the outside
time to be allowed. All that was necessary was to pull up nearly close
behind the four horses standing ready for the change, then unhooking the
bar of those just come in it was turned over their quarters, and they were
taken forwards till they cleared the pole, when they were in a body turned
on one side. The four fresh horses were then quickly backed to their
places, a wheeler passing on each side the pole, the bar was dropped to its
place and hooked, the reins in the meantime being taken out of the terrets
by the coachman, and the change was effected in less than a minute.

THE HANOVERIAN HORSE

Every one who has seen her Majesty's black carriage-horses must be
familiar with this breed. Some are also brought over to this country for
the use of the undertaker, but they are more costly than the Flemish and
Holstein horses, and are only used by the most fashionable houses in that
trade. They are remarkable for the length and beauty of their manes and
tails, and for their brilliant black colour. This is specially developed in
the entire horses, which are therefore 'used for purposes of show. They
have neat heads and well-arched necks, but have very light middlepieces,
badly ribbed up. Their shoulders are somewhat upright, and their arms
and thighs are lighter than in any other European breed of the same size
and beauty. The action of these horses both on the walk and trot is high
and proud, yet tolerably fast, and I believe in their native country they
make useful troopers and light harness horses. Here the hard macadamized
roads forbid their being employed for any purposes but those to which I
have alluded.

THE RUSSIAN HORSE

The native Russian horse is a small, active, and hardy animal, capable
of undergoing great fatigues and privations, but not possessed of much
speed in any of its paces. Of late years great progress has been made in
improving them by crossing the blood with that of English and Arab
thoroughbreds, and also by mixing with these the best Flemish and
French light harness horses. Throughout the vast grassy plains of the
interior of Russia there are the finest opportunities afforded for the
breeding of horses.

A regular trade in the export of these ponies to England is now
established, although the first few consignments, about the "eighties," were
not good enough to attract buyers except for the coster's barrow, the
laundress's cart, and the coal-pit. Each year has seen a marked improve-
ment, since then, and now (1898) one may often see well-marked Arab

F

66 THE HORSE

features combined with that good action in front and sure-footedness which
has always been a recommendation to Russian horses. The small size is
owing to governmental interference in not permitting the export of horses
over 14 hands or 14 hands 2 inches. The standard of height varies, but
Ave have seen a number refused at the ports of embarkation that appeared
to be only slightly over 14 hands. Their chief defect is that of shying,
and the worst bred ones are incurable. Where the intelligence of the
Arab sire has taken effect they can be induced to walk over a sewer
grating, for instance, when once thoroughly satisfied of its safety.
Exmoor stallions have also contributed to the improvement so far as
qualitj'- goes, but not size, as our readers will doubtless know they are
small on their native heath.

NORWEGIAN AND SWEDISH HORSES

In Norway the horses are almost all of a colour midway between cream
and dun, with black manes and tails, and a black stripe along the back.
Several stallions of this bi-eed were introduced into Wales early in the
century, and these peculiar markings are still prevalent there. They are
of good shape, very safe, and possessed of clean but not very high action.

The Swedish horses are smaller than those of Norway, and of all
colours. They are chiefly used in harness, being driven in a carriole with
very long shafts, so that the body is suspended midway between the horse
and the wheels. This gives it a very uneasy motion, which requires some
time to accustom the rider to it. When larger carriages are required, four
of these little creatures are put to them, and they will gallop a ten mile
stage within the hour.

CHAPTER VI

THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE

GENERAL HISTORY— THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE OF 1750 — HIS ORIGIN — THE
MODERN THOROUGHBRED — INCREASE OF SIZE AND SYMMETRY— COMPARATIVE STOUT-
NESS— EARLY MATURITY — OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED — ESSENTIALS IN THE
THOROUGHBRED— PURITY OF BLOOD— EXTERNAL FORMATION— HEIGHT— COLOUR— COAT,
MANE, AND TAIL — THE THOROUGHBRED HUNTER AND STEEPLECHASKR.

GENERAL HISTORY

We have no RECORD of the existence of the horse in England until tl e
time of the Roman invasion of the island, when we know that lari,e
numbers were found here ready to oppose the landing, and used both in
chariots and as cavalry. But this country never became remarkable for
her breed of horses until after the time of the Stuarts, who paid great
attention to this animal, and caused numbers of Arab stallions ami
mares to be imported. In the time of Henry the Eighth, the want of
good horses was so much felt, that an Act was passed, forbidding any
entire horse of a greater age than two years, and less than 15 hands
high, to be turned out in any common or waste land in the counties of
Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Buckingham, Huntingdon, Essex, Kent,
Hampshire, Wiltshire, Oxford, Berkshire, Worcester, Gloucester, Somerset,
Bedfordshire, Warwickshire, Northampton, Yorkshire, Cheshire, Stafford-
shire, Lancashire, Salop, Leicester, Hereford, Lincoln, and North or South
Wales. In other counties the limit was put at 14 hands, but for
what reason I am not aware. Small weedy mares and foals were also
ordered to be destroyed ; and the owners of horses infected with a con-
tagious disease, who turned them out, were fined ten shillings. Still, the
fJeficiency was so great, that in the time of the threatened invasion by
the Spanish Armada, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, only three thousand
horses could be collected for the cavalry ; and, to procure these, a serious
interruption was produced in the internal traffic of the kingdom, which
was then carried on by means of pack-horses. It appears, however, that
■on board the Spanish ships there were a great number of the Andalusian
horses, which were then considered the best in Europe; and these being
taken possession of by the victorious admiral for his mistress, were of
great service in improving the breed. In her reign coaches were invented,
and this was another reason for encouraging the size and strength of the

67

68 THE HORSE

horse ; the depth of the ruts and the steep hills on all thi3 roads of the
countiy demanding much greater power than at present, and six horses
being the smallest team in use. For the purpose of carrying the mail-clad
men-at-arms, a powerful horse of great size had long been wanted, but not
of quite the same colossal proportions as was z'equired for the use of the
heavy lumbering coaches which were now introduced. In course of time,
however, after gunpowder was invented, armour became useless, and then
a lighter horse was in request. Racing had long been established in a few
small meetings every year ; but no sooner was a light cavalry demanded
than a double impetus was given to the amusement, and Arabs, Barbs, and
Turks were imported in large numbers, for the purpose of breeding animals
suited either to turf or the saddle. This was in the middle of the seven-
teenth centur}^, during which time a number of books on the management
of the horse were published in France and England, showing the interest
which was generally taken in the subject. Of these, the most celebrated
is the magnificently illustrated work of the Duke of Newcastle, who
occupied himself in writing it at Antwerp, during his banishment in
the time of the Commonwealth, between 1650 and 1660. He describes
the horses of his time as follows : — " The Turkish horse stands high,
thouf^h of an unequal shape, being remarkably beautiful and active, with
plenty of power, and excellent wind, but rarely possesses a good mouth.
Much praise is given to the grandeur of carriage of the Neapolitan horse ;
and, in truth, they are fine horses, those I have seen being both large,
strong, and full of spirit. I have not only seen several Spanish horses,
but several have been in my possession. They are extremely beautiful,
and the most eligible of any, either to form subjects for the artist, or to
carry a monarch, when, surrounded by the pomp and dignity of majesty, he
would show himself to his people ; for they are neither so intemperate as
the Barbs, nor so large as the Neapolitans, but the perfection of both.
The Barb possesses a superb and high action, is an excellent trotter and
galloper, and very active when in motion. Although generally not so
strong as other breeds, when well chosen I do not know a more noble
horse ; and I have read strange accounts of their courage — for example,
when so badly wounded that their entrails have protruded, they have
carried their riders safe and sound out of danger, with the same spirit with
which they entered it, and then dropped dead." From the engravings
in this book, the war-horse of that period closely resembled the Flemish
or Hanoverian blacks which we now have, but of greater substance, the
man in armour weighing between twenty and twenty-five stone. But even
supposing this to be the horse of the country in the time of the second
Charles, a very few crosses of Arab blood would fine it down, till in appear-
ance it would not be distinguishable from its Eastern progenitor. One-
eighth of cold blood is not very perceptible, and this proportion would exist
in the third cross, and would therefore occupy only ten or a dozen years to
produce it. Gradually a breed of horses was established which has been
celebrated throughout the world for the last century, for speed, stoutness,
and beauty ; in all which qualities the present stock excels their parents on
both sides. Much of this excellence is doubtless due to the climate and
soil of the country, which encourage the growth of those fine grasses that
exactly suit the delicate stomach of this animal. But without care and

THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE OF 1750 GO

judging in the selection and breeding of the horse, our cancestors never could
have arrived at such extraordinary success ; and whether this depended
u23on chance or preconceived theory, nearly equal merit is due, for there is
as much credit in seizing hold of facts which upset a prejudice, as in acting
upon those that support it. For a century and a half we have carefully
l)reserved the pedigrees of our pure bred horses, and for more than a third
of that time they huve been recorded in the Stud-book by the Messrs.
Weatherby. Besides these, we have breeds suited to the various purposes
for which horses can be required — namely, hunting, hacking, light and
heavy harness-work on the road, and agricultural operations. Each of
these varieties must, therefore, be considered separately ; and, as the grand
piece de resistance, I shall begin with

THE ENGLISH THOROUGHBRED HORSE OF 1750

In our historical records there are sundry notices of the importation
of Spanish and Flemish horses to serve as chargers, but there is no clear
account of any Eastern horse being brought into the country until the
reign of James the First, when Mr. Markham, a merchant of London, sent
for an Arabian from Constantinople, and sold him to the King for £500,
an enormous sum in those days. A great deal was expected from this
horse, but both the individual and his stock were found to be too slow to
race, and no other effort was made by either James I. or Charles I. in the
same direction. A Mr. Place, who was stud groom to Oliver Cromwell,
obtained possession of an Eastern horse, which appears in the Stud-book as
^' Place's White Turk," but of his history nothing is known. Fairfax's
IMorocco Barb, and the Helmsly Turk, the property of the Duke of
Buckingham, were used to cross the blood of the four Bai'b mares imported
by Charles the Second from Tangiers, and known in the Stud-book as the
" Royal Mares ; " and for many years, that is, nearly to the end of the
seventeenth century, no other Eastern blood was employed in the English
breeding studs, with the exception of the three Hamburg mares which were
taken at the siege of Vienna, and brought over in 1684. These are
generally considered to be the foundation of the breed of our English
thoroughbred. It is quite clear, however, that prior to this time we were
in possession of a strain of race-horses which were possessed of fair speed,
for it is absurd to suppose that the Arabs of these days are faster than they
were two hundred years ago, and yet, those imported then specially to run
at Newmarket were beaten with ease. It is also highly probable that the
imported horses and mares were not bred from, exclusive of the native or
Spanish horses already in the country, for we find in almost all the old
pedigrees a break-down somewhere or other. Thus, in the pedigi'ee of
Eclijjse there are two blanks, which, it is true, may have been filled by
mares of Eastern blood, but the omission of the name looks extremely like
a desire to hide what has since been considered a blot in the escutcheon.
jMy own belief is that the race-horse of that day was imported from Spain,
and bred from a cross of the Andalusian mare with the Bai^b introduced by
the Moors. A fresh infusion of Eastern blood therefoi^e was likely to "hit,"
as we know it did ; and by care, and taking advantage of our climate and

70 THE HORSE

other natural advantages, the fine breed was produced which we now
possess. The Duke of Newcastle in his advice to breeders, after describing
the sort of mare suitable to breed race-horses, says : — " Your stallion by
any means must be a Barb, and somewhat of the shape that I have
described the mare to be of. For a Barb that is a jade will get a better
running horse than the best running horse in England : as Sir John
Fenwick told me, who had more experience in running horses than any
man in England. For he had more rare running horses than any man in
all England beside, and the most part of all the famous running horses in
England that ran one against another were of his race and breed. Some
commend the Turk very much for a stallion to breed running horses, but
they ai'e so scarce and rare that I can give no judgment of them, and there-
fore I advise you to the Barb, which I believe is much the better horse to
breed inmning horses."

In this passage it is clearly established that the mare used for breeding
race-horses in the times I am alluding to was not necessarily of Eastern
blood, for he says your stallion must be a Barb ; but though minutely
describing the make and shape of the mare, and that as well as the most
skilful breeder of the present day, he does not place any limitation on her
breeding. Indeed, I believe that the use of the Spanish, mixed, perhaps,
with native English blood in the mare, was the real cause of the success
which attended the cross with the Barb ; the mare being of greater size
and stride than the horse, and giving those qualities to the produce, while
the horse brought out the original strain of Eastern blood, which possessed
the wind and endurance so peculiar to it. We may, therefore, conclude
that the origin of the thoroughbred horse of the present day is to be laid in
the followino; strains.

ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE

1. Native niares used for racing, and bred from Spanish and English strains, the former

most probably descended from the Barbs of Morocco.

2. MarkharrCs Arabian, imported in the time of Jame5 the First, but proved to be good

for nothing, and most probably there is now not the slightest strain of his blood
extant.

3. Place's TFJiite Turk, extensively used, and to him most of our best horses can be traced

through Matchem.

4. Tlie Three Turks brought over from the siege of Vienna in 16Si.

5. The Royal Mares, imported by Charles the Second, who sent his blaster of the Horse

to the Levant specially to procure them. These also are mentioned in all the best
pedigrees.

Various other horses and mares are mentioned in the early pedigrees
between the times of Charles II. and James II., when the Byerley Turk
makes his appearance. Of these we have no exact record, either as to the
date of their importation or the country from which they came, so that
all that can be done is to enumerate them. They are Alcock's Arab, the
iNIorocco Barb, D'Arcy's Yellow Turk, the White D'Arcy Turk, Leedes
Arab, the Brownlow Arab, Harper's Arab, Pullen's Chestnut Arab, Honey-
wood's White Arab, the old Bald Peg Aral), and the Arab sire of Make-
less. Most of these occur in our best pedigrees, but the two D'Arcy Turks,
as we shall hereafter find, are particularly conspicuous there.

ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE 71

The next era in breeding is the introduction of the Byerley Turk and
Lister's, or the Stradling Turk. The former was used in the Irish wars
between James II. and WilHam and Mary, as Captain Byerley's charger,
about the year 1689; and being afterwards put to the stud, was the sire
of the Duke of Kingston's Sprite, Lord Bristol's Grasshopper, Sir Roger
JNIoyston's Jigg (sire of Partner, and Basto), from whom, through his
daughter (the sister to Soreheels), were descended Crab, the Bald Galloway,
and the celebrated Matchem. The Lister Turk was brought over from the
siege of Buda during the reign of James the Second, by the Duke of
Berwick. He was sire of Snake, and therefore great-grandsire of Squirt,
from whom was descended the celebrated Eclipse.

The Darley Arabian marks another step, and must have been imported
somewhere between the years 1700 and 1715, his son Childers being foaled
in the latter. He belonged to Mr. Darley, of Buttercramb, near Yoi-k,
who obtained him through his brother, a merchant of Aleppo. He is said
to have been a native of Palmyra, but this is only traditional, and there is
really nothing certain known of his blood. He was the sire of the Devon-
shire Childers, and his brother, Bartlett's Childers ; the former not being
now represented by any horse through the male line, but being the maternal
great-grandfather to Herod, while the latter is well known to all horse-
breeders as the great-grandsire of Eclipse. He also was the sire of
Almanzor, a good race-horse, Cupid, Brisk, and Djedalus, all fast, and
of a host of inferior runners, though he had few mares put to him. The
Devonshire Childers is supposed to have been the fastest horse of his day,
and it is recorded that he ran the round course at Newmarket (three miles
six furlongs and ninety-three yards) in six minutes forty seconds. Bartlett's
Childers was not trained. In addition to the Darley Arabian, there were
also imported, between the years 1700 and 1724, when the Godolphin Barb
appeared, Curwen's Bay Barb, the Thoulouse Barb, the Belgrade Turk, the
Lonsdale Bay Arab, Compton's Barb, afterwards named the Sedley Grey
Ai-ab, the Cullen Arabian, the Leedes Arabian, and St. Victor's Barb. The
Curwen Bay Bai-b was grandsire on the maternal side of Partner, and with
the Thoulouse Barb was presented to Louis XIV. by the King of Morocco.
They were purchased from the natural son of Louis by Mr. Curwen, of
Workington, Cumberland, and brought over to England. The Belgrade
Turk was taken at the siege of Belgrade. Nothing is known of the ante-
cedents of the Lonsdale Bay Arab, but he was sire of a great many good
horses ; yet he is not now represented by any descended through the male
line. Of the others we have no record beyond their names in the various
pedigrees.

The Godolphin Arabian is very commonly supposed to have been the
last Eastern horse of any note used in the stud, with the exception of the
\Yellesley Gr-ey Arab, in the early part of the present century. This, how-
ever, is not true; for whereas he was foaled about the year 1724, there are
the following names to be seen in the best pedigrees, all of later date ; viz.
the Damascus Arab, 1754; the Newcombe Bay Arab, 1756; the Coombe
Arab, 1760; and Bell's Grey Arab, 1765. The Godolphin Arabian, or
Barb as he is very commonly supposed to have been, was about 15
hands high, and of a rich brown bay colour. The tradition is that he was
sent to France from Barbary, as a present to Louis XIV. by the Emperor

72 THE HORSE

of Morocco ; but, like the Curwen Bay and Thoulouse Barbs, he was not
Aalued as he deserved, but being turned out of the stud, was employed to
draw a water-cart in Paris. From this ignoble occupation he was rescued
l)y Mr. Coke, but when brought to England he was at first no better off, for
he was used as teazer to Hobgoblin, and was only allowed to cover Roxana
on the refusal of that celebrated horse to do his duty. The produce was
Lath, the most celebrated race-horse of his day, and reputed to be only
second to Childers. This success immediately procured him plenty of
mares, chiefly, however, belonging to the Earl of Godolphin ; and it is not a
little remarkable that before Lath could have been tried, in fact, when he
was onl}'- a yearling, his dam, Roxana, was put to the Godolphin Arabian
again, producing Cade, the sire of Matchem, who though less famous in his
own day, is now much better known from his greater success as a stallion.
He also got Regulus, the maternal grandsire of Eclipse, Blank, and Babra-
ham, both represented in our best pedigrees. The shape of the Godolphin
Arabian was very remarkable, as may be seen on examining the engraving
of him given at page 20.

The Damascus Arab, imported in 1760, was said to be of pure Arab
blood, having been pi-esented by the Sheik of Acria to the Pasha of
Damascus, who gave him to a merchant at Aleppo, and he again sold him
to an Englishman who was then on his travels. He is not now represented
in the stud, though of some celebrity in his day as a stallion. The
Newcombe Bay Arabian was of considerable size and substance, resembling
in these respects the Godolphin Arabian more than the ordinary run of
Eastern horses. He, however, had very few mares. Bell's Grey Arabian
was the last of the importations made during the eighteenth century, being
extensively used in the stud between the years 1765 and 1772, when he
died. He was sire of a great many good runners in his day, but his blood
is now entirely extinct.

During the first half of the eighteenth century, besides the two
Childers which have been already mentioned under the head of the Darley
Arabian, the following celebrated horses and mares were foaled : —

Basto, 1703 ; who was considered to be one of the best horses of his year.

ilakeless, a son of the Oglethorp Arabian.

liay Bolton, 1705 ; a great winner.

Brocklesby Betty, 1711 ; who was thought to be superior to any liorse of her time,

and was not trained till after she had in-oduced a foal.
Brocklesby, 1728.
Bonny Black, 1715.
Buckhunter, 173 5; better known as the Carlisle Gelding, being obliged to be

castrated on account of vice.
Fox, 1714.
Squirrel, 1719.
]\liss Neasliani, 1720; dam of j\[iss Patty, and through her granddam of Captain

Macht-ath, who travelled and raced more than 500 miles by road in seven weeks
Old Cartouche, and Bald Cliarlotte.
Crab, 1722.

Hobgoblin, 1724 ; by Aleppo, son of the Darley Arabian.
Fearnought, 1725.
Starling, 1727.
Partner, 1731.
Little Partner, 1731.
Miss Layton, 1736.

I.ath, 1732 ; tlic cause of the Gochdjihin Barb coining into use.
Second. 1732.

ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE 73

Yoluiitoor, 1735.
Moorcork, 1740.
ISabialiaiii, 1740 ; son of the Godolpliin AraLian, out of tlie larfje Ilarlley mare.

Little Driver, 1743.

Silver Leg, 1743.
Othello, afterwards called Black and all DIack, 1743.
Sampson, 1745.
Hrilliant, 1750.
Forrester, 1750.
Marske, 1750 ; sire of Eclii^sc.
Snap, 1750.
Syphon, 1750.

In THE YEAR 1750 there came off at Newmarket the celebrated match
made by the Duke of Queensberry (then Earl of March), to get four horses
to draw a carriage with four wheels, and a person in it, nineteen miles
within the hour. The feat was performed in fifty-three minutes twenty-seven
seconds ; and the four horses engaged, which were each ridden, were Mr.
Greville's Tawney, Mr. Hammond's Roderick Random, the Duke of
Hamilton's Chance, and Mr. Thompson's Little Dan. The horses ran away
for the first four miles, which were accomplished in nine minutes.

Between the years 1748 and 1764 the repeated use of Arab, Turkish,
and Barb blood had produced the happiest effect upon our race-horses, and
during this period three celebrated horses were foaled, which respect-
ively carry on the blood of the Byerley Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the
Godolphin Barb through the male lines. These three are Herod, or as he
was then called King Herod, foaled in 1758 ; Eclipse, foaled in 1764 ; and
Matchem, in 1748. Mr. Goodwin, Veterinary Surgeon, of Hampton Court,
has published a table in which he traces all our good thoroughbred horses
of the present day to one or other of the three Eastern roots above
mentioned ; but he seems to have forgotten that in each case, even prior
to the time of Herod, Matchem, and Eclipse, there had been a mixture
with one of the other two, and since then in almost every case with the
third. It is, therefore, scarcely fair to attribute the excellence of Melbourne,
for instance, to the Godolphin Arabian, from whom he is descended in the
male line through Matchem, for the latter horse was also closely allied to
the Byerley Turk through his dam, and had moreover a second more remote
strain of the same blood. The same may be said of Melbourne's great
rival. Touchstone, who is set down by Mr. Goodwin as a proof of the
value of the Darley Arabian, to whom he can readily be traced through a
series of sires numbering Eclipse among them. Now a glance at the pedigree
of this latter horse will show that though he was a great-great-grandson
of the Darley Arabian through Bartlett's Childers, he was a great-grandson
of the Godolphin Barb on the side of his dam, and therefore one remove
nearer to the latter. Again, Bay Middleton, the contemporary of Touchstone
and Melbourne, and a representative of the Byerley Turk, according to
Mr. Goodwin's table, is descended through Herod from the Darley Arabian
on the dam's side, as well as from the Byerley Turk on that of his sire.
To make this clear, however, I will give the pedigree tables of the three
horses above mentioned, which will also serve to illustrate another point
which must be subsequently discussed.

74

THE HORSE

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80 THE HORSE

I HAVE SAID that there is another point to be considered in examining
into the claims of these three Eastern sires, and to be estimated above all
others. Each pedigree, it will be seen, contains the names of other
Eastern sires, besides a few mares of that blood ; and it has been argued
that we ai'e therefore as much indebted to the St. Victor's Barb, D'Arcy's
Yellow Turk, Curwen's Bay Barb, the Acaster Turk, and Place's White
Turk, for the success of INIatchem and his descendants, as to the Godolphin
Barb. So also in the table which has Herod's name at the head, we find
not only that he is descended from the Byerley Turk and Darley Arabian,
but that he has the names of the following Eastern horses in his pedigree,
viz. — the White D'Arcy Tui'k, the Leedes Arab, the Brownlow Turk,
Harper's Arab, and Bethel's Arab. Again, in relation to Eclipse, he
numbers the Lister Turk, the Leedes Arab, Hutton's Grey Barb, St.
Victor's Barb, and D'Arcy's Yellow Turk among his ancestors ; and why
should they not have the credit of his success as well as the Darley
Arabian 1 Now, some have replied to this question by asserting that
though it is true that their names do thus occur, yet it is only as the
progenitors of the various dams, as they are not represented in the male
jne. Another argument is founded upon the accumulative evidence which
is afforded by the three celebrated roots of our thoroughbred stock. For
tvhereas we find the names of two out of the three in each of the pedigrees
riven, and as we descend, the whole of them almost invariably, yet, as is
dleged, we have rarely more than one of the other Eastern sires occurring
in any of the tables. This argument requires a little careful investigation,
and I will therefore analyze the three tables with reference to each of the
sires I have enumerated, which are — L The St. Victor's Barb; 2. D'Arcy's
Yellow Turk; 3. Curwen's Bay Barb; 4. The Acaster Turk; 5. Place's
White Turk ; 6. The White D'Arcy Turk. 7. The Leedes Arab ; 8. The
Brownlow Turk ; 9. Harper's Arab; 10. Bethel's Arab; 11. The Lister
Turk; 12. Hutton's Grey Barb.

1. The St. Vidor^s Bay Barb, as the sire of the Bald Galloway, is met with once in the

pedigree of Matchem, and also once in that of Eclipse.

2. D'Arcy's Yellow Turk occurs in Table 1, thrice as sire of Spanker ; in Table 3, twice as

sire of Spanker and Brimmer ; and in Table 2, as sire of Brimmer.

3. Curiven's Bay Barb. Once in Table 1, as sire of the Sister to Alixbury, which mare also

occurs in Table 3 twice.

4. The Acaster Txtrk. Once only in Table 3.

5. Place's White Turk appears only once as the sire of the great-great-granddam of

Matchem.

6. The While D'Arcy Turk, as the sire of Hautboy, occurs seven times in Table 2, and

twice in Table 1, also as the sire of that horse.

7. The Leedes Arab. Once in Table 1 ; twice in Table 2.

8. The Brownlow Turk. Once only in Table 1.

9. Harper's Arab. Once in Table 1.

10. Bethel's Arab. Once in Table 1.

11. The Lister Turk. Thrice in Table 2.

12. Hutton's Grey Barb. Once in Table 2.

In comparing these, therefore, with the three "great roots," as they
are called, we shall find that numerically several of them are equal, and
some superior to the latter ; thus : — -

1. The Byerley Turk occurs once in Table 1, and twice in Table 3.

2. The Darley Arabian is met with twice in Table 1, and once in Table 2.

3. The Godoljihin Barb appears once in Table 2, and once in Table 3.

ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE 81

If, therefore, the value of a particular strain descending through the
female line is the same as that passing through the male branches, tlie
foregoing calculation would place the two D'Arcy Turks considerably ahead
of all competitors. The Yellow D'Arcy Turk, for instance, appears in all
three of these great pedigrees (altogether six times), while the White
D'Arcy Turk, through Hautboy, is met with nine times in two out of
the three pedigrees. Mr. Hanckey Smith and other writers on the horse
have drawn attention to this subject, and although I have on former
occasions disputed the correctness of his arguments, yet on a careful re-
consideration I am bound to admit that there is perhaps some tenable
ground for the hypothesis, even if we do not accept it. But though it is
quite true that, as I before remarked, these horses occur more frequently
than any other in the three pedigrees, yet still the strains are much more
remote ; and in the pedigree of Eclipse, for instance, the whole seven, when
put together, only amount to -j-lg- of that horse. Now this is only a trifle
over J^, while the Darley Arabian makes up exactly that proportion, and the
Godolphin Barb twice as much, or ■!•. But when, in addition to these facts,
it is considered that both the one and the other of the last-named horses
are continually being renewed as we come nearer to our own times, while
the re-appearance of the White D'Arcy Turk is much more rare, the argu-
ment is no longer felt to be tenable. Eclipse himself, I think, may very
probably have owed his good qualities to the numerous lines of the White
D'Arcy Turk ; but taking his son PotSos and his grandson Waxy, the
probability is all the other way. For Eclipse, being composed of a little
more than y^^- of the White D'Arcy, of y^^- exactly of the Darley Arabian,
and -|- of the Godolphin Barb, is put to Sportsmistress, possessing a trace of the
White D'Arcy Turk, but made up of |- of the Godolphin Barb, and -^j^ each
of the Darley Arab and Byerley Turk. The composition, therefore, of the
produce, PotSos, will be |- Godolphin Barb, -g^^ Darley Arabian, -g^ Byerley
Turk, and yf-g- of the White D'Arcy Turk. To make this calculation
intelligible, it is necessaiy to study the subject of breeding, to the chapter
on which my reader is referred for its explanation. Proceeding, however,
to the next step, we see PotSos put to Maria, who is composed of yVg-
D'Arcy White Turk, but then J of her blood is that of the Godolphin Barb,
WV of the Darley Arab, and yf 3- Byerley Turk. Her composition therefore
becomes f of Godolphin Barb, -^ of the White D'Arcy Turk (or a little
more than -|-), •^- of Darley Arab blood (or about ^), and yVg- Byerley Turk
(or about y\), proving, on this method of calculation, the superior claims of
the Godolphin Barb and Darley Arabian to those of the White D'Arcy
Turk, in estimating the value of the several elements of which Waxy is
composed.

This arithmetical method of calculation is not to be entirely depended
on, for we shall find, in discussing the theory and practice of breeding,
that where 11 domestic animal (a) composed of eight several strains is put
to another (b) composed also of eight strains of blood, but one of them
being similar to one in (a), the produce shall be more than y (a) in appear-
ance and qualities, and this goes on increasing in proportion to the number
of times that the experiment is repeated. Eclipse, then, having nine
distinct lines of the White D'Arcy Turk, might be expected, on this
hypothesis, to be really composed of much more than the exact proper-

82 THE HORSE

tionals of that horse which I have assigned to him ; and it is on these
grounds only that Mr. Hanckey Smith's theory can be supported, unless
the preponderance of the male is admitted to be less than it is very gener-
ally supposed to be. The subject is one not merely historically curious,
but of the deepest interest to the breeder of any of our domestic animals,
and I shall again return to it hereafter. I merely mention it in this place
to show there are two sides to the question, and that on the value of the
paternal in comparison with the maternal blood depends, not only the
relative importance of the Byerley Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the
Godolphin Barb, in reference to each other, but to the earlier Eastern
strains, and more especially the Two B'Arcy Txirhs.

Having given the Pedigrees of these three celebrated horses, I shall
now allude to their characteristics and performances, as well as those of one
or two of their contemporaries, as detailed in the chronicles of the day, which,
however, I am afraid are not strictly to be depended on.

The Flying or Devonshire Childers was a chestnut horse, with a
white nose, and four white legs. He was bred by Mr. Childers, near
Doncaster, and sold by him to the Duke of Devonshire. He is pictorially
handed down to us as possessing the shape and action of a light showy
carriage-horse, but I am afraid that the animal painters of those days are
not much to be trusted. Fortunately two-year-old races were not then
thought of, and Childers did not appear on the turf till April 1721, when
he won a four-mile match for 500 guineas at Newmai'ket, beating the
Duke of Bolton's Speedwell, who also forfeited the stake to him in a return
match made for the following October. His races were, as was the custom
of those days, either for four or six miles, and the weights from 8 stone 7
pounds to 10 stone, under which he is said to have performed the following
wonderful feats ; but the timing was made with ordinary watches, and
mistakes must undoubtedly have occurred: — About the year 1721, he is
said to have run a trial with Almanzor and the Duke of Rutland's Brown
Betty, carrying 9 stone 2 pounds, over the Round Course (3 miles, 4 furlongs,
93 yards) at Newmarket in 6 minutes and 41 seconds ; and soon afterwards
he ran the Beacon Course (4 miles, 1 furlong, 138 yards), under 9 stone 2
pounds, in 7 minutes and 30 seconds, which is about the rate of speed of
our modern horses, over our shorter courses, and under 8 stone 7 pounds.
It is therefore very doubtful whether the speed has not been exaggerated,
and especially as we shall presently find a still higher rate is accorded to
Matchem. He was never beaten. His brother Bartlett's Childers was
never trained, owing to a bleeding from the nostrils to which he v,^as subject,
but was at once put to the stud, and was the sire of numerous winners.

Matchem was bred by Mr. John Holon of Carlisle in the year 1748, but
Avas sold as a foal to Mr. Fenwick, of Bywell, Northumberland. He, like
Childers, did not appear till he was five years old, when he won a sub-
scription purse at York, and had a long series of successes at Newmarket,
winning on one occasion, as it is said, a .£50 plate, over the B. C, 8 stone 7
pounds, in 7 minutes and 20 seconds ; but this being a greater performance
than that of Childers, may be considered still more doubtful. He was
subsequently beaten over the same course for the Jockey Club Plate, in
three heats, the first being timed at 7 minutes 52| seconds ; the second,
in 7 minutes 40 seconds; and the third in 8 minutes 5 seconds; which

ORIGIN OF THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE 83

still further upsets the probability of his having performed the wonderful
feat above mentioned. In 1859, he won a £50 plate at Scarborough, after
which he was put to the stud, his price being at first 5 guineas, but the
success of the stock caused this to be doubled in 1765 ; and again, in 1770,
when it was raised to 20 guineas ; the lapse of another five years inducing
his owner to limit him to 25 mares at 50 guineas each. He is supposed in
this way to have earned £17,000, and in twenty-three years his stock won
upwards of £150,000.

Herod, foaled in 1758, was a rich bay, and of very fine symmetry and
size. He was bred by the Duke of Cumberland, and sold to Sir John
Moore at his death. After a long series of successes at Newmarket, he
burst a blood-vessel in running for a subscription-purse at York, in 1766,
after which he was never quite in his previous form, and was put to the
stud, commencing with 10 guineas, in 1768, and ending with 25 guineas,
from 1774 to his death, which occurred in 1780. His stock won upwards
ol £201,000, besides many hogsheads of claret, whips, cups, etc.

Eclipse (so named from being foaled in the year 1764, when there was
an eclipse of the sun) was a chestnut horse, like Herod bred by the Duke
of Cumberland, and at his decease sold to Mr. Henry Wildman, a Smithfield
salesman, who kept race-horses at Mickleham, near Epsom. Prior to the,
sale he must have had some private intelligence of the merits of the horse,
for we are told that when he arrived there in ample time, according to the
terms of the advertisement, the sale had been effected, but, claiming that
the lots already knocked down should be resold, the result was that he
purchased Eclipse for 75 guineas. In a short time he sold a moiety to
Oolonel O'Kelly for 650 guineas, and in the following year the other
moiety for 1100 guineas. In May 1769, when five years old. Eclipse won
£50 at Epsom, and it was on the second heat of this unimportant race that
Colonel O'Kelly is said to have won a very large sum of money, by laying
against all the five horses engaged in it. Such a feat is so improbable,
according to the laws of chance, that his offer was immediately taken at
much less than the legitimate odds, and on being called on to d(!clare, he
complied with the demand by placing " Eclipse first and the rest nowhere,"
winning his bet by the great speed of his horse. During the two seasons
which he was on the turf he won an immense number of stakes for Colonel
O'Kellj^, but at last his extraordinary powers were so generally admitted
that no owner would enter a horse against him, and he was obliged to
retire, never having been beaten or paid forfeit. Among his victories are
eleven King's plates, the weights for all but one of which were 12 stone,
which now-a-days would be considered a crusher, even for a mile or a mile
•and a half. He covered at Clay Hill near Epsom, his price being at first
fixed at 50 guineas, but in 1772 it was reduced to the more reasonable sum
of 25 guineas, fluctuating between which and 30 guineas he continued at
the service of the public till 1789, when he died. He was so lame in his
feet, that on being removed from Epsom to Cannons in Middlesex, he was
obliged to be placed in a caravan on four wheels, and this was the first
instance in which a van was used for this purpose, though now so commonly
employed. The proportions of Eclipse have been minutely described by
♦St. Bel, the founder of the school which afterwards became The Royal
Veterinary College, London.

84 THE HORSE

The skeleton Cf Z'Ch'pSC 2^ "^''^^^ set up in the new museum, and visitors
can usually see it by presenting their cards at the portal of this famous
institution, over whose centenary H.R.H. the Prince of Wales presided in
1894. St. Bel took the admeasurements during life, but verified them after
death, and they are, therefore, as reliable as any such can possibly be, but
it must be remembered that they were taken when he was twenty-four years
old.

ST. BEL'S MEASUREMENT OF ECLIPSE.

The length of tlie head of the horse is supposed to be divided into twenty-two ef[ual parts,

which are the common measure for every part of the body.
Three lieads and thirteen parts will give the height of the horse from the forctop to the

ground.
Three heads from the withers to the ground.
Three heads from the rump to the ground.
Three heads and three parts, the whole length of the body, from tlie most prominent part

of the chest to the extremity of the buttocks.
Two heads and twenty parts, the height of the body, througli the middle of the centre of

gravity.
Two heads and seven parts, the height of the highest part of the chest from the ground.
Two heads and five parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falls from the articula-
tion of the arm with the shoulder, directly to the hoof.
One head and twenty parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falls from the top

of the fore leg, dividing equally all its parts to the fetlock.
One head and nineteen parts, the height of the perpendicular line from the elbow to the

ground.
One head and nineteen parts, the distance from the top of the withers to the stifle. The

same measure also gives the distance from the top of the rump to the elbow.
One and a half head, the length of the neck from the withers to the top of the head. The

same measure also gives the length of the neck from the top of the head to its insertion

into the chest.
One head, the width of the neck at its union with the chest.
Twelve parts of a head, the width of the neck in its narrowest part.
The same measure gives the breadth of the head taken below the eyes.
One head and four parts, the thickness of the body from the middle of the back to the

middle of the belly.
The same measure gives the breadth of the body.
Also the rump from its summit to the extremity of the buttocks.
Also the distance from the root of the tail to the stifle.
Also the length from the stifle to the hock.
Also the height from the extremity of the hoof to the hock.

Twenty pnrts of a head, the distance from the extremity of the buttocks to the stifle.
Also tire breadth of the rump or croup.

Ten parts of a head, the breadth of the fore-legs from their anterior part to the elbow.
Ten parts of a head, the breadth of one of the hind-legs taken beneath the fold of the

buttocks.
Eight parts of a head, the breadth of the ham taken from the bend.
Also the breadth of the head above the nostrils.

Seven parts of a head, the distance of the eyes from one great angle to the other.
Also the distance between the fore-legs.
Five parts of a head, the thickness of the knees.
Also the breadth of the fore-legs above the knees.
Also the thickness of the hams.

Foiir parts of a head, the breadth of the pastern, or fetlock joint.
Also the thickness of the coronet.

Four and a half parts of the head, the breadth of the coronet.
Three parts of a head, the tliickness of the legs at their narrowest i)art.
Also the breadth of the hinder legs or shanks.

Two and three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the hind pasterns.
Also the breadth of the shanks of the fore-legs.

Two and a quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the fure pisterns.
Also the breadth of the hind pasterns.
One and three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness ot the fore and hind shanks.

THE MODERN THOROUGHBRED 85

From these proportions it appears tliat the horse was generally long and
low, and that he had a remarkably low forehand as compared with his
hips, which were considerably higher than his withers. I have already
gone into this subject, however, and must refer my readers to page 16 i»v
the particulars of it. The stock of Eclipse won £158,047, being little more
than three-fourths of that which fell to the share of that of Herod, and I
believe the same proportion would be found to exist in the next remove
from each horse.

As AN INSTANCE of the stoutness of the horse of this period, I shall
insert a record of the match against time won by Mr. Shafto, on June 27,
1751. The conditions were that he should ride fifty miles, on an unlimited
number of horses, in 2 successive hours, and he accomplished the task in
1 hour, 49 minutes, 17 seconds, with the ten following hoi-ses, using four of
fcliem twice.

Miles.

1. Merry Bachelor, by Tartar, wliicli he rode 4

2. Wildair, by Cade, dam by Steady 4

3. Juggler, by Rib, dam Sister to Regulus 4

4. Forrester, by Croft's Forrester, dam by Surly 3

5. Rover, by Brother to Bolton 4

6. Jaok o' Newbury, by Babraham, daui by Justice 4

7. Adolphus, by Regulus, out of Miss Layton 3

8. Jessamy, by Spot, out of Bay Broklesly 3

9. Prince T'Quassaw, by Snap, out of Dairymaid 3

Merry Bachelor (second time) 3

Wildair (ditto) 3

Juggler (ditto) 3

Rover (ditto) 3

10. Hambleton, by Swiss 3

Adolphus (second time) 3^

Allowing the odd minutes and seconds for the fifteen changes, this
makes the i*ate exactly two minutes per mile, which was the fastest rate
made by Mr. Osbaldeston in any of his four-mile stages when doing his
■200 mile match, and then only by one horse, Tranby. And thus we get
-some definite idea of the performance of the horses of those days, which
we can by and by compare with those of our own.

THE MODERN THOROUGHBRED

To DEFINE the thoroughbred horse of the nineteenth century is easy
•enough, because it is only necessary to adduce the law that he must
appear in the Stud-book. Without this testamentary evidence no other
will be received, nor even theoretically can any other be adduced. By
some it is supposed that he is a horse descended from sires and dams
•of Eastern blood, that is, either Turks, Barbs, or Arabs ; but this has long
been known to be a fallacy, for we find numerous gaps in almost all the
old pedigrees, which there is every reason to believe ought to be occupied
with the names of native or Spanish mares. But though the Stud-
Tjook is thus received as the existing authority on this matter, it is open
to a question whether it may not be desirable to amend it by introducing
linto its pages horses and mares which can be proved to be stainless for a

86 THE HORSE

certain number of generations. The subject is a difficult one, for while it
is comparatively easy to keep a record year by year of the foals as they
are dropped, it is extremely difficult to obtain satisfactory proof of similar
facts which occurred six generations back, and this would be the earliest
period at which it could be supposed that the stain of impure blood could
be washed out. For instance, supposing a thoroughbred horse is put to a,
common mare in 1859, and the produce is a filly in 1860; this filly might
again breed a filly in 1864, and have a granddaughter in 1868, and a
great-granddaughter in 1872, and so on to the year 1870, when the
produce would still be composed of one sixty-fourth part common blood
and the rest thoroughbred. But twenty years would elapse without any
public record of the facts, and we all know how difficult it is to disprove
any statement made under such circumstances. The safest plan, I believe,
is to adopt the course now pursued, unless it can be shown that it is
expedient to cross the blood of our thoroughbred stock with some other
strain for the sake of improving it. An Eastern horse is at once admitted
as being supposed to be of pure blood, and there is therefore no difficulty
in his case, nor would there be any in the other to which I have alluded
if a public declaration were made beforehand, but for this there is now no
provision. There is no doubt that when half-bred races were in fashion
numerous exchanges of foals took place, by which thoroughbreds were
made to appear as half-bred and vice-versd. But though the pseudo half-
bred may be able to compete with the winner of the Derby or St. Leger,
and though his appearance may be almost proof positive of the purity of
his blood, yet he is excluded from the Stud-book for ever. In this way
some of our half-bred stallions are known to be of pure blood, and
their stock is of great value in the hunting-field, but no one would breed
from a mare of this kind, because he would know that Mr. Weatherby's
pages are shut against him, and he could not claim that her produce
should receive the seal of pui-ity affijrded by that gentleman's pen.

INCREASE OF SIZE AND SYMMETRY

The size and shape of the race-horse of our own days are superior to
those of the early part of the last century, as far as we can judge of the
latter by a comparison with the portraits painted by Stubbs and his
cotemporaries. In point of height there can be no question, for we have
numerous records of the number of hands which may be ascribed to the
celebrities of the age of Charles II. and his immediate successors.

Out of one hundred and thirty winners in the middle of the last century,
only eighteen were 15 hands and upwards, whereas now, a winner below
that height is a very great rarity indeed, even among the mares. This
increase of size is doubtless mainly due to the influence of the Godolphin
Barb, who was himself larger than most of the Eastern sires, and got
stock of a still greater height. His son, Babraham, was 15 hands high,
then considered an extraordinary development ; and of the eighteen
winners mentioned above as being 15 hands and upwards, eleven were by
the Godolphin Barb or his sons. The average at present may be fixed at
l5 hands 3 inches, as I have already shown at page 15. As far as shape is>

COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS 87

concerned, the modern horse has profited by the long-continued and
careful selection which has been made of sires and dams. Every breeder
has considered good blood a sine qud no7i, but to this he has added a
frame as well adapted as possible to the requirements of the turf. The
improvement has chiefly been in the length and slope of the shoulders,
and in the length of the arms and thighs, the head also being a good deal
attended to, but perhaps as often improperly chosen. No doubt the
muzzle can hardly be too fine, but with a small one are often coupled a
narrow forehead, and a contracted jaw, two defects of the greatest possible
importance ; the one interfering with the amount of nervous energy, and
the other with good wind. There is no disputing the perfection of shape
of the modern English race-horse, and I believe that, perhaps with the
single exception of the greyhound, he is the most beautiful animal in
creation. Indeed, under certain conditions, he is superior to his canine
rival ; because he can be so excited as to induce him to display his shapes
better than the greyhound, and his superficial veins, being more readily
seen when distended, add greatly to his fiery and spirited appearance. I
am very doubtful whether the choice of shape has always been correct, and
especially in selecting shoulders and quarters. Many breeders have had a
fancy for the high croup which is so constantly seen among the Arabs,
but which I cannot help fancying to be a defect. A very sloping quarter
is almost equally bad, but of the two extremes I much prefer it. Our
modern trainers are quite aware of this, and a " peacocky " horse, that is,
with his tail set on high, is their aversion. The true shape is that which
is given in the portrait of Saunterer, in which horse there is a fine amount
of fall, without going into either extreme.

COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS

But are our modern horses as stout as those of the last century "^
Such is the question which has been very differently answered by Lord
Redesdale and Admiral Rous, in their correspondence on the alteration
of the weights proposed by the former, who contends that while their
speed for short distances has been developed to a great extent, their
stoutness, or the power of staying over a distance of ground, has greatly
diminished. The arguments 2^'^o ^-iid con which each has adduced would
occupy too much space for me to go into them at length, especially as
they have been mixed up with others which bear upon the degeneracy
of man rather than of his slave the horse. I may however quote one
extract from an article in daily's Magazine of Sports, by the Admiral,
which supports his position in an exceedingly clear manner. He says —

" A very ridiculous notion exists that because our ancestors were
fond of matching their horses four, six, and eight miles, and their
great prizes were never less than four miles for aged horses, the English
race-horses of 1700 had more powers of endurance, and were better
adapted to run long distances under heavy weights, than the horses
of the present day ; and there is another popular notion that our horses
cannot now stay four miles.

"From 1600 to 1740 most of the matches at Newmarket were above

88 THE HORSE

four miles. The six-mile post in my time stood about two hundred yards
from the present railroad station, Six Mile Bottom, and the eight-mile post
was due south from the station on the rising ground ; but the cruelty
of the distance, and interest of the horse-owners, shortened the course
in corresponding ratio with the civilization of the country. Two jades
may run as fine a race for eight miles as for half-a-mile — it is no proof
of endurance. You may match any animals for what distance you please,
but it is no proof of great capacity. We have no reason to suppose
that the pure Arabian of the desert has degenerated ; his pedigree is
as well kept, his admirers in the East are as numerous, and his value
in that market has not been depreciated. In 1700 the first cross from
these horses were the heroes of the turf. Look at the portraits of
Flying Childers, Lath, Regulus, and other celebrated horses, including
the Godolphin Arabian. If the artists were correct in their delineations,
they had no appearance of race-horses ; they of course were good enough
to gallop away from the miserable English gai-rans of that era, as a
good Arab or a Barbary horse, like Vengeance, would run away from
a common hackney in the present day. Amongst the blind, a one-eyed
man is a king.

"My belief is, that the present English race-horse is as much superior
to the race-horse of 1750, as he excelled the first cross from Arabs and
Barbs with English mares, and, again, as they surpassed the old English
racing hack of 1650.

" The form of Flying Childers might win now a £30 plate, winner
to be sold for £40 ; Highflyer and Eclipse might pull through in a
£50 plate, winner to be sold for £200. This may be a strong opinion;
it is founded on the fact that whereas, one hundred and fifty years ago,
the Eastern horses and their first cross were the best and fastest in
England, at this day a second-class race-horse can give 5 stone to the
best Arabian or Barb and beat him, from one to twenty miles. I
presume, therefore, that the superiority of the English horse has improved
in that ratio above the original stock."

Granting, as demanded by the Admiral, the premises he assumes,
namely, that the Arab of the present day and that of 1750 arj
identical in speed and stoutness, the argument is closed, because it is
proved that with the exception of Markham's Arabian, who was a
failure, the imported Arabs, Turks, etc. of the former period, and more
especially their immediate stock, were able to beat the native horses
of that day, whereas now an imported Arab is wholly unable to cope
with ours. But what right have we to assume that the Arab of 1700
or 1750 is identical with his descendant of 1850? Certainly there
is no proof to the contrary, but we must remember that during the
intervening period Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Hungary,
America, India, the Cape of Good Hope, and Australia, have all been
draining the East, and vieing with one another in their endeavours to
procure specimens of her best breeds.

It is asserted that the Arab cannot be induced to part with his
best mares, and can seldom be tempted to sell his most highly prized
horses ; but when money and the pressure of political influence are both
brought to bear, we much question his powers of resistance. Besides,

COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS 89

even supposing that be retained his best mares, if be sold his most
valuable stallions the breed would still be more likely to degenerate
than if he kept both, as he had always previously done. No one can
contend that we are quite as well off in this country without Glencoe,
Ion, The Baron, Priam, The Emperor, and other valuable stallions which
have been exported to other countries ; and if this is admitted, then,
by a parity of reasoning, the Arab has suffered in the same way. I
cannot, therefore, quite see the force of the argument adduced by Admiral
Rous, which depends upon the admission of the identity of the Arab
of 1700-1750 with his descendant in the present day. Nor do I think
much of that which is grounded upon the unracing-like appearance of
" the portraits of Flying Childers, Lath, Regulus, and other celebrated
horses " (of that date), " including the Godolphin Arabian." Most of
those now extant are mere daubs, and of the better executed pro-
ductions of Stubbs I confess that I have no great opinion as correct
portraits. They are all deficient in that kind of minute fidelity which
alone gives unmistakable evidence of a truthful imitation of nature ; and
if we were left to this evidence alone, I should certainly be unable to
make up my mind on the subject. But there is one point in corrobora-
tion of Admiral Rous's opinion, though not, I think, warranting him
in setting down Highflyer and Eclipse as common platers. I have
already alluded to the time in which Childers is said to have run the
B. C. at Newmarket, and Matchem four miles at York; but it may
be as well to recapitulate here the best recorded times of four miles
run near the middle of the last century, and contrast them with those
of the English and American horses of our own day. I must, however,
first show that the latter should be included in the same boat with our
own, and I confess that I should be reluctant to do so but that it is
impossible to find on our tui'f any recent examples of four-mile races
run from end to end. Moreover, we have no reason to suppose that
they are stouter than their English relations, though, as is admitted
by Admiral Rous, Prioress was, in 1859, "the best four-mile mare in
England." To avoid any chance of misrepresentation, I will extract
the passage entire.

" Our American friends have improved their race-horses in an equal
degree to our own, by sticking to the same blood. They have had
the good sense and discrimination to buy the cream of our best
stallions, — Precipitate, Diomed, Priam, Trustee, Glencoe. They adhere
to the principles which our fathers adopted, of breeding only by stallions
which could stay a distance ; and very naturally, when all their great
prizes and matches vary from two to four miles. We played the same
game until the commencement of this century ; but when great stakes
were made for shorter distances, it was soon ascertained that the sons
of the stout old stallions could not win a 2000 guineas stake against
the blood of Rubens, Castrel, and Selim. For the last titty years we
have been breeding from our stoutest horses, but principally from large
powerful horses with extraordinary speed. The Americans have bred
for stoutness ; both parties have succeeded. I cannot shut my eyes to
the fact that the American Prioress was the best four-mile mare in
England, and that one-half of the American horses brought over to do

90 THE HORSE

a good thing cannot last over three-quarters of a mile. Such is the
lottery of breeding race-horses. Veuison, the best four-mile horse of
his year (excepting Slane), was got by a speedy jade, Partisan, out of
Fawn, which could not race five hundred yards ; and Plenipotentiary's
dam had great difficulty to run beyond five furlongs. The comparative
stoutness of the American and English race-horse is not yet decided.
The odds in our favour ought to be three to one, estimating our
numerical superiority : if we beat them we shall have no pretensions
to crow."

Since the time at which the above remarks were published, Mr. Ten
Broeck's Umpire, who was then first favourite for the Derby, in running
that race showed a deficiency in the quality which we ai'e now discussing,
and his case, therefore, tends to support the Admiral's opinion. The
Americans themselves admit that, as far as the performances of their horses
in 1857 and 1858 can be considered a criterion, they "had not proved the
race-horse of America to be the equal of the race-horse of the English turf ; "
my authority being the article on " The American Horses in England,"
published in the Aynerican Racing Calendar for 1859. These conclusions
were arrived at after the experience of four seasons, during which Mr. Ten
Broeck spared neither money, industry, nor talent, the last being proved
by the amount of money which he won in stakes and bets during the time.
About twenty horses were trained, and among these he had the luck to
have one extraordinarily stout mai^e, and a first-class two-year-old in
Umpire ; but all the rest were below mediocrity, and have only " paid their
way " in matches and handicaps, when they certainly were so weighted as
to lead one to suppose that they are of a superior class to our own horses.
I shall, however, separate the pei'formances of the three, so that the reader
may not only contrast the old with the modern horse, but also the English
with the American.

TIMES MADE BY THE HORSES OF THE MIDDLE OF THE LAST
CENTURY.

Hs. Mill. Sec.

About 1721, Childers ran in a trial, canying 9st. 21bs., the R. C, Newmarlcet

(3 miles 4 fur. 53 yds. ) in 6 40

The same horse is also recorded to have run the Beacon Course, Newmarket

(4 miles 1 fur. 138 yds.) in 7 30

In 1745, Mr. Thornhill rode from Stilton to London, back, and again to London

(213 miles) in 11 13 0

In 1752, Skewball, by the Godophin Barb, carrying Sst. 71bs., ran 4 miles over

tlie Curragh in 7 51

In 1753, at Newmarket, Matchem ran the Beacon Course (3 miles 4 fur. 93 yds.)

carrying Sst. 7Ibs. in 7 20

In 1755, Bay Bolton, at York, ran 4 miles, which was considered extra-
ordinary time, in 7 43

In 1759, at York, Careless, carrying 9st., ran 4 miles in 8 8

BEST MODERN ENGLISH TIMES.

In 1831, Mr. Osbaldeston, list., rode 200miles over the R. C, Newmarket, using

28 horses, including 1 hour 22 min. 56 sec. for stoppages, in 8 42 0

In 1846, Sir Tatton Sykes ran the St. Leger Course at Doncaster (1 mile 6 fur.

132 yds.) in 3 16

In 1847, Cossack and War Eagle ran for the Newmarket Stakes D. I. 7 fur. 210

yds. in 1 44

In 1848, Surplice and Cymba, in the Oaks and Derby, each rau 1^ miles over this

severe course, Sst 71hs, and Sst. 31bs., in 2 48

COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS 91.

Us.Min. Sec.

In 1853, the Emperor's Plate at Ascot was won by Teddington, 5 years, 9st.,

Stockwell, 4 years, 8st. 51bs. (2 miles 4 fur.), in 4 33

In 1854, at Ascot, West Australian and Kingston ran in the Cup (2 miles 4

fur.) in 4 27

In 1857, for tlie Ascot Gold Cup, Skirmisher, 3 years, German Di Vergy, 3 years,
and the Saunterer, 3 years, 6st. lOlbs. each, with Polestar 5 years, 9st., were
all placed, the time being (2 miles 4 fur.) 4 29

In 1857, Blink Bonny won the Derby (1 mile 4 fur.) in 2 45

In 1859, Artless, 3 years, 5st. 21bs., and Gaspard, 3 years, 6st. 9lbs., ran a dead
heat for the Cfesarewitch (2 miles 2 fur. 28 yds.), beating Prioress, 6 year?),
Sst. 51bs 3 58

BEST AMERICAN TIME MADE IN AMERICA AND ENGLAND.
In 1842, Fashion, 5 years, 7st. 131bs., ran 4 miles over the U. C. , Long Island, in 7 32^

In 1850, Hegira, 4 years, catch weight, ran 2 miles at New Orleans in. . . . 3 34|

In 1855, Lexington, 4 years, 7st. 51bs., ran 4 miles {to itli a running start) at

New Orleans in 7 19|

In 1855, the same horse and weight beat Lecompte in the final heat of a regular

match in ' 7 23|

In 1855, Brown Dick, 3 years, 6st. 21bs., ran 3 miles at New Orleans in . . . 5 28

In 1856, Prioress, 2 years, 5st. 13lbs., ran a mile over the Metairie Course, New

Orleans, in 1 45

In 1857, Prioress, 4 years, 6st. 91bs., ran a dead heat for the Ctesarewitch (2 miles

2 fur. 28 yds.) with El Hakim, 3 years, 6 st. 91bs., and Queen Bess, 3 years,

4st. lOlbs., in 4 9

In 1858, Nicholas, 5 years, 7st. 31bs., ran 4 miles — Fashion C — Long Island . 7 35

Here, then, we have data to found a calculation upon, but whether
reliable or not is still a matter of dispute. Of course it is quite unfair to
compare the speed in a short race with that displayed in a long one, but
we shall find that between a mile and a half and two miles and a half there
is not much difference in the rate of going. The nature of the course alters
the time very considerably, that run over in the Derby being very hilly,
and therefore unusually severe, while the Csesarewitch course is compara-
tively level, though the Newmarket trainers complain of the hill as if it
was as steep as the roof of a house. Much also depends upon the way in
which the running is made, for if the pace is very good at first, the dis-
tance is not run in the same time as in a race run more slowly at the start.
Thus Blink Bonny was scarcely extended in her race for the Derby, and,
being able to run the first mile at a steady pace, she made the best time
on record ; while at Doncaster, where she was beaten, the time was much
worse, being three minutes twenty-five seconds, or nine seconds behind
the time of Sir Tatton Sykes. On examining the three lists, we find the
performance of this last-named horse to be the fastest on record for his
age and weight, he having run at the rate of thirteen seconds and a half
per furlong, nearly, while Blink Benny's Derby time is, as near as may be,
thirteen seconds and three-quarters per furlong. We have no reliable
record of any horse having run any distance over a mile at so fast a rate
as this. Childers and Eclipse are said to have each run a mile in a minute,
but this is manifestly absurd, and if the former could only run the Beacon
Course, in a trial, at the rate of thirteen seconds and three-quarters per
furlong, and the Round Course, in an actual race, at a still slower pace, it
is absurd to suppose that he could run a mile in sixty seconds, or at very
nearly double this rate. It has been ascertained by experience that a
horse loses his pace for moderately short distances if he is strained to the
utmost for three or four miles, and our trainers are therefore careful in

92 THE HORSE

trying the extreme length which their horses can get. Long courses have
been given up almost entirely for this reason, among others, and because
also, in particular, it has been found that the competing horses do not
really race for more than half or a quarter of the distance ; consequently,
we have no true test in England beyond two miles four furlongs, which
have been run over the somewhat severe course of Ascot by West Australian
and Kingston, at the rate of thirteen seconds and a quarter per furlong,
the latter horse carrying 9 stone. This feat will most triumphantly
contrast with any performance of ancient or modern times, either in
England or America, for it will be found on examination to be from three-
quarters to half a second per furlong faster than the recorded rate of
Childers, and half a second faster than Lexington, even with the advantage
of a running start, and carrying 7 stone 5 pounds as a foui'-year-old,
against Kingston, five-year-old, with 9 stone. We may, therefore,
assume that some, at all events, of our modern horses are capable of suc-
cessfully contending with the American horses at any reasonable distance,
for the latter have never yet come up to the time made in this country,
either here or in America, and without an allowance of at least a stone
they have never yet had a chance, with the exception of Umpire in his
two-year-old career. My belief is that early training for short distances
interferes with the chance of any individual horse doing a long distance in
the shortest possible time, but the power remains in the breed, and can at
any time be developed in a sound horse of the stoutest blood we possess.
Unfortunately, of late years, speed has been all in all, and we have too
much neglected the stout old strains of Waxy and Tramp for that of the
three sons of Bussard — Selim, Castrel, and Rubens. The Jockey Club,
however, at the instigation of Lord Redesdale, have it in contemplation to
prevent two-year-old races early in the year, and I trust that by this and
other regulations a stop may be put to the course of events which certainly .
seem to have a tendency to produce the mischief which, however, is not
yet finally accomplished. I am afraid that there would be some difficulty
in now getting twenty-eight horses to repeat Mr. Osbaldeston's feat, which
I have inserted as one proof of the stoutness of our modern breed ; but
this would be entirely a matter of price, for there are plenty of thorough-
bred hunters which are capable of effecting it, the value of such animals
being about 300^. apiece, and few owners would therefore lend them.
Lord Redesdale seems entirely to have overlooked the enormous increase
of this class of horses within the last forty years. Prior to that time a
thoroughbred hunter was only, to be met with, as a rule, in the great grass
countries, and " the provincials " were contented with half-breds, which
were supposed to be, and really were, better able to get over the great
sprawling fences and other difficult jumps which were to be found at every
two or three hundred yards. Fashion, however, supported by the change in
the agricultural management of the country, has brought the thoroughbred
into general use ; and with a long list of more than a hundred packs of fox-
hounds, each perhaps followed by, on the average, thirty reputed thorough-
breds, more or less up to weight, we find 3000 horses of this class to be
iiupplied. Now the whole of the foals dropped in each year and recorded
ill the Stud-book do not altogether come up to one-half of this number,
and, deducting those horses which are unable to carry more than 7

COMPARATIVE STOUTNESS

93

stone, the stallions and mares which are put to the stud here and abroad,
and the unsound animals of both sexes, it is equally astonishing that the
demand should be so well supplied as it is, and that there should be any
horses able to stay a distance left. The owner of a horse will always do
with him what he considers most to his own advantage, and, whereas
formerly he had no choice but either to sell an aged horse as a hack, or to
keep him in training, he now teaches him to get over a hurdle and a few
fences, and he has a dozen customers ready for him at eight or ten times
the old hack price. I do not for a moment contend that even the most
valuable of these hunters are as sound on their legs as the average of race-
horses fifty or a hundred years ago, but that they are as stout, T think, is
quite clear, and the reason of their being more unsound is only that they
are sooner used up. A railway locomotive will only travel a definite
number of miles, varying in relation to the speed at which it is used, and
if it is brought on to the rails before it is in perfect working order, it will
very much sooner fail. So in the present day, from the facilities of
travelling from place to place, and from the length of the racing season,
our horses, when in training, have little or no rest, and thus, though their
career is a short one, " the candle is burnt at both ends " while it is alight,
and it is consumed in half the time. Look at the performances of Rataplan,
Fisherman, and Thornmanby, and compare them with the much-vaunted
feats of the Carlisle Gelding in 1720 to 1731, and of Black Chance from
1736 to 1746. Even the still more celebrated Catherina, who ran one
hundred and seventy-seven races in ten years, did not work half so hard on
the i-acecourso as Fisherman with his one hundred and twenty races in five
years.

Carlisle Geldinp;
Arthur O'Bradly
Black Chance .

Euphrates . .
Independence .
Catherina , .

Rataplan . .
Fisherman . .

Age lohcn
first ra,i.

Races looii

Maces lost.

5

25

9

5

15

10

5

25

5

3

42

57

2

40

44

2

79

98

2

42

29

2

70

50

Tears on
the Tarf.

34
25
30

99

84
177

71
120

Left the
Turf.

1731
1749
1746

1828
1835
1841

1855
1859

In spite, however, of all the elaborate calculations whicii others as well
as myself have made, I cannot quite divest myself of the belief that Lord
Redesdale is correct in his assumption that the thoroughbred horse of the
present day is on the average less stout than he was of yore. That there
are some few which can race and also stay I firmly believe, and that many
which cannot race but can stay, are early drafted into the hunting-stable,
is also my opinion ; but that the majority are deficient in stoutness seema

94 THE HORSE

to me to be a patent fact. Wherever speed is considered to be A 1, such
horses as Sultan, Partisan, and Velocipede will be used in the stud, the
breeder flattering himself that a cross of stout blood will put all right.
And so it frequent!}' does for one or two generations, and then the strain
comes out, and the stock shows sometimes the speed without the stoutness,
and at others neither one quality nor the other. Thus, Venison was got
by that speedy bufc flashy horse, Partisan ; but the stout PotSos, Sorcerer,
and Gohanna strains enabled him, as well as his son Kingston, to perform
the tasks of endurance for which they were each so celebrated. It is also
well known that Lord Winchelsea had great difficulty in finding three
horses on the tui-f able to stay four miles, but this is explained by the facts
to which I have already alluded, and therefore does not so much bear upon
the argument before us. It is a very difficult matter to prove, because the
circumstances of the two pex'iods are so different ; but I am quite of opinion
that, taking any number of race-horses at random in the year 1860, they
will not on the average bear comparison, in point of stoutness, with a
similar number, either of the year 1800 or of the j'ear 1760.^

EARLY MATURITY

It is ax undexiable fact, as I believe, that preternaturally early
maturity is incompatible with lasting qualities of any kind ; but, though
the same rule generally holds good throughout nature, there are some
exceptions. Thus, the oak is more lasting than the larch, and the elephant
outlives the horse, but the goose and the duck, which arrive at maturity
in the same number of months, do not live through a corresponding series
of years. The forcing process in gardening is always productive of tender-
ness, whether the produce be the cucumber or the sea-kale, and this
tenderness is only another name for imperfect formation to resist decay.
In the days of Eclipse and Childers they were permitted to attain their
full growth without forcing, and, not being wanted till five years old, their
ligaments, tendons, and bones had plenty of time to be consolidated before
they were submitted to the strains and jerks of the extended gallop.
There is also reason to believe that they were not nearly so much or so
soon stimulated by large feeds of oats, as is now invariably the custom,
and that they were allowed to remain at grass, with the shelter of a hovel,
during the first three or four years of their lives. All this is now changed ;

1 At the present date, when the century is nearing its close, we have only too many
proofs of that prophetic vision for which the author was remarkable. Weedy roarers,
capable of carrying feather-weights over five or six furlongs, having brought so ranch
disgrace u[)on the thoroughbred horse, as to be a principal cause of the diversion of the
money formerly given as Queen's Plates to purposes more in accordance with the original
intention — namely, improvement of the breed of horses.

Whether the deterioration has been recent is a debatable question, but that we are onthe
road to improvement cannot be doubted, now that hereditary defects are so generally recognized
by many princely owners having the real interests of the turf at heart, and not lending
themselves to the propagation of mere "gambling macliines."

The Hunter's Improvement Society has shown the way to help the farmers to the use
of good sound stallions at moderate fees, and the Royal Agricultural Society and the Royal
Commissioners on Horse-breeding have wisely pursued the same sound and hopeful policy.

The races known as the Queen's Guineas have been abolished, and the money devoted
to the more useful purposes of Queen's Premiums.

OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED OF HORSES 95

the foal is filled with corn as soon as he will eat it, and at the end of the
first year he is furnished as much as the old-fashioned three-year-old.
One chief difficulty of the trainer now is to keep his horse sound, and,
unfortunately, as disease is in most cases hereditary, and too many unsound
stallions are bred from, the difficulty is yearly on the increase. Without
doubt roaring is far more common than it used to be, and the possession
of enlai'ged joints, and back sinews, is the rule instead of the exception.
During ten years the Derby was five times won by an unsound animal,
which the trainer was almost immediately afterwards obliged to put out of
work, either from diseased feet or a break-down, and yet few breeders think
of refusing to use such horses as these. Nevertheless, good legs and feet,
and a hearty constitution, are no small recommendations, and Mr. Merry
may thank them for winning him the great prize of the year 1860, with
Thormanby, a son of that wonderful mare Alice Hawthorne. Thormanby,
however, is not an instance of a colt having been reserved till he was
arrived at his growth, for there are few horses which have been more used,
having run fourteen times as a two-year-old ; but his naturally excellent
legs and feet, and the fine down on which he was trained, enabled him to
pull through unscathed. Now the reliance which was placed by his backers
on these good qualities, proves that he was an exception to the rule ; for if
they were at all common, they would be of comparatively little advantage.
The truth really is, that the average race-horse of modern times is of such
forced growth, that he is unable to bear the wear and tear of training as
he used to do, and hence a much larger percentage of unsound animals is
to be met with. He is bred mainly for speed, superadded to which is as
much stoutness and soundness of constitution as can be procured among the
most speedy horses at the service of the breeder. By a perseverance in
this method of selection, he has undoubtedly become more speedy, and less
lasting in proportion to his speed, that is to say, he cannot be extended for
as long a time as he used to bear with impunity. But that he cannot cover
as much ground in a given time as formerly is, I think, an error — for there
is every reason to believe that any distance may now be run in as short a
time at least, as either in the middle of the last century or the beginning
of this.

OBJECT OF ENCOURAGING THE BREED OF HORSES

The great object of encouraging the breed of race-horses is, however,
lost sight of, if suitable crosses for hunting, cavalry, and hack mares cannot
be obtained from their ranks. In these three kinds, soundness of the feet
and legs is all important, together with a capacity to bear a continuation
of severe work. These qualities are highly developed in the Arab, and
until lately were met with in his descendants on the English turf. Even
now a horse with a stain in his pedigree will not bear the amount of train-
ing which a thoroughbred will sustain, his health and spirits soon giving
way if forced to go through the work which the race-horse requires to make
him " fit." But the legs and feet of the latter are the drawbacks to his;
use, and the trainer of the present day will generally be sadly taxed to
make them last through a dry summer. Our modern roads are also much

9G THK HORSE

harder since the introduction of macadamization, and thus, in proportion to
our greater demands, is the absence of the material to meet them. A hack
that is not pretty well bred is now neglected, except for high weights,
because his paces are not soft and pleasant, and he does not satisfy the eye.
But how many of the fashionable sort will bear constant use on the road
without becoming lame 1 And how many sound horses are there to be
met with out of a hundred, taken at random from the ranks of any kind
tolerably well bred 1 Every horse proprietor will tell you, scarcely five
per cent. ; and some will even go so far as to say, that a sound horse is
utterly unknown. In considering the principles and practice of breeding,
I shall again refer to this subject ; but I wish now to impress upon my
readers that while the race-horse is as fast as ever, as stout as ever, and as
good-looking as ever, he is made of more perishable materials in proportion
as he comes to maturity at an earlier period. Any of our modern two-
year-olds would probably give 2 stone and a beating to Eclipse at the
same age, but if afterwards they were put to half-bred mares for the
purpose of getting hacks, chargers, or hunters, the stock of Eclipse or
Childers would be much moi'e valuable than any which we have at present.
"We are sadly in want of sound and well-bred stallions for general purposes,
and if the Government ^ of the country does not soon interfere, and adopt
some means of furnishing these islands with them, we shall be beaten on our
own ground, and shall have to import sound useful horses from Belgium,
France, Hungary, or Prussia, whichever country can best spare them.
The old-fashioned and sound thoroughbred horse has been the means of
improving the above three breeds ; and even now we possess horses which
are perfect in every other respect but soundness, being excellent hacks,
hunters, and light carriage-horses, and often all in one. This last kind is
the perfection of the horse ; and if many such could be produced it would
be a great advantage, because most people would like a horse which could
" make himself generally useful," if such an animal could be obtained.
"Without high-breeding, however, this is impossible ; and yet with most
of our purest strains, though it is attainable for a time, the condition in
which it exists does not last long, in consequence of the eifect of the hard
road upon their soft legs or conti-acted feet. Consequently, as I have already
remarked, there is a necessity for Government interference to produce
such a breed of thoroughbred horses, by careful selection, as shall give us
the above three kinds of horses useful in civil life, from which may be
culled a plentiful supply of cavalry horses, whenever wanted ; for the
very same qualities are demanded in all, and what will suit the one will
be equally advantageous to the other.

But even though the thoroughbred horse is well fitted to compete with
others in all cases where speed is the chief point of trial — as in flat-racing,
steeplechasing, hunting, etc. — yet he is not so well qualified for some
kinds of harness-work, or for road-work of any kind, as the horse expressly
bred for these purposes. There is no doubt that thoroughbred horses might
be selected and bred expressly for this kind of work, and would excel all

1 Thoroughbred horses which have undergone a rigid veterinary exaniination now enjoy
a Government premium on certain conditions, being required to serve mares in prescribed
districts and at certain fees. This and other causes have contributed to a largely increased
number of good horses bred in the British Isles, and our cavalry is in no serious danger.

PURITY OF BLOOD 97

others, because originally their liuib.s and constitutions were at least as
sound as, or perhaps even sounder than, any other class of horses ; but
while they are selected and bred solely for speed, without much reference
to these other qualities, it is useless to expect much improvement ; but, on
the contrary, they may be expected to become yearly more and more soft
and yielding. For many purposes the Eastern horse is wholly unfit — as,
for instance, for heavy and dead pulls ; here his high courage, light weight,
and hasty temper are adverse to the performance of the task, and he is far
excelled by the old English, or modern improved cart-horse. No thorough-
bred horse would try again and again at a dead pull like many of our best
breeds of cart-horses ; and therefore he is little calculated for work which
requires this slow struggling kind of exertion. The pull of the Eastern
horse, or his descendant, is a snatch ; and though it may to a certain extent
be modified by use, yet it can never be brought up to the standard of the
English cart-horse, even if the weight of carcass and size and strength of
limb of the former could be sufficiently increased.

ESSENTIALS IN THE THOROUGHBRED

Such then are the general qualities of the thoroughbred horse and
the purposes to which he can be beneficially applied. It remains now to
consider the formation and sjjecific characteristics best adapted to the tui"f,
which is his chief arena ; and also to the hunting-field, which now absorbs
a very large number of his breed. Finally, it will be necessary to consider
him as a means of improving other breeds, such as the cavalry-charger, hack
and harness horse, but these subjects will fall under the respective heads
here mentioned.

PURITY OF BLOOD

In the first place purity of blood must be considered as a sine qud
non, for without it a horse cannot be considered thoroughbred, and therefore
we have only to ascertain the exact meaning of the term " blood." It is
not to be supposed that there is any real difierence between the blood of the
thoroughbred horse, and that of the half-bred animal ; no one could dis-
criminate between the two by any known means ; the term " blood " is here
synonymous with breed, and by purity of blood is meant purity in the
breeding of the individual animal under consideration ; that is to say, that
the horse which is entirely bred from one source is pure from any mixture
with any other, and may be a pure Suffolk Punch, or a pure Clydesdale, or
a pure thoroughbred horse. But all these terms are comparative, since there
is no such animal as a perfectly purely bred horse of any breed, whether
cart-horse, hack, or race-horse ; all have been produced from an admixture
with other kinds, and though now kept as pure as possible, yet they were
originally compounded fi'om varying elements ; and thus the i^ace-horse of
1700 was obtained from a mixture of Turks, Arabs, and Barbs. Even the
best and purest thoroughbreds are stained with some slight cross with the
old English or Spanish horse, as I have shown at page 70, and therefore it

H

98 THE HORSE

is only by comparison that the word pure is applicable to them or any
others. But since the thoroughbred horse, as he is called, has long been
bred for the race-course, and selections have been made with that view
alone, it is reasonable to suppose that this breed is the best for that pur-
pose, and that a stain of any other is a deviation from the clearest stream
into one more muddy, and therefore impure ; the consequence is, that the
animal bred from the impure source fails in some of the essential character-
istics of the pure breed, and is in so far useless for this particular object.
Now, in practice this is found to be the case, for in every instance it has
resulted that the horse bred with the slightest deviation from the sources
indicated by the Stud-book, is unable to compete in lasting power with those
which are entirely of pure blood. Hence it is established as a rule, that
for racing purposes every horse must be thoroughbi^ed ; that is, as I have
already explained, descended from a sire and dam whose names are met
with in the Stud-book.

EXTERNAL FORMATION

Next comes the external shape or conformation of the race-ho^^se,
which is a subject very much studied by those who have the selection and
management of them. Experienced trainers, and those who have watched
the performances of the celebrities of the turf for successive years, will tell
you that " the horse can run in all forms," and so no doubt he can as an
exception, but the rule nevertheless is, that there is a standard which
should be regarded as the best suited for the racecourse, and this will vary
somewhat according to the performance which is required of each individual.
There is no doubt that the most skilful selection is not always attended with
success, and the statistics of the turf do not lead us to believe that £1000
invested under the advice of John Scott or John Day, in the purchase of a
yearling, will always bring a remuneration. Indeed, the contrary has so
often been the case, that high-priced yearlings are generally regarded with
suspicion when they make their first appearance on the course. The
winner of the Derby of 1860 went a-begging, and was at last bought for a
very moderate price. So also with Butterfly, the winner of the Oaks ', no
store was set upon her until she came to be tried ; and even on the morning
of the race she was not generally thought good enough to win. The cele-
brated Blink Bonny was a mean-looking mare, and would not have fetched
£50 at Tattersall's, from her appearance alone, and that wonderful animal
Fisherman was never liked till he proved his powers. Still, it cannot be
denied that a good judge will select the ten best horses out of twenty, or
perhaps out of a hundred ; but he will possibly leave the very best out of
his list. The theoretical rule is simple enough, but it requires great ex-
perience and a good eye to carry it out in practice. It is simply this, that,
cceteris paribus, the horse which is formed in the mould most like that of
the greatest number of good race-horses, will run the best. Thus, supposing
it is found that out of fifty good horses forty-nine have neat heads, light
necks, deep chests, oblique shoulders, long racing hind-quarters, strong hocks,
etc., the presumption will be that a horse resembling those forty-nine in
shape, will also resemble them in speed and endurance. On the other hand,

EXTERNAL FORMATION

99

it is admitted on the turf, that high-breeding is of more consequence than
external shape, and that of two horses, one perfect in shape but of an
inferior strain of blood, and the other of the most winning blood,
but not so well formed in shape, the latter will bo the most likely to
perform to the satisfaction of his owner on the racecourse. On this
principle the proverb has been framed and handed down to us, that " an
ounce of blood is worth a pound of bone," and with the above explan-
ation such is really the case. But in spite of all this recognized superiority
of blood, it is indisputable that for the highest degree of success there must
be not only high purity of blood, and that of the most winning strains, but
there must also be a frame of the most useful character, if not always of

iiitoiiywi'iiii iit'iiiiii

FISHERMAN.

the most elegant form. Many of our very best horses have been plain, and
even coarse-looking — as, for instance, most of the Melbournes, and especially
that very fast horse. Sir Tatton Sykes ; but in spite of their plainness, all
their points are good and useful, and the deficiency is in elegance, not in
real utility. On the other hand, there are some strains which unite ele-
gance with utility, such as the fast and stout Venisons, which are remark-
able for their beautiful frames and neat Arabian heads. But there must
always be a distinction made between what is really useful and what is only
agreeable to the eye. There are some characteristics which, over and above
their mechanical advantages, indicate high-breeding, and as such are regarded
with especial favovir by purchasers. For these a term has of late years been
invented, the meaning of which is well understood, but somewhat difficult

100 THE HORSE

to defiue. Thus we hear it often remarked, that a particular horse is
deficient in " quality," or that he has it in perfection ; and in proportion to
the one or the other of these conditions is he meant to bo praised or con-
demned. It is not simply a word synonymous with " breeding," for a horse
may show high-bi-eeding, and yet be deficient in " quality," but if with a
look which convinces you that he has a pure pedigree, he conjoins a perfect
symmetr}' in all his parts, and in the shapes displayed by the thoroughbred,
he then comes up to the descrij^tion which stamf)s a horse in these days
with the highest seal of approbation, for " he has plenty of qualit3\"

But what is the recognized form of the race-horse 1 I must here explain
to the tyro that the word " fox'm " is used with two different significations
by racing men, and like the word " box " is very puzzling to foreigners. In
the common acceptation it is synonymous with " shape," and merely means
the mechanical development of the individual. But in the language of the
turf, when we say that a horse is " in form," we intend to convey to our
hearers that he is in high condition and fit to run. So again, the word is
used in still another sense, for we speak of a horse's " form " when we wish
to allude to his posvers on the turf, as compared with other well-known
animals. Thus, if it is supposed that two three-year-olds, carrying the same
weight, would run a mile and a half, and come in abreast, it is said, that
" the form " of the one is equal to that of the other. It is necessary, there-
fore, in order to make a description intelligible, when using the term in its
mechanical signification, to add the adjective, external, although, at first
sight, it may appear to be an instance of tautology, for it might be alleged
that internal forms can only be ascertained by dissection. With this ex-
planation, I must now proceed to discuss what are generally considered to
be the best shapes, for the purpose of combining speed with stoutness,
remembering that we are examining the thoroughbred horse, and are not
alluding to any other. As an instance of a very opposite conformation to
that of Fisherman at page 99, I insert here a portrait of Saunterer, both after
careful paintings by Mr. Barraud. These* are generally admitted to have
been the two best horses of their time, yet it is scarcely possible to imagine
a greater difference to exist in first-class animals, than is displayed by them.
Fisherman, short and strong, looks moi*e like a hunter than a race-horse ;
while Saunterer, long and elegant, appears incapable of carrying more than
10 stone. The student will do well to study these animals carefully, but
it must not be omitted that the portrait of Fisherman was taken when he
v/as thrown out of training.

TnE Body or trunk is the grand centre of all the muscular pulleys and
bony levers, which are used to move the horse, and it must, therefore,
first come under consideration, although, as a matter of convenience, the
horseman generally commences with the head. It is quite true that it in
turn receives its orders from the brain, as will be hereafter explained, in
treating of the nervous system, but as a mere machine it may be regarded
independently of that organ altogether. It must, however, be viewed in
three different aspects, inasmuch as it has three different offices to perform.
These are, first, to carry its load, and propel it by means of the levers
connected with it. Secondly, to afford room for the heart and lungs to
perform their funct ons in its " chest," without interfering with the play of
the shoulders ; and, thirdly, to lodge an efficient apparatus of nutrition.

