fc|'y; ^ ^1^' JiiMiiw' irS'TEEATMENT'lN BEAIIH'®'DISEASE ®lir 1. m, litU iCtbrarg j /^^^r i^[}»>» ^ j ^ 1 Nortl) (Carolina &taU llmnerHtty SF285 AS v.l S00596093 W The HORSEMAN'S BOOK Shop THE HORSE ITS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2009 witii funding from NCSU Libraries Iittp://www.arcliive.org/details/liorseitstreatm01axej THE HORSE riS TREATMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE WITH A COMPLETE GUIDE TO BREEDING TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT Edited by PROF. J. WORTLEY AXE, M.R.C.v.s. Ex-l'iesident of the Royal College of X'eterinary Surgeons Late Lecturer at the Royal Veterinary College, and at the Agricultural Colleges of Downton and Wye Chief Veterinary Inspector to the Surrey County Council Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the British Dairy Farmers' Association Author of " The Mare and Foal " "Abortion in Cattle " "Anthrax in Farm Stock " " Examination of Horses as to Soundness " "Glanders, its Spread and Suppression " "Swine Fever'' " Lithotomy or the Removal of Stone from the Bladder of the Horse " DIVISIONAL VOLUME I LONDON THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY 34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND 1906 PREFACE The object of the editor in preparing this work has been to set out in one compact whole some of the most useful information relating to the horse. The origin and develop- ment of the horse, his varieties, his breeding, training, and management, in health and disease, with other cognate sub- jects, have each in turn been considered. To render the book more intelligible and useful to the reader, each group of diseases is preceded by a briet reference to the anatomy and physiology of the parts therein concerned, accl the whole has been written in the simplest possible language consistent with a clear enunciation of the subject. Having regard to the extent and variety of the matter to be dealt with, it was necessary to seek the co-operation of outside help, and I have much pleasure in saying how readily this was accorded by my friends Sir George Brown, C.B., Dr. Fleming, Professor Shave, Mr. Harold Leeney, Mr. Hunting, Mr. Vero Shaw, Mr. Lupton, Mr. Malcolm, and others, and how much I owe them my grateful acknowledgments. The greatest care has been taken in the selection and production of the very large series of illustrations which will be found in this book. Of these many are in colours, em- bracing portraits of prize - winning animals of the leading varieties, and drawings from nature illustrating anatomical and pathological sultjects. Of the large number of black-and- white illustrations many are reproductions from pliotogi'aphs, vi PRKFACE many are drawn from original sjjecimens, or rei)r()(lut'ed from drawings in the })orttblio of tlie Editor, while some are from the text-books of Chaveau, Kirks, and others. To those who have allowed me the use, or favoured nie with portraits, of their animals, I am duly grateful and mv best acknowledgments are due to Captain Nicholas for his kindness in allowing me to present to my readers j)h()tographs of the beautiful white horses A\hieh are used by His Most Gracious Majesty the King on state occasions. J. WORTLEY AXE The Wilderness, FiNNEK. CONTENTS DIVISIONAL-VOLUME J Section I.— THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE Divisions and Points of the Horse 1. The Head— Supeiior Extremity of the Head — the Poll, the Throat Inferior Extremity of the Head — the Lips, the Mouth, the ieelii, the Tongue, the Bars, the Palate, the Frcsnum Anterior Surface of the Head — the Forehead, the Nose, the Nostrils Lateral Surfaces of the Head — the Ear, the Temple, Suprn-orbit. Orbital-arch or Eyebrow, the Eye, the Cheeks - - . . Posterior Surface of the Head — Intermaxillary Space, the Chin - 2. Upper Aspect of the Body — Top-line The Neck, the Withers, the Back, the Loins, the Croup, the Ponit of the Haunch ---------- 12 3. Posterior Extrejiitv — The Tail, the Anus, the Perineum 15 4. Anterior Extremity — The Bre;i£t 16 5 The Latei;al and Inferior REcaoN — The Brisket, the Chest, the Abdomen, the Flank, the Groin - - 16 6. External Genital Organs — Male — the Testicles, the Sheath - ■ .... 17 Female — the Vulva - - - - . is 7. Fore Extremity — The Shoulder, Shoulder Point, t.hr> Elbow, the Forearm, the Chestnuts or Castors, the Knee, the Canon, the Fetlock, the Pastern, the Coronet, the Foot - ... 18 8. The Posterior or Hind Limb — The Quarter, the Thigh, the Buttock, the Stifle, the Leg, the Hock — Tarsus - - - , ... - - 22 CONTENTS Section II.— CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS Pase Introductouv 27 Centre of Gkavity - - 28 Equilibrium 30 Muscles in Kelation to Power and Speed 31 The Bones as Levers 33 Head and Neck 36 Volume and General Aspect of the Head - - - - 37 Form of the Head— Ears . . - . . - - - - 38 Length of the Head 43 Coupling of the Head 44 Carriage of the Head - - 46 Neck 47 Carriage of the Neck ---------- 48 The ^^'ITHERS — Height of the 'Withers, Coarse Withers - - - 52 The BACK^Length, Loins - - 55 Direction of the Back and Loins ------- 57 The Croup 58 The Breast - 61 Chest and Abdomen - - 62 The Chest— Height, AVidth 63 Legs — Function of the Limbs - - ------ G6 The Shoulder ------------ 68 The Arm ..,--- 71 Elbow ------ 72 Forearm 72 Knee ----- 73 The Canon 75 The Fetlock 79 The Pastern 79 The Foot— Size and Proportion, Flat Feet, Upiight Feet - - - 81 The Hind Limb— Thigh --------- 82 Leg (Second Thigh) ... - 85 Hock ----- . 86 Cow-Hocks- - - - _ 89 Bow-legs ----89 Sickle or Curby Hock - . . - ■ 90 Body and Limbs . - - 90 Distribution of the '\Veu;ht of the Body 91 Height — Elevation of the Height at the Withers, Elevation of the Height at the Croup ^3 CONTEXTS Lkngth Width Propoktions ok Height to Length The Head as a Unit of Measurement - Compensation of Defects of Conformation Page 95 98 99 99 101 Section HI.— VARIETIES OF THE HOESE English Breeds— The Thoroughbred The Hackney The Pack-Horse - The Clevehmd Bay • The Yorkshire Coach-Horse The Hunter The Saddle Horse The Harness Horse Ponies and Pony-breeding - The Dartmoor 107 113 123 125 133 135 146 U9 153 163 TLLUSTRATIOXS DIVISIONAL-VOLUME I FULL-PAGE PLATES Page Thoroughbred Stallion, St. Slmon {colour) - - Frontispiece Symmetry — Arched Chest -----..-.. -js Equilibrium in the Walk and in the Gallop . _ . - 30 Hackney Stallion, Danegelt 174 (colour) -.-.-.. 38 Short Neck — Long Neck - - - 48 High Withers — Low Withers - - - 52 Short Back, Dished Face— Long Back . .... 54. Back Hollow from Age — Back Naturally Hollow - ■ - 56 Straight Croup — Sloping Croup --..-.. yg Roach Back — Good Quarters — Split-up .60 Good Fore-Legs — Weak Fore-Legs - 66 Long Sloping Shoulder — Straight Shoulder 70 Upright Pasterns — Good Quarters and Gaskins - - - 80 Phases of the Gallop - - - 82 Good Hocks— Weak Fleshy Hocks — Curey Hocks 86 Shire Stallion, Harold (colour) --------- 98 Brown Horse, Ard Patrick - - - - - - - - 108 Bay Filly, Sceptre — Bay Horse, Flying Fox - - - - - - 112 Hackney Mare, Lady Dereham 2891 116 A Group of Ponies (colour) 154 TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS Page I Page Exterior of the Horse : Side Yiew - 2 [ Examination of the Nostril - - 10 The Head: Side View - - - 4 ' Examination of the Haw - - - 11 Portion of Lower Jaw, showing Tongue 6 1 Exterior of the Horse: Three-einarter Examination of the Mouth - - 7 I Back View - - - - - 1 3 Median Section through a Horse's 1 Exterior of the Horse: Three-<|uartfr Head, showing Soft Parts - - 8 Front View - - - - -14 The Head: Front View - - - 9 Bones of Left Fore Leg • - - 19 ILLUSTRATIONS Frincipiil Tendons of the Fore-Limb - 20 Front View of Horse - - - - 21 Back View of Morse - - - - 22 Bones of Left Hind-Leg - - - 23 Centre of Gravity- - - - - 28 The Centre of Gravity in the Horse - 29 Equilibrium 30 Base of Support - - - - 31 Lever of the First Order - - - 33 Lever of the Second Order - - 33 Lever of the Third Order - - - 34 The Bones as Levers - - - - 3o Lean Head, well set on - - - 36 Fleshy Head 37 Front View of Skull and Temporal Muscles ------ 3;^ Broad Face, lop ears - - - - 39 Narrow Face ----- 39 Straight Face (Arab Stallion) - - 40 Undulating Face - - - - 40 Arched Face 41 Roman Nose - - - - - 41 Forehead Prominent between the Eyes 42 Long Ears 42 Head loosel}' coupled - - - - 44 Head close coupled - - - - 45 Head carried vertically - - - 46 Swan Neck ----- 47 Straight Neck 48 Ewe Neck ------ 49 The iMa^toido-humeialis ]\Iuscle - - 50 Section of the Withers, showing Sus- pension of the Trunk between the Fore-Limbs 52 Page Ligamentum Nucha> - - - - 53 Section through the Withers - - 54 Narrow Breast - - - - - Gl Broad Breast - - - • - 61 Two Ribs, showing Costal Cartilages - 64 Articulation of the Hip Joint - - 67 Oblique Position of the Limlis in (haw- ing a Load - - - 68 Bowed Knees ----- 74 Calf Knees - - - - - 74 Toes turned out 75 In-kneed 75 Toes turned in 75 Good Forearm and Canon - - - 77 ^^'eak Forearm and Canon - - 77 Bones of Fetlock and Pastern - - 7^ Attachment of the Sesiimoid Bones to the Skeleton of the Leg - - - 78 Good Pasterns 80 Long Sloping Pasterns - - - 80 Short Sloping Pasterns - - - SO Flat Foot - " 82 Upright Foot - - - 82 Posterior View of Pelvis and Hind- Limbs of Horse - - - - 84 Bones of the Hock Joint - - - 87 The Hind-Limbs bent in drawing a Load ------ 88 Cow-Hocks ----- 89 Bow- Legs - - - - - - 89 Excessive Length from Two Diffeicnt Causes 96 Compensation for Excessive Length - 97 Proportions of the Horse in Profile 100 pf.i>1(;i;ke tables Page Hermit 110 Okme Ill Stockwell 114 St. Simon 115 Denmauk 118 LOKD 1»EKI'.Y II - - 119 Confidence 122 FlKEAWAY 123 Sl'ECIALITV ]'M INTRODUCTION "Only the introduction! That may very well be passed over" — is a not uncommon exclamation from the reader, and even a more frequent unuttered impression in his mind. In opposition to this idea of the reader, the writer ventures to press the author's view of the question in the hoj^e of being able to show that a synopsis such as the present introduction is intended to present is a very useful, indeed it might even be designated an indispensable, preparation for the study of what is to follow. Certainly it cannot be otherwise than helpful to a reader to have spread before him in one view the outline of the work to which he intends to devote his attention. No one disbelieves in the value of a plan of a building, or a map of a country, and in the present case the object is to indicate as })riefly as possible, in a preliminary sketch, the chief features of the work on the Horse, so that the reader may be informed of its scope and intention at the outset. It may be observed that the division of the literary work into sections by different writers was obviously a necessity, and the book is consequently the outcome of the knowledge and experience of a considerable number of contributors, each one of whom has been selected for his special qualifications in his own department. The object which has been carefully kept in view throughout is to fill a hiatus in the literature relating to horses, by pro- ducing a book of the horse which shall contain information on all the points which are constantly the subject of enquiry among owners of horses, and at the same time to present this information in a form which will not demand a previous study of technical or scientific works to render it intelligible to the unscientific reader. Not because in this work the teachings of science are ignored or treated in a slovenl}' manner, but because the method is here adopted which is happily becoming very general among scientific writers, of using plain words to express ideas, and so losing nothing of accuracy in regard to the facts of science, while gaining the great advantage of leaving no shadow of doubt to obscure the meaning. Dealing of necessity with a multiplicity of subjects, the importance of conciseness of diction has from the first been recognized, and in arranging xiv INTEODUCTION the plan of the book it was impossible to ignore the fact that many l)Ooks had already been written on the subjects which it was pi'oposed to treat in a single volume. Tlie subsequent pages indicate that the chief existing works on the horse have been consulted and the value of their teachings acknowledged. But the promoters of the present work had before them the constantly - repeated request for a treatise on the horse which should meet the requirements of a large class of readers whose time and patience are limited, and who are not disposed to undertake the task of wading through a small library of books in order to get the information which they want. In this connection we may recall a story told of an Eastern potentate who determined to acquire something of all the knowledge which was extant. His learned men accordingly made a vast collection of the most advanced works which the world contained. The king, staggered at the sight of the accumulated books, demanded if it were not possible to reduce the contained wisdom of the volumes to a smaller compass. The learned men agreed that it might be done, and the command was given to proceed with the work. Laborious attention to the business before them enabled the philosophers to sul)rait to the monarch a few volumes which they assured him contained an epitome of all that was really true of the sciences in the world. The monarch essayed to study the new tomes, but soon became wearied. Another command then went forth to prepare one book in which all the knowledge should be represented as far as it was real. This also was done at the king's oi'der with no better result than the issue of a final mandate to the wise men to formulate a single word in which the science of the universe should l)e c.\[)ressed. Wisdom was justified of her children in this case at least. In u moment of inspiration the learned men saved their reputations and their lives by giving his majesty the one word "Perhaps!" How perfectly the two short syllables conveyed to the wise men their estimate of the scientific works which they had had to study and condense, only themselves could say. How far the word might be applied to much that has been written since let the masters of modern science tell us if they will, and it remains for the reader to decide how much of the Eastern monarch's craving for the mere results, without the necessity of following the steps in the process, mental or physical, by which they were obtained, still remains in the world. The present authors do not promise to epitomize by the summary method of the AVise Men of the East, but they venture to claim that they have succeeded in compressing a large amount of valuable information within limits which could not be contracted without the omission of facts that could not well be spared. INTKODUCTION xv The history of the horse begins, as seems Htting, with an aocount of the animal's origin in prehistoric times from ancestors whicli diHered greatly in form and habit from the horse of to-day, but possessed special characters which entitled them to the name of horse-like animals, characters which became more marked age after age until they culminated in the appearance of the horse as it now exists. Many collateral subjects had to be considered in connection with the evolution of the horse — embryology, geology, and palasontology, all had to be laid under contribution, so far only, however, as was essential to the argument. In fairness to the reader, who is not asked to believe more than is capable of proof, it was deemed necessary to show that what is called the "theory of evolution" in reality represents a fact in nature, a process which is always and everywhere going on, and is exhibited in an intelligible form in the development of the ovum in the higher mammalia as in the lowest forms of life. The fossils of what is known as the Tertiary formation furnish among other things a consistent record of the evolution of the horse, with hardly a gap, certainly without one of sufficient extent to lessen the value of the facts on which naturalists have based their conclusions. As leading up to the evidence which geology furnishes, it was essential to devote some notice to special organs and parts in the anatomy of the horse, on account of certain features they present suggesting that they must at some remote period have existed in a more developed form and possessed important functions which, owing to changes in conditions under which the animal lives, they have gradually ceased to perform. Among the structures that the horse possesses, but for which no present use can be found, the most conspicuous are the horny growths on the insides of the legs, above the knees and below the hocks, and also at the back of the fetlock joints. These "coi'ns", "callosities", or "chestnuts" and "ergots" as they are variously called, have always attracted attention and excited curiosity, and it was thought desirable to make a special investigation in reference to their structure. The description and the illustrations which are given will leave no doubt in the mind of the reader that whatever may have been their original function, and whether they occur in the form of distinct protuberances (as in the horse) or merely as "bare patches" (as in the ass), thev are true horn. Whether or not they represent vanished digits (or toes) is a question which is to some extent answered, but the reply leaves a lingering doubt in the mind. From the horse oi the remote past, the horse known only by its fossil remains, to the creatui'e of to-day the change is not very marked, and to the scientist, indeed, is hardly perceptible. AVhen we deal with more recent periods, the varieties of the horse of historic times, and the first historical xvi INTKODUCTION notice of the aninicil under some kind of domestication, form an interesting chapter, in which many important facts not unclouded by tradition are introduced to the notice of the reader. In connection with the History of the Horse, o'ur heavy and light breeds, our Shire horses, Clydesdales, JSuffolks, and Cleveland bays, our racers, hunters, hacks, and ponies all receive due notice in regard to their origin, specialities of form, and qualities. The chapters dealing with the external points of the horse and the general subject of its conformation, its excellences and its defects, cannot fail to interest the practical horseman. Room for differences of opinion exists in questions of form and quality, as the awards of our judges at exhil)itions of live-stock prove; but there are canons to be remembered, to infringe which would bring down thunders of animadvei'sion from the orthodox horseman. Outside these fundamental maxims, however, much liberty is permitted. Every horseman knows something of the standards of form, some