EXTERNAL FOIIMATION

101

The first of these divisions comprehends the dack, loins, and croup ;
the second is the chest ; and the third may bo considered under the hc;ul

of THE BACK-RIBS, FLANK, AND BELLY.

The Back, Loins, and Croup of the race-horse, as indeed of all horses
but those used exclusively for draught, are generally described as necessarily
moulded more or less in the form of an arch. Every architect is aware
that this formation is best adapted to carry weight. A straight-backed
greyhound is, by some experienced coursers, preferred to one which has a
slight arch in that part ; but in this animal there is no weight to be carried
beyond that of his own carcass, and, therefore, even granting the superiority
in him of a straight loin (which I do not), there is no analogy between the

lt^S5^>^^.pfe4

^^/j^^^.^y

two animals. Nor do I believe altogether in the received theory which
attaches importance to the arched loin, because of its greater caioacity for
bearing weight from its mechanical form. Practically I concede, as an
admitted fact, that a horse with this construction of frame will carry
weight better than one which has a holloAV loin ; but, on examining the
skeleton of each, it will be seen that in neither are the bodies of the
vertebrro in this part of the spine arranged so as to form an arch, or if
there is one, it has its concavity, not its convexity upwards, which certainly
will not conduce to its weight-bearing powers. The fact really is, that in
the arched loin the spinous processes are unusually long, and are raised into
a crest like the high withers. By this development of bone an extra space
is afforded, for both the lodgment and attachment of muscles, and herein is
the secret of the extra power. Between the pelvis and the bodies of the

102 THE HORSE

vertebrae a true arch is formed, and according to the slope or fall of the
quarters will it be useful in carrying weight ; but this is quite irrespective
of the loin, which may be arched or flat in conjunction with either forma-
tion. It is, howevei", most common to find an arched loin united with an
inclined pelvis, and when the two are found together, the horse possessing
this formation may be considered so far as " up to weight." Sometimes we
see the pelvis inclined, but the tail set on high, and the loin hollow, and
then we may surely predicate that there will be a want of power in these
parts, and that the 7 stone of Lord Redesdale will be quite sufficient for
the animal to carry. With this objectionable shape, there is a hollow on
each side of the croup, which is very characteristic of the defect, and which
is carefully eschewed by the experienced horseman. If the spine between
the two supports afforded by the fore and hind extremities were really an
arch, length would but little afifect it, for we know that an arch of ninety
feet span, is no stronger than one of a hundred feet, if both are properly
constructed ; but being nearly a straight line, with its component parts
kept in their proper places, by a series of levers and pulleys, length tells
most unfavourably; and "a short back, with plenty of length below" is the
height of a horseman's ambition to possess. Mr. Percivall has fallen into
a strange error in estimating the advantages of a long back, as may be
i^eadily seen on an examination of the following passage : — " Regarding the
dorsal portion of the spine, with its super-imposed burthen, as a pole or
lever, supported in front by the fore limbs, and behind by the back limbs,
after the manner of a barrel of beer, or a sedan between its bearers ; it is
manifest, that the greater its length, the greater must be the leverage, and
consequent reduction of the weight of the burthen. On this principle, the
legs of the long-backed horse are actually sustaining less load than those of
the short-backed horse, even though their riders or burthens may be of
equivalent weights, from the circumstance of their operating at a greater
distance from the load." The fallacy of this argument is apparent to every
person who has the slightest knowledge of mechanical powers ; but as my
readers may not all be in a position to estimate its value, I shall just
make a few observations upon it, as I have heard it adduced on several
occasions, to support the advantage of a long back. Now we will suppose a
weight of 500 pounds on a plank, supported upon four props, two being five
feet from the other two, and the pairs one foot apart, resembling, in fact,
the relative position of the feet of a horse. Let the whole be arranged on
a weighing-machine, so that only the four legs touch its table and take the
weight. Then remove the two pairs of legs to a distance of six feet, and
again take the weight. According to Mr. Percivall it ought to be less than
before, but, tested by actual experiment, there will not be the hundredth
part of a grain variation, even if the instrument is sufficiently delicate to
register that weight. A. and B. carry a weight between them, suspended
to a pole, and they find it more convenient to have that pole tolerably long,
because they can shift the weight from one to the other more easily than
with a shorter one, but they carry the same weight in either case. A. can
raise it by means of his long lever more easily than with a short one, but
he can only effect this by making use of B.'s hand as a fulcrum, and for the
moment throwing the weight off himself upon it, while B. returns the com-
pliment in his turn, and both are relieved. For the mere purpose of

EXTERNAL FORMATION 103

carrying weight, therefore, a short back is to be preferred ; but there is a
Hmitation put to this by the necessity for length of limb to give pace, and
if the legs are too long for the back, the action of the fore-quarter is
impeded by the hind, and vice versd. Hence, in all horses, a reasonable
length is preferred, and this will vary accoi'ding to the occasion for weight-
carrying power. In the thoroughbred horse, pace is essential, and his back
must consequently be of sufficient length to allow the free use of such limbs
as will give stride enough to develop it. We shall hereafter find, that the
cart-horse may have a much shorter back, even though he has no weight to
carry, but he requires strong couplings of the hind and fore-quarter for the
former to act upon, in dragging heavy weights, and as in him pace, beyond
the walk, is never required, a short back may be allowed to be a great
advantage without any attendant evil. The most important elements of
strength in the back and loins are the depth and breadth of its muscles, for
they, and not the bones, as I have shown, are the real mechanical means by
which not only weight is carried, but propelled. Now to lodge these muscles,
there must be high spinous processes, wide hips, and such a formation of the
ribs as to give width at their upper parts. Generally speaking the two last
coincide, but sometimes the hips stand out in a very "ragged " or prominent
position, while the ribs are flat. This formation, however, comes next to
the most approved combination, and is far better than the narrow hips and
flat sides which we now see in too many of our thoroughbred horses. In
connection with this division of the body may be taken the croup, the upper
outline of which is formed by the prolongation of the spine towards the root
of the tail ; but the essential parts are made up by the pelvis. It is very
generally assuaied that in order to develop high speed, the pelvis must be
long, and this I believe to be perfectly true; but the length need not be in
a perfectly horizontal direction, and is I think much better if developed at
an inclination of about twenty-five degrees, that is to say, with a consider-
able fall. With this formation there may be the same length for the
attachment of muscles and the same leverage in their action on the thigh,
for the situation of the hip-joint (or round bone) is not altered in relation
to them, though it is lower and more forward in reference to the spine.
Hence the muscles which draw the thigh forward have more power, and
also act much more quickly, giving that rapid thrust of the hind-legs for-
ward which is essential to good and strong action. With the perfectly
horizontal croup you may have a long sweeping stroke which tells over such
a course as Newmarket, but you very rarely meet with a quick coupling and
uncoupling, unless the pelvis is set on to the sacrum or continuation of the
spine, at a considerable angle, so as to give the quarters more or less droop.
Most of our best horses have exhibited this formation, while a great number
of very handsome, but utterly useless brutes, might be enumerated which
possess the high croup of the Arab in an exaggerated condition. If the
portraits of the Godolphin Barb are at all to be depended on, we are indebted
to him for the introduction of this useful, though not particularly elegant
shape, and I believe that it is in this direction, and in point of size, that he
has been so useful in the stud. The eye is captivated by the animal, which,
as the dealers say, "has both ends up; " and experience teaches every horse-
man, who will profit by it, that both the stargazer and the high-crouped
horse are to be avoided. In selecting the thorou";hbred horse, then, choose

104 THE HORSE

such as have a deep and wide back and loin, avoiding either the " roach
back," which causes that part to be inflexible, and the hollow one, which
tends to give wa}' too much under weight, but regarding as most desirable
such a width of ribs and hips, and depth of spinous processes as shall give
sufiicient lodgment for muscles, and looking also for a proper length of spine,
not too short for stride, nor too long for strength. Lastl}^, let the pelvis be
attached at such an angle as to give a slight droop to the quarters, whether
the tail be set on in correspondence with it or not, for the dock does not
always come out of the pelvis in the same position viewed in relation to
that part alone. Some of the above opinions are in opposition to those of
Mr. Percivall, who objects to a great width of hip in the race-horse, and
also asserts that he cannot be too lengthy and straight in his quarters. He
says, " although the race-horse may prove disadvantageously broad across
his hips, I believe that he will never be found either too lengthy or too
straight in his quarters ; by which I mean the length and elevation of an
imaginary line carried from either hip to the point of his quarter, or of
another carried from the summit of his rump to the root of his hock. Such
straight formation of quarter implies small degree of inclination in the
position of the pelvis, the effect of which is extension of the angles between
the pelvis and the femoral bones, and cori'esponding increase of the distances
between the pelvis and the stifles in front, and between the pelvis and hocks
behind ; thereby augmenting the dimensions of the muscles running between
these salient points, and at the same time furnishing them with, under the
circumstances, the greatest advantages in their action. Length and straight-
ncss in the quarters must therefore be regarded as characteristic attributes
of the race-horse." Of the probability of meeting with too great a width of
hip in the race-horse I am extremely doubtful. The Melbournes, which have
this part wider than in any other strain, are certainly not to be despised,
and, in spite of Mr. Percivall, I must, on the contrary, continue to admire
them, whenever they are to be found ; my chief regi'et is that wide hips are
so scarce among the descendants of that horse.

The second division of the body, or the chest, in the thoroughbred
horse, must afford sufiicient room for the heart and lungs, but it must not
be too wide, or it will interfere with the free play of the shoulder blade
as it glides on the side. An open bosom is regarded as a sure sign of want
of pace by eveiy racing man of experience and I know of no single
exception. One of the finest two-year-olds I ever saw in every other
respect was Lord Standbroke's Rose de Florence ; but I could have laid
any reasonable odds that she would be deficient in pace, because she was
made as wide as a cart-horse between the fore-legs, and she proved to be
so on trial. A horse of 15 hands 3 or 16 hands when in stud condition
should measure at least seventy-four inches, and should be wide through
the part where the rider's knees come on the saddle ; but below this the
ril)S should rapidly shelve inwards, and in this way allow the shoulder
points to come closer together, and the elbows to act witliout being " tied."
The anatomy of this part is treated of elsewhere, and I am now regarding
it simply in its proportion to the rest of the body. Anatomically, and
considered pe?' se, a round or barrel-like chest is the best, because it admits
of more free expansion and contraction, but when either high speed or
smooth action is required, this formation is ol)jecl.ionaV)le for the reasons I

EXTERNAL EORIMATION i05

have given above, and in all cases it is to bo avoided in the thoroughbred
horse, while in some other breeds it must be looked for with great anxiety.
It has been proved that good wind may be obtained from a chest possessing
great depth without much width, and in some cases with a very narrow
bosom, as in the celebrated Crucifix (dam of Priam) ; and as the opposite
proportions are incompatible with speed, they must on that account be
altogether rejected. The withers are generally thin, and sometimes raised
quite into a razoi'-like form, which, however, is a defect, as it is attended
with no advantage to counterbalance the difficulty which it presents in the
way of the saddler, who is constantly being called on to prevent his tree
hurting the horse's back. A moderate development of the spinous pro-
cesses is required to give attachment to the muscles which support the neck
and move the shoulder, but the excessive height which we sometimes see is
not of the slightest avail for this purpase.

The next and last component parts of the body are the back-ribs,
FLANK, AND BELLY. Here we have chiefly to consider the proper lodgment
of the organs of nutrition ; but there is also the junction of the fore and
hind quarters to come under review. For both these purposes the back-ribs
should be long, or, as such a formation is generally called, " deep," so as
not only to give protection to the contents of the bell}'-, but to afford a
strong attachment to the muscles which connect the chest to the hips.
The space, also, between the latter and the last rib should not be large, or
there will be an element of weakness ; but if too limited, the action in the
gallop will be confined, and the hind-legs will not be brought sufficientl}'
forward. About the breadth of the hand is the proper allowance to make
for this space in a horse of average size and make, and either more or less
than this may be considered a defect. To obtain this formation, the ribs
themselves must be set wide apart, and not huddled up togethei', as you
sometimes see, leaving a great space between the last and the hip. When
the back-ribs are long, the lower outline of the belly swells considerably
below the level of the girth-place, and a very elegant shape is developed, as
well as one generally united with a hardy constitution. Sometimes, it is
true, the two are not combined, and noAV and then we meet with a very
good feeder and robust animal with shallow back-ribs ; but the rule may be
considered to be as I have stated it, and the pur-ihaser will do well to
attend to it in making his selection, when he knows nothing of the
character of the individual. For fast road-work, where the failure of the
legs is generally the limit to the amount of work, a very heavy carcass is an
objection, as it increases the weight upon them ; and an overtopped harness-
horse — that is, one with a body too big for his legs — is a most worthless
brute ; but in the thoroughbred there is seldom this formation, and the
tendency is, on the other hand, to be too light in the flank, rather than too
deep. A light-carcassed or herring-gutted horse when " set " for the race-
course or the fast hunting country looks cut in two, and his performances
generally correspond with his appearance.

Projecting forward with a beautiful sweep, the neck comes out of the
chest in this kind of horse with a most elegant outline. Of a greater
length than in any other, it is also proportionally thin ; but both these
dimensions may easily be exaggerated, a very long and thin neck being
objectionable, and rarely corresponding with good wind. The lines re-

106 THE HORSE

semble greatly those of the neck of the gamecock ; and when there is a
decided angle about three or four inches from the jaw, the horse is said to
be " cock-throttled," and it is then generally supposed that he is more than
usually liable to become a roarer or a whistler. The curve of this part a
good deal depends upon the bi-eaking and subsequent riding, different
hands producing a great variation in the carriage ; but if the bones are so
formed and connected together that the natural curve has its concavity
upwards, it is almost impossible to produce a proper bend in the other
direction, though still much may be accomplished by perseverance. A
" ewe-neck," as this is called, is very objectionable on this account ; but it
is very often combined with speed, fine action, and great gameness. More
depends upon the junction between the head and neck, than upon the latter
in itself, for by long-continued perseverance, it may be made so supple
as to bend at the rider's will ; but if the jaws are too narrow to allow
the head to bend upon the neck, no means that can be applied will
make any impression, and the result is that the mouth is spoiled, and
frequently the temper also. A large and free windpipe, that is, one of
sufficient diameter for the passage of air, and not tied down by any bands
of fascia, will be necessary for good wind ; and this point should specially
be examined.

In the head is contained the organ of intelligence, which is also the
chief seat of that nervous energy which animates the whole body. Here
also are the eyes, and the external apertures of the breathing apparatus ;
so that the form of this part of the body is of great importance. Size is
power, and, cceteris paribus, a large brain is to be regarded as a most
valuable adjunct. Hence the head should be wide above the eyes, as well
as between the ears, and somewhat full or projecting in the forehead also,
in order to give lodgment to a brain of good volume. It is the great
development of this organ in the thoroughbred and his Eastei'n relations,
that gives the extraordinary stoutness and fire for which they are so
remarkable; and therefore a horse of this breed deficient in volume of
brain will be found in these respects no better than his low-bred rivals.,
In every other part, the weight should be reduced to the minimum neces-
sary for carrying on the functions peculiar to it, save only the eye, a very
small one being generally found to be prone to disease. The thorough-
bred horse has a beautifully full and gazelle-like eye; but in this organ
many half-bred animals are quite equal to him — the eye of the cart-horse,
however, showing the opposite extreme. A very prominent or unnaturally
convex eye, called a " buck-eye," is not to be regarded as desirable, being
an evidence of shortness of sight, and therefore not to be confounded with
the full and soft expression indicative of good manners, high courage when
roused, and soundness. Next to the eyes in importance are the nostrils,
which should be open, and when the horse has galloped should stand out
stiffly, showing the red lining membrane, and admitting the air fi'eely. Of
course, even tlie smallest nostrils are of larger area than the wind-pipe ;
but there is generally a coincidence between their size and that of the
internal passages higher up, and on that account a patent nostril is to be
looked for with some anxiety. I have known some horses with small
nostrils possess excellent wind, because in them the internal conformation
was of full size, and if, as I before remarked, the area of the two nostrils

EXTERNAL FORMATION 107

together is always much greater than that of the windpipe, they cannot
in themselves offer any impediment to breatliing. Without a trial, however,
as the internal passages cannot be measured, the size of the nostrils must
be accepted as the best guide to that of the more essential parts, and
practically this is sufficient for general purposes, only inferior to an actual
trial. The ears should be moderately long, thin, and not inclined to
*' lop." The muzzle should be fine ; but in those very pointed jaws, which
their owners regard with so much pride, as " small enough to drink out of
a quart pot," the nostrils are seldom large enough, and hence they are to
be regarded with great suspicion, beautiful as they undoubtedly are. A
slight concavity in the front line, descending from the forehead to the
front of the muzzle, is regarded as a mark of breeding, and, if not too
marked, deservedly so ; but a very deep concavity is often attended with
a vicious temper. Lastly, a lean and ivide lower jaw should not be omitted
as a grand desideratum ; the former point is merely a sign of breeding,
but the latter is (as I before remarked in describing the neck) essential to
the proper bending of the one part on the other. The experienced horse-
man always passes his fingei's between the angles, and if there is not plenty
of room, he knows that the head cannot be well carried, and he is inclined
to suspect that the larynx will be impeded in its functions, and that, con-
sequently, respiration will be affected either by roaring, whistling or some
or other of the many forms of " making a noise." With all these dimensions,
which may, comparatively, readily be described, there should be combined
a cheerful and airy expression of countenance, without any appearance of
vice. The thoroughbred horse is not often too sluggish, and it is not in
that direction that we should look for infirmities of temper ; nor is it easy
to describe the marks or signs by which vice of any kind can be at once
recognized from the mere expression. Still the horseman will do well
to study the countenance of this as well as other breeds of horses, and
he will find, in course of time, that no little assistance will be derived
from it.

The Shoulder-blade is, like the head, peculiarly formed in the
Eastern horse, having greater obliquity in its position, and a superior
length and breadth, as compared with all others. For the reasons
which may be alleged for the desirability of these characteristics, I
must refer to pages 10, 11, where I have already given them. Sufiice
it to observe, that an obliquely-placed and h^oad blade, well clothed
with muscles, is the desirable formation of this part, added to a well-
developed "point," as the prominence at the joint between the blade
and true arm-bone is called by the horseman. If this is too level and
smooth, the muscles which are attached to it have not sufficient leverage ;
while if it is very ragged and prominent, it is a mark of diseased or
excessive growth of bone, and is generally attended with a stiffness of
the part. Indeed, in examining a shoulder-blade, freedom of action
is to be regarded much more than its exact position when at rest; for
if you have the desired effect, it Blatters not (except for breeding
purposes) whether it is exceptional or not; and, as a matter of course,
it is better to have a freely-playing shoulder which when at rest is
too upright than a perfectly formed one confined to its place, as we
sometimes see it. The oblique shoulder-blade is specially required in

108 THE HORSE

all horses which come down upon their fore-legs after a spring, whether
this is in the gallop, or the leap, or the trot, for the use of it is by
its elasticity to bi-eak the jar which is thereby occasioned. The upright
form is stronger, as the weight is placed more directly over the column
which bears it, but it allows of less elasticity under the sudden shock
given by the impetus of the body as it approaches the earth, and for
this reason is only suited to the slow work of the cart-horse, or heavy
machiner. In conjunction with the oblique, and therefore long blade,
is always found a long true arm, which is sometimes so extended back-
ward as to place the elbow absolutely in the way of the girths, and
then perhaps may be considered as too long, especially as it throws the
weight of the fore-quarter much in front of the fore-legs, and tends
to make the horse possessing it somewhat unsafe unless his action is
particularly free. This part also should be well clothed with muscles.

The fore-arm or arm, as it is generally called, is not remarkable
for any great peculiarities, but it is somewhat larger in proportion to
the cannon-bone than in other breeds.

The knee is broad and deep, from before backwards, and the leg
below the knee is peculiarly free from that contraction or " tying in "
which in the cart-horse and allied breeds is so objectionable, being an
element of weakness when the joint is exposed to the strains incidental
to fast work of any kind. So also a bending backwards of the joint
called the " calf-knee," common in the cart-horse, is condemned in the
race-horse for the same reason.

The bone of the leg both in the fore- and hind-quarter is small,
but of compact substance, while the suspensory ligament and back sinew
are so large, and stand out so freely, as to appear to form quite one-half
of the leg. The fetlock joints are clean and of good size, the pasterns
long and elastic, and the feet though small as compared with other
breeds, yet large enough for the weight they have to carry, their horny
covering being also tough and compact.

In the hind-quarter the Eastern horse and his descendants excel all
others in symmetry and in the length of the various parts composing
it. Comparing the cart-horse with the subject of the present investigation,
one is struck with the greatly increased length of the thighs of the
latter, approaching almost to the proportions of the greyhound. In the
cart-horse, when walking, the stiOe-joint can hardly be seen, while in
the race-horse it is brought out prominently at every step. This gives
the stride necessaxy for pace, and the first strain of blood known as
that of Selim, and his brothers Castrel and Rubens, possesses this
peculiarity in a marked manner, though from the high position of the
stifle in them, and their straight hocks, many people lose sight of this
peculiarity. With regard to the hocks of a race-horse, they should be
of full size, clean, and as a matter of course, free from curbs or spavins.
They are also generally considered to require very long points, that is
to say, the projecting lever to which the ham-string is attached should
be long. From an examination of many race-hoi'scs I am satisfied that
for speed this may be over-done, for though power is gained by it,
quickness is sacrificed ; and a very long point to the hock is apt to
give long, dull, and dwelling action, entirely opposite to quick pace,

HEIGHT AND COLOUR 109

though perhaps telHng over a long flat. All are agreed that the gaskin
or lower thigh must be muscular, and both for beauty and effect this
is a most important point. In other respects, the hind-quarter of the
thoroughbred should resemble that of any other variety of the species.
The whole of these points should be in proportion to one another —
that is to say, the formation of tlie horse should be " true." He should
not have long, well-developed hindquarters, with an upright, weak, or
confined fore-quarter. Nor will the converse serve, for however well
formed the shoulder may be, the horse will not go well unless he has a
similar formation in the propellei^s. It is of great importance, therefore,
that the race-horse should have all his various points in true relative
development ; and that there shall not be the hind-quarter of a long
racing-like horse with the thick confined shoulder which would suit a
stride less reaching in its nature. A remarkable instance of the advantages
of such a formation is exhibited in Saunterer, whose frame is not character-
ized by power or any other special perfection, but being perfectly true in
his formation he was one of the best, if not the very best, horse of his
year, as he proved by his various achievements. At page 101 will be found
an engraving of him, copied from one of the best portraits I ever saw, by
Mr. H. Barraud, which should be carefully examined.

HEIGHT

In height the race-horse varies from 15 hands to 16 J, or even 17 hands;
but the general height of our best horses is about 15 hands 3 inches. Few
first-class performers have exceeded the height of Surplice, who was 16
hands 1 inch, as was also another Derby winner. Wild Dayrell. Sir
Tatton Sykes was 15i hands; and between his height and that of Surplice
may be ranged the majority of great winners. The average, therefore, may
fairly be laid down as the best height for the race-horse, though it cannot
be denied that for some small and confined courses — as, for intance, that of
Chester — a smaller horse of little more than 15 hands height has a better
chance, as being more capable of turning round the constantly recurring
angles or bends.

COLOUR

The colour of the thoroughbred horse is now generafly bay, brown, or
chestnut, one or other of which will occur in ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred. Grey is not common, but sometimes appears, as in the case of
Chanticleer and many of his stock. Black also occasionally makes its
appearance, but not more frequently than grey. Roans, duns, sorrels, etc.,
are now quite exploded, and the above five colours may be said to complete
the list of those seen on the racecourse. Sometimes these colours are
mixed with a good deal of white, in the shape of blazes on the face, or
white legs and feet : or even all these marks may occur, and the horse may
have little more than his body of a brown, bay, or chestnut. Most people,
howevei% prefer a self colour, with as little white as possible ; and nothing

no THE HORSE

but the great success of a horse's stock would induce breeders to resort to
him if they were largely endowed with white. Grey hairs mixed in the
coat, as in the Venison's, are rather approved of than otherwise ; but they
do not amount to a roan, in which the grey hairs are equal, or even more
than that, to those of the other colour mixed with them.

COAT, MANE, AND TAIL

The texture of the coat and skin is a great proof of high-breeding, and
in the absence of the pedigi'ee would be highly regarded ; but when that is
satisfactory it is of no use descending to the examination of an inferior
proof ; and, therefore, except as a sign of health, the skin is seldom con-
sidered. In all thoroughbred horses, however, it is thinner, and the hair
more silky than in common breeds ; and the veins are more apparent under
the skin, partly from its thinness, but also from their extra size and
number of branches. This network of veins is of importance in allowing
the circulation to be carried on during high exertions, when, if the blood
could not accumulate in them, it would often choke the deep vessels of the
heart and lungs ; but by collecting on the surface great relief is afforded,
and the horse is able to maintain such a high and long-continued speed as
would be impracticable without their help. Hence, these points are not
useful as a mere mark of breed, but as essential to the very purpose for
which that breed was established.

The mane and tail should be silky and not curly, though a slight wave
is often seen. A decided curl is almost universally a mark of degradation,
and shows a stain in the pedigree as clearly as any sign can do. Here,
however, as in other cases, the clear tracing of that all-powerful proof of
breeding will upset all reasoning founded upon inferior data.. The setting
on of the tail is often regarded as of great importance, but it is chiefly
with reference to appearances ; for the horse is not dependent for action or
power upon this appendage. Nor is strength of dock of any certain value
as a sign, for I have known some very stout horses with flaccid and loosely
pendent tails ; but still it may be accepted as a genei'al rule, that when the
muscles of the tail are weak, those of the rest of the body are likely to be
so also.

THE THOROUGHBRED HUNTER AND
STEEPLECHASER

Hitherto we have considered the thoroughbred horse as intended to be
tested "over the flat," that is to say, on our ordinary racecourses, but, as I
have before mentioned, the hunting-field is also largely supplied from the
same source, and in addition the steeplechase is now almost entirely carried
on by means of thoroughbred animals. It is found that many horses v/hich
are too slow when tried as two or three-year-olds over our ordinary courses,
and therefore discarded from the racing stable, are able to beat all others
over a country, either with hounds or in the steeplechase. Whether this
improvement in form is owing to the greater distance, or to increased age,
or to the addition of fences, such is undoubtedly the fact, as might be

THE THOROUGHBRED HUNTER AND STEEPLECHASER 111

proved by innumerable well-known instances. Sometimes perhaps one,
sometimes another, of these may effect the change, and perhaps, occa-
sionally, all three may combine to produce it, but undoubtedly the first
hope of the owner of a slow race-horse is that he may yet become a good,
and therefore fast, hunter or steeplechaser. In the palmy days of steeple-
chasing, when £1000 was a common price for a first-class horse suited to
the purpose, such an animal was as difficult to procure as a horse to win the
Derby, and a man who had one congratulated himself on his good fortune.
But now, in spite of the fresh impetus given to the sport by the establish-
ment of aristocratic and national hunt races, it languishes sadl}', and no
one would dream of entering it as a speculation, either by breeding or
purchase. All that is wanted is a race-horse of sufficient power to carry
11 or 12 stone, and with temper and courage to make him take to
jumping. Without these qualities it is useless to attempt to do much with
a young horse in the way of education, for though in the hands of a
determined school-master he may be made to jump, yet he will never be to
be depended on, and when most wanted, he will be sure to fail. So also
with his action, it must be rounder and have less of the daisy-cutting style
than is required on the flat, for otherwise he will be sure to fall in passing
over the grips and other inequalities which he has to encounter. If
therefore, a slow race-horse of stout blood, has good manners and courage,
and is possessed of a sufficiently strong frame to stand the shocks of the
steeplechase course, he may be thrown by till the ground is fit to begin to
school him, and he will often reward his owner by becoming a first-rate
performer over a country. I have specially noted the character of the
blood, for there are some strains which may be relied on with far more
certainty than others for this purpose. The descendants of Waxy, for
instance, wherever they have good shoulders, and of sufficient size and
substance, are most valuable ; while on the other hand the Selims are too
flashy as a rule, though one or two sons of Ishmael and Ratcatcher may be
instanced as exceptions. Drayton, who got more first-rate steeplechasers
than any stallion of his day, being sire of Bourton, Standard — Guard,
Victim, and several others of less note, was by Muley, son of Orville, out
of Prima Donna, by Soothsayer, grand-dam by Waxy. He was not himself
successful on the flat, nor has he got a good race-horse, but his stout blood,
good temper, and strong frame and constitution, were exactly suited to the
task required of steeplechasers and hunters.

The thoroughbred hunter is similar in external form to the steeple-
chaser, but in him "good manners" are still more reqiiisite. So also when
a high weight is to be carried a stronger frame is reijuired than for the
11 or 12 stone of the steeplechase course.

CHAPTER VII

HALF-BREDS, COBS, AND PONIES

THE HALF-BRED HUNTER — THE IRISH HUNTER — THE CHARGER — THE COVERT-, EOAD-, AND
PARK-HACK— THE LADIEs' HORSE — COBS, GALLOWAYS, AND PONIES — THE CARRIAGE,
BROUGHAM, OR CAB-HORSE— THE HEAVY MACHINER— THE PHAETON-HORSE, GIGSTER,
OR FAST TROTTER.

All the varieties included in this chapter require a considerable infusion
of Eastern blood, inasmuch as though some of the harness-horses are not
called on to travel very fast, yet considering the weights they have to
draw, their efforts are violent enough to tax both the wind and stamina
to an extent which can only be endured by the Eastern horse or his
descendants. Even the omnibus-horse, travelling only six or seven miles
within the hour, including stoppages, must not be of cart blood, or he
will knock up before he reaches the end of his first journey, when called
upon to draw his share of four tons at that pace. The Exmoor ponies
have a strong infusion of Eastern blood in them, and the light and
elegant head of the Shetlander in itself would almost warrant us in
including him in the list. It is well known that the New Forest ponies
in the last century were repeatedly supplied with an Eastern cross,
and tlie celebrated Marske, sire of Eclipse, is said to have covered
several of the mares of this breed, while standing at Bistern, near
Ringwood, in Hampshire, in 1767-1768, for want of mares of a superior
character. This chapter, therefore, will include a description of every
English horse but the thoroughbred and the heavy draught-horses used
for agricultural purposes, and the moving of heavy goods. The term
" half-bred " is a misnomer, for it is generally applied to those horses
which have a much larger proportion of Eastern blood than half, and,
in many cases, they possess fully thirty-one parts out of thirty-two, or
even more. Mr. Apperley (Nimrod) advocated the first cross between
the cart-mare and the thoroughbred horse for hunting purposes, but
the plan has not been found to answer, and it is now entirely abandoned
from a long experience of the want of symmetry in the produce, and
from their deficiency in staying powers over a distance of ground. Even
for fast road- work their legs do not stand, but throw out splints, side
bones, or spavins, so soon and so frequently, that they are never chosen
for the purpose by good judges on that account alone.

112

THE HALF-BRED HUNTER 113

THE HALF-BRED HUNTER

The Hunter in our fast countries, such as Leicestershire, Northamp-
tonshire, parts of Oxfordshire, and Gloucestershire, is generally selected
(if the purse will permit it) with a pedigree entirely contained in the
Stud-book. Thei^e are, however, few true thoroughbreds that can carry
12 stone across country, that is to say, as compared with the number
of hunting men of that weight, and consequently their price is raised
to a height that can only be reached by a long purse. A " made
hunter" of this class is worth from <£250 to £500 according to his
"manners" — for as many of them have been broken for the racing
stable and have passed through that mill, they are liable to be some-
what inclined to pull, and to exhibit other failings incidental to that
school. In cramped countries, the thoroughbred horse is not so well
calculated as the half-bred to get over standing jumps, for his hind-
legs are not so well under him ; and from the absence for generations
of practice in any paces but those required for racing, he has lost in
some measure the power to put his fore- and hind-feet wherever they
are wanted to be, which is so constantly in demand in "provincial
countries." Where, however, pace is the chief desideratum, and where
hounds go so fast that without that quality in the horse, also, his
rider is soon thrown out, the thoroughbred horse alone can be sure of
keeping a front place, and for that reason is in such great demand.
He can undoubtedly cari-y any weight up to 12 stone, or even
sometimes 16 stone, over a wider brook or double post and rails,
than the half-bred, but I know of no instance in which a pure thorough-
bred has ever got over any very high jump, such as a six-foot stone
wall or piece of timber. Chandler and Proceed, who cleared thirty-seven
feet and thirty-nine feet respectively, were both thoroughbred, though
not in the Stud-book, and no half-bred horse has ever come near to
these performances ; but if a match was made to get over a high
wall no one would select a thoroughbred horse for that purpose. Hence,
the half-bred hunter has still ixiany admirers, and, on the average, nine-
tenths at least of the horses which appear at the covert side throughout
the kingdom must be included in this class. Many have fully seven-
eighths of pure blood, and perhaps few have less than that proportion,
but there is a distinct stain in the third or fourth generation which
entitles them to affix h.b. to their names if they are entered for any
race where there is an allowance for half-breds. There is always great
difficulty in obtaining the bones and joints in a thoroughbred of sufficient
size to stand the shocks of the hunting field, and for weeds of this
class there is a very limited sale. Hence, the breeder naturally avoids
the risk, especially as he must go to a very high price for his mares
if he is to obtain them of such a size and substance as he will desire.
A half-bred mare may be purchased for £20 or £30 with big legs
and joints, and she therefore is chosen, often without knowing her
pedigree or even where she was foaled. The consequence is that the
country is deluged with colts of all shapes and characters, some of which

114 THE HORSE

may be tlioroughbi'ed without the knowledge of their breeders, but most
are really what they are said to be, namely, half-bred, which I have
explained as meaning the possession of more or less stain of nondescript
blood. I have described the shape and characteristics of the thorough-
bred liorse so fully that it is needless for me to return to the subject ;
but as far as his powers for hunting purposes are concerned, it was
necessaiy to allude to them here as I have done.

In choosing the half bred hunter, regard must be had to the weight
he has to carry and the country he has to cross — for the lighter the
weight and the more open the country, the more highly bred should
he be. A man of 18 stone must generally be contented with an
actis-e cart-horse, but sometimes a remarkably strong colt is reared
possessing a good deal of blood, for his shape, and he is worth a large
sum, when taught the trade which he has to carry on. In any case,
however, the hunter should have the free use of his legs, and should
be able to gallop over rough ground without a mistake. It is here
that the training for the i-acecourse so often tells unfavourably, for
every training-ground is kept as level as possible, and the racing colt
has had no necessity for picking his way. From his earliest days he
has been either turned out in a level paddock or he has been in a
loose box, and hence he has had little occasion to look where he is
going. On the other hand, the half-bred is turned out till he is four
years old, and the fields which he runs over are composed of every
variety of ground, often crossed by roads with deep ruts, or containing
such other inequalities of surface, that if he does not take care he will
fall over them. The breaker, likewise, if he knows his business, takes
him over undulating ground, and thus he learns to avoid mistakes
which might break his own or his rider's neck in the hunting
field. No fall is so dangerous as one occurring from the horse putting
his foot into a blind drain, which a clever animal will seldom do, while
a race-horse will rarely avoid it for any length of time if ridden over
ground containing these dangerous traps without great care on the
part of the rider.

The points essential to the hunter are chiefly the following: — First
and foremost, he must have a good shoulder-blade, placed obliquely to
sustain easily the shock of falling from a height, and enable the horse
to get away again quickly from it. It should also be particularly well
clothed with muscles, or the part will soon tire, and after getting over
the first few fences in good style a fall will occur. The muscularity of
the fore-arm is likewise of great importance for the same reason, for
this part also soon tires if not sufficiently powerful. Next to the
shoulder and arm come the hind-quarters, which should be powerful in
proportion to the weight which is to be carried. In this class of horses
still more than in the race-horse a straight quarter is my aversion, and I
never yet saw a perfect hunter with this kind of shape in the fullest
degree.. Wide hips are especially necessary in the hunter intended
to carry weight, and even ragged ones are to be preferred to the narrow
weak hips which give a good side view, but look like a deal board from
behind. Large and ; uscular haunches and gaskins (or thighs) can alone

THE TIALF-BllED HUNTER 115

give propelling powei', but if these exist with small oi' diseased hdcks tlie
power will bo thrown away. In the hunter far more than in the race-
horse, the hocks should be well bent, and the stifles high and wide, or the
action will be disunited, and the power of shifting the fore-feet so as to
avoid holes, etc. will be wanting. Below the hocks and knees the cannon-
bones should be large, and the suspensory ligaments and tendons strong,
clean, and free, while the pasterns should be strong and shorter than in the
race-horse, terminating in feet large enough to avoid sinking in deep ground.
In the middlepiece a greater width is desirable than in the race-horse,
where excessive speed compels, to some extent, a sacrifice of " bellows
room," and a chest slightly wider than in that variety may be admitted as
perfection, though still not too wide and open. The back and loins must
lae strong, and well united to the hips by the back-ribs, being deep and
close up, so as to bear the strain given by the superincumbent weight in
coming to the ground after a leap. This kind of horse also has great
demands upon his stamina, for he is sometimes kept out for a whole da}^
without food, and has generally an empty stomach from nine o'clock in the
morning till five or six in the afternoon, which is double the interval best
suited to his constitution. Hence a full middlepiece is a desideratum, and
in no class of half-bred horse is it so much required, for no other is exj^osed
to such calls upon the digestive organs. The race-horse even when deprived
of his hay by " setting " is allowed plenty of corn a very short time before
running, but the hunter may leave his stable at eight or nine o'clock in the
morning, and after being out for hours either drawing coverts blank or
perhaps getting a moderate run, a fresh fox is found at thi^ee o'clock, and
he must nevertheless go to the front or his master will despise him. Such
a tax can only be borne by digestive organs which have plenty of room,
and therefore it is that deep back ribs are so specially looked for by the
hunting man of any experience.

In height the hunter may vary from 15 hands 1 inch to IG hands 2
inches, the former being the lowest limit which as a rule will give size and
power sufficient to get over a big place. Exceptions have occurred, such as
in Mr. Vevers's Little Tommy, who was not more than 14| hands, and yet
both in the steeplechase and hunting field was very nearly A 1, and could
carry 11 stone 7 pounds with great ease. Few men, however, like
to be mounted on ponies ; and unless your nerve is very great, a big fence
looks still bigger when you look up to its top than when you can look down
upon it in riding towards it. On the other hand, an overgrown animal is
seldom able to do more than carr}'- himself, and frequently he cannot do
that for any distance. Here, also, exceptions are met with, and Sir Piers
Mostyn's Seventy- Four, who was 17 hands 1 inch, is a case in point,
being a sj)lendid hunter, and though not a winner of any great steeplechase,
yet running a good second once or twice.

Manners make the man, but still more the hunter ; and without " good
manners" no horse can be considered fit for a gentleman to ride to hounds.
A strong puller may make an excellent steeplechase horse, as I have
already said, but even then he will not be equal to the more composed yet
equally high-couraged animal who takes nothing more out of himself than is
absolutely requisite for the task he has to perform. And no one who could

116 THE HORSE

afford to pay for what he regards as perfection would willingly ride a
pulling horse to hounds, and one that is also irritable at a check is still
more objectionable. Some horses will not wait for their turn at a gap or
gate, but, in spite of bit and heel, will rush at some part of the fence, and
thus jeopardize their riders. Such propensities are extremely disagreeable,
and condemn their possessors in the opinion of all men of experience.
Good manners generally are displayed when the head is well formed and
the expression of countenance is good, but an experienced eye alone can
judge of these particulars.

Lastly, a good mouth should never be overlooked, and as the setting
on of the head is essential to perfection in this respect, a purchaser should
not omit to notice that fact, in selecting a hunter without a trial. Many
a horse's mouth is spoiled from attempting to alter the shape of the neck
by its means ; while, again, a too supple neck gives way so much that it
is difficult to get a mouth sufficiently dull to bear the slightest handling.
It should always be remembered that an over-tender mouth may easily be
altered for the better, while a dull one will remain so in spite of all the
expedients which may be adopted. The only sure way to arrive at a
knowledge of this point in any individual horse is to ride him under the
same circumstances as he will be required for. Some will display an
excellent mouth when ridden singly on the road, while with hounds they
will pull one's arms off; others, again, will be pleasant enough if allowed
to sail along at best pace, but cannot be kept away from the hounds
without showing temper and disregarding the bit. It is, therefore, not
only necessaiy to ascertain the nature of the mouth when the animal is
not excited, but also to try it when he is wound up to the highest pitch ;
and a disregard of this precaution is constantly leading to disappointment.

THE IRISH HUNTER

Between the English and Irish Hunter there are several slight points
of difference. Thus the latter is remarkable for a particularly neat head,
almost too narrow across the forehead, bub full between the ears. The
muzzle is small, but with good nostrils ; jaws open, and head well set on.
The shoulders are particularly sloping and powerful, middlepiece well
ribbed but slightly flat, hips wide and powerful, the loins also being mus-
cular and well united to the back. The croup is almost always sloping
and the tail set on low. Legs and feet clean and sound. With these
external characteristics a sour temper is often combined ; but the consti-
tution is almost always hard}'^, and the powers of jumping are of a high
order, displayed in height rather than in width. When an Irish hunter
can be obtained possessed of good manners, he is very valuable indeed,
but there is so much doubt on this point that a careful trial should always
be obtained.

The Hunters' Improvement Society has done much to "promote the
breeding of riding, driving, and military horses."

THE CHARGER AND TROOPER

117

THE CHARGER AND TROOPER

It cannot be said that any particular breed of horses merits this name,
but there are some characteristics which must always be looked for in a
horse intended for this purpose. Between the officer's charger and the
troop-horse of the private soldier the only difference is in the degree of
perfection to which the above points are carried, for there is no doubt that
the same qualities which are desirable in the one are also required in the
other. In the one case, however, there is a limit put to the price by
Government, while in the other, the purse of the officer is alone the measure

THE CHAKGEE.

of the extent to which the market may be searched. Two points are
specially desirable, namely, sufficient size and power to carry the heavy
weight of a dragoon or lifeguardsman triumphantly against opposing
cavalry ; and secondly, so much handiness at all paces that complete con-
trol of the horse may be maintained with the bridle-hand, while the sword,
lance, or carbine is used by the other. An officer's charger is usually 1 6
hands high, and of power proportioned to the weight he has to carry. His
hind-legs ought to be well under him, and his shoulders must be sloping
and powerful, with a head and neck well put together, and rising out of the
chest so as to give effect to the bridle. Such a horse is well displayed in
the engraving, which is from a painting of a well-known charger belonging
to an officer in the 1st Life Guards, by Mr. Barraud. Unless the hocks

118 ' THE HORSE

are well bent and the stifles forward it is almost impossible to teach a horse
the militaiy manege to its full extent, and hence this point is carefully
insisted on by cavalry officers. Occasionally, a thoroughbred hoi\se is met
with possessing this formation, but generally that breed is deficient in it, in
consequence of the difierent style of going which is adapted for racing.
Nearly all the chargers vised in the cavalry are therefore half-bred, and a
large proportion of them come from Lincolnshire, where, indeed, almost all
of the Life Guards' troop-horses are bred specially for that purpose, being
the produce of the black Lincolnshire cart mare crossed with the thorough-
bred. These are sent up as three-year-olds to the three regiments, at 35Z.
apiece, but of late years there has been a difficulty in procuring sufficient
numbers to fill up the gaps made by disease and death. The troop-horses
of the dragoons and lancers are bought as four-year-olds, and are obtained
from various sources throughout England, Ireland, and Scotland.

THE COVERT-, ROAD-, AND PARK-HACK

By tue word hack is understood a horse specially intended for the
saddle, and to be used on some kind of road, which may be the cross roads
in the way to cov^ert, or the oixlinary turnpike, or lastly, the loose
gravelly roads of our parks. The same class of animal is used in all, but
there are some slight differences between the three kinds, as we shall
presently see, corresj^onding with the purposes for which they are severally
used.

The covert-hack is required to carry his master to the meet of the
pack of fox-hounds to which the hunter or hunters have been sent on.
The object of this arrangement is to save time to the rider, and also to
allow the hunter to be taken quietly to the fixture by the groom, who
exchanges the one for the other just before the hounds are tlu'own into
covert. Hence this kind of hack must be fast as well as stout, and it is
expected that he shall be able to carr3'^ any ordinary weight from twelve to
sixteen miles within the hovir, to do which he must maintain a fast hand-
gallop over all sorts of ground, and occasionally "do" a little fence or two
to cut off a corner. In days of yore, our grandfathers breakfasted at day-
break, or sometimes rode ten miles on an empty stomach to the house of a
friend near the appointed meet; and they were contented to do this at a
pace which would not turn a hair of their hunter's coat, even though that
was perhaps not quite so silky and short as it is expected now to be.
Such a practice would now be voted slow, even though the breakfast-hour
might easily be appointed for eight A.M., leaving an hour and a half or two
hours to ride quietly to covert. But, no, the fast man must ride fast, and
makes his appearance on his blood-hack, galloping sixteen miles an hour,
and with his overalls be.spattered with mud. He leaves his house at half-
past nine or ten A.M., and reaches the meet just in time to put off his out-
side skin of dirt, and appear without a blemish on his l^oots and leathers.^

^ The need of covert-hacks in many huntinj^ distiicts is no loiifjer so ^Vi:n.t, as railway
comiianies seeking dividciiils have cast aliout tlioin for new customers and discovered the
fact that many men can alford the money but not the time to go a-hunting unless it can be

THE COVERT-, ROAD-, AND PARK-HACK 119

For this purpose the hack must bo a galloper, capable of keeping up a fast
hand-gallop all the way from point to point : he should be an easy goer at
this pace, safe, and clever enough to take any moderate fence which may
interfere with a short cut from one point to another. Green lanes are
often very deep, and it would be impossible to get along them at the
desired pace ; the only alternative therefore is to turn out on the adjoining
sound ground, and get over or through the fences as well as the hack is
capable of doing them. If he is a perfect covert-hack he will creep or
jump in hand, or get across the country in some way, according to the
weight he has to carry; and he should therefore be a miniature hunter,
with the additional requisite of being a good hack on the road. Many a
horse is a pleasant and safe goer on soft ground, but if he is set going on a
turnpike-road, he will roll over his rider in the first half-mile. This is what the
covert-hack should not be ; what he should be is, a clever and safe galloper.
A trotter is tiring, in the first place ; and in the second, is not suited for
the green sides of a road or the green lanes which can generally be met
with in reaching the meet. About 14 hands is the best average size for
these hacks, whatever the rider may be ; if for 1 6 stone or upwards,
the hack must be a cob ; but if for much less, he may be blood-like, or
even quite thoroughbred, if he can be obtained of that breed with sufficient
action. Most covert-hacks, however, are undersized hunters, the produce
of mares intended to breed something more valuable in the market ; but
not growing into the contemplated proportions, the breeder is obliged to
sell them as hacks ; and when fast and clever enough, they are devoted to
the purpose now under consideration. Action is the main point ; not too
high, so as to throw time and space away, but a fast stealing-away kind of
style, which gets over the ground without distressing either horse or rider.
If the hack can get along in this way, safely over all sorts of gx'ound, and
can last at his three-quarter pace for ten or a dozen miles, he is a good
covert-hack, let his appearance be what it may ; but most men prefer good
looks in addition, especially as these hacks are available during the summer
for other purposes. A neat head and neck, with a general outline cal-
culated to please the eye, are therefore eagerly looked for ; and the con-
sequence is that one of 14 hands, or a little more, tolerably well-bred
and good-looking, which is capable of carrying from 12 to 16 stone
comfortably, and at a fast pace for the distance above specified, is worth
from 50^. to 100^., according to his looks and action. A good judge will
of course suit himself for one-half the lower sum ; but in London, or any
of the best hunting countries, such an animal is worth as much as I have
stated. It must be recollected that he requires all the good qualities of
the horse, except flying speed and great size ; and that he miist possess
beauty of form and good temper, safe and fast action, cleverness, and
above all good sound feet and legs to stand the battering of the roads over
which he must often be ridden at his three-quarter pace. Now, many
scores of hacks, so called, may be looked over before a good judge could

accomplished in one day. At any of the great Metropolitan termini may now be seen horse-
boxes being put together to convey " the horse and his rider," aye and his groom too, at a
swift pace and a low rate to some stations near the covert-side. Dressing and breakfasting
may be done in the train, and a change to comfort and dry things again effected on, the
return journey, and in time to attend some social function.

120 THE HORSE

select one coi'responding in all points with the above description, and con-
sequently when one is found it is fair to expect that his value will be
estimated accoi'dingly. Such animals fetch long prices even at the
hammer ; and when Mr. Tattersall has one before him, with a known
good character, it more frequently reaches above the first-named sum than
drops below it.

The road-hack varies from the foregoing in being necessarily more of a
trotter than a galloper, inasmuch as he is intended for use on macadamized
roads, many of which are made of granite or flint, and are, therefore, as
hard as iron. To gallop much on such a surface is to lame your hack ',
and even a fast trot is not to be indulged in for any distance, or on
successive days, for fear of the same results. The Americans drive their
trotters in their own countiy, and do not ride them, by which a faster
pace may be obtained without injury ; but in England the roads, being so
much harder, soon compel a moderation of the fast trot, even in the
imported horses, whose legs and feet are undoubtedly very sound and good,
but still not capable of sustaining the wear and tear of granite roads at
the rate of sixteen miles an hour. Hence, on our roads, we give up the
gallop in favour of the walk and trot, which must be done cleverly. The
former pace, especially, should be carefully inspected in selecting a hack,
for nothing is so unpleasant and trying to the rider as an unsafe or rough
walker. The fore-foot should be well lifted and put down again on its heel
with a corresponding action of the hind-leg, by which, on the one hand,
" knuckling over " is avoided, from reaching the ground too soon ; and, on
the other, *' over-reaching," from the opposite extreme. A good hack should
walk nearly or quite five miles an hour, and though some will do con-
siderably more, it is seldom by anything but a kind of shuffle, which is
not pleasant to the rider, nor elegant to the spectator. The trot should
be of that character that it may be brought down to eight miles an hour,
or extended to fourteen; and this is the pei'fection of the pace, for few
horses can do both well, being either too close to the ground in the former
for safety, or too set and lofty in the action for the latter. No defect is
worse than the unsafe action, which results from a weakness of the extensor
muscles of the arm, and in which the trot is pretty good as long as the
horse is not tired, but after a few miles the leg is not lifted with power
enough, and the toe is constantly striking against some inequality of the
ground, from which it is not recovered. This marks the defect ; for it must
not be confounded Avith habitual stumbling, which is as likely to occur at
starting as at any other time, and which is always easily detected by
Avatching the mode of putting down the foot in the naturally unsafe trotter,
where the toe touches the ground first, and the heel then follows, as is
evidenced by the state of the tip of the shoe. Here a trip may occur
often, and yet no fall follow, because the extensors are strong, and effect
a recovery after the mischief has been nearly done. But when the ex-
tensors are weak, the toe, which has been well raised at first, after a few
miles touches the ground, and, not being rapidly recovered, a fall ensues of
the most severe character. For this reason it is necessary to ride a horse
some distance before this action can be pronounced upon, and only then
can it be said that he is fit for a timid or bad rider. As we shall hereafter

THE ROAD-HACK 121

find in discussing the mode in which the several paces are performed, the
trot of our horses is somewhat different from that of the Americans, the
knee in ours being more rounded, and the foot therefore reaching the
ground with a greater tendency to " toe " it. With regard to shape,
though, as in the race-horse, there is a particular formation which is more
likely to give good hacking powers than any other, yet experience teaches
every horseman that it cannot be relied on either negatively or positively.
From a stable full of hacks no one would dream of making a selection
without seeing them out, for it would be a hundred to one that the same
animal would not be fixed upon before and after a trial. Every butcher's
boy who has been a year or two in the trade will tell you that hacks, still
more than race-horses, go in all shapes, and though oblique shoulders may be
desirable, yet many a good hack is without. Action is the sine qud non,
united to stoutness, temper, and soundness both of wind and limb, as well
as of the eyes. A horse with a thick-loaded shoulder often makes a good
hack, while a very thin one is not suited for long-continued journeys, its
muscles soon tiring, and a trip, or series of ti-ips, being the result. There
are, however, one or two essentials in the shape of a good hack which
should never be overlooked, let the action be what it may. Firstly, the
shoulder-blade must be wide enough at its upper part and sufficiently
clothed with muscle behind it to keep the saddle in its place, which may
readily be ascertained by the most inexperienced person by putting one on
and riding a mile or two, partly down-hill. The horseman knows at once
whether the shape of this part is suitable, but practice is required for this,
and unless it has been obtained, it is better to leave nothing to chance, but
to take the trouble to ascertain the fact. Secondly, the jaws should be
wide, and the head and neck so put together that they can be bent into
proper form, without which the mouth cannot remain good, and no hack
can be considered perfect. This, however, I have previously enlarged upon
at great length, and therefore I need not repeat what I have written. I
have alluded to the walk, trot, and gallop in mentioning the paces of the
hack, but have said nothing of the canter, because it is not much used by
gentlemen, on account of its wearing the off-leg out more than the trot,
from the great stress laid upon that limb. Even if the lead is continually
changed, more mischief is done by 10,000 hard blows than by 20,000
comparatively gentle, and therefore, excepting on the turf by the side of
the road, the canter should not be indulged in by the male sex.

The park-hack should be the road-hack I have described with the most
showy form within reach ; but as this last is the point which is the most
attended to, an animal is often selected of the most worthless kind in other
particulars, either from some deficiency of constitution or infirmity of legs.
There are every year some scores of useless brutes turned out of the racing-
stables with legs which will not stand a preparation, in consequence of
their tendency to inflame and become unsound. Now, these horses are
often barely up to 11 stone, and also unfit for the hunting field, from de-
fective hocks, or from some peculiarity of temper which prevents their
taking to jump. They are " well topped " — that is, well formed about the
head, neck, and body ; and to the inexperienced eye are very taking.
They may also have high action, and sometimes particularly so; for the

122 THE HORSE

higher it is, the more likely to occasion inflammation of the legs. These
animals ai'e put by, cooled down, and blistered, and are then brought out
as showy hacks, for the use of gentlemen who merely require a short
constitutional airing every fine day of an hour or an hour and a half ; and,
as fine days do not average above four per week, many horses even with
the most infirm legs can accomplish that amount of work, if ridden quietly
over hard ground. Many such animals are exhibited daily in Hyde Park,
where the soft ground of Rotten Row exactly suitR them ; but there are
others to be seen there of the most perfect description, capable of standing
as much work as any butcher's pony. Nevertheless, it must be admitted
that the great majority of our park -hacks, even if they are specially bred
for the purpose, are incapable of doing as much work over hard ground as
the coarser-bred and more common-looking brutes in use among the
butchers and general dealers who attend country fairs from long distances.
Eastern blood is a great advantage in most respects, and no doubt when
the animal possessing it is sound, he will bear the shocks of the road with
impunity ; but there is no question in my mind that he fails in the matter
of enduring daily concussion on the road, and that a AVelsh pony or
Norman horse will stand nearly twice the amount of this work without
showing its effects. This is the weak point in the breed, partly arising
from original want of size in the bone and joints, but chiefly, I imagine,
from the constant use of stallions for inferior stock which have themselves
sufiered from inflammation of the legs and its consequences ; hence, in
process of time, a breed of horses is formed, which has legs more than
usually prone to lameness, in consequence of being the produce of sires
and dams that have been turned out of the racing stable for this very
infirmity, which is transmitted to the ofispring. That Eastern blood is not
necessarily prone to inflammation of the legs and feet is tolerably manifest
from our experience of modern Ai'abs and their descendants in this country,
as well as abroad. Since the Crimean war, the number imported into
Great Britain has greatly increased, and though most of them have been
selected almost at random, they are certainly not defective in their legs,
though perhaps not coming up to the degree of wiriness which is possessed
by the "Welsh pony. I have myself owned an Arab as well as a grandson
of an Arab, Avhich would bear any fair amount of hammering uninjured, and
from these facts, and others not within my own knowledge, I am led to
conclude that the cause is not inherent in the breed, but is accidentally
introduced by the use of rejected stallions for farmers' purposes. These
get good-looking colts, which fetch high prices, and therefore suit the
breeder's purpose just as well as the sounder horse, who would perhaps
cost twice as much for his services. The farmer seldom tries the legs
much, and it is only when put to work that the weakness is discovered,
which to the eye is not by any means perceptible. From a long experience
in my own case, and in that of others, I am convinced that legs cannot be
selected by the appearance or feel. I do not mean to say that out of forty
horses the twenty Avith the best-looking legs will not beat the others, but
that it is impossible for any juage, however good, to pronounce with any-
thing like certainty whether a certain leg will stand or not, without
knowing anything of the possessor of it. In so many instances have I seen

124 THE HORSE

a leg, pronounced by several good judges to be undeniably good, go to
pieces directly, and a bad one stand, that I can only come to the conclusion
that no certain opinion can be formed from a mere inspection. This is a
great source of loss to the dealer who buys his horses after a long rest,
and with their legs looking fine and sound ; for even the necessary
" showing out " will make many give way, and lameness ensue of a
character which will not warrant a "return," yet sufficient to prevent a
profitable sale. A horse sore from Avork is cooled down, physicked, and
put into a loose box ; he is then blistered, and kept without more than
quiet exercise till he is to be sold, and by that time his legs are as fine
as the day he was foaled. Now, I defy any one, however skilful, to detect
the inherent weakness ; but there it is, and on the first week's severe work
the inflammation returns as bad as ever. The park-hack not requiring
legs to stand severe work, his place is well filled by any horse of good
temper, safe, and showy action, and of elegant shape. Good temper is
necessary, because, as these horses are not worked hard, they speedily
become unmanageable if they are naturally of a vicious disposition. Work
will quiet almost any horse ; but in order to have a horse pleasant to ride
at all times, whether fresh or stale, he must be of a very tractable temper
indeed. Many horses which will come out of the stable, when fresh, in a
state of fiery and hot impatience, rearing and kicking like mad animals,
will, when in good work, be as quiet as donkeys ; and hence it is not
always wise to reject one showing these qualities, nor yet is it prudent
for a bad horseman to mount one without previous riding, although he
may know him to be quiet enough when regulax'ly worked.

THE LADIES' HORSE

This variety of the horse should be a perfect park-hack such as I
have already described, but moulded in somewhat longer proportions, so
as to give room for the habit to spread without quite eclipsing the animal.^
Many a hack looks extremely well under a man, but when a side-saddle
and habit are on him, he shows nothing on the near side from the point
of the shoulder to the hip, and hence is not adapted in appearance to a
lady's use. A back too long to cai-ry the weight of a man above 9
stone is yet strong enough for a lady of average proportions, who seldom
weighs, even with an eighteen pound or twenty pound saddle, more than
10 stone, and many not near so much. This formation also gives a softer
canter, and therefore possesses every good quality desired for a lady's use
without any drawback. To be in proportion to this increased length of
body, the neck should also be long, and thus an animal is well chosen for
a lady which would be rejected by most male judges for their own use.
In point of soundness, mouth, and temper, he must be unimpeachable, for
the legs are far more tried by the canter than by any other pace, and

^ The fashion in habits has been continuously in the direction of closer skirts since the
above indictment was penned a;?ainst the ladies, and the jiresent editor feels unable to endorse
the charge of bad " hands " when recollecting the many occasions he has been "pounded "
with a screw, but with a fast-fadiug " vision of fair women " in front.

THE LADIES' HORSE 125

ladies generally choose the cleanest, and therefore the hardest part of the
road, and ride the faster there, because they can do so without splashing
their habits. In wind also there should be no defect, as a gallop is not
avoided whenever turf is at hand, and sometimes when this is not to be
obtained, it is taken on harder ground. The mouth of a lady's horse should
be light and level, and the neck so easily bent that there is not the slightest
tendency to throw the head up, even when the hands are so high as they
necessarily must be from the nature of the lady's seat. There is a popular
idea that a horse does not pull as much with a lady as with a gentleman,
which is very erroneous. The hands of most men are bad enough, but for
one good pair of female hands there are a dozen possessed by men, and this
is irrespective of the greater number of riders among the male sex, but
calculated in proportion, that is to say, the percentage of good hands is,
far greater among men than among women. Of course we do not see the
same severe hanging on the bit displayed by ladies, because they have
neither the same weight nor the same strength as their brothers, fathers,
or husbands ; but as far as they can, they spoil their horses' mouths, with
some few occasional exceptions. From the nature of the lady's seat, the
hands cannot be held low over the withers, and if the horse's mouth
absolutely requires the hands to be kept down below the level of the knee,
they must be divided, and a rein taken in each. This generally gives an
inelegant seat, but a year or two ago it was the fashion, and wherever it
could be adopted it was : in order to maintain an upright position of the
body, the hands must be brought almost back to the hips, and no shifting
of the rein from one to the other can be effected Avithout raising them
above the knee. It follows, therefore, that the lady's position causes great
difficulty in the management of an awkward mouth, and that, therefore, a
very perfect one should be chosen for her use. In addition to good legs,
length of body and neck, and a perfect mouth, the ladies' horse should be
of a fine temper, and not too laz}^, or he will need the spur ; nor too hot,
or he will get beyond her control. In height he should be between 15
and 16 hands, less than the former being objectionable on account of
the splashes on the habit which is caused by too low a horse, and a greater
height being generally attended with a rough and therefore unpleasant
action. The walk and canter are the absolutely essential paces, but a
good and even trot should, if possible, be supei-added, for the sake of giving
useful exercise to the rider, and at the same time saving the legs of her
horse, which are tried far less in this pace on hard roads than in the
canter.

COBS, GALLOWAYS, AND PONIES

The Cob is merely a thick and strongly-made hack about 14 hands
in height, and suited to carry from 15 to 20 stone. All the points
are therefore such as are required in the ordinary hack, but they must be
strong in proportion to the weight to be carried. The 20-stone cob is
in fact a compact and active little cart-horse, with cannon-bones as large as
in that variety, and generally with the same tendency to throw out bony
growths. In those up to less weight more breeding may be displayed, but

126 THE HORSE

even in them the cart-horse generally predominates, with all his attendant
disadvantages. Few breeders take any pains to obtain the cob, and his
occurrence is chiefly accidental, being a dwai^f among those colts intended
for hunters, or an unusually well-shaped and active little cart-horse. The
former is the more valuable by far, as his action will be cleaner and less
hcav3% while his limbs will stand fast work much better, and if wanted for
the gallop his wind will be far more lasting.

The term " cob" has become very generally used as denoting a stout little
horse or large pony, and one frequently sees animals advertised under that
name but having no claim whatever to be so classed.

As TO THE Galloway, the term itself as well as the animal it i-epresents
are quite out of date. Originally, the word was confined to the full-sized
ponies which were bred in fhe south of Scotland, and which showed
more Eastern blood than the Highlanders. They seldom exceeded 14
hands, and are described as possessing all the attributes of a clever hack.
The distinct breed, however, is now lost, though the revival of so-called
Galloway races at Barn Elms and other places keeps alive the name.
Undersized thoroughbreds, polo-ponies, et hoc genus omne take pai^t in these
competitions.

Among modern ponies there is great variety, but the breeds are seldom
kept distinct. It may, hoAvever, be said that the following are sufficiently
so to be considered as sub-varieties of this division — namely, those of Wales,
the New Forest, and Exmoor, in the South ; and the Highland and Shetland
pony in the North.

The Welsh Pony is a strong, useful animal, averaging about 13
hands in height, and possessed of a neat head, good shoulders, a capital
back, and most enduring legs and feet. Many of them are of a cream or
dun colour, and if the latter, marked with a dark stripe down the back,
which colour extends to the mane and tail. These peculiarities are sup-
posed to be derived from Norwegian sires, which some years ago were
introduced into the district in the hope of improving the breed, which was
then very small and weedy, with a remarkable preponderance among them
of " cat hams." The cross has proved useful ; but either from it or from
the original breed, the Welsh pony is extremely disposed to be obstinate ;
but as man is very apt to convey his own qualities to the dumb creatures
about him, and as obstinacy is notoriously prevalent among the biped
inhabitants of the province, it seems probable that Norway is altogether
innocent. These ponies are bred in considerable numbers by the farmers,
and suffered to run on the hills till they are three years old, when they are
collected and either sold by auction on the spot, or sent in droves into
England, where they are readily disposed of at prices varying from 5^. to
\bl. The Rev. T. Williams of Try-y-cwm, near Swansea, was one of the
most celebrated of these breeders, and I have seen some of his ponies,
especially a stallion ridden by himself, of very fine symmetry and action.

The New Forest Pony. — In the earlier editions of this work the New
Forest Pony was spoken of disparagingly, and with good reason, as he had
suffered neglect and deterioration, and the author contemplated his early
extinction by laying down the forest and cutting it up into farms. Such
has not proved to be the case. The rights of the foresters, as well as the

roNn':s 127

ponies, have received consideration, and the breed lias been " cnhirged and
improved," prizes being annually offered and well bestowed, and there is
further prospect of retaining it in all its native hardihood and with
increased size and symmetry.

The Exmoor Pony. — To our mind this pony has but one fault, and that is
want of size ; what there is of him is remarkably good, and for all purposes.
He will carry a man as big as himself, pull a load like a cart-horse, and trot,
in good style and at a high rate of speed if not overloaded. He is docile,
intelligent, handsome, and not given to shy or be tricky, and seen upon his
native heath there is a romance about him that might well have inspired
the author of " Caterfelts," whether or no there is any truth in the story of
that remarkable stallion. The small size may be, and is, probably due to the
short keep which the yearling has to expect, since two-year-olds caught up
and liberally treated grow to a very fair size. The beautiful little heads
and clean limbs of these ponies are suggestive of the thoroughbred in minia-
ture, while they rarely have his defective action in front, neither daisy-
cutting nor turning out their toes, but coming down on all fours like a cat
and with something like her power of jumping. At West-country horse shows
we have seen these little ponies carrying weights out of all proportion to
their size, yet clearing the same jumps as other horses in the competitions.
At the annual great sales at Bampton the competition of buyers is keen,
and dealers often travel long distances in the hope of securing a choice of
them beforehand.

The Highland Pony is remarkable for his docility and general good
manners, by which circumstance he makes the best shooting pony in the
world, and can be taught almost anything, except perhaps to gallop with
the race-horse. These ponies have, like the old Welsh breed, the forma-
tion of hind-quarter called " cat hams," but this only gives a greater power
of using them, and especially of creeping over broken ground, in which they
are unapproachable. Their intelligence also is so great that it is almost
impossible to get them into a bog ; and if by chance they find themselves
sinking, they, avoid the struggles which are instinctive in other breeds, and
manage either to creep quietly out, or else wait patiently till assistance
comes. In size they vary from 12|- to 13| hands, and in shape they present
little to be remarked except their neat heads and cat hams. They are
able to carry considerably more weight than their frames would lead one to
expect, and sometimes a six-foot brawny Scotchman may be seen on one
of them without causing any apparent distress, and with difficulty keeping
his legs oflf the ground.

The Polo-Pony. — Though he can be hardly termed a distinctive bi'eed it
needs no prophet to say that he shortly will be, as a Stud-book already
exists ; the game for which he is destined is ever increasing in popularity,
and the supply being unequal to the demand, there will doubtless be an
increasing number of gentlemen who for amusement and a possible profit
will succeed in establishing a race tliat will breed to type. Hitherto polo-
ponies have come from anywhere and been bred anyhow so that they have
been capable of being made into good performers, but the polo-pony most
esteemed is a dwarf hunter or steeplechaser. Lieutenant E. D. Miller in
his Modern Polo says, "any of the old breeds of ponies belonging to these
islands . . . are useless for polo by reason of their small size, coarseness,

128

THE HORSE

and want of pace. The great love of blood entertained by breeders in
Ireland makes that country the best in the world for finding ponies suitable
for polo; although I have known but few suitable for the game. As a
rule, an Irish breeder tries to get a hunter, or failing that, a smart trapper ;
for his countrymen love to drive a bit of blood. From the Irish animals
which are too small for either kind of work we get the large majority of
our polo-ponies."

Up to the present, the majority of attempts at breeding ponies within
narrow limits of height have failed, on account of the tendency sires and
dams have of " throwing back " ; the fillies being frequently too small for
polo : the . colts too big. By the rules of the game polo-ponies may not
exceed 14 hands 2 inches. Captain Daly's "Wig," who rode to victory in

From a photograph hy FlJd, Puincy.

THE rOLO-PONY.

the champion cup of 1894, is thus described by Lieutenant Miller — " He can,
if required, carry the fourteen stone of his owner for a full half-hour in a
tight match. He stands on the best of legs and feet, has excellent
shoulders, well-set-on head and neck, plenty of rein, great bone, strong
back, arched ribs, deep through the middle of the body, powerful quarters,
the best of hocks, and no superfluous weight." In fact all the points of a
high-class pony without any faults. The amusing author finishes his descrip-
tion by inviting his readers to " kindly add to this the temper of an angel
and the wisdom of the Evil One, and they will have his idea of a perfect
pony."

Lastly, the Shetlander comes under review. He is the smallest variety
of the Bi'itish horse, and his appearance is well delineated in the annexed
engraving. His head, almost concealed by his rough shaggy mane and
forelock, looks smaller than it really is, while his neck is extremely well

THE CARRIAGE, BROUGHAM, OR CAB-HORSE 129

formed, and his shoulders are slanting, muscular, and full of liberty. In
fact, these little animals have powers proportionally as great as that of a
dray-horse, and appear to carry with ease a man of 11 or 12 stone,
if only he can arrange his legs so as to avoid walking and riding at the
same time. They vary in height from 9 to 11 hands, or sometimes a little

b^^;^,.^-}^

THE SHETLAND PONY.

more, and hence they are admirably calcidated in this respect for the use
of children, while their tempers are generally so good that they may be
pulled about with as much impunity as a Newfoundland dog. Their colours
are chiefly bay, brown, or rusty black, chestnuts and greys being extremely
rare. Large numbers are imported into England every year by the steamers
from the North, and sold at prices varying from £5 to ^30 according to
appearance and action. Their commonest fault is an unwillingness to
" back " in harness.

THE CARRIAGE, BROUGHAM, OR CAB-HORSE

Most op our best-shaped carriage-horses are now bred in Yoi^kshire
and Lincolnshire ; but some few, and those not the worst, come from
Shropshire and the borders of the adjacent counties. These horses are
chiefly the result of a cross between the old Cleveland horse (now nearly
extinct) and the thoroughbred Eastern horse, the proportion of the latter
blood being difiicult to ascertain, as in most instances the pedigrees of the
stallions and mares cannot be traced with any certainty for more than two
or three generations, in spite of the assertions to the contrary of their
breeders. Grand figure and high action, rather than pace, are the objects

K

130

THE HORSE

aimed at, extravagant knee-action is considered essential to a perfect turn-
out. The original from which my illustration of this variety is taken was
for some months in the possession of Mr. Anderson, of Piccadilly, and sold
by him at a long price to go abroad. He was painted by Mr. Barraud as a
fine specimen of his class, and certainly the artist has conveyed to his
canvas with great success the characteristic action of the cab or carriage-
horse, which it will be seen differs from that of the fast Amei'ican trotter
represented at page 46 in its roundness and in the high elevation of the
knee. Hence, it is more showy, or " gaudy " as the dealers say, and much
less fast, ten miles an hour being the outside pace of these horses, and
even this being too much for their legs and feet on our roads. At the

THE CARRIAGE, BROTJGHAM, OR CAG-HORSE.

time when Count Bathyany was so celebrated for his carriage-horses, whose
action was splendid, he always " threw by " each pair at stated intervals,
so as to reduce the inflammation of the feet and legs caused by the
hammering on the road, before it had had time to leave any organic
mischief. Being at least sixteen hands in height, with round barrels on
which flesh is always loaded for the sake of show, their legs and feet have
a good deal of weight to cany, and even with moderate action these soon
wear out, if they are of bad form or materials. Hence, they are never
used till they either are, or are supposed to be, five years old ; but to
make them handy and safe in London they must be driven about the
streets in the break for some months before they will stand a crush at the
opera, or any other similar trial of steadiness and nerve. Some hundreds
of pairs of these horses are jobbed in London, while nearly as many more
are kept by their owners for their own use. The engraving I have given

THE HEAVY MACHINER 131

will convey the characteristics desired in this horse better than any written
description ; but though it will serve to show the external form and action,
it is on too small a scale to indicate in a reliable way the wiry and clean
legs which are indispensable, and without which work soon causes lameness
of some kind or other. The head is particularly good for so mixed a breed,
and indicates the care which has been paid for many years to the selection
of sires and dams. But the neck is the main feature in point of show,
being of a most elegant formation ; and the head being well set on gives
that beautiful rainbow sweep, which is shown in the portrait of Mr.
Anderson's horse. Much of this is produced by careful breaking ; but
without a naturally good formation of the bones, all the breakers in the
world cannot make a horse bend himself into the beautiful outline so
frequently displayed in Hyde Park. Oblique but muscular shoulders, short
backs, and long though strong quarters, with a great deal of ground
covered below, constitute the remaining points characteristic of this horse,
and leave nothing to be desired except that more of the same sort should
be annually bred. The bi"Oughams of London take those of inferior shape
and action, but some of them are furnished with horses of nearly as much
fashion and action as the cabriolets and can'iages of the most aristocratic
houses. Still, on the whole, there is no doubt that the latter take off the
cream of this variety of horse.

It is an open secret, that by far the greater number of showy harness
horses and especially matched pairs are the produce of the Continent, more
particularly of Hungary, where breeding to type has been carried to great
perfection. They are passed off as English and Irish, and do well enough
for a short display in the park, but have neither the endurance nor con-
stitution of the home-bred animal. Being made in Grermany, they are
cheaper and afford the seller a better profit than home-bred animals, which
.cannot be found in sufficient numbers to supply the demand.

THE HEAVY MACHINER

Our omnibuses and vans are supplied with a most wonderfully active
yet strong kind of horse, which is in some measure obtained from the
breeders of the last variety, being too plain in appearance, and sometimes
too heavy in action, for private use. Their price is so low, averaging
about i£30 when sound and five or six years old, that no one would be
remunerated by attempting to breed them exclusively for the purpose to
which they are finally put, and hence they are to be considered as the
blanks in the breeder's lottery planned for other and more valuable kinds,
such as the carriage horse or hunter, or as agricultural stock which have
paid for their keep since their second year. The pair-horse omnibus also is
a comparatively modern invention, and many are now drawn eight miles
within the hour, conveying twenty-six passengers, besides the driver and
•conductor, whereas sixteen used to be the full complement for four horses,
and with the use of a lighter vehicle. In those districts where the soil is
light and G.O. ploughs are in vogue, the agricultural horses are so active
that a selection from them will give a number of useful heavy machiners ;
.and some horses which refuse to work steadily at plough, will take to faster

132 THE HORSE

work with comparative kindliness. This last sort, however, do not bear a
fast pace, but up to six miles an hour they can perform extremely well.
The action of our omnibus horses is remarkably good for all useful purposes,
being so safe that one rarely sees a mistake, and when a fall occurs it is
almost invariably from a slip and not from a stumble. Much of this
improvement in action is due to the absence of the bearing-rein and the
general use of the snaffle, leaving the animal at liberty to move without
the dreadful restraint which was formerly so indiscriminately imposed.
Canadians of stout build are also put to this kind of work.

THE PHAETON-HORSE, GIGSTER, OR FAST
TROTTER

Between the Norfolk and American trotters, which may be taken
as the types of the two kinds of trotting developed in the horse, there is
a very considerable difference. I have already described the latter, but it
remains for me to say a few words about his English rival. In both there
must be a considerable infusion of Eastern blood, not for the purpose of
giving pace, but endurance. Many a low-bred animal can trot a mile in
pretty fair time, but he cannot keep his pace up ; and indeed when very
fast time is to be made, as, for instance, what the Americans call "low in
the two-thirties," that is, a mile in little over the two and a half minutes,
blood is almost equally in demand for that distance as for a longer, and
the distress is nearly as great as in running a mile over the flat at New-
market. Norfolk has long been celebrated for her breed of trotters, and
these are still in considerable demand for our gigs and phaetons, but their
trot is not soft enough to make them desirable hacks, and they are little
used for that purpose. The same applies to the American trotters, which
are kept to their wagons all over the States. The action of the Norfolk
trotter is more showy than that of the American, chiefly because the eye
is the sole test applied in this country, no purchaser caring for a faster
pace than fourteen or fifteen miles an hour, and most contenting them-
selves with twelve, whereas, on the other side of the Atlantic, the time-test
is applied in all cases, and the value of a horse is in proportion to what he
can do with the stop-watch in the hand of his examiner. The action of
our best trotters resembles that of the carriage-horse displayed at page
130, but in the smaller animals it is somewhat shorter and sharper. The
foot is not thrust forward so mucli as in the American, either before or
behind, and hence there is more time lost in each step. In point of
appearance and breeding, our gigsters and phaeton-horses are of all kinds,
from the pure thoroughbred to the strong but undersized cari'iage-horse.

CHAPTER VIII

THE DRAUGHT HORSE

THE SHIRE-HORSE— THE SUFFOLK CART-HORSE — THE IMPROVED LINCOLNSHIRE DRAy-HOESB
—THE CLYDESDALE-HORSE— OTHER MIXED BREEDS.

THE SHIRE HORSE

According to Sir Walter Gilbey, who has done so much for this
breed, we have in the class before us the descendants of the old English
Great Horse or War-Horse, the oldest form of horse in this island. " A
thousand years ago this form was written of as ' the Great Horse,' and
nearly a thousand years before that we have evidence which goes to prove
that the same stamp of horse then existed in Britain." Those who saw it
and recorded their opinions, considered it to be the best of its kind to be
found in any country. The most powerful type of horse now in use for
agriculture and general draught purposes is, according to the above-named
high authority, the direct descendant of the horse which Julius Caesar
found here, and attracted his attention for its efficiency as a war-horse in
the service of the Ancient Britons.

Much credit is due to our countrymen for their careful and judicious
selection of the two tj'pes of horse which have been brought to such perfec-
tion for their respective purposes. If we have so impi-oved upon the
Oriental type that no Arab or Barb can compete upon equal terms with
their English descendants, so also have we continued to improve upon the
native heavy horse, now known as the Shire. The Great Horse was
essentially a war-horse until the middle ages in this country, farm work
and general haulage being performed by oxen. Although improved from
time to time by the judicious introduction of foreign blood, this type of
horse can be traced back for many centuries. Camden's Britannia gives
an engra\dng of two British coins of Cassobelin struck in the first century,
and depicting the English Great Horse. White animals of large size were
highly prized according to the above authority, and only the great ones of
the earth were permitted to appear in state so mounted. When John of
France was conducted as a pi'isoner to London, he was given "a white
steed to ride, while the Black Prince in meaner attire was carried by his
side on a black palfrey." This affectation of humility was intended to
make it appear that John was a royal guest.

According to the Venerable Bede the English did not use saddle-horsea

133

134 THE HORSE

until about a.d. 631, and Church dignitaries requiring horses to ride were
counselled to use mares, in order to spare the horses for the mail-clad
warriors, whose persons and " kit " made up some thirty stones according
to our present reckoning.

These powerful animals are not mentioned as being used for cartage until
about 1154, when a monk of Canterbury, William Stephanides, wrote — •
" Without one of the London City Gates is a certain Smoothfield (Smith-
field). Every Friday there is a brave sight of gallant horses to be sold.
]\Iany come out of the city to buy or look on — to wit, earls, barons, knights
and citizens. There are also to be found here cart-horses, fit for the dray,
the plough, or the chariot."

During the Wars of the Roses horse-breeding was seriously checked as
either side would requisition them, and probably, like Warwick, " first they
wore the roses white and then the roses red " (but " many nobles for such
things were shorter by a head ").

As many as a hundred stallions were imported in the reign of King
John from the Netherlands, and "it is," says Sir Walter Gilbey, "from
the blending, nearly seven hundred years ago, of these animals with the
English breed, that some strains at least of our heavy draught-horses, must
be said to date their origin.

Successive kings of England appear to have striven both to increase the
size and numbers of such horses within the realm, and King Henry YIII.
enacted that " all prelates and nobles (whose wives wore French hoods or
velvet bonnets) should keep stallions for the saddle of a certain size."
Although the introduction of carriages by Fitz-Alan, Earl of Arundel, led
to the use of lighter horses, and Queen Elizabeth's successors had no need
to ride on the back of what we now call cart-horses, the breed continued to
receive care and judgment in selection. The Great Horse is again de-
scribed in 1658 by the Duke of Newcastle, as having "large limbs, heavy
crest, silky-haired fetlocks, and flowing mane and tail," a not inapt descrip-
tion of his present day descendant. The engraving of Staunton Hero is
selected by Sir Walter Gilbey, and is a good portrait.

THE SUFFOLK CART-HORSE

In the latter part of the eighteenth century the agriculturists of
Norfolk and Sufiblk were far more enterprising than their brethi'en
throughout the remainder of England. Among other subjects to which
they paid special attention was the cart-horse, which, though said by Mr.
Culley to be a plain horse, was far more level and symmetrical than the
aboriginal horse of the country. The Sufiblk horses of the early part of
the present century were thus described by the above observer : — " Their
merit probably consists more in constitutional hardiness than fine shape,
being in general a very plain horse. Their colour is mostly yellowish, or
sorrel, with a white ratch or blaze on their faces. The head large, ears
wide, muzzle coarse, fore-end low, back long, but veiy straight, sides flat,
shoulders too far forward, hind-quarters middling, but rather high about
the hips, legs round, and short in the pastern, deep barrelled, and full in
the flank. Here, perhaps, lies much of the merit in these horses, for we

136

THE HORSE

know from observation and experience that all deep-bellied horses carry
their food long, and consequently are able to stand a longer and harder
day's work." This variety is now quite extinct ; the improved Suffolk is
lighter and quicker than the old breed, Avith a low, powerful shoulder, and
very drooping croup. The legs also are very clean and wiry. A good
example will be found in the engraving.

The Suffolk now shares with the Clydesdale pretty equally the approba-
tion of the farmers throughout Great Britain, the former being generally

From a photograph by Pratt and Son.

CHAMPION SUFFOLK STALLION, 'HIS GRACE.'

preferred in the south, and the latter in the north. Admirers of the
Suffolk maintain that no other horse is so hardy, and that he will do
more woi'k in the same time, and on the same amount of food, than any
other. The testing of such a matter is not so simple as it may appear, for
it would be necessary to try the experiment with a number of horses of
each kind, and carry it on for months together. A less severe and
complete trial would be of little use, and could not by any means be con-
sidered as definitive, nor would it be so even conducted as I have said it
ought to be unless it was under the actual superintendence of unprejudiced
observers.

THE IMPROVED LINCOLNSHIRE DRAY-HORSE

137

THE IMPROVED LINCOLNSHIRE DRAY-HORSE

About the same time the farmers of Lincolnshire were employed in
producing, partly for their own heavy clay lands, but chiefly for the use
of the London drays, a large and magnificently-shaped animal, generally
known as the Dray-Horse. Many of these stand from 17 to 18 hands
high, with bodies of enormous girth, and legs, if not in proportion, yet of
greater size than in other breeds.

THE DRAY-nor,5E.

They are the produce of a cross between the old English black and the
Flemish horse ; but the former had previously increased in size and sub-
stance, from the nature of the grasses of the district, which seem peculiarly
adapted to develop the growth of this animal. Unfortunately, both sire
and dam are slow, and the produce, from its increased bulk, is rendered
still slower, being wholly unfit for agi'icultural operations in competition
with the Sufiblk or the Clydesdale horses, and only well adapted to move
heavy brewer's drays, which cannot from their weight be expected to travel
very rapidly. Breeder's work them moderately, and feed them highly for

138 THE HORSE

the two seasons between their second and fourth years, when they are put
into a loose box, and made up with oil-cake or linseed, barley, and clover
hay, till tliey are as fat as bacon hogs : after which consummation they are
fit for the London market, and fetch high prices. It is no wonder, there-
fore, that their naturally thin and large soles become convex, or that side-
bones are thrown out, attended by lameness, which makes so many of
them utterly useless. These horses are of all colours, but chiefly bays and
browns.

THE CLYDESDALE HORSE

The breed op draught-horses known as Clydesdales are renowned for
their activity, hardness and good temper. They are, at the same time, high
spirited and courageous, and require handling with more intelligence and
kindness than is usually allotted to other breeds of cart-horses.

In the districts of Scotland, however, where they are most highly prized,,
it is no uncommon sight to see a pair of these horses weighing from sixteen
to eighteen hundredweights, going in their stall collars very often with nO'
bit in their mouths, and guided almost entirely by the voice. The long
ugly whips and tight bearing-reins are unknown to them, and they would
take it very badly if such were applied to them.

The great points among Clydesdales have always been large, open feet, and
heels well set on clean defined pasterns, sloping back to the fetlock joints
from which should hang delicate silky hair reaching down to the heels-
behind, and fringing gracefully over the coronet, whose outlines, however, it
should not hide. The cannon-bones should be hard and flat, and the legs
should show the tendons standing out clear and strong as in a thoroughbred
or Arab, The knee should be broad, strong and firm, while from the inside-
and down the sharp inner edge of the leg should hang silk}^ hair, gradually
inci-easing in quantity till it reaches the fetlock joint. The tendons and
muscles above the knee should be again clearly defined, rising and swelling
gradually into a muscular fore-arm, like the biceps of an athlete. The-
shoulder of a Clydesdale is usually more oblique than in the other breeds ;
this is bound to be the case, as a sloping pastern must give a sloping
shoulder above it to obtain a true natural balance. The sloping pastern of
the Clydesdale is not that associated with a thin, weak heel, but goes with
a strong and open heel, and ii is from this formation that he gets his
springy, active step. The hind-legs are as much the care of the breeder as
the fore-legs, and their action is even more characteristic of the breed than
that displayed in front. The hind as well as the front feet should be large
and open, the pastern moderately sloping and well defined, the fetlock joints
clean and hard, and absolutely free from any cracks, while the hair on the
legs fringes delicately up the thin edge of the bone nearly, but not quite, to
the hock, which is broad and long, and free from fleshiness. The whole
hind leg should be well behind the body of the animal, with the strength of
the thigh rather throwing the hock inwards than outwards, thus keeping
the whole of the propelling power of the animal within its centre of gravity.
This point in a Clydesdale is more studied than any other. An animal
that turns its hocks outwards necessarily loses some of its power.

The head is usually broad and intelligent, the eyes large and full, with

OTHER MIXED BREEDS 139

something of kindly inquiry in them. The ears are large and widely set,
but mobile and full of attention, a drooping ear or dull, heavy eye being
very rare.

The large exportation of Clydesdale stallions from Scotland to England,
from the earlier part of the century onwards, and the continued demand
for them for this purpose, induced many unscrupulous persons to re-import
the more likely looking cart-horses, and by recrossing with the native breed
to produce and sell these to the English buyers as Clydesdales. To avoid
this deception a Stud-book was started, and the number of registered animals
in 1896 had reached 10,147 stallions and 12,697 mares.

The exact origin of the Clydesdale, or indeed of any of the breeds of
cart-horses, is difficult to determine, but it is fair to conclude that the
heavy chargers of the knights of old (more especially as most of them were
stallions) were the foundation of them all, but clean, hard-wearing bones,
have always been the watchwords of the Clydesdale breeders.

The average mare weighs from 15 to 18 cwt., though many exceed this,
and the average weight of stallions may be put at 17i to 19 cwt. Average
measurement of bone below the knee and hock in both sexes lOf to 11:^
inches, though many stallions are larger than this. When the above
measurements are exceeded, the bone as a rule has lost some of its
Clydesdale character, and is consequently more difficult to measure aa
hone.

In their own country Clydesdales are worked in pairs, abreast in the
plough even in the stiffest land, where they can easily draw a furrow eight
or nine inches wide by seven inches deep. In harness each horse draws a
cart 8 1 cwt., and capable of being loaded with 20 cwt. The farm man
drives the leading horse with reins in his right hand, from the back of the
first cart, leading the second horse with his left. As a rule, however, this
is not necessary, as the horses being without blinkers or bearing-reins work
entirely at the word of command.

The above description is from the pen of Lord Arthur Cecil, who was
largely instrumental in establishing the Stud-book.

OTHER MIXED BREEDS

The Cleveland, if it ever existed as a vai'iety of the cart-horse, cannot
now be found, and it is probable that the original breed was employed as a
pack-horse solely, being too light for the heavy plough work of our ancestors.
At present he is a coach-horse, and cannot therefore be classed among those
which I am now describing, though he is still claimed by the breeders in
the district of Yorkshire from which he takes his name as a diftinct
variety. It is true that he is sometimes used for agricultural purposes,
resembling the Suffolk horse in quickness, yet not being equal to him in
constitution. But he is chiefly sought after for the carriages of the aristo-
cracy, to which his rich bay colour, and clean legs, often of a jet black, are
well suited. I do not myself believe in the purity of the breed, nor can I
find from the Yorkshiremen themselves any signs by which it can be
distinguished.

Throughout England and Ireland cart-horses of every shape and size

UO THE HORSE

are met with, possessing no peculiarity which can entitle them to be con-
sidered as separate breeds, and indeed being px'oduced from working mares
put to stallions selected at random from those offered in the immediate
neighbourhood. Some of these sires are individually very perfect animals
in shape, and can compete with the best Sufifolks or Clydesdales ; but they
cannot generally be depended on to the same extent for getting stock
as good as themselves. This is caused by their being the produce of various
strains ; but when the breed to which they belong has been kept pure for some
generations, as is the case in certain families and districts, this remark does
not apply to any extent. Most farmers now, however, who ai^e particular
about their horses, either use the pure Suffolk or Clydesdale, or put their
cross-bred mares to stallions of one or other of these breeds.

CHAPTER IX

ON THE LOCOMOTIVE ACTION IN THE VARIOUS PACES

NATURAL AND ACQUIllED PACES— DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT — ATTITUDE ASSUMED IN
STANDING — ^MODE OF PROGRESSION — THE WALK — THE TROT — THE CANTER — THE HAND
GALLOP — THE GALLOP — THE AMCLE — THE PACES OF THE MANEGE — LEAPING OR
JUMPING.

NATURAL AND ACQUIRED PACES

In A STATE OP NATURE it is probable that the horse only possesses two
paces, namely, the walk and the gallop ; but Avhen he is the produce of a
domesticated sire and dam, even before he is handled, he will generally
show a slight tendency to trot, and sometimes to amble, rack, or pace, if
any of his progenitors have been remarkable for these artificial modes of
progression. In this country, however, it may be assumed that the horse,
without being taught, walks, trots, and gallops, more or less perfectly,
according to his formation and temperament.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT

Except in the gallop and canter, in the fast trot, and in leaping,
the weight of the horse is borne by two or more of the legs, and we shall
find that in consequence of the projection forwards of the head and neck,
the larger moiety is sustained by the fore-leg (or legs) than by the hind
This can easily be demonstrated in the act of standing ; but the same rule
which applies to that position will also serve for any other.

It is important to the horsemaster to ascertain the circumstances which
will change these proportions, because he finds practically that, in road
work, the fore-legs wear out faster than the hind, and consequently any
means by which the weight on them can be reduced will be a gain to him
in a pecuniary point of view. M. Baucher placed a horse with his fore
and hind-legs on separate weighing machines, and found that a hack mare
when left to assume her own attitude, weighed on the fore scales 210
kilogrammes, while her hind-quarters drew only 174, the total weight of
the animal being 384 kilogrammes, each of which is equal to 2 lbs. 2 ozs.
4 drs. 16 grs. avoirdupois. By depressing the head so as to bring the
nose to a level wdth the chest, eight additional kilogrammes were added to
the front scales, while the raising of that part to the height of the withers

141

142 THE HORSE

transferred ten kilogrammes to the hindermost scales. Again, by raising
and drawing back the head, in a similar way to the action of the bearing
rein, eight kilogrammes were transferred from the fore to the hind scales,
and this should not be forgotten in discussing the merits and demerits of
that much-abused instrument of torture. M. Baucher then mounted the
mare, when it was found that his weight, which was sixty-four kilogrammes,
was placed in the proportion of forty-one kilogrammes on the fore-quarters
to twenty-three on the hind. A considerable change was of course pi'o-
duced by leaning backward, and by using the reins in the manner of the
bearing rein, the former transfening ten kilogrammes from the fore to the
hind-quarters, and the latter act adding eight more.

Every practised horseman knows that his horse's fore-legs will suiFer
in proportion to the weight which is thrown on them, while their relief is
an additional source of strain to the hind-legs. The spavined, and more
especially the curby-hocked horse, relieves these parts by using his fore-legs
to carry more than their proper proportion of weight, while the animal
affected with any painful disease of the fore-limbs carries almost all the
weight of his body on his hind-legs, which are advanced under him in the
most peculiar manner. The value of artificially changing the natural
carriage of the horse, so as to make his hind-legs come forward and carry
more than their own share of weight, is chiefly felt in chargers, hacks, and
harness horses, while, on the contrary, it is injurious to the hunter and
race-horse, whose hind-quarters bear the greatest strain.

THE ATTITUDE ASSUMED IN STANDING

Standing may be considered under two heads, the first comprising the
attitude naturally assumed by the horse when inclined to rest himself, and
the second that forced upon him by education, for the sake either of
appearances, or to keep him I'eady to start at a moment's notice, as in the
cavalry horse. When standing free or naturally the horse always rests one
leg, and that generally a hind one, changing from one to the other as each
becomes tired in its turn. In the forced attitude all four are on the ground,
and each supports its share of the superincumbent weight. In either case
the different joints are kept from bending, by the almost involuntary
combined action of the flexor and extensor muscles, which will keep him
standing even in sleep, in which respect he differs from the human subject.
The oblique position of the pasterns affords a considerable aid, but without
the semi-involuntary support afforded by the muscles, the stifle and hock
joints beliind, and the shoulder and elbow before, would inevitably give
way.

MODE OF PROGRESSION

In moving forward, whatever the case may be, the hind quarters are
the main propellers, and thrust the body forward on the fore-legs, which
serve as imperfect segments of wheels, each in its turn making a revolution
forwards and backwards thi^ough a segment of a circle, like a pendulum.
This forward motion is either effected by one hind-leg at a time, as in the

THE CANTER

143

walk, trot, amble and rack, or by the two, nearly if not quite synchronously,
as in the canter, gallop, and leap. In any case, the hind-legs (or leg) must
be drawn forwards under the body, or the body thrust backwards upon
them, when a contraction of various muscles tends to straighten them, and
as they are fixed upon the ground, which acts as a fulcrum, the body
must give way, and thus passes forward with a speed and force propor-
tionate to the muscular power exerted. In the various paces this mecha-
nical action is differently effected in detail, but the principle is the same
in all those contained in each class to which I have alluded. In the first
the weight is borne by the hind and fore-quarters between them, while pro-
pulsion is effected by one side of the former ; but in the second, it is taken
at intervals by the fore and hind Hmbs, the latter propelling it with great
force, and the former serving as props to it when it comes to the ground
from the air, and also causinc; it to re-bound for another interval of time.

THE CANTER

The canter is a thoroughly artificial pace, at first extremely tiring to
the horse, and generally only to be produced in him by the restraint of a
powerful bit, which compels him to throw a great part of his weight on.
his haunches. It is very difficult to describe or define this pace, either in

a pen-and-ink sketch or by the aid of the painter. Indeed it is often
quite a matter of opinion to decide whether a horse is cantering or
galloping. Many writers, and among them Mr. Blaine, have attempted
to draw a distinction, by confining the canter to the pace which is executed
without the feet ever leaving the ground altogether; but this definition
is not generally admitted and followed, and many a horse whose canter
would be readily allowed by all horsemen to be true, may be seen to leave

144 THE HORSE

the ground entirely for a certain interval of time, however small it may be.
There is so great a variety in the modes adopted by different horses fof
performing the canter, that no single description will suffice, nor indeed is
it easy, as I before observed, to define any one of them. Sometimes the
carriage is extremely elegant, the hind-legs well under the body, and all
moving like clockwork, with the head bent on the neck, and the mouth
playing lightly on the bit. When such a pace is performed with the right
leg leading, the canter is exactly adapted for the female seat, in which the
right shoulder is of necessity slightly advanced, and it is therefore the
object of the breaker to obtain it. But it is only in those horses which
combine a free use of their limbs with fine temper and good mouths, that
such a pace can be developed, and if any one of these qualities is deficient
it is useless to attempt to teach them. On the other hand, the pony or
galloway will often canter without throwing any extra weight on his hind-
legs, with a loose rein and extended neck. This kind of pace may be

detected by the ear on a turnpike road, by the quick pat-ter-ring sound
which is evolved. It is extremely easy to the horseman, but is not so
Avell adapted to female equestrianism, as it jerks the body in an ungraceful
manner. The true canter, as adapted for ladies, is indicated above. When
the off-leg leads, the near one has to bear more than its share of work, and
hence, unless a change is occasionally made, the fetlock-joint of that leg
is almost sure to suffer. Ladies should therefore either trot for a part of
their daily rides, or teach themselves and their horses to change the lead
from that with the off-leg to that with the near.

The canter is a three-time movement generally, as proved by photographs
taken of heavy horses while in motion, but in the light riding-school hack,
accustomed to make short collected movements, it may be one of four-time.

As an example, commencing with the support of the off hind-limb, the
sequence will be — (1) off hind, (2) off fore and near hind, (3) near fore,
commonly but not always followed by a»period of suspension before the off

THE WALK

145

hind comes down. The leading fore-leg is that wliich does not form the
diagonal support.

THE WALK

Before instantaneous photography had proved otherwise it used to be
supposed that two feet must necessarily be upon the ground at once while

the diagonals were advanced, and that the legs moving in pairs synchron-
ously, four would be on the ground for a fraction of time. The camera

146 THE HOKSE

proves that as many as three feet may be on the ground but never four.
The diagonal limbs in quadrupeds do not act synchronously as at a slow
pace it is more difficult to maintain the equilibrium. The centre of gravity

always falls within a triangle because the horse rests on two front legs, and
one hind one, but not on two only. The duration of time in which the

centre of gravity has but two supports is diminished by one foot holding
the ground while the other is advanced.

As to which foot shall be put forward when a horse commences to walk
will depend on habit or convenience. One trained to stand to " attention "
(not resting a hind-leg as he otherwise would) will lead off with his near

THE TROT 147

fore, if a well-trained saddle-horse, but if standing at ease without bit or
bridle, he will be as likely to use one limb as another.

When desiring to increase the pace he extends the length of the strides,
making them uniform and only breaking into a trot when a difficulty is
•experienced in any further extension.

The walk is a four-time movement, the limbs moving one after the other
in about half the time which is occupied in one step.

In the case of the well-trained saddle-horse referred to above, and in
which the lead is taken with the near fore, the sequence will be — (1) near
fore, (2) off hind, (3) off fore, (4) near hind ; while if the animal's move-
ments commence with the near hind, the sequence will be — (1) near hind,
(2) near fore, (3) off hind, (4) off fore ; and the resulting supports — (1) right
pair, (2) right diagonals, (3) left pair, and (4) left diagonals.

THE TROT

This pace may be described under three heads, namely, the jog trot,
the true trot, and the flying trot. In all three the diagonal limbs move
exactly together, but in the first the time during which each foot is on
the ground is much greater than that in which it is in the air. In the
second, the contrary is the case ; while, in the third, the horse is carried
completely off his legs for a considerable space of time, between the several
bounds which are made by the two feet of opposite sides as they touch the
ground in succession. The jog trot seems to come naturally to the horse
when he is first mounted ; and as long as he is fresh and fiery, the colt
will maintain this pace, unless he is permitted to exceed it. He will prefer
it to the walk for a long time; and it is only by good hands, combined
with patience, that a spirited colt can be made to walk ; for he can
generally jog quite as slowly, and often much more so. Farmers are very
apt to accustom their young horses to the jog trot, because they find by
experience that it does not injure their legs or feet; but to a rider
unaccustomed to this pace it is by no means an easy one. In the true
trot, as exemplified below, the feet are on the gi'ound a comparatively short
space of time, the body being carried so rapidly forward that they are
moved off almost as soon as they are deposited on it. By examining this
outline, it will be seen that the position of the fore and hind limbs of
the two opposite sides exactly corresponds, and this will be the case,
whatever may be the period of the action in which the observation is made.

The trot is a two-time movement effected by the alternate action of
the two diagonals, the fore and hind-legs moving in the same way.

Fig. 1 shows the left diagonals or near fore and off hind supporting the
horse while the off fore and near hind limbs are flexed.

Fig. 2. The position is reversed, the opposite diagonals being shown as
supporting the animal, while the near fore and off hind are reflexed.

Figs. 3 and 4 represent the position occupied immediately prior to the
feet leaving the ground.

In the flying trot, which is well shown in the portrait of Flora Temple,
at page 4G, all the legs are for a very short period of time off the ground,
as is there delineated, but still there is always an exact correspondence

U8

THE HORSE

between the position of the fore and hind-legs of opposite sides. The chief
difference between these three vai'ieties of the trot consists in the rapidity
of the propulsion which is going on. This in the first is very slight ; and
the more elastic the fetlock-joints, the better and softer is this pace. The

feet are raised, and the legs are rounded or bent ; but the body is not
thrust forward, nor are the shoulders moved in the same direction to any
appreciable extent. The consequence is, that the feet are deposited again

very close to the spot from which they are taken, and the pace is as slow
as the walk. In the true trot, if it is well performed, the hind-legs must
be moved as rapidly as, and with more force than, the fore-legs, because
they have more work to do in propelling the body, the latter having only
to sustain it during the operation. Good judges, therefore, regard the
hind action as of even more importance than that of the knees and

THE TROT

14J

shoulders ; for if the former do not drive the body well forward, good
pace cannot be obtained, nor will it be easy and rhythmical. In this kind
of trot elastic fetlocks are fatal to speed, as they prevent the instantaneous
eflfect upon the body of the muscular contractions of the hind limbs, and

cause the action to be dwelling and slow. Very fast trotters are, therefore,
rough in their " feel " to the rider, and are not suited for the purposes of
pleasure. Indeed, no one would mount one of them from choice ; but

when they possess good mouths, they are pleasant enough to drive. In
examining trotting action, regard should be paid to the plane through
which each limb passes, for if this is not parallel with that of the median
line of the body the action is not true and smooth, and there is great risk
of one limb cutting the other. This is best seen by watching the trot

150 THE HORSE

from behind as -svell as before, which gives an opportunity of investigating
the movements of both pairs of limbs. Every horse should be so made
that, when he stands, his fore cannon-bones should be quite parallel ; but in
order to be so, as they stand closer together than his elbows, they must
form a slight angle with the arm at the knee ; and hence, as this part
is bent, there is always a slight tendency to turn out the foot, the ex-
aggerated form of which is called " dishing." The observer will, therefore,
do well to ascertain the extent to which this should be carried, or he will
be apt to condemn a perfect goer as a " disher," from finding that he turns
out his toes in bending the knee, though only in the trifling degree ordained
by nature. If, in bending by the hand the fore-foot to the elbow, the
inner heel of the shoe is in contact with the outside of the arm, there will
not be too much turning out of the foot, and the purchaser need not be
afraid of this defect existing in the horse he is examining. Provided the
fetlocks and cannon-bones are not actually touched or " hit " in trotting, the
fore-legs cannot be moved too closely together ; but if they pass very near
to one another in a fat dealer's horse, it may be suspected that when he
is reduced in flesh to a proper working condition, boots will be necessary.
A practised eye is required to judge of this correctly, and, if there is any
doubt, one had better be consulted. In London, for park-riding and
driving, very high and round action is the fashion, and fabulous prices
are given for well-shaped animals which can " pull their knees " almost up
to their noses. Pace is sacrificed ; and many of the most highly-prized
London trotters are unable to do ten miles an hour. A favourable specimen
of this kind of trotting action is shown in the cab-horse at page 130, in
which the shoulders are so well-formed that although the knee is remarkably
well-bent and raised, the whole limb is well thrust forward, and the action
of the hind-legs also is so propulsive that a faster pace than usual is
obtained.

The Norfolk trotter of the present day has very perfect action, inter-
mediate between the pointed and flying trot of the American horse, and
the round high knee-action of the London park-horse. Even he, however,
is not nearly so pleasant to ride as the thoroughbred, when the latter can
trot at all ; but many of this breed have been so long accustomed to the
gallop, that their trot is a most imperfect pace. When they do perform
it properlj', it gives a most delightful feel, and no rider for pleasure, if
money is at his command, should "throw his leg" over any but a
thoroughbred, or one nearly pure in blood.

THE HAND GALLOP

Between the caxter and the true gallop there intervenes a pace which
may be easily confounded with either, unless Mr. Blaine's definition of the
canter is accepted, when the hand gallop can easily be distinguished from it.
This pace is merely a slow and measured gallop, in which for a very short
period all the legs leave the ground, but in which the propulsion is steadily
given, and not with those snatches or jerks which are necessary to develop
the high speed of the extended gallop. The body also is not nearer the
ground than in the act of standing, and this may be considered as one of

THE GALLOP

151

the best distinctions between the hand gallop and the extended stride of the
faster pace. The French writers distinguish between the two by asserting
that in the hand gallop there are three beats, while in the flying gallop two
only are performed ; but in practice there is no such variation.

In Stillman's Horse in Motion the hand gallop is ignored altogether,
although Muybridge employed a range of twenty-four cameras and spent
years in the production of thousands of photographs. Captain Hayes
{Points of the Horse) distinguishes between a " typical canter " and a
" smooth style of canter, which might be tei'med (to use a popular expres-
sion) a hand gallop."

THE GALLOP

There are still many artists who regret the introduction of instantaneous
photography, and regard the discovery as revealing ugliness instead of
beauty. Mr. Stanford, who is responsible for the revolution, said, " a revela-
tion so startling as that made by the camera carried results too far-reaching
and revolutionary to be at once accepted, though it came direct from heaven.
There is too much capital invested in works of art all over the world to

RECEIVED INTERPRETATION OF THE GALLOP.

permit the innovation without protest, and ridicule is the cheapest argument
that can be employed in controversy, for it does not require truth for its
foundation, and but a low order of talent for its display." Since these
words were written by Mr. Stanford, who must have spent many hundreds
of pounds in experiment, truth has prevailed.

The great work from which the above paragraph is quoted, is not so well
known in England as it deserves to be. Marie and others on the Continent
have amply confirmed the American's discovery, and Captain Hayes has
made the subject well understood in his own clear and concise manner in
Points of the Horse, which he has illustrated very fully.

The gallop, or, as Stillman prefers to call it, the run, is a pace of four-
time, in which the feet follow one another successively, allowing an interval
in which the leading fore-foot touches ground and then that of the opposite
hind one. In the canter it is not so, the front diagonal support touches the

1C2 THE HORSE

ground at the same time or even sooner than its hind fellow, but follows it in the
gallop. The diflference in the canter and the gallop consists in this interval
and the greater extension of the fore-leg that is not leading. The rider can

feel when the canter becomes the gallop, and as a matter of fact it is only a
question of speed or reach of fore-leg. Whichever fore-leg is leading is
required to support the body longer than either of the others, the

time in which they sustain it being about equally divided. It will readily
be understood then, how much more liable to sprains must be the tendons
and ligaments of the fore-legs than the hind ones. The fore-legs have

THE GALLOP 153

to bear a greater weight and for a longer time, even supposing no rider is
on the animal's back.

Over extension rather than concussion or sudden jerks is the most

frequent cause of strained back tendons. When galloping, or indeed going
at any other pace in deep ground, sprain of the leg that is not leading is
liable from the fact that it has just prior to the period of suspension to help

raise the fore-hand by making the fetlock straight, and in addition to over-
come the suction of wet land.

The fast galloper has never more than two feet on the ground, or rarely
and but for a fraction of a second, suspension being brought about by
flexing (doubling up) the legs rather than by elevating the body from the
ground.

As IN THE CANTER SO in the gallop, a lead is always made of one leg

154

THE HORSE

before the other, and as one tires the other changes places with it. A
good, true, and strong galloper will seldom require this relief, but a weak
one, especially if not completely broken, will effect the change continually.
Sometimes this causes the loss of a race, for it cannot be done without

interfering with the action, and consequently with the pace. A good
horseman prefers that his horse should not confine himself to one lead,
but he does not like him to change after he has once started, for the above

reason. The right leg in front is more easy even to the male rider than
the left, but not materially so, and except for female equestrianism no
horse should be taught to lead invariably with the right leg either in the
gallop or canter. In the change the truth or harmony of action is often

THE GALLOP 155

disturbed, and the horse jerks himself and his rider in a disagreeable
manner, which is another reason why the change of legs should not be
encouraged.

There is a great variation in the length of the stride, and in the
rounding or bending upwards of the foot under the knee. Sometimes
even in a fast gallop the distance between the prints of the same feet will
be no more than sixteen feet, while in others it will measure twenty-four,

twenty-five, or even twenty-six feet. The first is too short for any race-
horse ; but a moderately short stride enables the horse to get off with a
quicker start, and to ascend and descend hills better than a very long one.
Where, however, a distance of level ground is to be covered a long stride
tells, and a horse possessing it has a great advantage over one whose gallop
is short, however quick and smart it may be. For this long stride theru
must be length of limb, especially of the two bones meeting at the stifle
joint ; and this is the perfection of the form of the race-horse, as I have
already described at page 104.

THE AMBLE

The amble is an artificial pace which few horses adopt except under com
pulsion, although we are told by such high authorities as Barrier and
Gobaux, that colts are sometimes met with which amble at first and learn to
trot subsequently, when they have become older and stronger. On the same
authority we are assured that ambling is again resorted to by old animals or
those whose legs have suffered severe wear.

It is a two-time pace, consisting in alternate progressive movement of
the right and left pair of legs.

In the fast amble, which in America is called " pacing," there is between

156

THE HORSE

each stroke a short period of suspension, not discernible in the ordinary
amble. . .

There is no more comfortable pace than the amble, and in countries where

long distances have perforce to be performed on horseback it is much more
p.opular than in England.

The instability of the equilibrium in this pace necessitates it being some

Nvhat fast, probably faster than the trot of the same horse, on the principle of
the spinning-top.

In the cameleopard the amble is the only kind of progression, whether
the animal goes slowly or fast ; and in dogs, especially in pointers, grey-
hounds, and Newfoundlands, this pace is occasionally displayed.

LEAPING OR JUMPING 157

THE PACES OF THE MANEGE

In the military schools op riding a variety of paces are taught even
in the present day, but the old riding-masters adopted many more, which
are now discontinued. Some of them are intended to enable the soldier
to use his sword or spear with double advantage, as the volte and semi-
volte, but the majority of those still retained are for the purpose of
carrying out the combined evolutions necessary to cavalry. The " passage,"
for instance, is a side movement, that enables a number of horses to be
changed from close to open order, which would be a difficult task to per-
form with horses not taught to perform it. Backing is likewise necessary
for similar purposes ; but this should always be taught to every horse,
whether used by the military or by civilians, A minute description,
however, of the several paces of the manege would occupy too much
space here, and is only useful to the cavalry soldier, who will learn their
nature much better from practical instruction by the riding-master of his
regiment.

LEAPING OR JUMPING

In the canter or gallop the first period of suspension occurs when
the leading fore-leg is raised, but in the leap it takes place at the moment
when the hind-legs leave the ground.

The take-off. — The horse which walks up to a fence and takes it stand-
ing, does so by rearing on his hind-supports and projecting himself in an
upward and forward direction.

If trotting or ambling he takes off from either fore-leg (the most con-
venient), bringing the hind ones under the body.

In the canter or gallop the take-off commences with placing the leading
fore-foot down, changing the pace on the instant, and planting the hind-feet
well under the body. This may be easily seen by the footprints in soft
ground, the hind ones (making a different impression) being found close to
that made by the leading fore.

Cleverness in jumping, which is partly hereditary and partly the result
of training, is largely due to an ability to calculate distance in such a
manner that during the last 15 to 25 feet before the obstacle is reached
the psychological moment shall be chosen for the take-off. Failing this
nice estimate the animal will take off short or be compelled to jump " too
l^'g," and with the result of landing into instead of over the object, or of
unseating the indifferent horseman who is not prepared for the rise. A
long-striding horse is more liable to make this mistake than others,
while one who " creeps '' up to his fences is generally esteemed in a
cramped or "blind " country. The flying jumper is all very well for hurdle
races or a made course, but the animal which can regulate his stride is the
more valuable as a safe conveyance over a countiy.

Since there is only one period of the canter or stride at which a horse
can take off for the jump, it is well that he should be able to do so from
other paces, or he will be " pounded " in a narrow lane, out of which some

158

THE HORSE

very indifferent performer could extricate himself with ease. For high
jumps a certain amount of impetus is necessary, foV, as Captain Hayes
points out, the horse " has a long distance to carry over a fence (that from
his hocks or buttocks to his muzzle) independently of raising it to a suih-
cient height : hence his high jump partakes more of the long jump than
the high jump of a man, whose body is carried more vertically than
horizontally."

The speed and impetus obtained will therefore determine the width he
can clear, provided, of course, that the pace is not such as to preclude him
from collecting himself at the moment prior to taking off. It is not a fact
that speed helps a horse in a high jump, as greater weight is thrown on the
fore-hand at a fast pace, and the difficulty of raising the fore-hand by the

leading leg is increased. Experience has of course taught hunting-men to
ride slowly at stiff fences. The horse ridden fast at timber takes off sooner
than he would otherwise do, but compensation is not wholly assured to him
in this manner.

By raising the head and bringing back the centre of gravity the angle
of elevation is increased, and the nearer the hind-feet are brought forward
to the leading foot(print) the greater the angle at which his body can bo
projected forward. When commencing the leap hind-legs are straightened
to a great extent and the fore-hand raised, a position in which the weight
of the rider must necessarily affect the animal's capacity to rise. Captain
Hayes, speaking for the horse, says " The rider should refrain from leaning
forward when a horse is rising at an obstacle. He should, on the contrary
if anything, lean back at the moment so as not to put any avoidable weight
on the fore-hand."

Mr. E. L. Anderson, speaking for the rider, gives the following direc-
tions : " As the horse rises for the leap the rider will lean forward, yielding
the hand at the same time, so that there shall be no tension upon the
reins." This seeming contradiction is quite reconcilable when viewed from

LEAPING OR JUMPING

159

the different stand-points of the two authors, both experts on the subject
of riding. Undoubtedly the horse is impeded in his efforts to rise when
the rider leans forward, but the latter must indeed be a good horseman,
unless, to some extent, he accepts Mr. Anderson's teaching.

While, as has been already stated, the hind-legs are straightened the
clever hunter will double his front ones as closely as possible to avoid
striking, for should the knee come in contact with a stiff rail he will gener-
ally fall, while a blow on the fetlock or other part below may result in

nothing worse than a "peck." In the same way a well-schooled hunter
tucks up his hind-legs the moment they leave the ground, and he is
prepared to use his limbs while in the air in whatever mamier seems most
likely to serve him on the other side, which he cannot always see until he
has I'isen above the obstacle.

Landing. — If one watches a good jumper, taken steadily over moderate
fences, he appears to first extend his front-legs to the fullest, and then
come down on both feet at the same time. The camera proves the exten-
sion, but, it is found that one foot is slightly in advance of the other and
comes down before it. On consideration, it will be seen that it is a safer
method than if the animal came down on both feet at once, as one knee is
slightly bent and ready to save him from a fall if the first leg fails from not
being perfectly straight as it should be, at the moment of impact with the
ground.

As a fall generally results from the knee being bent, one would naturaUy
suppose that a horse " over " at the knee, would be a very unsafe animal
to ride, but the editor's experience does not confirm this. It may be that

IGO

THE HORSE

the horse has become so during a long experience of jumping, and learned
to accommodate himself to a defect of which he is conscious.

\^M if^A^<^.\r^^. z.^. -.T,^^-. ;^o«.

■|.?^> j:»»{v«a««Sf-.'*5tt* c<»>-

Deep, " holding " ground delays the removal of the fore-feet so that over-
reaching takes place, and the toe or quarter of a hind-foot strikes the heel
or fetlock of a front one.

CHAPTER X

THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING APPLICABLE TO THE HORSE

THEORY OF GEXEEATIOX — IN-AND-IN BREEDING — OUT-CROSSING — ADA'ANTAGES AND DIS-
ADVANTAGES OF EACH I'LAN— CAUSES OF A " HIT " — IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND
SOUNDNESS IN BOTH SIRE AND DAM — BEST AGE TO BREED FROM — THE INFLUENCE OF
THE SIRE AND DAM RESPECTIVELY — CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM — SELECTION OF BLOOD
IN EACH CLASS OF HORSE— THE KIND OF HORSE MOST PROFITABLE FOR THE BREEDER
TO CHOOSE— CONCLUDING REMARKS ON BREEDING.

THEORY OF GENERATION

The IMPORTANCE of understanding the principles upon wliicli the breeding
of the horse should be conducted is so great that every one who super-
intends a stud, however small, should study them carefully. To do this
with advantage, he must investigate the changes which take place after
the union between the sexes, and must endeavour to ascertain the influence
which the sire and dam respectively exert upon their offspring.

In the year 1855, while engaged in preparing the article on the breeding
of the horse in British Rural Sports, I carefully drew up the following
epitome of the laws which govern the generation of the mammalia. Since
then, the subject has constantly been before me ; but, in spite of the
numerous investigations carried on by other observers, I have seen no
reason to modify, in any material degree, what I then wrote ; and I shall,
therefore, to prevent confusion, insert it entire, what slight additions may
be necessary being included within parentheses.

1. The UNION of the sexes is, in all the higher animals, necessary for
reproduction ; the male and female each taking their respective share.

2. The office op the Male is to secrete the semen in the testes, and
emit it into the uterus of the female, (in or near which organ) it comes in
contact with the ovum of the female — which remains sterile without it.

3. The Female forms the ovum in the ovari/, and at regular times, vary-
ing in different animals, this descends into the uterus, for the pui'pose of
fructification, on receiving the stimulus and addition of the sperm-cell of
the semen.

4. The Semen consists of two portions — the spermatozoa, which have
an automatic power of moving from place to place, by which quality it is
believed that the semen is carried to the ovum ; and the sperm-cells, which

161 M

162 THE HORSE

are intended to co-operate with the germ-ccU of the ovum in forming the
embrA'O.

5. The Ovum consists of the germ-cell, intended to form part of the
embryo — and of the yolk, which nourishes both, until the vessels of the
mother take upon themselves the task ; or, in oviparous animals, till
hatching takes place, and external food is to be obtained. The ovum is
carried down by the contractile power of the fallopian tubes from the
ovary to the uterus, and hence it does not require automatic particles like
the semen.

6. The Embryo, or young animal, is the result of the contact of the
semen with the ovum, immediately after which the sperm-cell of the former
is absorbed into the germ-cell of the latter. Upon this a tendency to
increase or "grow" is established and supported, at first, by the nutriment
contained in the yolk of the ovum, until the embryo has attached itself to
the Avails of the uterus, from which it afterwards absorbs its nourishment
by the intervention of the placenta.

7. As THE Male and Female each furnish their quota to the forma-
tion of the embryo, it is reasonable to expect that each shall be repre-
sented in ife, which is found to be the case in nature ; but as the food oi
the embryo entirely- depends upon the mother, it may be expected that
the health of the offspring and its constitutional powers will be more in
accordance with her state than with that of the father ; yet since the sire
furnishes one-half of the original germ, it is not surprising that in externals
and general character there is retained a facsimile, to a certain extent,
of him.

8. The Ovuai of Mammalia differs from that of birds chiefly in the
greater size of the yolk of the latter, because in them this body is intended
to support the growth of the embryo from the time of the full formation
of the egg until the period of hatching. On the other hand, in mammalia
the placenta conveys nourishment from the internal surface of the uterus
to the embryo during the whole time which elapses between the entrance
of the ovum into the uterus and its birth. This period embraces nearly
the whole of the interval between conception and birth, and is called
ultra-gestation.

9. In all the Mammalia there is a Periodical " Heat," mai^ked by
certain discharges in the female, and sometimes by other remarkable
symptoms in the male (as in the rutting of the deer). In the former it is
accompanied in all healthy subjects by tlie descent of an ovum or ova into
the uterus ; and in both there is a strong desire for sexual intercourse,
which never takes place at other times in them (with the single exception
of the genus Dimana).

10. The Semen retains its fructifying power for some days, if it is
conhiincd within the walls of the uterus or vagina, but soon ceases to be
fruitful if kept in any other vessel.^ Hence, although the latter part of
the time of heat is the best for the union of the sexes, because then the
ovum is ready for the contact with the semen, yet if the semen reaches

^ It lias been conveyed in a suitaljle vessel and at the natural temperature of tlie body to
great distances, and extending over many hours without losing its fecundating? properties.
An iuKtruiuent known as the certes inipregnator has been employed successfully, first in
America and subsequeuUy in England.

THEORY OF GENERATION 163

the uterus first, it will still cause a fruitful impregnation, because it
remains there (or in the fallopian tubes) uninjured until the descent of
the ovum.

11. The Influence op the Male upon the embryo is partly dependent
upon the fact, that he furnishes a portion of its substance in the shape of
the sperm-cell, but also in great measure upon the effect exerted upon the
nervous system of the mother by him. Hence, the preponderance of one
or other of the parents will, in great measure, depend upon the greater or
less strength of nervous system in each. No general law is known by
which this can be measured, nor is anything known of the laws which
regulate the temperament, bodily or mental power, colour or conformation
of the resulting offspring.

12. Acquired Qualities are transmitted, whether they belong to the
sire or dam, and also both bodily and mental. As bad qualities are quite
as easily transmitted as good ones, if not more so, it is necessary to take
care that in selecting a male to improve the stock he is free from bad
points, as well as furnished with good ones. It is known by experience
that the good or bad points of the progenitors of the sire or dam are almost
as likely to appear again in the offspring as those of the immediate parents
in whom they are dormant. Hence, in breeding, the rule is, that like
produces like, or the likeness of some ancestor.

13. The purer or less mixed the breed the more likely it is to be
transmitted unaltered to the offspring. Hence, whichever parent is of the
purest blood will be generally more represented in the offspring ; but as
the male is usually more carefully selected and of purer blood than the
female, it generally follows that he exerts more influence than she does ;
the reverse being the case when she is of more unmixed blood than the sire.

14. Breeding "In-and-in" is injurious to mankind, and has always
been forbidden by the Divine law, as well as by most human lawgivers.
On the other hand, it prevails extensively in a state of nature with all
gregarious animals (such as the horse), among whom the strongest male
retains his daughters and grand-daughters until deprived of his harem by
younger and stronger rivals. Hence, in those of our domestic animals
which are naturally gregarious, it is reasonable to conclude that breeding
" in-and-in " is not prejudicial, because it is in conformity with their
natural instincts, if not carried farther by art than nature teaches by
her example. Now, in nature, we find about two consecutive crosses of
the same blood is the usual extent to which it is carried, as the life of
the animal is the limit ; and it is a remarkable fact that, in practice,
a conclusion has been arrived at which exactly coincides with these
natural laws. " Once in and once out " is the rule for breeding given by
Mr. Smith in his work on the breeding for the turf ; but twice in will
be found to be more in accordance with the practice of our most successful
(early) breeders.

15. The influence of the first impregnation seems to extend to the
subsequent ones ; this has been proved by several experiments, and is
especially marked in the equine genus. In the series of examples pre-
served in the museum of the College of Surgeons, the markings of the
male quagga, when united with the ordinary mare, are continued clearly
for three generations beyond the one in which the quagga w^as the actual

1 34 THE HORSE

sire : and they are so clear as to leave the question settled without a
doubt. 1

16. When some of the elements of which an individual sire is com-
posed are in accordance with others making up those of the dam, they
coalesce in such a kindred way as to make what is called a " hit." On the
other hand, when they are too incongruous, an animal is the result wholly
unfitted for the task he is intended to perform.

These principles, together with the observations following upon them,
have been quoted verbatim, at great length, by the late Mr. Herbert, in
his elaborate quarto work on " The Horse of America," with the very
flattering testimony that he had done so " not for the purpose of avoiding
trouble, or sparing time, but because he conceives the principles laid down
to be correct throughout, the reasoning logical and cogent, the examples
well taken, and the deductions such as can scarcely be denied." In support
of this opinion, he adduces several instances in which a " hit " has occurred
in America by carrying out the last axiom in the preceding list. Thus he
says, at page 260 of his second volume, "I think myself that it is made
clear by recent events, and that such is shown to be the case by the tables
of racing stock given at the close of the first volume,- that, previous to the
last quarter of a century, the American turfman was probably breeding in
too much of the old Virginian and South Carolina ante-revolutionary stock,
and that the American race-horse has been improved by the recent cross
of modern English blood. It is also worthy of remark, that every one of
the four most successful of modern English stallions in this country which
have most decidedly hit with our old stock — Leviathan, Sarpedon, Priatn,
and Glencoe — all trace back to sevei'al crosses of Herod blood ; Glencoe
and Priam not less than three or four several times each to crosses of
Partner blood, and directly several times over to the Godolphin Barb, or
Arabian, which are the very strains from which our Virginian stock
derives its peculiar excellence. It is farther worthy of remark, that two
stallions have decidedly hit with the imported English mare Reel, as
proved by her progeny, Lecompte and Prioress, respectively to Boston and
Sovereign. Now Reel, through Glencoe, Catton, Gohanna, and Smolensko,
has herself no less than seven distinct strains of Herod blood. Boston, as
every one knows, traces directly through Timoleon, Sir Archy, Diomed,
riorizel, to Herod, Sovereign, also, through Emilius, his sire, has Herod
on both lines as his paternal and maternal g.g.g. sire ; and Tartar, the sire
of Herod, a third time, in one remove yet farther back. Now this would
go to justify Stonehenge's opinion that the recurrence to the same original
old strains of blood, when such strains have been sufficiently intermixed
and rendered new by other more recent crosses, is not injurious, but of
great advantage ; and that, on the whole, it is better, cceteris jx^fibus, to
do such than to try experiments with extreme out-crosses."

^ lu 1897 a pony mare, the property of Lord Morton, gave birth to a foal with well-maiked
zebra stripes through the influence of a previous sire. The case excited very wide interest
in natural history circles as proof of telegony, which is now considered to be finally settled.
— Editou.

^ These tables I haveextenaively drawn upon at pages •18-52 et seq., correcting thcni where
they required it.

IN-AND-IN BREEDING 165

IN-AND-IN BREEDING

When any new breed of animals is first introduced into this country,
in-and-in breeding (by which is to be understood the pairing of relations
within the degree of second cousins twice or more in succession) can
scarcely be avoided ; and hence, when first the value of the Arab was
generally recognized, the breeder of the race-horse of those days could not
well avoid having recourse to the plan. Thus we find, in the early pages
of the Stud-book, constant instances of very close in-breeding, often carried
to such an extent as to become incestuous. The result was our modern
thorough-bred ; but it does not follow that because the plan answered in
producing that celebrated kind of animal, it will be equally successful in
keeping up the breed in its original perfection. In British Rural Sports,
I have given a series of examples of success resulting from each plan,
which I shall not now repeat, merely remarking that the opinion which
I formed from an attentive examination of them remains unchanged. This
opinion was expressed in the following words : —

" If the whole of the pedigrees to which I have drawn attention are
attentively examined, the breeder can have no hesitation in coming to the
conclusion, that in-bx'eeding, carried out once or twice, is not only not a
bad practice, but is likely to be attended with good results. Let him ask
what horses have been the most remarkable of late years as stallions, and,
with very few exceptions, he will find they were considerably in-bred. It
has been remarked, that the Touchstone and Defence blood almost always
hits with the Selim ; but it is forgotten that the one was ah-eady crossed
with that horse, and the other with his brother Rubens. On the other
hand, the Whisker blood in the Colonel has not succeeded so well, it
being made up of much crossed and more distantly related particles, and
therefore not hitting with the Selim and Castrel blood, like his cousins.
Touchstone and Defence. It has, however, partially succeeded when
in-bred to the Waxy and Buzzai^d blood, as in Chatham and Fugleman,
who both reunite these three strains. The same applies to Coronation,
who unites the Whalebone blood in Sir Hercules with that of Rubens in
Ruby; but as Waxy and Buzzard, the respective ancestors of all theso
horses, were both grandsons of Herod, and great-grandsons of Snap, it
only strengthens the argument in favour of in-breeding. This conclusion
is in accordance with the 14th and 15th axioms, which embody the state
of our present knowledge of the theory of generation ; and if they are
examined, they will be seen to bear upon the present subject, so as to lead
one to advise the carrying out of the practice of in-and-in breeding to the
same extent as has been found so successful in the instances which I have
given. Purity of blood is intimately connected with the practice, because
the nearer it is to one standard, the more unniixed it is, and by con-
sequence the more fully it is represented in the produce. Hence, it is
doubly needful to take care that this pure blood is of a good kind ; because
if bad, it will perpetuate its bad qualities just as closely as it would the
good, or perhaps still more so."

I have nothing to add to these remarks ; and if I were to adduce the

166 THE HORSE

few instances in their support which Ccan have occurred since 1855-6,
when they wei-e written, I should add little to the mass of evidence which
I have ah-eady collected. An appeal to the past can only be answered in
the way which I have recorded ; for the evidence of repeated success in
resorting to the practice of in-breeding is too strong to be gainsaid. We
will now consider whether the effects of an out-cross are of superior or
equal value.

OUT-CROSSING

Between in-and-ix breeding, which I have defined as the pairing of
animals within the relationship of second cousins, and the opposite
extreme of uniting those which are not at all allied in blood, there are
many degrees ; but as, in the thoroughbred horse, there are scarcely two
in the Stud-book which cannot be traced back to the same stock in one
or more lines, we do not generally understand " a cross " to demand absolute
distinctness of blood. For instance, Teddington is generally considered
as the result of as marked a cross as we ever meet with in the modern
Stud-book. For five generations, the same name never appears in the
pedigree tables of his sire and dam ; but in the sixth, we find the name of
Sir Peter occur three times on the side of his sire, and twice on that of
his dam, besides six other lines of Herod blood on the part of the sire, and
eight on that of the dam. Here, therefore, there was a return to the
original lines of blood, which had been in-bred twice each, after five succes-
sive departures from them as far as could be effected in this particular
kind of horse. These last are called " crosses," though not being exactly
the reverse of in-breeding, for the reason, as I before remarked, that an
absolute freedom from relationship is not to be found, or, if so, extremely
rarely. Breeders very often fancy that they put two animals together
which are without any corresponding lines or strains of blood in their
composition ; whereas, in point of fact, the relationship exists only four
or five degrees off. The horse and mare are, perhaps, fourth or fifth
cousins, often second or third ; but, in examining the Stud-book, the blood
of the sire, grandsire, and great-grandsire is apt to be forgotten, because
it is not given, the name only being mentioned. In the book to which I
have already alluded, I have inserted a long series of pedigree tables,
drawn out to the sixth generation, with a reference also to the earlier
pedigrees ; by which, at one glance, the breeder may see how constantly,
in going back, the same names occur in every table. Eclipse, Herod, and
Conductor, the three contemporary descendants of the Darley Arab, the
Byerley Turk, and the Godolphin Barb, or one of their immediate descend-
ants, will be seen in the fifth, sixth, or seventh remove of all our thorough-
bred horses, and often the names of all three will be found repeated four,
five, or six times apiece ; yet the horse itself whose pedigree is being
examined, as in the instance of Teddington, is considered to be the produce
of a cross, and ia not, therefore, said to be in-bred.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH PLAN IG",

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH

PLAN

Having thus explained the meaning of the two terms, and having, in
British Rural Sports, collected a series of examples of success in crossing
nearly equal in number to those adduced in which in-breeding had been
resorted to advantageously, I shall now proceed to say a few words upon
the probable advantages to be derived from each plan. In the first
place, it may be laid down that nearly an equal number of good horses
have lately been bred by adopting either mode of proceeding ; but no
first-rate horse has appeared whose parents were incestuously allied. In
the second place it may be gathered from experiments with horses and
other domestic animals, that very close in-breeding, continued for any
length of time, is apt to develop the weak points in the constitutions of
the breed in which it is adopted. The cautious breeder, therefoi-e, will
do well to avoid running this risk, and will strive to obtain what he wants
without having recourse to the practice, though, at the same time, he will
make up his mind that it is unwise to sacrifice a single point with this
view, Expeiience tells us that it is useless to expect to develop a new
property or quality in the next generation, by putting a female entirely
deprived of it to a male which possesses it even in a marked degree.
Some instances of success will attend the adoption of this course, but as a
rule it cannot be relied on in the majority of instances. Thus, a slow,
stout mare, containing no lines of fast blood in her pedigree, will not be
likely to breed a fast colt, though put to a flying stallion, whose blood is
not stout in a considerable proportion of his ancestry. Two or three
consecutive crosses with the same or similar blood will almost of a surety
effect the object ; but the first will rai-ely do so. Again, we know, if we
put two animals together, equally in-bi'ed or equally crossed, the produce
is, on the whole, as likely to resemble the one parent as the other, though
there may be a difference of opinion as to particular points. But, if not
thus equally composed of similar elements, the more in-bred parent will
be represented in a greater proportion than the crossed one ; and hence it
follows, that if it is desired to keep up the qualities of the horse or mare
in his or her descendant, the mate must be selected, if possible, less
in-bred than he or she is. West Australian himself and his stock are
excellent examples of this theory. His sire, Melbourne, was the result of
a series of crosses ; while his dam, Mowerina, was in-bred to Whalebone
and Whisker, own brothers ; and her sire and dam were second cousins.
The result has been, that both in " The West " and in his stock the Whale-
bone element has been universally manifested, and not the slightest trace
of Melbourne has ever appeared, as far as my knowledge of his stock allows
me to judge. This is in perfect accordance with the 13th axiom in the
epitome of the laws which govern the breeding of our domestic animals.
(See page 163.)

168 THE HORSE

CAUSES OF A "HIT"

A " HIT," in breeding, is understood to mean an instance of success ,
but though it often occurs, the reason for it is not always very clear. My
own belief is that it generally results, as I have laid down in the 16th
axiom, from the reunion of lines which have been often kept separate for
several generations. Thus, it is a fact (so patent that every writer on the
breeding of the horse, of late years, has admitted its truth), that the
Touchstone and Sultan blood have almost invariably hit. The reason,
granting the premises which I lay down, is plain enough — each goes back
to Selim, the former through the dam of his sire, Camel, and the latter
being son of that horse. Many other examples of a similar nature might be
adduced, though not observed so extensively as in the case of Touchstone,
because few horses have been put to so many mares as he has. I do not
mean to assert that no hit can occur without such a reunion of previously
separated lines, but I believe that, under other circumstances, it will rarely
be found to show itself ; and if, as I before observed, there is a relationship
between all thoroughbred horses, either remote or near-, there must be this
reunion to some extent. This, however, is not what I mean ; the retui-n
must be to a line only removed two, three, or four generations, in order to
be at all marked ; and if more than these intervals exist, the hit cannot
be said to depend upon the reunion, since this must occur in all cases ; and
what is common to all cannot be instanced as a particular cause of any
subsequent result.

The fact really is, as proved by thousands of examples, that by
putting A and B together, the produce is not necessarily made up of half
of each. Both parents have qualities belonging to the several members
of a long line of ancestors, and their son (or daughter) may possibly be
made ujd of as many as seven proportions of one parent, and one propor-
i ion of the other. It generally happens, that if there is any considerable
degree of consanguinity, or even a great resemblance in form, to some of
the ancestry on each side, the produce will draw together those elements,
and will be made up of the characteristics peculiar to them in a very large
proportion. This accounts for the preponderance of the Touchstone form
in the West Australian stock ; while the same horse is overpowered in
Orlando and his stock, by the greater infusion of Selim blood in the dam
Vulture, who is removed exactly in the same degree as Touchstone from
Selim and his bx'other Castrel ; and the two latter, therefore, have more
influence on the stock than the former. Here, then, we have two remark-
able instances, which each .show a hit from the reunion of strains after two
out-crosses ; while, at the same time, they severally display an example of
two lines overpowering one in the stock of the same horse. It may be
argued, that in each case it is the blood of the dam which has overpowered
that of the sire, — West Australian being by ISIelbourne, out of a daughter
of Touchstone ; while Orlando is by Touchstone, out of a mare descended
from two lines of Selim and his brother Castrel. Now, I am myself a
j/reat believer in the influence of the dam over her progeny, and therefore
1 should be ready to accept this argument, were it not that, under ordinary

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND SOUNDNESS 169

circumstances, both Melbourne and Touchstone have been sure to re-
produce their likenesses in their several sons and daughters. Every
racing man who has been on the turf while the Melbournes and Touch-
stones were in their glory, was able, in almost all instances, to say at the
first glance, " That is a Melbourne or a Touchstone colt or filly." But, in
the cases of Orlando and West Australian, the resemblance to their re-
spective sires was not apparent ; and, as I before observed, it is still less
visible in their stock. In the language of the stud, this is called " going
back " to a particular strain ; and it is so constantly observable, that there
is uo necessity for dwelling further upon it.

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH AND SOUNDNESS IN
SIRE AND DAM

Our present breed of horses is undoubtedly less healthy than that
of our ancestors ; and this tendency to unsoundness is not marked in any
particular department of the animal economy, but the defect shows itself
wherever the strain is the greatest from the nature of the work which the
animal has to perform. Thus, the race-horse becomes a roarer, or his legs
and feet give way. The hunter fails chiefly in his wind or his hocks,
because he is not used much on hard ground, and therefore his fore-legs
are not severely tried, as in the case with the racer, who often has to
extend himself over a course rendered almost as hard as a turnpike-road
by the heat of a July or August sun. The harness-horse often becomes a
roarer, from the heavy weights that he has to draw, especially if his wind-
pipe is impeded by his head being confined by the bearing-rein. The hack,
again, suffers chiefly in his legs, from our hax'd macadamized roads ; while
the cart-horse becomes unsound in his hocks or his feet, the former parts
being strained by his severe pulls, and the latter being battered and bruised
against the ground, from having to bear the enormous weight of his carcass.
But it is among our well-bred horses that unsoundness is the most frequent ;
and in them, I believe, it may be traced to the constant breeding from
sires and dams which have been thrown out of training, in consequence of a
break-down, or " making a noise," or from some other form of disease. It
is quite true, that roaring is not necessarily transmitted from father to son ; ^
and it is also manifest that there are several causes which produce it, some
of which are purely accidental, and are not likely to be handed down to the
next generation. The same remarks apply to the eyes ; but in the main, it
may be concluded that disease is hereditary, and that a sound horse is far
more likely to get healthy stock than an unsound one. In the mare,
probably, health is still more essential ; but if the breeder regards his future
success, whether he is establishing a stud of race-horses, or of those devoted
to any kind of slower work, he will carefully eschew every kind of

^ With more careful tabulation of hereditary defects on the part of veterinary surgeons
and breeders, the principle is now so well established that the Duke of Westminster was
well advised in selling "the horse of the century," as Ormonde has been called, and as the
editor of the Field remarked, "at four or five times the price of a sound one." It was
thought that the dry climate of a South American state would cure him of roaring, and so
much did many people regret his leaving the country, that a proposal was set on foot to form
a syndicate for his re-pa>v:hase,

170 THE HORSE

unsoundness, and especially those which are of a constitutional character. If
a horse goes blind in an attack of influenza, or if, without any previous
indications of inflammation, ho breaks down from an accidental caus(% tho
defect may bo passed over, perhaps ; but, on the contrary, when tho blind-
ness comes on in tho form of ordinary cataract, or the break-down is only
the final giving-way in a leg which has been long amiss, I should strongly
advise an avoidance of the horse which has displayed cither the one or the
other. I believe that a Government inspection of all horses and mares used
for breeding purposes would be a great national good ; and I look forward
to its establishment, at no distant time, as the only probable means of
ensuring greater soundness in our breeds of horses. I would not have the
liberty of tho subject interfered with. Let every man breed what he likes, ■
but I would not let him foist tho produce on the public as sound, when they
are almost sure to go amiss as soon as they are woi'ked. Ships must now
all be registered at Lloyd's, in the classes to which they are entitled by
their condition ; and horses, as well as mares, should be registered in the
same way, according to the opinion which the Government inspector may
form as to their health and the probability of getting or producing
sound and useful foals. The purchaser would call for the registration-
mark, when he asked for the pedigree of tho horse he was about to buy ;
and if it was not a favourable one, he would, of course, be placed upon his
guard. If this plan could be carried out in practice, as well as it looks on
paper, much good might be done, I am assured ; but we all know that
inspectors are but mortals, and that they arc liable to bo biased in more
ways than one.

BEST AGE TO BREED FROM

The genkral opinion tlu-oughout England is, that one or other of the
parents should be of mature age ; and that if a very young mare is chosen,
the horse should not be less than eight, ten, or twelve years old. If both
are very young, or very old, the produce is generally small and weakly ;
but Ijy adopting the plan above-mentioned, the services of young and old
may be fully utilized. A great many of our very best performers on tho
turf have been got by old stallions ; as, for instance. Whisker, son of
Waxy, in his twenty-second year ; Emilius, son of Orville, in his twentieth ;
Voltigtuv and Newminster, whose sires were respectively twenty-one and
seventeen ; Blink Bonny, who was got by Melbourne, in his twentieth
year ; and Wiid Dayrell, by Ion, when seventeen years old. To these may
be added. Gemma di Vergy, Lifeboat, and Gunboat, three celebrated sons
of Sir Hercules, and all got by him after he was twenty years old — tho
last named when he was twenty-five years of age. So, also, many were out
of old mares; including Priam, whose dam was twenty when she dropped
him ; Crucifix, the daughter of Octaviaiui, when twenty-two years old ;
Lottery, out of Mandanc, in her twentieth year ; and Brutandorf, produced
by the same mare when she was twenty-two. From these instances, tho
breeder may conclude that age is no bar to success, if matched with youth
on the other side ; but the instances of success in breeding from two j^ged
parents are rare indeed. It is next to be ascertained what is the earliest

INFLUENCE OF SIRE AND DAM RESPECTIVELY 171

age at which this aniinul can 1)C roHcd on for l)roc(ling ; and licro, again,
example is better than theory. The most remarkable instance of moderate
success in adopting this plan is in that of The Ugly l>uck, whose dam,
Monstrosity, was put to Venison when only a two-year-old. The horse,
also, was not more than seven, and the dam of Monstrosity bred her in her
fourth year. But though Ugly Buck promised well as a two-year old, he
failed in his subsequent career, and his example is not, therefore, to be
considered as at all conclusive. Still, his is a most extraordinary instance,
and as such it should not be lost sight of. There are many cases in which
the first produce of a mare has been her best ; such as, in former times,
Mark Anthony, Conductor, Shuttle Pope, Filho da Puta, Sultan, Pericles,
Oiseau, Doctor Syntax, Manfred, and Pantaloon. Nevertheless, these may
be considered to be exceptions, and a large majority of the brood mares in
the Stud-book are credited with their most successful produce subsequently
to their first. The rule generally adopted is to wait till the mare is three
years old before breeding from her, and then to put her to a horse of at
least full maturity — that is to say, seven or eight years old.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SIRE AND DAM
RESPECTIVELY

I HAVE ALREADY at page 33 alluded to this question as relating to the
breeding of the Arab horse in his native country, and have there shown
that the opinions held by Abd-el-Kader in modern days do not coincide
with those which have long been supposed to be general in Arabia. In the
passage which I have there quoted, this celebrated chief attempts to define
the exact part which each parent takes in producing the foal, but he goes
still farther in subsequent answers to the questions asked by General
Daumas, in relation to the value put by the Arabs on their stallions and
marcs respectively. To these Abd-el-Kadcr replies as follows : "It is true
that Arabs prefer mares to horses, but only for the following reasons : the
first is that they look at the profit which may arise from a mare as very
considerable. Some Arabs have realized as much as 20,000 dollars from
the produce of one mare. They have a proverb that ' the fountain-head of
riches is a mare that produces a mare.' This is corroborated by the Prophet
Mahomet, who says, ' Let mares be preferred, their bellies are a treasure,
their backs the seat of honour.' 'The greatest blessing is an intelligent
wife or a mare that produces plenty of foals.' These words are thus ex-
plained by commentators. Their bellies are a treasure because the mai-e by
her produce increases the riches of her master; and their backs are the
seat of honour because the pace of a mare is easier than that of a horse ;
and there be those that say it is sufficiently so as in time to render a
horseman effeminate. The second reason is tliat a mare does not neigh in
war, that she bears hunger, thirst, and heat better than a horse, and that
therefore she is more useful to pco[)le whose riches consist in camels and
sheep. Now all the world knows that our camels and sheep thrive only in
the desert, where the soil is so arid that Arabs drinking chielly milk find
water seldom oftener than every eight or ten days, in consequence of the
distances between the pasturages, which are only to be found in the neigh-

172 THE HORSE

hourhood of wells. The mare is like the serpent, tlieir powers increase in
hot weather and in arid countries. Serpents which live in cold or watery
countries have little venom or courage, so that their bite is seldom mortal,
whereas those that live in hot countries are more irritable, and the
virulence of their poison is increased. Whilst the horse can less easily
bear the heat of the sun, the mare, doubtless from constitutional causes,
finds her energies increase with the greatest heat. The third reason is that
the mare requires less care and less nourishment. The owner can lead and
turn her out to graze with the sheep and camels, and he is not obliged to
have a person constantly watching her ; whereas a horse cannot do without
being highly fed, and he cannot be turned out without an attendant for
obvious reasons. These are the true reasons of an Arab's preference for
mares. It does not arise from the foal inheriting the qualities of the dam
rather than those of the sire ; it does not proceed from its being better at
all times and under all cii'cumstances to ride a mare rather than a horse ;
but it is based upon material intei'ests, and on the necessities enforced by
tlie description of life which Arabs lead. It must, however, be admitted
that a horse is more noble than a mare. He is stronger, more courageous,
and faster. That a horse is stronger than a mare is thus proved. If both
were struck by the same mortal wound a mare would fall at once, but a
horse would seldom drop until he had carried his rider into safety. I saw
a mare struck by a ball on the leg ; the bone was broken ; unable to bear
the pain she fell immediately. A horse was hit in the same manner ; the
broken limb hung only by the skin ; he continued his course, supporting
himself on his sound leg, until he bore his rider from the battle-field and
then fell. The Arabs prefer mares to horses for the reasons I have given,
and those reasons are sufficient to show why amongst us the value attached
to the possession of a mare is greater than that they attach to the posses-
sion of a horse, even though the breeding of each were the same ; for whilst
on the one hand the foal takes more after the sire than the dam, on the
other the proprietor of a horse cannot gain in many years as much as the
proprietor of a mare can gain in one year if she throw a foal. However,
when a horse has displayed any extraordinary qualities, it often happens
that he will not be parted with, probably producing to his master in the
way of booty or otherwise as much as the most valuable mare. I saw
amongst the Annazas, a tribe extending from Bagdad to Syria, horses so
beyond all price that it was almost impossible to purchase them, and
certainly impossible to pay ready money for them. These animals, of a
fabulous value, are sold only to the highest personages, or to rich merchants
who pay for them by thirty or forty instalments, or by a perpetual rent
settled on the vendor or his descendants. The birth of a horse can never
be considered a misfortune by an Arab, however much he may prefer a
mare for the material advantages which they procure. Mares almost
always produce, and it is on that account principally that they are pre-
ferred. I repeat it — the birth of an animal that guarantees its master
against humiliation can never be considered a misfortune. A poet says :
' My brothers reproach me with my debts, yet I never contracted one but
for an honourable purpose. In giving the bread of heaven to all, in
purchasing a horse of noble I'ace, and buying a slave to attend upon me.' " —
Jiaily's Magazine 0/ Sjjorts, June 1860.

IITFLUENCE OF SIRE AKD DAM RESPECTIVELY 173

My own belief in this matter, founded upon observations made during
a long series of years on the horse as well as the dog, is that no rule can
be laid down with any certainty. Much depends upon the comparative
physical power and strength of constitution in each parent, even more
perhaps than the composition of the blood. There have been many
instances of two brothers being used in the stud, both among horses and
greyhounds, in which one has almost invariably got his stock resembling
himself in all particulars, not even excluding colour, while the descendants
of the other have rarely been recognizable as his. Thus among horses the
Touchstones have been mostly brown or dark bay, and as a lot have shown
a high form as race-horses, while the Launcelots have been of all colours,
and have been below mediocrity on the turf. Several examples of the same
nature may be quoted from among greyhounds, such as Ranter, Gipsy
Prince, and Gipsy Royal, three brothers whose stock were as different as
possible, but the fact is so generally recognized that it is not necessary to
dwell upon it. Nov/ surely this difference in the power of transmitting the
likeness of the sire, when the blood is exactly the same as it is observed to
extend over large numbers, can only depend upon a variation in individual
power. Not only does this apply to the males, but the females also show
the same difference. Some mares have gone on producing foals which
afterwards turned out first-class whatever horse they were put to, as, for
instance, Phryne (dam of winners by Pantaloon, Melbourne, and The
Flying Dutchman), Barbelle, who produced Van Tromp by Lanercost, De
Witt by The Provost, and The Flying Dutchman by Bay Middleton ;
Alice Hawthorn, successively as well as successfully put to Birdcatcher,
Melbourne, Touchstone, Windhound, Melbourne or Windhound, and
Sweetmeat; and lastly, Ellerdale, dam of Ellington and EUermere, and
Gildermire by Flying Dutchman, Summei'side by West Australian, and
Wardersmarke by Birdcatcher. On appealing to the greyhound, also, we
see some remarkable instances within the last few years, of which Mr.
Jardine's Ladylike and Mr. Randell's Riot may be considered as very
strong cases in point. The latter bitch also may be instanced as having
been extremely successful in the stud, while her own brother, Ranter, in
the same kennel, was a total failure. There must consequently be some-
thing moi-e than mere breeding to produce a successful result, and this I
am inclined to think resides in the strength of the constitution possessed by
the individual.

But even supposing the horse or mare displays this constitutional power,
there is a something which controls it, as we have seen in the two cases
already instanced of Orlando and West Australian. In the former horse
the influence of the sire, great as it usually has been shown to be, was com-
pelled to succumb to the combination of the three lines traceable to Selim
and his brother Castrel, while in the other this same horse Touchstone
prevailed (still, however, on the side of the dam) apparently only because
there was a combination of two very recently separated lines of Waxy blood
through his sons Whalebone and Whisker. The second of these examples
is the more worthy of note, because, in tracing back the lines of the sire
and dam, the name of Trumpator, from whom Melbourne is lineally de-
scended, is met with three times in the pedigree of the former, and four
times in that of the latter. Here then, but for the nearness of the two

174 THE HORSE

lines of Waxy, I should have expected the produce to follow the Trumpator
strain through Melbourne, but, as I have already observed, beyond ' the
third remove this influence is very much weakened. We may therefore
come to the conclusion that it is not always superior strength of constitu-
tion, nor the greater purity or antiquity of the blood, which determines the
influence to be expected by either parent, but that sometimes the one and
sometimes the other is the cause. And as the former cannot well be deter-
mined, the latter is the foundation for the plans of the breeder, who will on
the whole do well to follow the maxims first laid down by that celebrated
breeder of horses and cattle, the second Earl Spencer, whose opinions were
in conformity with the 13 th axiom for breeders which I have inserted at
page 163.

CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM

The necessity for health in each parent has already been insisted on,
but beyond this point, which is generally admitted, there are several others
to be attended to. Thus, since the preponderance of either over the form
and temper of the progeny will, in all probability, fall to that one which has
the superior purity of blood, it follows that if the breeder wishes to alter in
any important particular the qualities possessed by his mare, he must
select a horse which is either better bred or some of whose lines will
coalesce with those of the dam's which it is desired to perpetuate. Thus,
supposing a mare to be made up of four lines, two of which are decidedly
bad, and one Avhich is so good as to attract the notice of her owner, then
let him look around and select some horse in whose pedigi'ee is to be found
a similar strain, taking care that the relationship is not so close as to lead
to disappointment on the score of the bad effects attributable to in-breeding.
But there are many brood mares not in the Stud-book, whose pedigrees are
not ascertainable, and in their case this rule will not apply. Here a
different plan must be pursued, and a horse must be chosen whose shape,
action, or temper coincide with the particular quality which it is desired to
perpetuate. I am strongly inclined to believe that it is comparatively of
little use to look about for sires who possess those qualities in which the
dam is deficient. Such a course of proceeding has so constantly ended in dis-
appointment, within my own knowledge, that I believe I am justified in
condemning it. A stallion (whether horse or greyhound, the same is
observable) is known to have been very fast, or very stout, as the case may
be, and having obtained the one character or the other, breeders have
supposed that they have only to send mares deficient in either quality, and
they would ensure its development in the produce. If the mare or bitch
happens to possess among her ancestry stout or fast lines of blood, the
produce will display the one or the other, if she is put to a horse possessing
them ; but, on the contrary, if the lines of the dam are all fast, or all stout,
no first cross with a sire possessing the opposite qualities will be likely to
have any effect, though no doubt tliere are some few exceptions to this, as
to all other rules. The instances in support of this position are so numerous
within my own knowledge, that I should scarcely be able to make a begin-
ning, and every one who draws upon his own experience, or who will examine

CHOICE OF SIRE AND DAM 175

the Stud-])Ook and tho Coursing Calendar, \\\\\ find examples without
end throughout every vohniie of eacli. It would be invidious to select any
stallion now in this country, but among those which have been well tried
here in the stud, and are here no longer, may be mentioned the Flying
Dutchman. This horse was well known to have been himself not only fast,
but stout, and, as a consequence, even those breeders who are aware of the
necessity for regarding both o:*: these qualities were induced to breed from
him, expecting that the result would be to give them similar stock in the
next generation. The contrary, however, was the case. In many cases
speed was developed, but in almost every instance, without an exception,
that speed was not allied with staying power. The unlooked-for result has
been attributed to his sire. Bay Middleton, whose stock have been notori-
ously flashy ; but if the pedigree of Barbelle, his dam, is carefully examined,
a still stronger reason may be assigned. If her lines are traced back fire
generations, it will be seen that out of her thirty-two progenitors in that
remove fourteen are descended from Herod or his sire, Tartar, and these in
addition to the already overflowing quantum of the same blood in Bay
Middleton himself. Now I am a great admirer of the blood of Herod, and
I believe him to be one of the chief foundations of the high form of our
modern horses ; but its peculiar characteristic is speed, not stoutness, and it
requii'es a combination with the stouter blood of Eclipse, or some other horse
of that strain, to make the possessor capable of staying a distance. "With
these fast lines the produce of Barbelle has always been fast, but it can scarcely
occasion surprise that her stoutest son, Van Tromp, should be by Lanercost,
nor that Orlando, with his double lines of Selim and Castrel blood, should
get a mere half-miler like Zuj^der Zee. The Flying Dutchman was, no
doubt, a grand performer himself, but this may be regarded as a somewhat
exceptional case, and this opinion is supported by the failure of his own
brother (Vanderdecken) on the turf, although cast in a mould which would
lead one to expecb a still greater success.

In paying attention to the performances of the ancestry of both sire
and dam, regard must also be had to their size, as this element is considered
of much importance. Neither a large nor a small sire or dam will per-
petuate the likeness of himself or herself unless descended from a breed
which is either the one or the other. It only leads to disappointment to
breed from a tall stallion or mare if either is only accidentally so, and not
belonging to a breed generally possessing the same characteristics. Many
a small mare or bitch has surprised her owner by producing him animals
much larger than herself, but on tracing her pedigree it will almost always
be found to contain the names of animals of above the average size.
Moderately small mares are generally of a stronger constitution than very
large ones, and on that account they will often answer the purposes of the
stud better than larger animals, provided they are of the sort usually cast in
the moidd u'hich is desired. This should never be lost sight of by the
breeder, and where, as in breeding thoroughbreds, the pedigree can be
traced far enough for this purpose, there is no excuse for neglecting the
circumstance.

The above precautions are sufficient in all those cases where the pedigree
is attainable, but there are many bx'ood mares, as I before remarked, in
which nothing is known of their antecedents. Here, the breeder can only

176 THE HORSE

act upon the general rule that " like produces like," and cannot take advan-
tage of the addition which I have made to the 12th axiom, at page 163, of
the words, "or the likeness of some ancesto?'." In such cases, for the reason
which I have given, disappointment will constantly attend upon the first
experiments, and until the mare has produced her first foal, and he has gone
on to his third or fourth yeai", the value of the dam can hardly be ascer-
tained. Breeding is always, more or less, a lottery, but when it is carried
on with dams of unknown parentage, it is ten times more so than it need
be. Were I to commence the establishment of a breeding stud, whether of
cart or carriage horses, hacks or hunters, I would never introduce a single
mare whose dam and grand-dam as well as the sire and grand-sire would not
be produceable as good specimens of their respective kinds. Beyond the
second remove there would always be some difficulty in going with the
lower-bred mares, but I would certainly go as far as this in all cases. If
the sire and dam, grand-sire and grand-dam, were, on the whole, of desir-
able form and performances, I would choose the produce as a brood mare,
but not otherwise ; and though, of course, I should be obliged to pass over
some important defects in individuals, I would not do so if they were
common to all, or nearly all, of the four. In this way I should expect
to do more than by simply choosing " a great roomy mare " without know-
ing her pedigree, in the belief that she would be sure to reproduce her
likeness

SELECTION OF BLOOD IN EACH CLASS OF
HORSE

Ix THE RACE-HORSE the choice of blood will always greatly depend upon
the fashion of the day, if the produce is to be profitably disposed of, and
even by following this plan great risk is incurred, for what is fashionable
one year is often despised the next. The winner of the Dei'by, more
especially if he can also pull off the St. Leger, raises the fame of his sire
from twenty to a hundred per cent. ; and if the next year his stock go on
well the value put upon them is still further advanced. These remarks
especially apply to the choice of a stallion, but at the onset they more
or less influence every person who is purchasing mares for the stud.
When, however, these are already procured, the investment must be con-
sidered in the main to be permanent, as it would be ruinous to be
constantly changing the blood. But beyond the reach of fashion there
are several broad lines of demarcation between the strains of blood which
are prevalent in the present day, and which it is well to notice. It is
now idle to go back to the days of Eclipse, Herod, and Matchem, for their
descendants are so intermixed that no mare could be found possessing the
blood of one without that of another also, and generally of all three. We
must, therefore, confine our observations to strains coming much nearer to
our own times.

In British Rural Sports, I enumerated ten distinct strains of blood as
those at all likely to be useful in the racing stud. Since that time there
has been a means of testing the truth of my observations, and I shall there-

177

fore insert my remarks here entire, adding to each strain, in a parenthesis,
what may occur to me as bearing upon tlie question.^

" 1. The almost pure, in-bred Waxys, exhibiting, of course, a mixture
with other strains, but in all cases being chiefly of "Waxy blood. These
are — Cotherstone, The Baron, Chanticleer, Chatham, Chabron, and Idle
Boy. This strain of blood is admirably adapted as the foundation of a
general breeding-stud, being likely to turn out stock which will serve him
as hunters or hacks, if they fail as race-horses."

(Among these The Baron and Chanticleer had previously distinguished
themselves, the former as the sire of Stockwell and Rataplan ; the latter,
to a less extent, as having got several good second-class horses. The
Baron has, since that time, been in France ; and Chanticleer has gone
down in public estimation, having only been credited with 12 foals in
the Calendar for 1860. Cotherstone, Chabron, Chatham, and Idle Boy
have done little for the turf, but they have fulfilled my expectations as
sires of hunters, all having obtained considerable celebrity in that depart-
ment. In addition to those above-mentioned. Sir Hercules and his son,
Gemma di Yergy, should not be forgotten, nor the further descendants
of the former — Birdcatcher (now dead) and Daniel O'Rourke.

" 2. The union of Waxy and Orville, as seen in Retriever, Drayton,
Ambrose, Robert de Gorham, The Hero, Mathematician, and Theon.
These will be almost equally useful as a general breeding-stock with those in-
cluded under No. 1; but I suspect will produce fewer first-class race-horses."

(These remarks have been verified to the letter. Ambrose has certainly
got a Cynricus, but he is far from first-rate, and the single exception goes
to prove the rule. On the other hand, Drayton and Theon have been
celebrated as sires of hunters.)

" 3. The Buzzard blood, not of course pure, but comparatively so, as in
Epirus, Bay Middleton, and the Flying Dutchman. Calculated to get
first-class race-horses rather than general stock."

(I believe there is no exception to this rule.)

" 4. The Waxy, Orville, and Buzzard united in the following celebrated
horses : — Touchstone, Orlando, Surplice, Windfall, Longbow, The Libel,
Hobbie Noble, Windhcund, Assault, and Storm. Here we have the
very best racing-blood in existence, varying in degrees of excellence, but all
moi'e or less good."

(The horses in this list, with their descendants, continue in as high
favour as ever. Touchstone is, of course, almost superannuated, being
now in his thirtieth year, but he is still credited with 1 1 foals in the list
of the past year ; Orlando maintains his reputation with 2 1 ; Surplice has
4; Longbow, 6; Hobbie Noble, 8; Windhound, 13; and Storm, 3. But,
in addition, we find Newminster (son of Touchstone) as the sire of 39 ;
Teddington (son of Orlando) with 33 to his name; Annandale, Flat-
catcher, Lord of the Isles, De Clare, and Mountain Deer (all sons of
Touchstone), with 7, 7, 14, 21, and 29 respectively; and, lastly, West
Australian (out of a Touchstone mare) has 22 foals in the list.)

^ Although a period of thirty or forty years has elapsed since Stonehenge made these
selections and the horses are all dead, the present editor has thought well to let the original
text stand as proof of the author's keen insight and prophetic vision. He who will tal^e the
trouble to trace the descendants of the " ten distinct strains of blood " will share some of the
editor's admiration of the author.

N

178 THE HOUSE

" f). 'V\\i'. Orville ;ui(l Ilii/.ziird sfniiiis ioffciluM', as in Pompoy, Cowl, and
CJlcnlilt. 'I'liis is <,'()(h1 rarin,i; IjIooiI, but lujt ('((ual l(j Nos. .') and ■!."

(Tli(5 three liorscs named above? liavo only two foals anion;^ tliem in ilie
Cahuddr, and tlicro can bo no doubt that I was i-ight in ranking this strain
as inftn'ior to the two already alluded to.)

** G. The Waxy and lUizzard, as in Coronation, P^n-rhus T., Stockwell,
Safeguard, Newcourt, Pitsford, and Bcssus. Very good, stout, and fast
blood, but re(juiring the dash of Orvillo to make it equal to No. 4, and, for
this reason, suitable for crossing with mares descended from that horses"

(At the time when these remarks were written Pyrrhus I. was at the
zenith of liis reputation, his daughter Virago having just proved herself
the best of her year. Since then, however, ho has verified my prognosti-
cations, having been generally pronounced to be inferior to many horses of
the strains numbenul under 3, 4, and 5, and latterly he has been estimated
so liglitly that lie lias been among those sold to go al)road, at the usual
price for that i)urj)()se. Coronation has done nothing at the stud, Stockwell
and his brother, Jlataplan, are, liowcver, in high force, the former liaving
19 and the latter IG foals in the list. With the single exception of
Newcourt, who has one foal, these two liorses are the only ones of this
strain which ai'e at all fashionable among breeders.)