know a good deal, and all are concerned to know whatever is to be learned on the subject. Principles of breeding and the management of breeding stock, including the different systems of training for the turf, the chase, and the show-yard, constitute a chapter in our book of the horse which will lie read with interest by all lovers of the animal, whatever may be the sphere of work in which it is employed. There is perhaps no enquiry more constantly advanced than that for information regarding the management and training of animals and the diseases to which they are subject, and the stereotyped re})ly to the enquiry always and truly has been hitherto that there is no single book in which all these matters are dealt with. Stable architecture and stable fittings are also important matters, in regard, for instance, to aspect, means of ventilation, and sanitary arrangements in general. Indeed, such questions cannot be estimated as anything less than vital to the well-being of animals which are confined for a large portion of every day and night within a box or stall; and even the possessor of a pony is interested in knowing the common details of stable life, of which a large proportion of owners of horses are ignorant, and thus become subservient to their servants. How much fodder, litter, water, air, and exercise a horse requires are points of practice about which no material difference of opinion exists, but the man who does not know is often afraid to ask even of a Iriend, and must not, for his reputation's sake, enquire of his groom on such elementary matters. All such details are given in the present work. Veterinary hygiene or sanitary science as applied to the horse has a chapter to itself, with the object of bringing to a focus all the scattered rays of knowledge on the subject, which are often too diffused to be of INTUODUCTION xvii much practical vuluo. Starting with a licalthy animal, free from hereditary taint, sanitary science claims to know how to keep it healthy, and the claim may be admitted to be reasonable. At any rate tailure can be shown to be due not to want of knowledge on the part of the sanitarian, but to the existence of obstacles which render that knowledge inapplicable ; and there does occur not unfrequently an unsatisfactory combination of surroundings in -which, although it is quite easy to see what to do, the fact has to be recognized that it is impossible to do it. Hygiene, dealing with the laws of health, forms a natural introduction to its antithesis — pathology, — which relates to the laws of disease. An elaljorate treatise on the diseases of the horse has not been aimed at; without, however, attempting an exhaustive description of the many maladies which horse-flesh is heir to, it will be absolutely essential to enter so far into the subject that the enquirer may not have to complain of meagre information on matters which he rightly looks upon as most important. An intelligent acquaintance with the principles of pathology is rather calculated to check than to encourage rashness on the part of the amateur doctor, and such knowledge is certainly not likely to incline its possessor to undervalue the services of the experienced professional man. Horses are particularly liable to certain acute affections of the digestive and respiratory organs, and in many cases the success of remedial measures will depend on the promptitude with which they are applied. Something must be done in sudden illness of man or beast, and no doubt can exist of the desirability of using remedies which will be beneficial instead of harmful. It would conduce to the interest of the veterinary surgeon, and also to the well-being of domestic animals, if stock-owners were encouraged to keep a supply of suitable remedies at hand for use in an emergency, instead of being forced to take refuge in the employment of the numerous nostrums which are ofiered, and of the composition of which no one but the proprietor knoW'S anything. Among the diseases of the horse, those which are traceable to the invasion of parasites have received a considerable share of attention. Their importance cannot well be overrated, whether these creatures occur in the form of microbes of the disease - producing order, originating specific actions which result in the development of infective material, or in the more tangible shape of so-called worms occuj^ying the cavities of the body and causing irritation by their mere presence. The whole subject of parasitism is profoundly interesting, and although it has for many years been an alisorbing studv with many advanced scientists, some of whom have devoted their lives to the solution of the problems which it presents, there are numerous mvsteries vet to be elucidated in reference to the xviii INTRODUCTION origin and development of even some of the most common animal parasites. With the completion of the section treating of diseases of the horse, the chief object of the work may be said to have been attained, but there remained some collateral subjects on which the reader might reasonably expect to be informed. Among them that of the Law of Warranty in relation to soundness and unsoundness, vices, and patent defects, comes prominently forward. Very few experienced owners have escaped some complications in connection with the purchase and sale of horses, and it was deemed, therefore, advisable to make this chajDter as complete and authoritative as possible. Dentition has been treated in special relation to the changes which occur in the teeth at different periods in the life of the horse, and thus afford a fairly correct indication of the animal's age. The subject is an interesting one for the horseman, and at times it is a matter of some importance to be able to judge of a horse's age, especially when the marks to which so much value is attached in early life have been obliterated. The illustrations in this chapter are authentic copies of drawings from nature, excepting a few that show the peculiar changes which occur after the age of ten years up to thirty or later. These drawings were copied from a pamphlet by Mr. Sidney Galvayne, and it will be sufficient to remark that his method of judging the age beyond the period when the ordinary marks are present has been tested for many years and found to be remarkably relialile. Horse-shoes and horse-shoeing form a subject the value of which will not be questioned. It has been exhaustively treated by the writer ])oth in its ancient and modern aspects, chiefly of course in its regard to the application of shoes to the healthy foot. The methods of shoeing for the cure or amelioration of diseases and defects have not, however, l)een passed o\er. An index and a copious glossary have been appended to the work. The last was rendered necessary by the unavoidable introduction of terms in such constant use among scientists that it was inexpedient to omit them, although it has l)een throughout recognized as a matter of moment that the text should be as free from technicalities as the character of the diff"erent subjects would permit. Lastly, it is necessary to refer to the illustrations, which are numei-ous, and it is believed well calculated to fulfil their object. Some of the most important have been drawn especially for this work, and to ensure absolute accuracy advantage has been freely taken of the art of photography, which has recently made such vast strides towards perfection. THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE 10 Kg. 1.— Exterior of the Horse: Side View References {Note.—Thu same numbers are used to indicate the same parts throughout this chapter. 1 Forehead. 19 Croup. 39 Abdomen. 2 Forelock. 20 Tail. 40 Flank. 3 Ear. 21 Throat. 41 Testicles. 4 Supra-orbit. 22 Cervical Groove. 42 Sheath. 5 Ejebrow. 23 Shoulder. 43 Buttock. 6 Eye. 24 Shoulder Point. 44 Point of Buttock. 7 Nose. 25 Breast. 45 Thigh. 8 Nasal Peak. 26 Upper Arm. 46 Haunch. 9 Nostril. 27 Elbow. 47 Stifle. 10 Upper Lip. •21 Point of Elbow. 48 LegorGaskin. 11 Lower Lip. 29 Forearm. 49 Hock. 12 Chin. 30 (■'hestnut. 50 Point of Hock. 13 Cheek. 31 Knee. 51 Tendo Achilles or H.anv •string. 14 Temple. 32 Canon. 52 Chestnut. 15 Neck. 33 Fetlock-joint. 53 Canon. 15' Crest. 34 Pastern. 54 Fetlock-joint. 16 Withers. 35 Coronet. 55 Pastern. 17 Back. 36 Foot. 56 Coronet. 18 Loins. 37 Brisket. 38 Chest. 57 Foot. Section 1 THE EXTElUOll OF THE HOUSE DIVISIONS AND POINTS OF THE HORSE The body of the horse may be primarily divided into three parts, namely, 1, the Head; 2, the Trunk; and 3, the Extremities. The first t\\'i> are so disposed as to form cavities in which are lodged the various organs essential to life, as the brain, heart, lungs, organs of digestion, &c. The head comprehends those portions forming the skull and the face — parts anterior to the neck. The trunk, which makes up the chief bulk of the body, is divisible into — 1, the spine, which extends from the head backwards to the tail; 2, the thorax or chest; and 3, the abdomen or belly. The extremities are movable supports of the body. The two in front (fore extremities) extend from the top of the shoulders to the feet, the two V)eliind (hind extremities) from the hip-joints to the feet. Viewed externally, each of these several regions presents a number of parts, which for convenience of description are distinguished by special names, some of which are based on anatomical considerations, while others are of common origin, and more or less fiimiliar to all horsemen. Of the two sides of the body, it is usual to speak of the left as the " near " side, being the one on which the rider mounts and dismounts, and the right as the " off" side. It is common when referring to the ox to speak of the upper part extending from the head to the tail as the "top-line", and the same expression is not infrequently employed in the case of the horse. In looking at the exterior of the horse the primary divisions to wliich we have referred become at once obvious. The subdivisions — their extent and limitations, together with the surface markings and characters of each — will now be considered in some detail. The information to be here supplied may be regarded as essential and complemental to that higher branch of horse knowledge presently to be considered under the head of conformation. Each of the primary divisions is capable of l)eing broken 4 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE up into subordinate parts. These have been classified and arranged in the following description, and the subdivisions are mapped out and indicated in the figures which accompany it. 1. THE HEAD The head is suspended from the neck, to ^diich it is united by a number of muscles, as well as by a long elastic ligament attached to the cervical vertebrae and extending backward to the withers. Its bony base is united with the first bone of the soine by a free-moving joint. ■The Heail ; Side View ForeheaH. ^ Eai-s. ♦ Siipra-orbit. ' Eyebrow. 6 Eye. ' Nose. " Lower Lip. " Chin. '» Cheek. » Temple. " Neck. 8 Nasal Peak. » Nostril. "<> Upper Lip. " Throat. =2 Cervical Groove. The head jjresents for consideration two extremities (the superior and the inferior) and four surfaces, distinguished as the anterior or front, the posterior or hack, and the right and left lateral surfaces. SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE HEAD This region comprises — 1, the poll; and 2, the throat. The Poll (fig. 6). — The poll or nape is the highest point of the head. It occupies the space between the ears. In front it is limited by a bony ridge forming the summit of the forehead, and termed the occipital crests Beiiind, it joins the anterior extremity of the cervical crest or upper line of the neck. A tuft of hair, the forelock, falls from this point over the fore- THE HEAD 5 head, and serves to protect the eyes from the sun's rays, as well as from insects and other foreign matter. The Throat. — The throat is that part occupying the angle between the lower jaw and the neck. It extends upwards towards the ear, and comprises the larynx or upper part of the windpipe, and the pharynx or receptacle into which the food passes before being swallowed. Out- wardly to these, and beneath the skin on either side, is the parotid gland, an organ whose function it is to secrete saliva. Many important nerves and vessels are also situated about the throat. INFEEIOR ^XTEEMITY OF THE HEAD This region comprises — 1, the lips; and 2, the mouth, with the organs and parts contained in it. The Lips. — The lips are placed at the lowermost part of the head, where they guard the entrance to the mouth. The upper lip unites with the lower just above the chin, where together they form the angles or com- missures of the mouth. They are loosely attached to the bones of the upper and lower jaws respectively, and by the aid of a number of muscles suitably disposed, are capable not only of opening and closing the entrance to the mouth, but also of seizing the food in the act of feeding. They are indeed organs of prehension, and may be regarded as hands to the mouth. The upper one is the more voluminous, and has a greater range of action than the lower one. A number of long coarse hairs are scattered over the outer surface. These are connected by their roots with nerves of sensation, hence they have been termed "feelers". It is a common practice among grooms and dealers to clip them off in order to give the head a clean and more refined appear- ance. "The lip, like the nostril, the eye, and the ear, is a most remarkable organ of expression. When it is curled up, relaxed, lowered, elevated, or reclined, we have so many variations which aifect the whole physiognomy. When we study the expression of the horse under the influence of pain, fear, pleasure, or distress; when we observe his attitude as he attempts to snatch or bite somebody, or one of his companions; when we observe the lips in certain diseases ; when we translate the language of the stallion as he scents the mare, or the animal as he passes through the death agonies, then can we see how perfect the expression is and how it varies in each circumstance." — Gouhaux and Barrier. The lower extremity of the head, from a line drawn across the face above the nostrils and angle of the mouth, is commonly spoken of as the muzzle. THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE The Mouth. — The mouth is an elongated cavity situated between the upper and lower jaws. Below it is limited by the lips, laterally by the cheeks, while above it communicates with the cavity of the throat (pharynx). When the mouth is opened the parts exposed aie- — 1, the teeth; 2, the tongue; 3, the bars; 4, the froenum. The Teeth. — The front teeth, of which there are six in each jaw, an- distinguished as incisor teeth. Beyond these, in the male animal, are four canine teeth, one on each side above and lielow. In the mare these are al)sent. Still farther back will be seen the molar or large teeth, or, as they are commoidy termed, grinders, of which there are twenty-four, arranged in rows of six, right and left of each jaw. The eruption of the teeth and the changes which they undergo serve to indicate the age. (See Dentition.) The Tongue. — The tongue is the soft fleshy organ filling up the channel of the mouth. The anterior part is free and capable of being protruded, while the posterior portion is fixed to the lower jaw. Behind, it is connected with a bone (os hyoides) having several joints, so arranged that the organ may be freely extended and retracted. It is acted upon by five jDairs of muscles, by which it is cap»able of being moved in every direction. Endowed with a high degree of sensibility and mobility, it plays an important part in the function of mastication and deglutition. The Bars. — The bars are represented by that small section of the lower jaw situated in the male between the canine teeth and the grinders. In the mare, where the former are absent, the space is larger, being limited in front by the corner incisors. The bars are covered by a thin, sensitive membrane, on which the bit rests, and are frequently the seat of injury in " pullers", often resulting in death and sloughing of a portion of the jaw-bone. They vary in form in different animals, in some the edge of the bone is sharp and in others rounded. In the former condition the pressure of the bit on the part is more severe in its effects than in the latter, and the difference in the "mouths" of horses is in a large measure due to this cause. As the result of bad breaking and unskilful riding the bars f^-equently become callous, and the natural sensitiveness Fig. 3. — Portion of Lower Jaw, showing Tonguu, Lc. B, Circumvallate Papillae, c, Fungiform Papillso. D, Tongue. E, " Bar " or Interdental Space. 1, Canine Tooth. 3, Literal Incisor, 3, Corner Incisor. 4, Central Incisor. THE HEAD on which the tractability of the horse (lei)en(ls is lihmted, or altogether destroyed, in which case the animal is rendered difficult to conti'ol. The Palate. — The palate consists of a thick membrane of a whitish or pale pink colour, covering the roof of the mouth. The front, and by far the larger portion, is known as the hard palate (tig. 5), in consequence of the dense nature of the tissues composing it. Here it presents a number of "^,/ V» Fig. 4. — Examination of the Mouth a. Tongue ; li, froenum; cc, openings of the salivary ducts; rf, teeth. transverse ridges, separated from each other by shallow grooves, and divided along the central line by a longitudinal furrow. The ridges are arched forward, and in the act of feeding assist in keeping the food in the mouth. Behind and continuous with the hard palate, but beyond the reach of ordinary inspection, is the soft |ja/a^e. That portion of the hard palate immediately liehind the incisor teeth frequently becomes swollen and painful in young horses especially during the period of the second dentition, when the animal is said to be suffering from "lampas'". (See Diseases of the Mouth.) The Frcenum (fig. 4). — The froenum, or anterior pillar of the tongue, is a loose triangular fold of mucous membrane extending from the under surface of the tongue to the lower jaw. It unites the two parts, and 8 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE while allowing ample liberty to the tougue it restricts in some measure the range of its action. ANTERIOR SURFACE OF THE HEAD This division of the head comprises — 1, the forehead; 2, the nose; and 3, its two orifices or nostrils. The Forehead. — The forehead forms the upper part of the head in front, extending from the poll and ears, down to a line drawn Fig. 5.— Jledian Section through a Horse's Head, showing Soft Parts A, Lamellar Portion of Ligamentum Nuchse. B, Funicular Portion of Ligamentum Nuchse. C, Brain in Section. D, Spinal Cord. E, Frontal Sinus. F, Anterior Meatus "j o, .Middle Meatus 1- of Nose. H, Posterior Meatus/ :, Superior or Maxillary Turbinated Bone. J, Inferior Turbinated Bone. K, Body of Lower Jaw. L, Hard Palate, showing Transverse Kidges in Section. M, Tongue. o, Section through Hyoid Bone. P, Soft Palate. Q, Epiglottis. B, Opening of the Eustachian Tube into the Pharynx, s, Cartilaginous Rings forming the Trachea or Windpipe. T, (Esophagus or Gullet. across the fjice between the inner corners of the eyes. On either side it is limited by the ear, the temple, the supra-orbit or " hollow of the eye", the orbital ridge, and the eye itself. The upper portion forms the vault of the cranium, and encloses the brain; the lower forms the front wall of two hollow cavities termed the " frontal sinuses ". High up it is somewhat rounded, being covered by two fleshy muscles. The lower part is protected only by skin. The forehead is partly covered l)y the "forelock", to -which reference has already been made. The forehead THK HEAD not only vurics in form and .size in different unimaLs, but also in the same animal at ditlerent periods of life. In the young it presents a striking prominence, but it becomes less marked as the animal grows older, and as the frontal sinuses open out and their bony walls expand. The Nose. — The nose forms the greater portion of the lower division of the front of the face. It is formed by the union of a number of bones, and consists of two elongated cavities separated from each other by a thick plate of cartilage (septum nasi) and communicating behind with the larynx or upper part of the windpipe, and also with the pharynx, or throat. It is broad and expanded, where it joins the forehead, and gradually narrows as it proceeds downward. It ends in two crescentic openings — the nostrils, between which is a slight pro- minence, the " nasal peak ". Laterally it is limited by the eyes and cheeks. The form of the nose, like that of the forehead, is subject to variation with age. The bones on either side of it, into which are implanted the fangs of the molar teeth, subside as the latter descend, giving to the face a sharp angular appearance, and to the nose increased promi- nence. This characteristic is especially marked in old horses, and serves to distinguish them from more vouthful specimens. The Nostrils. — The nostrils are two crescent-shaj)ed openings situated at the lower extremity of the head, right and left of a cen- tral prominence, designated the "tip" of the nostril or the "nasal peak". They com- municate with the right and left nasal passages respectively, along which the air enters and leaves the lungs in the act of breathing. In conse- quence of the long and pendulous condition of the soft palate (fig. 5), which shuts off the mouth from the windjjipe, respiration in the horse can only take place through the nostrils. These orifices and the passages into which they lead are very capacious. Around the former are scattered a few long coarse hairs, the roots of which are connected with nerves of sensation. Like the hairs of the lips, they play the part of " feelers ". It frequently happens, however, in our better-bred horses, that these tactile organs are removed as a part of the equine toilet. If the nostrils be opened (fig. 7) by drawing apart their edges, or, as they are technically termed, alge, with the thumb and finger, there will be found, in addition Fig. 6.— The Head; Front View 1 Forehead. >' Poll. " Forelock. ' Ear. * Supra-orbit. ° Eyebrow. ^ Eye. '' Nose. ^ Nasal Peak. 'Nostril. i" Upper Lip. 10 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE to the respiratory passages, a short blind pouch or cul-de-sac in each, formed by an inflection or in-folding of the common integument or skin. This is placed outwardly and somewhat above the main channel, and is dis- tinguished as the "false nostril". Its use is not well understood, but it would appear to be the remains of an organ once essential in the economy of the primitive horse, but now probably of little phy- siological importance. At the time this observation is being made, an opening, about the diameter of a hemp - seed [c, fig. 7), may be noticed at the point of junction of the infolded skin and the mucous membrane. This is the orifice by which the tears or super- fluous moisture escapes from the eyes, from which it is carried by a long narrow tube termed the nasal duct. When seen for the first time it has been regarded by some as an ulcer, and we have on two or three occasions been consulted as to its treatment. Fig. 7. , True Nostril. -Kxamination of the Nostril b, False Nostril. f, Nasal Duct. LATERAL SURFACES OF THE HEAD The lateral surfaces, or .sides of the head, are distinguished as rif/ht and left. They are symmetrical, and the parts presented for considera- tion are the same in each. Commencing from the top, we have — 1, the external ear; 2, the temple; 3, the supra -orbit; 4, the orbital -ridge; 5, the eye; G, the cheek. The External Ear. — The ear is situated on the lateral aspect of the poll, on the outer side of the forehead, and above the temple. It is formed by a plate of cartilage or gristle invested by a covering of skin, and rests on a cushion of soft fat. It is acted upon by no fewer than twenty muscles, so arranged as to enable it to move in any direction in quest of sound. Internally it is covered with long soft hairs, which serve to prevent the entrance of insects and other foreign matter. The Temple (fig. 2). — The temple occupies a space on the side of the head immediately beneath the ear and on the site of the articulation of the lower jaw. In front it has the supra-orbit, or hollow of the eye : THE HEAD 11 beliiml, the j)arotid gland; and liolow, the cheek. This region is iinpor- taut, not only because it eml)raees witliin its area the joint by which the lower jaw is hinged on to the head, but also on account of the temporal arterii \\\\\c\\ crosses it near to the surface. Slipra-orbit (fig. 2). — The supra-orbit is a somewhat rounded space situated above the eye and between the forehead in front and the temple behind. It contains a mass of soft loose fat, which in the young animal is very abundant, and quite, or nearly, fills up the cavity. As age advances, the fatty matter becomes less and less considera])le, until in old animals a deep hollow appears, known as the " hollow of the eye ". To a certain extent this change in the fulness of the cavity serves to distinguish an old from a young animal, but it cannot be said to be at all times reliable. In very poor colts the fat becomes in a large measure absorbed, in which case an expression of advanced age is im- parted to the face. This, however, disappears again as soon as the horse recovers his condition. Orbital - arch or Eyebrow (fig. 2). — The orbital-arch is the pro- minent crescent-shaped ridge which spans the upper surface of the globe of the eye. It forms the anterior limit of the hollow of the eye, and is the base of attachment of the upper eyelid. The Eye. — The eye occupies a deep bony cavity on the side of the forehead and beneath the orbital- arch. It is protected by two movable curtains, the upper and lower eyelids and their appended lashes, which not only serve to protect from and to dis- place any foreign matter that may fall upon it, but also assist in regulating the amount of light passing into it. The parts visible in ordinary observation of this organ are — 1, a dense opaque membrane, the sclerotic or "white of the eye"; 2, a central trans- parent membrane, the cornea. These form the outer capsule in front, within which may be noticed 3, a yellow^sh-brown ovoid membrane, the iris, encircling a clear dark space, 4, the 2^upil. An examination of the inner corner of the eye reveals a flat fleshy-looking body termed the mem- hrayia nictitcms, or, commonly, the third eyelid or "haw" (fig. 8). This Fig. 8. — Examination of (n) the Haw or memhrana nictiians 12 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE organ is composed of a thin piece of cartilage covered with mucous mem- brane. It is capable of being projected over the surface of the eye, and by its thin edge may be made to sweep away any foreign matter that may accidentally fall upon it. Deep pressure applied to the upper lid with the finger, as shown in fig. 8, will cause the haw to protrude. The Cheeks. — The cheeks form the greater portion of the side of the t';ue. 'iliey extend from the temples and throat above to the angles of the mouth below. In front they reach to a vertical line drawn down- ward from the outer corner of the eye to the nostrils, and behind extend along the posterior edge of the lower jaw. The upper part of the cheek is broad and flat, and corresponds to the expanded portion of the lower jaw- bone. The inferior portion is narrower, loose in its arrangement, and more distensible. In the groove dividing the two parts are lodged the main blood-vessels of the face, as well as the duct of the parotid gland by which saliva is carried to the mouth. POSTERIOR SURFACE OF THE HEAD The posterior surface of the head embraces the intermaxillary space, the chin, and the chin groove. Intermaxillary Space. — The intermaxillary space is enclosed within the two branches of the lower jaw, which bound it laterally. Above and below it is limited by the throat and chin respectively. It corresponds to the under surface of the tongue, and gives lodgment to the submaxillary lymphatic glands. The latter, which lie on the inner side of the broad portion of the jaw-bone immediately beneath the skin, are specially interesting to the horseman on account of the enlargement they undergo in glanders, strangles, nasal gleet, and other diseases affecting the nostrils. The Chin (fig. 2). — The chin is the prominence situated above and behind the lower lip, and the chin groove appears as a transver.se depression above it. 2. UPPER ASPECT OF THE BODY— TOP-LINE The Neck. — The neck comprises the cervical portion of the spine, and the nmscles attached thereto, as well as a broad elastic lioament running through the centre of its entire length. In front it supports the head, where it concurs to form the poll, nnd lower down is united to the throat. Behind, the neck joins on to the shoulders, the withers, and the breast. The superior arched border constitutes the cervical crest (fig. 1 ), tlie curve of which varies in diff"erent races of horses, and in different members of the same race. In stallions it is .specially marked in all breeds. UPPER ASPECT OF THE BODY ^TOP-LINE 13 The inferior border of the neck is rounded, uud encloses the windpipe or trachea (fig. 5). A little higher, on the side, nuly be noticed a longitudinal groove (fig. 2) running from the throat downward. This is the "channel of the neck" or cervical groove, along which runs the jugular vein, and, deeper still, the carotid artery. The Withers. — The withers comprise that prominent portion of the spine i)l;Teed lietween the neck and the back, and supported on either Fig. 9. — Exterior of the Horse : Three-quarter Back View '' Poll. 3 Ear. ^ Eyebrow. « Eye. ' Nose. " Nostril. " Upper Lip. 'i Lower Lip. i- Chin. " Cheek. '= Neck. i" Crest. is Withers. " Back. '8 Loins. i" Croup. =" Tail. " Cervical Groove. ^ Shoulder. =>* Shoulder Point. =« Upper Arm. =9 Forearm. ™ Chestnut. " Knee. ^ Canon. ^ Fetlock-joint. ^* Pastern. » Coronet. ^ Foot. ^a Chest. ^ ATjdomcn. " Flank. « Buttock. « Point of Buttock. « Tliigh. *> Havinch. •" Stifle. « Leg or Gaskin. « Hock. *> Point of Hock. '' Tendo Achilles or Ham-string. *^ Chestnut. ^•' Canon. *• Fetlock-joint. " Piistern. * Coronet. ^^ Foot. side by the upper extremity of the shoulders. It is formed by the long projecting spines of the dorsal vertebrae, numbering from the second to the .sixth, or seventh, and the muscles in connection with them. From this point the height of the horse is taken, and, as will be seen later 14 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE on, it is a part to which great importance i.s attached in the matter of conformation. The Back. — The back, as understood by horsemen, i.s an arl)itrary division of the part properly so called, and extends from the slope of the withers in fi-out to the last rib behind, where it is connected with Fig. 10.— Exterior of the Ho Three-quarter Front View ' Forehead. '' Poll. ■' E,ar. " Nose. ' Nasal Peak. ' Nostril. '" Upper Lip. " Lower Lip. " Cheek. "> Neck. '« Withers. " Back. " Loins. " Croup. '■" Throat. ''- Cervical Groove. ^ Shoulder. " Shoulder Point. « Breast. "s Forearm. so chestnut. »' Knee. '■>- Canon. as Fetlock- joint. 34 Pastern. 35 Coronet. ^ Foot. 3* Chest. as Abdomen. *' Flank. « Sheath. « Thigh. ■"' Haunch. •'8 Leg or Oaskin. ^ Point of Hock. '•'' Chestnut. ''^ Canon. ^4 Ketlock-joint. " Pastern. M Coronet. " Foot. the loins. It extends over and embraces about eleven of the eighteen dorsal vertebra), jis well as tlie arches of the corresponding ribs. The back is largely made up of muscles of various forms and lengths, some of which extend from the haunch behind to tlie neck in front. The Loins. — The loins, like the withers and the back, have their anatomical base in. the spine, and extend from the last dorsal vertebra POSTERIOR EXTREMITY 15 before to the croup ami luunicb, with which thoy unite behind. 'I'lie bones which enter into its foiTnation are usually six in number, and they differ in their skeletal relations from those of the back and withers in having no ribs connected with them. Un either side of the loins below this region is the flank. The Croup. — The croup is the uppermost part of the quarters situated between the loins and the tail. Below on either side it joins the thighs and upper part of the buttocks. The haunch-bones concur with the sacrum in forming the basement structure of this region, on which are situated a number of large important muscles of locomotion. Of these, some are engaged in the movements of the hind limbs, while others act upon the spine. The form, length, and width of the croup varies in different animals. In the mare, during the later stages of pregnancy, the muscles of this part become depressed, or sink downward, especially towards the root of the tail. This is generally described as a " sinking of the haunch-bones " or " falling of the hips ". It results, however, from a relaxation and yielding of the broad ligaments of the pelvis, on which some of the muscles rest. The Poiid of the Haunch is a division of the quarter commonly spoken of as the " point of the hip". It is situated in front of the croup, behind and below the loins, and in jsroximity with the flank. It is formed by the projecting outer angle of the ilium or haunch- bone. Owing to its prominence, this part is specially liable to injury from forcible contact with doorways, and in slipping-up it not in- frequently suffers by contact with the ground. Fracture and displace- ment of the bone are of frequent occurrence, and give rise to that state known as "down at the hip". 3. POSTERIOR EXTRExAIITY The Tail. — The tail consists of from twelve to fifteen vertebrse, en- closed in long tapering muscles, and these are invested with a layer of skin covered with long hairs. It emerges from, and is continuous with, the spinal column. On either side its base is in relation with the croup, and below with the anus, which it covers. The Anus. — The anus is the terminal extremity of the intestinal canal, through which the excrement leaves the body. As we have ju.st remarked, it is situated ])eneath the tail, and below it is a smooth hair- less length of skin termed the Perineum. The anus is surrounded by a circular muscle termed the Sphincter Ani, which, by its power of contracting, prevents the involuntary escape of the fseces. In old animals, 16 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE and in tliose weakened by disease and poverty, the power of this muscle is enfeebled, and the orifice becomes relaxed and loses its full power of control. In paralysis of the anus the faeces are allowed to escape from the bowel involuntarily. This condition is usually associated with jmralysis of the tail. The Perineum. — The perineum is the hairless region wdiich in the male extends from the anus to the scrotum, or purse. In the female it is short, and limited below by the vulva. It is bounded on either side by the thighs and buttocks. 4. ANTERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BODY The Breast. — -The breast is situated at the lower extremity of the neck, and in front of the chest, supported on either side by the arms. In some horses it is fleshy and rounded, in others sharp and prominent. Its basement structure is formed by the sternum or breast-bone. 5. THE LATERAL AND INFERIOR REGION The Brisket. — The brisket is a prolongation of the In-east backward between the fore-limbs and along the inferior face of the trunk, where it forms the floor of the chest. Behind the elbows it corresponds to the '■ girth-place ". The Chest. — The chest is a spacious cavity occupying the anterior third of the trunk, and containing within it the lungs, the heart, and the great vessels proceeding to and from them, as well as the oesophagus, a portion of the trachea, and some important nerves. The withers and back form together its upper boundary. Outwardly on either side it is limited by the ribs, to which in front are connected the shoulder and the arm. The floor is formed by the sternum or breast- bone, and parts in relation with it, while in front and l)ehind it is bounded by the neck and the abdomen respectively, and separated from the latter by the diaphragm or midrifl'. The Abdomen. — The abdomen embraces all that region comprising tlie inferior and lateral parts of the trunk between the chest in front and the sheath and groin behind, or, in the female, the groin and the mammary gland. It encloses the organs of digestion, urination, and generation, and other accessory parts. Its outer and inferior walls are made up of super- imposed layers of broad expanded muscles and their tendons, w^hich ai'e braced up l)y a sheet of elastic tissue tliat spreads over the under surface of the belly immediately beneath the skin. Within is a more or less thick laver of fat. EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS 17 Behind, between the thighs, the abdomen presents two oval openings (external abdominal rings) through which the testicles descend into the scrotum, and remain suspended by means of the spermatic cords. In the fetus a third opening (umbilicus) is observed in advance of the sheath. This is commonly termed the navel opening, and gives passage to blood-vessels by which the foetus is brought into relation with the dam through the medium of the foetal membranes. After birth the navel-string sloughs away and the umbilical opening closes. The Flank. — The Hank is a portion of the wall of the abdomen extending from the lumbar spine downward, between the last rib in front, and the haunch, thigh, and stifle-joint behind. Below, it is con- tinuous with the floor of the belly. Above, the flank presents a tri- angular depression immediately beneath the loins. This is commonly termed the " hollow of the flank ". In sickness the flank frequently serves as a guide to the existence of disease. In certain conditions of ill-health it becomes "tucked up" or distended, while in others it affords an indication of the rate of l)reathiiig by its alternate rising and falling. The Groin. — The groin is the space situated right and left of the testicles in the male and of the mammary gland in the female. Outwardly it is bounded by the inner and upper part of the thigh. The skin cover- ing this part is comparatively thin and supple, and covered with fine hairs. It is also abundantly furnished with small glands that throw out an unctuous secretion for the lubrication of the parts. Enlargements some- times appear in this region from swelling of the lymphatic glands, or as a consequence of rupture, and in geldings as the result of disease of the spermatic cord — schirrus cord. 6. EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS MALE The Testicles (fig. l). — The testicles are two ovoid glands situated in the space between the thighs. They are enclosed in a pouch of skin, the scrotum, commonly spoken of as the " purse", and separated from each other by a membranous partition. They appear in the purse at oirth, but soon disappear, to descend again about the tenth month. The left one is generally somewhat lower than the right. In some nistances the testicles fail from various causes to reach the scrotum, or only one of them may "come down", in which case they are found either in the cavity of the belly or in the inguinal canal. When this is the case the animal is called a crypt orchid, or more commonly a Vol. I. 2 18 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE " rig" or ridgeling. In geldings the under surface of the scrotum is marked l)y a depressed scar on either side of the middle line, resulting from the operation of castration. The Sheath (fig. l). — The sheath is a loose portion of infolded skin arranged in the form of a recess, into whicli the penis is retracted. The infolded portion of integument is thin, supple, and devoid of hairs, l)ut hugely supplied with sebaceous glands, which secrete an unctuous matter for the lul)rication of the penis. FEMALE The Vulva. — The vulva is the genito-urinary orifice of the female. It is an elongated, vertical opening, placed below the anus. On either side of it are two folds of skin and mucous membrane, termed the labia or lips. When these are separated, a small globular organ is seen lodged in a fold of mucous membrane at the lower part of the orifice; this is the clitoris. During the period of heat, or sestrum, the labia, swollen and sensitive, are repeatedly opened and closed, and the clitoris becomes momentarily exposed and projected backward. 7. FORE EXTREMITY The anterior limb or fore extremity extends from the withers above to the foot below; it is united to the trunk by muscles extending along the back, up the neck, and on to the walls of the chest and breast. It presents for consideration a numljer of regions, as well as parts and divisions of more or less importance. The regions of the front member comprise the shoulder, the arm, the forearm, the elbow, the knee, the canon, the fetlock, the 2^<^''^f^^">^! the coronet, and the foot, to which must be added the e^'got. The Shoulder. — The shoulder is situated on the lateral aspect of the chest, and forms the chief point of attachment of the fore-limb to the trunk. In front it follows the line of the posterior extremity of the neck, with which it unites. Behind, it is limited by a more or less prominent muscular ridge extending down to the elbow. Above, it reaches as high as the withers, and custom has fixed its lower limits at the elbow. It must, however, be pointed out that what is commonly sjjoken of as the shoulder embraces also the upper arm, and as these two parts are intimately related and show no lines of demarcation, they may for con- venience of description continue to be classed together. Shoulder Point (fig. l). — The shoulder point, as it is erroneously termed, is the angular prominence corresponding to the shoulder-joint. FORE EXTREMITY 1» As ii matter of fact it is not formed by the shoulder, but by the arm, and wouhl be more appropriately designated the point of the arm. The Elbow. — The elbow marks the point of union of the arm al)Ove with the forearm below. The point of the elbow is the summit of the ■ulna or smaller of the two arm bones. From the prominence of this part it stands exposed to injury, especially when the feet are allowed to grow long or the heels of the fore-shoes are made to project beyond them, the result being an inflammatory swell- ing termed capped elbow. The Forearm. — The forearm extends from the elbow-joint to the knee. It is invested by muscles, which act upon the bones below, some carrying them forward (exten- sors), others Ijending them back- wards (flexors). The forearm com- prises two bones, the 1'adius and the ulna. The point of the elbow, as already exjplained, is formed by the superior extremity of the latter. The Chestnuts or Castors.— The chestnuts or castors are small horny excrescences of an ovoid or elliptical form, situated on the inner surface of the arm a little way above the knee. They vary in size in different breeds, and to a less extent in different animals of the same breed. In coarsely-bred Cart-horses they reach their greatest dimensions, and sometimes grow outward like are usually removed by the smith. ^e\\ Fig. 11. — Bones of Left Foreleg A, Senpula or Shoulder Blade. B, Humerus or Arm Bone. c. Ulna. D, Kadius. e, Carpal Bones, forming the Knee. veritable horns, in which case they The chestnuts are probably the re- mains of a vanished hoof, which in the ancient horse invested a digit corresponding to the thumb of man. The Knee. — The knee of the horse corresponds to the wrist of man. It is formed ]>y two rows of small bones, which rest upon the metacarpal bones below, and give support to the forearm above. The upper row comprises four l)ones, and the lower one three. It is a joint of many parts, but al- though complex in its structure its action is limited to the movements of flexion and extension. Passing over it before and behind are some large tendons, which are attached to the bones below and bring them into action. '^0 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE The Canon. — The region between the knee and the fetlock -joint is cermed the canon. It comprises three bones, together with several import- ant tendons and liga- ments. The bones consist of the large metrical jiol, or canon bone, and the two small metacarpal, or splint bones. The canon bone occupies the central position, and imparts to the front of the limb its natural roundness. The splint bones are placed one on each side, and somewhat towards the back of the limb. They are united with the large metacai-pal bone by short ligaments, which in adult animals be- come transformed into bone, and then form a permanent bond of union between them. The splint bones are verv important, from the fact of their being the seat of bony excrescences termed " splints", which often produce severe and protracted lameness. Situ- ated in front of the large canon bone are the great extensor tendons of the jihalanges, and behind it, in the order named, are: the suspensory ligament; the subcarpal ligament; the tendon of the Hexor pedis perforans; and the tendon of the flexor pedis perforatus (fig. 12). Fig. 12. — Pi-incipal Tendons .and Ligaments of the Fore Limb 1. Front View. A, Extensor Metacarpi Obliquus. B, Extensor Metacarpi Magnus. c. Annular Ligament. D, Extensor Pedis. E, Extensor Suffr.aginis. G, Outer Branch of Suspensory Ligament. 2. Outer Side View. A, Extensor Metacarpi Obliquus. B, Extensor Metacarpi Magnus, c, Annular Ligament. D, Extensor Pedis. E, Extensor Suffraginis. F, Outer Small Metacarpal or Splint Hone. 0, Outer Branch of the Suspensory Ligament. H, Flexor Pedis Perforatus. 1, Subcarpal Ligament. J, Flexor Pedis Perforans. K, Suspensory Ligament. FORE EXTKK.MITY 21 There are uo active muscles in this region, but diminutive remains ot them are to be found, which, in the far-off ancestors of the horse with their several toes, were muscles of considerable size and importance. The Fetlock. — The fetlock is situated between the canon bone above and the pastern below. Its bony base re- sults from the union of the large metacarpal bone with the first phalanx, or large pastern bone, and the two sesamoid bones. The latter are tacked on behind, and are sup- ported in position l)y the suspensory liga- ment. A tuft of long hair hangs from the angle of the fetlock. This is the footlock, and in its midst may be noticed the ergot, a horny growth varying in size in different animals, but especially large in coarse-bred Cart-horses. Like the chestnut, the ergot represents the vestigial remains of what was once a digit in the lost ancestors of the horse. In its present condition it is believed by some to exercise a protective influence when the fetlock is brought to the ground during the rapid locomotory move- ments occurring in the forced galloj), and especially in the final struggle of a race. The Pastern. — This region extends from the fetlock to the coronet, between which points it takes a more or less oblique direction downward and forward. Its bony base is formed by the first and second phalanges, or, as they are commonly termed, the large and small pastern l)ones. The Coronet. — The coronet is that part of the limb situated immediatelv above the hoof, and extending fi-om front to back. It is, in fact, the lowermost division of the pastern. The term is use- ful only as indicating proximity with the crown, or upper circumference of the foot. The Foot. — The foot, as understood by the comparative anatomist, embraces all those parts of the limb beneath the lower extremity of the fore arm in front and the inferior extremitv of the les; or second thiyh behind Fig. 13.— Front View of Horse > Forehead. " Poll. -' Forelock. 3 gar. * Supra-orbit. ^ Eyebrow. 6 Eye, 7 Nose. 8 Nasal Peak. " Nostril. "> Upper Lip. 15 Neck. « Breast. " Forearm. '^ Knee. '- Canon. '' Fetlock-joint. ** Pastern. 35 Coronet. 36 foot. ^8 chest. « Haunch. 22 THE EXTERIOR OF THE HORSE In the horse, however, the term is restricted to the terminal portion of the limb, or that section of it enclosed in the hoof. Two bones and part of a third constitute its bonj base. The former comprise the third phalanx — the pedal or coffin bone, and the navicular bone; the latter, the second phalanx, or coronet bone. Connected with these are various tendons, ligaments, fibrous tissue, and cartilages, the whole of which are invested by a highly vascular and sen- sitive covering of modified skin, and out- wardly protected by a horny envelope, or huge nail, to which the term hoof has been applied. 8. THE POSTERIOR OR HIND LIMB The Quarter. — In considering the re- gions of the liind limb, it will be convenient, if not anatomically exact, to refer to that division of the horse commonly spoken of as the "quarter". This region comprises all those parts extending from the loin and flank in front to the buttock behind, embraces within its scope the croup, haunch, the thigh, the buttock, and stifle. The Thigh. — This is the most massive and muscular of the seA'eral regions of the extremities. The thigh commences above, at the lower border of the croup, and extends downward as far as the stifle. In front it is limited by the flank, while behind it is in relation with the buttock. The ossific base of the thigh is the femur, or thigh-bone. The Buttock. — The buttock is the pos- terior fleshy pai't of the quarter extending frcjm the root of the tail down- ward to u little di.stance below the stifle-jomt. There is no anatomical boundary by which its anterior limits can be fixed. In this connection the division is an arbitrary one. It embraces portions of the croup, the thigh, and the leg or gaskin. The point of the buttock (fig. 1) is formed by a bony piojection (ischial tuberosity) below the root of the tail. It the the Fig. 14. rk View of Horse " Croup. 39 Abdomen. « Flank. « Buttock. « Leg or Gaskin. « Hock. '^ Point of Hock. °' Tendo Achilles or Ham-string. ^' Canon. " Fetlock- joint. " Pastern. "^ Coronet. ^^ Foot. THE POSTEEIOR OR HIND LIMB 23 The Stifle (fig. I). — The stiHe comprohends tluit angular prominence situated in front of the limb immediately beneath the tiunk. At this point the femur, or thigh-bone, articulates witii the tibia, or leg-bone, and the patella, or knee-cap, to form the stitle-joint. This is the largest and most powerfully constructed joint in the body. It is remarkable, not only for the complexity of its arrangement, but also for its considerable range of action. The Leg. — The leg or gaskin is that part of the hind extremity extending from the thigh to the hock -joint. Behind, it is bordered by two powerful tendons (tendo Achilles) (fig. l), both of which are firmly united to the point of the hock, and are commonly spoken of as the ham -strings. The ossific base of this region is formed b\' two bones — the tibia and the fibula. The latter is a small slender bone placed on the outer side of the former, which is of considerable dimen- sions and power. The Hock— Tarsus.— The hock intervenes between the leg and the canon bone. It is more or less flat on the outer side, convex on the inner sur- foce, narrow behind, and broad and somewhat fiat in front. This region comprises six small bones, which are united by short strong ligaments, and supported bv the metacarpal bones. Above, they articulate with the tibia, or leg-bone, and with it form a hinge-joint of considerable extent by which the chief movements of the hock are eff'ected. Above and behind, the hock forms an acute angle with the tendo Achilles, termed th.Q jwint of the hock (fig. 1). The regions below the hock are the canon, the fetlock, pastern, coronet, foot, and corresponding parts already described in dealing with the fore extremitv. Fig. 15. — Bones of Ijeft Hind Leg A, Hip Bone or Pelvis. B, Thigh Bone or Femur, c, Knee- cap or P."itella. D, Fibula. E, Tibia. G, Tarsal or Hock Bones. CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS Section II CONFORMATION^ A¥D ITS DEFECTS There are few Englishmen who possess, or have possessed, a horse, who do not aspire to know something about conformation and its mechanical relations to pace, action, and power, although few would claim to have the most elementary acquaintance with those divisions of science on which an exact knowledge of the subject depends. Anatomy, physiology, mechanics, and physics form but a small part of the intellectual equip- ment of the average judge, and yet it is doubtful if the proud possessor of these higher branches of learning would excel in precision of judgment his less gifted confrere. Dealers and Breeders, and those who adjudicate at our horse exliibitions, have little more than the empirical faculty to guide them, yet they are among the most expert in the world — recognizing at a glance not only the grosser faults and weaknesses of form and action, but refinements of distinction and aptitude to service which only the practised eye can discern. Granting, however, the power to acquire this high standard of excellence by purely empirical means, it will not be suggested that the goal of perfection in horse judging has yet been attained, or that the facility of attainment will not be enhanced hy a consideration of those departments of science already referred to. If liy external conformation we are to appraise the value of a horse, it must be l)y estimating with more or less precision his physical capabilities and endurance as an animal machine, and to this end routine observation and practical judgment might with advantage be supplemented by the teachings of science. . To all persons concerned with the breeding and employment of the horse as a means of locomotion, a knowledge of conformation and its defects is indispensable to success as a commercial enterprise, and notwith- standing the purely empirical form which that qualification assumes to-day, in those who possess it, the time is not far distant when the exterior of the horse will come to be interpreted by the light of a more 28 CONFOEMATION AND ITS DEFECTS exact knowledge of his anatomical and mechanical construction. It is by a study of conformation that we assign to a horse the particular place and purpose to which he is best adapted as a living machine and estimate his capacity for work, and the highest success in this connec- tion will be best attained by the judicious blending of practice with science. CENTEE OF GRAVITY One important step towards an appreciation of the eflfects of con- formation on the progression and utility of the horse is a general under- standing of the location of the centre of gravity, the disturbances which it is liable to undergo as A ' — ^^-^ a consequence of the various n movements of the body in locomotion, and the special in- fluence of conformation in ac- ,''':, ' - ' I celerating and determining the "■'" - extent of such disturbances. In dealing with this branch of fig 16 the subject, our readers need hardly be reminded that all bodies whatsoever, whether living or dead, are influenced by the force of gravity in such a way that they are drawn towards the earth. Every body, whether large or small, is composed of a number of molecules more or less regularly distributed throughout its mass, and upon each of which the pull of gravity is exerted, hence results the exercise of a number of small parallel forces acting in the same direction. What is called the centre of gravity will be found in the centre of these parallel forces, which may or may not be in the centre of the ])ody. If the molecules making up the mass be of the same kind and uniformly distributed throughout it, the force of gravity will be exercised on all parts alike, in which case the centre of gravity will be in the centre of the body. If, on the other hand, the molecules be more numerous in one part than another, or in other words, if one part be more dense than another, the force of gravity will attract that part more, in which case the centre of gravity, instead of being situated in the middle of the body, is drawn nearer to the part which weighs the most. To illustrate this point let us take the case of a rod made up of a number of particles equal in weight and equally distributed throughout it, as shown in fig. 16, No. 1. Here the several component particles being attracted towards the Pi ath I. ^^ f"^ wSKS&^^BJI^^^ijgg 1 b-YMAiETRY ARCHED CREST CENTRE OF GKAVITY 29 earth equally in parallel forces, it is evident that the centre of these forces, which is the centre of gravity, will be at the middle point. Quite different will be the case where the rod is made of particles of the same kind, unequally distributed, and causing one part to be denser or thicker than the other (fig. 16, No. 2). In this case the centre of gravity is found to fall at F, in the direction of the heavier part D, where the parallel forces are for equal lengths the more numerous. These conclusions may be roughly illustrated by taking a piece of stick two or three feet in length, of uniform thickness, and placing it Fig. 17. — The Centre of Gravity The centre of gravity is at or near the spot where the dotted lines cross across the edge of a knife, where it may be made to balance or brought to a state of equilibrium when resting on a point about the middle of its length. If now a small quantity of lead be run into one end, and the experiment be repeated, the point at which the stick can now be made to balance will have shifted, and will be found somewhere towards its loaded extremity. According to the researches of Professor Colin, the centre of gravity in the horse is situated somewhere about the point of intersection cf two lines, one passing vertically through the trunk behind the xiphoid 30 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS cartilage of the sternum or breast-bone, and the other horizontally between the middle and lower third of the body. This conclusion has been con- firmed by the experiments of Messrs. Goubaux and Barrier, and may be accepted as approximately correct. EQUILIBRIUM " A bodv is said to be in equilibrium when the several forces acting upon it balance one another." The part upon which it rests is termed the base of support. It may be neces- sary to point out that there are three conditions of equilibrium, viz. stable, un- stable, and neutral. Of these the two former are more especially concerned with equine conformation and movement. In A B C ... ^ .,., . stable equiUbriuyn a body, when slio;litly Fig. ly.