" 7. The l^lacklocks, represented by Hetman Platoff, Tearaway, Neas-
ham, and Katan. This strain has been lately quite out of favour; but the
extraordinary success of Wild Dayrell, a descendant of Blacklock on both
sides of his pedigree, may possibly restore it to its former position."

(A mistake was here connnitted in the pedigree of Wild Dayrell, who is
descended from IJlacklock only through his dam, a great-grand-daughter of
that horse. Voltigeur had also been favowrably mentioned at page d.'Jf),
and his stock, together with that of his son. Vedette, as also of liis
brother, Parnton, and Fandango, son of the last-named horse, now rank as
high as any others in the opinion of breeders. Thus in the Calendar
Voltigeur has 30 foals ; Vedette, 2G ; Parnton, 32 ; and Fandango, 33.)

" 8. The Tramp l)lood, now only to bo met with at all unmixed in
Wcatherbit, Lanercost, and Collingwood, and of doubtful utility."

(t)f late years Weatherbit [owing to the handicap successes of Weatlicr-
gage and the Epsom victory of Beadsman, who was, however, out of
INlendicant by Touchstone] lias come into fashion, and last year liad 2G
foals to his name. With liis exception, however, the blood is not fancied,
Van Tromp and Collingwood being the only horses descended from Tramp
in the male line who have had nuicli chance allowed them, and they have
been almost total failures.)

*' 9. The I'artisans and Filho da Putas, seen in Venison and his sons,
Alarm, Kingston, and Vatican; also in Sweetmeat, Colwich, and
Ciovanni. Nothing can exceed the beauty of form resulting from these
combinations of the Waxy and Sir Peter blood ; and it seems to be por-
j)etuated in all the descendants, wliicli are remarkable for blood-like
frames, with Arabian looking lieads, fine muzzles, full eyes, light iKuks,
and good shoulders, and also for wiry and lasting legs and feet. 'JMiis
latter peculiarity is perliaps owing to their light girth, and conse(iuent
want of weight for their legs to carry; but nevertheless they arc almost
all stout enough, and especially the Venisons."

SI'] LIGATION OK I ; LOO I) 179

(Cun'ously enough, (Iio slock of Ivirigston iuu\ Sweet nic.-it, Ii;i\'e l)eeti
nMiKirkiiblo rather for pace (liaii stoutness, hut tliis is ])r()hal)ly owing to
tho number of marcs put to tliem wliicli were deficient in tho lattcu'
(juality. Nevcrtliclesa tliey are hoth still fashional)le, Kingston having 3.'3 and
Sweetmeat 19 foals ; Alarm also has 12, but Vatican has only I.)

"10. Tho Sorcerer blood, now chielly to bo dependiMl on in I\I(>ll)oui-ne
(almost worn out in tlio service), and his sons, West Australian, Sir
Tatton Sykcs, and Oulston. Tho first of (lie three is more Waxy than
Soi-cerer, tho .second is mixed with Orville and Cervantes, and tho third
is very mucli tho same combination as that of Sir Tatton. I have fully
connnentcd on these horses at paragrajih 272. Large, fast, and loose, they
re(iuiro room to display their peculiar ])OwerH, which are calculated to shiiu?
over a ilat, or any straight course, rather than a small and confined one.
l*\nv of this blood are neat, and some are peculiarly coarse and gaunt, like
the INh^lbournes, but yet so well proportioned and truly made as to catch
the eye of the connoisseui*. With largo heads, roomy frames, big legs and
joints, united to great useful liocks and powerful propellers, they are lit for
any work but turning corners, where they are undoubtedly out of Ihv'w
element. Such Avero tho Soothsayers, Comuses, Revellers, Humphrey
Clinkers, and Melbournes ; together, also, with the last horse's celebrated
sons. Sir Tatt(m Sykes, West Australian, and Oulston. All are fast enough
for anything, but requh-o time to fill up their fine fi-anu's, and should have
been reserved till live years of age, if justice could have been done tluMU.
On tho whole, this blood may be considered as infei'ior to none but the thr(>o
first described strains, in which it is surpassed in i)ersist(^nce of good
(jualities for a series of years, though, taking any single horse against him,
Melbourne will perhaps make a good fight for sujx^riorily."

(I have nothing to unsay here, and I may specially call attention to tho
fact that prior to the appearance of West Australian's stock I had i-emai'ked
that ho is more Waxy than Sorcerer. Many otlu<r descendants of JNlelbourno
in the male line are known in the stud, but Uwrc are none of any gi-eat
promise at present.)

TuuNiNd NOW TO TiiK IJLOOD most suitable for getting hunters, I may bo
pardoned for again inserting what I have already written in British liural
iS'/xn'ts, comprised in the following words, to which I havo now nothing to
add, and in which th(>re is little or nothing which I should wish unsaid : —

" For this kind of br(H>(ling, nothing answers better than a cross of tho
Waxy, Orville, and Sorcerer blood, or of tho two former with any of tho
descendants of Sir Peter or Wood])ecker ; hut 'm all c<is<'s proridrd (hey have
(j(H)d s/i(iii/(/(;rs, mid are sound. 'J'luis, Drayton has Imh-u I'emarkabhi in this
way, as also is Windfall, and Ivetriever promises to be e(jually useful. Of
all others, tho Waxy blood seems to be most telling in hunting stock ; and
if only it is joined to sullicient size, both of bono and frame, it almost always
produces a hunter. The temper, constitution, action, and heai-t are all "-ood
in this strain, and nothing is wanted but the above-named element. Defeiu-e
is the progenitor of a great numbei- of good hunters, both directly, and
through Saf(>guard and IJath, his s(»ns. Chatham, Cotherstone, Ainuindale,
WealJiergage, NewminsU^-, John o' (Jaunt, Theon, Tlui Hero, Chanticleer,
Harkaway, Connaught Hanger, Footstool, Fugleman, Idle JJoy, Ncwcourt,
llavunabuue, and llussborough, arc of the very best blood forgetting hunters,

180 THE HORSE

tcith the chance of an occasional race-horse among them, if put to stout,
thoroughbred mares of a sort which is usually large-boned, and of good size.
Sraall-boned horses are not to be thought of for this purpose ; and hence the
Epirus strain is objectionable on that score, they being smaller in the bone
even than the Waxj^s, and, in addition, less lasting. All the sons of Veni-
son are suitable, but especially those crossed with the Orville or Whisker
blood — as, for instance, the Fallow Buck and Red Hart ; also Vatican, but
that I believe his temper is somewhat ungovernable ; and they generally
make good hunters, but not with very high action. The Lottery and Tramp
strains I have also already mentioned as being valuable for the purpose of
getting hunters and steeplechasers ; and the following stallions descended
from them should be prized when within reach, especially such as are also
crossed with Waxy or his descendants — as Birkenhead, Sir Peter Laurie,
Footstool, Meteor, Sweetmeat, Tearaway, and his son Kingstown. These
also are almost all likely to get good hacks ; but the Buzzard and Whalebone
blood seems to suit in this way better than most others, except in the case
of the Touchstones, which are by no means good in this respect. Defence,
on the other hand, who is similarly bred, but without the Orville cross, is
famous for getting good hacks, and many of his stock have been very fast
and fine trotters — as, for instance, Safegua-d and Rector, The former of
these horses, though blind, could, when in his prime, bend himself and trot
with any thoroughbred horse in the world ; and the latter could do his
sixteen miles an hour, carrying twelve stone."

I would strongly advise the breeder to select, for the purpose of getting
hunters, those horses, whether thoroughbred or otherwise, whose actii^n
before is unexceptionable. So many of our race-horses now are full of
Touchstone blood, that they are defective in this respect, and are totally
unfit for any other purpose.

When Carriage Horses are bred for the special purpose to which they
are afterwai'ds devoted, a particular class of stallions is used which is
generally only to be met with in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. These are
put to large mai'es of the same breed, or the latter are sometimes crossed
with the thoroughbred. Hacks and light harness horses are bred in small
numbers only by farmers, and are generally the result of a cross between
small chance mares and second or third rate thoroughbred stallions, or they
are the weeds culled from racing or hunting studs, being too small and light
for either one or the other purpose.

THE KIND OF HORSE MOST PROFITABLE FOR
THE BREEDER TO CHOOSE

When a person makes up his mind to bestow his attention on the
breeding of horses as a speculation, it behoves him to consider what kind is
best suited to the nature of his land and the length of his purse, as well as
to his own knowledge of liorses. Unless he has plenty of fine upland grass
and a command of money, it is quite useless for him to think of the race-
horse ; nor will he do well, without these concomitants, to dabble in hunters.
Cart-horses, now-a-days, pay well when there is work for them to do up to
their third or fourth year ; and carriage-horses are likewise a good specula-

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON BREEDING 181

tion when the land is suitable to their development. No one, however,
should turn his attention to the breeding of hacks on a large scale, since
they will ahnost inevitably cost more than they will fetch at five years old.
The farmer who keeps one or two " nag " marcs is the only person who can
be said to rear hacks without loss ; and he only does so because he begins
to use them for his own slow work as soon as they are three years old.
Even in his case, however, I much doubt whether the same food which has
been given the colts would not have been turned to greater profit if given
to horned cattle ; and the only thing which can be said in favour of the
former is, that tliey eat coarse grass which the latter will refuse. To make
the breeding of the horse turn out profitably, the hack and inferior kind of
harness-horse ought to be the culls from a lot of colts intended for the
hunting-field, and then, the one with the other, they may be made to pay.

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON BREEDING

The angry discussions which took place in the year 1860, between
Lord Redesdale and Admiral Rous, indicate plainly what is the general
Dpinion on the subject of the diminution in the stoutness of our horses.
Breedei's, therefore, should turn their attention to this point, and should be
doubly careful to avoid weedy or diseased sires and dams. It cannot be
denied that our modern thoroughbreds possess size and speed ; but they
certainly do not shine in staying powers, as I have already more than once
remarked. But there are some strains particulai'ly free from this defect,
and these I have endeavoured to point out. It should not, moreover, be
forgotten that though the thoroughbred horse will bear more work, especi-
ally at high speed, than any other kind, yet he can only do this if well fed
and warmly housed. Being a native of a warm and dry climate, he requires
to be protected from the weather ; and the young stock must be well reared
in all respects, or they will never pay. If, therefore, the breeder is not
determined to put up warm hovels in every paddock, and if he is stingy of
his corn, he had far better let his stud of mares be composed of lower-bred
animals. If a thoroughbred horse and a donkey are both fed upon the
lowest quantity and quality of food which will keep the latter in condition,
the donkey would beat its high-bred antagonist over a distance of ground —
that is to say, supposing the experiment to be continued long enough to
produce a permanent efiect upon the two animals. A cart-horse colt, or one
of any kind of low blood, will do well enough if reared, till he is put to
work, upon grass and hay ; but a race-horse or hunter, of high breeding,
would show a badly-developed frame, and be comparatively worthless for
his particular kind of work, if he were not allowed his corn from the time
that he is \>'eaned.

CHAPTER XI

THE DROOD MARE AND HER FOAL

HOVEL AND TADDOCK — GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE — TREATMENT ■WHEN
IS FOAL — TREATMENT AFTER FOALING — EARLY TREATMENT OF THE FOAL — THE
■WEANING AND AFTER TREATMENT OF THE FOAL— CASTRATION.

Having already alluded to the principles which should guide the breeder
in the choice of his mares, I need not further allude to them beyond the
remark that, independently of those which I have indicated, he must take
care that they are each possessed of a frame suitable to carry a foal, and
of a constitution hardy enough to sustain the drain upon the system
caused by the young animal, both before and after birth. If the pelvis
and back ribs are not large and deep, the foetus will not have room to be
developed and brought into the world ; and unless the mare is a good
feeder, and is also furnished with an udder which will give sufficient milk,
she will not afford enough nourishment to her foal, which will, therefore,
be weakly and badly developed in its proportions. The shape may be
easily detected beforehand, but the constitution and milking properties
cannot so well be predicated, though the experienced eye and hand of the
stud groom will enable him to give a tolerably correct guess.

HOVEL AND PADDOCK

If the breeder is about to undertake the production of a number of
horses of any kind, he must establish a regular stud-farm, which for all
horses should be on sound upland, with a subsoil of chalk or gravel. The
presence of fine white clovers is in itself almost sufficient to show that the
soil will be suitable to the horse ; but, if possible, there should be an abso-
lute practical knowledge that the situation has agreed with the animal,
before any heavy investment is made. If the surface fall is good, draining
may not be necessary, but in most cases the herbage will be greatly im-
proved by the introduction of tiles. Low, marshy situations may serve
during the autumn months to freshen up a stall horse, but they are utterly
unfit for the rearing of young stock, and should be carefully avoided. If
the stud is highly bred, and the feeding is to be good, the colts will be
very mischievous, and unless care is taken to make the fences safe, they
will break bounds, or injure themselves in the attempt. Deep ditches are

182

HOVEL AND PADDOCK 183

very unsafe,^ for the mare as well as her foal are very apt to get cast in
them, with a serious or fatal injury as the result. Posts and rails answer
well enough, where timber is plentiful, but, in the long run, they ai'e
expensive from the necessity for constant repairs. Banks with thorn
hedges on the top are the very best of all means for enclosing the paddocks,
and are even better than stone walls, which, however, are excellent for
the purpose if they have the soil raised against their bases, without which
the foal is liable to slip up against their surface, and thus sometimes
blemish his knees. There is a great difference of opinion as to the size
necessary for the paddocks, and the number of mares which should be
allowed in each. In some well-conducted stud-farms, the enclosures are
very large, and a dozen, or even as many as eighteen, mares and their
foals are turned out together as soon as the weather permits, and the spring
grass grows high enough. In others, as at the Hampton Court and IMiddle
Park establishments, the paddocks are each only calculated to take three
or four mares and their foals ; and the yearlings, also, are never allowed
to exceed four in any one paddock. Mr. Martin, the clever and experienced
manager of the first-named stud, was of opinion that colts should have
room enough to gallop, and thus early accustom their joints and sinews to
bear the strains which they must, some time or other, be subjected to. On
the other hand, the argument is held that in a small paddock the foal
gallops quite as much as in the larger one, and puts his joints to the strain
in stopping himself at the corners, whilst there is less injury from other
accidental causes, such as kicks and the jamming of a lot together, in a
narrow gateway. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that the latter
plan is the best, for experience shows that a well-fed foal will gallop daily,
for hours together, even in a two-acre paddock.

At foaling time each mare must have a separate hovel or loose-box,
but as, practically, it is found that she always gives some few hours' notice
of her approaching parturition, it is the custom to bring her into the close
neighbourhood of the house of the stud-groom at night, so that he may be
at hand to render her assistance, if necessary. Any loose-box answers for
that purpose, if it does not open to a warm stable, which would render it
too hot for an animal which has been for months exposed to the open air.
But after foaling the mare will also require a hovel to herself for six weeks
or two months, when the foal will be strong enough to take care of itself
in running among other mares. Indeed, at all times, the mares should at
night be in separate hovels, even when during the day they run in the
same paddock with two or three others. This hovel should be about twelve
to fifteen feet long, and not less than ten feet wide. The height may easily
be too great, because in the early spring the weather is often so severe that
the mare cannot impart sufficient heat to a very large volume of air. From
eight to nine feet will therefore be ample, the former being well suited to
the larger area which I have given above, and the latter to the smaller.
It is a very common plan, when economy is much studied, to build four
hovels back to back, at the angles formed by four small runs, by which a

^ A special instinct is developed in animals bred upon marshes surrounded by ditches,
and the foals seldom come to grief if born on the spot, while liill-bred animals brought on to
the lowlands are extremely likely to get in the water, especially during tliunderstorms. We
have known farmers in the Cheddar Valley to throw purchased stock into the ditches in
order to show them the danger.

184 THE HORSE

saving in tlie internal walls is effected. This, however, necessitates a
northerly or easterly aspect for two out of the four, either of which is
objectionable. Two hovels may readily be placed side by side in the most
desirable situation, and these may be made to open into separate runs.
The walls should be built of brick or stone, whichever is locally the cheaper
material, or where gorse is abundant they may be formed from it, being
the cheapest of all. In some counties what is called " wattle and dab ''
is very generally employed for outbuildings of this kind, and when they
are roofed with thatch, which carries the water well off the sides, it answers
very well. It is composed of common wood quarterings, with the uprights
connected together by transverse bars like the rounds of a ladder, about
eight inches apart. When the whole framework is put together thus,
some soil, which should be clay or loam, is well worked together with straw
and water into a tenacious mixture, which is forked over each transverse
bar in succession, and the whole smoothed down till it assumes a regular
and even surface. Cottages and outbuildings are put up in this way in
Devonshire and Dorsetshire at very little expense, either for walls or roof,
wood being also the produce of his own land. The labour, therefore, is
the only considex-able outlay, and that is not paid for at a very high rate,
wages being still very slow. When gorse is used, it is adopted in the
following way : — The door-posts and upi'ights are first fixed, and should be
either of oak — which is best — or of good sound Memel fir ; they should be
about six inches by four, and should be fixed six feet apart, with three feet
sunk in the ground. After thus fixing the framework, and putting on the
wall-plate and rafters, the whole internal surface is made good by nailing
split poles of larch, or other timber, closely together across the uprights,
taking especial care to round off the ends when they appear at the door-
posts. Thus the whole of the interior is tolerably smooth, and no accident
can happen from the foal getting his leg into any crevice between the
poles, if care is taken to nail them securely, and to leave no space between
them. When this internal framewoi'k is finished, the gorse is applied
outside, as follows : — It is first cut into small branches, leaving a foot-stalk
to each, about twelve or fifteen inches in length : these branches are
ax'ranged in layers between the uprights, the stalks pointing upwards and
inwards, and the prickly ends downwards and outwards. When, by a
succession of layers of these brushy stalks, a height of eighteen inches has
been raised, a stout and tough pole, about the size of an ordinary broom-
stick, and six feet long, is laid upon the middle of the gorse, and so as to
confine it against the split poles and between the uprights. The workmen
kneel upon this pole, and by its means compress the gorse into the smallest
possible compass, and while thus pressed down, and against the internal
framework, it is confined to the latter by five or six loops of strong copper
wire. When this is properly done, the gorse is so firmly confined, and
withal so closely packed, that neither wind nor rain can penetrate, nor
can all the mischief-loving powers of the foal withdraw a single stalk.
After fixing the first layer, a second is built up in the same way, and when
neatly done the exterior is as level as a brick wall ; but if there are any
very prominent branches they may be sheared off with the common shears,
or taken off with the ordinary hedging bill-hook. When it is desired to
make the exterior look very smooth, a hay-trusser's knife is used ; but the

HOVEL AND PADDOCK 185

natural ends, thoujli not so level, are a much better defence, and last
longer than the cut gorse. In the interior the stalks sometimes project,
and if so they must be smoothly trimmed off. The roof should be covered
in with some material, which is cool in summer and wann in winter, and
for this purpose, therefore, nothing is so bad as iron, or so good as thatch.
Objections are sometimes made to the latter material that it harbours
vermin, but if the mares are well fed, I must doubt their ever becoming
lousy, unless these parasites are introduced by some animal from without.
Tiles are preferable to slates, and on the average they are also cheaper.
Pantiles are not easily made proof against the wind, but plane-tiles, when
properly pointed, are quite air-tight, and are far warmer in cold weather
than slates, while they are also cooler in summer. The door should be at
least four feet or four feet six inches wide, and seven feet to seven feet six
inches high, with all the angles to the sides and top of the frame rounded
off to prevent accident from striking the hip or head. The door, of oak
or elm, should be cut in half across the middle, so as to allow the lower
half to be shut, while the ujoper, being open, admits a free supply of air,
A small window should be inserted in the wall, for light and ventilation
when the door is closed. When straw is abundant it is usual to leave the
floor in its natural state, the litter absoi'bing all that falls from the mare
and foal, and being changed often enough to keep the place dry. In case,
however, this cannot be done, the flooring should be similar to that for
ordinary stables, that is to say, laid with bricks or pebbles, clinkers being
much too expensive for such a purpose. Where chalk is abundant, it forms
an excellent floor, if a drain is cut all round the building, and the soil
being taken out to the depth of nearly a foot, the chalk is filled in to a
little above the level of the natural surface, and is then well rammed down,
a drain and trap being inserted in the middle. The last point which requires
consideration is the kind of manger which is best adapted to the use of the
mare and her foal, if the latter is to be fed in the way proper to thorough-
bred stock. In any case, a wooden manger of the ordinary kind should
be fixed, with a staple for the rack-chain to fasten her up, A hay rack
should be so arranged that it can be filled fi'om the outside without diffi-
culty; which is easily managed by building a little wooden excrescence on
to one of the outer walls, leaving a hole in the latter for the mare to feed
herself through. A wooden lid, covered with zinc, lifts up and permits
the introduction of the fodder without the necessity for carrying a fork
into the hovel, which will sometimes injure the mare or her foal. Well-
bred young animals of this species are so mischievous that when shut up
they will jump into any place which can possibly hold them, and many a
broken leg or back has ensued from an open hay-rack, placed near the
ground, attracting the gambols of a foal. A few wooden bars nailed across
the opening effectually prevents this, while the addition of a low manger
in another corner provides for the feeding of the foal with kibbled oats,
if such should be the plan adopted, and the fourth is occupied by a water-
tank. External to the hovel the only provision necessary is a yard, which
may be omitted if the paddock is always dry from the land being well
drained. Unless this is the case, however, the yard should always be
provided, as there are many days throughout the year when the weather
is fine enough overhead to allow of the foal being turned out of doors with

186 THE HORSE

advantage, if it can be protected from the wet grass or wetter soil. A
yard is, therefore, truly valuable in the absence of a dry soil, and it should
be paved with bricks, stones, or pebbles, well covered with a layer of litter,
to prevent slips and strains.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD
MARE

When it has been decided to breed from a mare, if she is not already
thrown out of work, it will often be necessary to cool her down, by turning
her out to grass and taking away her corn, before she will become stinted.
Thorough-bred mares are not, as a rule, allowed to take the horse while in
work ; but sometimes they are so constantly " in use," that no other means
will enable the ti'ainer to go on with his work of preparation. There is a
wondei'ful difference in this respect : some animals are rarely " in use," once
or twice a year being the outside ; while others are so every nine days
throughout the spring — the average, perhaps, being in that state at about
intervals of two or three months from the time of shedding their coats till
the beginning of autumn. Again, some ai-e not upset in their work by this
natural process ; while others refuse to feed, lose condition, and cannot be
depended on for half their usual exertions. Either extreme requires a
change of feeding ; for, on the one hand, the cool temperament is excited by
the freedom of a run at grass, and on the other, the warmer one is benefited
by losing the heating qualities of her corn. At all events, it is found, in
practice, that though the majority of maiden mares will become stinted
while at work, yet that a large number require a run at grass before they
will become in foal. As I before remarked, thoroughbred mares are gener-
ally entirely devoted to the stud from the time that they are put to the
horse ; but there are many others of lower breeding which their owners
desire to work on for some months afterwards. It is often apparent
that the legs of a hack or harness-mare are wearing out, and her owner
decides upon having a foal from her, but wishes to avoid the expense of keep
from the spring, when he puts her to the horse, till the next January or
February, varying, of course, with the time of foaling. All mares are the
better for slow work up to within two months of foaling ; but they should
not be ridden or driven so fast as to occasion exhaustion. Cart-mares are
generally used to within a few days of their time, taking care to keep them
at light woi'k and to avoid straining them. With these precautions, if the
legs keep tolerably sound, a mare may be made to earn her keep for nine
months out of the eleven which are the duration of her pregnancy.

The time of sending the mare to the horse will vary with the purposes for-
which her produce is intended. If for racing, it is desired that she shall
foal as soon as possible after the first of January ; and as she carries her
foal about eleven months, the first time of her being "in use" after the first
of February is the pex'iod chosen for her. All other horses take their age
from the first of May ; and as this is the time when the young grass begins
to be forward enough for the use of the mare, the breeder is not anxious to
get his half-bred foals dropped much before that time. As, however, mares
are very uncertain animals, he will do well to take advantage of the first

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE BROOD MARE 187

opportunity after Marcli, as by putting ofT tlio visit to the horse he may be
disappointed altogether, or the foal may be dropped so late that winter sets
in before he has acquired strength to bear it. These remarks apply to
maiden mares only ; those which have dropped a foal are generally put to
the horse nine or ten days afterwards, when almost every mare is in season.
For this reason, valuable thoroughbred mares are often sent to foal at the
place where the sire stands who is intended to be used next time. The
travelling to him so soon after foaling would be injurious to both the dam
and her foal, and hence the precaution I have named is adopted. The mare
then remains to be tried at intervals of nine days, and when she is stinted
the foal is strong enough to bear any length of journey with impunit3^
Mares and their foals commonly travel by road twenty miles, or even more,
for this purpose ; but they do not often exceed that distance, and about
fifteen miles a day is quite as much as a nine-days-old foal can compass
without injury, and that done very quietly, the mare being led at a slow
pace all the way.

Many owners prefer sending them by rail, whether the distance be long
or comparatively short. Race-horses are so accustomed to travel by rail
that there is less risk in boxing under the supei'intendence of trained men,
than is to be encountered on ordinary roads frequented by cyclists, traction-
engines, and other horse-frightening contrivances.

The general custom among breeders of cart and nag-horses is not to send
the mare and foal away, but to receive a visit from the horse on the ninth
day. I have had mares successfully stinted on the seventh, eighth, ninth,
and tenth days respectively after foaling. Some of the stud companies do
not let their stallions travel a district, but receive mares as above, while the
competition of the present day makes it unnecessary for the owner of a lame
mare to send her to the horse.

TREATMENT WHEN IN FOAL

When the mare is in foal, if not intended to be kept at work, she
should be turned out in good pasture ; but it should not be so rich and
succulent as to disagree with her stomach, or make her unwieldy from fat.
The former mistake is a constant cause of miscarriage, the bowels becoming
relaxed from the improper nature of the food. On the other hand, if it is
not sufficiently good, the mare will become thin, and will starve her foal in
its growth. Mares that have been corned highly all their lives should
have a feed or two daily, after they are are six months gone, and especially
if the autumnal grasses are not rich and plentiful. Most half-bred animals,
however, do very well till about Christmas ; after which, hay and corn,
with a few carrots, should be liberally given them, still allowing them to
pick up what grass they can find in their paddocks. Excessive fat is a
state of disease, and interferes with the due nutrition of the foetus, while it
is very dangerous at foaling-time, when it not only interferes with the
process, but also tends to produce fever. Supposing the mare to be at
work, she should have some kind of green food — lucerne being the best, and
vetches, perhaps, the worst for the purpose, the latter being too heating,
especially to the organs contained within the pelvis. Any of the grasses or

188 THE HORSE

clovers answer well ; and, after they are done, carrots form an excellent
succedaneiim, given sliced in a bran mash every night. By adopting these
articles of food, the mai-e is kept free from inflammation, and yet the foal is
well nourished, which are the two essential points to be considered.

Excitement of every kind is a fertile source of " slipping " the foal ;
and everything which is at all likely to have that effect should be carefully
avoided. The smell of blood is said to have a very prejudicial influence in
this way ; and there is no doubt that one mare miscarrying will in some
mode affect others in proximity to her. Possibly the same cause may act on
all ; but it seems to be generally concluded that the act is really contagious,^
either from what is called sympathy, or in some other as inexplicable wa)^
If a mare has " slipped " a foal in a previous pregnancy, double care should
be taken, as she will be far more likely to do so again than another which
has hitherto escaped the accident. It occurs most frequently about the
fourth or fifth month, therefore extra care should be taken at that time.
The suspected individual should be kept quiet by herself ; but it is better
to allow her the run of a small retired paddock than to confine her to her
hovel, where, for want of exercise, she will become restless and anxious.
Purging physic should not be given, unless it is absolutely necessary ; and if
the bowels are so confined as to require some stimulus of this kind, and
bran mashes and other changes in the food fail to produce any effect, choice
should be made of the mildest aperient which is likely to answer the
purpose. With regard to the management of the mare in parturition, if
assistance is demanded, it is safer to have recourse at once to a properly
educated veterinary surgeon. Stud-grooms who have had much experience
will sometimes be able to aid Nature with advantage ; but, in the long run,
they will probably do more harm than good, if they attempt any serious
interference.

TREATMENT AFTER FOALING

In a healthy state, the mare very soon recovers the efforts which she
has made in bringing forth the foal ; and, in fine weather, she may be
allowed to enter her paddock on the second day afterwards, which is
generally soon enough to suit the strength of the foal, though occasionally
the young animal is very active within six hours after it comes into the
world. For a couple of months, or perhaps less in some cases, the mare
and foal are better kept in a paddock by themselves ; but in a large stud
this is difficult when the foals come very quickly ; and then several mares
of quiet temperament are put together, still keeping separate those which
are shy or vicious. Until the mare can get plenty of grass, she should
have carrots, bran mashes, and a feed or two of oats, which at first are
better given in the shape of gruel — the water with which this is made
having the chill taken olF. Rye-grass is cultivated and cut for the mares
daily by those who have early foals ; but, though it is better than hay, it is
not equal to good upland clover-grass. Lucerne is excellent, but it cannot
be grown so early as lye. I have already described, at page 187, the proper

1 Recent investigations leave no doubt of the fact that abortion is contagious among
bovines, and it may well be supposed that the same is the case among mares.

EARLY TREATMENT OF THE FOAL 189

time for again putting the mare to the horse, so that I need not enter into
that subject here. During the remainder of the time of suckling, no special
treatment is required, except to see that the mare is well fed and protected
from the weather. At weaning-time she sometimes requires a dose or two
of cooling medicine ; but generally she is so nearly dry that no interference
is required.

EARLY TREATMENT OF THE FOAL

If the young animal is well formed and healthy, it will require no
attention beyond that which I have specified as necessary for the dam.
There are, however, several accidents to which it is liable ; such as rupture
either at the navel or flank, inversion of the feet, etc. ; all of which will be
treated of in their proper place. About the time of the mare being " in
use," the foal is generally purged a good deal, and a warm drench will often
be required. At the end of a month, or sometimes earlier, the foal will eat
bruised oats ; and highly-bred young stock are generally allowed, from this
time, first a single quartern, and then by degrees two quarterns of oats.
Half-breds, and even cart-horses, would be the better for this stimulus to
development ; but if it is begun, it should be continued ; and, unless the
foal shows such promise that it is expected to turn out extraordinarily well,
the extra expense will not be reimbursed, though in the depth of winter a
quartern or half a peck is generally given with a little bran, yet, when
there is good grass, this is neither necessary nor is it economical. Shelter
from the weather should, however, be afforded to colts of all classes during
the winter season ; and unless they have this, they soon grow out of form
and lose flesh, however well they may be fed. It is now fully recognized
that warmth and protection from the rain encourage the growth of all our
domestic animals ; but in none are they more influential than in the one
which I am now discussing. A colt neglected in its first winter never
recovers its proper shape, nor does it grow into the size and strength of
body and limbs which naturally appertain to its breed. Independently,
therefore, of the ci'uelty in exposing the young animal to a climate for
which it is not fitted, the plan does not pay ; and on the latter account, if
not on the former, even the most heartless, who consider their own interests,
will make suitable provision for protecting their young horse-stock from the
inclemency of our winter climate.

The foal should be handled from the very first week of its existence ;
but there is no occasion to use it roughly in accustoming it to the pressure
of the hand on all parts of its body and limbs. If this process is very
gradually commenced, no I'esistance will at any time be offered, and the foal
will allow its feet to be picked up, and its head and ears to be rubbed, with-
out taking offence. Grooms are sometimes in the habit of showing off their
powers in this way, by taking up the foal in their arms ; but this can do
no good, and may possibly lead to injury of the walls of the abdomen.
About the fourth or fifth month, and before weaning is commenced, a light
head- collar should be put on ; and after the foal is accustomed to its
pressure, by repeatedly handling the part on successive days, a leading-rein
should be buckled on, and the young thing enticed to follow the groom

190 THE HORSE

without any absolute coercion. At the same time, it must be made to feel
that resistance is useless ; and if it begins to pull, it must on no account be
allowed to get away, the groom yielding as long as the foal pulls straight
back, but Coercing it gently with a side strain. A carefully handled foal
will rarely give any trouble in this way ; but there is an astonishing varia-
tion in the power which dififerent men have over the animal creation. Some
will gain control without using the slightest violence, while others will be
always fighting with their charge, and after all will not be able to do nearly
as much with them as their more quiet and clever rivals. The latter class
should never be allowed to have anything to do with young horses ; and
though there may be occasional exceptions which require severe measures,
yet if once a man is found resorting to violence with a foal which he has
had the management of fi'om the first, he should, in my opinion, be removed
from his post ; or, at all events, he should be carefully watched, and a
repetition of the offence ought to be considered as a notice to quit. TiOng
before the coming among us of Mr. Rarey, this was recognized amongst the
most extensive breeders of horses in this country ; and though cruelty was
not unknown among them, any more than it is now, it was fully recognized
as not only an unnecessary but an unsatisfactory means of mastering the
horse.

THE WEANING AND AFTER TREATMENT OF
THE FOAL

The usual age for weaning the foal is about the end of the sixth
month, that time being selected because the dam is generally about
" half gone " with her next foal, and cannot bear the double drain upon
her system. Nor does the foal benefit much by the milk after this age,
the teeth and stomach being quite strong enough to crop and digest the
succulent grasses that are to be had from August to October, those being
the months during which the several breeds attain the middle of their
fii'st year. If the autumn is a dry one, and grass is scanty, a few steamed
turnips or carrots may be mixed with bran and given to the foal night and
morning ; but, as a rule, unless it is to be highly forced into its growth
for the purpose of early racing, it will require only the grass which it can
pick up when it is turned out. Three or four foals are generally placed
together in the same paddock for company, and in this way they miss
their dams far less than if confined by themselve?. Care should be taken
that nothing is left within their reach which can do injury, every fence
and gate being carefully examined to see that no projecting bolt, nail, or
rail is likely to lay hold of their bodies or limbs as the}^ gallop about in
their play. Foals of all ages are mischievous animals, and the better fed
they are the more inclined they seem to lay hold of anything which
attracts their notice.

Besides the shelter of a hovel, which I have ah-eady insisted on, the
foal requires throughout its first winter good feeding proportioned to its
In-eeding and the purposes for which it is intended. Racing colts are
allowed three or four feeds of bruised oats with steamed carrots or turnips,
and sometimes steamed hay ; but the general plan is to give as much aa

CASTRATION 191

tlicy will cat of the best upland hay, in its natural state, after they have
finished their allowance of corn. Young stock intended to he sold as
hunters and first-class carriage-horses ai'e always allowed half a peck of
bruised oats, and a few carrots and turnips will not be thrown away upon
them. Hacks, and inferior young stock of all kinds, get through the winter
upon hay and barley-straw, part being sometimes cut into chaff, and mixed
with a quartern of bran, daily ; and if they are very low in flesh, a few oats
being added. During severe frosts the straw-yard is the best place for the
foal, on account of the hardness of the ground in the fields, and here he will
easily keep himself warm and dry, and he can be attended to according to
his wants. Let the breeder, however, constantly bear in mind that a check
given to the growth in the first winter is never afterwards (mtirely recovered,
and that if the colt which has experienced it turns out well he would have
been still better without it.

CASTRATION

The operation for converting the horse into the gelding is usually per-
formed when the colt is a yearling. In the southern and western counties
April and May may be chosen, and further north June and July. The
weather should be warm and dry, avoiding east winds, and not deferring
the operation till the flies become numerous. Many castrators hold the
opinion that " it cannot be too hot for a colt or too cold for a lamb."
Although this is somewhat of an exaggeration we would prefer a hot day
to a cold one. Much, however, will depend upon the development of the
individual, it being ascertained that the longer a colt remains uncut the
more is the fore-quarter developed, and especially the head and neck. If,
thei'efore, these parts, as well as the shoulders, are already forward in their
growth, the operation should be performed early ; while, if the contrarj'
state exists, it should be deferred till a later period.

There is, of course, an element of danger in castration at any age, and
with each year it would appear to increase. The insurance companies
charge at about the rate of four per cent, for colts under two years. When
asked the rate for an eight-year-old son of Bendor, one company replied
ten per cent., and another twelve. The greatest age at which we have
known a horse successfully operated on, was seventeen (a son of Wild
Dayrell). As to the operation itself, the preparation necess9.ry and the
subsequent tx'eatment, full directions are given at page 630.

CHAPTER XII

THE BREAKING OF THE COLT

Mil. KAREY's mode of breaking — THE ORDINARY ENGLISH METHOD OF BREAKING
FOR THE SADDLE — SUPERIORITY OF THE ORDINARY METHOD — BREAKING TO
HARNESS.

The year 1858 will ever be memorable in the annals of the English stable
for the success of Mr. Rarey and his partner, Mr. Goodenough, in extract-
ing £25,000 from the pockets of English horsemen by the promise of a
new method of breaking and training the animal which they all loved so
well, but so often found not quite obedient to their wills. The plans by
which obedience was to be ensured were kept a profound secret, but to
prove Mr. Rarey 's power, the French coaching stallion, Stafiford, the
English thoroughbred, Cruiser, and a grey colt in the possession of Mr.
Anderson, of Piccadilly, all notoriously vicious, were privately subdued,
and afterwards exhibited in public. Subscribers were invited to pay ten
guineas each, with the engagement that as soon as five hundred names
were put down, the American would teach them in classes, each subscriber
binding himself, under a heavy penalty, to keep the secret. The result
was that eleven hundred ladies and gentlemen paid their money, and kept
their promise so well that until the appearance of a small shilling volume,
published by Messrs. Routledge and Co., which detailed the whole process,
in the very words given to the American public some years before by Mr.
Rarey, no one but the subscribers had any certain knowledge of the secret,
although it subsequently appeared that it had oozed out, and had been
propounded in several directions as a rival scheme of much older date.
However, it is not now my intention to attempt the discovery of the
inventor of the system generally known as Rarey's, my sole object being
to ascertain its real worth in breaking young stock, and in remedying or
curing the vices to which older horses are occasionally suljject. It will be
seen hei'eafter that though I think the plan of great service in some cases,
I doubt its utility as an aid to the breaker ; but, having cost the country
far more than £25,000, and having received the approval of hundreds of
experienced horsemen, it would ill become me to pass the subject over
without giving reasons for the conclusions to which I have arrived. I
was not one of the original subscribers, but I have seen Mr. Rarey exhibit
his extraordinary powers over the horse more than a dozen times, so that

192

THE BREAKING OF THE COLT 193

I am in a position to form an opinion upon the whole process as compared
with our ordinary English methods, with which I have also long heen
practically acquainted.

In his public demonstrations Mr. Rarcy always commenced by some
introductory remarks on the natural history of the horse, in which there
was nothing to impress the auditor with any great respect for his powers.
At the end of tRTs act, which was evidently intended to kill time, we were
put in possession of the three fundamental principles of the new theory of
the proper management of the horse, namely : —

First, " That he is so constituted by natux-e that he will not offer i-esist-
ance to any demand made of him which he fully comprehends, if made in
a way consistent with the laws of his nature."

Secondly, "That he has no consciousness of his strength beyond his
experience, and can be handled according to our will without force."

Thirdly, " That we can, in compliance with the laws of his nature, by
which he examines all things new to him, take any object, however
frightful, ai'ound, over, or on him, that does not inflict pain, without
causing him to fear."

No one will, I believe, dispute the first two of these principles, which
have certainly nothing very novel in them. The third, when promulgated,
was more opposed to our experience, and a demonstration of its truth was
naturally enough required before it was accepted. To comply with this
demand aorse after horse was submitted to an exhausting and painful
proof, which I shall presently describe, and then certainly anything which
did not inflict pain was borne without apparently pi'oducing fear. This,
therefore, was proving the letter of the third principle ; but was the spirit
of it established 1 The words just quoted, if they mean anything, signify
that it is only necessary to allow a horse to examine the drum and he will
show no fear of it. But is this the real fact 1 I trow not. Before a high-
couraged horse will allow a drum to be beaten on his back he must either
submit to a long course of training undBr the old system, or he must go
through the royal road of Mr. Rarey, of which nothing whatever is said
in the three principles alluded to. Take an ordinary hunter after he is
exhausted by a long run, and he will bear the noise of a drum, or any
other alarming agent, to which he would, when fresh and active, show the
greatest objection. Why, then, should we be astonished that a shorter
method of exhausting the nervous energy should have the same effect
ever if it is shown in a still more remarkable manner, as we shall presently
see it is? As far, therefore, as Mr. Rarey's principles are concerned I
have little to say against them, except that if the third is meant to apply
to the exhibition of the drum beaten on the backs of his several subjects,
it is not very ingenuous in the language which is used.

Before Mr. Rarey came to England he had, as I have already
remarked, published in America a little pamphlet which described his
several plans for driving a colt from pasture ; — driving into a stable and
haltering, and the kind of halter used, etc. It also contained an account of
an experiment with a robe, showing that the hox'se, as soon as he discovers
by his senses that an object has no power or will to hurt him, goes up to
it, and soon becomes regardless of its presence. All these remarks, how-
ever, have no interest for my readers, as they are of no utility whatever,

o

194 THE HORSE

and the sole remaining contents of the pages which were published by
Messrs. Routledge, and received with so much interest in this country,
were the directions for throwing the horse, and afterwards handling, or
"gentling" him, as the American operator calls the stroking the limbs,
which he always puts into practice after the horse is down. If this little
book had been published a few months earlier it would have entirely
destroyed the pecuniary prospects of the partners, but coming late as it
did, it prevented the payment of any more ten-guinea subscriptions, and
reduced the charge for the sight of the process to guinea and half-guinea
tickets for seats at the Alhambra. I shall, therefore, proceed to describe
the casting process, as witnessed by myself, and then examine into its
nature and effect upon the horse, whether in breaking or taming him.

The apparatus which is required is, first of all, an ordinary snaffle or
straight bit in the mouth, without which nothing could be done with any
^-icious horse ; and if any animal is to be " Rareyfied," the preliminary
operation is to get this into the mouth. Stafford was brought to Mr. Rarey
with the aid of guide-ropes, which were fastened to his head and held by
grooms on each side. In liim, therefore, this first essential point was
accomplished. Cruiser also had a halter, strengthened with iron, and in
him also there was a means of laying hold of the head, which was eagerly
seized by the operator. The plan adopted in his case was to fix an iron
staple to the door-post, and then running through this a strong leather
strap, to which a spring hook was attached, the opportunity was seized
when the horse came open-mouthed to the door, and he was securely laid
hold of and drawn up to the staple, so as to compel him to allow the
introduction of a bit. The grey colt at Mr. Anderson's was bitted ; but
the zebra was loose in his cage, and I do not at all know how the gag in
which he was exhibited was forced into his mouth, but I believe it was
effected by a rope thrown round his neck and drawn up to the bars of his
cage.

The second part of the apparatus is the leg-strap for the near fore-leg,
being very similar to a stirrup-leather, which, with the addition of a strong
loop, can be made to answer the same purpose very well. Before applying

rarey's leg -strap.

this strap, which at once makes the horse harmless for offence, he must be
rendered approachable, which, in ordinary animals, is effected merely with
the aid of the bridle. In Stafford, however, as I before remarked, guide-
ropes were used ; and in the case of Cruiser, he was enticed up to a wagon
loaded with hay, under which was Mr. Rarey, and through the wheel of
which this leg-strap was quietly and cautiously buckled on his leg. As
soon as this is done the horse is innocent of all mischief except with his

THE LEG-STRAP

195

teeth, for he cannot kick on three legs, and even his mouth may be kept
away from the operator by drawing on the off rein. To bring him speedily
to submit to the power of the operator, the other leg must also bo confined,
which is effected by first buckling on a surcingle, as represented in the

OEUISER WITH THE LEG-STRAP AND SURCINGLE ON.

jiii^raving, and then catching the off fetlock in the running noose of leg-
sttap JSio. 2, which is made in the annexed form. Provided with this

MR. RAREY S STRAP,

second strap in his pocket, and having already applied the leg-strap 'No. 1,
and the surcingle as shown above, the subject under manipulation is either
induced to drop his off foot into the noose, or it is slipped round his ankle,
svhile the off rein is held by the other hand to keep the teeth off the
operator. As soon as this loop is firmly drawn round the leg, the other

196

THE HORSE

end is slipped through the surcingle under the belly, and entire control of
the horse is only a work of time. The arrangement of these straps is well
shown in the engravhig, where Cruiser is sketched ready for the final
struf--gle. Up to this time, almost every horse Avill be tolerably quiet and
unresisting, some squealing when any approach is made to their elbows to
tighten the surcingle, and others when the strap No. 2 is slipped through
it! Few, however, plunge much ; and if they are made to hop on three
le^s they are able to go on for so long a time, without producing the
necessary amount of fatigue, that the operator would be tired before his
pupil. It is at this stage— that is to say, with the use of the leg-strap

CRUISER IN THE POWER OF HIS MA'STER.

No. 1 — that the predecessors of Mr. Rai'ey stopped, and they consequently
failed to gain the absolute control which he has invariably obtained with
the slight, but really important, additions which he has made, and which
he uses in the ingenious manner which I shall now describe. It may be
observed that, with a violent horse, it is always better to let him feel his
want of power for doing mischief with the near fore-leg strapped up, and
the slight degree of fatigue which a few minutes' hopping will produce,
before the second strap is called into play, especially if the operator has
not acquired great skill in the use of the apparatus. When this is done,
and the second strap is applied, and slipped through the surcingle, as
shown above, taking care to put a stout glove on the right hand,
the left rein is taken in the left hand, and gently jerked — using, if
necessary, the usual slight stimulus with the tongue, to make the horse

THE HORSE BOUNDING ON HIS HIND-LEGS

197

niovej wliich he can only do by raising the olf fore-leg off the ground in
the action known as hopping. The moment this begins, the right hand
firmly draws the off leg up to the sui'cinglo, and keeps it there, when the
horse must citlier bound into the air on his hind-legs, or he must go down
on the ground, supported from falling on his side in the attitude of kneel-
ing. To avoid mischief, therefore, the loose-box or yard where the operation
is carried on should be tliickly bedded with straw ; for no knee-caps are
stout enough to protect the joints from injury on hard ground ; nor, if they
escape being bruised, will the shock to the body on falling be at all safe.
Even straw can hardly be relied on, if the floor beneath is of brick, stone,
pebbles, or liard natural soil ; for it is apt to give way during the struggles

Cas, HORSE BOUNDING ON HIS IIIND-LEGS.

of the horse, and allow the knees to reach it without the intended protec-
tion. When, therefore, tliere is no tanned riding-schcol, or other similar
surface, at command, a good solid bed of manure (which is always to be
had wherever hoi'ses are) should be spread a foot thick at least, and over
this clean straw may be laid. To return to the subject of the operation,
whom we left with the alternative of bounding in the air on his hind-legs,
or falling on his knees in the annexed attitude (page 198), the chief art in
managing this part of the process is to keep firm hold of the strap attached
to the off leg close to the surcingle ; the hand being protected by the glove,
can easily prevent it from slipping through during the struggles of the horse,
and at the same time serves as a j)oint cVaji^^ui for the operator, so that he
can follow the movements of the bounding animal in whatever direction he
may progress. The operator must on no account attempt to stand away
from his patient, nor must he advance before the girth-place : but keeping

198

THE HORSE

close to this, he is in no danger, provided he has the sense and the ability
to give way if the horse should throw himself down towards his side. The
rein, being istill held in the left hand, prevents the horse falling away from
the operator, and is also used by him as a means of guiding the annual, if
he happens to progress in a direction which is not desired. Notlnng else is
to be attempted till the horse has quite exhausted all his energies, which
those possessed of high courage will soon do ; but low-bred animals are very
apt to turn sulky, and, refusing to plunge, remain on their knees, m spite
of every kind of stimulus which can be given them short of severe punish-
ment with the whip, which is to be avoided, as opposed to the principles on

THE HOUSE ON HIS KNEES, ABOUT TO FALL ON HIS SIDE.

which the whole process is founded. By taking time with these brutes,
they may always be made to tire themselves, for the kneeling position is
very irksome to them, and the most stubborn will give a plunge now and
then to relieve themselves, though they will not follow up one with another
as speedily as a thoroughbred. Sooner or later (the time varying from ten
minutes to two or three hours), the tail begins to tremble, the flanks heave,
and a profuse perspiration breaks out, which are signs that the horse of
himself desires the recumbent position, and will lie down of his own accord,
if not pulled over by the right hand of the operator. Mr. Rarey, in his
public exhibitions, has never, as far as I am aware, waited for this to take
place, but, perhaps to prevent wearying his audience, has always pulled his
patient over on his side as soon as he could accomplish the feat. In many
cases, this impatience has led to a partial failure ; the horse, not being tired
out, has I'efused to submit, and it has only been after repeating the process

HINTS TO OPERATORS 199

ouce or twice tliat complete control has been obtained. Those gentlemen,
therefore, whc' wish to try the experiment for themselves will do well to
avoid any risk of a repetition, which they may not be able to manage with
the dexterity of the great American tamer. Let them wait till the horse is
thoroughly tired, and then only interfere to such an extent as to keep him
leaning towards their side, by laying hold of the right rein instead of the
left, as shown in the engraving at page 198; and drawing the head away
from themselves. Mr. Rarey generally used the right hand for this purpose,
when he wished to throw his patient before he was exhausted, because he
could in that way employ more force ; and, at the same time, his dexterity
was such, that, if a bound was made, he was always ready to hold the strap
attached to the off foot before the horse could get fairly on his hind-legs.
In whichever way the task is accomplished, the effect is apparently the
same — the horse lies extended on liis side, panting and sweating, in the
most exhausted condition : but, of course, showing more of these symptoms
of distress the longer he has been kept resisting the restraints put upon
him. Now comes the test of the practical ability of the operator; for
whereas before he had only plain directions to carry out, he has at this
stage to judge how far his efforts are successful. If he takes off the straps
too soon, the patient is patient no longer, but rises rapidly, and perhaps
rewards him by planting a severe blow on his ribs. It is here that Mr.
Rarey displayed his great skill to perfection. Apparently by intuition, he
knew when his pupil was mastered ; but, as he was always ready to explain,
it was really by two symptoms that he judged whether he had gained the
mastery or not. One of these was the expression of the eye, which it
would be difficult to describe, and which experience alone could adequately
convey to those who wish to understand it ; but the other, being readily
tested, is within the reach of every one. This consists in the entire
flaccidity of the muscles of the neck and limbs ; and until this is ascertained
to have been obtained, the straps should not be entirely removed. Mr.
Rarey's plan of proceeding at this stage was the following. A second or
two after the horse went down, he let him raise his head, and then dragged
it down again to the ground by the mane. On repeating this once, twice,
or thrice, the animal would give in as far as that part was concerned ; and
being rewarded with a pat of the hand, the head remained still on the
ground, and that part was "gentled." Next removing the leg-straps, the
fore-legs were separately gently rubbed downwards; and on being lifted,
and let fall, as if dead, they also were passed as in a similar satisfactory
state. The operator then going round by the back, pi'oceeded to gentle the
hind limbs ; and though, in vicious horses, he sometimes had narrow escapes
of being kicked, yet, by his great activity and clever mode of seizing his
opportunity, he always succeeded in keeping out of harm's way. Finally,
the operator passed in front of the legs, and performed all the usual " clap-
traps " of putting his head between them, knocking the hind and fore shoes
together, standing on the body, etc. "While in this state, the horse lies in
the attitude and with the expression which is very well represented in the
accompanying sketch, and there he will gladly lie as long as he is permitted
to do so. But he is not to be allowed to recruit his powers ; and as soon
as he had gone through the tricks which I have described, Mr. Rarey made
him rise, and then showed that the power which he had gained was not lost

200

THE HORSE

as soon as the animal stood on his legs again. Calling for a saddle, it was
in every case shown to the horse, and put first on his head, then on his
neck, and finally in its proper place. The animal then always submitted to
be mounted, and even allowed the dangerous plan recommended and adopted
by Mr. Rarey, of standing close to the hind-quarter while putting the foot
in the stirrup, to be carried out without kicking, which before the " Rarey-
fication " most of the vicious brutes operated on in public would probably
have done.

By this plan, it is indisputable that any active man, of good temper,
but possessed of firmness and courage, and accustomed to deal with horses,
may gain such a control over even the most vicious, that he can do what

THE HORSE TAMED.

he likes with them indoors. No one who has examined into the matter
can doubt Mr. Rarey 's powei', nor can he refuse him the merit of improv-
ing upon the old system of controlling the horse, by the addition of ,the
second leg-strap, which adds so much to the power of the human ai^m,
that the most violent and muscular horse has no chance whatever. The
secret lies in two essential features ; first, that the horse must never be
coerced or resisted unless the man is certain of success in controlling him ;
and, secondly, that when the former is thoroughly convinced of his power-
less condition, and his muscles ai'e tired out, the latter interferes and
relieves him of his trammels, " gentles " him, gives him Icind words, and
at length encourages him to rise. The efibct is marvellous — the most
vicious brute, who would previously tear any man to pieces, after he is
thus first coerced, and then " gentled " and relieved, appears to grow fond
of his master, and follows him about like a dog. Clearly, therefore, Mr,

CONCLUSIONS 201

llarey may he considered as liaving been eminently ,succei.Hful in pro-
pounding a system of horse- taming ; but it by no means follows that his
process is equally, or even at all, useful in horse-breaking. There are
other questions, also, which remain to be considered in relation to the
method which I have described. First, Is it permanent quoad the indi-
vidual who has carried it out 1 Secondly, Does the vicious horse who has
been subdued and " gentled " by one man, show the same absence of vice
towards others ? And thirdly, Is he injured in any way by the operation 1
On the first of these points there apjoears to be strong evidence that, if
the operator gives occasionally a very slight reminder of his powers, the
effect of one, two, or three lessons, repeated at short intervals, will con-
tinue for at least a year or two. There are numerous instances which
have come to my knowledge of horses resuming their vicious habits
within two or three months of receiving such a lesson from Mr. Rarey
that they would allow him to do what he liked with them ; but in the
case of the savage Cruiser, there is reason to believe that he never once
rebelled against his master from the time that he first gave in. In his
case, however, the operation was repeated hundreds of times ; and there-
fore it does not go so far as I have stated to be the rule, but others might
be adduced which keep strictly within it ; and thei-e are also private indi-
viduals who have practised on horses which have never been exhibited in
public who have kept up their control unimpaired. The evidence in
favour of the lasting nature of the controlling power, when exercised by
the operator himself, is too strong to be gainsaid : and the first question
may, I think, be safely answered in the affirmative. But in reference to
the second, the evidence is all the other way ; and on putting Cruiser into
the witness-box, he would tell us that he has several times tuz'ned against
his groom, and put his life in danger. Still, it must be remembered that,
prior to his treatment by " Rareyfication," no man dared enter his box;
and on comparing his two states, before and afterwards, it may be truly
said, that though not absolutely cured of his vicious propensities, he is
comparatively so. Probably the same conclusion may be arrived at in
those cases which are related of relapses from virtue to vice ; but, at all
events, such instances are numerous enough, and attested in a manner so
respectable, that every possessor of a coerced horse should be always on
his guard. The last question is somewhat difficult to answer, because the
injury, if real, is not apparent. The chief means of testing the effect is on
the powers of race-horses, several of which have felt Mr. Rarey's straps,
and been controlled by his master hand. Now, I believe, there is no
instance of a horse which had gone through the operation, doing any good
subsequently on the turf. All have shown either a want of speed or
heart ; and whatever has been the cause of this, they have run behind
those animals whose foi-ni was considered by good judges to have been
previously inferior to them. Thus, Mr. Merry's Miss Finch, when she
first appeared, beat several fields of first-class two-year-olds ; and it was
generally l^elieved, when she afterwards was beaten, that it was only
because her temper was so bad. Yet when this defect was so far remedied
by the process I am considering, that Mr. M. Dawson could ride her
constantly as a hack without much inconvenience, she never recovered
her racing powers, and neither in private (as I have been informed),

202 THE HORSE

nor in public certainly, did she ever exhibit any approach to her former

On the whole, therefore, it may fairly be concluded that JNIr. Rarey's
plans are well adapted for the control of vicious horses, supposing they
are not subsequently wanted for the turf, in which case the utility of the
process is very questionable. As, however, all our horses are not vicious,
and as by the casting and gentling nothing more is efifected than a general
control, it remains to be considered how far this is useful in breaking
colts for general purposes. My own belief is that it acts by producing
in the horse a compound feeling of fear and gratitude, the former being
the result of his fruitless efforts to get rid of the controlling hand of man,
and the latter being established from finding that hand relieve him of his
straps, and then caress and " gentle " him. If, therefore, any horse, even
without vice, is required to exhibit to his master or mistress any relations
more intimate than those which are usually practised in this country,
great advantage will result from the establishment of this fear and grati-
tude. With the exception, however, of cavalry and circus horses, -we
generally content ourselves with that amount of intercourse which is
acquii-ed in the saddle, and we do not want our hacks to exhibit tricks,
nor do we require them to follow us about at liberty like our dogs. It
has been attempted to show that this particular plan gets rid of a great
deal of cruelty to the horse, but this is altogether unfounded, for long
before the great American trainer made his appearance, writers on the
horse had denounced its use, and thoiigh many cruelly sevei-e breakers
and grooms existed, as they still exist, yet they were exceptions to the
general rule. Cavalry horses, especially when on service, are required to
submit to the control of the men in many ways which are never in demand
for hacking or hunting, and the mere power of compelling the horse to lie
down and remain on the ground is worth a great deal of trouble to acquire.
As far as they are concerned, I think the use of Mr. Rarey's straps most
valuable ; and it must be remembered that this was all that the Canadian
military authorities certified in their recommendations which Mr. Rarey
brought with him across the Atlantic. The clever management of his
partner, Mr. Goodenough, and the profound secrecy maintained for so long,
carried the public away far beyond this, and, as in the fable of the fox who
had lost his tail, all those who had spent their ten guineas were anxious to
place their friends in the same predicament. This is the only way in which
I can account for the extraordinary conclusions to which so many practised
horsemen arrived in 1858. Since that time, it is true, the fashion has
subsided, and a more temperate view has been taken, the general opinion
of good judges being, I believe, pretty much in accordance Avith those which
I have always held publicly and privately, and which I have here en-
deavoured to convey to my readers.

Before proceeding to inquire into the merits of Mr. Rarey's plan as
compared with our own mode of breaking, it will be well to describe
what the latter is, and then ascertain which is the best mode of carrying
out our object. No horseman in this country would dream of using
the animal he intends to ride or drive without the control of a bit,
and although he may aid this powerful instrument with his voice, his
leg, his whip, or his spur, yet it always has been, and still is, the chief

ORDINARY ENGLISH METHOD 203

agent iu the management of the horse. Again, no colt is to be con-
sidered as broken until his rider or driver has altered his paces, and
given him such an action in the walk, trot, canter, and gallop, or in
some two or three of these paces, that he has become pleasant and
safe. Now the plans which I have just described do not affect cither
of these objects, indeed their tendency is rather to interfere with the
making of a good mouth, for the bit will sometimes cut the angles of the
lips, and in this way tend to make it afterwards dull. I do not mean to
assert that this is necessarily carried far enough by Mr. Rarey to make his
plan objectionable on that account, but merely that if anything is done
towards breaking a colt, it is injurious rather than beneficial, with the
single exception of the establishment of a mental control, which, as I shall
presently show, is not wanted in more than one or two per thousand of
our horses.

Although, at the time of Mr. Rarey's successful exhibitions in this
countiy, there were persons claiming to have practised the same methods
previously, he is to all intents and purposes the founder of a system which
has had many successful imitators. Very considerable improvements have
been made in the way of hobbles and horse-gear generally, and this chapter
cannot be brought to a close without a tribute to the skill and inventive
genius displayed by Captain Hayes, whose work on horse-breaking may be
taken as the latest and most complete exposition of what he insists should
be considered a science as well as an art. " Professor " Crocker and " Pro-
fessor " Sample and others have been able to exhibit great mastery over
horses and interest spectators, but as authors professing to instruct the
average reader we cannot give them unqualified praise.

THE ORDINARY ENGLISH METHOD OF BREAK-
ING FOR THE SADDLE

In this country the breaker of the hack is not only supposed to produce
in his pupil what is called a good " mouth," but also to teach him the use
of his legs, so as to give a pleasant feel to his rider in the walk, trot, and
gallop, and in the canter, where specially required. The race-horse is
only " mouthed " and " backed," his subsequent education being confided
to the trainer; and the hunter, in addition to these developments, is
taught to get over the various fences which he is likely to meet with, in a
clever manner. Each class must, therefore, go through the same prelimi-
nary process, which consists in producing a good mouth, and in making
the colt bear his rider patiently in the saddle. To effect these objects,
when the colt is running at large he must be caught and haltered, and I
shall now proceed to show how the matter is effected ah initio. In doing
this it will be necessary to examine into the best apparatus for carrying
it out.

The halter, which in this country is generally fix'st used, is the ordi-
nary one, made of hemp webbing, for the head, with a running eye in the
back of the nose-piece, in which runs a stout rope attached to the head.
Thoroughbred colts are always made to carry a light leather head-stall
from the end of their first year, and so, indeed, are all well-bred }'earlings

204 THE HORSE

of any value. The large mass of colts run unhaltered till they are to be
broken, which is generally comuienced when they are three-year-olds.^
Ponies and small hacks are then often taken into use, the latter being
quietly ridden by the breeder for his own purposes till they are four or
five years old, when they are sold. Mr. Rarey recommends for all pur-
poses a leathern halter, made like an ordinary head-stall, but rather
lighter. Tliis is at once put on the colt, and by buckling a leading-strap to
the nose-band, either before or behind, anything may be done which is
required, short of mounting. Two small billets and buckles attach any
bit which may be selected to the rings which connect the cheek-pieces to
the nose-band, and thus the halter is converted into a very useful breaking
bridle. It wants, however, the stiff padded nose-band of the cavesson,
but this is only required with very violent and determined colts. The
annexed engraving represents Mr. Rarey's halter-bridle, with his ordinary
breaking-bit.

The bit which is usually employed in England for colts is a heavy
smooth snaffle, with a tongue-piece and keys depending from its central
link. For racing colts a very excellent bit is used extensively, consisting in
a mere smooth ring of iron, with a loop on the upper part for attachment to
the head-stall, in the same way as in Mr. Rarey's bridle. In front of this
loop the ring is introduced into the mouth, and the back of the circle takes
the leading-rein, which is thus allowed to slip on either side, and keep a
secure hold of the jaw however much the colt may pull at it. I have a dis-
like to the snaffle for colts, because I have found it constantly pressing on
one corner of the mouth more than the other, the animal putting his head
on one side, and leaning upon that half of the mouthpiece, so as to relieve
each side of the jaw alternately, instead of allowing the two divisions of the
snaffle to bear equally on the angles of the mouth. I much prefer a bit
made with an unjointed mouthpiece, curved in a segment of a circle, with
the usual tongue-piece and keys attached to the middle by a roller. This
curved mouthpiece should have smooth rings turned upon it, which will
prevent the horse from rubbing his lips from side to side, and tend to form
a very pleasant and delicate mouth. I have known it used with great
success in breaking hundreds of colts, and I have myself found its advan-
tages in a great number of horses, young as well as old. These, together
with a martingale, buckling on to the bit, are all that are required for
making the mouth.

In addition to the apparatus for this part of the colt's education, arrange-
ments must also be made for accustoming him to bear the weight of the
rider, and for attaching the bit to some part of the body. In commencing
the breaking it is customary to put on merely a roller with a leathern
surcingle over it, kept in its place by a cruppci', which, for facility of putting
on, should have a buckle on one side. In front of the surcingle, on eacli

^ In many breedin,^ districts colts are broken at two years old and given another year's
run in wliich to develop. It is found that a two-year-old is more easily broken, as being
more impressionable and more readily fatigned.

The halter is put on sucking colts during the first month by nuany good fiirmers, as their
strength is not great and they soon succumb to superior force and never forget the lesson.
For various reasons, such as illness or sale, it becomes necessary to secure a colt at almost any
age, and a preliminary tussle with the halter is not a good preparation for the treatment of
a young animal that is sick or in acute pain, or to be led or driven a journey.

BREAKING

205

side, two buckles are stitched, serving to attach the reins either high up,
or even crossed over the withers, or low down, or sometimes both high
and low. What is called a dumb-jockey may be attached to the roller, bub
this is frequently dispensed with, though witli the elastic reins introduced
by Mr. Blackwell I think it may be made very useful. Lastly, to the
crupper long hanging straps are attached, so as to accustom the young
animal to the pressure of the coat or habit. Provided with this apparatus,

MP.. RARKY'S IIALTEU OR LRIDLE FOR COLTS.

and with a long leading-rein of webbing, the breaker is prepared to subdue
the wildest colt.

The first thing to be done is to get a halter or head-stall on, which is
only to be effected either in a stable or similar enclosed place, or among a
herd of other horses, when the colt is so closely packed in that he cannot
move. Every one must have seen the Welsh and Irish drovers rush into
the middle of a herd, and seizing an unbroken colt round the neck, hold
him till a halter is slipped over his head. The same plan greatly facilitates
the haltering of any colt ; but a couple of steady horses are quite enough to
keep a colt steady in any building or small yard. The breaker arranges so
as to have one on each side, and then going up between them, he has the

206 THE HORSE

colt held for liim while he very slowly and quietly insinuates his hand, with
the head of the halter in it, over the neck, just behind the ears. With a
little dexterity, this is soon done, and then the nose-band being slipped into
its place, a good hold can be secured. Every horseman must, however,
agree with Mr. Rarey, that the rope halter with a running noose is most
improper, and that a leathern head-stall should always be chosen. It is quite
true, that a single turn of the cord of the halter into a half-hitch prevents
all mischief, and this is done by good breakers ; but the head-stall or cavesson
should be put on as soon as possible, and the former may be worn constantly
till the breaking is complete, but it is advisable to frequently examine the
skin and see that no sores are established. When shod behind it is not a
very safe plan to leave a head-stall on permanently, as in scratching the head
with the hind-foot the latter has been known to hang up and result in a
fatal accident. With the leading-rein attached to the nose-band, the breaker
can now restrain the colt from getting away ; and, by kind words and gentle
treatment, the young animal soon becomes accustomed to his presence, and
will allow him to approach and handle him all over. When this is borne
easily, he may be led out about the fields, and green lanes if there are any ;
but while he continues to resent the approach of moving objects by violent
bounds, nothing should be put in his mouth out-of-doors. If he is very wild
and ungovernable, he may be made to ti-ot gently round and round in a
circle on some soft ground, the breaker at first following laim up, but soon
being enabled to " longe " him while standing in the centre. After a day
or two, the breaking-bit already described may be slipped into his mouth,
and attached in the way shown in the engraving at page 205. It should,
however, only be allowed to hang there without reins at first, and it may
either be kept on while the colt is being led about, or for an hour or two
daily while in the stable. In tliis way the jaw and lips become accustomed
to the pressure of the bit, and lose the painful sensation which it at first
occasions. If, on the other hand, the reins are at once buckled on, and are
then strained tightly back to the surcingle, or dumb-jockey, the delicate
mucous membrane becomes sore, and even ulcerated, and the foundation is
laid for that dull, unyielding mouth which is so objectionable on every
account.

It should never be forgotten, that the mouth is the foundation upon
which all the subsequent proceedings are to be conducted. A horse may
naturally have fine action, and he may be so framed that, if he were properly
bitted, he would be a delightful hack or hunter; but if his mouth is spoiled
in breaking, his fine action is thrown away, because it cannot be regulated
and controlled by such a trifling exercise of strength in the hand and ai-m
as is consistent with riding for pleasure. Many a pulling brute has won a
steeplechase, or shown to advantage in the hunting-field, with a professional
" up," which would not be ridden for ten minutes by an amateur who could
afford to make his own selection. Hence, the first thing which, the breaker
lias to set about is the formation of a good mouth; and this is exactly what
Mr. Rarey's plans fail to provide, and, indeed, it is what they interfere with
in a great degree, as I have observed at page 203. Well, then, let us
examine into the received mode of obtaining a good mouth in England. M.
Baucher has carried the European principles of producing it to a very high
degree, and it will be necessary to allude to his plans also; but, on the

BREAKING 207

whole, I cannot but think them superfluous for ordinary purposes, and
should be perfectly content with a horse broken in the best English methods,
which now combine the " supi^lings " of the great French breaker with the
old dead pressure adopted in the methods of our ancestors. The difference
between the two is mainly this, that we in England content ourselves with
confining the head by the reins in a position which, while it docs not compel
the horse to lean upon his bit, yet makes him try to avoid its pressure by
bending his neck, and thus rendering its muscles supple. M. Baucher, on
the contrary, prefers that the whole of this suppling shall be performed by
the pi-essure of the breaker's hand; and, doubtless, his is the best plan, if the
man employed is competent to the task, and the time thus devoted can be
afforded. It takes a fortnight or three weeks to " make " a horse's mouth,
so far as to fit him to bear the hands of his ridei', in either way; but as less
than two hours a day during that time will not suffice, and as in the one
case the horse supples himself, whUe in the other a man must effect the
change, M. Baucher's method costs twenty-eight hours of skilled labour, in
addition to subsequent breaking, and it is therefore very expensive. The
course of proceedings which good English breakers now adopt is as follows.
The bit having been allowed for some days to remain in the mouth without
reins, as already described, the breaker next proceeds to attach a rein to it
in the ordinary way, and to buckle this loosely to the surcingle or dumb-
jockey, whichever he may employ. Mr. Blackwell's india-rubber reins are
thought very highly of by some for this purpose; but, as far as I have tried
them, I prefer plain leather, because I object to constant pressure, however
slight, upon the mouth. A drop of water falling constantly and regularly
upon a stone will wear it away sooner than the same quantity dashed at
once upon it; and, in the same manner, permanent gentle pressure upon the
mouth is more irksome than a more severe occasional pull. The great art
consists in shortening the reins so gradually, that the pressure can always
be avoided by bending the neck, and this the horse soon learns to do ; and
thus, at one and the same time, he gains control over his muscles, and inures
his jaws and lips to the bit. It is generally necessary, while the " bitting "
is going on, whether in the stable or at exercise, to fix the head down by a
martingale, buckled to each side of the bit; for without this the horse, in
his struggles to get rid of his restraints, will often toss his head so high as
to do himself a serious injury. If the mouthing is conducted in the stable,
the horse is either put into a loose-box (which is the best plan), or he is
turned round in his stall, and kept in that position by buckling the ordinary
pillar-reins to each side of the bit. At first, the reins should hardly confine
the head at all beyond the position in which it is naturally carried when the
horse is excited; but each day a hole or two may be taken up, until such
pressure is made, that the horse has a tendency to relieve his neck and
shoulders by advancing his fore-legs and rounding his neck. The best plan
is to put on the breaking tackle for an hour in the stable, then loose the
reins for a quarter of an hour; after which the colt may be led out for his
regular daily exercise, and may be " longed " with the reins buckled more or
less tightly, according to the experience of the breaker and the condition of
the mouth. In most cases, the process is hurried far too much; the breaker
contracts to do all that is required for a given sum, varying from one guinea
to three, and it is his object to spend as little time over each of his pupils

208 THE HORSE

as will sem-e to ir.ake them barely I'ideable. This is objectionable in prin-
ciple, though it is very difficult to know how to improve upon it without
running the risk of extortion ; but when a colt is to be broken for the use of
the owner, or any of his family, he will do well to see that plenty of time is
devoted to the formation of the mouth, and this I have already said should
extend to a fortnight. If the breeder has a lot of colts which are to be
placed in the breaker's hands, the latter can, with the assistance of a few
lads, go on with a dozen at the same time, and in that way too great an
outlay of money is avoided; but if there is only one in his hands, he can
hardly do justice to his employer at the ordinary rate. Hitherto I have only
alluded to longeing, without describing it or alluding to the object with
which it is adoj)ted. I must now, however, say something more about it,
because in this stage it becomes an important element of success. It may
be remembered, that I have laid down a fortnight as the least interval which
should elapse from the commencement of breaking before the colt is fit to be
backed with safety to the breaker or his assistant. Not that he may not be
ridden in much less time than this, but that if he is, it will be at the
expense of his mouth. Longeing is a means of at once giving exercise in a
short space of time, and also of accustoming the colt to use his limbs while
some degree of pressure is made on the mouth by the bit, without giving
himself pain from moving the head. Now, the act of keeping this part still
necessitates an even and smooth style of going, and so all things work
together to produce the pleasant feel which is given to the rider by a per-
fect hack. A good mouth may be acquired in the stable, but it is soon
spoiled out-of-doors, either by longeing in a huiTied manner, or by the bad
hands of the rider, whether breaker or subsequent user. To keep it great
care is required at every stage of breaking; and none but a man possessed
of head, temper, seat, and hands can finish a colt as he should be turned out.
Longeing, therefore, I hold to be a most important part in the art of break-
ing; and its absence from Mr. Rarey's principles and practice shows that he
has taken the dull pulling mouth of the American horse as his model, and
not the beautifully yielding, yet steady one of the English hack.

At length, when the breaker is satisfied that the colt has gained the power
over his limbs at all paces, which he will have gradually given him in his daily
longes, by increasing the tightness of the reins and accelerating the pace
(taking care to change the direction of the circles), he thinks it time to give
his pupil the finishing lessons, which can only be done in the saddle. Before
mounting, however, he is enabled to teach the colt the meaning of each pressure
of the rein, which is at first utterly unintelligible. By taking both in each
hand, and pressing backwards, he causes him to back ; and by drawing them
forward, to proceed in that direction. The right hand moved to the right,
makes the colt move his head, and afterwards his body, towards that side, and
vice versa with the left hand. In this way, all is prepai'ed for the mounting,
which should be first attempted when the colt is somewhat tired after a long
and steady longo. The breaker should, during the last week's daily exercise,
put on a saddle instead of a roller and surcingle, keeping it in its place by
loose girths and a crupper. Every day he should bear occasionally upon the
stirrups, smacking them against the saddle, and thus accustoming the colt to
noises, and also to pressure on his back. When all is ready, he has only to
put his foot in the stirrup, standing with his back to the shoulder, and then,

BREAKING 209

after partially rising two or three times, and coming down again, he finally
plants himself firmly in the saddle. Most careful breakers have a roll of
cloth buckled firmly in front of their saddles ; and with this precaution, even
if the colt buck'3 or kicks, it is almost impossible for him to dislodge them.
When thus mounted, the breaker should be in no hurry, but let the colt
get accustomed to the intruder. Let him wait till the pupil has somewhat
recovered from the shock, and then only let him urge him forward at as
slow a pace as he likes. If all has been conducted well throughout the pre-
liminary stages, and the colt is good-tempered, he will walk away quietly
enough, and generally no ti'ouble will be given for a day or two; when,
probably, there will be some slight fight, which may be either in causing the
pupil to go where he does not want to go, or in making him face some object
which frightens him. At first, neither whip nor spur should be used, for
the object of neither is understood; and if the colt will not readily move
forward, he should be led or driven by an assistant, and not whipped or
spurred by his rider. In process of time, however, he is made gradually to
understand these signs by the tact of the breaker; and then if he offends, he
must be punished accordingly, but it must always be remembered that the
fault must be met immediately, or not at all.

The amusing and experienced author of The Horse and his Rider has
drawn attention to the misconception of the differences in character between
a wild horse and a tame one, which is entertained in this country. He says :
" It is generally conceived that in the difficulty of sticking on to the back of
a horse there exist three degrees of comparison, namely: —

" 1. That it is rather diflicult to ride a horse that has been broken in.
" 2. That it is exceedingly difficult to ride a tame one that has not been
broken in.

" .3. That it must be almost impossible to mount and ride a wild horse just
caught, that has never been broken in.

" We will, however, humbly venture to assert that in certain instances,
the three steps of this little ladder might be reversed.

"1. In a state of nature the horse is such a zealous advocate of our
popular principle of 'self-government,' he is so desirous to maintain his
' independence,' that although he will allow almost any quadruped, even
wolves and lions, to approach within a certain distance, yet the moment he
sees a man, though on horseback, he instinctively turns his tail towards him,
and, when followed, gallops away.

" If, consequently, by the triumph of reason over instinct, he be caught,
saddled, and if all of a sudden, to his vast astonishment, he finds sitting
astride his back, with a cigar in his mouth, the very human being he has
always been avoiding, his first and almost only feeling is that of fear, and
accordingly, if he be retained by the bridle, instantaneously, by a series of
jumps on all four legs, he makes impromptu his first hurried, untaught,
unpractised effort to dislocate a rider. But if, instead of being as it were
invited to perform these unsophisticated antics, he be allowed, cr rather, by
whip and severe spurs, be propelled to do what he most ardently desires,
namely, run away, his power of resistance is over, and his subjection inevit-
able. Por at the top of his speed, just as when swimming, a horse can
neither rear, kick, nor plunge, and accordingly at his best pace he proceeds
on his sure road to ruin, until not only all his wind is pumped out of him,

P

210 THE HORSE

but, after that, until twisted hide-thong and sharp iron have converted his
terror of man into an ardent desire to be obedient to his Avill. In fact, like
a small nation that has unsuccessfully been contending against a great one,
he wishes to put an end to the horrors of war, and to sue for the blessings
of peace.

" 2. If a domestic horse that has never been broken in be suddenly
saddled and mounted, the rider has greater ditBculties to encounter than
those just described ; for the animal is not only gifted b}'' nature with all
the propensities of the wild horse to i-eject man, but, from being better fed,
he has greater strength to indulge in them; besides which he enjoys the im-
mense advantage of being in a civilized, or, in plainer terms, an enclosed
country. Accoixlingly, instead of being forced to run away, his rider is
particularly afraid lest he should do so, simply because he knows that the
remedy which would cure the wild horse, would probably kill him. In fact,
the difference to the rider between an open and an enclosed field of battle is
exactly that which a naval ofiicer feels in scudding in a gale of wind out of
sight of land, and in being caught among sandbanks and rocks in a narrow
channel.

"3. Of all descriptions of horses, wild and tame, by far the most difficult
to ride is that young British thoroughbred colt of two or three years old
that has been regulai'ly ' broken in ' hy himself, without giving the slightest
warning, to jump away sideways, spin round, and at the same moment kick
off his rider. This feat is a beautiful and well-arranged combination of
nature and of art. Like the pugilistic champion of England — Tom Sayers
— he is a professional performer, gifted with so much strength and activity,
and skilful in so many quick, artful tricks and dodges, that any country
practitioner that comes to deal with him is no sooner up than down, to rise
from his mother earth with a vague, bewildered, incoherent idea as to what
had befallen him, or how he got there.

" If a horse of this description and a wild one in his own country were to
be mounted there simultaneously, each by an equally good rider, both the
quadrupeds probably at the same moment would be seen to run away ; the
Briton for ever, to gain his liberty; the other quadruped, just as surely, to
lose it ! "

Nothing can better convey to the reader the difficulties which the English
horse-breaker has to contend with, than this extract from the pages of Sir F.
B. Head, who has had ample opportunities of judging both the varieties of
the species which he describes. It shows the necessity for the cautious pro-
ceedings which I have endeavoured to describe as the proper mode of break-
ing our young horses, and which I am satisfied will enable the breaker to
perform his task in a way which will be satisfactory to his employer. It
may, however, be worth while to examine into the methods adopted in the
French school, as first introduced by M. Baucher.

His " Method of Horsemanship " has been generally received on the
Continent, where the principles of the manege have always been more
highly prized than in this country. The author tells us, as his first
principle, "that all the resistances of young horses spring from a physical
cause, and that this cause only becomes a moral one by the awkwardness,
ignorance, and brutality of the rider. In fact, besides the natural stiff
nesb peculiar to all horses, each of them has a peculiar conformation,

BREAKING 211

the groaler or less perfection of Avhich constitutes tlie degree of
harmony that exists between the forces and the weight. The want of
this harmony occasions the ungracefulness of their paces, the dilliculty of
their movements — in a word, all the obstacles to a good education." To
remove these defects, M. Baucher adopts certain methods of suppling
the neck, in which he considers the chief obstrxle to perfect action
resides. Without going into the long details of the vai-ious supplings, it
will be sufficient to describe the general division of the work which the
author considers necessary. This, he thinks, must extend to two months,
divided into one hundred and twenty lessons of half-an-hour each, two
being given each day. During the first series of eight lessons, the
breaker will devote twenty minutes to the stationary exercise for the
flexions of the jaw and neck, which can hardly be efficiently descxibed
without the illustrations given in the book itself. During the remaining
ten minutes, he will make the horse go forv/ard at a walk, without
trying to animate him ; applying himself all the time to keeping the
horse's head in a perpendicular position. In the second series, com-
prising ten days, the first fifteen minutes will be occupied in stationary
supplings and backings, followed by an equal time devoted to moving
straight ahead in the walk and trot. The rider, while taking care to
keep the head in good place, will commence a slight opposition of hand
and legs, in order to give regularity to the paces. The third series,
making up twelve days, will combine the previous supplings with
pi7-ouettes ; while the fourth and fifth series, making up the whole time,
will go on to develop the various elementary paces of the manege. Now,
in all this, it appears to me that we have only our best English modes
of breaking carried out to excess ; and I am yet to learn that any great
novelty has been introduced by this standard authority of the French
scliool.

Under the heading of " Rapid Methods op Breaking," Capt.
Hayes says : " We are indebted to American horse-trainers, from Rarey
down to Sample, for having furnished us with labour-saving methods of
breaking ... I must say that, with extremely few exceptions, any un-
handled or spoiled horse, no matter how wild, vicious, or old he may
be, can be made by quick methods, quiet to ride and ready to obey
the ordinary indications of the reins, in from two to four hours. Such
a horse, to become a reliable ' conveyance,' would probably require
about twelve more lessons — two a day — of an hour's duration each."
This gifted author goes on to say, "To those who might advance the
ai'gument that because the ordinary course of breaking takes more than
ten times as long as the methods I advocate, it must therefore be more
permanent in its influence, I would beg to submit that such a con-
tention would hold good only on the untenable supposition that the
effects of the respective processes were equal in force. I see no possible
benefit, except the questionable one of giving the animal an exaggerated
opinion of his own powers of resistance, in taking a month to accomplish
what may be done quite as efficiently in an hour . . . The intensity of
an effect, and not the time occupied in its production, is the measure of
its permanency."

212 THE HORSE

SUPERIORITY OF THE ORDINARY METHOD

It will readily be gathered from what I have already written that
for breaking the average colt I greatly prefer the methods which have
been in use for many years in this country. Mr. Rarey is entitled to
every credit for introducing a novel mode of controlling a vicious horse,
which is also of service in training cavalry and circus horses. Beyond
these departments, however, his plans effect no good as far as my judgment
goes, and instead of improving the mouth they have a tendency to injure
it. I have shown that time and patience are grand elements of success
in horsebreaking, and that it is a disadvantage to hasten the process,
rthich is all that Mr. Rarey pretends to effect. We do not want to
manage our horses without reins, but on the contrary to guide them and
stop them with the slightest possible touch consistent with the equi-
librium to be maintained in the saddle. Hence the first object is the
formation of a good mouth, and as this requires a considerable time to
develop, there are ample opportunities for gradually accustoming the colt
to the presence and control of his master while it is being produced. If
sevei-al breakers were to be pitted against each other as to which should
first ride a high-spirited, unbroken colt, undoubtedly Mr. Rarey would come
off victorious ; but, on the other hand, I would back against any horse
broken by his method, another which had been submitted to a good
breaker on the old English plan, if the palm was to be given to that one
which should prove to have the most perfect mouth and action.

The use of long reins run through the stirrup irons is advocated
by Capt. Hayes and other correspondents in the Field of recent date,
and it undoubtedly possesses some advantages — young horses can be thus
made to jump without unnecessary weight upon their backs.

BREAKING TO HARNESS

The early proceedings in breaking a colt to harness are exactly the
same as for the saddle, and indeed it is well in all cases to make him
handy to ride before he is put into the break. We may therefore assume
that this has been done, or at all events that a good mouth has been made,
and the colt handled and accustomed to bear the hip-straps hanging
loosely over his sides prior to putting him in harness.

There is some difference of opinion among breakers as to the best
plan of conducting this operation. Some contend that for every kind of
harness the horse ought to be put in with another, who wi31 compel him
to move or stop at the will of the driver. Others assert that, on the
contrary, every young horse should be put in first by himself, and then if
he refuses to move he can be allowed to wait till he is tired of inactivity,
which practically he soon is. My own opinion is founded upon moi^e
than twenty years' experience with all sorts of horses, and I am persuaded
that by far the safest and best method is to put every horse into double
harness first. Many farmers break their colts in by putting them to

BREAKING TO HARNESS 213

plough between two other horses, but the pull at this work is too dead
for well-bred colts, and many jibbers are produced in this way. Every
high-couraged horse has a tendency to jump forward on the first impulse
to do so, and feeling the restraint of the collar he is irritated to increase his
pull, whereby his shoulders are galled, causing him to dislike his work
from the pain which he suffers. It is quite possible to break in a colt
of average good temper for single harness without putting him first into
double, but the plan is always attended with danger to both horse and
driver, and I should strongly caution my readers against it. Even after
two or three lessons in the double break, which have been quietly sub-
mitted to, the colt often turns restive when put in by himself, but still
by that time he knows what he has to do, and is not made sulky by
being punished without cause.

The apparatus necessary for breaking to harness consists of, 1st, a
set of strong double and single harness, made in the ordinary way,
except that the crupper for the colt should buckle on one side; 2ndly,
a double break of the ordinary construction ; but it is a safe plan to have
the whole space between the fore-carriage and the splinter-bar made up
with iron rods so close together that if a horse kicks he cannot get his
legs hung over the bar ; 3dly, a single bi-eak, to be hereafter described.

Before the colt is put to draw he should be accustomed to the pressure
of the harness, and as a matter of course in any case he must have this
put on him. Every groom ought to know how to do this, but at the
same time, in a colt he should be cautioned to proceed slowly and quietly
so as not to frighten him. Mr. Rarey's plan of showing the horse every-
thing which is to be put on him is a very good one, and taking advantage
of it, before the collar is slipped over the head a little time may be allowed
for the future wearer of it to smell it and examine it with his eyes also.
Many breakers, to avoid the danger of alarming their pupils by putting
the collar over their heads, have this part made to open at the withers,
where a buckle secures it after it has been slipped up under the neck ;
but collars made in this way are not so firm as when constructed in the
ordinary mode, and are more liable to punish the shoulders, so that what
is gained in one way is lost in the other. A quiet and handy man can
always slip a collar over a horse's head if he will take time, and especially
if he has previously handled the animal and made him accustomed to his
presence. As soon as this part of the harness is in its place the pad and
crupper must be gently put on the back, and then quietly raising the tail
with every hair gathered and firmly grasped in the left hand, the right
slips the crupper under it ; as soon as this is done the left drops the tail
and assists the right to buckle the two parts together. In the previous
breaking the colt has been accustomed to the crupper, so that there is no
occasion for extra care in this part now. The pad is then drawn forward
to its place, the bellyband buckled, and the rest of the harness being put
on in the ordinary way, the colt is allowed to feel it for a few minutes, and
should then be led out in a yard or other convenient place for an hour.
The general practice is after this to put him to at once, but it is far better,
if the colt is at all shy, to take off the harness and postpone the com-
mencement of actual breaking till the next day.

The actual putting to is managed differently in double and single

214 THE HORSE

harness, but as I have endeavoured to show tliat the former should always
precede the latter, I shall commence by describing it. In breaking to
double harness a steady old horse shovild be provided, usually called a break-
horse. All that is wanted is an animal of good courage and free from vice,
who will draw steadily off on the slightest notice and will stop firmly when
required. Some old horses which have had a great deal of practice in the
break will assist their masters in a wonderful manner. If a colt kicks over
the pole they will press against the intruding leg and cause him so much
pain that he remains quiet till he is relieved. Indeed it matters not what
the attempt is, they defeat it by some counter-manoeuvre ; but these horses
are rare and fortunately are by no means essential to success. Before
attaching the colt the break-horse should be put to, and it is usual to place
him on the near side. Then, having the break conveniently situated for
starting, the colt is brought out with a halter on and the cord knotted to his
trace-bearer so as to give a good hold in case he plunges or kicks. The
pole-piece is then loosely buckled up, after which the inside trace is slipped
over the roller bolt, and then the breaksman pushing the quarters forcibly
inwards, the outside trace is carefully adjusted and the pole-piece buckled up
to its proper length. Quickly but quietly and without fuss the reins ai-e
crossed and buckled, and the ends being taken by the breaker he mounts to
the box, gives the word to the break-horse to move, and the break is quietly
started without any notice to the colt, or effort on his part. In the great
majority of instances no resistance is made, and all goes on smoothly for
some time. The break should be driven slowly for three or four miles, and
then the breaksman who assists the breaker going to the side of the colt,
pulls him round by the halter as the breaker drives the break -horse in a
wide circle for turning. In returning the horses should be stopped and
started again several times, and if the colt is pretty handy the turning
may be repeated once or twice, but more than an hour's drive should not
be attempted for fear of galling the shoulders, to prevent which the inside
of the collar should be well oiled on all occasions just before starting.
When taking the young horse out the process of putting to should be
exactly reversed. A repetition of this lesson, and constant turning into
narrow lanes and crowded streets, together with uphill and downhill work,
will soon make the young horse handy in double harness, though for
town work a considei'able time must elapse before he can be depended on
in a crush, especially without a steady companion. No horse should be
depended upon until he has been roused either by accidental circum-
stances, or, if these do not present themselves, by an application of the
whip, for it often happens that a colt will go quietly enough while his
temper is unruffled, but when it is once upset he shows fight until he
is conquered or himself gains the victory. Now it is far better that this
should occur while in the hands of the breaker than after he is sent
home as thoroughly perfect in harness.

When the Colt has had five or six lessons in double harness, and has
been made to show the nature of his temper in the way I have just
described, he may safely be put in the shafts, but not till then. The
single break is a stoutly-built two-wheeled vehicle, with strong and straight
ash shafts. It should be so high as to preclude the possibility of the
horse kicking o\er the drawing-bar ; and though occasionally it will happen

BREAKING TO HARNESS 215

that a clever animal will kick very high indeed, yet there are few that will
get over a bar three feet from the ground. A kicking-strap and safety-rein
should always be used, for fear of accidents ; and a breaker of experience
generally uses the driving-rein in the cheek and the safety-rein in the
lower bar ; both being held in the same way as for four horses. No bearing-
rein should be employed ; and the tugs should be made open above, so as
to drop the shafts into them. With these pi'ecautions, there is no difficulty
in putting a colt into single harness ; but, if at all stubborn, he may not
be easily made to start, having no break-horse to take him off. Usually,
however, when five or six lessons in double harness have been given, the
colt walks off quietly enough ; but, after one or two lessons, he discovers
that what is to be done must be done by him unassisted, and he is then
very apt to give himself airs, if his temper is at all inclined to be bad.
Kicking may be kept under by the kicking-strap ; running away may be
restrained by the bit ; but jibbing in single harness is very difficult to get
over. If necessary, an outrigger may be applied to the break, and a
second horse put on ; but it is better to exercise the patience by quietly
sitting still, when, after a short time, the jibber generally moves on of
his own accord. Beyond these expedients, nothing more is required thai)
time and practice.

CHAPTER XIII

SITUATION AND ASPECT — FOUNDATIONS — SUPERFICIAL AREA AND HEIGHT REQUIRED —
STALLS versus loose boxes — HAY CHAMBER AND GRANARY — BEST MATERIALS FOR
WALLS, FLOORS, DOORS, AND WINDOWS — DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY — VENTILATION
AND LIGHTING — STABLE FITTINGS — HARNESS-ROOM — COACH-HOUSE— SERVANTS* ROOMS —
PLANS OF STABLES— NECESSITY FOR AIRING NEW STABLES.

In discussing the various questions connected with the size, form, and
arrangements of the stable, it must not be forgotten that we may have to
deal with an animal whose varieties extend from the Shetland pony to the
race-horse. A stable which suits the one will be quite out of character
for the other; and hence, before we begin to consider the formation of a
stable, we should settle what variety of the horse it is intended for.

In addition to the kind of horse to be accommodated, regard must
be had to the work which is to be performed. If the horse is to be kept
for pleasure only, and is not regulai-ly exercised on those days when he is
not wanted, he will, in course of time, get out of health, whatever may be
the management indoors. INIoreover, a horse so used requires a much
greater area of stable, and more complete ventilation, even for preserving
him in moderate health, than another of the same breed and constitution
who does a proper amount of work from day to day. I have often known
gentlemen possessed of a couple of horses, well housed, express their sur-
prise that they could not keep them so free from disease as a lot of cab or
coach horses which were kept near them, in some dark, close stable, per-
haps underground. The reason is obvious enough : the over-fed and
undei'-worked horse is stimulated by his food to such an extent, that some
organ is sure to become inflamed ; and if the lungs, stomach, or bowels do
not show disease, the heels crack, or the joints enlarge, and, after a single
day's work, lameness shows itself in a most severe form. On the other
hand, the hard-worked horse is in the fresh air for a great part of his
time ; and thus the mischief which is done to his blood indoors, is
remedied when he is out. His food is all properly expended in nourishing
and repairing his muscular system, and there is no surplus to go to form
the foundation of disease. Darkness also is grateful, because the moment
the feeding is over, sleep is to be desired. Hence it follows that, of
necessity, private stables must be very carefully proportioned to the
number of horses which are to be placed in them, and their lighting and

21G

SITUATION AND ASPECT 217

ventilation should be of the most unobjectionable character. In the fol-
lowing pages, when no specific directions are laid down, it may be con-
sidered that my remarks apply to the hacks and carriage-horses of private
gentlemen. Race-horses and hunters demand a different treatment in
many respects ; and as to ponies, they are so hardy, that they may be
lodged without difiiculty.

SITUATION AND ASPECT

The two most important points to be regarded in the choice of a
situation, are, first, the power of excluding damp ; and, secondly, the best
means of keeping up a tolerably even temperature in winter and summer.
It is seldom that the stables are fixed without regard to the convenience
of the inmates of the house itself, the corner most out of sight being the
one usually selected as good enough for them. It should not, however,
be forgotten, that the horse is a native of a dry country, and cannot be
kept in health in a damp situation either indoors or out. Nothing, except
starvation, tells injuriously so soon upon the horse as damp when exposed
to it — he loses all life and spii^t ; work soon tires him ; his coat stares ;
he will scarcely look at his food, and he becomes rapidly emaciated, severe
disease, often in the shape of some prevailing epidemic, showing itself
after a short time, and generally soon ending in death. Grease and
cracked heels, swelled legs, hide-bound, inflamed eyes, and coughs and
colds, are the evils which attend damp, when exhibited only in a slight
degree ; but these are sufficient to interfere with the use of the horse,
and, irrespective of other reasons, as domestic comfort is greatly de-
pendent on the carriage being always at command, the stables should not
be sacrificed, as they too often are, to a fancy for keeping them out of sight.

In choosing the situation, therefore, a spot should be looked out
which will be high enough to allow of perfect drainage at all seasons of
the year. No periodically overflowing brook should ever be allowed to
discharge its contents into the foundations, for even if the floor of the
stable itself is kept above the watei', yet the soil underneath will be
saturated, and, acting like a sponge, will allow the damp to creep vip the
walls incessantly. Sometimes, in order to keep the stables well out of
sight, a hollow is chosen, and the floor is then excavated below the level
of the surrounding surface. The consequence is, that even in a summer
storm, the rain-fall of the surx'Qunding land finds its way — either into
the stable, or around it ; and the effect is equally injurious in either.
Concrete under the floor, and courses of slate at the bottom of the
walls, will do something to meet the evil ; but it is better to avoid it
altogether by choosing a site at least two or three feet out of the way
of all flood water, and with a good fall into a sewer.

As TO THE ASPECT, there is some difference of opinion whether it
should be northerly or southerl)^, all being adverse to a direction either
due east or west ; the former being too cold, and the latter too hot.
Aa far as I know, all vvi>iters on the subject have preferred a southerly
aspect, until the appearance of Mr. Miles' General Remarks on
Stables, in which valuable work an opinion is expressed that " the

218 THE HORSE

prevailing desire to have the front of the stable clue south is a mistake."
The reasons for coming to this conclusion are grounded upon the fact,
which is undeniable, that a more even temperature can be maintained
if the situation is sufticicntly sheltered from the stroke of the wind.
No doubt, a southerly aspect allows the sun to enter with great power
in the summer; but my experience does not lead me to believe that
flies are less lilcely to get in through a door or window open to the
north, than through similar openings looking south. Mr. Miles even
objects to the heat of a winter's sun, which, he says, in the middle of
the day, makes the stable almost as hot as in the summer ; the heat being
often suddenly succeeded by a degree of cold approaching the freezing
point. Here, again, I certainly cannot follow him, and I should hail
with pleasure any beams of the sun^ which show themselves between
November and March, either in the stable or kennel. Animal life is
always benefited by the direct rays of the sun, although, when the heat
produced by them is intense, the mischief done is so great as to counter-
act the advantage. Still, in the winters of this country, such a thing
is not, in my opinion, to be dreamt of, as a properly ventilated stable
becoming too hot, and I look upon Mr. Miles' conclusions as being
considerably strained when he is arguing in favour of a northerly
aspect. I do not mean to assert that, on the whole, he is wrong, but
that his arguments are based upon certain assumed facts which I
hesitate to accept.

FOUNDATIONS

In most cases stables are not built of more than the basement storey,
with a loft over, which is generally, almost entirely, constructed in
the roof; the walls, therefore, are not high, and do not require deep
foundations, even if they are built on clay, which is more liable to
cause cracks, etc. than any other species of soil of a uniform character.
It is a vexy common plan, on this account, to lay the foundations of
any kind of coarse and stony material ; but if this is done, a course
of broken slates should be laid in cement a little above the level of the
ground ; or, instead of this, a course or two of hard bricks should be
laid in the same material, so as to prevent the damp from striking up "the
walls by capillary attraction. A neglect of this precaution has, in several
instances within my own knowledge, kept stables damp in spite of atten-
tion to drainage and a resort to all sorts of expedients which could be
carried out subsequent to the building of the walls.

These remarks are intended to apply to the generality of stables,
but it will be self-evident that such equine palaces as we find in the
newer parts of Kensington and the West End of London need very deep
and strong foundations. Iron enters very largely into their construction,
the best architects and builders are willing to engage in such work, and
everything is done for the comfort of man and beast.

^ Abundance of scientific proof has since been addnced. Perhaps none bolter than
the test apjjlied to tlie waters of the Danube, samples of wliicli were taken every few
minutes for twenty-four hours, when it was found that the largest number of micrnbea
were present in the darkest hours and the fewest in presence of tlie mid-day sun.— Ed.

AREA AND HEIGHT REQUIRED 219

SUPERFICIAL AREA AND HEIGHT REQUIRED

The horse, like all the higher animals, requires a constant supply of
pure air to renovate his blood, and yet it must not be admitted in a strong
current flowing directly upon him, or it will chill the surface and give
him cold. Artificial means of wai-ming stables are objected to on account
of their costliness, and of the constant and careful supervision which they
demand, so that the horse is dependent upon his own heat-producing
powers for keeping up the temperature of the air in which he breathes.
Hence, it is a matter for experimental research to ascertain what number
of cubic feet of air can supply him with what he wants for the purifying
of his blood, without reducing the temperature of the stable generally, and
without the necessity for admitting blasts of cold air. By common consent
it is allowed that no stable divided into stalls should give to each horse
less than 800 or 1000 cubic feet, and a loose box should not contain less
than 1300 to 1500 cubic feet. An inexperienced person may perhaps
fail to discover the reason why a loose box should provide more air for its
inhabitant than a stall ; but those who are accustomed to use horses, will
see at once that the air is more or less changed in a large stable every
time the door is opened, which act is repeated a great many times in the
day, while the door of the loose box is often kept closed, with the excep-
tion of the hours of feeding and dressing. Much will depend upon the
thickness of the walls, the nature of their materials, and the exposure of
their outer surfaces to the weather; for a four teen-inch brick wall will
retain the heat within its enclosure much more completely than one of
nine inches built of the same materials, and this remark applies still more
strictly in the case of a Avail built of absorbent stone, or inferior bricks.
If a substantially-built stable is kept properly clean, and its ventilation is
well arranged, my own opinion is that a comparatively limited area is
better for its inmates than an extravagantly large one. A " very airy "
stable generally means one which is so high that it cannot be kept warm,
and in such I have generally seen staring coats and heard coughs per-
petually going on. I have myself tried different stables, allowing an area
of 750, 850, and 950 cubical feet per horse, extending to three or four
stalls ; but I confess that my leaning has been rather to the lowest than
the highest of these numbers. The most healthy one I ever used scarcely
allowed so much as 750 feet per horse, and in it for ten years I scarcely
ever had a case of illness, irrespective of legs and feet, consequent upon
hard work. This space may be divided in the way most convenient, as.
we shall hereafter see.

With regard to the number of stalls or loose boxes which should
be grouped together in one apartment, there is little difference of opinion
now-a-days among practical men, that more than from four to six horses
should not be allowed to stand together. The former number is the
better ; but sometimes there may be circumstances which will excuse the
latter being adopted ; as, for instance, when this number are kept, and
the space occupied by a partition wall is an object. Even then, however,
a boarded partition may be introduced, and as it will not occupy any

220 THE nORSE

additional room, lliere is no oLjection on lliat accounl. When a larger
number of horses arc stabled together, there is great dilliculty in keeping
up an even temperature, unless, as in the case of omnibus and cab horses,
the same number arc nearly always absent at work. In private stables,
however, all or nearly all the horses are often out at once, and then in a
large space the temperature is reduced so much, that when they return,
two or three at a time, followed by others, and compel the doors to be con-
stantly opened and shut, there is, first of all, danger of chilling each as ho
comes in, and if he escapes this, of producing that injurious elTect when
the next horse comes home. Practically it is found that the long row
of stalls does not conduce to the health of the horses, and although
it may please the eye of the master to look down a long line of valu-
able animals, this arrangement is by no means to be recommended.
Either two stalls with a loose box at one or both sides, or perhaps, as
I said before, even four stalls, with a similar arrangement of loose boxes,
should be the aim of the builder of a stable for general private work,
and in this, as well as in all other cases, appearances should be sacriliced
to utility.

STALLS versus LOOSE BOXES

For iiUN'i'iCKS and uack-iiorshs, when tlu^y are doing severe work,
there can be no doubt that the quiet and liberty allowed in a box are
far preferable to the restraint of a stall, where the horse is constantly
liable to be disturbed by the ingress and egress of men and horses.
In the stall, also, there must be a slope (though not necessarily a great
one), from before backwards, so as to provide for surface drainage ; and
this compels the horse who is tied to the manger to stand with his hind
feet lower than his fore, which is a tiresome position if continued for
any length of time, and which, therefore, induces so many to stand back
to the full length of their reins. But the horse is a social animal, and
does not like solitary confinement any more than the dog ; indeed, some
which will do well when placed in a stall, will even refuse their food,
and actually lose condition, if removed to a loose box, out of sight of
companions. If, therefore, the quiet and comparative liberty of a loose
box can be combined with the society of the stall, the only objections
to each are got rid of, and the best kind of acconnnodation for the
horse is provided, though even in a loose box it is not always desirable
to leave the inmate loose.

In large stables intended for business purposes, such as for omnibus,
cab, and wagon horses, loose boxes ai*e out of the question, on account
of the area which they i-equire, extra width being necessary for the horse
to turn round in, inasmuch as he cannot in them put his head over the
travis, as he always does while turning in a stall. A full-sized animal
nuist have his box at least 10 feet wide by 12 feet long, which gives an
area of 120 superficial feet, instead of 80 or 85, the area required for a
six-foot stall, including the gangway. Indeed, the above dimensions are
scarcely large enough for a box, a roomy one being from 15 to 18 feet
long by at least 10 feet wide. Again, the consumption of straw in a box

HAY CHAMBER AND ORANARY 221

is much greater than in a .stall, the droppings of a horse not being deposited
in any one place, as in the latter, but scattered all over the surface, and
spoiling the litter whereon they may happen to lie. For these reasons
loose boxes are not introduced into any stables but those for race-horses,
hunters, and in a certain proportion for liacks and carriage-horses. In
every largo establishment a small number must be set aside for the sick
and lame, but I am now solely discussing their merits as applied to horses
doing work.

HAY CHAMBER AND GRANARY

In every stable conducted economically, whether in town or country,
a space should bo allotted for storing hay, straw, and corn. In London
and the large provincial cities and towns, the corn-chandler frequently
supiDlies the stable by contract, at a fixed sum per horse, and in that case
of course room for a week's consumption only is required ; but, as I shall
hereafter show, the plan is an expensive one. At present I shall take this
for granted, referring my readers to the next chapter for proof of what
I lay down as an admitted fact among horsekeepei's of experience. Hay
and straw are either sold by the ton or by the load, which is 2 cwt.
less, and on that account the loft should always hold at least a ton of
hay, and the same quantity of straw, because if a smaller bulk is pur-
chased, it cannot be obtained at the regular market price. Now a ton of
hay cut into trusses will nearly occupy the space over an ordinary loose
box, supposing that the walls of the loft are not carried up far above the
floor, and every additional yard in height of wall allows stowage for
another ton. Straw occupies more space by neai^ly one-half, and it may
be calculated that a loft formed entirely in a tiled roof of the usual pitch,
must have an area equal to two roomy loose boxes, or two stalls and a
box, to stow away a ton of hay and a ton of straw, and even then there
will be a little space for any other purpose. To find room for a corn-
bruiser and chaiT-cutter, as well as for a stock of oats and beans, a granary
with an area at least as large as a loose box should be arranged, and with
these conveniences a stable may be said to be complete — that is to say,
with dry and airy stowage-room, somewhere, amounting altogether to about
2000 cubical feet. If the number of horses kept is larger than three or
foui', the hay-chamber need not generally be increased to any great extent,
because the hay and corn are purchased by the ton or load ; but it is
often a great convenience to have accommodation for two or three months
provender, and therefore it is always well to be provided with space enough
for that jjurpose, if it can bo so arranged.

With these calculations to guide iiim, the builder has next to
consider where he shall fix the stowage-room which I have said will be
necessary. Formerly a loft was almost always provided over the stable,
in which the provender was kept; but in those days, when high racks
were in vogue, a trap-door was left over them to keep them supplied, and
the consequence was, that, in the first place, the horses were continually
annoyed, and sometimes the eyes injured, with the dust falling through,
and, in the second, the hay was injured by the vapour from the stable

222 THE HORSE

reaching it througli the same openings. On these accounts a gi^eat out-
cry was raised against placing the loft in this situation ; and stable-
architects insisted upon a hay chamber, as it was called, being built on the
f^i-ound-floor, or at all events in some other situation than that usually
allotted to it. There was great sense in this precaution, and for a
time credit was due to the promoters of the improvement; but on the
subsequent introduction of low racks {ivhich the grooms did not object to
when they had to bring their hay in through the stable door), and the
simultaneous dismissal of the openings over them to the loft, the objections
to the old situation of the latter were done away with ; and the objec-
tions of the grooms having been removed, no opposition could be offered
by them, and thus it has come to pass that in all our best stables
racks are established without openings over them, and the hay and straw
stowed in a loft overhead, perfectly protected from injury from the stable
emanations, by means of a sound floor and a good ceiling beneath it. The
fodder so placed does good instead of harm, inasmuch as being a bad
conductor of heat it tends to keep the stable cool in summer and warm
in winter. Arrangements are easily made for throwing it down through
a shaft in some convenient spot clear of the horses ; and as it can more
readily be filled from the cart or wagon through the window than a
chamber on the ground, labour is economized also.

The fodder is sometimes thrown down from the loft into the yard, and
then carried into the stable, but whenever possible it is much better to have
a close-boarded shaft, with a close-fitting door at the bottom, down which
it may be thrown without making dust or startling the horses. This shaft
should be large enough to allow a truss of hay or straw to fall down
without jamming ; the size of the former varies in different parts of the
country, but commonly 2 ft. 9 in. wide by 2 ft. 3 in. from back to front
will do. Chaff may be conveyed in a similar shaft, but made preferably of
iron about 10 in. squai-e, and corn is best taken down in a similar but
smaller iron shoot, about 4 in. by 5 in. At the bottom of the corn-shoot
there should be two slides or doors, the space separating them being such
as to hold one feed. It is a further convenience to have the two slides con-
nected with a lover handle, so that when one slide is out the other is in,
and waste is thus prevented. Some crotchety or suspicious people add a
lock to the lever.

The geanary, however, will require several fittings ; and, in the first
place, it should be so constructed as to be mice-proof. If the walls are
soundly built, no mice can gnaw through them, but even if they are of soft
materials, a lining of Portland cement will exclude mice altogether.
This article also keeps the corn dry, and forms an excellent floor, as well as
a lining for the walls. If the granary is on the ground, instead of using
boards, which harbour vermin of all kinds, lay a course of bricks edgeways
upon concrete, and then upon the former have an inch of Portland cement
carefully laid, and take care to allow time for it to harden. When this is
done, corn may be stored without fear of loss by mice, and all that is
necessary is to turn it over every fortnight if at all new, or once a month
if dry. Few grooms are to be trusted with an unlimited supply of oa^s, as
they will almost all waste them in some way or other. It is better there-
fore to shut off a part of the granary with open lattice or wire-work,

MxiTERIALS FOR WALLS 223

admitting a free ciuTcnt of air, but not allowing anything large enough to
contain corn to pass. At stated intervals the allowance of corn may bo
taken out and kept in the other part of the granary till wanted. Here
also should bo fixed a corn-bruiser and chaff cutter, and also a bin for beans
and chaff.

In the krxt chapter on stable management, I shall enter upon the
advantages of chaff-cutters and oat-bruisers ; but at present I must beg
my readers to take it for granted that they are essential to every well-
conducted stable, and shall here only go into the room they occupj'-, and
their prime cost. It is needless, also, to describe their appearance or mode
of acting, as they are so generally used, that they may be seen in every
stable, and the I'eal thing is much more easily understood than either an
engraving or a written description. Every agricultural implement maker
sells both, and most of the chief of these establishments have patterns
of their own, but in principle there is not much difference. I have
obtained the price list of the St. Pancras Iron Works, where, I believe,
these and other stable fittings may be obtained* of the best quality,
and at as reasonable rates as are 'consistent with this. The oat-bruisers
may either be screwed to wooden f)illars, or may stand upon iron frames.

iMPItOVED OAT-BhUISERS.

£ s. d.

li r.nshol.s per hour, worked by a boy 3 3 0

4 ,, ,, ,, ,, man 7 17 6

5 ,, ,, ,, ,, mau and boy . . . 10 10 0
10,, , , , , , , horse or steam . .11 7 6
20 „ ,, ,, ,, „ . . U 3 6

Improved Ciiaff-C utters

£ s. d.
\l Trnssos an hour, cuts 2 lengths, worked by a boy .2100
,, ., ,, ,, ,, stronger .... 3 0 0

2 ,, ,, ,, ,, better details ..470

3 ,, ,, ,, ., worked by a man . 5 15 0
C ,, ,, cuts any length ,, 2 men . 11 10 0
24 cwt. an liour, ,, ,, hor.se or steam . . 20 0 0

BEST MATERIALS FOR WALLS, FLOORS, DOORS,
AND WINDOWS

Tub walls of stables, if economy is studied, must be built of the
material used in the district, whatever that may be. In some parts of
England, bricks are plentiful and cheap ; but in others,, where there is no
clay to be obtained near at hand, the carriage alone from the brick-kilns
amounts to a prohibitory sum. But in all cases, when they can be had,
well burnt and free from salt, they should be selected as at once the most
comcnient, the driest, and the least absorbent of all building materials.
In some districts, the clay and sand are so bad that they burn into a
porous sponge, than which nothing can be worse, if exposed to the rain
without and the exhalations from the horse within. Even these, however,
will make good walls, if they are cemented inside and out ; but no pre-
caution short of this will suffice. Rough stone seldom makes a dry stable,
on account of the quantity of mortar which it takes to fill up the interstices;

124

THE HORSE

for as lime is ahv.ays an expensive article, the filling in is not sufficiently
attended to, and the wet is allowed to enter, more or less. Of course,
attention to the proper performance of his work by the stonemason will
ob^nate these objections ; and some supervision of this kind is required,
whether brick or stone is selected as the material for the walls. In any
case, a good thickness should be allowed, in order to keep an even tempera-
ture ; and for walls much exposed to the east or north, less than 1 4 in.
should never be adopted as the dimensions.

TnR DOORS of stables are generally made of yellow, or, as it is called in
the midland districts, red deal. Sometimes elm is used, but it is very
liable to cast or warp. Oak or teak are used sometimes, when expense is
not studied. Unless the proprietor is very particular about appearances,
wliat is called a "ledge door" is considered sufficient, the rails being of
l^r in. stuff, and the boards which are only
nailed on, from f in. to 1 in. thick ; but a
framed door is stronger and lasts longer. The
ordinary thumb-latch is very apt to catch in
the skin of the horse as he passes through,
causing often a severe wound, and on that
account a sunk catch is preferred which drops
into a recess made for it in the door-frame,
but this is not adapted for a "ledge-door," a
frame at least 2 in. in thickness being neces-
sary to allow of the lock being let in. For
loose boxes the door should be made with the
upper half of open iron-work ; the framing may
be of wood, but as this is liable to be gnawed
by the horse on the edges, it is better to make
it in wrought iron, the lower part only being
filled in with wood, as in the annexed engrav-
ing. In a door of this construction the hinges
are so arranged that with a rounded edge to
the frame there is no sharp pi'ojection, and even
when wide open the hip of the horse passing through cannot possibly be
injui-ed. Common ledge doors of deal may be hung with oi'dinary iron
hinges and thumb-latches for about 30s. to 355. each, while framed doors
will run up to 51. and 61. apiece. No door should be less than 3. ft.
G. in. wide and 7 ft. high, and the outer door is better if made 3 ft. 9 in.
or even 4 ft. in the clear.

DOOR FOB I/)0?E BOX.

DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY

Next in importance to the choice of the situation and aspect, is the
method to be adopted in draining the stable. The former cannot well
be altered, buc the latter may, and therefore I have placed it second. To
ensure the perfect performance of the office of cleansing the stable, the
first thing to be done is to provide a means of receiving the liquid which
constantly must fall upon the flooring, consisting pai'tly of the urine of the
horses, and partly of the water used in keeping it clean. Several plans are

DRAINAGE AND WATER SUPPLY

225

adopted for this purpose, some of which are founded upon true principles of
economy, while others are wasteful in the extreme. In towns and cities
provided with sewers and water pipes, jiquid manure is seldom worth the
cost of removing it, and hence in them there is no choice and the whole of
the liquids flowing through the drains must pass off into the common sewers.
Even here, however, a catch-pit should be provided somewhere outside the
stable, without which the traps will either become clogged if made gaslight,
or they will admit the foul emanations from the common sewer if they are
so arranged as to allow of the free flow of drainage from the stable into
them. Such a pit as that represented below will serve all the purposes
required, and if it is regularly cleaned out once a week by the groom there
will never be an overflow, while in no case can any gas pass through it from
the sewers. It is merely a square pit lined with brick or stone and
cemented. The size must depend on the number of horses, but if made on
the calculation of one cubical foot per horse up to four horses, and half an
additional foot for each horse beyond this number, it will fulfil all the

SECriON OF CATCH-PIT.

conditions required. The manner in which it acts is as follows :■ — The
liquid drainage enters from the stable at a, and falls into the inner half of
the pit, marked b, which is separated from the other half by an iron
partition (c). This is fixed above in a stone or iron lid (d), which, being
fitted in a frame at the top of the pit, effectually closes it except when taken
up by the groom for the purpose of removing the solid contents at b. The
sides of the iron partition (c) should run in grooves cut in the cement lining
the pit, which it should pretty accurately fit, but only so as to keep all solid
matter from passing through. A space of from 2 to 4 in. according to
the size of the pit is left beneath the iron partition and the bottom or
floor, and through this the liquid passes, filling the outer half (e) and over-
flowing through the pipe (/) as fast as it has run in at a, the same
level being always maintained in the two halves of the pit. With this
simple apparatus properly constructed all internal stench-traps may be done
away with, and the iron surface-drains which I shall presently describe
alone introduced. An examination of the engraving of an ordinary stench-
trap which I here append will show how easily they are choked and how
badly they fulfil their oflice.

226 THE HORSE

The first thing in all stables is to provide for the rapid removal of
any fluid which falls upon the litter, whether it be urine or water used
in washing legs or floor. Without this damp arises, and the health of
the inmates suffers in proportion. Foul gas such as is given off from
decomposing matters in sewers is no doubt prejudicial, but damp is still
more so; and while I would be careful to guard
against the former, I would still more cautiously
attend to the exclusion of the latter. Hence it is
that I would exclude all internal traps. Even the
old-fashioned simple plan of making the stalls to
fall rapidly to an open gutter, and carrjdng this
SECTION OF COMMON Straight behind the horses through an opening in
BELL-TRAP. the Wall to the manure hole, will answer batter

than neglected stench-traps; and as it is always
wise to count upon the occasional carelessness of the men, it is expedient
to arrange on this basis if it is practicable, which I know by experience
it is, by the adoption of the catch-pit I have described. In the country
such a pit may be interposed between a liquid manure tank and the
stable, or it may simply be placed outside, taking care that the drain {/)
has a large ventilating pipe, to allow of the escape of any gas which
is generated beyond it, either in the liquid manure cistern or in the
drain which carries away its contents, whatever they may be. No trap
will prevent the passage of gas if the pressure is greater than that of the
atmosphere, and in many cases decomposing animal matter at a high
temperature evolves gas under one considerably greater. By thus doing
away with all internal traps, and simply using wrought-iron gutters of
the annexed form, which are provided with movable covers, that allow of
their being regularly cleaned out with a common besom, such perfect
drainage may be attained that the stable neither smells badly nor feels

WROUGHT-IRON COVERED SURFACE GUTTER.

at all damp. Angular joints are forged so as to connect the stall drains
with those at the backs of the horses, and in this way there is no difiiculty
whatever in keeping the litter perfectly dry, excepting just at the spot
where the urine or water first falls. If the drain at the backs of the
horses is a very long one it must be sunk beneath the surface and carried
on by means of glazed earthenware or iron pipes, with grated openings
behind each horse (not trapped), but the iron gutters above described are
quite sufficient to provide for three or four horses. A good, but rather
expensive, plan is to have the iron gutters made with a fall in themselves.
This will be more fully alluded to when the exact formation of the stalls
and loose boxes is entered upon.

An open gutter, without any cover, if made of wrought-iron, sufficiently
large and of good shape, such as the one shown on page 227, is preferred
by many, as no accumulation of dirt can be concealed.

DRAINAGE 227

The price of the various articles, as manufactured and sold by the
proprietor of the St. Pancras Iron Works, is as follows ; —

s. d.
Patent wrouglit-irou stable guttering, according to tlio iialtoiu

engraved, open, per foot 2 6

Ditto, ditto, covered 2 9

Recently great improvements have been made in the form of stench-
traps, and some makers have succeeded in doing away with the objections

-^

l''h'^"!ii'iipE'ii:: . _i i ■ -^./.^--^^liiliiiiiiiiilliiiiliiiiiiill

'^^:|iiiiiiiiiaii:liiliiililiiillllilii

WROUGIIT-IRON OPEN GUTTER.

to which the bell-trap was liable. The engraving shows such an one,
where a movable pan or basket of iron is made to collect solids, and
prevent them entering the drain, and where a luted cover gives ready
access to the drain, in case it should become obstructed ; the trap in this
case is large and fixed.

Common bell-traps cost from 5s. to lOs. according to size, and the
patent syphon-traps from 15s. to 25s.

There is no detail of stable building which has made more advance
of recent years than the construction of the floor, and many plans re-
commended by authorities a few years ago are now never used in good
stables. The essentials are impermeabiKty, permanence, and a good
foothold. The first can never be got if sand or common lime-mortar

PATENT BASKET TRAP.

is used to bed and grout with. A foundation of good concrete 6
in. thick should be first laid. If Portland cement is used for this,
and I recommend it, one part to six of clean gravel or broken brick or
stone should be the proportion. On this 1 in. of cement should be
laid as a bed for the bricks. The bricks must be very hard, but not

228

THE HORSE

slippery, and must be scored so as to give foothold. The ordinary blue
Stafibrdshire chequered brick is hard, but the cross grooves prevent the
urine running off freely, or dirt being swept out readily. The best material
I know is a brindled brick, very hard but gritty, patented by the St,
Pancras Iron Works Company, a house which has carried out the late
Professor Varnel's ideas about drainage, and has taken a leading part
in the modern improvements in paving and draining of stables. These
bricks have only one groove down the middle, and when laid in a stall or
box they form together a series of little gutters which allow wet or dirt to
run or be swept away readily. The joints must be grouted with thin neat
Portland cement.

The illustrations show one of the bricks to a large scale, and a stall
laid with them to a small scale ; the diagonal lines in the latter represent

•ATENT PAVING BRICK.

PLAN OF STALL PAVING

the continuous channels in the bricks, leading into the surface gutter.
This plan gives excellent foothold to the horse. About sixty go to a
square yard.

For the passages of the stable nothing is better than the yellow
adamantine clinker, which has superseded the Dutch clinker, very similar
in size and quality, but inferior in appearance and cheapness. One
hundred and twenty clinkers are required to a square yard. None of these
bricks should be laid by an ordinary bricklayer, as they require special
management, gained only by experience. The best plan is to contract
with a respectable house to lay them at a certain sum per yard, when
full advantage may be expected to be obtained of accurate, regular, and
moderate falls. If the paving is carelessly laid, either the water does not
drain off properly, or else the falls given are greater than necessary, and
it is of the utmost importance that the floor should be nearly level. If
the fall is more than 2 in. in 10 ft. in a stall, the weight of the horse
is thrown on his quarters, and he is liable to be strained.

Another material is sometimes used in place of brick, on account of
cost, namely Portland cement concrete, finished off with fine cement ; but
although this when thoroughly well done is impervious and lasts well,
it is apt to become greasy, and I have known accidents happen from horses
slipping upon it, or straining themselves in i-ising.

Mr. Haycock, in his Gentleman^s Stable Manual, advocated the revival
of a plan extensively used at the beginning of this century, of a perforated
wooden floor, so as to allow the urine to pass away, and thus keep the litter

VENTILATION AND LIGHTING

229

dry, but its want of durability, foothold, and cleanliness, and its retention
of ammonia have prevented its adoption.

Water-pipes, where there is no pump, must bo laid in the ground so as
to be out of the reach of frost, and should be furnished with a good-
sized cistern in or near the saddle-room, where it can be kept from freezing.
The system of laying on water-pipes to the mangers, by which they may be
readily filled, is a good one, but it costs money and is by no means necessary.
If the iron surface drains which I have described are used no flushing is
required, a besom easily cleaning them out, but pipe drains are certainly the
better for a good flushing now and then. Hard pump water is not so good
for drinking as soft or river water, but in many situations nothing else can
be obtained. When soft water is within reach it may easily be conducted
into a cistern in the saddle-room, where its temperature will be always
nearly that of the stable. A change from hard to soft water should be
made gradually, as otherwise the digestive organs may be deranged.

VENTILATION AND LIGHTING

All stable windows should be of iron, and if they are cast with
iron bars six inches apart from centre to centre, no horse will break
the glass. Every other bar may be made to project so as to form the
framework for the glass, and in this way serve a double purpose. If

Vl.-1--t--l-<2)

VENTILATING WINDOWS.

they are made to open in a valvular form, as represented above, on the
same principle as has long been adopted in church windows, and as I
have for years recommended for lighting and ventilating kennels, there
is no down-draught, and every advantage is obtained from the fresh
air without the disadvantage which ensues when it blows down upon
the back or loins. In the engraving, a represents the window perfectly
closed, in the state admitting light but no air ; h shows the same window
opened as far as the framework will allow, intermediate degrees being
regulated by the ratchet rod c, which is fixed to the upper edge of the

230 THE HORSE

frame, and catches on the top rail of the sash. Iron frames of tliis shape
may be obtained by order of any iron-founder, or they may be ovade of
wood. The glass must be guarded with bars either fixed to the sashes
themselves or to the framework. It will be seen in the figure (b) that I
have indicated Avith an arrow the direction which the air inevitably takes
as it enters the stable. Sometimes, however, there are already in the
building windows of the ordinary construction ; and in that case it will be
necessary to introduce ventilators of some shape or other, to admit the
external air. The common round tube, with a bend at a right angle
downwards on the outside of the wall, is the cheapest form in which this
can be done ; but it is very apt to be rendered totally inefiicient by being
stufied with hay in cold weather, and left in this state ever afterwards.
Several patents have been lately taken out for getting a down-draught by
the side of the up-draught tube ; of which Mr. Moir's four-sectioned plan is
one of the best. In this a large tube of iron is made to descend from the
apex of the roof to the stable ceiling ; and being divided into four tubes
by iron plates, which rise above the top, the wind always descends through
one or two of these tubes whenever there is the slightest air moving.
Unfortunately, however, it happens that when it is most wanted, it is
totally inactive — namely, in the hot, calm days of summer. Ventilation is
always easy enough when there is a wind blowing ; and, indeed, the diffi-
culty then is to moderate it ; but it is when there is no air moving that
stables become so hot and close. I have known these down-current tubes
tried in all sorts of places, including stables, kennels, workrooms, cigar
divans, etc. ; but I have always found that, without the power of moderating
the down-draught by closing valves placed at bottom of the tubes, they are not
only useless in calm weather, but highly dangerous in a wind. Now, horses
have not the sense to close valves, when a wind rises in the night, and
grooms are absent fi'om 8 o'clock p.m. till 6 a.m., during which time a whole
stablef ul of hoi'ses may be chilled to an alarming extent. Hence, if adopted,
I should never venture to leave these ventilators open during the night, and
this would take away from their efficiency sufficiently to forbid their use.

Another rather similar plan is the syjihon ventilator, a zinc tube from
15 in. to 24 in. diameter, divided vertically, and one half carried up higher
than the other. The higher or longer half acts by the ascending power
of the warm air of the stable as an outlet shaft, while the other or shorter
half acts as an inlet of fresh air, the amount of the latter being just
sufficient to replace the warm air passing out ; thus a constant, gentle
interchange of air is kept up, without draught. The best plan of all,
however, is to admit the fresh air by tubes 'placed against the wall of the
passage, communicating with the outer air by a hole in the wall, covered on
the outside by a grating. These tubes should have a cross-section of about
20 sq. in. to each horse, and their tops should be about 5 ft. 6 in. from the
floor, with a regulating valve. The fresh air coming in by these tubes
rises straight upwards to the ceiling, and gradually diffuses itself, without
causing any draught whatever.

Having thus provided for the admission of fresh atmospheric air, the
next thing to do is to cany it off, when it has been used for the purposes of
respiration. As I before remarked, it is not safe to depend upon the wind
for this purpt)se.

VENTILATION AND LIGHTING

231

In any successfully ventilated building advantage is taken of the fact that
warm air ascends. A small shaft may be fixed over the head of each
horse; but in practice it is found that one large shaft, about a foot
square, will purify a stable containing four or five horses. It is better
to fix this about the middle of the stable, as regards its length, but
near the heads of the horses, or else as shown below in the section of
a stalled stable. The tube should be made of zinc. Wood is not good,
as in the course of time, by shrinkage or accident, the joints are apt to
open, and then the action is spoilt, but when the zinc tube j)asses through a
fodder loft or room, it should be cased in wood for protection.

The upper end of this shaft should be guarded from down-draughts, either
by a cowl which will turn with the wind, or by a covered ventilator of galvan-
ized iron fixed on the ridge of the roof, the price of which will depend on
the size. At the bottom a sheet of zinc, or a board, considerably larger

than the shaft, should be fixed about 4 in. below the mouth, so as to
prevent any down-draught striking the horses, and also to catch any drip
from the condensation of the steam of the stable, as it comes in contact with
the interior of the shaft. The bottom of the tube should be fitted with a
flap for regulation. Loose boxes must be ventilated separately, if they are
not open to the stable; but if they are, the same shaft will take off their
foul air as is used for the stalls, provided there are not more than four
or five horses in the same space. A shaft about 6 in. in diameter is
amply large enough for one box; and this, with the ventilating window or
the separate ventilator I have described, will keep any box in a healthy
condition, if its drainage is properly attended to. There is a veiy common
notion that no ascending shaft will remove the carbonic-acid gas, which is
one of the results of respiration, because its specific gravity is so great that
it lies close to the floor. This, however, is a fallacy in practice, though
perfectly correct in theory, because all gases have a tendency to mix rapidly

232

THE HORSE

together ; and- hence, although the weight of pure carbonic-acid gas is so
great that it may be poured from one glass into another, yet, as it is given
gradually off by the lungs, it does not remain separate, but mixes with the
bulk of air in the stable, and is carried off with it. For this reason, there
is not the slightest necessity to admit the fresh air near the bottom of the
stable, as is sometimes contended for. If it is attempted, nothing can
prevent a draught falling upon the bodies of the horses when they are lying

„<cfl#iSli^

I!

i!
P

11;

i

li'liir

GLAZED VENTILATOR

down, and they inevitably catch cold. If the upper regions are kept pure,
the whole air soon mixes; and thus, when the openings are fixed near the
ceiling, as I have described, all the good which is wanted from them is
obtained without any risk of draught.

But failing inlet and outlet tubes from any cause, a hopper ventilator,
like the above, which may be glazed to act as a Avindow also, should be
fixed in the head wall, or in either of the side walls, near the head.

These may be opened and shut by means of a cord, or by a self-regulating
slide invented by the St. Pancras Iron Works Company, which cannot be
moved by the wind.

STABLE FITTINGS

Under this head may be included all the internal additions which are
made to the walls in the shape of partitions between the stalls, mangers,
racks, etc. It will therefore be necessary to consider each of these subjects
separately.

There are two modes of separating stalls from each other ; that most
commonly adopted in private stables being the travis, whilst in cavalry and
cab stables the hanging bail is used for the sake of economy of money and
space. The latter being considerably cheaper than the former, I shall
describe it first. All that is necessary is a strong pole of ash, oak, or elm,
which is fixed about 3 ft. from the ground between the horses, one end
being attached to the manger by a strong iron hook and eye, and the other
being either suspended from the ceiling by a cliain, or attached to a post,
reaching from the ground to the ceiling in such a way that, if the horse gets

STABLE FITTINGS

233

fixed under or over it, ho can readily be relieved by striking upwards the
ring («) which liberates the hook (b), and allows the bail (r.) to fall to the
ground. A better plan is to use a plank of
elm instead of a pole for the bail, and the
difference of cost is not very great. I have
myself adopted this plan with advantage in a
two stalled stable which is too narrow for a
travis, the whole width for two horses being
barely 10 ft. Here, of course, two stalls would
be unsafe, for no horse can be accommodated
properly with less than 5 ft. 6 in. from inside
to inside of stall-posts, and this would require
11 ft. 6 in., being 18 in. more than I had to
do with. I find that a plank of elm, 1 ^ in. in
thickness and 1 8 in. deep, will protect a horse
very effectually from the kicks of his neigh-
bour ; and as I happen to have had an in-
veterate kicker in one of the stalls for six
months, without injury to her fellow, the
trial has been a pretty severe one. The
hangings at each end are just the same as
for bails, a chain, in my stable, descending
from the ceiling, and no tail-post being used
on account of the propensities of the mare
n question. She would have demolished any
fixed post behind her in a single night; but the
hanging plank of elm not being a fixture, gave
way to her blows, and she soon left it alone.

If the horse is tied up with one rein only, he can bite his neighbour with
great facility over the bail, but two reins are just as efficient with hanging
bails as with a travis, and these should never be neglected.

The TRAVIS may be either of wood or iron, or partly of each material.
If cheapness is an object, all that is necessary is to fix a head and tail-post,
and connect these by three strong rails ; inch elm boards are then nailed
perpendicularly, and cut at the top to the proper sweep, or " ramp," as it is
called, after which a thin fillet of elm is bent to the shape and nailed on to
the top. Most travises, however, have an ornamental tail-post, and a
framed top rail, rebated on the lower edge to receive the boards. In the
present day iron, however, is substituted for wood ; but as, when cast, it is
very liable to break, it should be wrought for the ramps and cills. An
improved form of ramp is that made as a gi-ating with a straight rail about
4 ft. from the floor, connected with the ramp by wrought-iron upright bars.
Foreigners like cast-iron ornamental scrolls and panels, but these are dirt-
catchers, weak and dangerous. This grating ramp assists ventilation and
the horse's social instinct. The following are the prices of these articles,
varying with the degree of ornamentation : —

[y\ti

d. £ s. d.

Wrouglit-irou stable posts, with ornamental cast tops, eacli

from 10

Wroiight-iron ramp, each from 0 12

Ventilating ramp with patent bars 2 7

"VVrought-iron cill, each from 0 7

0 to 2 7

0 to 0 15

6 to 5 0

6 to 0 12

234 THE HORSE

Thus a plain iron frame-work, consisting of wrought-iron post, ramp, and
cill, may be obtained for about 21., to which must be added the expense
of boarding both sides, which will come to about 20^. in deal or elm, exclusive
of the labour, being nearly double the cost of wooden posts and rails, put
up in a correspondingly plain way. The length of the travis should be
9 ft., or if the horses are 16 hands or more, the travis may be 10 ft. long
with advantage. No travis should be less than 6 ft. 8 in. in height at
the head, and 4 ft. 6 in. or 5 ft. at the tail-post. If lower than this, the
horses can bite each other over the head, or kick over the tail, and so
become hung, from which latter accident serious mischief may ensvie.

If wooden posts are used they are apt to rot at the floor level, from damp ;
it is usual therefore to dowel them into a stone raised above the floor in
order to prevent their speedy destruction, and it is then necessary to carry
them up to the ceiling. But now that iron posts are almost universally
used in good stables, it is no longer necessary to carry them up to the
ceiling, as they can be made quite secure by means of long bases set in
concrete. The advantages of short posts in respect of appearance, cleanli-
ness, and safety fully counterbalance the disadvantage of having to strengthen
the floor above, the joists of which have either to be deeper, or they may
be supported on a strong cross beam of wood or rolled iron.

A BARRIER BAR is sometunes used in stables, when valuable horses are
kept in stalls, such as "hunters and race-horses. It is merely a strong iron
bar sliding through the post in a sheath prepared in the travis, and when
drawn out drops into a socket fixed in the wall opposite ; so that, if either
of the horses gets loose, he cannot reach his neighbours. It also serves to
prevent two horses from hanging back and kicking at each other, which
vicious animals will sometimes do.

The mangers and racks are now almost invariably made of the annexed
form, whether of wood or iron ; the addition of a separate cavity for water,
Oii'an mashes, or gruel, being a modern invention. It used to be objected
by advocates of the old system that a low manger and hayrack allowed the
horse to breathe over his food, and was further a danger if a restless horse
reared up and put his foot in it. The first objection is overcome by not
putting in too much provender at a time, but the second, though a real
danger, is not a frequent cause of trouble. The bars of the hayrack should
not be wide enough to permit the foot of a pony to pass between them.

The high rack is sometimes I'esponsible for small particles of hay falling
into the eyes, and injuring them, beside the minor evil of filling the mane
with dust. The old-fashioned high rack may now be considered quite
(jbsolete, but a medium kind of rack is in use which seems to combine the
advantages of the low rack with others of its own. Both sorts are. also
sometimes sheeted in front with wrought-iron, as shown in the illustration,
which has the upright rack. There is a sloping grid at the bottom
which throws the hay to the front as it is consumed, and the seeds are
caught in a tray below. This is a good plan, as if the seeds drop on to the
floor many horses, being fond of them, rub their manes against the manger
front in the effort to pick them up.

With regard to the material of which the racks and mangers should
be made, I am not quite so settled in my convictions. Wood is undoubtedly
the cheapest, and it has the advantage in its favour that the horse, in laying

STABLE FITTINGS

235

hold of the cap with his teeth, when he is being dressed, which most high-
couraged horses do, wears them out much less rapidly than with the iron

IRON MANGER AND LOW RACK.

manger. This objection is met by making the cap so wide that the horse's
jaw will not embrace it, and with this modification I have nothing to allege

IRQS MAVOKR WITH UPRIGHT EACli

236 THE HORSE

against the metal but its price — while it has the advantage that mice can-
not gnaw through it, and that it does not become decomposed by remaining
constantly damp, which is the case with wood, and is therefore much more
durable. The iron is generally lined with enamel, but as I believe that its
oxide is absolutely advantageous to the health of the horse when taken into
the stomach with his food, I do not care whether this additional expense is
incurred or not. The enamel always looks and is clean, which is in its
favour, but this is its only real advantage. With these preliminary observ-
ations, I shall describe each, and give their cost price in addition, so that in
fitting up a stable the proprietor may take his choice.

(1) Wooden mangers may be economically made in part of elm or deal,
and in part of oak, which latter wood should always be used for the capping,
on account of the wear occasioned by the teeth, and for the bottoms, to
prevent decay. The top of the cap should be from 3 ft. 3 in. to 3 ft. 6 in.
from the ground, and the manger itself should be 13 in. wide at the top
and 9 in. at the bottom ; depth 1 1 in. The cap should be 4 in. deep
and 3 in. wide, and these should be firmly wedged into the wall or travis
at each end. The bottoms may be of inch oak, and the backs, ends,
and fronts of inch elm, or, if deal is used, they should be a little stouter.
Supposing low racks to be introduced also of wood, they should be 2 ft.
wide, and should project 5 in. below the manger, making them 16 in.
deep inside. An oak post must be dropped into the floor at the junction of
the two, so as to give strength at this part, and the two caps may be strongly
nailed or bolted to the top of this. The rack is generally made from 2 ft.
to 2 ft. 3 in. deep outside, which leaves a space below sufficient to ensure
the free passage of seeds and dust.

(2) Iron mangers ai-e made of the same dimensions as the above, but
the capping of the rack is continuous with that of the manger, as shown in
the engraving at page 235. Both ought to be 5 in. wide, to prevent the
horse laying hold of the iron and thus wearing down his teeth. A water- tank
occupies one end of the space at the head of the stall, the manger the middle,
and the rack the other end, — the two former being generally enamelled in-
side. The addition of the tank is in favour of iron as a material ; for
water remaining in wood soon rots it, and hence, even if wooden mangers
are preferred, the tank, if adopted, must be of iron. There is a great variety
of patterns sold, suitable to stables of all kinds and sizes, but I know none
more adapted to the average private stable than the one I have first figured.

In comparing the prices of wood and iron, it may be assumed that a
wooden manger and low rack will cost about 1/. including labour and
materials. The following are the prices of iron : —

£ s. d.
Corner manger, witli water trough, but no rack, 3 ft. long, plain . , 0 10 0

Ditto ditto enamelled 150

Wrought-iron circular rack 9s. to 2 0 0

Patent manger, rack and water trough, plain, with guard cap, brass

plug and washer, each 376

Ditto ditto enamelled 4 10 0

Ditto ditto ditto sheeted in liont 7 0 0

Ditto ditto ditto ditto upright rack 8 0 0

Patent manger and rack, without trough, plain 3 0 0

Ditto ditto enamelled 3 17 6

Corner manger racks aud troughs for loose boxes, from 115 0

Ditto ditto ditto to 9 0 0

Patent halter guide and rein, extiu 100

STABLE FITTINGS

237

The halter tyeings should be made of leather, so as to work without noise
through the ring on the manger, with a short piece of chain at the end to
prevent gnawing. The strap has a weight at the other end covered with
india-rubber, and working in an iron casing fixed against the wall. When
well made such a tyeing works smoothly and noiselessly, and is much safer
than the old ball and rope, as the horse cannot get his leg caught in it.

The only remaining fitting yet to be described is the covering of the
walls over the mangers. Wood is not good here, for the moisture from the
horse's breath and the food foul the Joints, and it is usual to use Portland
cement or glazed tiles ; the latter are superior in cleanliness and appearance.
They should never be white, as the glare is very injurious to the eyesight of

i'-M

IRON FITTINGS FOR STALLS AND LOOSE BOX.

the horse ; bufif, pale green, blue, or smoke colour are the best. I do not, how-
ever, like the high glaze which such tiles have, on account of the shine being
often startling to the horse. The St. Pancras Iron Works Company has
recently brought out a very beautiful tile of all colours, wliich, while being
as impervious as the old ones, is devoid of the objectionable glaze : the cost
of a set for a stall is £2 2s. Oc?.

I have shown these tiles in the annexed engraving of a couple of stalls
and a loose box. Here all the iron fittings which I have already described
are introduced, and my reader may judge for himself of their appearance,
which is certainly, in my opinion, extremely neat and well adapted to the
requirements of the horse. The stalls show the iron manger, rack, and
trough, and the wrought-iron posts to the travis, with iron ramp, as described
at page 233. The floor is laid with blue paviors, cut to fit the wrought-iron
gutters alluded to at page 228. The partition from the stalls is of open
iron-work. The only objection that I know to these very complete fittings
is on the score of expense.

Projections of all kinds ar-e sometimes to be carefully avoided, either

238

THE HORSE

with crib-biters or very mischievous horses. In such cases, a concealed
manger and rack on the following plan is adopted, which is admirably cal-
culated for the purpose. On the left-hand side the manger is seen in the
position which it occupies when turned out for feeding, while the right
gives a view of it when closed. The whole forms a solid frame, hinged at
the bottom near the floor, and prevented from coming further out by a
check. The groom, therefore, has nothing to do but to pull the whole out,
as shown at a, feed his horse, and leave it out till he has eaten his corn,
as well as hay, when this is given him; after which the frame is pushed

concejVled manger for crib-biters.

back to the position shown at b, when it is flush with the wall. The
objection to the plan is, that it does not prevent a horse from crib-biting
when feeding, and that he must wear a muzzle in addition; for it is while
he is eating his hay and corn that the habit is indulged in to the greatest
extent. Besides which, it compels the groom, after he " beds up," at night,
to return to the stable, after he has allowed time enough for the horse to
feed, without which precaution the concealed manger is useless. On the
whole, therefore, I cannot recommend the plan, and crib-biting must be met
by some other expedient, such as making the manger front too wide to be
grasped.

The walls of a stable should be lined, wherever they come in contact
with the horse, with inch wood. Without this, in cold weather, the brick
or stone, whether plastered or not, is too cold, and if a delicate horse lies
down with his loins against it, he may be attacked with rheumatism, or
perhaps with inflammation of the kidneys.

HARNESS-ROOM

Every Harness-Room should be provided either with a stove or open
fireplace, in order to dry the saddles, harness, and clothing, when they come
in wet. If, also, it can be so arranged that a supply of hot water can be
obtained, by fitting a boiler to the back of the fire, the groom will be always

HARNESS-ROOM 239

provided with what he must occasionally obtain from some source or other.
No establishment can be considered complete which does not provide plenty
of hot water when wanted ; and if it is heated in the saddle-room, so much
the better.

The next thing to be done is to give the groom the means of drying
his saddles and harness by the heat of his fire. The fomier are easily
deprived of the moisture arising from the sweat, by putting them in front

SADDLE AIRER.

of the fire, spread on an airer of the above form, which is an excellent con-
trivance for the purpose, and may be obtained of any large saddler, in wood,
for a few shillings. In addition to this, what is called a " saddle horse " is
required, which may be of either wood or iron. If the former, it should

IRON SADDLE HORSE.

have a drawer or two^ to hold small articles in common use. The above
is the form of those made of iron, resembling in general plan the wooden
horse, but being lighter in appearance, though really quite as heavy, if not
more so. The same horse is useful for cleaning harness upon, the pad or
saddle being put over the top, and the bridle hanging at either end, while
it is being cleaned.

240 THE HORSE

When the saddles and harness are cleaned, they must be put away till
wanted; and hei'e they must be protected from injury, either in the shape
of scratches, damp, or dust. Harness and saddle brackets are made either
of wood or iron; the former being the cheaper, but the surface they present

SADDLE BRACKETS.

being necessarily larger, they do not allow the stuffing to dry so well as iron
brackets of the annexed form, which are made to turn up and form a hook
below, on which bridles may be hung. This is a capital plan where space
is scanty, but otherwise it is not to be recommended. Where a long cup-
board can be separated off by hanging doors, either of glass or panel, the
harness and saddlery can be kept in very nice order ; and even a curtain of
cloth or canvas will serve a similar purpose, when drawn across in front of
them. In addition to the brackets, bridle hooks, either single or double,
like the annexed forms, must be attached to the walls, to hang the bridles,

BRIDLE HOOKS.

stirrup leathers, etc., to. Masters who are particular about their stable
arrangements have many other fittings, such as wheels for whip-lashes to
hang over, etc., etc. ; but those which I have enumerated are the essentials
for a harness-room intended for use rather than show. A double hook sus-
pended from the ceiling, where it can be used to hang dirty harness on
while washing it, is extremely useful ; but any groom who understands his
business will suggest something of the kind, according to circumstances.
The prices of brackets, hooks, etc., made of iron are as follows : —

patent saddle brackets, etc.

Oentleinen's .
Ladies' . .
Bridle Bracket
Stirrap . .
Girth . . .
Kein Hook

Pis

in.

Galvaiiiznd.

Enamelled.

.1.

</.

s. d.

.«.

<l.

7

6

8 6

10

6 each.

0

6

11 0

12

6 „

1

0

1 3

2

6 ,,

2

0

2 9

2

6 „

2

0

2 9

2

6 „

0

9

1 0

1

6 „

COACH HOUSE 241

PATENT HARNESS FITTINGS,

A single set consisting of —

riain.
s. d.

Collar Bracket 3 0

Pad ditto. 30

Bridle ditto 2 0

Kein Hook 0 9

Crupper Bracket 3 6

Iron Stable Hooks 10

Harness Bracket (small) 13

(large) 3 6

COACH HOUSE

Galvanized.

Enamelled.

s. d.

s.

d.

3 6

4

6 eaci.

4 0

5

0

2 6

4

0

1 0

1

6

4 0

5

0

2 0

3

0

1 9

4

9

4 0

6

0

In THE COACH HOUSE mere sttancling room is all that is necessary to
provide if the harness-room stove is made to answer the double purpose
of airing both, which can generally be managed. Open carriages may
be kept in tolerably good order without any stove, but the lining of close
carriages soon becomes mouldy unless heat in some form or other be
applied. This the groom is more likely to remember than a current of air,
which is equally necessary to carry off the moisture.

GROUND PLANS OF STABLES

In deciding on the best ground plan for stabling a great deal must
always depend upon the kind and number of horses to be placed in it.
In the following plans I shall consider the two extremes afforded by
those for race-horses or hunters on the one hand, and on the other by
the hack or harness stable for two or three horses where space is a great
object. As a general rule race-horses and hunters require a loose box
each, because they are often gi^eatly distressed, and must then have
entire rest and quiet to enable them to recover themselves. They are
also a great many hours together in the stable, and being called upon
for great exertions when out, they ought to have plenty of air when
indoors. The best proportions for their boxes are sixteen to eighteen
feet long by twelve feet wide and nine or ten high, but these are perhaps
a little above the average. Nevertheless I have given these in the plan on
page 242.

It is divided into four separate stables thirty-six feet long and eighteen
wide, in which three or even four loose boxes may be separated by
partitions seven feet high with open iron tops, as shown at page 237, or
one or more may be divided by travises into six stalls each six feet wide.
I have already alluded to the fittings for each, and therefore I need say
nothing more here beyond alluding to the plan itself.

The architect employed by the St. Pancras Iron Works has designed
a plan by which a loose box and two stalls may be arranged in a space
only sixteen feet by sixteen, as shown on the following page. Undoubtedly
it may sometimes happen that such an area may be at hand, and at the
same time, being incapable of alteration, it may be desirable to lodge

R

242

THE HORSfi

PLAN OF STABLE FOR THREE HORSES.

NECESSITY FOR AIRING NEAV STABLES 243

three horses witliin it, which can scarcely be done in any other way. But
while I give him credit for his ingenuity,^ I would strongly object to the
general adoption of the plan when it can be avoided, on account of the
danger of injury from kicking caused by the proximity of the heels of two
of the horses to one another. The loose box, moreover, is very small, but
still we cannot expect to place three horses without crowding them in such
a limited space as this. Two feet more in length (that is eighteen feet)
and one foot less in breadth (or fifteen feet) will give three good stalls ; or
two feet more each way (that is eighteen feet by eighteen) will make the
above plan practical.

SERVANTS' ROOMS

Little need be here said of the servants' rooms, but I certainly agree
with Mr. Miles in his objection to placing them over the horses. Quiet is
essential to the sleep of these animals, and if grooms are to be walking
overhead at all hours their sleep must necessarily be disturbed. It is
always well to have a groom's room within hearing of his horses, so that
if any of them get cast, or are taken ill, he may be able at once to go to
their assistance, but this can readily be done without placing any lodging-
rooms over the stalls or boxes. If grooms sleep over the stables, the floor
should be " dead-sounded " for the sake of the horses, and made air-tight for
the sake of the man and possibly his family. Cases of glanders are said to
have been communicated in this way, and despite the statement that " of
the horse and gi-oom, the horse is the nobler animal," modern sanitary
science is against the plan of ovei'head living-rooms, where the ammonia
of the stable must necessarily rise if the communication between it and the
sleepers above is of such a nature as to permit the latter to hear a griped

NECESSITY FOR AIRING NEW STABLES

To PUT horses into new stables without airing them is to give them
cold or rheumatism. Indeed those which have been merely uninhabited
for some months are not fit for horses that are accustomed to be kept
warm and dry, without taking the following precautions. If the walls
are very new some open stoves should be kept burning for at least a
week, not with the windows and doors shut, as is often done, but with
a good current of air blowing through the whole building. In the absence
of regular stoves loose bricks may be built up so as to allow a good draught
of air through the coke or wood burnt in them, and thus to give out as
much heat as is wanted. For stables that have merely been closed up for
a month or two, a fire kindled on the floor and kept burning for a few
hours will suffice, but when the horses are first brought in, their beds

1 A very great number of such stables have since been fitted up, especially in the
"West End of Loudon, where space is costly, and proximity to the owner's residence a
sine qua non.

244 THE HORSE

should previously be made up ready for them, and then the doors, windows,
and other ventilators should all be shut till the stable becomes thoroughly
warmed by the natural heat of their bodies, which it soon is. When this
is accomplished, if the weather is warm, the ventilators should be opened as
usual, and the windows also if necessary ; but it is better to err on the safe
side, and not to do this till the groom is perfectly satisfied that his charges
are all comfortably warm.

CHAPTER XIV

STABLE MANAGEMENT

THE COACHMAN, GROOM, ANB HELPER— CLOTHING, STABLE IMPLEMENTS, ETC. — FOOD AND
WATER — ROOTS — GREEN FOOD SUITABLE FOR SOILING HORSES — ARTIFICIAL CONDI-
MENTAL FOODS — WATERING HORSES — THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING-
BEDDING— DRESSING OR GROOMING — CLIPPING, SINGEING, AND TRIMMING— USE AND
APPLICATION OF BANDAGES— MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET— DAILY EXERCISE.

In the following pages my attention will be specially directed to the
management of private stables ; and therefore the race-horse, the omnibus
and cab-horse, and the poster, will not pass under review. Those who are
engaged in their superintendence make it their business to ascertain what
is best to be done ; and, whether they do or not, each of them fancies that
he knows better than any one else how to effect his object.

THE COACHMAN, GROOM, AND HELPER

The COACHMAN is generally understood to be a servant in charge of
a horse or horses, drawing either a close carriage or an open one of
some importance, and attending to their management, indoors and out.
To perform these duties thoroughly, he must possess all his faculties ;
and should have had considerable practice in driving, if he is wanted
for "town" work. If he has more than two horses under his care, he
must have a helper ; for each of them requires at least two hours' work
daily indoors ; and to clean a carriage and harness, about thi'ee hours
more will be occupied. Thus seven hours are accounted for in the
stable ; and a carriage is often engaged for several more, which is quite
enough work for any man to do well. I have certainly known more than
one coachman turn out three horses and a carriage extremely well ; but on
the average it will not be efficiently done ; and it must be remembered that
top-boots are not kept in nice order without some little trouble. Good and
careful driving is the first consideration ; for without this, the inmates of
the carriage are in constant danger. But unless the coachman knows how
to dress and feed his horses, and also to manage their slight ailments, they
will be constantly lame or sick ; and hence a few additional pounds in
wages are well bestowed upon a first-rate servant. The wages of coachmen
vary from 20s. to 40s. per week out of doors, or from £18 to £60 yearly
indoors, or even more occasionally.

245

246 THE HORSE

Under the word Groom are comprehended all servants having the
entire charge of horses, with the exception of those who habitually drive a
carriage of full size. There are many grooms who occasionall}^ drive their
masters' phaetons, and some who are regularly in charge of small carriages,
but who, on that account, do not obtain the name of coachman. As a
general rule, however, the office of the groom is to take charge of hunters,
hacks, and phaeton horses, both indoors and out : and if the latter he
should be able to drive well enough to handle the reins with safety in the
absence of his master. The stud-groom does little work himself, but
superintends large establishments and occasionally drives as well. On the
other hand, the hunting-groom may or may not require assistance ; but if
he has more than three horses to look after, he cannot do them well
himself. Two horses, and a gig or dog-cart, ai'e quite sufficient for a groom,
and they will give him eight or nine hours' hard work daily in the stable-
yard and harness-room, besides what he has to do out of doors, in attendance
on his master. The wages of a good groom vary from 18s. to 25s. weekly
out of doors, or from 15/. to 30/. yearly indoors.

The helper is merel}^ a strapper, and is only required to use his hands,
and not his head. His wages vary from 10s. to 18s. per week, according
to the locality.

CLOTHING, STABLE IMPLEMENTS, ETC.

The various accessories required in the stable are of two kinds : first,
those intended to confine and clothe the horse ; and secondly, the imple-
ments with which he is dressed, and otherwise attended to.

Whether in a stall or loose box, every horse must have a head-collar,
which should always be made with a front-piece, as without this the mane
is soon worn away for 4 or 5 in. behind the ears, instead of two. Nothing
so effectually spoils the appearance of the horse as a shabby mane ; and the
trifling outlay necessary to procure a front-piece is never regretted by those
who care about looks. One or two rope halters are also required, by which
the horse is tied up, or led out of doors when he is being dressed after his
work, or while he is being cooled when he comes home in a sweat. The
price of the leather head-collar is from 3s. Gd. to 10s. ; that of a rope halter
varying from Gd. to 2s. 6c/. according to quality. I have described the head-
stall rein or halter tyeing on page 237.

Horse CLOTHING varies in make, quality, and price, from the small rug,
costing about 6s., to the complete suit of body-clothes, which will be charged
for by first-rate saddlers at the rate of about six guineas or seven guineas.
Rugs are made of the same materials as our household blankets, dyed
according to taste ; and between the quality of those used by small dealers
or liverymen, on the one hand, and in well-appointed private stables on the
other, there is as much diflference as between a workhouse blanket and a
" best AVitney." The former are small, thin, and light, easily torn, and
soon wearing out ; while the latter are large, warm, and tolerably stout and
enduring, though not being twilled, like the serge used for body-clothes,
they tear much more readily. An undyed coarse serge is now used in many

CLOTHING, STABLE IMPLEMENTS, ETC. 247

stain, and is not calculated to please the eye. If rugs are used, they will
be found to last much longer when bound with strong galloon ; and it is an
excellent plan to have them made, as they now frequently are, with a pro-
jecting piece on the ofF side in front, which wraps round the breast of the
horse, and buckles over the near side, so as to protect this part of the horse,
both indoors and out, A roller, well padded, to keep the pressure off the
backbone, completes this kind of clothing ; but in well-managed stables it
is customary to keep two rugs, one for the day and the other to be jjut on
at night. The object of this is not only for the sake of appearances, but to
enable the groom to keep the inside as well as the out dry and clean. • A rug
which is constantly on the horse soon becomes matted with hair, scurf, and
sweat, which must occasionally be brushed, or even washed off; for without
this the insensible pei'spiration constantly thrown off by the horse's skin has
not a sufficient means of escape. The cuit of body-clothing is made of
thick, strong, and warm serge, and consists of a quarter-piece, a breast-
piece, and a hood. The quarter-piece is cut so as to cover the body of the
horse, and the two sides do not meet in front, so that an open space is left
to be covered by the breast-piece, which somewhat resembles a short man's
apron in its form, and is buckled to the quarter-piece on each side of the
withers, where the latter has a strong piece of leather stitched on, to enable
it to stand the drag. The hood is cut to the shape of the head and neck,
having holes for the eyes and coverings for the ears, resembling those organs
in shape. The muzzle is uncovered for about 6 in., and a strap and buckle
confine the hood to this part ; while a number of strings tie it under the
angle of the jaw and below the neck, in such a way as to let it loosely over-
lap the quarter- piece and breast-piece. All these three divisions are neatly
bound, and the whole looks well upon the horse, when nicely put on with
the roller buckled smoothly over the quarter-piece. A cord is sometimes
used to confine the quarter-piece behind, when there is much wind. It is
simply attached on each side, so as to lie beneath the tail across the quarters
of the horse. Body-clothing is made of different degrees of stoutness,
according to the time of year when it is to be worn. Race-horses, which
are not intended to be trained during the winter, do not require such stout
clothing as hunters, and their sheets in the summer are made of very light
serge. Brown-holland is not fit for any season, for even in our summer the
nights are often unexpectedly cold. The following are the pxices at which
good rugs and clothing may be obtained fit for private use : —

£ s. d.

Horse Blankets, or Rngs from 6s. to 0 18 0

Knee-Caps, per pair from 5s. to 0 9 0

Set of Bandages, woollen or linen from 4'?. to 0 .5 0

Best Body Rollers, doubled strapped 086

Complete suit of Superfine Kersey Horse-Clothing, bound and edged

with Superfine Clotli, stitched tliroughout witli sillc, Initials, etc.,

all complete 4 15 0

Complete Suit of Summer Horse-Clothing, stitched throughout with

sillc, Initials 2150

Com]ilete Suit of Blanket Horse-Clothing, with Hood, Pad Cloth,

Roller, Initials, etc., all complete ...' 300

Heavy Night Rug, cut and bound 12G

Sweaters are merely warm rugs or blankets which are kept for that
especial purpose, and are shaped according to the part they are intended to

248 THE HORSE

cover, being kept in their places by the body-clothing. Thus if the neck is
too heavy, as it often is, especially in entire horses, and it is desired to
reduce this part more than any other, one, two, or three old hoods, accord-
ing to circumstances, with the ears cut away, are put on under the regular
liood, and the horse is then sweated, with or without additional body
sweaters, as may be decided on. If old hoods are not at hand, a rug is
folded and placed over the neck, confining it in its place by a temporary
string across the forehead, and by the aid also of a hood over all. So again
a rug may be arranged to sweat the bosom by folding it cornerwise like a
woman's shawl and drawing the ends up over the withers, crossing them
beneath the saddle. Sweaters for the body are simply rugs used for that
purpose, which may be one, two, or three beneath the quarter-piece, accord-
ing to the amount of wasting which is intended. The saddle keeps all in
place instead of the roller, which is not taken out of doors excepting for
those horses which are only led in hand. Sweaters must be cai^efully freed
from the dried sweat by washing.

The stable accessories for cleaning and otherwise attending to the horse
are the following, to which I have appended the average price, which will
vary to some extent according to quality, and also to the fashionable nature
of the establishment at which they are sold : —

£ s. d. s. d.

]\Ianiu-e basket 2 0

Stopping box, iron .... 70

Leathers, each . . . Is. to 2 0

Buckets, each 6 0

Corn sieve 5 0

Measures, each 2 6

Trimming scissor, bent or

straight 5 0

Singeing lamp. . 3s. 6d. to 10 6

Oil brushes, each .... 10

Burnishers 2s. to 6 6

The currycomb is intended to remove the scurf or scales of the scarf
skin which are constantly produced from the true skin, and if allowed to
remain at the roots of the hair have a tendency to confine the sweat, and
thus interfere with the relief to the circulation which is afforded by that
natural process. When a horse's skin is once put into good order it may
be kept clean without the use of the currycomb, but a dirty coat cannot
well be got right by any other means. The body brush does not penetrate
deeply enough unless the coat of the horse is very thin and short, and no
amount of whisping will be of the slightest use. The currycomb therefore
must be provided for every groom, and indeed it is wanted not only to
cleanse the skin, but also to remove the dust from the brush. But the less
it is used the better, and the thoroughly good groom will chiefly emj)loy
it for his brush. There are several patterns in use, but the chief point to
be attended to is the depth of the teeth, which should not be cut more than
the eighth of an inch deep, and should only be on alternate rows of the
comb itself. Thei^e is a great difference in the modes of handling this comb
adopted by good and bad grooms. The former sweep it lightly over the
skin, just effecting their object without absolutely scratching the surface,
while the latter bear lieavily upon it, and punish the horse to such an

Currycomb . . .

. Is.

to

2

6

]\Iane comb . .

1

0

Body brush . .

. 3s.

to

7

6

Dandy brush . .

. Is.

to

2

6

Picker for pocket

. Is.

to

3

6

Scraper. . . .

2s. 6<^.

to

4

0

Water brush .

2s. 6d.

to

5

0

Pitchfork . . .

2s. 6d.

to

3

6

Shovel. . . .

3
3

0

Stable besoms .

6

Sponges, per lb. .

. £1 Is.

to 1

5

0

CLOTHING, STABLE IMPLEMENTS, ETC. 249

^extent as often to cause even a naturally good-tempered animal to use his
teeth or heels most savagely. So also a light thin-coated horse even when
very dirty and full of scurf, as it will inevitably be after lying by in a loose
box or at grass, does not require the comb to be pressed hard upon the skin,
yet the stupid and ignorant groom makes no difference in his favour, but
works away just as he would if dressing the woolly winter coat of a cart-
horse. Dui'ing the time when a horse is shedding his coat the currycomb
should be banished from the stable, for neither it nor the brush should be
employed at that time.

The mane comb is merely a strong horn, iron, or vulcanized indiarubber
comb, with teeth of a suitable degree of coai'seness.

Body brushes are made of hog's bristles, of an oval shape, about nine
inches long by four and a half wide, with a strap of v/ebbing aci'oss the
back to hold them firmly to the hand. They are wanted at all times but
during moulting, when their use makes the next coat come on coarser than
it otherwise would. This arises from the fact that the brush brings off the
old coat too soon, thereby chilling the skin and stimulating the glands which
secrete the hair, to develop it more stoutly and of greater length than they
would otherwise do. To produce a beautiful new coat the old one should be
kept on as long as possible, just as we find in the sheep which is not shorn,
but allowed to shed its avooI, the next growth will be much shorter and
lighter.

The picker is merely a blunt hook for clearing away the gravel which
gets between the shoe and the foot of the horse while at work. It is better
made to fold up like the pocket button-hook for our own use.