— Equilibrium -' •' O J A, stable. B, Unstable, c, Neutral displaced or pushcd asldc, will rctum to its original position. If, on the contrary, it tends to move farther away from its original position or to topple over, its equilibrium is ^instable. The conditions which conduce to render equilibrium stable are: 1. A broad base of support. 2. That the centre of gravity should be situated low down. 3. That the line of gravitation .should fall at or near the centre of the base. From these considerations it would appear, as Goubaux and Barrier have pointed out, that " a horse having a heavy body mounted upon long slender limbs, drawn close to the median plane, will be endowed with an equilibrium relatively unstable". While, conversely, a horse standing on short legs, set well apart so as to supply a large Imse of support, will possess an equilibrium relatively stable. The horse in progression is constantly displacing the centre of gravity in one direction or another, and the disturbance of equilibrium which is thereby effected is as constantly being restored by the formation of a new base of support, which will vary both in form and extent with the various movements incidental to the several paces respectively. In a standing position the base of support of the horse may be described as an area enclosed within four lines placed nearly at right angles to each other, and extcndins; from foot to foot, as shown in fig. 19. In this attitude equilibrium presents its highest degree of stability. It is during the fast paces, when the trunk is impelled forward by the PLATE H. pi fTv i^M 1 j'^B ■^^^ r^^^^^^i yiw i^&Bi3™«"^ EQUILIBRIUM IN THE WALK AND IN THE UALLOH Copyright. i83;. bv Eadweard. Muybridge MUSCLES IN RELATION TO POWER AND SPEED 31 impulses from behind, that the centre of gravity is most displaced, and the feet leave tlie ground to form new bases of support and re-establish the disturbed equilibrium. This will be made obvious by examining the various phases of movement in one or other of the several paces. In the walk, which, as we have elsewhere pointed out, is one of four time, the base of support is made to undergo a succession of changes peculiar to it. In Plate II, figs. 1 and 6, it runs parallel with the long axis of the body, being formed by the two left and right limbs re- spectively. In fig. 2 it is altered both in shape and extent by the right hind- limb being brought to the ground, thereby enlarging its area, while at the same time it is made to assume a triangular form. In fig. 5 the line of direc- tion is diagonal from the left fore to the right hind. These alterations in the base of support are called forth by the forward in- clination of the trunk dis- placing the centre of gra- vity. This forward dis- placement is very much more considerable as the pace increases, as shown in particular phases of the fast gallop (figs. 3 and 4 of the same plate), where a vertical line drawn from the centre of gravity would fall in front of the fore-foot, or leading support, and consequently outside the base of support, thus requiring a fresh base to be formed by the advancing fore- limb to re-establish e(|uilil)rium. iig. 19.— Base of Support MUSCLES IN RELATION TO POAYEE AND SPEED The movements of locomotion liy which the body is transferred from place to place are effected by muscles, which, acting in obedience to the will, are termed voluntarv muscles. 32 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS These fleshy masses which clothe the bones are each and all endowed with the property of contractility. When this power is called into action by nervous stimulation it has the eflect of bringing the two extremities of the muscle towards each other, by which the length is diminished, while at the same time its thickness increases. These changes are well seen in the biceps or muscle of the upper arm, if the elbow be bent and the closed hand be brought up to the shoulder. When a stimulus is applied to a nerve entering a muscle, the latter is made to contract throughout its entire length at nearly the same moment; as a consequence, it is found that the period occupied by the contraction of a short muscle is nearly equal to that required for a long one. It will be obvious from this, that as a muscle will contract to the extent of one-third of its length, the speed and propulsive power of a horse with long limbs and long muscles will be much greater than that which can be produced by another having short ones, assuming, of course, that all other things are equal. Of two muscles of the same length whose activity of contraction is at its maximum, the greatest power will be given out by that which has the greatest volume; in other words, the strength of a muscle is in proportion to its thickness; and it is equally true to say that the longer the muscle the greater will be the range of its contraction, and the more considerable the displacement it will effect in the movement of the bones to which it may be attached. Hence it is that while muscles of strength are short and thick, those of speed are long and slender. From the foregoing facts the conclusion may be drawn, that inasmuch as short legs imply short muscles, animals so constructed must be compara- tively slow in their movements however great may be their strength ; and, conversely, horses whose legs are relatively long, and whose range of action IS necessarily more considerable, will be capable of developing a much higher rate of speed. The draught-horse and the race-horse afford typical examples of the truth of the proposition that " the volume of the muscles gives the measure of force, their length that of speed ". In choosing the one, therefore, the highest muscular development consistent with reasonable activity in the slower paces should be sought for, while in the other the first and most important requirement is ample length of the leg muscles in particular, combined with just so much thickness as will yield the necessary power by which to support the weight and endure the strain that may be imposed upon them. Any surplus muscle over and above these require- ments will augment the weight, and tend rather to retard than to increase the velocity of the gait. THE BONES AS LEVERS 33 . 20. — Lever of the First Ui'der THE BONES AS LEVERS The muscles concerned in locomotion are each, with few exceptions, attached to two bones, either directly, or through the medium of tendons. The bones connected by their extremities form a series of fi-ee-moving joints, and being thus enabled to move one upon the other, constitute so many bony levers by which the movements of the body are effected. A lever is a rigid and inextensible bar used for the purpo.se of moving bodies by means of a power or weight either greater or less than that of the bodies themselves. When a bone is operating as a lever, one end is more or less fixed and made to move upon tiie corre- sponding surface of the bone with which it is articulated, and thus per- forms the office of fulcrum, while the other portion i.s left free to move in obedience to the power and the weight. A lever presents for considera- tion three elements, viz. the Fulcrum, the Power, and the Weight, the respective positions of which determine the cla.ss to which it belongs. The action of a lever in the development of force and speed will depend upon the relation of the power to the weight. Levers are divided into three classes. In levers of the first class the fulcrum is placed be- tween the power and the weiglit, as illustrated in the beam of an ordinary pair of scales (fig. 20). In levers of the second class the fulcrum is situated at one end, and the weight occupies a position between it and the power. This kind is illustrated in the loaded wheel-barrow, when the man supporting the shafts represents the power, the barrow and its contents the weight, and the wheel the fulcrum (fig. 21). Fig. 21. — Lever of the Second Order 34 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS In levers of the third kind the fulcrum is again at one end, but the power now occupies a position between it and the weight. A common example of this kind is seen in a pair of fire-tongs when holding a lump of coal. The coal here repre- ^-^-(^-^ sents the weight, the hand _^^iii m j-<^^.^[JL ^^^^ . holding the tongs the power, ^fll*^ ro^iT/j^ / ]g^ iii' ■ni^ ig> j^jjj^ ^]jg joiut the fulcrum Fie. ■22. -Lever r,f the Third OnkT mi . p i Ihe two arms oi a lever are distinguished respectively as the power-arm and the weight-arm. The former is represented by the distance between the point at which the power acts and the fulcrum, and the latter by the distance between the fulcrum and the line through which the weight acts. In the case of the biceps muscle acting upon the radius (fig. 25), the power-arm is the distance between the centre of the elbow-joint, which is the fulcrum, and the point of insertion of the muscle. The weight-arm is the distance from tlie fulcrum to the knee. Of the three varieties of levers referred to above, those of the first class are levers of speed, and for the most part are engaged in movements of extension. Those of tlie third order are also levers of velocity, but are more especially concerned in movements of flexion. Levers of the second class are much less frequently met with than those of the first and third, and are essentially levers of force. In the animal machine an example of a lever of the first order will be found in the extension of the cannon on the hock when the foot is off tJie ground. Here the muscle representing the power (fig. 23) acts upon the point of the hock, the fulcrum is the hock-joint, and the parts below the weight. The same parts of the limb also afford an illustration of a lever of the second class when the foot is on the ground (fig. 24). In this instance the point of the hock is the part on which the power acts, the ground is the f'ulcium, and the weight is at the hock-joint. The third order of lever is represented in the fore-arm (fig. 25), where the fulcrum is at the ell )o\v -joint, the power is the Inceps muscle, which is inserted just below the elbow in front, and the weight is the jjarts of the liml) below. It will be seen by an examination of these illustrations, that in levers of the first and third class, or levers of speed, the power-arm is shorter than the weight-arm, while in those of the second order tlie length of the former exceeds that of the latter. Bones which act as levers of the first class when the foot is off the ground, l)ecome levers of the second kind when the foot is on the ground the fulcrum and the weight having now Ijecome displaced. THE BONES x\S LEVERS 35 36 CONFOEMATION AND ITS DEFECTS HEAD AND NECK If there is any part of the horse which can be regarded as of exceptional importance it is the head, for besides being the centre of intelligence, it is also the seat of vice. Moreover, it is the dial-plate on which we find the outward expression of the inward temperament in all its varied moods. It forms, besides, the boundary walls of the most important cavities in the body, notably, the cranium or brain-case, the orl)its containing the eyes, the nostrils, and the mouth. From these considera- tions it becomes obvious that if the several organs with which the head is connected are to perform their respective functions efficiently, ample space must be provided by the bony framework for their accommodation and unrestrained action. Moreover, the head is not altogether uncon- nected with locomotion, inasmuch as important muscles extending from the arm upward along the neck are ultimately connected with it, and are the chief agents in raising and advancing the fore-limbs during pro- gression. Further, an extensive bony surface is required for the attach- ment of the muscles of masti- cation and expression. Quite apart from size, the aspect of the head varies very ninterially in different animals, not only among those of dif- ferent varieties, but in a less degree also among difft-rent animals of the same variety. While in some it presents a clean-cut, finely-chiselled out- line, in others the angles and lines of the bony framework are rounded oil and more or less obscured, and tiie head as a whole disjjlays a heavy, plain appearance. The former, distinguislied as the lean head (fig. 26), is more especially pronounced in the thoroughbred, and is always an evidence of good breeding. Here the skin will be noticed to be thin, and closely adherent to underlying parts. The bony outline is sharply defined. The muscles, vessels, and nerves are seen standing out in bold relief, giving the head altogether a clean, sharp expression and airy carriage. Quite the reverse is the case Fig. 2G. — Loan Head, well set on VOLUME AND GENERAL ASPECT OF THE HEAD 37 in the hitter, which is known as the phiiu or fl^'^hy head (fig. 27). Hero the skin is thick, course, and united with tlie parts beneatli by a hxrge amount of connective tissue which hides the bony lines and prominences beneath, rounds off the face, and gives to the head as a wliole a heavy and fleshy appearance. This type of head is associated with animals of a dull, lymphatic temperament and low cast. VOLUME AND GENERAL ASPECT OF THE HEAD In this, as in other respects, harmony of proportion is the point of excellence to be desired, whether it be in the heavy or the lighter breeds of horses. Deviations in this respect, however, are not equally objection- able in the two classes. A large head in the hunter or the hack would not only render an animal unsightly, but by displacing the centre of gravity forward, predispo.se to stumbling, and impose upon the fore -limbs an undue amount of weight and wear. These objections do not apply to the slow-moving draught-horse, whose powers of traction depend upon the amount of force he can bring to bear upon the collar. Here a laro;e head, if not so agreeable to look at, would be rather an advantage than otherwise, not only because of its extra weight, but because of the larger surface of attachment it would afford those muscles that assist in fixing the front part of the body in the act of pulling. The size of the head may deviate in proportion either in the direction of excess or deficiency. When the dimensions of length, width, and depth are all in excess the head is said to be large or coarse. This condition results more especially from an undue development of the bony framework, altogether thus caused, but may, in some measure, be due to an exceptional thickness of the skin and superabundance of connective tissue intervening between it and the underlying bones. In the latter case the head has a heavy look, rounded and fleshy in appearance, and the bony lines and prominences, as well as the nerves and blood-vessels, so conspicuous in well-bred horses, are altogether obscured. Animals of this class are usually low-bred, soft, and wanting in endurance. In point of size the head should accurately fit the body, or if it departs at all from the Fig. 27.— Fleshy Head It may not, however, be 38 CONFOEMATIOX AND ITS DEFECTS standard of proportion in its osseous parts, better a trifle too large than too small. A small head in relation to other parts means not only a sacrifice of symmetry, but maybe also of power and intelligence. FORM OF THE HEAD The head of tlie horse presents great variety of form. In order to indicate the defects of conformation of this part it will be necessary in the first place to convey some idea as to those characters which combine to develop the highest standard of beauty and physio- logical excellence in the whole. In speaking of the " Points of the Horse " we have already referred to the various regions into which the head is divided, and we now pro- pose to examine them as to their magnitude, formation, and reciprocal relations. The aspects from which the head will require to be examined are: (l) the anterior or front view; (2) the lateral or side view; (3) the posterior or back view; and (4) the view of the upper and lower extremities respectively. Viewed from the front (fig. 28) the first and most striking feature is the forehead, whose anatomical relations with the brain, the eye, the breathing organs, and the organs of mastication impart to it such exceptional importance. This division of the head is limited below liy a line drawn across the fece from the inner corner of one eye to that of tlie other, from which it rises to the poll or occipital crest. The forehead should be deep and l)road, inasmuch as the bones which form its liasement structure not only enclose other cavities (frontal sinuses) below it which are part of the respiratory system of organs. A large forehead, therefore, may be taken to denote a large brain and a large breathing capacity. Fig. 28.— Front View of SkviU and Temporal JIusolcs oc, Occipital crest. P, Parietal bone. X, Parietal suture. F, Frontal bone. Na, Nasal bone. Mx. Superior nia.\illary bone. Pr.mx., Pre-maxillary bone. L, Lachrymal bone. M, Malar bone. T, Temporal muscle. the brain cavitv but two FORxM OF THE HEAD 39 The former proposition i.s not !U'cei)tetl b\' all writers on this subject; but without insisting too much upon it, it seems as reasonable an inference to draw as that a large, deep chest betokens voluminous and capacious lungs. There is no doubt, as pointed out by Goubaux and Barrier, that the temporal muscles, which extend from above the eyes to the roots of the ears and take such an active part in the function of mastication, add somewhat to the transverse diameter of the forehead; but this does not invalidate the argument that a broad forehead is an expression of a broad, and consequently large, brain cavity. On the contrary, the presence of large muscles is an indication of large bones; and since the bones to which the.se particular muscles are attached form a considerable part of the vault of the cranium, the logical inference is that the cavity of the latter, in respect to size, stands in relation to them. As to whether the intel- ligence in the horse is proportional to the width of the forehead, or in relation to the volume of the brain, are questions into which we do not propose to enter; but from the foregoing considerations we are in agree- ment with Gayot that the more voluminous the brain the larger is the spinal cord and the nerves that proceed from it, and that "a large forehead denotes a high degree of intelligence and a good nervous sys- tem ". From the forehead downward the face should still maintain ample width, to give room to the nasal pas- sages which form its front and lower aspect. From the eyes, the la- teral boundary lines in a well -formed face will gradually narrow in towards the angles of the mouth and then widcni out in conformity with the nostrils, which should be open and capacious. Moreover, the skin encircling the nostrils should be thin and pliable, and the lips fine and mol)ile. The bony lines and prominences of the face should be clearly defined, and not, as seen in the low-bred and phlegmatic subjects, hidden by undue thickness and fieshiness of the skin and sub- cutaneous tissue. "iV- '29. — Broad Face, lop eai-s Fig 30— Nail o« Fi 40 CONFORMATION AM) ITS DEFECTS Fig. 31.— Straight Face (Arab Stallion) Viewed in profile, the face from the forehead downward will be found to vary very considerably. In the thoroughbred and the Arab it is usually straight or inclining to hollowness beneath the eyes (fig. 31, and Plate V); while in the coarser breeds the disposition to convexity is more and more noticeable as we approach the heavy draught-horse. As both these formations are quite con- sistent with the most perfect physiological activity of the cranial and respiratory organs, any preference that may be given to one over the other can only be regarded as a mat- ter of taste, and not as having any intrinsic value; for our own part we prefer that the line of the face, when viewed in profile, should be neither uniformly straight nor convex, but commencing above in a bold forehead, should gently recede in its course downward, and again rise to slight convexity over the lower region of the nose, giving to this aspect of the head a gentle and graceful undulation .(fig. 32). While making observation in profile it is requisite to note that the branches of the lower jaw should be broad and deep, since they give attachment both within and without to the most powerful of the muscles of mastication. Moreover, viewed from behind they should be set well apart and clear of the neck, so tliat the larynx or upper portion of the windpipe, which is situated between them, as well as the pharynx or throat, may have ample space in wliich to move while the head is being l)ent, or turned sharply from side to side. Undue narrowness of this region, wlien occurring in horses with short, fieshy necks, tends to embarrass breathing, especially when the animal is tightly reined up. . In some high-couraged and nervous animals of this Fig. 32.— Undulating Face FORM OF THE HEAD 41 Fig. 33. — Arched Face conformation, respiration bot^'onies loud under exertion, and may even emit a distinctly roaring noise. Although not defects in the sense of interfering with function and utility, there are to be noticed certain extremes and irregularities in the lines of conformation of the head which seriously detract from its beauty both of symmetry and ex- pression. In this connection the face may be immoderately and uniformly convex from the forehead aliove to the nostrils below, when it is said to be arched (fig. 33) — a type of conformation at one time common in the English draught-horse, but now fast disappearing under the aegis of the show-yard and the stud-book. Undue prominence commencing be- tween the eyes and extending to the same point constitutes the Roman Nose (fig. 34), to which the same observations apply. The reverse con- tlition, in which the face is hollowed, is sometimes spoken of as dished (Plate V, fig. 1). In some extreme instances of this latter formation, function is more or less interfered with under severe exertion, and the powers of endurance are in some degree curtailed. Moreover, such animals are often said to be roarers in consequence of the narrowed nostrils rendering the breathing loud and coarse. They are not, however, roarers in the proper sense of the term. The face may be rendered irregular and even unsightly by an undue promi- nence of the lower forehead, which it may be noted is usually associated with narrowness of the part and gives the face a heavy, ill-natured expres- sion. Especially is this so where the eyes are small and laid back in the orbit. A rise in the face between the eyes (fig. 35), when consider- able, not only afi'ects the contour of the face and detracts from its beauty, but is regarded by some as significant of temper if not of vice, the truth Fig. 34. — Koman Nose 42 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS Fig. 35. — Forehead prominent between the Eye of which, says Captain Hayes in his excellent work on Tlie Points of the Horse, "I have seen verified in many instances". Ears. — Besides the special function for which they are designed, the ears are not only an element of beauty, but by their movements serve to indicate the emotions and temperament of the animal. Their eftectiveness as a mark of beauty will be influenced very much by the transverse diameter of the poll, and the manner in which they are set on, as well as by their form, dimen- sions, and carriage. When well set apart on a fairly broad crest and carried with a gentle inclination forward without being either upright and staring, or too dependent and heavy, they set otl' a well-formed head to the greatest advantage. As to length, connoisseurs are not exactly in agreement, some extolling the excellence of short ears, and others of long ones. There can be no doubt, however, that with this, as with all other organs, they must be in harmony with related parts. A long head with short ears is as unsightly as when the proportions are reversed, and the disfigurement is materially added to in either case where they present a broad, thick, flesh}' char- acter and an investment of coarse hair. Ears of medium length and width, thin, flexible, neither too pointed nor too rounded at the tip, well set up on a good base, active and alert, are not only marks of good breeding, but impart to the &ce an expression of lightness, brightness, and intelligence. In most horses the temperament finds expression in the movements and disposition of these organs. In the nervous and excitable they are ever erect and respond to every sound, moving vigorously from one Fig. 30. — Long Ears LENGTH OF THE HEAD 43 position to another with rapid succession; while in tlic dull and lethai'gic their movements are slow and not easily uwakenetl, and their general carriage is heavy and drooping. The backward set ol" the ears is frequently indicative of vice, and forms a feature in the kicker and the rogue, but is also seen hal)itually in some of the best-tempered and most tractable of animals. The general activity in the movement of the ears is a striking feature in the case of blind horses, whose sense of hearing would seem to become more and more acute as the loss of sight becomes more complete. Every sound engages the attention wdiere vision is lost, and the ears are kept in a state of constant activity, moving first in one direction and then in another, the head at the same time being inclined in this direction or in that, to bring the ears more immediately in line with the source of the sound. ^Moreover, in these cases the head is carried high, and the fore- limbs, which are raised well from the gi'ound, appear to dwell in their forward movement, or in other words, the horse conveys the impression of feeling his way, and lacks the free, liold forward action of one with perfect vision. LENGTH OF THE HEAD A head otherwise proportionate to the body may exhibit excess or deficiency of development in the direction of its length, i.e. it may ])e too long or too short. All Continental obser^-ers have accepted the conclusion of the distinguished Frenchman Bourgelat, that two and a half times the length of the head should be ec^ual to the distance from the withers to the ground and from the point of the shoulder to the point of the buttock. If the head fails to equal these dimensions it is said to be too short, and if it exceeds them it is too long. Captain Hayes avers that a more practical rule is to compare the length of the head with the depth of the body at the lowest jDoint of the hack. " In a well-shaped horse ", he observes, " which is not in gross condition these tw^o measurements are very nearly equal." There can be little doubt that any great excess of length in this part, situated as it is at the extremity of the neck, would not only disturb the harmony of conformation, but by adding to its weight expose the fore- limbs to additional wear. It is also conceivable that by disjjlacing the centre of gravity forward it would in some degree restrict their lilierty of action and adversely influence the pace. Moreover, horses with this fault are liable to carry themselves indifferently and to beai' unduly on the bridle. AVliile this disproportion is specially objectionable in tlie saddle- 44 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS horse and the harness-horse, it is not so in the draught-horse, where any extra weight at the end of the cervical lever may be turned to good account by being thrown into the collar as a means of traction. The disadvantage of excessive length will be somewhat modified when the head is set on a short neck, and aggravated when it is attached to a long, lean one. A head too short, although a fault of proportion, presents some compensating advantages in its lightness and greater mobility. COUPLING OF THE HEAD Given a well-formed head, the next point of importance is the manner of its adjustment or attachment to the neck. However good it may ])e in proportion and outline of form, if it is badly hung the general appearance of the animal will be seriously impaired. A head should be attached on to the neck and not into it : the angle of the jaw should stand clear away from the throat, which should meet the head at a nice curve and not at an acute angle. When the former rela- tions exist, the line of demarcation between the one and the other is marked by a well-defined groove extending from below the ear down- ward to the throat, and the carriage and movements of the head in every direction are executed with freedom and enjoy ample range of action. The two principal dei3artures or defects of conformation which occur here consist in (l) too loose and (2) too close coupling. In the former the head is too disconnected from the neck or loosely hung (fig. 37), the groove referred to above is deep and wide, and commonly the neck is long and wanting in strength and muscularity. This defect of conformation is frequently seen in horses light in the middle, long in the leg, of irritable temperament, and wanting in general muscular development and vigour of constitution. Many of such are roarers. In the latter the attachment of the head to the neck is close and deep from poll to throat, the intervening groove is superficial, narrow, and ill-defined, and the union of the two parts is close and compact (fig. 38). Such a conformation not only detracts from the beauty of the fore end, but seriously curtails the range and liberty of movement of the head in Head loosely Coupled COUPLING OF THE HEAD 45 every direction. Moreover, liorses so made are ino.stly heavy in luuul, besides being stiti' and ungainly in their side movements. The direction of the head in relation to beauty and usefulness is no less important than its mode of attachment, and it will be correct to say that the one is in some degree influenced by the other. It may be difficult to state precisely what is the most classical disposition of the head in this respect, but we agree in the suggestion of Goubaux and Barrier that " the head has a good as well as a natural direction when it extends obli(|uely from above to below, from before to behind, and forms with the ground surface an angle of about 45 degrees " (fig. 26). This position, besides being fa- vourable to an extensive range of vision, gives the animal a good view of the ground before him over which he is travelling, and at the same time confidence and safety in movement. The disposition of the head is very considerably influenced by the conformation of the neck. In that con- dition known as "ewe-neck" (fig. 42) it frequently assumes a horizontal direction, or, to use a stable phrase, is carried with the nose more or less "poked out". It results from this attitude that bridle control is very materially diminished or may be altogether lost, on account of the too Itackward dis- placement of the bit, which is made to act either directly on the angles of the mouth, or, what is worse, on the first molar teeth. Cross-temjDcred horses of this type are apt to seize the bit in their grinders, in which case all attempts to restrain them are vain. Moreover, the direction of the line of vLsion being set high, obstacles and irregu- larities on the ground surface immediately before them are liable to be overlooked, in wliich case stumbling becomes habitual and dangerous. The direction of the head approaches the vertical line very much in proportion to the degree of curvature of the neck (fig. 39), and in some cases, where the latter is unduly arched, the former may even take an oblique direction from before, downward and backward, so that the chin is made to approximate the breast. This conformation not only hinders progression bv displacing the centre of gravity backward, but the animal becomes unsafe both on account of his liability to stumble and tlie difficulty which, in extreme cases, is experienced in causing him to turn to the right Fig. 38. — Head close-coupled 46 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS or to the left. For the purpose of draught the vertical disposition of the head does not constitute a serious defect, but in animals used for riding and driving purposes it is most objectionable. Among other reasons, the range of vision in these eases is restricted, and although the ground immediately in front of the animal is well in view, dis- tant oV)jects in the line of vision are not so well observed. Horses of the kind in que.stion usually ])end their knees fairly well, but the action is short and chopi^y, and lacks liberty and range of shoulder movement. 4t ; Fig. 39. — Head carried vei-tically CARRIAGE OF THE HEAD The carriage of the head will be determined for the most part by the form of the neck and the way in which it is connected with it. The most finished appearance is given to the animal when the head is carried well up, with a gentle slope from aliove downward and forward, forming with the ground surfece an angle of about 45 degrees. In this jDosition the field of vision is not restricted as when the head is directed straight out, or brought towards a vertical position, or where, as sometimes occurs, the chin is directed towards the breast. At such an angle, too, the head enjoys an amount of freedom and mobility which would be impos.sible in certain extreme departures towards the vertical and horizontal as depicted in figs. 39 and 42. It will also be obvious that with the angle of the throat well open, the larynx will have plenty of play and the Ijreathing l)e correspondingly facilitated. The head thus favourably placed confers the further advan- tage on the rider and driver, of more complete restraint and guidance by allowing the bit to fall upon the bars instead of l)eing drawn into the cheeks, where it may be seized by the "grinders" and removed Ix-yond their control. When the head is carried well up in a natural manner, the elevation of the shoulder and the forward swing of the fore -limb as a whole are greatly increased. Moreover, as we have elsewhere pointed out, by raising the head the muscle attached to it (mastoido humeralis), which is mainly concerned in lifting the shoulder, is made to contract through a greater NECK il distance, and therefore to raise the limb correspondingly high and bring it into position for the execution of a great forward stroke. Carried in a low depending position, the head displaces the centre of gravity forwards, eneumljers the fore-limbs, diminishes both speed and action, and robs the horse of the most eleQ;ant feature of his fore end. NECK .