Water brushes are either made of split whalebone or of a kind of reed,
which is cheaper but does not last so long. They are intended to wash off
the dirt from the legs and feet, and out of the soles of the latter.

The use of the pitchfork and shovel is too well known to need
description here.

Stable brooms are either made of birch or of a fibre called bass, the
choice being dependent upon price, which varies according to the locality.
Either will answer the purpose well, and where birch can be readily
obtained, its price is so low as to beat the bass out of the market, good
besoms of this make being in many parts of England to be bought at 3d. or
4c?. apiece without the handle, which will last out an indefinite number. In
London, however, the bass brooms compete with them in economy, birch
brooms being sold there at Is. apiece, while bass brooms, which will last out
three or four of them, may be obtained for 3s. 6d.

Sponge is an expensive article in the stable, for as it is constantly in use
it soon decays. To employ it to the best advantage a double supply should
always be on hand, one of each of the sizes wanted being in use for a week,
and then put by to dry for a similar period. In this way a soft, flabby, and
nearly worn-out sponge recovers its texture in a marvellous manner, and
sponge carefully treated on the plan I have described will last fully three
times as long as if it is constantly kept wet from first to last. Few
grooms, however, will carry out economical principles to this extent without
the constant interference of the master, and if the experiment is tried it
should be really ascertained that the alternate periods of use and i^enovation
are rigidly adhered to. In ordinary stables one large piece of sponge about

250 THE HORSE

eight or nine inches square when wetted, another five or six inches square,
and a still smaller piece, will be sufficient.

The manure basket is either of the ordinary brown willow work, or of
galvanized iron wire. No good stableman should be unpi'ovided with this
accessory, which enables him to save litter, and also to keep his horse clean
and comfortable.

The stopping box is an oblong box of oak or elm about fifteen to eighteen
inches long, nine wide, and six deep. This is filled with fresh cow-dung,
mixed with an equal quantity of claj^, to which some stablemen add one-
fourth or less of pitch ointment, but the dung is the essential ingredient, its •
use consisting in its great tendency to keep moist and also to moisten the
surface to which it is applied. This is so great that a thin sole or a fungous
frog may be readily made to waste away by decomposition if the stopping is
applied constantly to them. As much harm is often done by overdoing the
stopping as by omitting to use it altogether. The stopping box is sometimes
also made of galvanized iron.

Leathers are used of the full size sold in the shops, to finally dress over
the coat of the horse, and also to wipe the saddlery. Like the sjDonge they
form an expensive item in the accounts of the groom.

Rubbers or dusters, as they are sometimes called, are made of coarse
linen, which should be twilled if economy is studied. Calico does not answer
the purpose. From six to twelve rubbers, each about two feet square, will
be wanted, the number depending upon the extent of the stable.

Two buckets at the least must be provided for each groom, one being
kept for clean water, and the other for washing legs and feet, dirty saddlery,
etc. None but well-made oak buckets should be admitted into any stable,
although galvanized iron pails are much cheaper.

The corn sieve is emploj^ed to get rid of the dust, which all corn contains,
more or less, and also to expose a large surface of it, so that any stones in it
may be readily discovered.

A quartern and a half-quartern measure will be indispensable, both
being wanted for oats, and the latter for beans.

Trimming scissors are necessary, with straight as well as curved
blades, to keep down those hairs which cannot be got rid of by pull-
ing; as, for example, a few of the strongest in each fetlock. They should
never be used where the hand, aided by powdered resin, is able to draw
the hair out.

A singeing lamp, to be used either with naphtha or gas, should form a
part of every list of stable implements; for e\'en if the groom is not com-
petent to singe the body of the horse, he should, at all events, use it
occasionally to keep down the long and loose hairs which keep growing about
the jaws, neck, quarters, and legs. If a hoi'se is singed ever so well in
October, and even if the operation is repeated in November, he will be
rough to the eye in the following month, and in January he will be quite
unfit for a gentleman's use. Any groom, however, who has the slightest
skill in the use of his hands, can avoid this by skimming over these parts
with the lamp; and, indeed, most head-grooms in the present day are able
to do without the aid of the professed singer and clipper, by repeated
applications of the lamp.

Oil brushes are required, and also a small can of either neat's-foot or fish

FOOD AND WATER 251

oil, to apply to the outside of the feet ^ before going out of the stable, and
the former also to dress the saddlery and harness when required.

Bandages are of two kinds : firstly, of flannel, fur the purpose of keeping
the legs warm, when they have been washed, or during illness; and, secondly,
of linen, cotton webbing, or unbleached calico, to give support to the vessels,
and keep the legs and feet cool. Both should be about seven inches wide
and five or six yards long, and should finish off by turning the corners down
to a point where two strings are sewn, which tie round the leg, and prevent
the last turn becoming loose. The strings are rolled inwards, so as to come
out last; and the whole should be firmly and smoothly rolled up some hours
before they are to be applied, so as to get rid of the creases left during the
last application.

FOOD AND WATER

In Great Britain and Ireland horses are chiefly fed upon grass (green
or dried into the form of hay), corn, chaff (which is hay cut up with straw
into short lengths), and root'3 of various kinds; but in addition may be
mentioned the following kinds of green food — namely, clover, tares or
vetches, lucerne, rye-grass, saintfoin, green oats, gorse or furze. The various
stimulating mixtures, such as Thorley's, Simpson's, and others, are spicy con-
diments used to help food down with shy feeders, but care should be exercised
in giving them, for having once become accustomed to them, horses are apt
to refuse to return to plain fare.

Grass is undoubtedly the natural food of the horse, though in his native
plains the same species of plants are not met with as form the green surface
of our own fields. English horses, however, may now be said to be
thoroughly accustomed to our grasses, which seem to agree with these
animals so well as to be one main cause of their superiority. The water
grasses, which constitute a large proportion of the herbage found in our
lowland meadows, are not suited to the constitution of the animal; and he
will not take them, unless forced to do so by the absence of other and
preferable food. On our uplands, clover (either white or red) is generally
more or less mixed; and in proportion to its presence will the pasture suit
the horses turned out to graze upon them. A sound and moderately young
animal gets fat during the summer and autumn months, when turned out
on a good upland meadow; but he is not able to undergo long-continued
exertion, especially at a fast pace, partly because the amount of fat accumu-
lated in his internal organs interferes with his wind, but chiefly from the
fact that the grass does not supply sufficient muscle-making materials for
the wear and tear of his frame. If the horse is allowed as much oats as
usual, and has regular exercise, he will be able to do a good day's work
while at grass; but he will sweat profusely, and on that account, if he is
required to repeat his task often, he will lose flesh and become jaded in his
spirits. For these reasons, grass is not commonly used as food for the horse,
excepting for the purpose either of keeping him cheaply and conveniently,
while he is undergoing treatment for some accident or disease, or to afford

1 Modern veterinarians disapprove of oily applications to the hoof, but thej- add greatly
to the finished appearance of a horse wheu brought out of the stable for use,

252 THE HORSE

a renovating change after a long-continued course of hay and corn. For
the former of these purposes, the horse is generally turned into the fields;
but for the latter, he is very often supplied with cut grass, or some other
kind of green food, in his stall or box. The effect of grass, when given by
itself, is apparent in its action on the bowels, which is at first very marked,
and also on the kidneys and skin. These increased secretions subside in
the course of a few days to a considerable extent, but continue, more or less,
as long as the grass continues to be the sole article of food. This Avill, of
course, account for the cooling effect always remarked on horses at grass, in
which inflamed joints and swelled legs rapidly subside, and inflammatory
diseases of most kinds have a tendency to abate. The amount of nourish-
ment contained in grass is small as compared with its bulk, and hence the
belly of eveiy horse enlarges considerably while at grass, because of the
necessity for a larger quantity being contained within it, so as to afford a
sufficient means of nutrition. Winter grass, which contains no clover, from
this plant not being of a nature sufficiently hardy to stand the frost, is so
void of nourishment, that the horse confined to it alone speedily becomes
very poor, and will almost starve if he has not some hay or corn.

Hay is not merely grass cut when most full of nourishment — that is,
just when it is in bloom — but it is also subjected to a degree of ferment-
ation, which converts some of the starch into sugar. Until this change
has been fully gone through, the hay is not wholesome ; and hence new hay
has obtained a character for producing worms, which is not without some
foundation ; the reason being that the stomach and bowels are put out of
order ; and this being a condition favourable to the development of the
ova of most parasitic animals, it is a natural consequence that worms should
be more frequently met with in horses fed upon new hay, than in those
whose digestive organs are strengthened by the healthy stimulus of sound
old hay. Of course, fodder of all kinds may be too old, as well as too new ;
but well-made hay does not begin to lose its good qualities till after the
second winter, and remains perfectly fit for ordinary purposes during at
least another twelvemonth. There are several varieties of hay grown and
sold throughout the country, which may be divided into three principal
growths ; viz. ujjland hay, in which no water grasses are met with, and
which generally contains a large proportion of clover ; meadow or lowland
hay, made up of the various kinds of water grasses and plants fond of wet
soils ; and clover hay, which is made from the common red clover, without
any admixtui'e of grasses. Of these, upland hay is alone fit for horses used
at high speed ; and no other should ever be admitted into the stables of
the private gentleman, except clover intended to be cut into chaff.

Good old Upland Hay is known by its peculiarly sweet and grateh^il
smell, and by being made up of fine grasses with no seeds developed, mixed
with a small projiortion of white clover. The colour should be neither a
bright green nor a dark brown, an intermediate shade of brownish-green
being the best, and showing by its green cast that the hay has not been
lying out in the rain, and by the absence of any deep blackish-brown tint
tliat it has not been put together too soon and thereby become heated. If
it has been got up in perfect condition, and without having had any rain
on it, a delicate bloom may be observtdon the leaves, like that on a plum
or grape. A rick of good hay may be entirely spoilt by a want of proper

FOOD AND WATER 253

Ccaution in getting it in, and many a one has taken fire from this omission,
or if not absolutely burnt it has been so heated that it cuts quite black and
is unfit for food. If the hay is dusty it is either from having being flooded,
which marks its lowland character, and in this case the dust is of a mineral
nature ; or the vegetable material becomes powdery from being over-heated,
— and thereby rendered brittle, and easily broken down by the slightest
friction. Experience alone can enable the purchaser to select exactly the
proper kind and condition of hay, but if once a good sample is carefully
examined by the eye and nose it can scarcely be forgotten. When hay
has been burnt it is not always at first refused even by the most dainty
horse, but in a day or two he finds it disagrees with his stomach, and he
will then leave the contents of his rack untouched. Of course there are
many degrees of " mowburn," but unless the hay is only slightly afiected it
is better to avoid using it, as it may produce irreparable injury to the
stomach or lungs. Half rations of good food are far better than an un-
limited quantity of bad hay and corn, and this the horse-master soon learns
by experience, but often not until he has paid for it by the production of
some serious disease. The staying powers of the horse are dependent upon
the quantity and quality of the corn he has eaten, but his health is chiefly
afiected by his hay. This is an important consideration to every stableman,
and of its truth I am convinced from thirty years' experience with my own
horses as well as numberless others. Such are the qualities and evidences
of good hay ; let us now examine into those belonging to this kind of food
when it is of an opposite nature.

Burnt hay, as has been said above, has many degrees. When it is
almost charred, quite dry, and friable, it should not be used for horses in
any case, but it may be given to sheep with safety. If the heating has not
gone far enough to desti'oy a certain oily feeling to the touch, and if it is
still fragrant to the smell, it may be used.

Musty hay is known by its peculiar musty smell, its washed-out colour,
and its mouldy apf^earance. The mould is caused by a minute fungus,
which is bred by damp coming fi'om rain or dew, left in the grass when
carried ; the natural sap does not cause fungus. Sometimes this mould is
not found throughout the hay, but only in patches ; that happens when the
crop has been only partially dried. No hay is so unwholesome as that
which is musty, and it is instinctively refused by all horses until they are
driven to eat it by starvation. Salt is often used to induce horses to eat
it, but, though it will have that effect to a certain extent, it scarcely makes
it at all less unwholesome, and the groom must not fancy that his charge
will escape the ill effects which result from musty hay in eveiy shape. It
is also often cut into chaff with straw ; but this plan also has no advantage ;
and in every way musty hay may be considered as a poison to the horse,
and not a very slow one.

Weather-beate7i hay is that which has lain out in the rain for many
days before it could be got in dry. It is generally but not necessarily
musty, but if not so, it is devoid of nourishment, the soluble matters fit
for food having been mostly washed out of it. It may be known by its
faint, sickly smell, by its sapless and withered appearance, and by the
presence of dust. The colour varies greatly, depending upon the manage-
ment ; for if the hay has not been put together in cocks during the making,

254 THE HORSE

it does not blcacken, but remains of a pale, dirty, olive green. Ko one wlio
cares for the health and condition of the inmates of his stable should use
such hay in it ; for he will find it not nearly so nourishing as good bright
straw, while it will assuredly disagree with the stomachs of his horses, and
then not only do no good to them, but prove positively injurious.

The quantity of hay which is required, if given alone, will average about
1 1 cwt. per week for a horse of middle size and good constitution. This,
however, is but an approximation to the truth ; for in half-a-dozen horses
there will be scarcely two which will require the same quantity of food to
keep them in health. Hay alone is insufficient for horses called upon for
fast woi'k. Some low-bred animals are like donkeys in their constitutions,
and will thrive upon hay alone ; but these are exceptions to the rule, and
they are only to be met with among horses which have been brought up
on this poor diet. I have known one stable in which the carriage-horses
were kept on salted hay, without ever tasting corn at home ; but though
they looked fat enough, and were certainly full of life, they were unable to
do fast work, and indeed they were only used for short distances at any
time. If a proper allowance of corn is made, from ten to fourteen pounds
of hay per day will be ample, the quantity varying with the constitution
of each horse and with his allowance of corn. Sometimes clover hay is cut
into chaflf in addition to the meadow hay, which is put in the racks, and
then an allowance should be made, as there is more nourishment in the
clover than in the ordinary grasses. In well-managed stables, each horse
of average size will consume from two tons to two tons and a half of hay
in the course of the year, and this will cost on the average from £8 to £13.

Horse corn consists of oats and beans, to which may be added peas
and maize, the last kind of food having been introduced from America.
Barley and wheat have occasionally been tried, especially the former
when malted ; but they have not been found to possess any advantage,
and, on the contrary, they have generally disagreed with the stomach
to a very appreciable extent. Wheat bran is in very general use, and
also linseed.

Oats contain a large amount of nutriment as compared with hay, but as
it is the mealy kernel that is the valuable part, while the husk is less
digestible, it is most important to secure oats which have thin skins. As
a general rule, the lighter they are the greater is the proportion of husk to
kernel, and therefore the weight is the first thing to be considered. English
oats are thin skinned, but seldom weigh more than 42 lbs. to the bushel.
Russian oats are thinner skinned than any except Scotch and English winter
oats, but there is a new sort of Russian, weighing up to 44 lbs., which is
not so good, as it has a thick skin. From 40 to 42 lbs. therefore may be
taken as the best weight. Of late years the quantity of light oats has much
decreased, as the demand for heavy sorts has become more general, and there-
fore the difference in price between light and heavy (which some years ago
was so great as to make it economical to give light oats to horses which had
not very hard work to do) has become less, and it is now most economical to
give the best heavy thin-skinned oats to hacks and carriage horses, as well as
to hunters, racers, omnibus and cab horses, which latter are worked to the
utmost extent of which their powers are capable. It is found by experience
that horses will consume only a certain bulk of oats j and as the quantity of

FOOD AND WATER 255

this Tcind of food which is eaten is generally considered to be the measure of
condition, hunting grooms and trainers come to the conclusion that if they
can get their horses to take three bushels of heavy oats during the week,
instead of the same bulk of lighter ones, they will have benefited to the
extent of the difference in weight between one sample and the other. As
far as those horses are concerned which are allowed as much corn as they
will eat, this is perfectly correct ; but for hacks and carriage horses an
unlimited quantity of oats would do harm, for they are not so much worn
down by muscular exertion, and if overfed they soon become diseased, and
in the meantime become unmanageable. For them three quarterns of good
oats a day will be enough. Oats should never be given while they are
new. As a rule it is best to wait till the March winds have dried last
years' crop before using them, but in very dry seasons they may be used
earlier with safety. This is a more important point for horses that consume
large quantities of them than for hacks and harness horses that eat less.

Good oats should be free from dust and stones, and may be known by
their plump look, and full, hard feel to the touch, by their sweet smell and
taste, and if white, by their bright straw colour. These qualities are the
apparent ones, but they accompany and depend upon the really essential ones
of thinness of skin, hardness of kernel, and soimdness, placed in the order of
importance. It is of no consequence whether oats are black or white if
they fulfil these conditions, but at the present time there are more good
black oats grown than white.

New oats are indigestible, and act prejudically on the bowels and kidneys.
As a natural consequence, the horse eating them becomes flabby in his flesh,
sweats profusely, and often throws out the eruption known as "surfeit."
If it is necessary to use them at once, they should be kiln-dried ; and this
plan is always I'esorted to for oats which are imported into this country, to
prevent the heating which would occur in the hold of the vessel from the
bulk which is lodged there, and which would soon make damp new oats
musty. New oats may be recognized by their softness to the touch, and
by the white substance within each grain being pulpy and quite
unlike flour, as it ought to be in old oats. When oats are kiln-dried they
are said by some fanciful stablemen to produce diabetes,^ but it does not
appear that any prejudicial effect follows merely from the artificial drying.
Many of the oats so treated are previously damaged, and then of course
they are likely to produce an injurious effect upon the stomach, but not
from the mere drying itself.

It is a common practice in Sweden and Ireland to sulphur oats, in order
to improve the colour. There is no harm in the sulphur itself, but such
oats should be avoided, as the process is adopted often for the purpose of
concealing some defect. Sulphured oats may be detected by their sour
smell. Scotch oats are the best of all, on account of their remarkably thin
skins. Russian oats are also very good, as they are next to the Scotch in
this respect, but they vary in quality more, and the very heavy Russian
oat, referred to above, is not to be desired, on account of its thick husk.
Hardly any oats now come into the London market from Wales, and

^ Veterinary surgeons are generally agreed that kiln-dried oats are a fruitful source of
polyuria, or profuse staling, which was formerly confounded with true diabttes ; a disease
in which sugar is found in the urine. — Editor.

256 THE HORSE

few from Ireland; the latter are not good, as they are soft, and often
sour.

Oats are either given tchole, or converted into meal, when they are used
in the shape of gruel, or they are bruised (sometimes called " kibbled '').
The entire oat is not always crushed by the grinders of the horse, and it
then often passes through the digestive canal without losing the nutritive
materials contained in the kernel. Hence there is a great loss, for unless
the oats swallowed are digested, they are quite useless in imparting nourish-
ment, and to avoid this defect it is now very usual to bruise all the oats
before they are put in the manger. I have already alluded to the oat-
bruising machine as a necessary appendage in every stable, and I may only
here remark, that the saving is supposed to be nearly one-fourth of the
consumption. This estimate is in my opinion too high for young and
vigorous horses, but for old ones it is accurate enough. There is a vast
difference in horses, in respect to their power of digesting oats, and if the
droppings of a number of these animals are cai-efully examined, this will
be very apparent. Sometimes a whole oat can scarcely be found in a large
mass, while in other cases nearly fifty per cent, will be evidently undissolved.
Many people, and especially trainers of race-horses, have an idea that
bruising oats interferes with the wind of the horses to which they are
given, but this is purely imaginary, and cannot for a moment be supported
either on theoretical or experimental grounds. The bruising is always
advantageous, but not to the same extent ; still it cannot be denied that
the labour of working the oat-bruisers is well bestowed. The grains should
not be more than cracked, so as to readily admit the gastric juice to the
floury kernel, all beyond this being more or less injurious. The quantity
of this kind of food which is required depends upon the nature and
amount of the work to be done, and upon the constitution and breed
of each horse. Race-horses are now often induced to eat eight and even
nine quarterns of oats daily, and hunters almost as much, but hacks
and harness-horses seldom get more than from three to four quarterns
daily, a bushel and a half per week being about the average, costing
about 4s. Qcl. For ponies and horses doing very little work a pro-
portionate reduction is made. After bruising, oats must not be kept
long.

Gruel is made from oatmeal, either with hot or cold water, in the latter
case hardly deserving the name, but being the foi^m in which it is too often
given by ignorant and careless stablemen. To make it properly, one pound
of good oatmeal should be cax-efully stirred up with sufficient cold water to
form a thin mixtux'e of the consistence of cream, which will take nearly
a quart. This is then stirred into three quarts of boiling water, and the
whole kept stirred over the fire till it thickens, when it is to be set on one
side to cool, being given when about lukewarm, or, if the horse is veiy
much exhausted, a little warmer It is an excellent restorative for a tired
and exhausted hunter, and cai-eful grooms provide it ready-made against
their master's return from hunting. Raw gruel should only be given when
time is an object, as, for instance, on a journey, when half-an-hour cannot
be devoted to a regular feed. A pint of oatmeal may then be stirred up in
some cold water, and given from a pail, affording as much nourishment as a
feed of corn.

FOOD AND WATER 257

Malt is a very good food, but too expensive for general use ; it may bo
given with advantage to horses that are convalescent after illness.

Beans and Pease may be taken together, inasmuch as the nutritive
matter contaim^.d in them is very nearly the same. Both are extremely
stimulating to the horse, rendering him prone to inflammation when given in
inordinate quantities, and always producing more or less flatulence. They
each contain more than twice as much gluten as oats, the proportions,
according to Professor Johnstone, in 100 parts, being 11 in oats, 26 in
beans, and 24 in pease. From this cause beans and pease supply the waste
in the muscles produced by hard work, more completely than oats, and the
former are therefore extensively used by cab and omnibus proprietors, as
well as by farmers, who find them cheaper than oats. I shall hereafter be
able to make a comparative estimate of the value of the various articles of
horse-food in muscle-making ingredients, from which it will be seen that
they are right in their conclusions. For private horses, beans are genei^ally
too stimulating, and as they also have a tendency to produce constipation,
they should be used with caution. Old horses, and those exposed to the wet,
require them, and the effect of a few in restoring condition, when it has
been lost during wet and cold weather, is sometimes quite marvellous.
Almost all horses are passionately fond of beans, and those which have been
long used to them will hardly touch oats alone. In private stables, when
beans are given, they ai^e generally mixed with three or four times their
weight of oats, half a quartern of beans daily being sufficient, when split,
for most horses, when mixed with their usual allowance of oats. Of course
this addition must be met by a diminution of the oats ; and thus a horse
which has been allowed a peck of oats daily, if he has a quartern of beans
may be reduced to three quarterns of oats in addition. Wherever the feet
or legs are inclined to inflame, or there is any tendency to thick wind or
broken wind, beans are very injurious, and should be carefully avoided.
Indeed, for private work, I should never recommend them, excepting for old
horses, or for those which are much exposed to the weather, and especially
in standing about at night. In such cases beans are extremely valuable,
always supposing that there is none of the diseases which I have instanced
as aggravated by them. Many washy, light-carcassed horses, which could
not be made to do any work without beans, may by their aid be rendered
serviceable ; and although they are liable to great abuse, they are a very
valuable adjunct to the stableman. Beans should never be used till they
are nearly a year old, and after they are thrashed they require turning
every ten days to keep them from becoming musty. They are very prone
to the ravages of the bean-bug ; but so long as they are sweet and old the
damage done by this larva is only from the loss of substance, wdiich they
cause by scooping out the middle of the bean. Pease produce nearly the
same effects as beans on the horse, but they ai'e not so heating, and scarcely
so digestible. Beans and pease weigh from 60 to 65 lbs. per bushel; the
price varying from 32s. to 35s. for eight bushels.

Maize, formerly known as Indian corn, is now imported at such a low
price as to tempt many horse-owners to use it. The great omnibus and
tramway companies, railway contractors and others, were not slow to avail
themselves of so strong a food, but a long experience has proved that horses
consuming any considerable quantity of it are more liable to inflammatory

258 THE HORSE

diseases, notably fever in the feet. The same objections, but to a lesser
degree, apply to barley.

The following is the ration now given (1896) by the General Omnibus
Company (London) —

SoAi.E Beans Oat3 Maize Chaff

U.S. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs.

1 0 3 15 10

2 1 3 15 10

3 2 3 15 10

The Great Western Railway. For horses working in town —

Oats 13 lbs.

Beans ... ... 3 llis.

Bran 2 lbs.

Chaff (cut hay) ... 14 lbs.

Country horses receive —

Oats 7 lbs.

Maize 6 lbs.

Beans 3 lbs.

Bran 2 lbs.

Chaff 14 lbs.

During the winter months 2 lbs. of beans are ad led to this scale. Tl.c oats, beans, and
maize are all given crushed.

The Midland. This company's allowance is sixteen stones per horse per
week, composed as follows —

Beans or peas (split) ... ... 2 stones

JIaize ,, ... ... 2 stones

Bran 2 stones

Oats (crushed) 4 stones

Chaff (hay or clover) 6 stones

I here append also, extracted from Earl Cathcart's Report to the Royal
Agricultural >Society in 1889, the rations given in the Erench Government
Haras, or National Stud, at Lamballe, Brittany.

lbs.
Hay 4 kilos = about 8f
Straw 6 „ = ,, 13|
Oats 5 „ = ,, 11

The horses here are stallions, and this allowance is more than that of the
French cavalrv'-, which is —

lbs.
Hay 3 kilos = about 6^
Straw 5 „ = ,, 11
Corn 4-2,, = „ d-^

For ordinary hacks and carriage-horses, the cost for food and litter may
be taken at Is. per hand per horse per week.

Malted harUij and wheaten bread are greedily eaten by horses, but they
are generally too costly for use. The husk of wheat separated from the
meal in the shape of Iran is a very important article in all stables, having
a cooling effect fi'om its laxative properties when made into a mash with
water. Dry bran is often given with sliced carrots, with which it makes an
excellent food for slow working horses ; but there is not any great amount
of nourishment in it by itself. Bran mash is made either hot or cold. In
either case a bucket is half filled with bran, and then as much water as it
will absorb is poured upon it, and if hot it is put by till nearly cold, being

FOOD AND WATER 259

closely covered up in the meantime. All horses which arc not inclined to
scour should, when they are kept on hay and corn, have a mash once a
week, selecting the night before the most idle day in it. The cfFect is a
gentle action on the bowels without purgation, by which all tendency to
mechanical stoppage is prevented without weakening the horse. On the
evening when the mash is given the usual feed of corn is omitted, the hay
being given in slightly reduced quantity, unless the bowels are very con-
fined, when a bucketful of mash may be given by itself ; but few horses will
eat more than half a bucket of bran.

Linseed, like bran, is chiefly used medicinally, that is to say, to produce
certain effects upon the body which are not required to be permanent.
These are, first, to increase the fatty matter deposited in the flesh ; and
secondly, to soothe the mucous membranes. For the former purpose half-a-
pint or a pint of linseed is scalded and set to simmer by the fire till it has
become a glutinous mass, when it is mixed up with a quart of bran, and is
given every night till the desired change is produced. To produce an effect
upon the mucous membrane, the linseed should be boiled slowly in two
quarts of water, and this should be mixed with a quart of bran, and given
as warm as the horse will eat it.

Hempseed is occasionally given to entire horses, but it cannot be con-
sidered as a regular article of food.

Chaff is composed of hay and straw, or clover hay alone, or sometimes
oat straw by itself, cut into short lengths. It is given mixed with the
corn, the object being to induce the horse to masticate this thoroughly. In
many large cab and omnibus stables, as well as those where horses stand at
livery, no hay is given excepting what is cut up with straw in the shape of
chaff". Here the object is to induce the horse to grind his corn well and
quickly, so that his whole body, but especially his legs, will be refreshed in
the recumbent position. The plan seems to answer well under the peculiar
conditions in which such horses are placed, but there can be no doubt that
it is unsuited to produce the highest condition of which the horse is capable.
Moreover, it is a great object to amuse the animal when he is not worked
very hard, and this is far better done by giving him some portion of the hay
in his rack for him to play with, than by cutting all of it up into chaff.
For these reasons the practice in private stables is to cut up about two
bushels of chaff for each horse weekly, thus allowing about a peck a day to
mix with an equal quantity of corn. This is quite enough to induce him to
grind his oats and beans, if he has any, without depiiving him of his amuse-
ment in picking his hay out of his rack. I am quite awai'e that in large
establishments economy is practised by cutting all the hay into chaff, but
the saving per head is small, and is not worth at tention for private horse-
keepers, if it can be shown that it affects the health or comfort of the horse
in the slightest degree. In London clover hay is extensively used by itself
as chaff, but elsewhere throughout England the practice is to cut up equal
quantities of oat or wheat straw, with some of the hay that is provided for
the racks. These are placed in alternate layers in the chaff-cutting machine,
and they are thus sufficiently amalgamated to prevent the horse from
picking out the one and leaving the other. If the master has not obtained
a machine, there are in all towns men who go about with one to cut the
chaff once a week at a small sum per bushel.

260 THE HORSE

ROOTS

Carrots and Parsnips are the only roots which are readily eaten by the
horse, and no others seem to agree with him well. The effect of each is nearly
the same, proving slightly aperient and diuretic at first, and then serving to
cool the system. After a short time they fatten him, and may be continued
for months together without inconvenience. It is supposed that two pounds
of carrots are about equal in nourishment to one pound of oats, but they do
not possess the same amount of muscle-making material, and are therefore
only suited to slow work. Parsnips ave not often given in this country, but
in France they are a very common kind of horse-food. By a little starva-
tion the horse may be made to eat mangold-wurzel or turnips, but they are
not good for him. Whenever, therefore, a change is desired during the
winter, carrots alone supply the want, and they can only be given Avith
advantage to those horses which are not doing hard work. They are made
up chiefly of starch and sugar, and afford little gluten and albumen as
compared with oats.

Horses in stables are kept in an artificial condition, and though they will
generally thrive on the ordinary food of oats and hay for a long time, yet
occasional variety and change of food is very desirable. There is also a
very great difference in the constitution of these animals : one wdll go on
steadily woi^king with little or no variety of food, while another will get out
of condition, and need a change to something more resembling the circum-
stances which surrounded his ancestors before they were subjected to the
service of man. A sensible horse-keeper will remember this, and study his
horses' idiosyncrasies, and if he requires them to do constant and heavy
work, he Avill observe the beginning of failure to do as much as they have
been accustomed to, and wdll give them a rest. In ordinary cases the rest
of one day in seven is sufiicient for horses as for men, but when that is en-
croached upon, it is sooner or later necessary to give them a long rest and
complete change of food by turning them out to grass.

GREEN FOOD SUITABLE FOR SOILING
HORSES

The object in giving green food to horses in the stable is genei'ally to
afford them a temporary change from their unvarying rations of hay and
corn without losing their condition entirely, as they do when turned out.
All the articles which are used for this purpose, and which I have
enumerated below, slightly purge the horse when first given; and act
beneficially in that way for some two or three weeks. After this, how-
ever, they fatten him rapidly, and then, instead of doing the legs good,
as is generally the intention, they make them more stale by increasing the
weight of the carcass, as soon as the horse is put to work.

Clover is greedily devoured by all horses, and fattens them quickly, but
it is not suited to those cases where a cooling diet is wanted to relieve
inflamed joints.

Tares or Vetches when young are very relaxing, and they also act

GREEN FOOD SUITABLE FOR SOILING HORSES 2G1

powerfully on the kidneys. As soon as the seed is nearly ripe in them,
they are nearly as stimulating as corn, and at that time only are they fit
for horses at work. This ought to be known to all horse-masters, or they
will be apt to make the mistake of giving young vetches to horses at work,
and old ones to those which are put by to be freshened up.

Lucerne is a good kind of green food, being neither so relaxing as young
vetches, nor so stimulating as old ones.

Rye-grass is chiefly to be recommended as coming very early in the year,
when no other kind of green food can be obtained.

Saintfoin is very similar to clover in its effects upon the horse, but is
not quite so fattening.

Green Oats are only given where the land is so poor that it will not
produce clover or vetches. The crop is a very light one, and in an
economical point of view it is not to be recommended, excepting for the
reasons given above.

GoRSE, Furze, or Whin makes a good food for horses that are not
doing fast work, and in those situations where it can be procured it is
most economical. As a change it acts quite as beneficially as any other
green food, and sometimes it is the only kind which can be procured.
The following is the method of using it : — It is cultivated by sowing it
with a crop of barley or oats, and it is fit to cut the second autumn after
planting. It is then mown every year during the winter, as required,
with a common scythe, close to the ground. A tolerably good soil, dry
enough for this plant, will cut from seven to ten tons per acre ; and the
same land has been cut for fourteen years without loss of quantity or
quality, but after that time it required to be given up and a fresh planta-
tion made on other land, as the roots became decayed. The plant best
adapted for the purpose is very common in England, but is called the
French Furze, and it grows well upon an old woodland, stocked up, such
as is often useless for other purposes ; but it must be dry. Half-an-acre
of this land is, on the average, enough to keep a horse twenty weeks ; on
rich, loamy, dry land a quarter of an aci"e will serve for the same period, so
that an acre of land may be made to keep two small cart-horses for more
than a year, though it is better to give them grass in the summer. On
the large scale, the mowing, carting, cutting, and bruising cost not quite
a penny a bushel ; but for small stables the expense would of course be
greater. As, however, this item is generally a part of the groom's daily
work, it is seldom taken into the calculation. The quantity of seed
required is 20 lbs. per acre, sown broadcast ; but it should be drilled as
near in the rows as will admit of hand hoeing for the first year or two, if
the land is inclined to run to grass. It is not necessary to manure it,
though in its consumption it creates a great deal. When once sown and
well rooted, it yields a great quantity of food for cattle, at no other expense
than the cutting, bruising, etc. In those disti'icts where winter food is
short, it answers well to mow it as soon as the grass is gone, and then
it lasts till grass comes again. If there is a threatening of snow, it is
necessary to mow some quantity beforehand, as it will keep for some days
unbruised.

Ensilage, which has come into general use of late years for ruminant
animals, is unfit for horses.

262 THE HORSE

ARTIFICIAL CONDIMENTAL FOODS

Various aktificially prepared foods have been introduced to the
notice of the public, under proprietary names. Chemical analysis shows
that these foods do not contain more nourishment than the ordinary ones.
The following observations in The Field of February 18, 1860, put the
matter in its true light, and show that, as a mere article of food, these
preparations are far from economical : —

" It is not surprising, when artificial foods should thus come to be
adopted as so much fattening power, that various mixtures should be em-
. ployed largely impregnated with stimulating substances. They are thus
made extremely palatable to the animal, who naturally enough thrives upon
the good things provided for him. We will not now stop to inquire how
far this stimulus may be permanently beneficial, even admitting the
temporary advantage ; our object is simply a cash account. If the price
of cake, ranging at about £10 a ton, forms the limit from which any ordi-
nary I'etui-n can be expected, how can an article sold at a price realizing
from 300 to 400 per cent, on the cost price of the materials of which it is
composed, ever bring any return at all ? Such savoury condiments, dished
up at from £-10 to £50 a ton, have no more fattening powers than the
ordinary cakes and meals, of which indeed their bulk is principally com-
posed. Locust-beans, the different oil- cakes, and Indian corn form the
basis of these cattle foods so often paraded before the public, with which
sundry stimulants, making a kind of curry-powder concoction, are mixed
up. This, though it may be highly agreeable, yet at the piice above
stated forms a most costly addition to the ordinary feeding cost, and an
animal once pampered on such material can hardly fall back on ordinary
food ; hence the price of fattening is greatly enhanced, but without any
increase of the saleable carcass, for there is a natural limit in this direc-
tion. A compound at £40 a ton will make no more flesh than oil-cake
at £10; but if the fanner approves of and will have the compound, let
him simply mix the materials himself. There is no secret in the compo-
sition, for the test is at hand in a simple analysis. The following is an
ordinary formula : —

TO MAKE ONE TON OF MEAL.

Cwt. qrs. lbs. Prine.

Locust- bean, finely groxind, at £6 a ton 6 0 0 — £1 16 0

Indian Corn, at £7 a ton 900 — 330

Best Linseed Cake, at £10 a ton 300 — 110 0

Powdered turmeric, at M. alb 0040— 168

Sulphur, at 2,1. a lb 00 40 — 068

Saltpetre, at 5f^. a lb 0 0 20 — 0 8 4

Liquorice, at Is. a lb 0 0 27 — 1 7 0

Ginger, at 6d a lb 0 0 3 — 016

Aniseed, at M. a lb 004 — 030

Coriander, at 9d alb 0 0 10 — 0 7 6

Gentian, at 8fZ. a lb GO 10 — 068

Creamof Tartar, at Is. 8(^. a lb 00 2 — 034

Carbonate of Soda, at 4(^. a 11) OOG — 020

Levigated Antimony, at 6(^. a 11) 006 — 030

Common Salt, at ^d. a lb 00 30— 013

Peruvian Bark, at"4s. a lb 004 — 0160

Fenugreek, at 9(i. a lb 0 0 22 — 0 16 6

Total 20 0 0 — 12 18 5

ARTIFICIAL CONDIMENTAL FOODS 2G3

"Lookinc; at this composition, it will be evident at a glance that the
chief ingredients are the ordinary commercial locust-bean, Indian corn,
and oil-cakes. These form its bulk, and constitute nine-tenths of the
whole ; the remainder being made up of condiments and stimulants, the
sulphur and antimony being intended to act upon the skin in the pro-
duction of a fine coat, and the fenugreek forming a kind of mucilage to
prevent any ill effects that might arise from the stimulating character of
the food. These ingredients have no doubt been selected with skill, and
an animal may be expected, and not unreasonably, to thrive upon such
savoury substances. For this precious article (which it unquestionably is)
the modest sum of about 425. a cwt. is demanded, or at the rate of £42
a ton, or upwards of 200 per cent, on the cost price, even taken at the
valuation given above, which for the one-tenth or stimulating portion
might be considerably reduced, if the several materials were bought at
wholesale prices. We prefer, however, to take the ordinary trade valua-
tion, in order to give the widest margin possible for the cost — this, after
all, being the simple point at issue. If a farmer wishes for the article, the
use of which, containing as it does so much stimulating matter, is very
questionable, and chooses to pay from three to four times the intrinsic
value, it is of course at his option to do so ; but as the whole question of
farming is one of paying, we will put it plainly — Can it pay to feed
animals on substances costing from £4:0 to £50 a ton 1 A knowledge of
the constituent elements of these foods may induce a pause before the
outlay is made. Some supposed great secret has no doubt with a few
acted as a charm, on the principle of omne ignotum fro mirifico ; but the
analysis at once dispels this illusion, and nothing remains but the cost
and its result, mere matters of ordinary calculation."

But though this view of artificial condimental foods is quite correct, it is
also true that as an occasional stimulus to a feeble stomach, they are highly
useful. I have known horses terribly out of condition brought round by
the use of them in an incredibly short space of time ; and used in this way,
I believe them to be highly beneficial. But no stomach will go on for ever
answering to the same stimulus. I can confidently recommend them for the
former purpose, but for the latter they are dear even at the reduced rate of
about half that named above.

Salt is the only kind of seasoning which has stood the test of experience
in this country, and even it is by no means generally employed. Some
grooms give an ounce of common salt in the water daily, others give it by
sprinkling it on the hay, while a third set leave a lump of rock-salt con-
stantly in the manger for the horse to lick. The last is the only really safe
and useful mode of using this article, and I am persuaded that all horses
will thriA^e better if they are allowed a lump of rock-salt constantly within
their reach. The quantity which is thus taken is by no means large, for
rock-salt does not easily dissolve by the mere contact of the moist tongue.
It is only to be procured in certain localities, where it is found in the earth
in large quantities, the salt mines of Cheshire affording the chief supply for
England and Scotland. A lump weighing two or three pounds is placed in
the manger, and it will generally be found that a pound will last nearly a
month, but there is a great variation in the quantity consumed by different
horses.

264 THE HORSE

Watering horses. It used to be supposed that watering horses when
hot and fatigued was a fruitful source of colic, and those horsemen who did
not withhold water until the horse was cool, would permit only one "go-
down," just to enable the animal to take food. Increased knowledge of
the subject has caused a change of practice among those best qualified to
form a judgment, and we cannot do better than quote Captain Hayes'
opinion and the reasons he gives for allowing a plentiful supply of water,
subject only to the condition that the water must not be cold, such as
spring or well water. Good stablemen often put a bucket or two of water
in the sunshine to get the chill off while their horses are out, or add a little
hot water before allowing the animal to take his fill.

" Experience proves that it is perfectly safe to water horses immediately
after work, no matter how hot they may be, provided always that the water
is not too cold ; but that they are apt to get colic or be otherwise injuriously
affected, if they are allowed to drink largely after they have cooled down.
It is important to recollect that the only harm cold water of itself can do
the horse, when digestion is going on, is the shock which its low temperature
causes to the nervous system of the animal. A moderate degree of cold
acts no doubt as a healthy stimulus, though its excess may injure by
nervous shock. A quantity of cold water remaining unabsorbed in the
intestines may cause contraction of the muscular coat of the bowels, and
consequent colic or diarrhoea. The very time above all others that a horse
requires a liberal drink of water, is when he is heated and exhausted by
fast work ; for his blood will then be in an abnormally thick state on
account of the large amount of water in the form of perspiration, etc., it
has lost, and will, consequently, be unable to circulate with due facility.
When a horse is heated, the small blood-vessels which are situated on
the surface of the interior of the stomach and intestines, and whose office
it is to absorb fluid, will, owing to the rapid state of the circulation, take
up the water drunk with extreme rapidity. But if the horse be allowed to
cool down without getting water, his blood will gradually recover its fluidity
at the expense of the tissues. It is reasonable, then, to suppose that useless
waste of tissue — of which water forms a component part^ — and consequent
exhaustion is entailed by stinting the horse of water when he i^ heated from
exercise. Experience proves both in our own persons and in that of our
horses, that drinking a moderate amount of water when the man or animal
is hot and tired from hard work, diminishes to a very great extent or
altogether obviates any subsequent exhaustion and depression. An owner
should exercise his judgment in guarding against the possibility of his horse
getting water which is too cold."

Few horses are allowed as much corn as they will eat, and the rattling of
the sieve or bin will make every occupant of a stall place himself in an
attitude of expectation. But if the lifting of a bucket produces the same
eager look, and especially at any hour but the usual time of watering, it
may at once be concluded that the horse is not regularly and sufficiently
supplied with fluid, and it will generally be found that his condition suffers
accordingly. It is astonishing how little water will suffice if it is given
at regular intervals, and it is the neglect of this periodical supply which
produces the craving that leads to dangerous repletion. If it is decided to
adopt the tank, provision sliould also be made for emptying it readily,

ARTIFICIAL CONDIMENTAL FOODS 265

without calling upon the groom to bale it out with a teacup, which I have
actually seen done in one particular stable, the owner of wliich prided
himself on the perfection of his arrangements. If the water only came
into contact with the ii'on, no great harm would ensue, because the oxide
formed by the union of the oxygen in the water with the metal itself, in
the shape of common rust, is by no means prejudicial to health. But no
iron manger containing water will long remain free from decomposing
vegetable matter, unless it is regularly scrubbed out daily, because the
horse, as he holds his head over it during his feeding, drops particles of
hay, corn, etc., into the water, and this, being raised in temperature to that
of the stable, soon dissolves the starch and other ingredients which are prone
to decomposition. The consequence is, that the sides of the tank become
foul, being covered with a thick slime, which not only renders the water
nauseous to the horse, but also makes it prejudicial to his health. For this
reason a waste-pipe and stop-cock are absolutely essential, for by their aid
alone can the groom be expected to do his duty ; if enamelled, the tank is
also more easily cleaned.

The quantity of water which will be imbibed by horses varies even
more than that of their solid food, yet ignorant grooms are too apt to give
all alike. The most strenuous advocate for the continuous supply would
doubtless make an exception at those times when horses are just about to
be severely galloped, as in hunting or racing ; and on the other hand, almost
all grooms who know their business allow their charges to fill themselves at
night, and also give them a liberal allowance when they have done their
work and are dressed and cooled down after it. I have found in my own
stable, in measuring the actual quantity of water drunk by the horses, that
even among those which are doing the same amount of work and eating
similar food both in quantity and quality, the water will vary from two
buckets a day to nearly five. If salt is given, it will pi'oduce considerable
thirst at first, but after a time this effect ceases, and I have not found it
in the long run make much diiFei'ence. Green food will also make less
alteration in the desire for water than might be expected, which may be
accounted for by the fact that it increases the secretions of urine and
perspiration, and also acts gently on the bowels ; so that, though more
fluid is taken into the system with the green food, yet a proportionably
large quantity passes off. It is, however, necessary to be cautious in the
allowance of water to horses which have just begun to eat grass or vetches,
for if given in the usual quantity on a stomach full of green food, it will
very probably bring on an attack of colic. As a rule, no horse should go
to any moderately fast work with more than half a bucket of water in him,
and that should have been swallowed at least an hour. This subject, how-
ever, will be better considered under the next head.

The quality of water best suited to the horse is one moderately soft,
but it should not be rain water collected in tanks, which soon becomes
full of decomposing vegetable matter. I have known the health of a
whole stable full of horses seriously injured by using rain water, as was
proved by the fact that its filtration through charcoal, gravel, and sand
soon restored the animals to a fair state of health, without any alteration
in their solid food or work. On the other hand, very hard water disagrees
almost to an equal extent, often producing the state of the skin known

266 THE HOPvSE

as " hide-bound," and sometimes affecting the bowels in the form of
serous diarrhea. But in course of time most sound horses become
accustomed to hard water, and then a change to that wdiich is soft must
be carefully avoided whenever work is to be demanded of them. Thus
in sending hunters or harness-hoi'ses used in fast work from home, when
they have been accustomed to either kind of water, it often happens that
their health is upset, and this is quite as likely to occur when the change is
from hard to soft, as from soft to hard water. Trainers of valuable race-
horses are so aware of this fact, that irrespective of the risk of poisoning,
which they thereby avoid, they take water with them, knowing the injurious
effects likely to be produced by a sudden change. Hard water, if it con-
tains large quantities of cai'bonate of lime, may be made to deposit it to
some extent by boiling, but the sulphate of lime (or gypsum), which is
a far more common ingredient, is as soluble in hot water as in cold.
Evaporation by boiling causes the deposit of a large quantity of it on the
sides of the vessel used to contain the water, but the fluid remaining still
holds as much gypsum per gallon, and is not therefore benefited in the
slightest deoree.

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING

In adapting the quantity and quality of horse-keep to the wants of
each horse, regard must be paid first of all to the small size of this
animal's stomach, which affects all alike ; secondly, to the work for which
he is designed ; and thirdly, to the peculiar constitution of each individual.
From the first of these causes the horse must never be allowed to fast for
any long period if it can possibly be avoided, it being found from experi-
ence that at the end of four hours his stomach is empty, and the whole
frame becomes exhausted, while the appetite is frequently so impaired if
he is kept fasting for a longer period, that when food is presented to him
it will not be taken. Previously to the inti'oduction of railroads harness-
horses were often required to do long distances in the day, and it was
found that if the whole journey must be performed without stopping to
bait, it exhausted the horse less to increase the pace up to nine or ten
miles an hour than to dawdle over the ground on an empty stomach. If
two horses are driven or ridden fifty or sixty miles under similar condi-
tions as to the weight they have to draw or c.rry, and the one is taken at
the rate of six miles an hour, which will keep him fasting from eight and
a half to ten hours according to the distance, while the other is ti-aveiled
fast enough to do it in six or seven hours, the latter will be less exhausted
than the former, though even he would be all the better for a feed in the
middle of the journey, the time devoted to this act being easily picked up
by the increased energy which would be given by the corn. No horseman
of experience is ignorant of these facts, and after a long day the hunting
man who knows what he is about will always be seen on the look-out for
a feed of corn or a pint of oatmeal for his hunter, before he attends to his
own wants. The human stomach will bear hunger far better than that of
the horse, and if the rider feels his appetite pretty keen, he may be satis-
fied that the animal which carries him is still more in want of food. The

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING 2G7

hind of work which tlie horse is intended for affects not only the qu.antity
of food required, but also its quality. Thus very fast work, as in racing and
hunting, strains the muscular system as well as the heart and lungs to the
utmost, and therefore the food which is best fitted for the development of
the former to the highest degree consists of those kinds which present the
elements contained in the muscular tissue in the largest proportions con-
sistent ivith the due performance of the digestive powers. These are found
in oats and beans, but Nature herself teaches every animal instinctively to
keep within such limits as are safe, and hence it is found that though
every horse will greedily devour a peck or a peck and a half of corn daily,
yet he will not go beyond this quantity even though it is not sufficient for
his wants, and in spite of his being deprived of every other kind of food.
The demands of his muscular system are supplied by the corn, but there
are certain saline matters in hay which are not found in the former, and
being necessary for the performance of several important functions, the
stomach I'eceives its warning through the appetite and no more corn is
received into it. On the other hand, the hard- worked horse fed on hay
alone craves for corn, and will greedily devour almost any quantity put in
his manger until he upsets his digestive powers, when the appetite for it
ceases. It is found by expex'ience that a certain proportion of hay and
corn is best adapted to each horse according to the work he has to do, and
his own particular constitution, so that in laying down rules for feeding
it is necessary first of all to ascertain what demands will be likely to be
made upon the system. Few owners of carriage-horses would like to see
them driven to the door with their muscles showing the lines between them,
as they ought to do in a race-horse when fit to run. Such a state of high
training as will put the latter in condition would be impracticable for the
former without wearing his legs out, and not only destroying his rounded
and level appearance, but taking away the air of high spiiit and life which
tends so much to gratify the eye. Hence the feeding suited to give the
one nothing but muscle is not fitted for the other, who must have more
hay and less oats, as well as less work. So also in deciding upon the
proportion, if any, of oats and beans, regard must be had to the amount
of work which is demanded, for there can be no doubt that while admitting
the good effects of beans in large quantities upon the severely tried cab
or omnibus horse, they are injurious to the carriage-horse, whose blood
soon becomes heated under their constant use. Lastly, the peculiar con-
stitution of each horse must be studied before it can be known whether the
average quantity and quality of food which will suit the majority of horses
doing the same kind of work, will be enough or too much for him. Some
washy animals pass their food through them so quickly that they do not
absorb from it one-half of the nutritive elements contained in it. These
must be fed largely if they are kept at work, and those articles of food
must be selected for them which have a tendency rather to confine
the bowels than to relax them. Independently of this extreme case it
never can with certainty be pronounced beforehand what amount of food
will keep an untried horse in condition, but in a large stable an average
can easily be struck, and it is this quantity alone which can be' estimated
here. In the following pages, therefore, I shall give a description of the
several alimentary wants of the horse, and then show in what propor-

268 THE HORSE

tions they are found in the varieties of keep which have ah-eady been
described, so as to enable the horse-master to make his selection according
to circumstances. All these substances are found in the blood, but the
composition of this fluid does not enlighten us as to the wants of the
system, because it is continually receiving and giving ofif its various
elements. The blood of a horse fed on highly nitrogenized food does not
differ on analysis from that of another which has been kept on the
opposite kind of diet. Physiological research, however, tells us that
muscle is composed of fibres, and that every time a bundle of them
contracts a certain expenditure of nitrogen is made, calling for a cor-
responding supply from the blood, which cannot be afforded unless the
food contains it. Hence the badly-fed horse, if worked, soon loses his
flesh, and not only becomes free from fat, but also presents a contracted
condition of all his muscles. And thus science is confirmed by every-day
experience, and the fact is genei\ally admitted that to increase the muscular
powers of a horse he must have a suflicient supply of nitrogenized food.
As I have remarked above, the nutrition of muscle requir-es nitrogen —
but in addition the brain and nerves must be supplied with fatty matter,
phosphorus, and albumen. The bones demand gelatine and earthy salts,
and the maintenance of heat cannot be effected without cax'bon in some
shape or other. But it is chiefly with nitrogenized food that we have to
deal in considering the present question, there being plenty of the other
substances I have mentioned in all the varieties of food which are not
largely composed of fibrine. It may therefore be taken for granted that
the hardly-woi'ked horse requires oats or beans, or both mixed together in
varying proportions, together with such an amount of hay as will supply
him with the starch, gum, sugar, fat, and saline matters which his system
requires ; while on the other hand the idle animal does not use his mus-
cular system to any extent, and therefore does not require much or any
oats or beans. The following table exhibits the proportions of these
various elements in the several kinds of horse food most frequently used
in this country : —

Oats . .
Beans . .
I'oas

P.arlc.y . .
Jiidian Corn
Old Hay .
Clover Hay
Barley Straw
Oat Straw
Wheat Straw
Bran . .
Linseed
Carrots .

Woody

Staicli and

Fibrine &

Fatty

Saline

Water.

Fibre

Sugar.

Albumen.

Matter.

Matters.

20

53

11-4

•6

2-5

12-5

14-5

40

26

2-5

3

14

9

48

24

2

3

14

14

52

13-5

2'5

3

15

6

02

12

5

1

14

30

40

7

2

7

14

25

40

9

3

9

14

46

34

1-5

0

6-5

12

50

31

1-

a trace

5 '5

125

55

27

'5

0

5-5

12

54

2

20

4

7

13

9

35

20

20

6

10

3

10

1-5

0

1-5

84

E, ACE HORSES are fed upon the best upland hay, of which about six to
eight pounds are given to each on the average daily, and from fifteen to
twenty pounds of the best oats, in some cases beans being substituted for an

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF FEEDING 269

equal weight of the latter. The quantity of hay varies according to the
constitution, gross feeders being allowed less, and delicate, light-carcassed
horses more than the above. The limit to the oats is the appetite, the
trainer taking care not quite to satisfy the horse, which would produce
satiety and disgust, but giving him as much of this food as he can without
this effect. One-third of the hay is given in the morning after exercise, and
the remainder at night. The oats are divided into four feeds, one being
given the first thing in the morning, the next on coming in from exercise,
the thii'd at four o'clock in the afternoon, and the last at seven or eight in
the evening, when the stable is closed for the night. Very little water is
allowed in the morning, two or three " go-downs " being all that is usually
given, about half-a-bucket on coming in from exercise after the horse is dressed
and fed, the same quantity in the afternoon, and a full allowance at night.
Once a week, if required by the state of the bowels, a bran mash is given, but
this is omitted when the time of trial is approaching.

The Hunter is fed nearly in the same way as the race-horse, the chief
difference being that a little more hay is allowed, and consequently less corn.
Few hunters get more than five or six quarterns of oats, and indeed there
are not many which will eat more; for in order that the appetite for this
kind of food shall b as highly developed as in the race-horse, the animal
must have been reared on oats from the earliest period, which few hunters
but those bred for the r .cecourse have been. The allowance, therefore, is
generally about ten pound ; of hay, and five or six quarterns of oats, or five
quarterns of oats and half- x-qua 'tern of beans. The hay and corn are given
at the same times as in the racing stable, and the water also in the same
proportions. Gruel is given when the hunter comes home after a hard day,
as it restores the tone of the stomach after long fasting better than oats,
which, moreover, the exh lusted horse generally refuses till he has had some-
thing to give his stomach a fillip. A bran mash should be given once a week,
or every ten days, unless there is a tendency to purge, when of course it is
not wanted. No change of food is required during the hunting season, but
after this is over it is necessary to decide whether the hunter shall be turned
out for the summer, or soiled indoors. The advocates for the two proceed-
ings are warm in support of their several opinions, which will be treated
of hereafter under the head of Shimmering.

Hacks require from three quarterns to a peck of oats, and ten to twelve
pounds of hay daily. The latter is given in two portions, one at night, and
the other in the morning, the former being divided into four feeds, which
are put into the manger at 6 or 7 a.m., 10 a.m., 4 p.m., and 7 or 8 p.m.
In most stables some of the hay is cut up with an equal quantity of
straw, into chaff, and of this about a peck a day is given with the corn, the
object being to induce the horse to masticate it thoroughly. The plan is
so generally adopted now that I need not insist upon its advantages, which
may be accepted as indisputable. If these hoi'ses are much exposed to
the weather during the winter and early spring, a few beans in place of
some of the oats may be used with decided benefit, especially if they have
been accustomed to them in previous seasons. It must always be remem-
bered, however, that they have a tendency to produce inflammation, especially
in the feet and eyes ; and, therefore, in those animals which have a weakness
in either of the organs named, beans should carefully be avoided. Generally

270 • THE HORSE

speaking, hacks are of small size, and they do not, therefore, require more
than an average allowance of food, on which footing I have calculated their
hay and corn; but if it so happens that any of my readers have a hack of
full size, he must make allowance accordingly. These horses are now very
commonly allowed a water tank, constantly supplied with water, and in that
case there is no necessity for doing more than to see that it is daily cleansed,
and that the ball-cock acts properly. When they are watered from the
bucket, the groom generally gives it them in moderate quantity early in the
morning and in the afternoon feed, finishing with a full allowance at night.
Harness Horses are fed in much the same way as hacks, but if they are
used for a close carriage and are of full size they must have more hay than

1 have named, by fully a quarter of a hundredweight weekly.

Ponies may be kept with very little corn, one or two quarterns a day, accord-
ing to size, being all that is generally allowed. They will eat from 60 lbs. to
75 lbs. of hay weeklj'', and they are as much benefited by chaff" as large horses.

Farm Horses are treated very differently in different localities, indepen-
dently of the various fancies indulged in by individuals: their work also
being subject to great changes, accoi"ding to the seasons, it is necessary to
apportion their food in the same ratio. Again, it happens sometimes that
oats or beans are scarce and dear, and the farmer, if he grows them, will be
inclined to sell them and use some cheaper kind of food for his horses, or, if
he has to buy, he will still more carefully look out for a substitute at a lower
price. The following are the most usual modes of feeding these horses, as
far as I have been able to ascertain.

Plan I. — Adopted throughout the Midland counties. Weekly allowance
per horse in November, December, and January — £ s. d.

1^ bushels of oats, 1 peck of beans, and 1 cwt. of hay, costing for three months .600

Ditto through February, March, and April —

2 bushels of oats, 1 4 pecks of beans, and 1 cwt. of hay, costing 7 0 0

Ditto May, June, and July —

3 pecks of oats, 1 peck of beans, and vetches or lucerne, costing 5 0 0

Ditto in August, September, and October —

1 bushel of oats, ^ bushel of beans, clover, pea straw, etc., costing .....600

Total yearly cost 210 0

In districts where oats are scarce, bran or pollard is mixed with beans, and
given as follows : —

Weekly allowance in the autumn quarter — £ s. d.

IJ bushels of oats, 2 pecks of spilt beans, and 1 cwt. of hay, costing for three

months 7 10 0

Ditto in the winter quarter —

2 J bushels of pollard, 2 pecks of split beans, 56 lbs. of swedes, and barley or pea

straw, costing for the three months 5100

Ditto in the spring quarter —
2^ bushels of pollard, 2 pecks of split beans, and U cwt. of hay, costing ... 7 10 0

Ditto in the summer quarter —

2 bushels of bran, 1 peck of split beans, clover, vetches, or tares, costing ... 5 0 0

Total yearly cost 25 10 0

BEDDING 271

Sometimes cut straw, steamed potatoes, and the meal of oats and beans
are given, as being the most economical kind of food. The horses are fed
three times a day, each time receiving 1 5 lbs. of food, thus —

111 the morning at 6 o'clock, 4 lbs. of oat and bean meal, 11 lbs. of chaff.

At noon, 3 lbs. of oat and bean meal, 12 lbs. of chaff.

At night, 2 lbs. of oat and bean meal, 2 lbs. of cliaif, and 11 lbs. of steamed potatoes.

In some few favoured districts, the pasture is so good that horses can do
all but exceptionally hard work on nothing but grass in the summer and hay
in the winter.

In Scotland these horses are kept out-of-doors, or soiled in-doors till
October, when they are put upon hard food, receiving 1 cwt. of hay and a
bushel and a half of corn weekly till December, when the hay is replaced by
straw, and the oats are reduced one-half. In February 1-| cwt. of hay, and
a bushel and a half of oats are again given, and this is continued till June,
when they are fed on grass with a small allowance of corn-

BEDDING

The bed is generally composed of wheat straw, of which that thrashed by
hand is by far the most durable, lasting nearly twice as long if properly kept
clean as the same quality thrashed by machine. Oat straw is eaten by most
horses almost as readily as hay, and, therefore, it is kept as fodder for farm
horses and cattle. It is excellent for cutting into chaff, especially when
there is much clover grown with it. Besides wheat straw, moss litter, saw-
dust, sand, tan, bracken, forest leaves, and bean straw are used either where
economy is studied, or for some particular reason. I shall, therefore, have
something to say about each of these materials.

Wheat Straw is by far the most general material for the horse's bed, and
in private stables it may be considered as the only one used. The cost is
continually upward, since more and more land is laid down to grass, and the
area of wheat grown is less and less in this country, while its bulkiness is a
serious drawback to importation.

It is, however, shipped to this country, being pressed into bales, but every
individual straw being broken it is very little cheaper than the home-grown
article if used with a reasonable i-egard for economy. It should be selected
for its length, and the size and stoutness of its stalks, taking care that it is
quite dry, but not so much so as to be brittle. It is tied up in tx'usses, or
*' boltings," as they are called in the Midland districts, which weigh about
36 lbs. each. One and a half to two of these ought to serve for a
week, after the bed is once made, which will require from two to three
trusses, according to the size of the stall or loose box. Unless the straw is
properly shaken up and smoothly laid, the horse is not made comfortable,
but lies with uneven lumps under him, which he cannot scratch into shape,
like a dog. Hence, the good groom takes great trouble with his horses' beds,
and having first laid the old litter smoothly all over the stall, as far the back
drain, he spreads on the surface with his fork either the cleanest part of the
former night's bed, or a fresh truss, according to circumstances.

The straw should be raised against the travis or wall on each side, so that
the horse in lying down has his back protected by it, the sharp spinous pro-

272 THE HORSE

cesses of the vertebra being uncovered by anything but skin, and causing
considerable pain when pressed against the hard wood or iron. The straw
is also turned under at the lower end, so as to present a neat appearance to
the eye, as well as to afford comfort to the horse. In the morning the wet
and dirty parts are forked out, and the remainder turned back and pressed
tightly under the manger, or it is put into some other convenient place,
where it can be dried, which latter plan is an excellent one in point of econ-
omy and comfort. When the litter is thus disposed of, the whole surface of
the floor is carefully swept, the dirt being shovelled back into the gangway,
and finally removed from the stable. A little clean straw is then thinly
spread over the stall, and left with a level edge behind the heels of the
horse, where natty grooms put a border of plaited straw. During the day
the droppings are collected in a basket, and removed as soon as they are pei'-
ceived by the groom, by which the litter is kept clean, and the hind-feet of the
horse are prevented from contracting foul thrushes, which many are apt to
do, if they are allowed to be constantly crammed full of moist droppings, as
they often are by careless grooms. On the average of seasons country straw
may be bought for about £3 per ton, in which there are about sixty trusses,
each therefore costing Is., and, on the calculation of two trusses per week,
the horse's bed will cost 2s. for that period, without estimating the value of
the manure, which varies greatly. In the neighbourhood of very large
towns, where the supply of manure is greater than the demand, it is almost
a drug, and will scarcely pay for the labour of removal, but in agricultural
districts it is worth 6s. per ton, and then an arrangement is often made by the
farmer to supply straw on condition of receiving back the manure made with
it. It may generally be calculated that an allowance of one-thii'd or one-
fourth of the cost of the straw may be made for manure, and the litter may
then be estimated as costing Is. per week.

Peat-moss litter has come into considerable use during the last few years
in cab and omnibus and tradesmen's stables, but requires to be broken up
small, and to be used with care. The English moss is cleaner and better
than the foreign. It has the advantage of dispensing with drains, but its
manurial value is not equal to that made from straw. It is softer than straw,
and therefore horses are found to lie down on it more readily than on straw
— and this is an advantage; it is also free from smell. For private stables,
however, it is seldom used, on account of its inferior appearance, and because
it holds more dust than sti-aw. When it was first introduced, it was met
Avith much opposition, as usual with anything new in England ; and it was
said by grooms to produce rheumatism, but this chai^ge appears to have no
foundation in fact.

A good deal of correspondence has taken place in The Field and other
journals as to its effect upon the feet, some writers declaring that it produces
bad horn and a vax'iety of diseases, and others declaring that groggy or
navicular cases do much better on it than on any other bedding.

It is generally agreed th:.t in close stables where proper ventilation is
impossible its power of fixiticr ammonia is a very valuable quality. It
occupies less bulk in the stores saves drainage, and until a good deal soiled
saves labour, no unimportant item in a business establishment. There is arj
objection to it which I have not seen in print, namely, its capacity to
retain ringworm, and infcc t another horse that may lie upon it.

DRESSING OR GROOMING 273

Bracken or Fern makes a tolerably good bed for a rough carthorse, or
hardy pony or donkey, but no one would think of using it in a private
stable.

Sawdust is seldom employed as litter, its cost being quite as great as, and
often more than, straw. It is only in or near saw-mills, where there is an
unusually large supply of sawdust on the premises, that it can be used
advantageously. During the summer months it answers well enough, but it
is too cold for use in our winters. It has the disadvantage that it soon
heats when wetted with urine, and ammonia is then given off profusely, so
that great care must be exercised to change it as soon as it becomes soiled.
All drains must be stopped up, and every day the soiled parts must be
removed, and replaced with fresh.

Sand is used in some parts where it is very plentiful, instead of litter, and
it must be treated in much the same manner as I have described for saw-
dust. It is however cold and hard, and anything but satisfactory. When
it is used all drains must be carefully stopped up.

Refuse Tan is very commonly introduced as a bedding for horses while
being summered, in the belief that it is much cooler to the feet than sti-aw.
It has all the disadvantages of sawdust. I have often seen a box in which
tan had been left for weeks without change, the groom expecting that it
would retain the urine of the horse without decomposition, although his nose
ought to have convinced him to the contrary. It is a capital material if it
is kept dry, but every one who has seen the heat which is given out by it in
a hothouse, will understand that it is not to be allowed to come in contact
with fluid, and especially urine, or decomposition will quickly supervene.
The cost is seldom more than that incurred in carting it, which will depend
upon the distance from the nearest tan-yard.

Forest Leaves are not readily procurable except in some very few locali-
ties, and I may therefore dismiss them with the remark that there is no
objection to their use with which I am acquainted. Ponies at all events
may be comfortably bedded with them.

Bean Straw is far too hard and unyielding to make a comfortable bed,
and if it must be used I should prefer cutting it into chaff rather than
employing it in this way.

DRESSING, OR GROOMING

By the term Dressing is generally understood the purification of the
skin which the horse requii'es. He is never in the highest health unless the
pores are kept free from the scurf which forms on them whenever he sweats,
and the object of the strapping which he receives at the hands of his groom
is to get ind of this mechanical obstruction, as well as to brace the nerves of
the surface by the friction of the brush or wisp. This dressing must be
renewed daily, even if the horse has not been sweated, and each time that
he comes in from work it is necessary to repeat it. The former operation is
or should be conducted in the same manner every day, but the latter will
vary according to the state of the animal when he comes in, that is to say,
depending upon whether he has been sweated and is cool again, or if he is
still wet, or has been in the rain with or without exercise enough to warm

T

274 THE HORSE

him, or lastly, if he has been ridden or driven through dirty roads or over a
deep country. Each of these conditions will therefore require a separate
consideration.

The usual morning's dressing is commenced either as soon as the horse
has done his early feed, or on coming in from exercise, if such is allowed or
enjoined. The utility of grooming after work cannot be denied, for it would,
be absurd to contend that a horse coming in wet and dirty should be left in
that state till the next day ; but it is perhaps necessary to explain to the
idle groom that it is not a mere polishing of the surface of the coat Avhich
is wanted, but a deep steady pressure of the brush into the roots of the hair,
so as to remove all the scurf which collects around them and clogs the pores,
through which the sweat ought to be allowed to exude freely. Practically
it is found that an hour's good strapping daily, not only gives a polish to
the coat, but it causes the secretion of a fine oil, which has a tendency to
throw off water, and thus may save the horse exposed to the rain from
catching cold. Moreover, it certainly stimulates the nerves so as to enable
them to bear exposure to the weather, which would otherwise tell injuriously
on an animal which is covered up with thick clothing indoors, and stripped
of everything, even of the long coat which Nature gives him, when he is
submitted to the "pelting of the pitiless storm." When the horse is turned
out to grass, he is washed by every shower of rain, and though his coat
continues to look dirty on the surface, yet the skin itself is braced by the
winds and cleansed by the waters of heaven. Not so, however, in-doors.
Here his clothing keeps his coat short, and keeps up a continual state of
insensible persj)iration, the watery particles of which pass oS through the
woollen rug or serge, leaving the salts and animal matters behind, as is
apparent on examining the internal surface of any clothing which has been
worn for any length of time without washing, when it will be found to be
lined with scurf, and matted with oily animal matters. There are many
drugs which will give a gloss to the skin, but they will diminish instead of
increasing its capability to bear exposure, and hence their use is altogether
forbidden by those who know their injurious effects. The horse which is
little used requires dressing to take the place of exei'cise, and if he has
plenty of good strapping, his coat will look like satin ; but the hunter and
the hack or harness-horse, exposed to all weathers, must be carefully
groomed and receive plenty of elbow-grease, or his coat will look hollow and
stand out like " the quills of the fretful porcupine " whenever he is allowed
to stand for a few minutes in a cool wind.

The first thing which the groom does in commencing his morning's
task is to turn the horse round in his stall, and fold the quarter piece back
upon itself, so as to exjiose the whole of the fore-quarters. Then taking his
brush in the hand nearest the head, whichever side he begins with, he
works away at the head and face till he has thoroughly cleansed those parts,
carefully clearing out the dust and dirt from the roots of the ears, where it
is very apt to lodge, and continually cleaning his brush with the curiy-comb
held in the other hand. Next proceeding to the neck, he works at that
part in the same way, turning the mane over to the other side, and then
going to the shoulders, bosom, and legs, and finishing off with a wisp of hay
slightly damped instead of the brush. Having thoroughly worked at this
half of the body, the horse is turned round in his stall, and the hind-quar-

DRESSING, OR GROOMING 275

ters and flank treated in the same way, the clothing being removed entii-ely
wliile this is going on. In the spring and autumn, wlien the coat is being
shed, the brush should never be used, and the wisp alone should be de-
jicnded on. Nothing spoils the look of the new coat so surely as the brush,
except perhaps the curry-comb; but this latter should not under any circum-
stances touch the skin of a horse when it is in proper order, and it is scarcely
necessary to forbid its use when the coat is being shed, at which time it
would be positively cruel, as well as injurious to the appearance. The
brush and wisp having effectually cleansed the skin, and given the hair
itself a certain amount of polish, the finishing stroke is put to the dressing
by means of the linen rubber, with the addition, in well-managed stables, of
the leather. Either or both of these in succession are steadily passed over
the surface in the direction of the hair of each part, and then the quarter
piece or rug, as the case may be, is replaced, taking care to throw it lightly
in front of its proper place, and then to draw it steadily backwards, so as
not to disturb the proper position of a hair. The roller is smoothly put on,
being first laid on the back double, and then the off side is turned over into
its place, when the straps being laid hold of under the belly, it is properly
tightened and the quarter piece smoothed beneath it. This completes the
dressing of the body, but there are several minor points still to be attended
to. A clean sponge is squeezed out, and with it the nostrils, ej^es, and
anus are sponged clean, and if necessary, the mane is damped, so as to
enable the groom to comb and brush it smoothly down on its right side.
The tail also is carefully combed out, beginning at the lower end if it is a
full one, and not touching the top until the bottom is smoothly arranged.
Lastly, the legs and feet are attended to, the stopping, or whatever may be
in the latter, being picked out, the legs washed if stained, and then carefully
rubbed dry. Many grooms, when they have white legs to keep clean, begin
the dressing by washing them, and then putting on flannel bandages ; they
leave them on till they have done the bod}^, when they are taken off and
the legs rubbed with the leather and linen rubber till they are quite dry,
finishing with plenty of hand rubbing if they are at all inclined to fill. All
this being done, the litter is put straight, and the horse is ready to have his
second feed. A good deal of muscular exertion, and laid out in the right
way, is necessary for the due performance of the groom's daily task. There
is ng royal road to make a horse's coat, when in work, really look well, and
not less than an hour's hard strapping will suffice for this daily. White
and light grey horses will take up even more time than this, as with all the
care that can be exercised the thighs and legs Avill occasionally become stained
by lying in the dung dropped during the night. Soap and water laid on
warm, and well rubbed, will get rid of a great deal of the brown colour
left, and if it is not suffered to increase by successive layers, it may be
removed with comparative ease. The slight tinge which remains may be
got rid of by the aid of washerwoman's blue, a bag of which is to be dipped
into clean water and the skin washed with this after the soap has been got
rid of. A little experience is required to ascertain the exact amount of
blue, but one or two experiments will soon teach an intelligent groom.

"Whenever a horse is wanted to go out, he must again be wisped
over before his saddle or his harness is put on. The groom strips the whole
of the clothes off, turns him round in the stall, and carefully clears all the

27G THE HORSE

dust away from tlie ears and head with the rubber ; then, proceeding regu-
larly backwards, the whole body is smoothed ovei', and the saddle and bridle
or harness put oi\. Lastlj^, the feet are picked, and an oil-brush is rubbed
over the outside of the hoofs, to gi-\'e them a neat appearance, when the
pillar reins are buckled to the bit on each side, and the horse is left till he
is wanted.

Dressing after work depends upon the state in which the horse is
returned to the stable, when he may be cool and clean, or in a profuse
sweat still going on, or with his sweat dried in, or completely smothei-ed
with dirt, or wet from rain, but chilled rather than too hot ; or lastly, when
exhausted from a severe run or other hard work.

When the horse returns cool and clean, the groom throws his rug
lightly over his quarters, and, taking a bucket and a brush, he proceeds to
pick and wash out the feet, standing on the near side, with his back to the
horse's head, so that he can use his left hand to hold the feet, and his right
for the brush. If the legs are quite clean, there is no necessity for washing
them at all ; but most grooms do so as a matter of course, and if they are
properly dried afterwards, there is no objection to the plan. Hunters, and
valuable horses of all kinds, are immediately protected by flannel bandages ;
but in ordinary stables the legs are merely partially dried with a rubber, and
are left in that state till the horse is dressed over. If the work has been
continued for more than four or five hours without feeding, it will be well to
put on flannel bandages, and let the horse have a feed of corn ; but, other-
wise, it is better to finish the dressing first. The cloth being removed, a
wisp of hay is taken in the hand, and first the head and neck, and then
the body, is dressed over ; finishing off with the rubber, as previously
described. The clothing is then put on, the legs thoroughly dried, the litter
put straight, and the task is finished.

When brought in still sweating profusely, if the weather is warm,
the horse must be led about in the shade, rvith the saddle on, till he is
nearly or quite dry ; for if he is put into the stable before he is cool, he will
break out again as badly as evei', and if the saddle is removed the back will
become sore. A hemp halter is cooler and more handy than a head-collar,
and it is usually employed out of doors for all purposes connected with
cleaning. In the winter, this exposure to the air out of doors is not neces-
sary ; and, indeed, it would often be dangerous, the stable being generally
cool enough to stop all tendency to sweat, even with a light rug on. At
this season, therefore, after the legs are washed and the bandages put on,
which they should be whenever the horse is in a sweat, the dressing may be
conducted in the usual way, in the expectation, which will seldom be
disappointed, that at the end of half-an-hour's strapping, the skin will have
become quite cool, and will look all the better for the profuse cleansing which
it has received by means of the watery fluid given off by it. A scraper will
be necessary, which may be either of wood or metal ; and with tliis all the
superfluous moisture is at once scraped from the surface, which greatl}^
facilitates the process of drying. Two men ought then to set to work, each
taking a side, and working first at the head, and then gradually backwards.
In this way, no part is allowed to chill, and the moisture is removed as
rapidly as possible. In the use of the wisp, the rubbing need not always
be hard ; and it should be chiefly against the direction of the hair till it is

DRESSING, OR GROOMING 277

nearly diy, when the proper direction is again taken. There is a good
deal of art in drying a sweating horse, and nothing but experience and
practical teaching will give it. As a general rule, it takes two men nearly
three-quarters of an hour to thoroughly dress a horse coming in profusely
sweating, supposing the weather to be only moderately warm. In very hot
weather such an attempt would be quite fruitless, and the only resource is
to wait patiently till the effects of exercise are abated sufficiently to allow
of the ordinaiy clothing being worn. Experience soon tells the groom how
soon he can venture to begin, 'and no rule can possibly be laid down which will
supply the place of this valuable power. Even when the horse is taken
in, he must not at first be clothed, but he must be dressed without anything
on him ; and in summer he must often be left for some time afterwards in
a naked state. When there is a good open yard shaded from the sun, the
dressing should be done out of doors ; and when this can be managed, it
may be commenced much sooner than in the stable, unless this is a very
cool one. Slight muscular action, either by walking or in some other shape,
is necessary to prevent congestion of blood in the internal organs ; but it
matters not whether it is effected by simply leading the horse about, or by
stirring him up, as is always the case in dressing even the dullest animal.
In other respects there is no difference from the plan last described.

When the sweat is completely dried in, the hair is full of powdery
matter, which must be thoi'oughly brushed out, before the skin will look
well or the horse be properly dressed. To do this, nothing more is required
than the use of the brush previously to the wisping over ; but a good deal
of time must be spent in getting rid of all the foreign matters left behind
on the evaporation of the watery particles of the sweat. There is an amount
of grease in it, which makes the powder stick to the hair, and nothing but
hard labour will get it away. For this reason, many grooms adopt the plan
of washing their horses all over with soap and water, when they come home
in this state ; and although I prefer dry rubbing, I Avould rather have water
used than let the skin remain full of dry sweat. A common water brush is
generally used, or, if the coat is thin, a sponge will be far better. No time
must be lost in the operation ; and unless two men can be spared, the rug
must be thrown on as soon as the water is scraped off with the scraper, and
the skin is just partially dried. In this state he may be left for a few
minutes ; attention, in the meantime, being paid to the thorough drying of
the head and neck, which cannot well be clothed advantageously. These
parts soon dry ; for in Avashing them, there is no occasion to wet the mane,
which may be turned over to the other side while each is being cleaned, and
the ordinary coat of the head and neck holds very little water. After they
are made comfortable, the cloth is turned partly back over the loins, and the
shoulders, ribs, and bosom are dried with the wisp and rubber ; after which
the whole is stripped off, and the hind-quarters thoroughly dried.

A HORSE smothered IN DIRT is by careless grooms too often left to dry
with it all on ; and then it is brushed out, or, if idleness reigns triumphant,
a besom is taken in hand for the purpose. Where the particles of mud are
few and far between, and are already dry, or nearly so, there is no objection
to their being removed by friction alone ; but if they ai-e wet and (as they
generally are) in large masses, a scraper must be used to get rid of them.
Water should never be used for cleaning a horse except for the legs and tail, and

278 THE HORSE

unless the former are thoroughly dried afterwards, cracked heels and grease
will ensue. To leave the mud to dry on and be brushed off in the morning is
a laz}^ but safe plan. After scraping, the legs are rubbed and then bandaged,
the clothing is thrown on, and the dressing may be commenced as usual.

In case the skin is wet from rain, whether the work has been fast or
not, it is seldom necessary to provide against a continuance of the moisture,
for the chill of the rain will generally prevent any tendency to break out in a
sweat. The horse is, therefore, at once taken into the stable, and, if very wet,
he is scraped ; after which he is rubbed over, and his clothing put on while
his legs are being attended to, by washing, bandaging, etc. The di'essing is
then conducted as in the case of the horse coming in sweating in cool weather.

An exhausted horse demands all the resources of the groom's art, with-
out which he will suffer in more ways than one. An extreme case seldom
occurs, except in hunters, who require the greatest care to bring them round
after a severe run. On coming into the stable, if their powers have been
taxed to the utmost, and their ears are cold and drooping, the first thing to
be done is to get these warm by friction ; an assistant, in the meantime,
preparing some gruel, while another puts some Avarm flannel bandages on the
legs. It is wonderful what a restorative is found in the friction of the ears,
after a few minutes of which, a moderately tired horse will look quite a
different animal, evidently enjoying the process, and dropping his head to
the hands of the groom with the most perfect air of enjoyment. Where,
however, there is only one groom for the whole task, the bandages should be
put on first — that is to say, as soon as the clothing is thrown on ; then the
gruel should be given, and as soon as this is swallowed, the ears should be
warmed by friction. No attempt at dressing should be made till the gruel
is taken and the eai's are warm ; and if they cannot be restored to their
proper temperature, a warm cordial of ale and spices should at once be given.
Usually, however, there is no occasion for this ; and, after getting the
stomach attended to, the skin of the body begins to recover its natui'al
temperature, and the extremities become worm again. In the course of an
hour, the dressing may generally be effected ; but no time should be lost in
it, and the skin must not on any account be chilled. After it is done, a feed of
oats and a few split beans may be given, if the appetite seems inclined to
return ; but sometimes when the exhaustion is excessive, no solid food can
be taken with safety till the next day ; and gruel, with cordials, must be
resorted to as the only kind of support which the stomach will bear.