\part from any consideration of mechanical advantage wliicli it may confer on a horse as a living motor, a good neck is an attractive feature in every variety, from the smallest pony to the heaviest " shire". It is, however, in the driving- horse and the saddle- horse tliat the special elegance and beauty which it is capable of imparting are more es- pecially demanded; but it must be observed that in associating these two types it is not intended to convey the idea that the configuration of neck best suited to the one would be ec[ually ajj- propriate to the other, nor that either would be adapted to the horse of heavy draught. On the contrary, in each case the neck must be constructed to meet the special purposes for which the animal is intended. The form of the neck, as everyone knows, varies very considerably in ditierent animals, and also in the same animal at dift'erent periods of life; hence it is designated arched (Plate I, fig. 2) when the upper l)order describes a convexity along its whole length from the poll to the withers; swan-neck (fig. 40) when the curve is confined, as in the neck of the swan, to the superior part; straight (fig. 41) when the superior and inferior borders are rectilinear; and eice-neck (fig. 42) when the upper l)ordcr is Figf. 40. — Swan Neck 48 CONFOiniATION AND ITS DEFECTS concave. The form of the neck not only influences the carriage of the head, but may in some measure conduce to speed and modify action. The last two varieties are especially favourable to rapid movement since they allow of a more considerable extension of the head beyond the base of support than the others. When the neck is arched the head is disposed towards the vertical position, sometimes so much so as to materially limit the range of vision, so that objects at a distance are not observed. Moreover, "the arched and the swan neck, by their ten- dency to curve the vertebrae in the shape of an S, diminish the length of the neck, move the centre of gravity backward, and are more favourable to its elevation and depression as well as to the lateral displace- ment of the trunk. They also ofler advantages in the saddle- horse, in which grace, bril- liancy, and extent of move- ment are preferred" (Goubaux and Barrier). Arching of the neck, although for the most part a natural conformation, may also be imparted by ap- propriate schooling, or increased where it already exists. The training resorted to for this purpose has the further advantage that the various manoeuvres of which it consists impart to the neck a suppleness and mobility which greatly enhance the rapidity, eleo-ance, and precision of the animal's movements altogether. Fig. 41.— Straight Neck CARRIAGE "Whatever may be the form of the neck, the appearance as well as the special fitness of an animal for any particular purpose will be greatly in- fluenced by the manner in wliich it is carried. In this connection it will l)e found to vary towards the high or ver- tical position on the one hand, or the low or horizontal position on the other. In either direction extreme examples are objectionable, although in estimating the extent of depreciation from either cause, compensating con- ditions, if any exist; must be fully taken into account. A neck well carried Pl-ATE III. SHORT NECK LONG NECK CARRIAGE 49 not only lightens and brightens the outlook of a horse, l)ut it gives him an expression of energy and courage. Moreover, in this attitude the head receives ample natural support, is light on the rein, and relieves the hands of the rider or driver of an objectionable and tedious burden so common in animals otherwise formed. There is the further advantage in an elevated carriage of the neck, that the muscle chiefly concerned in raising the aim (inastoido Intmeralis, fig. 43), and which is connected above with the head, enjoys a greater range of contraction by vir- tue of its increased length, and by bring- ing the shoulder well up increases in a cor- responding measure the upward and for- ward movement of the limb as a whole. It conduces, indeed, to that free shoulder- pla}- and fine knee action which all lovers of horses so much admire and enjoy. The " nagsman " with his sharp bit, the "runner" with his raised hand propping up the horse's chin, and the coachman with his overdraw check-rein, all recog- nize the influence of an ujilifted neck on the action of tlie fore-limlis; but it must be noted that while these artificial devices conduce to a more lofty action they at the same time .shorten its range, and, by imposing restraint on the head and neck, deprive the gait of the liberty and elegance of movement displayed in a natural carriage. With the neck directed forward and carried in a more depending position it is otherwise. Here the head hangs heavily on the neck, the shoulder action is restricted, there is a lack of mobility, and the animal is heavy in hand, and may be hard in the mouth and diflicult to guide. Beyond this Fig. 42.— Ewe Neck 50 CONFOK.MATION AND ITS DEFECTS some consideration will require to be given to the neck in regard to its length and volume. A neck too long or too short not only disturbs the harmony of propor- tion, but impairs to a greater or less extent the mechanical properties of the machine. Un- due length is not infrequently asso- ciated with a slight muscular develop- ment, giving to this region a gaunt, slender ajjpear- ance. JMoreover, it possesses the further fault of impo-sing on the fore extremities an excess of weight, thereby imped- ing action and increasing the wear and tear of the limbs. More especially is this the case where the neck is carried in a for- ward direction. To some extent the disadvantage of a long neck is compensated by an erect carriage, which, by displacing the centre of gravity backward, lightens the burden in front, and at the same time gives a light and easy hold to the rein. While recog- nizing the objectionable features of excess, ample length is nevertheless in- dispensable to speed, action, and brilliant carriage. In the race-horse a long neck is especially requisite, for, as we have seen, the range of action of which the shoulder is capable, and the forward move- ment of the fore-limbs, will lie mainly determined by the length of the muscle (mastoido'humeralis), which, starting above from the back of the Fig. 43. — The Mastoido-humeralis Muscle A, Attachment to head. B, Body of the muscle, c, Attachment to the humerus or upper arm bone CAKRIAGE 51 head, is regulated by the length of the neck. The neck in some respects is to the horse what the balancing-pole is to the gymnast, viz. a means of maintaining equilibrium of the body in the performance of its varied move- ments. This is strikingly illustrated in the swing of the neck from side to side in the walk, its elevation when the body is raised from the recumbent posture, its rapid alternation from one side to the other in turning to the right or to the left. Ample length gives plial»ility to the neck, and enables it to respond quickly in regulating the centre of gravity while the body passes from one attitude to another. Moreover, it renders the animal easy of control, and imparts to the movements steadiness, ease, and grace, — qualities which the riding-horse and the driving-horse should both possess to be worth anything. A short neck, for reasons stated above, is not conducive to rapid move- ment, nor to that mobility of the body which is seen in more extended proportions. Moreover, lack of length is usually identified with great muscular development, by which the part is rendered heavy and wanting in pliability. It is not to be understood that shortness in this region is alto- gether inconsistent with a fast pace, but since in this condition the range of action in the fore-limbs is considerably diminished, its repetition must therefore be greatly increased to make up the difference, thus adding to the wear and tear of both body and legs. In the draught-horse, whose movements are slow, and whose highest attribute is the energy and power he can put forth, any disadvantage re- sulting from a short neck is compensated where the muscles clothing it are massive and strong. Besides the length and carriage of the neck, the expert judge of horse form will not lose sight of the importance of its mass. A strong, heavy, muscular neck in the case of the slow-moving draught-horse is, as we have seen, an attribute of strength, and therefore a condition suited to the purpose for which the animal is required; but to the race- horse, the chaser, the hunter, and the hack any surplus weight attached to the cervical lever will not only interfere with progression, but materially add to the wear and tear of the fore-limbs. For these and other reasons the neck in the cases indicated should be long, light without being weak, and carried well up. If at the same time it is surmounted by a well-proportioned head the best conditions appertaining to this region will be secured. 52 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS THE WITHERS As we have elsewhere imlicated, the withers comprise that more or less elevated portion of the spiue situ- ated between the back and the neck, and supported on either side by the upper extremity of the shoulders. In form, extent, and character they are liable to considerable variation, according to the age, sex, and type of the animal. In early life this region is but slightly marked, but it becomes more and more con- spicuous as the animal advances towards maturity, and the bony framework is developed. It is more prominent in the male than in the female, and more sharply outlined in the gelding than the stallion. The character of the withers, although somewhat varia])le in the members of each class, is very much influenced by breed. In the tlioroughbred they are marked by considerable elevation and refine- ment, while in the commoner breeds they are more or less low, fleshy, and thick. Between the two extremes there are numerous intermediate forms. When the withers are high, and thin from side to side, they are spoken of as being "fine" or shaj-p. When they are low and thick, they are described as coco-ftc. Height of the Withers.— The height of this region is determined for the most part by the length of the dorsal spines, and their pro- minence above the level of the Fig. 44. — Section through the Chest, showing suspension of the Tnink between the Fore-limbs A, Vertebral spine. B, B, Scapular cartilages, c, c, Sus- ^cudiug muscles. D, Scapula or blade-Vione. E, Humerus or upper arm. F, Radius or lower arm. 0, Carpus or knee. H, Large metacarpal bone or canon, i, Os suffraginis or long pastern. J, Os coroniE or coronet bono. K, Os pedis or foot bone. L, Rib. PlATG IV. HIGH WITHERS LOW WITHERS THE WITHERS 53 scapular cartilages will be in proportion as the fore part of the body is suspended higher or lower betwoou the fore extremities. Reference to fig. 44 will explain how the trunk, suspended by muscles between the two front legs, may vary in height in different animals, and how, in consequence, the withers are rendered more or less prominent. Fig. 45. — Ligamentum Nuchas A, Cordiform portion. B, Lamellar or flat portion, c. Attachments to doreal spines. Nos. 1 to 7, Cervical Vertebrae. The elevation of a increases the height of the withers in proportion as the trunk is set higher or lower between the supports B B. The importance of the withers as an element of conformation will be best understood when considered in respect to their anatomical relations. By reference to fig. 45 it will be seen that the great elastic ligament which gives passive support to the head and neck is implanted into the summits of the bones forming this region. Muscles which raise the head and neck, and move it from side to side, as well as others which elevate the shoulder and extend the spine, are also connected with it. The freedom and energy with which these parts are capable of acting is greatly increased when the withers are high, since the bony lever upon which they act is lengthened, and their contraction 54 CONFOEMATION AND ITS DEFECTS is rendered more effective in its results. In addition to being high, the withers should also be ample in length from before to behind, and sloped so as to fall well into the back. Ample depth and backward inclination of the shoulder are usually found where the withers are high and sloping. Under these conditions it results that the head is well carried, the fore end heightened, the play of the shoulder increased, and greater liberty is given to the entire body. It must, however, ])e noted that the advantages of height in this region will be more or less discounted in riding-horses if the withers are unduly thin, owing to the difficulty in protecting them against injury liy the saddle. Coarse Withers are characterized by undue thickness, besides which they are usually low and wanting in length and backward slope. In animals so constructed the head and neck are badly carried, the shoulders lack liberty and range of movement, and the action of the fore-limbs is restricted. ]\Ioreover, withers when low (Plate IV, fig. 2) and coai'se are exposeel to in- jury from forward displacement of the saddle, and the imposition of undue weight on the fore-limbs not only impairs the action, but adds materially to the wear and tear of the legs. It must not, however, be concluded that the indiffer- ent cjualities referred to are necessarily identified with coarseness. AVe fre- c|uently see horses with thick, coarse withers but still possessing ample height, length, and oblic]uity, and ma}-be a well-disposed shoulder, which, however, it should l)e observed, has the defect of ])eing ahvays more or less loaded. In these examples the neck also tends to coarseness, and although the action of both shoulders and knees may be ample, it is usually of the heavy-dwelling order, and l)adly su.stained. Coarseness of this region is often identified with animals of a low type, which, while being deficient in energy, display a marked ten- Fig. 46.— Section through the Withers A, Rhomboideus. B, Cervical trapezius, c, Lon- gissimus dorsi. D, Scapula. E, Infra spinatus. F, Panniculus. G, Latissimus dorsi. H, Serratus magnus. I, Interspinales dorsi. J, Levatores cos- tarum. K, Transversalis costarum. L, Serratus anticus. M, Skin. Plate V. I' . . m II in SHORT BACK, DISHED FACE li:?:.. LONG BACK THE BACK 55 dency to fatten, and a "soft", or, as it is sometimes expressed, a "washy" coustitution. Horses of this cast are diiiicult to "condition", and lack power of endurance. In the cart-horse, whose movements are slow and whose value centres in the power he is capable of developing in draught, coarseness of the withers, indicating as it does great muscular development, is a point of excellence rather than a defect; and when, in addition, this region is of good height and length, the mechanical advantage is still further enhanced. A glance at fig. 46 will assist in explaining the conditions which determine the coarseness or fineness of the withers. From the above it will be .seen that in the anatomical composition of this region there are a variety of structures. Centrally placed appear the spines of the vertebrae; outside these, right and left, a quantity of muscular tissue, being parts of several muscles here belonging; then come the scapular cartilages, followed by another layer of mu.scle, and finally the skin which encloses the whole. It is to these parts, and to the fibrous tissue which binds them together, that the withers owe their thickness or thinness, and in proportion as they are more or less bulky will the one or the other condition prevail. THE BACK The back is essentially the weight-bearing region, and as such is of the first importance to the utility and beauty of the horse. Moreover, it is through the spinal column that the body is projjelled by the hind extremities in its forward movements, and by the muscles which clothe it that the trunk is raised from end to end, and the weight imposed upon it supported in executing the difierent paces. The extent of the l:)ack is limited in front by the withers, behind ]>y the loins, while its width is determined by the arches of the ribs. Length. — It is generally conceded by the best judges of horses that the back should be short, but what degree of shortness is desiral)le is a question upon which writers at any rate are not in agreement. " In all cases", says Captain Hayes, " the horse's back and loins should have the appearance of being as short as possible", and most authors who have written on this subject pretend that shortness of the back con-stitutes its beauty. H. Bouley has very judiciously asserted that . this pro- position is too absolute. " A very .short back is not desirable except in animals destined to carry heavy weights, as the shaft-horse, the pack-horse, and the saddle-horse." 