CLIPPING, SINGEING, AND TRIMMING

The coat of the horse is changed twice a year, the long hair of winter
coming off in April and May, or sometimes earlier when the stables are warm
and there is no exposure to severe cold. A slight sweat hastens this shed-
ding, as every horseman knows by experience, and even in harness the hairs
arc cast in the face of the driver to his great annoyance on a windy day.
Clipped horses are longer than others in shedding their coats, and present a
most disagreeable mottled appearance, which makes the state still more
noticeable. The long hair on the legs is about a month later in coming off,
and indeed it will not fall till Midsummer, unless some more violent means

CLIPPING, SINGEING, AND TRIMMING 279

than are used in ordinary dressing are adopted. With some breeds and
individuals the winter coat is not very much longer and coarser than that of
the summer ; but all, save blind horses, show more or less difference in
favour of the summer coat. Curiously enough, horses which are totally
deprived of sight, have almost invariably a good winter's coat, often better
than that which they show at other seasons ; but why this is so no one has
ever been able to explain, though I have never known the fact disputed.^
About the middle of October, or early in November, the summer coat is
thrown off ; but some of the hair appears to remain as a sort of undex'-coat,
among which the long, coarse hairs of winter make their appearance. These
continue growing for six weeks or two months if they are clipped or singed,
and even after Christmas, if the weather is cold and the skin is much
exposed, there will be an evident increase in length of some of the hair. In
accordance with the growth of this on the body is that of the hair on the
legs, which become feathered all the way down below the knees in the fore-
legs, and half-way down the backs of the cannon-bones in the hind-legs.
Low-bred horses have more hair on these parts than thoroughbreds ; but
even these latter, if they are not stabled tolerably warmly, exhibit a great
deal of hair on their legs. Those who can see no possibility of improving
on Nature come to the conclusion that this long hair is a defence against
the cold, which ought not to be removed, and they argue that clipping and
singeing are on that account to be rejected altogether. But these gentlemen
forget that the horse in his native plains has always a short coat, and that
the winds and rains, which cause him here to throw out an extra protection,
are not natural to him. Moreover, if the animal is left to follow his own
impulses, even when turned out in this country, he will be all the better for
his long coat, for while it has the great advantage of protecting him from
the cold, it is not wetted by sweat, because he does not voluntarily gallop
long and fast enough to produce that secretion. The natui'al protection is
therefore undoubtedly good for the horse when left in a state of nature ;
but when man steps in and requires the use of the horse for such work as
will sweat him severely, he discovers that a long coat produces such great
exhaustion, both during work and after it, that it entirely forbids the
employment of the horse for hunting, or any fast work. I have myself
many times found it impossible to extend a horse for any distance on account
of his long coat, which distressed him so much as to make him blow directly,
whereas on removing it with the clipping scissors he could gallop as lightly
as a racehorse, and be able to go as fast and as far again as before. When
this happens in the course of the week following the previous failure, the
only change made being in the coat, there can be no mistake made, and a
constant repetition of the same result leaves no room for dispute as to the
beneficial effects of removing the hair. But, say the opponents of the plan,
" All this may be true, yet it is unsafe to expose the clipped horse after he
has been warmed, or indeed at any time." Experience tells a very different
tale, and informs us that so far from making the horse more liable to cold,
clipping and singeing render him far less so. Suppose one of ourselves to
be exposed to a cold wind, should we rather have on a thin dry coat or a
thick wet one? Assuredly the former, and undoubtedly the wearer of it

' It has since been " disputed " in the columns of The Field (1898). The editor is, how-
ever, al)lc to confirm Stonehent'e's statement from his own observations.

280 THE HORSE

would be less liable to cold than he who has the wet one on. So with the
horse. As long as his winter coat can be kept dry he is protected by it, and
the slow worker, who is not made to pull such heavy weight as to sweat
him, will be all the better for its protection, but the moment the pace is
sufficiently accelerated to warm the skin the sweat pours forth, and is kept
up in-doors by the matted mass of moist hair with which the horse is covered.
In former days I have had horses wet for weeks together, from the impossi-
bility of getting them dry in the intervals of their work. They would break
out afresh when apparently cool, and by no possible means could they be
thoroughly dried. This of course wasted their flesh to a frightful extent,
but on clipping them it was soon put on again, showing the great advantage
of the plan. A chronic cough almost always accompanies this state of
constant sweat, and it will be lucky for the owner of a horse so treated if
it does not become acute and put an end to the miserable existence of the
poor ill-treated brute. The case is not always fairly put, as for instance by
Stewart in his Stable Economy, at page 120, where he says, "A long coat
takes up a deal of moisture, and is difficult to diy ; but whether wet or
dry it affi^rds some defence to the skin, which is laid bare to every breath of
air when deprived of its natural covering. Every one must know from
himself whether clothing and a wet skin, or no clothing and a wet skin, is
the most disagreeable and dangerous. It is true that clipping saves the
groom a great deal of labour. He can dry the horse in half the time, and
with less than half of the exertion which a long coat requires ; but it makes
his attention and activity more necessary, for the horse is almost sure to
catch cold, if not dried immediately. When well clothed with hair he is
in less danger, and not so much dependent on the cai^e of his groom."
Now, I maintain that this passage is full of fallacies and misstatements.
The comparison is not between wet clothing and a wet skin, and no clothing
and a wet skin ; but, as I have before observed, between a wet long coat
and a dry short one. The clipping removes the tendency to sweat, or if
this secretion is poured out it ceases directly the exercise which produced
it is stopped. But taking Mr. Stewart on his own terms, who has not
experienced the relief which is afforded by taking off wet gloves and
exposing the naked hands to the same amount of wind and cold ? This is
exactly the case as he puts it, and tells directly against his argument ; but
it is scarcely worth while to discuss the subject at any length, for I know no
horseman of experience in the present day who does not advocate the use
of the clipping machine or the lamp, whenever the winter coat is much
longer than that of summer. That horses are occasionally to be met with
which show little or no change in the autumn I know full well ; but these
are the exceptions to the rule, being few and far between. The vast majority
would have their hair from one to two inches long if left in its natural
state, and they would then be wholly unfit for the uses to which they
are put. We may therefore consider that it is admitted to be the best
plan to shorten the coat in the autumn, and all I have to do is to discuss
the best modes of effecting the purpose, with a view to decide whether
clipping or singeing is to be preferred.

Clipping in the old days of scissors and comb was a most laborious art
and well paid, the " artists " being in great request and often commanding
large fees. When the gas singeing lamp was introduced the professional

CLIPPING AND SINGEING 281

clijiper liad to speedily reduce his demands, while he was finally extinguished
by the invention of Clarke's patent machine. The patent having long
since run out, and the competition of trade made these instruments so cheap
as to be within the reach of every one, no stableman worthy of the name
will confess his inability to clip a horse. Mr. Clarke's invention has been
a boon to every one connected with horses, unless exception be made to the
men of scissors and comb, few of whom remain in active service.

"When the machines cost a guinea and but few men could use them well,
many gentlemen were content to pay a guinea for a well-clipped horse, but
at the present time if a man has to be hired for the purpose he will usually
be satisfied with five shillings for the task and use his own machine.

Some of the cheap ones now in the market soon get out of order and fail
to accomplish their purpose, none so far as we are aware being so good as
those still supplied by the original maker.

The general custom observed as to clipping is to delay the operation if
possible till the first week in October, and clip twice more before Christmas,
after which date it is not advisable to do more than singe off the long hairs
that sprout out late in the winter. If a horse must be clipped for any
special reason after the date named he should have additional clothing and
care till late in the spring, as he will almost certainly shed his coat badly
and rarely have a good sleek summer one, however well managed.

Power machines driven by a wheel are employed in large studs, but as
yet are not generally adopted or indeed necessary for the private gentleman
owning but a few horses, and these well looked after with men having time
to clip with the ordinary instrument.

While the process is going on, the horse ought to be clothed as fai as
possible, careful men removing only as much of the quarter piece as is sul-
ficient to expose the part they are working at and no more. As soon as
the whole body is gone over as well as the legs, the singeing lamp is lightly
passed over the surface, which will leave the hair burned to such an extent
as to require either washing or a sweat, which latter is generally adopted, in
the belief that it has a tendency to prevent cold. My own opinion is that
this is a fallacy, and that soap and water used quickly and rapidly, followed
up by a good strapping and the use of plenty of warm clothing, is far less
likely to chill the horse than the exhaustion consequent upon a sweat. I
have tried the plan repeatedly, and known it tried by others still more
frequently, but I have never heard of any ill effects resulting. Yery often
a sweat is exceedingly inconvenient, either from the difficulty in getting
ground, as happens in towns, or from the infirm state of the legs. But
soap and water can always be obtained, and if carefully used there is not
the slightest danger attending them. Of course after the removal of a long
coat the skin requires an extra protection in-doors in the shape of a double
allowance of clothing, and it will be necessary to avoid standing still out-of-
dooi's, though, as I before remarked, on the whole the risk of taking cold by
horses worked hard enough to sweat them is less if they are clipped than
if they have their long coats on.

Singeing requires less practice than clipping, but it cannot be done
without some little experience of its difficulties, and a novice generally
burns the skin as well as the hair. To keep a horse's coat in good order it
must be singed several times in the course of the autumn, beginning as soon

282 THE HORSE

as the new growth has attained a length of half-an-inch beyond what is
usual. The singeing lamp is then passed lightly over the whole body,
and soap and water being used, as I have described under the head of
clipping, or a sweat given if that plan is preferred, the coat is left for a
fortnight or three weeks till it has grown another half-inch, when the
process is repeated, and again a third, and even a fourth time if necessary.

The lamj) now in common use is attached to a wide copper comb made
like a rake in principle, and so arranged that the teeth raise the hair and
draw the ends into the flame. Where gas is procurable the comb is
attached to the gas-pipe by a flexible tube, and the lamp consists merely in
a number of holes perforated along the edge of the comb, so that a series of
jets of gas are lighted, and bui'n so strongly, that the coat is completely
removed as near the skin as the teeth of the comb raise it. If gas cannot
be obtained,, a wide wick of cotton is inserted in a flat holder, and the ends
protruding to the level of the teeth, while a reservoir filled with naphtha
supplies them with that inflammable fluid, a constant flame is maintained,
but not nearly equal in strength to that from gas. As the coat is not
allowed to grow so long before it is singed, so the clothing need not be much
increased after its removal, and, indeed, in well-regulated stables there is
little or no change requii^ed. Singeing is performed in less than one
quarter the time of clipping, and a shilling's worth of naphtha is enough for
one horse, unless his coat is unusually long.

Trimming. The jaws, nostrils, ears, legs, mane, and tail are all more
or less subjected to the care of the groom, who removes superfluous hairs
from each or all by various means, as follows : —

The jaws, nostrils, and ears are singed, the last-named not being touched
inside, as the internal haii-s are clearly a protection of the delicate lining
membrane of the ear from the cold and wet. There are bristles about the
eyes which are generally removed, but it is very doubtful whether many an
eye would not be saved from a blow in the dark if they were left untouched.
Fashion, however, dictates their removal, and her orders must generally be
complied with. The hair which grows an inch or more in length beneath
the jaw, being of the same nature as the rest of the coat, can only be
singed off with advantage, and it should be done as fast as it grows,
especially if the singeing is not universal, or there will be a different colour
presented in these parts. Nothing gives a horse such a low-bred appear-
ance as a goat-like beard, and the trimming of this part alone will
completely alter the character of the animal where the hair has been at all
long. The legs are trimmed partly by singeing, and partly either by
clipping or pulling out the hairs. Gieat dexterity is required to manage
this performance in a workmanlike manner, so as to avoid the stale and
poster-like appearance Avhich is pi^esented by a leg clipped all over (without
a corresponding clipi^ing of the body), and at the same time to remove all,
or nearly all, the superfluous hair. In the summer, a clipped leg is totally
inadmissible, and even from the legs of a badly bred horse the hair may be
pulled by gradually working at it for a little time every day with the
fingers, armed with powdered resin. This prevents the hair slipping
through them, and by its aid such a firm hold may be obtained that, as I
said before, perseverance will enable the groom to clear the legs entirely,
with the exception generally of a strong lock of hair behind the pastern.

TRIMMING 283

When this is very obstinate, it is allowable to use the scissors to clear away
the hair below the horny growth which is found there, but there should
always be left a slight fringe round this, so as to avoid the sharp and stiff
outline presented by the clipped leg. In the winter, the arms and backs of
the knees, as well as the bosom and the insides of the quarters, will
generally want singeing, whether the body is submitted to the lamp or not ;
but in the summei-, even if any long hairs are left there, they are easily
removed by the hand armed with resin. Unless general clipping or
singeing is practised, the front surfaces of the legs do not require trimming
at any season of the year.

The mane is not now usually cut, with the exception of polo ponies and
cobs, but formerly it was a very common practice to " hog " it, that is, to
cut it to a sharp-pointed ridge, sticking straight upwards from the crest, and
giving that part the appearance of extraordinary height. Sometimes, how-
ever, the mane is very thick, and then for the sake of apjDearances it is
necessary to thin it, which is done by twisting a small lock at a time
round the comb, and pulling it out ; this gives some little pain, but ap-
parently not much, and evidently not more than the trimming of the legs,
and not so much as in pulling out the feelers or bristles growing from the
nostrils. A small lock of the mane is generally cut just behind the ears
where the head of the bridle rests, as it would otherwise lie beneath that
part in an untidy manner.

In trimming the tail various methods are adopted, when it is cut square ;
for if the hairs are allowed to grow to the full length, no interference is
necessary beyond an occasional clipping of their points to prevent them
from breaking or splitting. A square tail, however, whether long or short,
demands the careful use of the scissors or knife, without which the horse to
which it belongs is sadly disfigured. Two modes are practised, — in the
first the tail is carefully combed out, and then allowing it to fall in its
natural position, it is gathered up in the hand just above the part to be cut
off", and here a sharp knife is drawn across it backwards and forwards
without notching it, till it passes clean through. The tail is then released
and any loose hairs projecting are I'emoved with the scissors. The second
mode is not so easy, but when well carried out is more satisfactory to the
eye, inasmuch as it is capable of giving a sharper and more defined edge to
the square tail. As in the first method, the tail is carefully combed out ;
it is then held by an assistant's hand, placed beneath the r-oot of the dock,
as nearly as may be in the position which it assumes in the animal out-of-
doors. While thus poised the operator takes a pair of sharp scissors, and
holding the blades horizontally open, he insinuates one of them through the
middle of the tail at the place to be cut, passing it straight backwards, and
cutting the hair quite level from the central line to the outside on his own
left. Then reversing the blades, and keeping to the same level, he cuts
towards the right, and if he has a good eye and can use his hands in ac-
cordance with its dictates, he will have presented a very prettily squared
tail. On the other hand, if these organs are defective, or if he wants ex-
perience, he will have notched the end of the tail in a most unsightly
manner. If the groom wishes to try his hand in this operation, he should
get hold of a long tail, and begin far below the point where the squared end
is intended finallv to be. This will afford him five or six experim.ental cuts,

284 THE HORSE

aud if he cannot satisfy himself, as he neai's the proper- length, that he will
be likely to succeed, he can still call in the aid of a more skilful operator
before it is too late. The hair of the tail grows so slowly, that two or
three months are required to remove the disfigurement which is sometimes
caused in this way, and consequently it behoves the groom to be doubly
careful, for his own sake as well as his master's.

There is a fashion in tails as well as manes, and for a long time a
" bang " tail was the vogue, and some men are capable of improving on
any sort of tail, with no other implement than a shoemaker's knife with a
rough edge, produced by rubbing it on a coarse stone, such as mowers use
upon a scythe. With a smooth edged tool it is difficult indeed to cut
through a quantity of strong tail hair, but the sheer steel and rough edge
of the cobbler's knife make short work of it if the operator has the
required skill to direct it. An instrument made for the purpose is sold by
Messrs. Arnold of Smithfield.

To make the mane lie smoothly on its proper side, which it sometimes
obstinately refuses to do, it must be plaited in small locks, and the ends
loaded with lead, if it cannot be made to lie down without. An expe-
rienced groom, however, will generally succeed in so managing the plaits
that they lie close to the neck, which is all that can be effected by the aid
of lead, but sometimes the hair is so obstinate that nothing else will effect
the object in view. Special appliances for the purpose can now be
purchased.

USE AND APPLICATION OF BANDAGES

Bandages are applied to the legs of the horse for three different pur-
poses. First, to give support to the blood-vessels and synovial caj)sules ;
secondly, as a vehicle for applying cold lotions ; and thirdly, for drying
and warming them.

■ For the mere purjjose of sujj^wrt either linen or flannel bandages may be
put on, according to the weather, and the tendency to inflammation. The
legs of seasoned old horses are seldom so prone to become hot as those of
young ones, and excepting in very warm weather, flannel bandages seem
to suit them better than linen. On the conti'ary, if flannel is applied to
the legs of a colt, even if they are not inclined to inflame, they will become
hot and uncomfortable, and he will learn to tear them off, in which some
horses become perfect adepts. Whichever kind of bandage is put on, it
should be previously tightly rolled with the tapes inwards, then taking
it in the right hand, and unwrapping about six inches, they ai^e laid
against the cannon-bone on the side nearest to the groom, so that the
folds shall have a tendency to unroll /ro7n him and not to him. While the
left hand keeps the end from slipping, the i^ight passes the roll of bandage
closely round the leg till it meets the left, when the latter, still pressing
the end against the leg, lays hold of the roll, and allows the right to be
brought back to meet it on the other side. After which the coils are
repeated till the whole bandage is run out and the leg encased, one row
being slightly above or below the level of the next, as may be required.
The great art consists in avoiding unequal pressure, and yet giving

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET 285

sufficient to accomplish the purpose for which bandaging is designed.
From the projection backwards of the pastern joints it is impossible to
make the folds lie perfectly smooth, and there must be loose parts, which
however are covered over by the next turn. No written description,
however, will suffice to teach this little operation, and the young groom
should watch a good bandager, and imitate him as exactly as he can.
The tapes at the end serve to tie the bandage on, and these also must
neither be so tight as to cut the leg, nor so loose as to allow the bandage
to fall down.

When cold lotions are to be applied by means of bandages, linen is the
proper material, as flannel is too bad a conductor of heat, by evaporation,
for the purp )se. The whole bandage, after being i^olled up moderately
tightly, should be dipped in cold water, or in the lotion which may be
recommended, an I then while quite wet it is to be applied in the way
which I have ju^t described. The following lotion is useful for the
purpose : —

Take of Tincture of Arnica a wine-glass full.
, , Nitre J oz.
,, Sal ammoniac 1 oz.
, , Water half a bucket-full.
Mix and use by dipping the bandages in before applying them, and by wetting them -with
this solution afterwards by means of a sponge.

If the groom is careful, he may remove inflammation of the legs better
by means of dipping them in cold water, or the above lotion may be
applied with a sponge every half-hour, holding each leg over the bucket,
than with the aid of bandages. A cold douche by means of a forcing-
garden engine is also extremely beneficial to the legs, but it must be
used out-of-doors, as it will wet the litter and the walls of the stall if
the water is splashed over them within-doors.

For Drying and Warming the Legs when the horse is being dressed,
flannel is the only proper material for bandages. Its mode of application
is not of much consequence, provided the bandages are put on moderately
loosely, for tight pressure has a tendency to prevent the return of natural
heat, which is so much desired. After wetting the legs the bandages
should be applied somewhat more tightly, so as to absorb the moisture as
much as

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET

In the stabled horse the feet require constant care, for they are not
only artificially shod, but they are allowed to stand on a material which is
a much worse conductor of heat than the surface of the earth, by nature
designed to bear them. Hence, if neglected, they either become hard
and brittle, or they are allowed to be constantly wet, and then the soft
covering of the frog is decomposed, and emits a disagreeably smelling
discharge, which soon wastes it away, leaving no other protection to the
sensible organ beneath, and constituting what is called an ordinary thrush.
Again, it is found by experience, that not only must the shoes be renewed
as they wear out, but even if no work is done, and consequently they are

286 THE HORSE

not reduced in size, they no longer fit at the expiration of about three
weeks, and thoy must then be removed. The groom must therefore
attend to the following points : — First, to prevent the feet from becoming
too dry ; secondly, to take measures against their becoming thrushy
from wet ; thirdly, to see that the shoes are removed at the end of every
three weeks, or more frequently if necessary ; and fourthly, to examine
carefully every day that they are securely nailed on without any of the
clenches having started up from the surface, so as to endanger the
other leg.

Dryness of the feet is prevented by the use of what is called stopping,
which is composed either of cow-dung alone, or cow-dung and clay mixed,
or of cow-dung and pitch. The first is by far the most powerful applica-
tion, but it moistens the sole too much if employed every night, and then
produces the opposite evil in the shape of thrush. A mixture of equal
parts of cow-dung and clay may be used every night with advantage, and
this I believe to be the best of all stoppings. It should be kept in a
strong box of wood, about a foot long and eight inches wide, with a
handle across the top, and it should be applied the last thing at night to
the soles of the fore-feet only, by means of a thin piece of wood, a foot
long and a couple of inches wide, with which the space between the shoe
is completely stuffed. If the feet are obstinately dry, in spite of repeated
stoppings with cow-dung alone, which will rarely be the case, a table-
spoonful of salt may be added to the cow-dung, and this will never fail.
For most horses stopping v/ith cow-dung alone once a week is suflicient,
but the groom can judge for himself, by their appearance, of the number of
stoppings required. If three parts of cow-dung and one of clay are used,
the feet may be stopped twice a week, or perhaps every other night, and if
equal parts of each are adopted as the composition, almost any feet will
bear being stopped every other night, with the exception of flat or
pumiced soles, which should never be stopped at all. Several patents have
been taken out for felt pads, to be soaked in water, and then inserted in
the hollow of the shoe, but they do not answer nearly so well as cow-dung
stopping, which has far more emollient qualities than mere water. ' I
believe nothing has yet been discovered which has qualities at all equal
to this old-fashioned natural remedy.

Thrushes are prevented by keeping the frogs free from ragged layers
of the elastic substance of which they are partly composed, and at the
same time by maintaining a dry state of the litter on which the horse
stands. I am not now considering the management of the horse at grass,
where thrushes are generally produced when the weather is very wet, or
when the pasture is of too marshy a cliaracter, but the frogs of the stabled
horse, which ought never to be allowed to be so moist as to become
decomposed. Some ulcerated conditions of the frog which are still con-
sidered to come under the general denomination " thrush," are due to
severe internal disease of the bones of the foot, and are not caused by
moisture at all. Still these are rare exceptions, and the ordinary thrush
of the stable may be considered as caused in the latter way. Cases are
also occasionally to be dealt witli,' in which from general grossness of the
system, the sensible fi'Og throws off part of its horny covering, and
secretes a foul matter instead. The management of these diseased con-

MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET 287

ditions comes within the province of the veterinarian, but the prevention
of the mere decomposition of the external surface by moisture is a part of
the duties of the groom, and so is the aiDplication of tlie proper remedies
for it, as soon as the nature of the case is clearly made out. Here
antiseptic astringents, which are quite out of place in inflammatory thrush
are the only useful applications, and by their means alone can tlie decom-
position be stopped. Of these Sir W. Burnett's solution of chloiide of
zinc is the best, but in mild cases, the permanganate of soda will answer
well, and is not so poisonous in its nature if carelessly left about. Friar's
Tjalsam, with as much of the sulphate of zinc dissolved in it as it will
take up, is the old-fashioned groom's remedy for thrush, and a very good
one it is if carefully insinuated into the cleft of the frog on a piece of
tow wetted with it.

A mixture of tar and salt in the proportion of four or five parts of
the former to one of the latter, is an excellent remedy, but there are
some cases which may be considered as constitutional or hereditary, and
requiring not only local dressing but internal medicines. The grand
principle, however, is to prevent thrush rather than to cure it, but when
horses are bought, or come home from grass with it, the curative method
must be carried out.

The removal of the shoes at regular intervals, whether they are worn
out or not, is a most important part of the duties of the groom. On
examining the shape of the foot it will be seen that the diameter of the
circle in contact with the shoe is greater than that of tlie coronet, and
hence as the shoe is forced away from its original position by the growth
of the horn, it confines the walls to the extent of the difference between
the diameter of the foot at its old position and that of the part wliich it
now occupies. For if two lines from the surface of the coronet on each
side were continued through the outside surface of the crust to the new
seat of the shoe, they would be far from parallel, and yet the shoe-nails
must have been carried on in perfect parallel lines on account of the un-
yielding nature of iron. For this reason a shoe, when it has not been
removed at the end of a month, will be found to lie within the heel of one
side or the other, by which to some extent contraction is prevented, but at
the expense of the heel, into which the corresponding part of the shoe has
entered. This is a frequent cause of corns, and horses wliich have once been
subject to that disease should have their shoes removed once a fortnight.

One of the most annoying accidents to the horseman is the loss of a
shoe, whether it happens in the hunting-field or on the road. Some horses
can scarcely be prevented by any care of their grooms from pulling off" a
shoe in hunting when they get into deep ground, but on the road there is
no such excuse, and the frequent loss of a shoe by the hack or harness-horse
is sufficient to condemn the groom of carelessness in this particular. Every
morning when the feet ai-e picked out it is easy to look the shoes over and
feel if they are tight. The clenches also ought to be examined, and if they
are not raised at all it may safely be predicated that the day's journey will
be completed without the shoe being lost. A raised clench may severely
cut a horse on the inside of the other leg, and in those who are predisposed
to " speedy cut " it may cause severe injury, and perhaps occasion a fall of
the most dangerous character.

288 THE HORSE

DAILY EXERCISE

Without regular exercise no horse can long be kept in health, and
I believe that as far as this point is concerned, even those which are hard-
worked would be the better for half-an-hour's airing every morning as soon
as they have been fed and before they are dressed. But those masters who
are particular about the mouths of the animals they ride or drive, find that
the hands of their grooms are generally so heavy that they spoil the delicate
"feel "on which the comfort and pleasure of riding and driving so much
depends. Hence in such cases the poor hoi'se is condemned to confinement
in his stable, not only on the day when he is to be ridden or driven, but on
those also when he is to be idle. The health of the body is sacrificed to the
maintenance of that delicate condition of the mouth which is so highly
prized by good horsemen and accomplished whips, and I confess that I
plead guilty to having for a long series of years acted on this principle. A
fair share of health may be maintained without exercise if the work is
never interrupted for more than a single day, and at the same time there
being only one pair of hands to interfere with the mouth, its delicacy is not
impaired, that is to say if they are not as bad as those of the groom.
Sometimes a large and smooth snaffle is allowed as an exercise bridle, in
the hope that it cannot injui-e the mouth, but even this will do mischief if
the weight of the rider is thrown upon it, as is too often the case. Leaving
out of the question this objection to the adoption of exercise, there can be
no doubt that a daily walk out-of-doors for half-an-hour or an hour,
especially if it can be managed on turf will be of the greatest service to
the horse's health.

CHAPTER XV

STABLE MANAGEMENT CONTINUED

EECAPITULATION OF DAILY DUTIES — PROl'ER rEMPEUATUKE OF THE STABLE — REMEDIES FOR
STABLE VICES AND BAD HABITS— PREPARATION FOR WORK — ORDINARY SWEATING — THE
TURKISH BATH — PHYSIC — FINAL PREPARATION — TREATxMENT AFTER WORK — SUMMERING
— A winter's run — THE STRAW-Y'ARD — OARE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS.

In the LAST CHAPTER I liave entered at length upon the consideration of
the several duties of the groom; I shall now recapitulate them, so as to
enable the master to see at a glance whether his servant is at any particular
time doing what he ought to do.

RECAPITULATION OF DAILY DUTIES

A.M. 5 to C. Feed, and give a few "go-downs " of water; while the com is being eaten
put the stable straight, by separating the soiled part of the litter and
forking it back into the gangwa}^ while the rest is tucked np under the
manger. Then sweep out the stall quite clean, and carry the dirt as well
as the foul litter at once out of the stable.

6 to 7. Put exercise saddle and bridle on, take the horse out for half-an-hour or an

hour, or more, according to the work he has to do. Bring him home,
take off saddle and bridle, shake down a little litter, and go to breakfast.
8 to 8.30. Dress each horse for au hour; put all straight; feed, and water liglitly ;
rack up if going out to work, if not allow horse to lie down, arranging
a light bed for the purpose ; put on bandages when worn.
r.M. 3 to 4. Feed again and give half a bucket of water; remove droppings.

7 to 8, Remove droppings ; bed up ; water and feed; stop feet on those nights when

required ; take off bandages.

These hours will vary according to circumstances, but in private stables
they are the most convenient that can be arranged for hacks and harness-
horses. Hunters are sometimes fed once more, — that is, at six, nine, twelve,
five, and eight; but I believe four times a day often enough to give any
horse food. When one man has to do three horses, he cannot of course
finish them all by the hour named, and even if he begins at five o'clock, he
cannot complete all he has to do before eleven or twelve o'clock.

PROPER TEMPERATURE OF THE STABLE

There is scarcely any point upon which there is so much difference of
opinion, as in relation to the temperature of stables. Some contend for an
amount of heat which wovild raise Fahrenheit's thermometer to 65° or 70",

289 U

290 THE HORSE

while others would never have their stables, if they could help it, above
45°. So much depends upon the kind of horse in them, and the work he
has to do, that is to say, whether he is much exposed to the cold or not,
that no rule can be laid down which is applicable to all stables, but I believe
it may be asserted that none should be above 60°, or below 50°, if it can
be avoided. There are days in the summer season, when the air out of
doors in the shade stands at 90° or 95°, and, of course, in such weather, it
is impossible, even with the doors and windows wide open, to keep the stable
at a lower degree, or even within several points of those above stated. So
also, with a thermometer scarcely above zero, it will be difficult to keep the
air wholesome, and yet to prevent its temperature falling lower than 45^,
which, at such seasons, feels very warm to those who come in from the
external air. But, with these exceptions, I think the rule which I have
laid down is a good one. The warmer the stable, the better the coat looks,
till it is exposed to the weather, and even if it is so, it will take no injury
if the horse is kept moving, but if not, it soon becomes chilled, and not only
does the general health suffer, but the appearance also. There is, however,
another, and very serious objection to hot stables, consisting in their ill effect
upon the legs and feet, which inflame much more readily in a warm atmo-
sphere than in a cool one. I have often known horses stand severe rattling
for months together, while standing in a stable which was so cold as to
make their coats as rough as badgers, but when removed to warmer quarters,
they have at once gone " all to pieces," their legs or feet becoming inflamed
from missing the refrigerating effect of cool air after their daily work. The
body may easily be kept warm enough by extra clothing, and, if necessary,
a hood and breastplate may be worn all day and all night, but not even wet
bandages will cool the legs if they are surrounded by hot air. On the
whole, therefore, for the private gentleman's stable, including those for
hunters, hacks, and carriage-horses, I should advise a regular temperature
to be preserved as near 55° of Fahrenheit as possible. In coming in from
the external air this will ajjpear very warm to the sensations, but it is far
below the high state of heat at which many of our stables were kept, until
within the last few years. I have often known 70° to 75° of Fahrenheit
insisted on as the lowest which would suffice to get a hunter into condition,
but practice proves the reverse, and that with plenty of clothing he will do
in a cool stable of the temperature I have recommended, far better than in
one possessing a higher range. The celebrated " Nimrod " (Mr. Apperley)
was a great advocate for a hot stable, which he thought ought never to be
reduced much below 70° or 75°; but his opinions, vahiable as they
undoubtedly are in the main, cannot be looked upon as in all points to be
relied on.

REMEDIES FOR STABLE VICES AND BAD
HABITS

Orib-biting is a diseased condition of the stomach, for which there has
never yet been a cure discovered, except on the principle of restraint. It
may, therefore, be considered under the present head. In crib-biting the
teeth are applied to some fixed object — generally the manger, so as to afford

REMEDIES FOR STABLE VICES AND BAD HABITS 291

a fulcrum for the muscles of the neck to act from, and by preventing this,
or by contriving so that the contraction of the muscles of the neck shall
give pain, the vicious habit is got rid of for the time. The most common
method is to buckle a leather strap so tightly round the neck, just behind
the jaw, that when the horse attera^Dts to crib, he tightens the muscles of
that part, and these being pressed against the strap, occasion such pain that
the act is not completely carried out, and even if it is on the first occasion,
the attempt is not repeated. The strap is buckled sufficiently tight to do
this, without much impeding the act of swallowing, or the flow of blood
from the head, through the jugular veins to the body; but in confirmed
cribbers no ordinary pressure will suffice, and then the head often becomes
affected from the impediment which is caused to the return of the blood from
the brain to the heart. To remedy this defect Mr. Cook, saddler, of
Long Acre, invented a neck strap, containing a number of prongs, which
pass through holes in a spring guard, and unless this is strongly pressed,
they do not touch the skin. It is applied by throat straps to an ordinary
head collar, and in slight cases it is found to answer most perfectly, but
when the vice has become confirmed, and the desire to indulge in it is very
strong, the pain occasioned by the prongs is endured, and no effect at all is
produced. It is not therefore of much use, as the common strap does no
injury in those cases where Mr. Cook's is effectual, and the latter will not
avail when the plain strap is forbidden, on account of the extreme pressure
required. I cannot, therefore, recommend any plan but such as will totally
prevent the prehension of the manger, and this is accomplished by one of
two ways. In the first of these, the manger itself is either concealed, on
the principle shown at page 238, or the corn and hay are placed on the
ground, in a sj)ace slightly separated from the rest of the stall by a row
of bricks, or other similar bodies, which cannot be laid hold of. To the
concealed manger and rack there is the objection, that while the horse is
feeding, he can go on cribbing without interruption, and as this is the time
chiefly chosen for the act, success is only partly achieved. Placing the
food on the ground is entii'ely successful in stopping the habit, but it leads
to some waste of provender, as the horse is apt to tread upon it, after which
he will refuse to eat it. By far the best preventive, in my opinion, is the
bar muzzle, consisting in an iron frame- work covering the lips and nose, and
suspended from the head by a leather head collar, so that the lips can
reach the corn or hay, but the teeth are too wide to pass through the bars
and seize the manger. This mechanical contrivance is entirely harmless,
and perfectly effectual, the sole objection to it being the fact that it
proclaims the wearer to every one who looks into the stable as a cribber.
This may be a valid reason for rejecting its use for dealers' horses, but in a
gentleman's stable, utility and humanity ought to have precedence of such
a feeble argument. The price of the bar muzzle is 15s., which to a poor
man is a consideration, as compared with the plain leather strap to be
obtained for Is. 6d When the bar muzzle is adopted, it should always be
kept on, excepting, of course, when the bridle replaces it for work or
•exercise, or while the head is being dressed.

Kicking the wall or stall-post is sometimes a very annoying trick,
and though not always done in a vicious manner, it is objectionable,
.because the kicker is liable to lame himself, or one of his neighbours. In

292

THE HORSE

mares it is often of a sexual nature, and in them it is much more common
than in geldings, — the extent to which it is carried by them being generally
greatest at the beginning and end of their being " in use." At such times
some mares go almost mad, if they have an irritating neighbour, who keeps
smelling them, and I once had one who kicked herself to pieces in a
paroxysm of this kind, which nothing but tying up the fore-leg could
restrain. There are several remedies in common use, but none can be
relied on in all cases. Foremost among these is the use of gorse, nailed to the
stall-post, which Avill almost invariably quiet a low-bred animal, especially
if a gelding, but high-bred mai-es will sometimes kick at it all the more, for
the punishment they receive. A padded leather strap, buckled round the
cannon-bone, with a common sinker attached to it, or instead of this, a
few links of heavy chain, will generally keep the horse from kicking,

BAR MUZZLE FOR CRIB-BITERS.

because in making the attempt he gives his coronet and pastern a heavy
blow. If, however, this plan is unsuccessful, it is liable to cause lameness,
from the inllammation produced by the blows, and, therefore, the effect
must be carefully watched. Few horses kick out with both legs, and a
pair of hobbles buckled round the hind fetlocks will, in a vast majority of
cases, put an end to the trick as long as they are worn, without any risk,
or producing any serious annoyance, save only what is inseparably
connected with the prohibition of the indulgence in the desire to kick. A
narrow strap buckled round the part just above the hock, so. as to confine
the ham-string, will have the desired effect, by giving intense pain when
any attempt to strike out is made, but it is a most annoying infliction to the
horse, and generally prevents his lying down, from the necessity which
there is for bending the hock, in reaching the ground. I should, therefore,
give the preference to the bunch of gorse, or if that is not readily
procurable, to the sinker of wood or iron suspended to a strap round the leg.
In scratching the ear with the hind-foot, the horse is very apt to get
his leg over the collar-rein, if the sinker is not heavy enough to keep the
rein tightly strained between the head collar and the ring in the manger.
Impatient animals, also, which are continually pawing at their litter, will

REMEDIES FOR STABLE VICES AND BAD HABITS 293

sometimes get one of their fore-feet over it, Ijut this is not so sei'ious an
accident. To prevent the mischief occasioned in either case by the struggles
to get free, especially when the hind-leg is thus caught, the rings for the
collar-reins are sometimes made to di'aw down with a spring-catch, which
releases them when pulled in that direction, but in no other. When,
however, the sinker is propei4y weighted, it is almost impossible for such an
accident to occur ; and this simple invention has now become obsolete.

Tearing the clothes off is by no means an unusual stable habit, and it
is one ver}^ difficult to cure. There are two effectual preventives, however :
one of which consists in the regular employment of a rough horsehair cloth,

REMEDY FOR TEARING THE CLOTHES.

made like that for hops, outside the rug, and which is so disagreeable to
the teeth, that no horse will attempt to tear it ; the other is carried out by
means of a pole of ash, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with an
iron eye attached to each end. One of these is fastened, by means of a
short leathern strap and buckle, to the side of the roller pad, while the
other has a strap or chain about a foot long, which attaches it to the head
collar. The pole should reach about fifteen inches beyond the point of
the shoulder, and it should be fixed on the side which is generally upper-
most when the horse lies down, so as not to be under him in that position.
It is a very simple and cheap apparatus, and any village blacksmith can
make and apply it. The above engraving will illustrate my meaning
better than the most detailed description without it.

Weaving is a mark of an irritable nervous system, beyond which it is
hai-mless, but quite incurable. It consists in a perpetual moving of the
head from one side of the manger to the other, with an action like that of a

294 THE HORSE

wild beast in his den. The constant friction soon wears out the collar-reins
when there are two, and on that account a single rein may be adopted in
this particular instance with advantage.

Eating the litter is a peculiar appetite, which chiefly occurs either in
those horses which are kept short of hay on account of their tendency to
fatten, or when the animal possessing it has been stabled for a very long
time together and requires a change. In the former case nothing but the
muzzle will be of the slightest service, but in the latter a run at grass, or
soiling indoors for a month or two, will remedy the disorder of the stomach.
Rock-salt in the manger will sometimes have the desired eifect, producing a
degree of thirst which will make dry litter distasteful.

Kicking and biting savagely are marks of actual vice, and scarcely come
within the limits of the present section. Still the groom must know how to
guard against them in the best way, so as to save himself from danger with-
out unnecessarily punishing the horse. Thei'e are some animals which cannot
be effectually restrained without severity, but on the average, kindness and
firmness united will overcome any horse. Sometimes it is necessary to put
on the muzzle while the dressing is going on, but this is chiefly because the
skin is so irritable that the brush or wisp excites sensations which lead to
the use of the teeth or hind-legs to prevent their recurrence. In such cases
as these Mr. Rarey's method of subduing a savage horse ia extremely
valuable.

PREPARATION FOR WORK

I HAVE ALREADY OBSERVED that these pages are not intended to serve as a
guide for the trainer of the racehorse, and that they chiefly apply to the
management of the hunter, hack, and carriage-horse belonging to the private
gentleman. The description of the mode of preparation for work will there-
fore include the mode of fitting the hunter for his duties, and of getting the
hack and carriage-horse into condition, from the state in which they are
usually first brought into the stable, either from grass or the dealer's hands.

In the present day, the hunter is prepared almost as carefully as the
racehorse or steeplechaser, when he is intended for any of the grass countries.
Nothing short of a regular preparation will enable a horse to go through a
fast thing in Northamptonshire or Leicestershire, and no man in his senses
would ride a horse there in the front rank, unless he was thoroughly fit.
The stud-groom, therefoi-e, requires for his purpose a training-grovmd where
he can give his horses their sweats, without which it would be impossible to
get them into condition. A very large space is not necessary, but a very
small one will not suffice, the constant turning incidental to a limited gallop
producing a great strain upon the joints. If possible a gallop measuring at
least a mile and a half or two miles in circumference should be obtained, and
with this length, including a moderate rise in its extent so as to open the
horse's pipes well at the finish of a sweat, it is the groom's fault if his charge
is not brought out thoroughly fit when the hunting season commences. Of
course, when making this assertion, I am calculating that he has been
allowed sufficient time, which will depend greatly upon the state in which he
finds his horses in August. If they have been at grass, it is almost impossible

PREPARATION FOR WORK 295

to get them ready by the middle o£ November, but a well-summered horse
soiled in a loose-box with a proper allowance of corn, may be thoroughly
prepared by that time if he is set to work by the middle of August. This
will allow of two clear preparations, with an intervening week for cooling
physic.^ Should the horse be up from grass, another month or six weeks at
least will be required, which must be employed in giving him nothing but
walking exercise, with a dose of physic at the beginning, and repeated at
the end of three weeks or a month. Horses at gi'ass in the summer are
seldom allowed any corn, and the change from grass to the more stimu-
lating food of the stable must be made gradually, or some of the important
organs will assuredly fail. Hence the necessity for extra time, and
the addition which I have made to the calculated period for conditioning
a hunter summered in-dooi's, is barely sufficient for this purpose, when
he is full of grass or of the fattening food which is given to make him up
for the dealers. In either case great care and some experience are neces-
sary in altering the entire management of the animal, so as to give him
corn and exercise enough to prepare his frame gradually for the strains
which it will have to bear in the hunting-field, without producing inflam-
mation. With all the objections which I hold to physic, I must confess
that here I think it to be indispensable ; and invariably, as soon as a raw
horse is settled in the stable, I should get him thoroughly cleaned out
before I began to give him hay and corn. I have always found it advan-
tageous just to allow a couple of days to elapse before giving the physic,
which will serve to fill the large bowels with the new kind of food. A
mash should then be administered at night, and repeated if necessary till it
has had the desired effect in softening the dung, when the physic may be
given. Two or three days will elapse before it has set sufficiently to
allow of walking exercise ; but as soon as this can be ordered with safety,
the horse should be walked out twice a day for an hour and a half each
time, or two hours in the morning and one in the evening, whichever may
be preferred. The division of the exercise into two periods is far better
than keeping the green horse out for so long a time as three hours, which
will make him weary ; whereas, the shorter period will not tire any
horse, and a mid-day rest will resfcoi'e his whole frame, and enable him to
go out again in the evening as cheerfully as ever. I need scarcely observe
that the shoes should be attended to, and the feet put in proper order, for
three hours' walking exercise in ill-fitting shoes will do great harm, espe-
cially to feet that are not accustomed to their pressure. By persevering
with steady slow work, and feeding on a moderate allowance of hay and
corn, the latter not exceeding two feeds at first and three at the end of
the month, the horse will be ready by the middle of August to have a
second dose of physic, after which he may commence in earnest his first
real 2>reparation. This also is chiefly confined to slow work, but if the
horse is gross he may have in the course of the four or five weeks to
which it extends one or two sweats of moderate length and speed. Great
caution must always be exercised by the groom at this time ; on no ac-
count should any fast work be given, unless he is satisfied that his horse

^ This custom has to a great extent fallen into desuetude, but the editor after thirty-
years' practice among hunters is decidedly in favour of at least one dose of physic, which in
stable nomenclature always means a dose of aloes in the form of a ball.

296 THE HORSE

is in pei-fect health and in good spirits. Every increase in the food and
work should be carefully watched, and its effects noted, so as to guide him
in deciding whether he can venture to take another step. It must be
remembered that hitherto the feeds of corn have been only three quar-
terns of oats daily, and the exercise has not extended beyond a walk ;
but during the next few weeks the former must be doubled, or nearly so,
and the latter must go on into a daily slow trot of two or three miles on
turf, with an occasional steady gallop in place of this, and, as I have
before remarked, one or two sweats if the system is overloaded with fat.
But unless the hunter is very fleshy, nothing more than slow trots and
canters will be required until after the next dose of physic. The increase
in the quantity of corn will seldom tend to put on fat, and as the amount
of hay should be small, not exceeding 10 lbs. a day, unless the horse is
gross in his nature, he will have put on muscle, and lost some of the
internal fat which is so prejudicial to condition.

The object of the sweating process is to remove superfluous fatty
matters, which act prejudicially in a twofold manner. In the first place
the fat itself is so much dead weight to carry, and on the calculation that
seven pounds are equal to a distance in an average length of race, it may
readily be understood that the huge quantity of adipose tissue, whicti is
carried by a fat horse, will, by its weight alone, retard any attempt at high
speed. But not only is fat to be objected to on this score ; for it is also
known by experience, that its pressure on the important internal organs,
when it is deposited around them, interferes with the proper perform-
ance of their several functions. The muscles of the limbs, when they are
marbled with fat, as we see them in the slaughtered ox and sheep, are
unable to contract vigorously, but when a similar condition occurs in
the muscular tissue of which the heart is composed, violent exertions are
interdicted, or, if they are attempted, they are attended with dangerous
and often fatal results. Again, it is ascertained that sweating has a local,
as well as a general effect, and that, by producing a copious discharge of
fluid from the skin covering any particular part, there will be a removal
of any superfluous fat which may be lodged beneath it, before the rest of
the body is perceptibly acted on. Hence, when the groom thinks that his
horse is loaded with fat about the heart, he puts on extra " sweaters "
over that part, or, on the contrary, if his oljject is to unload the ridge of
dense adipose membrane which constitutes a high crest, he puts on two
or three extra hoods, and sweats chiefly in that region of the body. The
local effect of these partial sweats is, perhaps, a good deal overrated, but
undoubtedly there is some foundation for the general belief. The use of
clothing for sweating is not nearly so frequent as it used to be, even in
racing stables, and horses are not now drawn so fine, by a great deal, as
they were formerly. At one time runners in the Derby, or in any other
great race, when they were saddled, looked like living skeletons, and to an
eye unaccustomed to the hard lines presented by their limbs, the beauty of
their forms was entirely gone. Now a different system prevails ; the
object is not to reduce the horse as much as he will bear, but to bring him
out as big as he can be, consistently with good wind. The celebrated
trainer, John Scott, has shown what can be done in this way, and his
example is now generally followed. So also with hunters, although they

PREPARATION FOR WORK 297

are often required to do more, perhaps, than any other variety of the horse,
and in the grass countries are made as fit as if they were going to run in a
steeplechase, yet they are brought to covert looking big and full of muscle,
without any pretensions to be considered as drawn fine. Still the sweat,
either in clothes or without them, must be occasionally carried out, or the
internal organs will continue loaded with fat, as is natural to them when
they have been for some time in a state of rest, coupled with high feeding.
The use and amount of sweaters must be proportioned to the constitutional
peculiarities of the individual ; in one horse a slow gallop will produce a
perfect lather on the skin, while in another treated in all respects in the
wame way, there shall be hardly a hair turned. So also the effect of
apparently the same degree of sweating on different horses is very variable,
producing a great relief in one case, and scarcely any in another. The
gi'oom must not attempt to carry out any fixed rule, but must watch the
effect of each day's work, and increase or diminish the amount next day
according to circumstances. As I before remarked, a sweat may be with
clothes or without, the object in each case being not so much to do a certain
amount of work, but to get rid of a fixed quantity of superfluous fat and
humours. On the other hand, a gallop has quite the opposite end in view,
being intended to brace the muscles, heart, blood-vessels, and lungs, by
stimulating them to act in an extraordinary degree, but without any view
to reduce tlie weight of the body or any part of it. In a sweat, therefore,
the pace is slow and long continued ; no exertion is made to render it smart,
or to develop action in any shape, the whole attention of the groom being
devoted to the single object which is connected with the removal of fat.
It is usual, therefore, to send the horse along at a slow, steady, hand gallop
for four miles, or in very gross animals for five or six, the last half-mile
only being done at anything like a fast pace, and even then the horse
should not be extended to the utmost, on account of the great extra weight
he has to carry, if he has two or three sweating blankets on. It is quite
necessary to bear in mind this special object of the sweat, as the Turkish
bath is in some establishments still used, and for a time was in great favour.
The opponents of the Turkish bath contend that it can never supersede the
old plan, because, though it will get rid of superfluities, it will not develop
muscle ; but they forget that it is not used for the latter purpose, but is
solely confined to the one object, which by the employment of sweating
blankets out-of-doors is accompanied with considerable risk. The Turkish
bath is, in fact, a means to one end only, and must not be employed for any
other. No horse could have his muscles and heart, his wind and limbs,
made more wiry and enduring than before by any number of baths ; but he
may be put into a condition which shall fit him for being so, without the
risk to the legs and feet which a number of sweats in heavy clothing
will always cause. No wonder, therefore, that trainers eagerly resort to
the use of the bath, especially as every year their horses seem to be getting
more and more liable to break down. It is quite true that the old-fashioned
sweat combines muscular exercise with the process of unloading the system,
but in so doing, the time of the groom is the only thing saved, and no one
would take that into the calculation, as being worthy of consideration. By
the use of the bath when he is too gross, the horse is sweated on one day,
and on the next he may be galloned if necessary, the bath producing so

298 THE HORSE

little fatigue, that he may have any amount of exercise directly after it, to
Avhicli he is accustomed. In resorting to the bath at first the attempt was
made to save doubtful legs only, but the good effect was soon found to
extend beyond this, and in almost all cases where there would be any
necessity for sweats and clothing, the Turkish bath is adopted instead, by
those who have the means at their disposal. I shall, therefore, describe
each of these plans in detail.

ORDINARY SWEATING

WiiEX THE OLD-FASHIONED SWEAT is intended to be gi^en, and it is not
proposed to reduce any part in particular, it is usual to put on an old rug
next the skin, or, in large stables, a sheet kept expressly for the purpose,
and hence called a "sweater"; then an old hood and breast-cloth, next a
second quarter piece is put on, and even a third in some cases, and lastly,
a complete set of clothing over all, the saddle, as usual, completing the
ai'rangement. If any special part is to be reduced, as, for instance, the
brisket or bosom, an extra cloth is folded like a shawl, and the ends being
crossed over the withers, it is kept in its place under the breast-cloth, by the
pressure of the saddle ; or a I'ug may be folded and placed round the chest,
without extending to the loins, in case the heart is supposed to be oppressed
with fat. All these points of detail will call upon the groom for an exercise
of ingenuity and tact, and if he possesses these qualities, he will have no
difficulty in placing his sweaters where they will be required. When they
are all securely fixed the horse is ridden out, and after walking for a short
time to empty himself, he is started off to go his sweat, which is generally
four miles, doing three-quarters of the distance at a slow pace, and then
Ijeing set going a little faster, and at last brought out to his top-speed, if
in full training, or nearly so if in his second preparation. By his top-speed,
however, is not to be understood the very outside pace which can be got
out of the horse, but only such a speed as is short of that by so much as
will preserve his stride in full vigour, and prevent that over-pacing which
leads to the rupture of muscular or tendinous structure. In his first
preparation he should seldom be extended, and it is better to increase the
distance rather than to accelerate the speed beyond the steady gallop ; but
few horses x^ef use to sweat at a slow pace in this stage of training. As soon
as he has finished the distance, the trainer examines his state, and either
directs him to be walked or trotted on to the rubbing place, which should
be a box set apart for the purpose, either on the ti-aining-ground or at the
usual stables ; or if the ground is at a distance from any available stable,
the shelter of a haystack or high hedge should be sought for. The full
benefit of the sweat is not obtained unless the fluid is scraped off before
it has had time to be re-absorbed, which is the result, if it is allowed to
remain on the skin after this has ceased to give out any fluid. Its vessels
in that case, instead of perspiring, adopt the opposite extreme, and appro-
priate the sweat by their own power of absorption ; thus doing away with
the chief benefit which was expected and desired from the sweat itself.
When the hand of the groom, applied to the shoulder of the horse under
his breast-cloth, tells him that the sweat is coming kindly, the horse may

ORDINARY SWEATING 299

have a couple of rugs heaped upon him, and be suffered to give out fluid
for a very few minutes only ; but if it does not break out at once three
or four must be put on him, and he must wait a quarter of an hour or
twenty minutes before he is fit to scrape. If he sweats freely, the groom
in charge of his head may rub his ears and wipe his eyes, so as to refresh
him slightly ; but if there is any difficulty in bringing on the sweat this
will only retard the process, and he may be allowed to stand quite quietly,
and without any attempt to refresh him by the above little attentions, or
by rubbing his legs, or wij^ing his thighs or bosom. As soon as the groom
is satisfied, the hood is taken ofi", and the head and neck rapidly scraped,
together with the bosom, from which the breast-cloth is removed, and the
rugs and quarter piece turned back so as to expose the whole neck and the
points of the shoulders. One or two sti^appers may be employed in scraping
and afterwards drying this part, besides the one holding the bridle ; but
if the horse is quiet enough, this may be removed, and the head dressed
all the more efiectually. A very few minutes suffice for drying this half
of the horse, when the bridle should be readjusted, and the quarter piece
and sweaters wholly turned off over the croup ; upon this the strappers
again set to work with their scrapers and rubbers, they soon get rid of
every particle of sweat, and have the coat perfectly dry and smooth. Much
depends upon the stage of training ; in the early part, the sweat is profuse,
thick, and soapy, and takes more time to dry; while in the latter stages,
when the horse is getting fit, it is watery and scanty, the horse will scarcely
scrape, and dries without the slightest trouble. This is a good sign of
condition, and the necessity for a repetition of the sweat may generally be
gathered by the appearance of the fluid, which, when thick and lathery,
shows that there is much gross fat in the system requiring removal ; but,
nevertheless, it also shows that great care must be taken in the process,
lest mischief should be done, by calling upon Nature too rapidly while the
animal is in this fat state, and liable to inflammations of all kinds. After
rubbing all the coat dry, and smoothing it down with the leather rubber,
the usual clothing should be put on, and the horse allowed his exercise,
which he may have as usual, care being taken that he does not catch cold
if the weather is severe. The reason why the horse is taken out again is,
that if he were left in the warm stable he would break out into a second
sweat, and if he were placed in a cool one he would surely take cold.
Walking exercise, therefore, with a short canter, is adopted as a means of
avoiding both of these injurious conditions ; but he should not continue it
longer than to put him into a cool state, and restore his nerves and blood-
vessels to their usual condition. The length of ground and pace for
sweating vary with the age, condition, and purpose for which the horse is
trained, the maximum length being six miles, and the minimum two to
three, with a speed varying with every individual case, and depending upon
the age, breed, and action of the horse, as well as his constitution and legs,
and the state of preparation in which he is. Sweats are given at periods
varying from once a week to once a fortnight after the first preparation,
but seldom so often during that time. When sweats are given svithout
clothing, they are in other respects just the same as described above, and
the strappers are required in a similar way to dry the horse at once ; but
the quantity of sweat is not nearly so great, and two good hands will

300 THE HORSE

generally suffice for the pui-pose. In almost all cases, even where clothing
is not used, it is heaped on when the horse is taken into the stable, in order
to encourage the flow of perspiration. (For "Sweaters," see page 247.)

THE TURKISH BATH

The Turkish bath when employed for horses, requires two boxes to be
prepared, contiguous to each other, and, if economy is an object, to the
saddle-room also, in order that one fire shall serve for all. The annexed
plan has been carried out on this principle, the fire-place A being placed
in the saddle-room, and heating it, as well as a boiler for hot Avater. It
is sunk eighteen inches beneath the floor of the saddle-room, so as to allow
of the commencement of the flue at B entering the bath-room, with its
bottom two feet from the floor of that apartment, and to pass beneath the
final exit of the flue, as it leaves to enter the chimney at F. The flue is
supported on arches, clear of the wall, from B to C rising two inches in the
foot, so that when it reaches the corner C, its bottom is four feet from the
ground. It is built exactly like the usual flue of a hot-house, with dampers,
and all the arrangements peculiar to that apparatus. From C to D it may
be either on arches, or supported on slate built into the wall, as the heat
is from this point not sufficient to crack that material. At D the bottom
is about six feet high, and when it reaches the entrance B, it will give
plent}'^ of head room for a horse to pass beneath. On this side it is built
in the wall, but still on arches so as to expose as large a radiating surface
as possible, and serves to heat the other box H to the temperature required
to prepare the horse for his sweat. Finally, it passes along the upper part
of the fourth wall, in which also it is built in the same manner, and makes
its exit over the part where it entered, at F. Here the flues are so
arranged by dampers, that the current of warm air may either be directed
along the flue B C D E F, or it may be turned off into the chimney F,
entirely or partially. Ventilators must be introduced freely in the walls,
so as to give plenty of fresh air when it is required, or to shut it off com-
pletely, to raise the temperature to the proper degree before the horse is
admitted. One or two valves, in addition to the door I, all capable of
Ijeing opened and closed at will, must also be fixed in the wall, between the
boxes G and H, and by their means, added to the heat given off by the
flue in it, this preparatory box msij be heated to 80° or 90° of Fahrenheit,
so as to bring on a gentle action of the skin, before the horse is introduced
to the actual sweating box — G. The preparatory box, H, may be fitted up
like a common loose box, and ma}^ be used as such, whenever the bath is
not required, but the latter should have no manger or any other projecting
body of metal, for when the heat is raised to 160°, the contact with the
teeth and tongue is by no means pleasant. Tan forms the best material
for the floor, or, if this cannot readily be obtained, sawdust will answer
.nearly as well, if the wetted parts are changed after each bath. A brick
floor feels too warm to the feet, and when the bath is given very hot, it
may injure them, if uncovered by some non-conductor of heat, so that ifc
is better to avoid all risk, by using tan or sawdust. With this apparatus
in working order, and the fire lighted in the stove A, the box H is heated

THE TURKISH BATH

301

to 80'' or 90° of Fahrenheit, by robbing G of its warm air through the
open door I, and the valves in the wall between the two to which I have
already alluded. As soon as this is prepared, the horse is brought into it
with his clothing on, and allowed to remain for a short time, which may be

twenty minutes, half-an-hour, or an hour, according to the state of his skin,
and the warmth of the box. As soon as he is settled in it, the clothes may
all be removed, and here he may remain, with a wisp of hay in the rack,
to amuse him, and chilled water in the tank, till his skin shows evident
symptoms of breaking out, and the bath is prepared, that is, until the latter
is raised to a temperature of 140° at the least. To effect this the door I
and the adjacent valves may have been closed, if necessary ; for a small

302 THE HORSE

box once raised to 80° or 90° will keep its temperature with the horse in
it for the time which is required. The groom must be careful not on any
account to take his charge into the bath till his skin is beginning to sweat,
for if he does, the blood may be driven too forcibly to the brain, without
the relief which is afforded by the natural dischai'ge from the skin, and
dangerous mischief may be produced. On being taken into the bath G, a
bucket of chilled water is placed within reach, and he is tied up with his
head in the corner nearest the entrance door, which must be left open, so
as to allow him plenty of fresh air. In about a quarter of an hour the
sweat begins to pour out in large volumes, and this should be encouraged
by friction with the hand, which may be guarded with horsehair gloves.
As it becomes very profuse, a scraper may be applied occasionally, but two
grooms, each with horsehair gloves on, will be able to remove it by keeping
up continuous, deep, and steady pressure upon the skin, so as at once to
squeeze out the watery particles from the hair, and to remove any scurf
and other tenacious matters which accumulate there. According to the
amount of reduction which is required to be made in the fatty deposits,
and to the action of the skin, will be the time required to be devoted to
this operation, but in general it is completed in half-an-hour. Some horses,
however, have been kept sweating for a full hour, as I am informed, without
apparent injury, and have afterwards gone out to exercise as full of life as
ever. Indeed, it is said that the effect is usually to increase the spirits and
liveliness of all the horses submitted to it. During the operation of the
bath, the preparatory room should have had its doors and windows thrown
freely open, and it should be left in this state when the horse returns to it,
some grooms liking to have a strong draught through it while the horse is
being cooled. In this process there is a considerable variation in the
practices adopted in those stables where this novel kind of sweating is
introduced. Some grooms wash the horse all over with cold water ; others
dash the water over the whole body the moment he comes from the bath,
while a third set content themselves with the free admission of a current
of cold air to the skin. When the skin is sweating freely under the
stimulus of heat, and before its vessels are beginning to flag in their action,
cold in any shape may be applied, so long as it is not continued long enough
to reduce the pulse below its natural standard. Again there ai-e some
grooms who, after they have applied cold water, return the horse to the
bath for a few minutes, the air in it being reduced to about 100° of
Fahrenheit, and on bringing him out, take him at once to his box or stall,
when he is dressed as usual, till he is perfectly dry, after which he is
clothed and fed.

PHYSIC

In my previous remarks I have alluded to physic as necessary for the
purpose of getting rid of the food which the horse may have been taking,
before he comes into the stable, without injury, but the effects of which
are somewhat in opposition to the condition required for hard work. In
addition to this object, however, physic is given with several other purposes
in view; but these may be said to bring it within the province of the

PHYSIC 303

veterinarian rather than of the groom. Thus, in the horse recently brouglit
up from grass, it will often be necessary to expel worms ; and though the
experienced groom may be able to do this without risk, yet it is scarcely
safe to recommend the young hand to attempt the task. At all events, if
he does, he must be guided by the directions given in another part of this
book ; and I shall merely direct my attention to the effects of physic —
firstly, in getting i-id of injurious food ; secondly, in cooling the stomach
and general system, and thus enabling the latter to bear the increased
stimulus afforded by extra food ; and thirdly, to get rid of internal fat and
humours in conjunction with sweating.

To THE EFFECTS OF PHYSIC IN GETTING RID OP INJURIOUS FOOD, I have

ah'eady alluded ; but I may here mention two or three circumstances which
will serve to modify the dose, or to forbid it altogether. Curiously enough,
when a horse comes in from grass, his bowels being in the usual loose state
which accompanies that kind of feeding, he will generally require more
aloes than when fed upon dry food. The reason of this seeming paradox
is simple enough : his bowels have become accustomed to the stimulus
presented by grass to their lining membrane, and are not easily roused to
action by aloes, which is only a vegetable, still more stimulating, it is true,
but sunply in degree. A man accustomed to drink, will not be so much
affected by swallowing a pint of brandy, even if he is already half drunk, as
a perfectly sober man would be, if he had not previously been inured by
long usage to its effects. The groom must not, therefore, fancy that a
physic-ball of three drachms, or even sometimes four drachms, will be sure
to act on a horse of average size and constitution, just up from grass ; for
he will find from four and a half to five and a half di'achms more likely to
serve his purpose. Unless he knows the constitution of the animal, he had
better content himself with the former ; but generally this quantity will
not have much appreciable effect beyond a very gentle clearing out of the
bowels. No mash is necessary, because the grass has already prepared the
bowels quite sufficiently. Of course, if the horse is already too low in flesh,
no physic should be given at this time.

The cooling powers of physic are those which render it particularly
valuable in aiding the preparation of the horse for fast work. If at any
time the legs become hot, a dose will carry off the plethoric condition
which shows itself in this way, and the rest which must be given after it
will assist in relieving them. At this time, a mash should always precede
the physic ; and a second on the following night will often be necessary
before the dose can safely be given. The same effect would be produced
by permanently taking away some of the corn ; but this would put an end
to the preparation altogether, and it is to avoid this alternative that the
physic is given. The old plan was in all cases to give a course of three
doses, at intervals of nine days, to every horse when first taken into work ;
but if plenty of walking exercise is used, and the corn is gradually
increased, with an ounce of nitre in the mash every Saturday night, this
routine is quite unnecessary, and a couple of doses at the intervals I have
fixed will suffice. Very gross, lusty horses will, perhaps, requie one, or
even two additional doses; and, on the contrary, light herring-gutted
animals will do without any. The art of the groom consists in fising upon
the proper qibantum, beyond or below which he ought not to go.

304 THE HORSE

The third object op physic is that which is superseded by the use of
the Turkish bath, with much less injury to the system. Both act by
removing superfluous fluids from the body, through the agency of the blood-
vessels, absorbents, and secreting organs ; all of which must co-operate in
either case. The fluids lie stored up in the meshes of the cellular mem-
brane, either in the shape of oily or watery matters. To remove them, the
blood in circulation must first be called upon to part with some of its
corresponding materials, which it does either through the mucous membrane
of the bowels, when physic is given, or by means of the skin, when sweat-
ing is adopted. This sudden drain from the blood is then made up from
the store which has been previously taken from it, and laid by in case of
such an emergency ; and thus, though the external means employed are
very different, the real effect is the same. Both drain the blood of large
quantities of water, containing certain soluble matters ; and this sudden
call upon the vital fluid compels its vessels to fall back upon the stored-up
materials which a,re lodged around the heart and other internal organs, and
which it is the grand object of the training-groom to remove.

But the effects of physic are not always so simple and innocent as
those to which I have alluded. A strong horse is sometimes over-purged
by a very mild dose, and a weak one will occasionally die from this cause.
Hence, this agent should not be idly used ; and not only is it actually
dangerous to life in some few cases, but it weakens the tone of the stomach
in many more. Still, in the majority of horses, a well-mixed physic-ball,
carefully given, and followed by proper management, will freshen the
digestive organs rather than weaken them, and may be regarded as a most
valuable addition to the resources of the groom.

FINAL PREPARATION

To nET A hunter thoroughly fit, he must not only have gone through
the preparatory work which I have described, but he must undergo a
further winding up, according to the old-established rule on the subject.
Having had a gentle dose of physic at the end of his first preparation, he is
proceeded with as follows : — Every day he is walked out for three or four
hours, either at one or two periods of the day. If he is thorough-bred,- he
will bear some brisk gallops and one or two sweats, with or without cloth-
ing, every week ; but half-breds do not stand much fast work, and are
better confined to walking and trotting exercise, with an occasional spirt of
half-a-mile. These low-bi'ed animals cannot bear any liberties to be taken
with their systems ; and I am told that with them the Turkish bath is far
more effectual than with the horse of pure Eastern blood. I can easily
imagine this, as I know how badly the former class bear reduction, and yet
how important it is to clear their wind. The feeding should be confined to
oats and hay, with a bran-mash on Saturday night. About five quarterns
of oats will, on the average, suflice ; but no rule can be laid down, nor can
it be positively asserted that no beans should be given. In some cases the
appetite is so bad, that without them enough corn will not be taken ; and
this is especially true with reference to those old horses which have been
accustomed to beans for many years. When the feet and legs, as well as the

TREATMENT AFTER WORK 305

wind, are all sound, beans may be allowed without fear ; but when there is
a screw loose in any of these departments, they produce inflammation there,
and should be carefully avoided. Ten pounds of hay may also be laid down
as the average quantity of this article suited to the hunter ; but here, also,
no absolute rule can be carried out. Some horses would " drop in two," as
the grooms say, if only allowed ten pounds of hay daily ; while others would
look quite lusty with that quantity. A handful of chaff with each feed of
corn is all that should be given of this article, as more than this is apt to
fill the horse out in the middle of the day. Towards the end of this period,
-.vhich may extend to five or six weeks, the horse gradually gets into high
condition, and at any time, on a day's notice, he may be ready for the
hunting-field. All that is required is to give him no hay on that morning,
but to feed him twice on his usual allowance of coi'n, with a few go-downs
of water only each time. The hunter does not require to be " set " over-
night, like the racehorse, and he may advantageously be given his usual
weight of hay at the bedding him up the night before ; but if he has any
tendency to eat his litter, it is prudent at all times, but more especially
then, to put a muzzle on him late at night, when he has eaten his hay.

Hacks and Harness-horses demand nearly as much time and care to
prepare them for their work, especially in relation to the amount of corn
which is allowed them. They seldom want so much as five quarterns daily ;
but whatever quantity they may require, it should not be given them until
they are gradually accustomed to its use. So also with regard to the
hammering of their feet and legs on the road, it will be found that these
demand seasoning as much as their wind and muscles. If this is not
attended to, the best-formed legs and feet will become inflamed, and a
valuable horse may be lamed when, with proper care, he might be made to
do his work with ease. Our own bodies, when untrained to bear the blows
of the fist, show the marks of the glove clearly enough ; but in the course
of time, when the skin has gradually become inured to the stimulus, even
the terrible right hand of a prize-fighter would fail to leave its mark upon
the ribs of a well-trained opponent. This difference in the result of the
application of physical force arises partly from the tendency to inflam-
mation being subdued by temperate living and abundant exercise, and partly
from the nerves and vessels of the skin becoming habituated to the blows
which they receive. So also with the hack and harness-horse ; when first
they are brought into the stable, their vessels are full of gross humours,
and their feet and legs have long been accustomed only to the soft and
elastic turf upon which they have been reared. They ai'e, therefore,
prone to inflammation in every way ; and until their systems have been
hardened by plenty of exercise, and their legs and feet have been gradually
inured to our hard roads, they should be kept from every kind of fast
work.

TREATMENT AFTER WORK

After work the horse requires to be treated according to its nature, and
the extent to which it has been carried. Thus the hunter or the polo pony
may demand remedies for exhaustion, blows on the legs, thorns in the legs,
overreaches, cuts, etc. ; but the hack and carriage-horse will only need the

306 THE HORSE

ordinary grooming, which has been described at page 273 ; that is to say,
provided the feet are not in pain from ill-fitting shoes.

Exhaustion is sometimes so great that before any food can be taken a
cordial must be given, in the shape either of a warm ball, or a quart of
warm spiced ale. Generally, however, some gruel, made according to the
directions given at page 256, will sufEce, when aided by a warm box and
the other comforts which are afforded by the groom, including dressing,
clothing, bandaging, etc.

Blows on the legs are reduced by hot fomentations, continued for half-an-
hour at a time, and repeated at intervals of one, two, or three hours, in
proportion to the severity of the mischief. Cold applications are too apt to
relieve the skin and cellular membrane beneath it at the expense of the
joints, and I have never seen them of much service. Nothing, I believe, is
so valuable in all blows received in the hunting-field as hot fomentation, but
it should be thoroughly carried out, and not done by halves, as it too often
is by careless grooms. It no doubt has a tendency to increase the swelling
for a time, but in doing this the blood is drawn to the surface, and internal
mischief is often prevented. I have had young horses come home with
their knees and shins terribly bruised over timber and stone walls, but
though the fomentation with hot water has enlarged the knees to a frightful
size, there has been no lameness on the next day ; and the swelling has
gradually disappeared, leaving the joints as free as ever at the expiration of
fort3^-eight hours. On the other hand, I have tried cold wet bandages for
similar injuries, but I have invariably found that they gave present relief
to a slight extent, but left the limbs stiff and rheumatic often for the
next two or three weeks. The addition of a little tincture of arnica
to the water for fomentation is a great improvement when it is at hand,
and I should always advise the hunting groom to keep a stock of it by
him during the season. A wineglassful is enough for half a bucket of
hot water.

Thorns are most troublesome to the groom, and it is often a question of
great doubt whether to persevere in the endeavour to remove them, or to
leave them alone until they clearly manifest themselves by the inflamma-
tion they produce. When the hunter comes home, his legs should be
carefully examined while they are wet (that is to say, if his exhausted
condition does not forbid the loss of time) ; and if the hand clearly detects
any projection, search should at once be made with a view to the removal
of the foreign body. Usually, however, the thorn has buried itself, and it
is only when it has produced some considerable degree of inflammation that
attention is drawn to the spot. When lameness is shown in any of the
limbs on coming home from hunting, the groom always is inclined to suspect
a thorn as the cause of mischief, and I have known the penknife used in
half-a-dozen different places to cut down upon what was supposed to be a
buried thorn, which was never discovei'ed, for the plain reason that no such
matter was present in the leg.

Overreaches must be dried up as quickly as possible, and should not be
treated like common wounds, for the reason that the horny substance of the
foot, when it becomes softened and decomposed by the matter flowing from
a wound near it, acts like a poison upon the ulcerated surface. It is better,
therefore, to apply a little friar's balsam, or some other astringent, sucli as

SUMMERING 307

sugar of lead, rather than to use wet bandages or bran poultices, which I
have sometimes known to be applied.

Simple as well as contused cuts are far better treated in the horse
with hot fomentations than by any attempt to heal them at once. Unless
they are very extensive or deep, the only point in which they are to be
regarded is with reference to the blemish which they may leave. Some-
times the edges gape so wide, that a stitch or two must be inserted, but in
such a case it is better to entrust the operation to a competent veterinary
surgeon.

SUMMERING

It was formerly th3 custom to strip hunters of their clothing in April,
and turn them out to grass on or about the first of May, and without
gradual preparation, such as is now recognized as desirable if we would
avoid risk of inflammation of the lungs, bowels, etc., caused by sudden and
violent changes, nor is it any answer to say that horses more frequently
get a cold in coming in to a hot stable than on being turned out, even in
winter, a fact which is referred to in another place (see Catari'h, page 538).
Much will depend on the weither as to the propriety of turning out, since
the month of April may be more genial in some years than May in others.
The system of turning out early and upon good pasture has the disadvan-
tage of making some horses too fat and heavy for their legs, and the
superabundance of fat has to be removed before they can be got into
condition again.

Considering the slow pace at which hunting was carried on in the
eighteenth century, a horse recently up from grass, if he had been allowed
corn while out of doors, as was generally done, was able to go through a
I'un, though it might be at the expense of the coat tails worn by his rider,
which were liberally lathered with soapy sweat. But in the present day,
when the hunter requires to be as fit as a racehorse, he must have the
same amount of preparation ; and we all know what sort of chance a horse
would have of winning a race in November if he is eating nothing but grass
in August. Indeed a fast run in Leicestershire is even more trying to
condition than an ordinary race, because, though the pace is not quite so
good, it is more true, and lasts four or five times as long. Hence the old
plan has been given up or greatly modified by the best horsemen, some
preferring to soil him on vetches, lucerne, rye-grass and clover, keeping him
in a loose box entirely or with a yard only in which to exercise himself.

The advocates of soiling insist that far more good is done to the legs by
keeping the animal in doors, and the weight of experience is on their side,
but we have to remember that the feet do not benefit so much as upon a
cool, moist pasture, and it is even more necessary to cool them and remove
the efiects of concussion than the legs, since the latter can be acted upon in
or out of the stable, by medicaments applied directly over the strained
structures and greater results obtained by a month's treatment than by
three months' rest, in or out doors, but the feet need the cooling grass and
the moisture of the soil, the benefit of a summer's run being largely
dependent on the rainfall. In dry seasons where the ground was previously

308 THE HORSE

parched and left rough the turned-out horse may suffer ahuost as seriously
in the feet as if he had been driven on the road. Flies also torment the horse
at grass, and cause him to gallop about, and in some instances neutralize all
the benefit by day of the rest and moist dews at night, and where more
than one horse is turned out they may be seen under a tree on a sultry
day, languidly swishing their tails, or the short dock which in most
hunters does duty for a tail, nibbling at one another's withers out of
sheer ennui, and often doing considei-able damage to the mane and adjacent
skin.

All or most of these evils are avoided by soiling in a loose box, but
those who choose this method should make periodical inspections of the feet
and see that the bedding has not become heated by fermentation, as is toa
often the case, since the horse thrown out of condition and resting will
receive but very little attention except from the most assiduous of stud-
grooms.

As there are equally good men in favour of turning out to gi-ass under
proper conditions and of not turning out but " soiling," directions for both
are here given.

Soiling is conducted as follows : — At the conclusion of the hunting
season the horse is gradually cooled down, either by removing his clothing
in the stable, and letting him first stand there naked for two or three
weeks, or by putting him with it on into a moderately warm loose box, and
after he has been there a day or two taking it away by degrees. At the
same time he is deprived of his corn, and fed upon hay only ; but this
change also must not be too sudden, demanding a month for its complete
carrying out, which will bi'ing the time on to the beginning or middle
of the month of May. A large airy loose box should then be provided,
the floor being covered with six inches of tan, sand, moss, litter, or other
suitable bedding ; preference being given to such material as is least liable
to fermentation, and the consequent development of heat so detrimental
to the feet (see Bedding), and the door being so arranged that in Avarm
weather it may be left open, a chain being drawn across from post to post.
Here the horse is left for a few days till he is thoi-oughly accustomed to
his new berth, and his coat is full of dust and scui^f, when he may have a
dose of physic, and while under its effects, his legs may be blistered, or
dressed Avith iodine ointment, or some of the many applications which are
used for the purpose of producing absorption of the morbid deposits which
have been thrown out during the winter. After the physic is set, green
food of some kind may be commenced, consisting of Italian rye-grass,
young vetches, or lucerne, or, if these cannot be obtained, of ordinaiy
meadow grass. At first an equal quantity of hay must be allowed for old
hunters, or the change from dry food to green will produce too great an
effect on the bowels. Young and hearty horses will, however, be none the
worse for this ; and, indeed, when they are turned out, all have to bear the
change in its fullest extent.

Objection is sometimes made to vetches on account of their laxative
action on the bowels when young. Much of this is due to their being
carted home wet and becoming heated in a very short time ; the experienced
Norseman preferring to shake them out in the sun and giving them to his
charges in a condition slightly withered, and not looking so appetizing,

TURNING OUT TO GRASS OR PASTURING 309

but much safer where a considerable quantity is allowed. The aperient
action, the gases developed in the intestines, or some medicinal quality as
yet unascertained, has the advantage of expelling worms of the lumbricoid
order, more especially the common ascaris mecjaloceplmla, which may have
previously resisted the effects of time-honoured vermifuges. When vetches
are old and the seed-pods are well developed they are too heating for horse
food and liable to produce colic. As there is no galloping over hard
ground the shoes may be removed altogether, and even tips may be dis-
pensed with. Now is the time to attend to any early symptoms of sand-
crack, seedy toe, etc., prompt measures at this season often leading to a
prevention of these annoying evils. If the horse is not more than ten or
twelve years old, his corn may be stopped altogether while he is eating
green food in June and July, but a favourite old hunter should be indulged
with a couple of quarterns daily, or he will probably lose flesh to a great
extent. The young horse is always prone to inflammation, which a cooling
treatment will remove, but the old one is more seasoned, and he will get
more harm from being lowered in his general system than the benefit to
his legs will repay. By the month of August all these plans will have co-
operated to produce the desired ejffect ; the legs are cool and fine, and the
lumps and bumps incidental to the hunting-field have disappeared or been
reduced to a harmless condition. The practice of giving an aloetic ball, or
dose of physic, as that particular aperient is still called in stable nomencla-
ture, has pei'haps fallen too much into desuetude. It may be granted that
in the days of bleeding and drugging there was an abuse of aloes, but we
may easily fall into the opposite error, and by not giving it at all the
animal is not so well prepared for a change of diet, especially the change
from soft to hard and dry food, and we are of opinion that more cases of
gripes and impaction are encountered in those establishments where a pre-
judice against the aloetic ball has resulted in its discontinuance. Individ-
uals difler very greatly, and while some " washy " animals may never need
an aperient a second dose may be desirable in the case of others. For the
average hunter an aloetic ball may be recommended at the beginning and
end of his period of soiling, which will be about the middle of August if
sufficient time is to be allowed for that gradual and progressive training
described elsewhere as conditioning.

TURNING OUT TO GRASS OR PASTURING

This should not be done too early in the season, and a few precautions
may be mentioned. Though many eminent authorities of the older school
of horsemen have dilated on the dangers of turning horses out to grass,
except in the height of summer, we must dissent from them, insomuch as
their fears were chiefly based upon the supposed liability of taking cold and
inflammation resulting. Greater, we think, are the dangers of bad fencing
and playing the fool with each other. Veterinary surgeons in country
practice tell us of a dozen accidents occurring to horses at grass for one
illness, and although v\^e have known hundreds of horses come direct from
hard work in towns without any preparation for the change, and without
bad results, we should strongly recommend a gradual preparation, since the

310 THE HORSE

temperature may vary in the spring from freezing-point at daybreak to TO''
Fahrenheit at midday.

The corn should be first withheld, and only hay and a few bran mashes
given, then a dose of physic, after which one rug may be removed, then the
second after an interval of a few days; the temperature of the stable should
also be lowered by degrees, leaving a window open first and then a door,
while all attempts at grooming should be abandoned to allow of the natural
weather-proofing to accumulate on the skin. Two or three weeks should be
occupied in this tempering process if the animal has been well clothed and
kept in a warm stable, while less time will suffice for others with more natural
coat or less artificially cared for. It should be a sine quel non of any tura
out or pasture, that a hovel should exist which does not open to the east, and
while not so low as to risk striking the poll in going in and out, the back
part of it should be higher than the front, as afibrding a darker portion
more free from flies. The shade of trees may be grateful in other respects,
but they afford no protection from flies, certain kinds making them their
chosen home, as with those velvet-footed fiends which descend upon their
victims in shaded lanes and draw blood almost before the horseman dis-
covers the cause of the animal's discomfort. In fly-infected districts one
can understand horse-owners being determined, after one or two trials, never
to turn out again, since flies will feed upon decomposed material one
moment and infest the eyes of horses at another ; but all pastures are nob
affected, and in the choice of a run regard should be paid to the object for
which it is intended. Sometimes this is for the purpose of removing inflam-
mation from the legs and feet, at others it is intended to renovate the
general health ; while, again, the most frequent reason for pasturing is to
save the greater expense incurred in the stable. Different kinds of pasture
and seasons of the year are best fitted for each of these intentions, as we
shall presently see after examining into the nature of the former.

Upland pasture may consist of fine dry enclosures out of floods' ways,
where clover and other plants, exactly suited to the constitution of the
horse, grow in profusion, mixed with the best grasses. In the early
summer season these are generally put up for mowing, and it is not until
the aftermath makes its appearance that they are available for grazing in
many districts, but it is not good management of land to mow it year after
year, and in all grass districts there is early keep to be had, though it be
shared with stock other than horses.

With the changed conditions of agriculture — alas that it should be for the
worse ! — farmers in the vicinity of towns and with some of the commercial
aptitude of their inhabitants, lay themselves out to receive hunters and
other horses to keep, and find it possible to pay a second rent in the shape
of advertisements. These should not be accepted without examination, as
many fly-bitten wrecks are brought home in the autumn too poor to be got
up again and a disgrace to the establishment. The character both of the
place and the man should be taken into consideration before sending one's
horses away. Good water, as well as shelter from inclement weather, are
essential conditions. Grass keep from May to July is worth double as
much as aftermath, and the farmer will reasonably expect a better scale of
payment.

If autumn grass were as good, the turn-out would still be of less value,

TURNING OUT TO GRASS OR PASTURING 311

both on account of the greater number of flies and the hard condition of
the ground, which may break the unshod foot instead of providing it with
that moisture so conducive to healthy growth. The length of grass is not
always proof of feeding qualities, as in wet summers it is often so washy as
to purge the animals upon it, while, given plenty of good drinking water,
they may get fat upon a short bite that has the advantage of plenty of
sunshine.

Meadow land in floods' way, when the soil is of a gravelly nature, or if
it is well drained, will produce many excellent grasses, and contain a good
deal of clover ; in which case it is almost as well suited to the horse in dry
seasons as the finest upland. But too often it is either constantly flooded
or so badly drained that it is full of water-grasses, which the stomach of
the horse does not relish, so that in the latter case it is not at all adapted to
pasture him. The worst of it is, that there is seldom any happy medium in
this kind of land, being either baked hard in dry seasons, or flooded in wet.
The same remarks as to the times at which it is available for grazing apply
to this kind of land as to the last.

Marshes, whether salt or fresh water, should only be selected as grazing
land for those horses whose legs or feet are so damaged by work that they
either will not bear harder ground or are so bad as to require the restora-
tive action of constant moisture and cold applied to them. There is no
great difference in this power between the salt and fresh water marsh ; but
the former seems to suit the constitution the better of the two, and on that
account is to be preferred. Where a summer's run is desired for horses
with unsound legs or feet, a salt marsh is the best situation for carrying
out the intention.

When unsoundness of the feet or legs is the inducement to turn out,
and the time at which it is desirable to do this is the summer season, the
choice should fall upon a marsh. Hard ground will increase the mischief,
and, between July and September, although it may be soft just at one
particular time, it cannot be expected to remain so long. In any case some
precaution should be taken against the horse galloping about on his first
being let loose, which, from the joy he experiences at getting his liberty, he
almost invariably does. In the case of horses blistered a few days before, when
they are swollen, stiff, and sore, a gallop would be so extremely painful as to
be altogether out of the question. A cradle must be kept on to prevent
blemishes, but this is no more objectionable out of doors than in, except for
their getting lost. Fetters or hobbles may be put on the fore-legs with the
same object, if the feet only are the seat of mischief ; but to inflamed joints
or back sinews they are not so well suited, from the pressure they produce
on the former, and the strains which they cause to the latter. After a few
days' liberty, the tendency to gallop will be lost, and as the legs gradually
recover their elasticity, the horse is not so prone to overdo himself in his
exercise, and will generally remain content with a moderate pace ; or, if the
legs are very unsound, the blister may be repeated.

The renovation op the health, when this has been broken down by
disease or hard work, is best effected on good sound uplands. The herbage
on salt marshes will sometimes agree with the horse even better than ordi-
nary meadow grass, but this forms the exception to the rule, and is not to
be relied on in general. In selecting a run in such a case care should be

312 THE HORSE

taken that the herbage is of the desired nature, the best proof of which is
that it has agreed with horses in previous seasons. Experienced judges
can generally pronounce upon the probability of the desired result after
inspecting the situation, but on the whole their opinion, however well
founded, is not so much to be relied on as the fact that horses have actually
become fresh while turned out there.

When the saving of expense is the principal object, a good aftermath
may general!}^ be chosen, on which horses will be " tacked " at 4s. or bs.
per week from August to December. In large parks they are often taken
in at even lower rates, but thei-e are many objections to these, such as the
increased danger of contracting infectious diseases, and the greater risk of
accident among a large number of horses and cattle ; and to these must
be added very often the poorness of the herbage. There is also generally
a difficulty in superintending the feet, etc., owing to the difficulty of
catching the horses in a large park, so that the plan is not to be recom-
mended whenever a run in a comparatively small enclosure can be
obtained.

The fore-feet should always be protected by " tips," which are merely
short shoes reaching only two-thirds of the way to the heels, which are then
left uncovered. These should be sunk to the level of the planter surface,
by cutting down the crust or wall and leaving the sole, bars, and frog mi-
touched. In this way a level bearing is obtained, and that natural frog-
pressure brought to bear upon soft ground or natural pasture which is so
desirable in horses long shod and stabled, and whose frogs are generally
more or less wasted and heels shrunken by reason of the shod-crust taking
all the weight. When the horse is rested the opportunity is afforded of
growing a new, strong, and serviceable frog, and this end will be sooner
attained by sinking the tip. The ordinary tip or short shoe is too often a
thick and clumsy ajBFair putting a strain on the back tendons.

The object is to avoid the risk of breaking away the toes, which is incurred
whenever the foot is battered on hard ground, as it often is when it is stamped
continually, as horses are very apt to do, on the bare surface which is kept
dry beneath a sheltering tree. Here the flies are very apt to collect around
the horses, and to get rid of their annoyance the legs are constantly in motion.
If the full shoe is left on, the hind toe is very apt to catch its heel in deep
ground, and tear it wholly or partially off; and moreover, it is too often
neglected, and either the heels press into the sole, producing corns, or they
confine the frog, and lead to disease of that important organ. Tips may
safely be left on without removal for two or three months, whereas shoes
require attending to every three or four weeks. The hind shoes are always
taken off, partly because the hind-feet are not so liable to be broken at the
toes, but chiefly because they would be dangerous to other animals if they
were left on, from the severe damage which is done by a kick with an
armed heel.

Horses whose jugular veins have become obliterated from adhesive
inflammation following bleeding, are unfit to be turned out in con-
sequence of the difficulty which is presented to the return of the blood
from the head by its low position in grazing. So also those which have
recently suffered from staggers should not be sent out to grass, for fear
of the position causing a return of the disease. This precaution is

A WINTER'S RUN 313

often disregarded and without bad results when collateral circulation is
well established.

Since the earlier editions of this work were published there has been a
great diminution in the number of obliterated veins, as bleeding is seldom
resorted to now and not performed in the rough-and-ready way of our
srandsires.

A WINTER'S RUN

There are only two causes that can ever influence an owner in turning
his horse out to grass during the winter, one being a desire to restore his
legs or feet to a state of health, and the other the diminution of expense.
The former is a perfectly valid reason, for expex-ience teaches us that the
comparative starvation and cold incidental to a winter's run are highly
beneficial in reducing the effects of inflammation. A horse will frequently
remain all the summer out-of-doors without the slightest benefit to his legs,
but after a month's cold they will show a mai'ked improvement, and by the
spring be wonderfull}'- restored.

Turning out in the case of old horses with indifferent teeth and constitu-
tions enfeebled by long years of indulgence in too much corn is an undoubted
hardship, but for others the so-called cruelty of a winter's run has been
somewhat exaggerated. Of course, if a clipped horse, clothed and hitherto
maintained in a warm stable, is turned out without preparation, he will pass
a very miserable week or two until scurf and dirt and sprouting coat have
formed some defence for him against cold and wet. His ability to with-
stand the exposure will depend largely upon the amount of food supplied
him, a great part of it being used in producing heat. For the foregoing
reason a winter's run is not the economic success expected, since in addition
to greater risk of death from disease, all animals need more food in propor-
tion to the exposure to which they are subjected. The opponents of winter-
ing horses at grass, or out-doors we should prefer to say, since they should
never in this fickle climate be compelled to depend on winter grass, — the
opponents, Ave sa}'-, i-ather presuppose a clipped horse or one whose services
are to be suddenly discontinued rather than the deliberately planned winter's
run arranged with judgment and care. In speaking of summering at grass
we have pointed out the desirability of inquiring into the antecedents both
of the pasture and the agister ; how much more necessary should such
assurance of the horse's care be when it is intended to winter him out ! The
hovel in which he sought shelter from flies and the glare of the sun will in
the winter protect him from the east wind if it is constructed as it should
be ; in it he can be fed with hay or roots when snow lies thickly around.
It should be part of the contract that hay or corn shall be given in case of
snow, as the agister is not then i-elieved of all responsibility for returning
a horse as poor as a rook, by telling the owner there was plenty of grass
and he was not liable for the snow covering it. Many thousands of horses,
both agricultural and nags, upon the rich pastures of counties like Somerset
and Devon, never come into a stable except to be harnessed for w-ork ; they
maintain too much fat, as a rule, certainly not suffering from the want of it,
and only when the snow happens to hide their food or too many animals to

314 THE HORSE

the acre have been kept, do they need any hay or chaff that they do not
themselves cut ; but such horses are not clipped or singed, and any groom-
ing they receive is of the most perfunctory kind, therefore the skin is full
of Nature's water-proofing, and although preferring shelter against a strong
cold wind, they are indifferent about visiting a hovel, if one exist, unless in
anticipation of food. Knowing then so many horses in robust health and
capable of moderate work while wintered out-doors, we cannot think there
is any great hardship in average seasons and with due preparation. A
horse clipped early in October will grow coat enough in a cool stable with-
out clothing to be turned out in three or four weeks, and, if clipped as late
as the middle of November, he can grow enough coat to go out before
Christmas. The custom, now generally established, of not clipping after
Christmas, is founded on the fact that no real growth of warm covering
takes place after that time, although coarse hairs sprout until the spring
months.

THE STRAW YARD

The advantages and disadvantages of the straw yard, as a place
for wintering the horse, will to a certain extent depend upon its manage-
ment. Generally the proper term for it would be a manui'e tank, for though
there is almost always a thin coating of straw on the surface, yet the horse's
feet sink through this and reach the wet mass of manure which is gradually
allowed to decompose beneath it. In point of economy thei'e is much to
lose by the straw yard, for, as in the case of the winter's run, more food is
demanded by the system than in a loose box. The only excuse for it is to
be found in the beneficial effects of cold and wet upon the legs, which are
restored by the straw yard to the same extent as in the fields ; but on the
other hand the feet suffer terribly, the frogs becoming thrushy almost in-
variably, and their horny coverings frequently having quite disappeared
when the horse is brought into the stable. When the straw is liberally
used, and the manure is raised into a heap in the middle of the yard as fast
as it is made, which is the proper arrangement, the frogs may remain toler-
ably sound, and the objection on this account is to a certain extent removed.
When barley straw without hay is the only provender allowed, it is not to
be wondered at if he comes out in the spring a complete skeleton. This
straw should be "barred" as so productive of lice, and consequent skin
irritation and loss of hair and condition.

Oat straw is not at all a bad food for rest horses, as there is a certain
amount of oiliness in it which raises it above all other straws in feeding
value. The water supply is too apt to be forgotten both in meadow and
straw yard when the horse-owner is prospecting for a resting-place. The
stupidity of farm servants cost the editor a valuable horse in a time of
frost by not observing that the otherwise abundant supply was all frozen
over.

CARE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS SU

CARE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS

The management of saddlery must have a treble object. First, the
groom should take care that he does nothing which shall injure the horse.
Secondly, he must have a due regaixl to his master's comfort in using it.
And, thirdly, he must please the eye. I must therefore show how each of
these purposes can best be effected.

To AVOID INJURING THE HORSE the groom should begin when he first
comes in from work, and bejore he removes the saddle or collar. It is
ascertained by experience that if these are taken off when the skin beneath
them is hot and sweating, inflammation may follow, while by leaving them
loosely in their places for a short time no injurious effect is perceived.

Many horsemen in vai^ious parts of the world where the climate is hot
and dry habitually disregard this precaution, and we presume that ex-
perience has taught them that no harm comes of it. On the other hand
the number of horses to be had in case of one having a "back," the trifling
value set upon them, and the general custom of turning them adrift when
incapacitated (we are now speaking of the Australian bush), make it diffi-
cult to ascertain whether, what we in England should consider a want
of care is or is not a source of injury to the hoi'se in other parts of the
world.

If a groom who is master of his business is watched when his horses come
in, he will be seen to loosen their girths and lift the saddles from their
backs for a second, replacing them loosely, and leaving them there while
he takes off the bridles and makes his arrangements for dressing. In
harness-horses everything but the collars may be taken off, and after turning
them to remove the harness and traces, they may be replaced and left as
near to the shoulder as the position of the horse with his head in the
manger will allow. This rule should be invariably followed whenever
horses come into the stable after having done any amount of work. If they
have merely gone out for a short airing, and the skin beneath the saddle or
collar is not even damp, there is no occasion for the precaution, and the
saddle or collar may at once be removed. The next thing to be done to
the saddlery in reference to the horse's comfort is to dry the lining carefully
befoi-e it is again used. Even the lining of harness-pads should be attended
to, and in the winter this cannot be done without placing each before the
fii-e. In another place is inserted an engraving of the best form of saddle
airer, in which the saddle is securely fixed in such a position that the fire
only reaches the interior of the lining. Without some such machine there
are two risks incurred, for by placing the saddle on the ground the edges
of the leather covering the tree are worn away, and the flaps are liable to
be curled inwards, presenting their outer surface to the fire, which dries
them till they become hard, and are then liable to crack. The expense of
one of these airers is soon saved in diminishing the wear and tear of saddles,
and no well-managed harness-room should be without one. After the serge
lining is dry, it is an excellent plan to beat the stuffing with a stick, so as
to remove the powdery particles left by the sweat, which soon clog up the
interstices and form a matted cake with the woollen materials used if they
are allowed to remain

316 THE HORSE

In attending to the comfort of the master the groom must take care
to keep all the leather which comes in contact with the hands or legs
perfectly supple, yet so clean that no stain is left behind. Nothing is
more annoying than to get off the saddle for the purpose of paying a
morning call, and find the insides of a light pair of trousers stained all the
way down. This is perfectly inexcusable, and its occurrence marks the
ignorance and carelessness of a servant in the most unmistakable manner.
The same remark applies to the reins, which never ought to soil a pair of
white gloves. Whenever blacking is applied to harness it is impossible
altogether to prevent the tendency to leave a stain, but if it is carefully put
on, and well brushed, as long as it is kept dry it may be lightly handled
with impunity. If buckles are to be altered, the gloves must suffer, and
for this reason, when gentlemen drive their own horses, they generally
prefer brown driving reins, which may be treated in the same way as riding
reins, and kept clean accordingly. The following directions for cleaning
saddles and riding bridles, and also for brown driving reins, or any other
parts of the harness made of undyed leather, will serve the purpose
extremely well. As long as the leather remains diy and clean it needs no
attention, but when it is wetted, either by rain, or by the water necessary
for cleaning it from road dust, it becomes hard and stiff, and must be
softened with some kind of oily matter. Neat's-foot oil is that usually
employed, but for saddles it is rather of too greasy a nature, being apt to
leave a mark on the trousers if it has been liberally applied. The best
application is deer's suet, which should be gently warmed and rubbed in
before the leather is quite dry again, after being wetted ; that is to say,
while it remains limp, for if it is held to the fire long enough, all wet
leather becomes hard and stiff. A very little oil or suet will suffice, if it
is used as soon as the leather is nearly drj^, after each wetting, but when
leather has been left for days in a dry place after being thoroughly wet,
it becomes so stiff that nothing but a good soaking with oil will i-estore its
pliability, and even with this it I'emains stiff to a certain extent, unless it
is very slightly damped, in conjunction with the use of the oil. Vege-
table oils, with the single exception of castor oil, are too much inclined to
become hard to suit leather, and none but the latter should ever be em-
ployed. Its nauseous smell is an objection to it, but otherwise it will
answer the purpose almost as well as neat's-foot. Horse fat, if used care-
fully, and in very small quantities, is a capital application, but one liberal
dressing with it spoils the look of leather, giving it a sodden appearance,
which it never recovers.

To MAKE saddlery AND HARNESS LOOK WELL to the eye, several receipts,
and directions for using them, are necessary ; including the following, for
avoiding injury from chemical decomposition : —

(1) Do not allow brass or plated furniture to be within reach of the air
of the stable ; for the ammonia given off from the urine will tarnish them.
Gas, also, is prejudicial ; and if it is burned in the harness-room, it should
be contained within a glass chamber, which has a ventilating shaft, so as
to carry off the products of combustion into the external air. Gas stoves
are particularly prejudicial ; and, indeed, so are all stoves which allow the
fumes given off by the coals to pass into the room.

(2) As soon as possible after the harness is taken off, if the weather ia

CARE OF SADDLERY AND HARNESS 317

fine, take a leather, kept specially for the purpose, and wipe off the dust ;
sponging with a damp sponge those parts which are soiled with sweat. If
the traces, belly-band, etc. are splashed with mud, wash them at once ; oa
no account soaking them in water, or using more of it than is necessary.
Dry them, as far as possible, with the leathei\s, and put to the fire on the
horse represented at page 239. If the black dye with which the leather
is stained has come off to any serious extent, a little of a solution of green
copperas may be used, but this is not often necessary. Unbuckle the bits
from the bridle, put them in clean water for a short time, then take them
out, and remove every particle of dirt from them. Dry with the leather,
and rub a very little neat's-foot oil on them. Before they are used again,
they must be polished with the dry leather, aided by a little silver sand,
if they have become at all rusty. The curb-chain will always want rub-
bing loosely in the hand with a little silver sand, finishing with the
leather.

No metal is likely to wholly supersede steel both for strength and
appearance in the gentleman's stable where an adequate amount of
labour can be expended on burnishing, but for general utilitj^, and especially
among the class of men who keep a horse in the country with only but
indifferent service, the employment of white metal non-corrosive bits are
now general. They need only to be washed clean and polished with a
chamois leather or soft fine powder such as is used in knife machines
(Oakey's Wellington knife polish), or the common powder known as rotten-
stone will serve. These were first invented by a country saddler in Sussex,
who deserves the thanks of all poor as well as lazy horse-keepers, and
especially doctors and vets, who come in wet at night and can just hang up
the bridle without the fear of red rust staring the servant in the face and
demoralizing him with the feeling that cleaning bits is about as much real
use as polishing the anchor at sea.

The makers have so far improved upon the original alloy that there is
now no fear of bending if one will give the price for good bits. A similar
material white throughout is used for hame and saddle terrets and buckles
in lieu of the old plate, which so soon came off with wear and indifferent
treatment. We have not, however, seen hames that were made throughout
of this material.

Black harness must be kept constantly polished by hand-brushing it
with some composition specially prepared for the purpose. This must be
of a greasy or waxy nature, to prevent the rain from dissolving it, and
washing it off upon the coat of the horse. One or other of the fcllowinw
compositions will answer the purpose.

RECIPES FOR HARNESS BLACKING.

No. 1.

Spirit of Turpentine 1 pt.

Beeswax 4 oz.

Prussian Bhie 1 oz.

Lamp-black i oz.

Slice the wax very thin, put it in a jar and pour on the turpentine. Let it stand twenty-
four hours, then grind the other ingredients together on a stone or marble slab, and mix
carefully up. It must be kept in a covered tin box.

318 THE HORSE

No. 2.

Take No. 1 "compo" and add the following, which improves the polish : —

Spirit Varnisli 1 pt.

Gum Benzoin 2 oz.

Soft Soap 1 oz.

jSIelt together in a water bath, and when thoroughly incorporated mix all together ou
a stone and cover up directly.

The above may be taken as the basis of all the " compos," but the com-
petition in trade and the world-wide distribution of these things make it
liardly worth while making them, and we can imagine no outpost of civiliz-
ation where tlie ingredients could be procured but not the ready-made
article in convenient tins.

Gelatinous preparations intended for softening leather that has been
ill-used and neglected ai'e now sold in convenient bottles and tins ; they are
made of gelatine, lamp-black, Prussian blue and soap in varying quantities,
and are much favoured by cab-masters and others who have but little time
to spare, and wish to make the best show for the smallest outlay of labour
and material. These preparations are put on with a sponge, and need but
little polishing with a very soft brush or rubber.

CHAPTER XVI

RIDING AND DRIVING

SADDLES— BRIDLES— MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING— THE SEAT— MANAGEMENT OF THE
KEINS — USE OF SPUES — MODES OF STARTING THE HORSE INTO HIS VARIOUS PACES —
RIDING TO HOUNDS — OUT-DOOR VICES AND BAD HABITS — HARNESS — DRIVING A SINGLE
HORSE — A PAIR — FOUE,-IN-HAND.

SADDLES

There is a fashion in saddles, as in everything else which admits of altera-
tion. For the last fifty years it may be said that no real improvement has
been made in our English saddles, and we have simply gone from plain flaps
to padded ones, and back again. Up to the beginning of the pi-esent
century the trees were made too heavy and clumsy, and a hunting saddle of
less weight than fourteen pounds was never thought of, while the majority
would turn the scale at sixteen pounds. But when the pace of the hunter
was increased the attention of the saddler was directed to the diminution of
the weight of the tree without loss of strength, and certainly with an excel-
lent result, as is shown in a first-class nine-pound saddle, roomy enough to
carry a man of sixteen stone with moderate comfort. Whether his horse
can do his work proportionately better for this saving of five pounds admits
of some question ; but there can be no doubt that wherever a very light
saddle is used in the hunting-field the greatest care is necessary that it fits
to a nicety, and it can seldom be adapted to more than one horse in a stud
without altering the stufling of the pannel. The attempt should never be
made to reduce the size of the tree, for although the rider may be willing to
put up with the want of roominess, yet the horse will sufier in his back
from the weight not being sufficiently distributed.

A tree was at one time in vogue wliich had the merit of not pressing on
the withers, as the pommel was cut back two or three inches, but the extra
strength and weight incurred soon drove it out of use, besides which it was
found that it did not fit both a narrow and a thick shoulder equally well.
For these reasons it is now admitted that in the tree itself there is little
variety for choice, and that the saddles of the best London makers only
difier in their peculiar cut from one another, while in this point alone
(excluding of course workmanship and material) are they superior to the
worst specimens made in our country towns. The change from plain flaps
to padded ones has been alluded to, and it will be necessary here to discuss
the merits of each. In " the Shires " the fashion now is to adopt the
revived plain flap, and the reason which is given is that the padding arrests

319

320 THE HORSE

the knee when the horse comes down after his leap, thereby throwing the
strain upon the muscles of the inside of the tliigh instead of on the seat of
honour. That such strains have been of late years very general is a well-
known fact, but their increase of frequency cannot be said to be coincident
with the introduction of the padded flap, which is at least fifty years old.
Padded flaps were in general use for forty years before this objectionable
quality was discovered, and even now they are preferred by a large majority
of hard riders in provincial countries. A thin man with a large knee
depends for his seat chiefly on the grip which this gives him of the saddle,
and there are many riders so made that they can scarcely touch the saddle
with the muscles of the thigh, or of the calf of the leg. In them a padded
surface is indispensable for the bone of the knee to act upon, as the smooth
plain flap is too hai'd and slippery for it to lay hold of. Hence, although
the muscular rider may well have his choice, and indeed will often do better
with a plain flap, this will not suit others difierently formed, and the fashion
should not therefore be indiscriminately followed. The plain flap costs about
fifteen shillings or a pound less than its rival ; but to hunting men this
difference in price is not often the reason for its selection, although the
wear and tear of saddles is by no means an unimportant article in their
expenditure. In choosing a saddle where the maker has not a well-known
reputation, the peculiar marks on the surface by which pigskin is distin-
guished from horse or cow-hide should be carefully examined, as an imitation
is now fraudulently carried out by means of copper-plates taken by the
electro-type process from real pigskin. A horse or cow-hide is stretched
upon a slab and wetted, when the heated plate is pressed by steam power
upon it, and every mark existing in the real skin is transferred to the imi-
tation hide. The fraud may, howevei', be detected by the want of depth in
the holes, which all show a bottom, whereas the real skin is perforated to a
depth beyond the reach, of the eye. Consequently, instead of a cul de sac^
there is a fine valvular opening visible.

The girths of ordinary saddles ai-e still made in pairs, and buckled up to
two straps fixed on each side to the tree ; but for hunting, the Fitzwilliam
girth, double the width of tlie oi'dinary one, and somewhat stouter in its
web, is considered an improvement in grass countries. It has two buckles
at each end, which are fastened to the usual straps ; but in addition a
narrow girth is provided, lying outside in loops stitched to the broad girth,
and keeping it in its place if by any chance both the buckles should bi'eak.
The Fitzwilliam girth is alone depended on for fixing the saddle, and the
narrow one is merely intended to keep it from dangling, and the saddle
from actually falling off if the foi-mer should burst, either in its webbing or
at the buckles or straps.

The breastplate is provided for hunting saddles in order to avoid tight
girthing, which interferes sadly with a horse's wind by confining the ribs,
and thus preventing a full dilatation of the chest. Besides this, many
horses have a way of blowing themselves out while the groom is girthing
them up, and if they start with their saddles firmly on, they soon have
them so loose as to be dangerous in going up-hill. Very many well-bred
horses when fit to go are so light in their back ribs that their saddles easily
slip back if not kept in their places by their breastplates, and hence the
general adoption of the latter in the hunting- field.

13RIDLES 321

BRIDLES

There is an almost infinite variety in the make of bits, but nearly all
may be reduced to three leading principles — namely, the snaffle, the curb,
and the combination of the two in one bit, as in the Pelham, whether of the
ordinary or Hanoverian kinds. The double-i'eined bridle may either be
fitted with a snaffle and curb, or with a Pelham.

Among the various kinds of snaffles, with the exception of the gag,
which I shall presently describe, all are intended to bear chiefly on the jaw,
slightly relieved by the angles of the mouth. When, however, the jaws are
so narrow that they cannot be bent on the neck, or when the rider's hands
are carried so high that the line of the reins is across the angles, these latter
parts take all the bearing, and the horse yaws about with his mouth wide
open. Without good hands the tendency of the snaffle is always to get the
head up with the hose out, and with them this bit never offers any obstacle
to the straight carriage of the neck which is wanted to admit of free respir-
ation at high speed. Hence the snaffle is universally employed in racing
and hunting, for even when a Pelham is used, the one rein acts upon the
bit exactly as in the common snaffle. The difference between this and the
curb consists in the fact that the former can rarely be made to interfei'e
with a horse's action either in the gallop or the leap, while the latter
should never be employed at a fast pace except to keep the animal from
over-tasking himself, since it always has a tendency to bend the neck too
much for the development of high speed or jumping power. Hence the
snaffle may with many sober horses be used alone, but as a rule the curb
should never be so employed. In the hunting-field no one who is not possessed
of great strength of arm should trust any but a horse whose sobriety of
temper is well known, without a double-reined bridle. It is true that there
are many which will go well in a snaffle on smooth turf or light arable land
where there are no ridges, but when they come to deep ground or high
ridges, or when it is necessary to jump into an orchard or plantation, a
means of holding the horse well together is required in the former case,
while in the latter, if it is not possessed, a dangerous or fatal blow may
easily be received before the horse can be stopped after coming down from
his leap. In defining the snaffle, it may be described as consisting of a
ring on each side the mouth to which the rein is attached, connected
together by one or two mouthpieces, which may be variously jointed in the
middle, or may be without any break, which last is not always called a
snaffle, but bears the name of a straight bit. Thus it is subdivided into the
following : —

1. The plain snaffle.

2. The twisted snaffle.

3. The snaffle with double mouthpiece.

4. The chain snaffle.

5. The double-jointed snaffle.

6. The double ring snaffle.

7. The gag snaffle.

8. The un jointed snaffle.

1. The j)lain snaffle is the most simple foi^m of all, with the exception of

Y

322 THE HOlibE

the straight bit, consisting merely of the two rings with the mouthpiece of
smooth steel, jointed in the middle. The rings, when the bit is to be used
alone, are generally guarded from slipping through the mouth by light bars
projecting up and down. This bit is made of all sizes in point of substance,
from the very light racing snaffle no larger than a goose quill to the heavy
breaker's bit in which the mouthpiece is as large as a man's thumb. The
size of this part should be proportioned to the delicacy of the horse's mouth,
which can only be judged of by an actual trial ; but the proper substance
of metal may generallj^, though not always, be ascertained by putting one
in the mouth and pressing upon the jaw, when, if it produces such an eflfect
as to cause the horse to back readily, it will in most cases be sufficiently
severe. There are, however, some tempers which do not show themselves
until they are excited, and in those animals possessing such as these a bit
which will act in a stable-yard is perfectly useless in company.

2. The tivisted snaffle differs only from the preceding in the mouthpiece,
each of the two halves being made square instead of round, and twisted
more or less on themselves, so as to present sharp edges to the mouth, and
thus produce more pain on pressure. This effect is not fully developed by
a steady pull ; but when the snaffle is sawed from side to side, as is some-
times necessary before a pulling horse can be stopped, the sharp twisted
edges act severely upon the delicate membrane covering the jaw and lips,
and as the horse gets his head into the air to take the pressure off the most
sensitive part, he is almost compelled to pull up by being thrown out of his
stride. For this reason some high-couraged animals will go better in a
smooth snaffle than in a twisted one, the latter maddening them by the
pain which it occasions ; but with the ordinary run of horses a moderate
twist properly used is not objectionable, and the smooth mouthpiece is
scarcely sufficient.

3. The snaffle with double mouthpiece is made with two mouthpieces
attached in the usual way, but one above the other, to the ring. The
joints in the middle are, however, not opposite each other, and thus when
the reins are pulled the jaw is embraced in a narrower vice than in the
single snaffle. It is, however, very apt to cause the mouth to be opened
widely, as there is a greater breadth of the bit at the angles. Never-
theless, I have known it very effectual in a puller which would not bear a
curb.

4. The chain snaffle has a mouthpiece made of a steel chain, the links of
•which may be made large or small, open or close, according to the nature of
the mouth. It is a very light kind of bit, and many irritable horses which
fight at more severe kinds will go kindly in it. Sometimes the chain is
covered by leather to give the mouth still more ease.

5. A douhle-jointecl mouthpiece is merely a modification of the chain,
■which it resembles in its effect. The celebrated Dick Christian's bridle
had a snaffle of this description.

6. The double ring snaffle is not so much used for riding as for harness-
work, in which it is now very generally employed for horses which are
not likely to be too fresh, as for instance those in omnibuses and cabs.
It is very difficult to ascertain in what particular the merits of this bit
consist, but that it has many advantages over the ordinary snaffle I can
speak from long experience, which is supported by its general adoption

BRIDLES 323

among practical men. That it is far more severe is manifest, and wlien
suddenly pulled sideways through the mouth in leading a horse, the pain
occasioned is so great as often to make him run back. I l^elievc that this
is sometimes occasioned by the pinching of the lip between the mouth-
pieces and the ring, but this cannot always happen, nor can it take place
during the ordinary use of the bit in riding or driving.

7. The gag snaffle resembles the ox-dinary twisted form in all but one
respect, which consists in the different mode of attaching the ring to the
bridle. Where it is used without a curb, it is customary to have two
reins on each side, one of which is stitched on to the ring in the ordinary
way, and when this is pulled, the effect is similar to that of the common
snaffle ; the other is made round for about twelve inches, and, passing
through two pulley-like holes in the ring, is attached to the check-piece of
the head of the bridle. When this is drawn upon, the power is greatly
increased by the pulley ; and as the direction is changed by the drag being
partly from the check-piece, the effect is the same as if the hands were
raised very considerably. For this reason, it is well suited to those horses
who get their heads down, and bore upon their bits; while, on the contrary,
it is prejudicial to pullers who have a tendency to carry their heads in the
air, in the attitude which is familiarly known as " star gazing." The gag
snaffle is particularly well adapted to the double-reined bridle intended for
pulling horses carrying their heads too low, which the curb has a tendency
rather to increase than diminish. The combined use of the two, however,
corrects this fault, and a pleasant as Avell as safe carriage of the head may
be effected.

8. The unjoinied snaffle is merely a mouthpiece without any joint, and
it may be either slightly curved forwards, or straight. Sometimes, also, it
is smooth, and at others with rings turned on it. Yery light-mouthed
horses go well in this bit on the road ; but it is not suited for hunting or
racing.

The curb-bit is always a lever, in which the inside of the mouth is the
fulcrum, while the increase of power afforded by this mechanical arrange-
ment is brought to bear upon the outside of the jaw through the medium of
the curb-chain. The leverage may be long or short, but the principle is
the same in all cases, varying in the mode of its application. In some
curb-bits the mouthpiece is curved in the middle, rising more or less into
an arch, which is called " the port," and which presses upon the roof of the
mouth when the lever is pulled. If the horse is allowed to open his mouth
wide, this pressure cannot be made, and the port is useless ; but the addition
of a noseband of leather, buckled tightly round the jaw, closes the mouth,
and keeps the roof in apposition with the port. Thus in estimating the
power of all curl)-bits, we must take into consideration — 1st, the length of
the lever; 2nd, the tightness of the curb-chain, which may be adjusted at
pleasure ; 3rd, the height of the port ; and 4th, whether used with a
noseband or not.

The varieties of curh-hits in common use are as follows : —

1. The ordinary curb-bit.

2. The Pelham.

3. The Hanoverian Pelham.

4. The Chifney.

324 THE HORSE

1. The ordinary curh-hit does not differ from the general type already
described ; it need not, therefore, be alluded to further than to caution the
inexperienced liorseman against leaning heavily upon it. The pain oc-
casioned in this way is at first excessive ; but in course of time the parts
pressed upon become callous, and the mouth is irretrievably spoiled. Thus
a rider with a heavy hand may begin with a mouth which is too light, and
in a month or two he may find it so dull as to be quite unpleasant, in spite
of a tight curb-chain and noseband, a high port, and a long lever. All
these should be as easy as will suffice to control the horse for which they
are adapted, and no more use should be made of them than is absolutely
necessary.

2. The plain Pelham combines the snaffle and curb, and requires no
addition of the former to make it a double-i'eined bridle. The mouthpiece
is jointed in the middle, just like a snaffle ; and, like this, it maybe smooth
or twisted. There is a ring opposite this for the one rein, and the other is
attached to the end of the lever, as in the ordinary curb-bit. This is an
extremely useful bit for general purposes.

3. The Hanoverian Pelham is similar in principle to the plain one ; but
it has two joints in the mouthpiece, united by a high port, and the sides
of the mouthpiece are covered with rollers, which prevent the horse from
grasping them with his teeth, and thus interfering with the action of the
port and curb chain. For hard-pulling horses this bit is very useful, but it
is a very severe one.

4. 21ie Chifney hit is provided with a joint at the junction of the lever
and mouthpiece, so that the action of the former is not confined by the
head of the bridle. But though in theory this is all very pretty, in practice
it is found to be of no service whatever.

There are many other kinds of curb-bits, but those wliich I have described
comprehend all in general use.

The Bucephalus noseband is a great addition to the curb-bridle in-
tended for a pulling horse. It is merely a stitched leather strap, long
enough to encircle the jaw and cross behind it to be attached to the hook
of the curb-chain. This noseband is not really more powerful than the
ordinary one when tightly buckled, the whole of its efficiency depending
upon its keeping the mouth closed, and thus allowing the port to have its
full power on the roof of the mouth. The advantage is, that when the
rein is not pulled, the noseband slackens, and the mouth may then be
relieved, which it cannot be with an ordinary tight noseband. (Since the
invention of the above, it has been found that nothing so well restrains a
puller as a nose-net, a simple appliance invented by a coachman who should
have derived some substantial benefit from his discovery.)

MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING

Until the advent of the celebrated Rarey, whose horse-taming feats
produced such a sensation in this country, the directions of Captain
Richardson, as given in his valuable work on Horsemanship, were generally
accepted, and despite a host of teachers who have since been eminent for
their horsemanship, his methods have not been materially improved

MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING 323

upon. They are based, as any cavalryman will recognize, upon the
military commands, " stand to your horses," " prepare to mount," and
"mount," but the objection has been urged that civilians do not always
come up to the recognized standard of height to be able to carry out those
directions in their entirety, and a certain amount of latitude must therefore
be allowed for the short, thick, successful merchant who begins to ride for
the benefit of his liver at fifty. As such a man will choose a very quiet
cob for his constitutional ride, he may be permitted to mount with his back
to the horse's quarter since that position is the more easy, but it is a method
to be condemned in the young and athletic who may ride restive animals.
One cannot be kicked in mounting from the front, but the position above
described is attended with considerable danger, and a kick may easily
fracture the thigh. Professors of horsemanship, in writing on this subject,
assume that their readers are already horsemen, and in giving Captain
Piichai'dson's advice we suppose that the reader is not, but that he wishes
to adopt the best method. — " Stand opposite the near forefoot of the horse,
place the left hand on the neck near to the withers, having the back of
the hand to the horse's head, and the reins lying in front of the hand.
Take up the reins with the right hand, put the little finger of the left hand
between them, and draw them through until you feel the mouth of the
horse ; turn the remainder of the reins along the inside of the left hand,
let it fall over the fore-finger on the off-side, and place the thumb upon the
reins. Twist a lock of the mane round the thumb or fore-finger, and close
the hand firmly upon tlie reins. Take the stirrup in the right hand, and
place the left toe in it as far as the ball ; let the knee press against the
flap of the saddle, to prevent the point of the toe from irritating the side of
the horse ; seize the cantle of the saddle with the right hand, and springing
up from the right toe, throw the right leg clear over the horse, coming
gently into the saddle by staying the weight of the body with the right
hand resting on the right side of the pommel of the saddle ; put the
right toe in the stirrup." Now this is in the main applicable to a man of
five feet ten inches or six feet, but to a shorter individual attempting to
mount a horse of fifteen hands three inches, it is an impossibility, simply
because he cannot reach the cantle from the same position which enables
him to hold the stirrup in the left hand. The Captain is also wrong, in my
opinion, in directing that the body should be raised into the saddle directly
from the ground, with one movement. This will always bring the rider
down into the saddle with a very awkward jerk ; and the proper direction
is to raise the body straight up till both feet are on a level with the stirrup-
iron, and then with the left leg held against the flap of the saddle by the
left hand on the pommel, the right leg is easily thrown over the cantle, and
the body may be kept in the first position until the horse is quiet, if he is
plunging or rearing. A short man can generally place his foot in the
stirrup while held in his hand, but it should be known that all cannot do
this, because I have seen young riders much vexed at finding that they
could not possibly do what is directed. Most of our writers on horseman-
ship are of the military school, and endeavour to cut every one's cloth by
their own coats. They are able to do certain things easily, and so are their
men, because they are mostly of the height already specified, but as
sportsmen aijd civil equestrians are of all heights, I shall endeavour to

326 THE HORSE

accommodate my remarks to all heights and classes. In all cases the rider
should stand at the shoulder, though with a short man it is mucli easier to
mount a tall horse from the hind-quarter, but the danger of kicking is very-
great ; and even in mounting with " a leg," in the jockey style, I have
known the thigh very nearly broken by a kick. If the hand can steady the
stirrup it should do so, but if the person is too short, the foot can be placed
in the stirrup without its aid ; then taking the reins between the fingers,
much as directed in the passage already quoted, and grasping a lock of the
mane with the finger and thumb, the body is raised till the right foot is
brought to a level with the left, when the right hand seizes the cantle, and
with the left grasping the pommel, the body is steadied for a short time,
which in the ordinary mount is almost impercej^tible, but in a fidgety horse
is sometimes of considerable length. T};e leg is now thrown gently over the
saddle, and as it reaches the cantle the hand is withdrawn, after which the
body sinks into the saddle in an easy and graceful manner. The right foot
is then placed in the stirrup, with or without the aid of the right hand
holding it.

Such is the English method. Mr. Rarey and others in opposition to
this plan, advise that the right hand and arm shall be thrown over the saddle,
the horseman standing with his back to the quarters, and thus incurring the
chance of being severely kicked.

THE SEAT

The position of the rider in the saddle, called "the seat," admits of
several variations according to the purpose to which he is devoted, but it
is mainly influenced by the length of the stirrups. In the military style
these are so long that the weight of the body is conveyed to the saddle
by the inside of the thighs, or '* fork " alone, while in that adopted in the
East this part scarcely touches the saddle, and the breech and feet distri-
bute the weight between them. Colonel Greenwood, who is the only
military writer on horsemanship that can be taken as a guide for the road,
tells us — " There is one direction Avhich I think applies to all seats. Turn
the thigh from the hip, so as to bring the hollow to the saddle; this
places the foot straight to the front, with the heel out and the toe in.
Trotting without stirrups on the thigh only, with the heel down and the
toe up, shoulders back, a snaffle-rein in each hand like a rough-rider, is
the best possible position for sitting." Now the latter part of this is quite
true, but the former is not quite consistent with my own experience, for
if the short stirrups of the Eastern horsemen are adopted, the hollow of the
thigh cannot be brought to the saddle, yet this style he admits is " ad-
mirable in its way." Dismissing then the military seat for Avhich Colonel
Greenwood's directions may suffice, I may assert that, in the ordinary
English style, there are four points necessary to be considered ; namely,
(1) the position of the weight, which will be mainly influenced by (2)
the position of the knees well forward on the flap, (.3) the proper length
of the stirrup-leathers, and (4) the carriage of the body. If the weight is
not laid upon the middle of the saddle, which is the axis of the "see-
saw " motion made in the gallop, it has to be raised at every stride, uuC

MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS 327

thus additional labour is thrown on the horse. With long stirrups in tho
military style this is of necessity done ; but with short stirrups the
knees are often placed on tlie flaps behind the leathers, and then the
breech remains close to the cantle and sometimes almost overlapping it.
To get the length of leather adapted to most men, though there ai^e occa-
sionally exceptions, the rider should sit well on his fork, and then the
stirrups should be taken up or let down till they just touch the ankle-bone.
For road riding this enables the hollow of the thigh to touch the saddle,
because the ball of the foot being on the stirrup, the heel is down an inch
and a half below it ; whilst in the hunting-field, as the stirrup is worn
" home," the knee is carried higher and more forward on the saddle, and
the weight is distributed between it, the breech, and the foot. With re-
gard to the carriage of the body, all the directions in the world will not
make it eas}', and without the supervision of a master, or a friend, to point
out defects, no one can be sure that he is sitting in a good, much less an
elegant style. It is not possible even to know that the shoulders are
square, or that the body is not carried on one side, defects which I have
known persisted in for years without the slightest consciousness of them on
the part of the rider, who would gladly have rectified them if he had known
of their existence. One rule may, however, be given, namely, that no effort
should be made to move in any direction, and that, on the contrary, every
endeavour should be directed to keep the body and legs as still as the action
of the horse will allow, bearing in mind that the opposite extreme of stiffness
is almost equally bad.

MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS

There are three distinct modes of holding and managing the reins.
In the first, adopted by the military school, the left hand does all, without
any assistance from the right, which is occupied with the sword, lance, or
carbine. In the second, the left hand holds the reins, aided occasionally by
the right ; and in the third, or " two-handed method," the reins are perma-
nently held one in each hand. The first of these is only needed in the
manege, and I therefore shall not allude to it ; while the last requires no
description, further than to mention that it is the mode adopted by the
co!t-breaker, and that it gives far moi'e control over the mouth than either
of the others. As single and double reins are differently placed in the hand,
a description of each will be necessary.

The single rein is held by placing all the fingers but the first between
the two leathers, and then, making both turn over that one, they are firmly
held by pressing the thumb against it. This gives a firm grasp, and at the
same time allows of either being pulled tighter than the other by turning
the wrist. To shorten the grasp, the right hand has only to lay hold of the
loose part of the rein, and then the left, sliding forwards towards the neck,
can close wherever it may be desired. In order to be sure that the elbow
is held against the side, the thumb should always point towards the
horse's ears ; and the nearer the little finger can be carried to the pommel
of the saddle the better. In using the single rein, the management of the
mouth, if a good one, is easy enough ; nevertheless, there are various

328 THE HORSE

directions for the purpose adopted in different schools, which are de-
pendent upon altogether conflicting principles. Every tyro knows that
the horse turns to the left by pulling the left rein, and to the right by
pulling the opposite one ; and the problem to be solved is to do this by
one hand only. Now, this with the single rein is easily effected by raising
the thumb towards the right shoulder, when the right rein is to be pulled,
or by drawing the little finger towards the fork for the left ; in both cases
by a turn of the wrist, without lifting the whole hand. But over and
above this action on the mouth, and in many cases independent of it, is a
movement which, in trained horses, is capable of much greater delicacy,
and which depends upon the sensibility of the skin of the neck for its due
performance.

It is effected by turning the whole hand to the right or left, ivithout any
wrist action, so as to press the right rein against the neck, in order to cause
a turn to the left, and the left rein against the neck for the opposite purpose;
at the same time rather slackening the reins so as not to bear upon the
mouth by so doing. In this way a horse may be turned with a much
greater degree of nicety and smoothness than by acting on the corner of his
mouth. But highly-broken horses, such as the military troop-horses, are often
too much used to their bits to answer to this slight and delicate manipula-
tion ; and therefore it is eschewed by Captain Richardson, as well as by
Colonel Greenwood, but, strangely enough, for opposite reasons, and each
attempting to substitute a very different process for it. I am well aware
that some horses can never be taught it, but must always have a bearing
made on the mouth before they will turn ; yet, when it can be incul-
cated, it makes the animal so tractable and agreeable to ride, that it
is a highly desirable accomplishment ; and I cannot, therefore, join in
condemning its use, but should rejoice if it could in all cases be fully
developed.

The double rein is usually held by those who ride for pleasure in this
country as follows : — Begin by taking up the snaffle-rein, and place the
fore and middle fingers between its two portions; then lay hold of the
curb-rein, and either hook it loosely on to the little finger, if not imme-
diately wanted, or draw it up to the requisite degree of tightness and turn
it over the fore-finger, when it will lie upon the snaffle-rein, and, together
with it, will be gripped by the thumb. By adopting this plan, the curb-
rein is always at the command of the right hand ; and it may be shortened
or let out in a moment, which is of constant occurrence in every day's
ride. The hand is held as with the single rein, with the thumb pointing
to the horse's ears ; in turning, however, there is much less power of
bearing on either side of the bit by raising the thumb or lowering the
little finger, because the distance between the snaffle-reins is only half
what it was, and therefore the mode of turning by pressure upon the neck
is doubly desirable ; and hence its general adoption in those cases where
double-reined bridles are used, as in the field and on the road. Some-
times, to obviate this objection, the snaffle-x'eins are placed as in the
single-reined bridle, outside the little finger, and then the curb is hooked
over the ring-finger, between the snaffle-reins, so as to allow of the full
manipulation of the mouth by the hand, without bearing upon the neck.
But the objection to this is, that the curb cannot be shortened without

THE USE OF SPURS 329

releasing the snaffle ; and therefore the horse must either be ridden on the
curb alone while this process is being eflfected, or his head must be loosed
altogether ; whereas, in the other mode, his mouth is still under the
control of the snaffle all the time that the curb is being let out or
taken in.

The attainment of " good hands," by which is to be understood a light
and delicate handling of the reins, is, or ought to be, the aim of every rider.
The most delicate mouth in the world is soon spoilt by bearing heavily on
it, as is too often done by grooms, and, indeed, by the average run of our
horsemen. So also in hunting, if the horse is not allowed his head in
making his effort, he will be almost sure to fail in exactly doing what he
meant, and will hit timber, if he is put at that class of fence, or will drop
his hind-legs into the ditch, if there is one. Bad riders use the reins as a
means of balancing themselves in the saddle, and this is especially done
in the hunting-field, where they would be utterly unable to maintain their
seats without the aid thus afforded to the proper grip and balance. Every
one in learning to ride ought to be taught to go through all the paces, and
to jump the bar without an}-^ reins in his hand; and when he finds he is
able to do without them, he will learn to use them only in the way for
which they are intended.

THE USE OF SPURS

Spurs are employed for three distinct purposes, which are — first, to
stimulate the energies of the flagging or idle horse ; secondly, to punish
the vicious or refractory animal ; and thirdly, to induce him to improve
his pace without accelerating it, — from which last office they are specially
termed "persuaders." Sir Francis Head lays it down as a rule, that all
horses in this country are so generous, as to be excited by every carriage
or rider that passes them ; but though this is certainly the rule, there are
numerous exceptions to it, and to ride a " slug " without spurs on the road
would be a nuisance, and in the hunting-field a service of extreme danger.
That they may be abused is true enough ; and that they often are so, is
equally correct ; but that is no reason why they should not be worn by
those who can be trusted with them. On the road, they are only required
for sluggish or vicious horses ; but in the hunting-field, it is never safe to
be unprovided with them, as a prick at the right moment has saved many
a fall.

MODES OF STARTING THE HORSE INTO HIS
VARIOUS PACES

To MAKE A HORSE start off in a quick walk, Avhen he is not inclined to
do so, either from being too fresh or too raw, is by no means an easy task.
I have often ridden one for several days in succession, before I could
make him settle down to a fair walk, and even then the slightest excite-
ment would upset all my apparent previous progress. This is especially
true of those horses possessed of such elastic joints, that they could "jog"

330 THE HORSE

at a rate much slower than they could walk. Here resti^aint by tha
bridle is out of the question, and any excitement by the voice or heel
increases the jog into a full trot, without passing through any intermediate
stage. The difficulty consists in the fact that for a pei-fect walk the head
must be at liberty, and when this is allowed to a generous horse, he is
inclined to go off at a rate faster than suffices for the pace in question. The
only plan, therefore, is to ride such horses quietly, till they are leg weary,
whatever the number of hours may be required, and then it is possible to
loose their heads without their taking advantage of the liberty to go oflf
" at score." Indeed, in the walk, the head should never be much con-
fined, and yet the rider should not entirely leave it uncontrolled ; the
finest possible touch is enough, so that on any trip the hand is at once
informed of it by the drop of the head, when, by a sudden jerk of the
bridle, not too forcible, it rouses the horse, and prevents his falling. It is
not that he is kept up by pulling the rein, but that he is roused by it and
made to exert himself, for many horses seem regardless of falls, and would
be down twenty times a day if they were not stimulated by the heel
and bit. Confinement of the head in the walk is absolutely injurious,
and more frequently causes a fall than saves one. A good walker will go
on nodding his head to each step, more or less as it is a long or a short
one ; and if this nodding is prevented by the heavy hand of the rider, the
fore-foot is not properly stretched forward, the step is crippled, and very
often the toe strikes the ground ; when, if the head were at liberty, it
would clear it well. In horses which are apt to stumble in the walk,
I have generally found that a loose rein, with the curb held ready for a
check, is the safest plan ; and then the horse soon finds that he is punished
the moment he stumbles, and in a veiy short time he learns to recover him-
self almost before he is reminded. I do not like the spur or the whip so
well, because the use of either makes the horse spring forward, and often
blunder again in his hurry to avoid this kind of punishment. The check
of the curb, on the other hand, makes him recover himself without extra
progress, or rather by partially stopping him, and thus he is better able to
avoid his fall. The body is allowed to yield slightly to the motions of the
horse, but not to waddle from side to side, as is sometimes seen. Some
horses do not stir the rider at all, while others throw him about and fatigue
him greatly ; and this may generally be foretold when the tail sways much
from side to side in the walk, which is caused by the over-long stride of the
horse, a very desirable accomplishment in the race-horse or hunter, but not
in the hack.

Tripping or stumbling is often a matter of conformation, and for hacking
a horse should never be chosen if he has a disposition to turn out his toes.
Many thoroughbred horses have this defect to a glaring degree, but as it
does not affect them in the gallop, and their capacity to win races is too
often the sole merit desired, it is to be feared that this malformation will
continue to be disregarded.

The jog-trot is a pace that there is seldom any difficulty in effecting, and
on the contrary, as I have just observed, the rider is often engaged for
hours or days in breaking the young horse of it.

The regular trot is generally easy to produce, but sometimes when the
canter has been much adopted, it is not so readily effected. The best plan

STARTING TPTE HORSE INTO HIS VARIOUS PACES 331

is as follows : — Take hold of both the reins of the snaffle, and bear firmly,
but steadily, upon the mouth, lean slightly forwards in the saddle, press the
legs against the horse's sides, and use the peculiar click of the tongue, which
serves as an encouragement to the horse on all occasions. If properly
trained, he will now fall at once into the trot, but if he breaks into a canter
or gallop, he must be checked, and restrained into a walk, or a " jog-trot."
Where the horse has been much used to canter, and can go at that pace as
slowly as he walks, there is often great difficulty in making him trot, for no
restraint, short of a total halt, will prevent the canter. In such cases, lay-
ing hold of an ear will often succeed, by making the animal drop his head,
which movement interferes with the canter, and generally leads to a trot.
The rising in the stirrups is generally practised in civil life, as being far less
fatiguing to both horse and rider ; but in the military schools the opposite
style is inculcated, because among a troop of horse it has a very bad effect
if a number of men are bobbing up and down, out of all time. If it were
possible for all to rise together, perhaps the offence against military precision
might be pardoned ; but as horses will not all step together, so men cannot
all rise at the same moment, and the consequence is that they are doomed
to bump upon the sheep-skins in a very tiresome manner, fatiguing alike to
man and horse. This rising in the saddle of itself encourages horses which
have been accustomed to it to trot in preference to any other pace, and they
understand the faintest indication of it as a sign that this particular pace is
to be commenced, and trot accordingly. The civilian's mode of riding the
trot is as follows : — At the precise moment when the hind and fore-legs are
making their effort to throw the horse forward in progression, the body of
the rider is thrown forcibly into the air, in some horses to so great an extent
as to make a young rider feel as if he never should come down again. After
reaching the utmost height, however, the body falls, and reaches the saddle
just in time to catch the next effort, and so on as long as the trot lasts. In
this way the horse absolutely carries no weight at all during half his time,
and the action and reaction are of such a nature that the trot is accelerated
rather than retarded by the weight. No horse can fairly trot above
twelve miles or thirteen miles an hour without this rising, though he may
run or pace in the American style, so that it is not only to save the rider's
bones but also to ease the horse that this practice has been introduced, and
holds its ground in spite of the want of military sanction. It is here as
with the seat ; utility is sacrificed to appearances ; and whenever the long
and w(;ak seat of the barrack -yard is supplanted by the firm seat of the
civilian, I shall expect to see the rising in the trot abandoned, but certainly
not till then. The military length is not now what it was formerly ; and
perhaps some time or other soldiers may adopt the rise, but I am afraid not
until they have produced many thousands more sore backs than they need
have done if they had never practised it.^ In the trot, the foot should bear
strongly on the stirrup, with the heel well down, and the ball of the foot
pressing on the foot-piece of the stirrup, so that the elasticity of the ankle
takes off the jai', and prevents the double rise, which in some rough horses
is very apt to be produced. The knees should always be maintained exactly
in tlie same place, without <^hat shifting motion which is so common with

^ Sore backs are no*- nearly so frequent in the army now, as the saddling is quite
changed— more adapted to the r.iilitary seat or style of riding.— Editor.

332 THE HORSE

bad riders, and the legs should be held perpendicularly from the kne(i
downwards. The chest should be well forward, and the waist in, and the
rise nearly upright, but slightly forward, and as easily as can be efifected
without effort on the part of the rider, and rather restraining than adding
to the throw of the horse.

Good hands and a quiet seat only, with the aid of a curb-bit properly
adapted to the mouth, are required to develop the canter, by restraining the
gallop; but to make a horse start off at once^ with a lead of either leg as desired,
is altogether another matter. To do this, the canter with either leg leading
must first be completely taught, so that there is no difficulty in making the
horse display that particular pace at any time. Then just at the moment
before starting, pull the rein, and press the heel on the side opposite to the
leg which it is desired the horse should lead. The reason of this is obvious
enough ; every horse in starting to canter (and many even in the canter
itself) turns himself slightly across his line of progress, in order to enable him
to lead with that leg which he thereby advances. Thus, supposing a horse
is going to lead off with the off fore-leg, he turns his head to the left and his
croup to the right, and then easily gets his off-leg before and his near-leg
behind into the line which is being taken. 'Now, to compel him to repeat
this action, it is only necessary to turn him in the same way, by pulling his
head to the left, and by touching him with the left heel, after which he is
made to canter by exciting him with the voice or whijD, whilst at the same
moment he is restrained by the curb. When once this lead is commenced,
the hold on the curb and pressure on the legs may be quite equal ; but if,
while the canter is maintained, it is desired to change the leading leg, the
horse must be collected and roused by the bit and voice, and then reversing
the pull of the reins and the leg-pressure from that j^reviously practised, so
as to turn the horse in the opposite way to that in which he was started, he
will generally be compelled to change his lead, which is called " changing his
leg." The seat in this pace is a very easy one, the knees taking a very
gentle hold of the saddle, the feet not bearing strongly upon the stirrups,
and the body tolerably upright in the saddle. The hands must not be too
low, but should keep a very gentle but constant pressure upon the bit, and
should, if there is the slightest tendency to drop the canter, rouse the
mouth by a very slight reminder, and also stimulate the spirits by the voice
or whip.

The gallop being generally, though not always, his fastest pace, the
horse may be forced into it readily enough by the stimulus of the voice,
whip, or spurs. Sometimes very fast trotters cannot gallop so fast as they
can trot, but these are rare exceptions, and need not be considered in any
other light. It is therefore useless to describe the mode of starting this
pace ; but some allusion may advantageously be made to the best method
of riding it. There are two seats adopted, the ordinary one being to sit
down into the saddle and keep as close to it as possible, but another being
also practised called standing in the stirrups. The former is the usual
seat, and it is only in racing or in the very fast gallop at other times that
the latter is adopted. In sitting down the feet may be either resting on
the ball of the toe, as in the other paces, or with the stirrup " home " to
the boot, as is common in all field-riding. The body is thrown easily and
slightly back, the kuces take firm hold, the rider being careful not to grip

HIDING TO HOUNDS 333

the horse so tight as to distress him, which faulb I have known very
muscular men often commit. The hands should be low, with sufficient pull
at the mouth to restrain, but not to annoy and make him " fight " ; and if he
is inclined to get his head down too much, or the reverse, they must be
raised or lowered accordingly. When the standing in the stirrups is to be
practised, the weight is thrown upon them, steadying it with the knees
and thighs, which should keep firm hold of the saddle. The seat of the
body is carried well back, while at the same time the loin is slightly
arched ; but by this combined action the weight is not hanging over the
shoulder of the horse, as it would be, and often is, when the breech is
raised from the saddle and brought almost over the pommel, with the
eyes of the rider looking down his horse's forehead, or very nearly so. If
a jockey of more than seven or eight stone, with a good seat, is watched,
it will be seen that his leg does not descend straight from the knee, but
that it is slightly thrown back from that line, and consequently that his
centre of gravity is behind it, so that he can, by stiffening the joint, carry
his body as far behind it as his stirrup is, without ceasing to stand in it.
Very light jockeys adopt a somewhat different seat, riding with longer
stirrups and throwing their weight greatly on the muscles of the thigh,
while they raise the breech entirely from the saddle, but only for a com-
paratively small distance. This gives them a strong hold of their horses,
without which, being so small, they could not ride them. Standing in the
stirrups cannot long be maintained without fatigue to the rider, and it is
only adopted in racing or in short gallops over bad ground, as in hunting,
when there is a deep piece of fallow, or a steep hill, or any other kind of
ground calculated to tire the horse.

RIDING TO HOUNDS

The kind op seat generally adopted in riding to hounds has been
already described, and I need not therefore allude to it again. I may,
however, remind the tyro that the less he depends upon balance, and the
stronger hold he can get of the saddle with his knees and calves, the more
likely he will be to avoid a fall without his horse coming down also. If
this accident happens, a loose seat sometimes befriends the rider by
causing him to be thrown out of the way of the horse, but in the long
run the man who has a strong grip of his saddle will fare the best. Good
hands and judgment are equally necessary, and the combination of these
three qualities makes up the finished performer across country, always
supposing the presence of nerve in addition.

There are certain rules adopted in all hunting countries, which must
be stringently carried out in order to ensure the safety of the hounds and
horsemen, and avoid those disputes which would otherwise constantly
occur between riders jealous of each other's prowess. These may be
summed up in the following plain directions : —

When near the hounds keep to the right or left of them, and not
dir(5ctly behind, where you are always in danger of riding over some of the
tail hounds. So also when the pack are crossing a thick fence, when

334 THE HORSE

there is often only one gap weak enough to allow of their getting over
avoid its proximity, and take a place at least a dozen yards off.

Independently of hounds, every rider should take a line of his own, or
if he is unable to do this and must follow a leader, let him keep such a
distance behind that if a fall takes place he can avoid jumping upon him.
In a large field of horsemen, every one cannot possibly take a different
line, nor is it easy to keep always at a safe distance ; but at big places
there is generally some hesitation, and a proper interval can be maintained.
No one should attempt to pass his neighbour either on the right or left
of the line he has chosen, when near a fence ; but of course this is not
to deprive him of his chance of taking the lead in the middle of a large
enclosure, when a little racing can do no harm. By the adoption of this
rule, jostling and crowding at a weak place are avoided, which without it
would be sure to lead to serious accidents.

Use your judgment in saving your horse in deep ground, making up
for the apparent loss by putting him along whenever a sound headland or
good turf can be obtained. It is not going straight over sound land that
distresses a horse, but the making use of him over deep ground, and at
the wrong time. Many men seem to know no difference between sound
tui'f and rotten or wet arable, and will kick their horses along over high
ridge-and-furrow in a wet clay district, at a pace which no horse can bear
for more than a mile or two in such a country. A workman would look
out for headlands or footpaths, etc. ; and would, by a slight detour, gain
upon those who disdained to leave the line even for a few yards. Wet
and sticky ridge-and-furrow tires a horse dreadfully, and the consequence
is, that if he is pushed over it he speedily loses his powers and wind, and
falls in a very ugly way at the first fence he comes to of a size above the
average. Hence, every man who aspires to go well to hounds must learn
to be " a judge of pace," and should endeavour to make out the signs of
distress, and the best way of avoiding it. So much depends upon condition
and breeding, that it is very difficult for a man with a strange horse to
know what liberties he may take with him. Some well-bred ones will be
blown, yet if nursed they will come again and again, while the dunghill
animal will give up when once he has lost his wind, and is gone for that
day at least. In ascending steep banks, a careful and active horseman
will dismount and lead his horse up, and by so doing often gains a mile or
two upon his less humane and cautious antagonist. In ascending hills it
is often expedient to make a zigzag ; but in descending you can never go
too straight, as the opposite course often leads to a dangerous slip on the
side, with a crushed knee or ankle as a consequence. Few hoi'ses fall
forwards, and they always manage to save themselves by slipping down on
their haunches. This is a point of great importance, and should always be
strictly attended to.

There are two general directions, which will serve for almost all
descriptions of fence. These are, that if a height is to be overcome, the
horse should be taken slowly up to it, in a collected manner, with his
haunches well under him. On the other hand, width requires impetus, and
the pace should be forced during the last few strides up to a very high
rate. Under the former head may be classed timber (in all the varieties
of gates, single posts-and-rails, stiles, and palings), walls, strong pleached

RIDING TO HOUNDS 335

fences, and banks. To the latter belong water in all shapes, double posts-
and-rails, bullfinches, and those fences with a ditch on both sides, as well
as those which have a wide one on the landing side. In addition to these
there are the actual standing leap, seldom practised in the present day, the
creeping style, the " on and off " leap, and the " di'op," which is a variety
of the standing leap.

In collecting the horse, and properly putting him at his fence, there
is a great art, and nothing but practice will give it in perfection. Double
posts and-rails require a great deal of collecting and rousing, and the horse
must go pretty fast at them, as also must he at all wide jumps, including
water in all its forms. One essential is, that the horse shall have confi-
dence in his rider ; for if he thinks he may turn to the right or left he will
most probably do so, unless he is very fond of jumping. Nervous men
communicate their feelings to their horses, and though it may be difficult to
explain how it is done, there is no doubt of the fact. It is remarkable how
soon horses find out what kind of man they carry, and how they alter under
different hands. This is partly owing to a mismanagement of the mouth,
but in great measure also to the trepidation of the rider. Unless, therefoi-e,
he has full confidence in his own courage, he need never expect his horse to
go steadily and straight at his fences. The collecting is much easier than
the management of the bit at the leap itself, for there are two opposite
things to be done, and the delicate point is to hit the moment of change from
one to the other to a nicety. The first is to " catch hold of the horse's head,"
as it is called — that is, to bear more or less upon the mouth, pull the horse
on his haunches, and rouse him, either by voice, heel, or whip. This lasts
till the moment of the effort made to rise over the obstacle, when the head
should be released, so that the horse may have all his bodily powers at his
command. If the head is confined the haunches do not act fully, because in
making the spring the head is protruded, and pain is given by the bit if it is
still held fast ; and hence, to avoid the pain, the extension does not take
place, the leap is not made with sufficient spring or power, and the horse
alights too near the ditch, if there is one, or possibly in it. But in releasing
the head judgment is required, for if the rein is too loose the horse is apt
to alight in such a position that he is " all abroad," and without great help
he will often fall ; hence, most good performers, though they do not
absolutely confine the head, yet they keep a very gentle and delicate hold of
the mouth, and not only thus prevent the horse over-extending himself, but
are also prepared to assist him if he is inclined to fall. This is the finished
style of riding, and is only in the power of a man with a good seat as well
as good hands. Both are wanted, because without the former it is
impossible to avoid " riding the bridle " — that is, holding on by it as well
as by the saddle ; and without good hands that delicate management of
the bridle wliich I have attempted to describe is impracticable. What is
called " lifting " the horse is sometimes attempted with the bit, but I do
not recognize its utility. When a horse is likely to touch the top bar of
a gate, or in any way to use too small an effort, a stroke of the whip down
the shoulder is the best lift. Rousing and collecting are quite distinct
from lifting, which I believe to be a myth altogether. In creeping, good
hands and quietness in the saddle are the chief elements of success, and
without them both, no one is likely to do much in this particular style ;

336 THE HORSE

hence it is that so few men can " creep " well, even though they have horses
accustomed to it under other hands. When the horse has been thoroughly-
taught to creep his head may almost be left without control, merely guiding
him quietly to the gap, and then letting him take his own way ; but where
the horse has to be made to creep, a rein should be taken in each hand, and
the head guided as if with a silken thread, to the right or left, or wherever the
animal is required to go. These remarks will perhaps be useful to all who
have no experienced friend ready to afford a practical demonstration of
the same fundamental points. One actual lesson in the field is worth all
the reading in the world ; but, in default of this, the preceding observations
will serve to assist the young aspirant for honours in I'iding to hounds.

OUT DOOR VICES AND BAD HABITS

OuT-DOOR VICES depend upon the temper of the individual, and include
shying, rearing, kicking, lying down, plunging or bucking, shouldering, and
running away. Bad habits arise from a defective formation of the body,
and are confined to stumbling and cutting.

Shying generally arises from timidity, but sometimes it is united with
cunning, which induces the animal to assume a fear of some object for the
sole purpose of finding an excuse for turning round. The usual cause of
shying is doubtless the presence of some object to which the colt has not
been accustomed, and if he has buck eyes, which render him short-sighted,
it will be difficult to convince him of the innocent nature of the novel
object. There are endless peculiarities in shying horses, some being
dreadfully alarmed by one kind of object, which to others is not at all
formidable. When a horse finds that he gains his object by turning
round, he will often repeat the turning without cause, pretending to be
alarmed, and looking out for excuses for it. This is not at all uncommon,
and with timid riders leads to a discontinuance of the ride, by which the
horse gains his end for the time, and repeats the trick on the first occasion.
In genuine shying from fear the eyes are generally more or less defective ;
but sometimes this is not the cause, which is founded upon a general irri-
tability of the nervous system. Thus, there are many horses which never
shy at meeting tilted wagons, or other similarly alarming objects, but which
almost drop with fear on a small bird flying out of a hedge, or any other
startling sound. These last are also worse, because they give no notice to
the rider, whereas the ordinary shyer almost always shows by his ears that
he is prepared to turn round.

The best plan of treatment which can be adopted, is to take as little
notice as possible of the shying, and to be especially careful not to show
any fear of its recurrence when a wagon appears in the distance. When
the horse begins to show alarm, but not till then, the rider should speak en-
couragingly to him, and, if necessary, with a severe tone, which may even
be supported by the use of the wliip or spurs, if his onward progress cannot
be otherwise maintained. The principle which should be carried out is to
adopt such measures as will get the horse to pass the object at which he
shies somehow or other, and this should be efiected with as little violence
as possible, always commending in an encouraging tone as soon as the

OUT-DOOR VICES AND BAD HABITS 337

purpose is gained. Nothing has so great a tendency to keep up the habit
as the plan so common among ignorant grooms, of chastising the shyer after
he has passed the object of his alarm. If he can be persuaded to go quietly
up to it and examine it with his muzzle as well as with his eyes, great
good will be effected ; but this can seldom be done with moving wagons,
and heaps of stones are generally only alarming from defect of vision, so
that each time they assume a new phase to the active Imagination of the
timid animal.

Rearing is seldom met with excepting among raw colts, or if it is con-
tinued to a later period it is generally incurable. When existing in an
aggravated form it is a most dangerous vice, as a fall backwards over the
rider has often led to fatal consequences.

The usual remedy for it in the colt is the ordinary running martingale,
which will keep down the reai'er who is merely indulging in his playful
fancies. When, however, the vice has become confirmed, nothing short
of severe punishment will be of any service, and the horsebreaker generally
resorts to the plan of knocking the horse down as he rises by a blow be-
tween the ears with a loaded crop. This stuns the horse for a time, and
alarms him so much that he is often cui'ed by one act of the kind ; but it
is attended with some danger of injuring the horse, and the rider does not
always escape. Another plan adopted by active breakers is to wait till
the horse is just on the balance, and then slipping off to the left, it is easy
to pull him over backwards ; but this also is often followed by severe
injury to the horse when the ground is hard. I have almost invariably
found that bad rearers have very supple necks, which increases the diffi-
culty of keeping them down by any kind of martingale, and probably this
will account for the habit having becoming inveterate. A stiff-necked horse
can scarcely rise high if his head is confined even by the running martin-
gale ; but when the side-straps are tightly buckled to the bit, he is
effectually restrained, whereas with a loose neck the head can be so bent
in to the brisket that no obstacle is offered. In such cases I have known
a cavesson with the noseband lined with sharp prickers, and the martin-
gale buckled to it ; a most effectual prevention, as the slightest pull opens
it, presses the prickers into the nose, and gives acute pain. Whenever the
rider finds a horse inclined to rise, he should at once lean forward, and
after ineffectually trying the martingale to keep the horse down, he must
loose his head, or he will be almost sure to bring him backwards and cause
a severe fall.

For kickers, except when the habit is merely a mode of letting off super-
fluous spirits, severity is the only remedy, and a strong application of the
whip down the shoulder the best means of using it. At the same time the
snaffle-reins ought to be firmly held, and by their means the head kept up,
for there is always a tendency to lower this part in the act of kicking ; the
gag snaffle is very effectual for this purpose.

Lying down is rare in the present day, being chiefly confined to underbred
horses and Welsh ponies, which are gradually going out of use. The spur is
the only means likely to keep a stubborn brute up ; but in some cases its
application is followed by the animal throwing himself down suddenly instead
of graanally.

Plunging may be described as a series of bounds into the air, which when

z

338 THE HORSE

they are made up and down in the same place, or nearly so, are called "buck-
ing," from their resemblance to the playful antics of the deer. A bucking
horse is very difficult to sit, but by sawing the mouth with a twisted snaffle
it may generally be stopped at once.

By shouldering is understood the attempt to crush the leg of the rider
against a wall, which some ill-tempered horses are fond of doing. It is
easily avoided by pulling the horse's head round to the wall instead of
from it.

Running away is too well known to need descrijDtion. In some horses
it is a species of temporary madness, and scarcely any bit, however severe,
will stop them. When there is room and scope enough, the remedy is
simple, but, unfortunately, runaway horses generally choose a crowded
thoroughfare to indulge their fancies in. A gallop to a standstill, with
the free use of the spur or whip at the latter part of it, will sometimes
prevent a recurrence of this vicious act ; but where the tendency is very
strong it will have little effect. Punishing bits only make some high-
couraged horses worse, but the majority of runaways would be dangerous
with a plain snaffle only, and yet there are some which will go quietly
enough in it, while the adoption of a curb will rouse their tempers at
once. Of course they can only be ridden with great care and judgment
and must never be roused unnecessarily. Fortunately the mouths of horses
are now made so much more carefully than in former times, and their
management is so much better understood, that we seldom hear of or see
an accident from this cause, either in the saddle or in harness. The most
essential part of the treatment of a runaway is the proper selection of a
bit, wliich should be sufficient to control him without exciting opposition
from the pain it gives. For the majority of such horses I know nothing
better than the Bucephalus noseband, which I have already described at
page 324.

Stumbling arises from a variety of causes, and the nature of any
particular case should be thoroughly investigated before any remedy for it
is attempted. Sometimes it is merely dependent upon low or "daisy-
cutting " action, and then it is possible that it may not be attended with
danger. I have known many hoi-ses which would stumble at least every half-
mile, but yet they would travel for years with sound knees, the other leg
being always ready to catch the weight. In other cases a stumble would
only occur at rare intervals, but if the trip was made it was rarely
recovered, and a fall was almost sure to follow. Again, it happens with
some horses that when they are fresh out of the stable, their action is
high and safe, but after a few miles the extensors of the leg tire and they
are constantly making a mistake. Inexperienced judges are very apt to
examine the action of the fore-legs alone, while that of the hind-quarter
is of quite as much importance to safety, and is more so as regards the
ease of the rider. Lameness is a frequent source of a fall, from the ten-
dency to put the foot too soon to the ground in order to take the weight
off the other. And lastly, upright pasterns will produce stumbling, when
the shoulders are so formed that the foot is put down too near the centre
of gravity.

The best plans for remedying these several conditions are as follows.
If the cause is weakness of the extensors no care can be of much service ;

HARNESS 33 S

all that can be done is to be on the look-out for a trip, and then to
take the weight off the fore-quarter as much as possible by sitting well
back, at the same time using such an amount of sudden pressure on the
bit as to cause the horse to exert himself, Avithout any attempt to keep up
the head by mechanical force, which is an impossibility. When laziness
is the cause, the stimulus of the spur or whip will suffice, and it often
happens that a horse is safe enough at his top pace while a slower one is
full of danger. In lameness of course the remedy is to wait till the foot or
feet are sound again.

Cutting depends either upon the legs being set on too near together, or
on their joints not acting in a proper hinge-like manner. Many horses cut
when in low condition, but are quite free from the defect when in flesh, and
in such cases it is only necessary to let them wear a boot until they have
had time enough to become fresh. Wherever horses " go close " care should
be taken that the shoes do not project beyond the hoof, and the clenches of
the nails should be carefully watched, the groom seeing that they are filed
down by the smith if they stand up at all above the level of the horn.
Cutting may take place either on the prominent part of the fetlock- joint, or
midway between it and the knee, or just below the latter, which is called
"speedy cutting," and is very apt to cause a fall. A boot should be fitted
to the leg in either case, and worn till the part is thoroughly healed and all
swelling has disappeared, when if any likely method of treatment has been
adopted the horse may be tried without it, but no journey should be under-
taken without one in the pocket in case it may be needed. A method of
shoeing, called a feather-edged shoe, will often prevent this bad habit as long
as it is adopted.

HARNESS

Harness should always be chosen of the best leather which can be procured,
and double stitched throughout. Inferior materials and workmanship are
dear at any price. There is no improvement in principle upon the old-
fashioned collar, and the buckle which has been in use ever since carriages
came into fashion is still the best.

DRIVING A SINGLE HORSE

The harness used in driving a single horse for general purposes is shown
in the annexed engraving, and this form will serve either for two or four
wheels. A complete set consists of three parts — 1st, the drawing part; 2nd,
that for holding up the shafts and backing the carriage ; and 3rd, that for
guiding the horse.

The drawing part consists of the collar (a), which is an oval ring padded
so as to fit the horse's shoulders, to which two iron bars, called hames (c),
are buckled on each side of it by a strap at top and bottom, called the hame-
straps (d d). These pass through a flat eye at each end of the hames, and
draw the two tightly together. Towards the top of each hame is a ring
called the hame terret (e), intended to confine the rein in its place as it

340

THE HORSE

__ to the head ; while a Utile below the middle is a metal arm, with an
eye (/) in it, to which is attached the tug of the trace, a clip of iron stitched
into a double piece of leather, which is fixed to the buckle for the trace {a).
This last is simply a long double-leather strap, attached at one end to the
above buckle, and at the other by an eye to the drawing bar of the gig oi"
carriage ; or sometimes the buckle is at the other end, and then the tug is
stitched at once into the trace.

The supporting and backing part consists of the pad or saddle (^),
somewhat similar in principle to the riding saddle, but much narrower and
lighter. This has two rings for the reins, called the terrets (i), and a hook
(j) for the bearing rein, all at the top. It is fastened to the horse by a

DETAILS OF SINGLE HARNESS.

belly-band {k), and at the back of it there is an eye for the crupper, which
is a leather strap from it to the tail, round the root of which it passes, and
thus holds the pad from pressing forwards. Through the middle of the pad
passes a strong leather strap, called the back-band (/), which is attached to
a buckle and strong loop on each side, called the shaft tug (m), by which
the shaft is supported, and also kept back from pressing upon the horse's
quarters, in which latter office it is sometimes assisted by a leather strap
passing round these parts, and buckled on each side, either to the shaft or
to its tug, and called the breechen {n).

The part for guiding the horse consists of the bridle and the reins,
the former being made up of two cheek-pieces and winkers (p and (/), a
throat-lash (r), a noseband (s), a face-strap {l), a front-piece {u), and a head-
piece {v). The cheek-pieces are buckled to tlie bit, which is generally a
strong curb, but sometimes only a double-ringed snaffle, now very commonly

HARNESS 341

used in driving. The reinft {w) are merely long and narrow strips of
leather passing from the bit through the hame and pad-terrets to the
driver's hands. Bearing-reins are additional reins attached to bridoon bits,
and passing through ear-rings on or near the throat-lash to the hook on the
pad. They are, however, now seldom used in single harness ; but are
shown in the plan at page 340. Where the bearing-rein is not used, a long
ear-ring is now sometimes suspended from the head of the bridle, through
which the driving-rein passes, and by which the horse is prevented from
getting the rein under the point of the shaft, an accident which is very
annoying to those who leave their horses standing about with their servants,
as unless the rein is at once slackened, the horse is made to back and upset
the carriage.

The chief variations in the details of single harness are in the drawing
part and in the breechen, independently of the bearing-rein to which I have
already alluded.

Kicking-straps as usually applied are quite useless for the purpose because

BREECHEN AND KICKING-STRAP UNITED. BREAST-STRAP.

too far forward. If the amateur will look at a breaksman's arrangement he
will find a loop of leather attached to the crupper and tugs much further
back on the shafts than those intended for breechen-straps.

The breechen is sometimes made in the form shown in the illustration,
combining it with the kicking-strap, which is intended to keep down the
croup, when the horse attempts to indulge in that dangerous vice. The
kicking-strap is made to pass over the hips, and buckles to a loop or tug
which encircles each shaft. To this is suspended by another buckle at (o),
which can be taken up or let down at will, a bi'eechen on the ordinary plan,
but it must be made of stout leather, or it will not be stiff enough to
support itself.

In the drawing part a breast-strap is sometimes substituted for the
collar, its shape being shown in the above engraving at (h). It is merely
a broad padded strap to which the traces are buckled, and it is supported
by a withers strap, which is likewise buckled to it. It has the advantage of
being lighter than the collar, although with heavy weights to draw it confines
the shoulders, but for those persons who now avail themselves of the light
and cheaply constructed American gigs they are very suitable. They have

342

THE HORSE

the additional advantage that a horse galled at the withers may continue at
work, and are often substituted for the ordinary collar, thereby saving much
loss of time in waiting for a bad place to get sound again, and avoiding any
risk of incurring " collar pride " or jibbing. Undertakers still generally
use the breast collar for their black Flemish stallions.

A PAIR

PxUR-HORSE HARNESS Only diifers in detail from that already described,
both being made on the same principle. Double harness consists, like
single harness, of three essential parts ; but as there is no shaft to be
supported, the pad is much lighter and more simple. The drawing part is

DOUBLE HARNESS.

similar to that already described, except that the lower eyes of the hames
are permanently connected by an oval piece of metal, upon the lower part of
which a ring freely travels, to which the pole-piece of the carriage is
buckled, and by which it is backed. The trace-buckles, also, are opposite
the pad, and supported from it by a light strap, called the trace-bearer.
The traces themselves either end with an eye, or, with a full fold upon
themselves, w?th an iron eye, called a roller, and intended to bo used upon
the roller-bolt of the splinter bar. The pad is very light, and has no back-
band ; sometimes a long breechen runs to the trace-buckle ; but for light
harness a mere supporting strap for tjie traces, called a hip-strap, is all that
is used. The bridle is nearly the same as for single harness, except that
there are no ornaments on that side which is towards the pole. The reins
have, in addition to the single rein which is attached to the outside of each

FOUR-IN-HAND 343

horse's bit, another called a coupling-rein, which has a buckle towards the
driver running upon the driving-rein, so that it may be taken up or let
out at pleasure, according to the mouth of the horse and his tendency to do
more or less work than his share. These several points of difference are
shown in the engraving (page 342), in which a set of double harness, suited
to a light phaeton or brougham, is shown. The traces are made to slip on
roller-bolts, instead of having eyes as for single harness.

FOUR-IN-HAND

The haeness for four-in-hand wheelers resembles that shown on page 342,
excepting that it is more massive, and the terrets are double for the passage
of the leaders' reins. A ring is also fixed to the top of the head-piece of the
bridle so as to carry the reins forward to the leaders well above their croup.
The leaders' traces have eyes which slip on to the bars attached to the pole.

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