50 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFPXTS In this we quite concur, recognizing that a hack too short not only brings the anterior and posterior limbs too much in proximity with each other and reduces the base of support, but by diminishing tlie length of the muscles which act upon the limbs from the trunk and the great propelling muscles of the back, materially reduces the capacity for speed. Beyond this, the back, when unduly short, although possessing great stability and power, lacks the suppleness and elasticity which more extended proportions afford. It should also be pointed out that the length of the chest being in conformity with the length of the back, which forms its roof, any deficiency in the latter will materially diminish the capacity of the former. In this connection, however, sofne compen- sation may be assured if the chest be deep and the ribs well arched. A back of too great length is an evidence of weakness, and is frequently associated with legginess, lightness of muscle, and want of stamina. It lacks solidity and resistance to the weight imposed upon it, and under stress of work tends to become depressed and hollow. The disadvantages of a long back are minimized when it is wide and muscular, and supported by short, strong loins. Ample width is at all times essential to a good back. Any shortcoming in this respect is identified with corresponding deficiency of power in the back muscles, and narrow- ness of the chest. When this region is very narrow the spinal ridge is prominent and sharp, and liable to injury from the saddle, which is always badly carried; moreover, the sides are flat and the chest conse- quently deficient in capacity. Loins. — The loins comprise that portion of the spine interposed between the back in front and the croup and haunches l)ehind. Below, it is in relation with the flanks. " Whatever may l)e the work the animal is destined to perform, the loins should be as short as possible, a condition of solidity important to recognize, because the lumbar vertebrae have no support laterally from the ribs, as in the case of the backbones, being simply articulated one with the other. Its shortness also favours the impetus transmitted l)y the posterior limbs to the spine, because it lessens the elasticity and mobility of the structures through which the force of impulsion must puss. As to the relation of the entire length of the dorso-lumbar region the back should be long and the loins short, especially in saddle- and pack-horses." — Goubaux and Barrier. When the loins are short and the ribs approximate to the haunch, the animal is said to be "well ribbed up". A long, weak loin, by separating these parts, increases the width of the flanks and gives the PLATE VI. BACK HOLLOW FRO.U AUb BACK NAIUKALLY HOLLOW DIRECTION OF THK I5ACK AND LOINS 57 iippearance of .slackness, heiici,' tlie eonniioii expression, " slack in tlie loin ". Horses so constructed are said to "' want a rib ". DIRECTION OF THE BACK AND LOINS The line described by these regions will be found to vary to a con- siderable extent in different individuals. In some it is straight, in others more or less curved in an upward or downward direction. A straight back is the one universally recognized by judges as com- bining the greatest measure of power with the most perfect freedom and scope of action. An upward curve of the back is described as a roach hack (Plate X'HI). Most writers appear to agree that this condition is specially adajjted to the purpose of bearing weight, but it presents several important disadvantages. In animals so constructed the back is shortened by the upward curvature, and the great spinal muscles are said to be wanting in development — two conditions distinctly opposed to great range and rapidity of movement. Captain Hayes points out that as a rule in these cases the " chest is flat-sided", but Goubaux and Barrier affirm that it is " incorrect to associate this condition with flat ribs and a narrow chest". Between the two statements there is a medium which best accords with the experi- ence of the writer, and it may be expressed by saying that sometimes roach-backed horses are flat-sided. In both light and heavy draught -horses this defect is sometimes acquired by being forced into heavy and prolonged work at an early period of life, while the bones and ligaments of the spine are imperfectly developed. Horses thus deformed are said to be " pulled out of shape ". Whether congenital or acc[uired, however, this arching of the back is seldom found to interfere with the services of the shaft - horse whose work does not call for rapid locomotion. It is an eyesore, and as such materially depreciates the value of the animal in which it occurs. The back is hollow or sacldle-hacked when it describes a downward curve (Plate YI). Here the bones of the spine are depressed, either as the consequence of some disturbance in the course of development, or from relaxation of the ligaments by which they are united and supported. In this type of horse the vertebrae lack firmness of union, the back as a w-hole is wanting in rigidity and power of resistance, with the result that the weight, instead of being borne by the bones, is in too great part supported by the connecting ligaments, which, when overburdened, yield, and by so doing add to the existing defect. Not only is the superimposed weight badly sustained, but, owing to want of solidity in the .spine, the 58 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS force of the impulses tiansmitted to it in progression by the hind extremities is greatly diminished. It is for these reasons that stvay-hacked animals lack the power and pace of others more perfectly constructed. This condition, like the roacli-hack, may result when horses are sub- jected to hard w'ork and heavy burdens during their colthood. It is also developed in very old animals, whose back muscles, becoming wasted and weak, fail in their support of the spine and the weight imposed upon it. In considering this defect it must not be overlooked that hoUowness of the back is in many cases more apparent than real. Horses with lofty carriage, prominent withers, and high croup often give the appearance of hollowness, although the back may be anatomically and physiologically perfect, and a similar false appearance will result if the spines surmounting the vertebrae in this region are exce2:)tionally short and the muscles slightly developed. In any case hollowness of the back, whether real or only apparent, is an eyesore. In the former case it is a serious defect as well, insomuch as it diminishes the capacity to race, or jump, or carry weight. Horses thus formed are more especially adapted for harness purj^oses. THE CROUP The croup comprises that part of the body situated between the loins and the setting on of the tail. It extends on each side as far as the ujiper part of the thighs and buttocks. The pelvis, which together with the sacrum forms the bony base of this region, although entering into the formation of the trunk, must nevertheless be regarded as parts of the hind extremities corresponding with the scapulae or shoulder-blades of the fore-limbs. The coxae or uppermost bones of the posterior limbs are united together below, and joined to the sacrum or terminal portion of the spine above. By this arrangement a firm and compact union is effected between the leg and the trunk, so that the impulses from behind may be imparted to the entire body, through the articulation of the femur or thigh-bone with the pelvis. To the horse as a living motor the construction and development of this region is of supreme importance. In galloping, jumping, rearing, as well as in draught, those vigorous efforts which enter into the highest expression of speed and power are mainly produced l)y the action of the muscles of the croup on the upper and lower thigh. How far that action may be effective in the one case or the other will de])end n\)o\\ the mechanical arrangement of the parts. Length and width are equalities to which the croup owes its chief beauty Pl.ATH. VII. STRAIGHT CROUP SLOPING CROUP THE CKOUP 59 and power. All horses, whatever their type and purpose, should possess these attributes iu a high degree, and of course in proportions best adapted to the particular services required of them. In the race-horse an extended croup is of the first importance to the development of a high rate of .speed. The muscles are then long, and their range of contraction and power over the bony levers on which they act is corre.spondingly great. In the heavy draught-horse great length is not an essential quality, but, other things being equal, an extended croup is a feature much to be desired, since it not only adds to the beauty of the animal as a whole, hut materially inc'rea.ses the liberty and scope of action of the hind-limbs. Just as length is identified witli speed, so is width related to power; hence it becomes of the first importance that in horses designed for heavy work the pelvis should be broad, thus aflording anqjle space for the attach- ment of large, powerful muscles. Here it should be pointed out that the full width of the coxa^ or pelvis is not always accurately expressed in the transverse diameter of the croup, inasmuch as any marked downward slope or lateral inclination of the former wdll tend to reduce the width of tlie latter; but since in these circumstances the width of the bones remains the same and the muscles are undiminished in volume, it is not of material importance to the hor.se as a living motor. As we have already observed, ample width is essential in all classes of horses, but in the lighter breeds excess in this direction becomes a fault, more or less serious iu proportion as it is great. A croup too wide imparts to the action behind a heavy, rolling character; the movements of the limbs are thus made to dwell, and progression is impaired. In the slow-moving draught-horse this is of no importance, but in those employed for riding and driving purposes it is a serious defect. A narrow croup, although less objectionable in the latter than the former, is in both a sign of weakness. Besides length and width, the direction of the croup also exercises con- siderable influence in determining the aptitude of the horse for jjarticular service. The highest point of this region occurs immediately behind the loins where the internal angles of the ilia or haunch -bones are firmly united with the sacrum or terminal portion of the spine. Thence it proceeds more or less obliquely in a backward and downward course. Everyone recognizes the great variation existing in the degree of inclination of this region, but few appreciate the nature of its influence on the peculiar mechanical endowments of the animal. The slope of the croup is in one way or another governed by the slope 60 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS of the pelvis, Avhich forms its bony base; and although it is impossible to define the precise measure of power or speed which may be evohed under different degrees of inclination, it is fully recognized that while the former of these two forces is favoured by great obliquity, the latter is l»est de- veloped by a direction approaching the horizontal. When the conformation of this region is marked by great obliquity the horse is designed to " employ great force at a slow pace, while with the croup disposed horizontally he is capable of developing great speed, but fails when called upon to carry weight or cover a long course. For light carriage work such a conformation may suffice, but it is not adapted for heavy draught. " Between these two extremes there are numerous intermediary types which may with sufficient ease be grouped into three categories as follows :— "1. Saddle-horses which are obliged to move a more or less heavy weight carried on their back, at a sufficiently great velocity, whether at the trot or the gallop. Those which are destined for the turf should have a croup approaching the horizontal ideal of 25 degrees, but with a more oblique ilium (30 degrees) for the purpose of giving solidity to the structures anterior to it. Trotters are benefited by a somewhat more oblique direction of the ilium (35 degrees). As to hunters and cavaliy horses, used exclusively under the saddle, and from which great strength of the loins and posterior quarters but less speed are demanded, their croup should have an intermediary position between the oblique croup of the draught- horse and the horizontal one of the thoroughbred. "2. Driving-horses employed on the track or as animals of luxury, whose exclusive gait is the trot without any weight on the back, can without disadvantage have a horizontal croup. " This is appreciated as a quality of beauty and fashion as well as for its mechanical advantages in rapid locomotion. " 3. In draught-horses for fast, heavy work or mixed motors, combining at the same time force from their bulk and their muscular power and a certain speed from their relative muscular activity ... a croup slightly more inclined than that of the cavalry horse or the trotting horse will fulfil the required conditions" (Goubaux and Barrier). Excessive inclination or backward slope of the croup constitutes the unsightly condition known as " goose-rump ". Such a conformation, al- though not inconsistent with ordinary work, is incapable of great speed. In the heavy horse it is the least objectionable, for although by such construction the force of impulsion is transmitted too much in the vertical direction to yield its fullest effects, the powers of draught may still be very considerable. PLATE VIII. ROACH BACK GOOD QUARTERS bPLlT-UP THE HKEAST 61 THE BREAST The Jimensions of this region are more especially interesting on account of its width, which by many is regarded as an indication of the size and capacity of the chest. This, however, both observation and dissection have proved not to be the case. The distance l)etween the two first ribs varies but little in animals of the same variety and size, although the actual width Fig. 47. — Narrow Breast of the breast may present very considerable differences in the .same speci- mens. The cause of this discrepancy will be found in the varying size of the muscles, especially those which unite the fore extremity to the sternum or breast-bone. When these are largely developed the pectoral region is full, deep, and broad, and still more so if associated wnth general obesity. When from any cause such an animal is made to waste as a consequence of disease or indifferent food, a difference in the tran.sverse diameter soon becomes apparent. It is not, however, to be understood that the size of these muscles, and therefore the width of the brea.st, bears no relation to the respiratory eaijacity, for " dense and vigorous muscles require a si)acious 62 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS thorax, whence it folli)\vs that the width of the pectoral region, owing- to the volume of its muscles, should coincide with a certain degree of respira- tory power. If therefore this region is narrow it liecomes desirable to determine to what cause this narrowness is due, whether to that of the thorax directly or to the animal's condition." (Goubaux and Barrier.) The same eminent authorities observe that horses endowed with speed should be well open in front. A very narrow breast is always to be re- garded as a defect of conformation. It indicates, they say, a "feeble development of the muscular system, and very often respiratory organs of small amplitude ". Captain Hayes, however, is of opinion that a race-horse cannot l)e too narrow in front, but he insists that his fore-legs shall be " properly shaped and properly put on, and that the action in front shall be true ", which may be taken to mean that he shall possess a fair amount of breast-room. No great benefit could result to the function of respiration by the front ribs being placed wide apart; too great width at this point, whether from the size of the muscles or from the space between the ribs, would be a distinct mechanical disadvantage to horses of speed, for by separating the fore-limbs it would unduly enlarge the base of support, and by displacing the centre of gravity from side to side the forward impulses would be weakened and the velocity diminished. In heavy horses a deep, wide, muscular breast is a point of superior excellence because it adds to the bulk and increases the power of draught, in which slow but energetic movements are most essential. CHEST AND ABDOMEN Although having comparatively little concern directly with the mechanism of locomotion, the chest and al)domen rec^uire the fullest consideration, not only in relation with the extremities by which they are supported, but also in regard to the organs they enclose. In the chest are contained the central organs of circulation and respiration, heart and lungs; while the abdomen gives lodgment to the more volu- minous apparatus devoted to the digestion and assimilation of the food. It may l)e said, therefore, that these two regions which mainly compose the trunk are specially related with those organs to whose physiological activity the body owes its energy, whether expressed in the terms of "speed" or "force". It will be manifest from this that whatever may be the type of horse, whether constructed for pace or power, the highest development attainable in these parts should be souglit for. As Goubaux and Barrier observe, " The body containing the organs which are most THE CHEST 63 essential to life . . . cannot be defective from excess of development. If disproportion seems to exist in the trunk compared to the limbs, then the latter are not properly constructed to support the former. But generally, although excess may not be objectionable, the same cannot be said of deficiency of development. " Our machine, having a weak chest and small abdomen, will be without energy, without wind, and capable of very little exertion. Such an animal will be a poor feeder and will not last long." With reference to the general dimensions of the trunk, it need only be said here that ample depth and width throughout are of the first importance to continued soundness and endurance. Undue length becomes a defect in so far as it can only be acquired by such an increase in the length of the back as to place the muscles of the latter at a distinct mechanical disadvantage in raising the forehand. Moreover, as pointed out by Captain Hayes, " The longer it is, the further removed will the fore- and hind-limbs be from each other, and the less able will the animal be to carry weight ", or to move it. It is a point of conformation ecjually objectionable in the heavier and in the lighter types of horses, since the solidity and strength of the back, so necessary in draught, is diminished by undue length, and the action of the hind-limbs is transmitted with less force along the spine. THE CHEST The cavity termed the thorax or chest has for its bony base the dorsal vertebrae above, the sternum or breast- bone below, and the ribs on either side. The spaces between the latter are tilled in by the intercostal muscles. In front it is limited by the neck, and behind by the diaphragm — a broad, flat muscle which intervenes between it and the abdominal cavity. The size and mobility of the chest walls, and consecjuently the volume and breathing capacity of the lungs, are mainly due to the length and disposition of the ribs, especially those situated behind the shoulder, where, unlike those in front, the lower extremities have no fixed attachment to the sternum below, and are greatly increased in length by the addition of tapering rods of elastic cartilage (fig. 49). The movements of the ribs in ordinary breathing tend to increase the size of the chest during inspiration and to diminish it during expiration, but the manner in which these changes are effected is not, as commonly supposed by some people, by the ri-sing and falling of the ribs at right angles with the long axis of the body. It is found, on the contrary, that when the chest expands 64 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS it does so by the ribs being drawn forward and outward, while at the same time the intercostal spaces are enlarged by the separation of tlie ril)s one from the other. In contraction of the chest during expiration tliese movements are reversed, the intercostal spaces becomino- narrower and the ribs being brought nearer together. The extent to which the chest is capable of enlarging is much greater behind, where the ribs are long and loosely connected below, than in front, where they are shorter and more closely though movably united to the breast-bone as well as to the spine above. From these considerations it will be seen that the power of expansion possessed by the thorax is for the most part due to the length and curvature of the posterior ribs, and it is for this reason that ample scope is so much desired in this region. The points of special interest as affecting the conformation of the chest are its dimensions in respect to height, width, and length. Height. — The vertical diameter of the chest is spoken of l)y hippotomists as its height. This dimension, although regulated by the length of the ribs, is not necessarily in exact conformity with it, but will be greater or less for ribs of given length accordina; to their degree of curvature. The greater the curve described by the ribs the less will be the distance between their two extremities, and consequently the less will be the vertical diameter of the chest; but it should be noted that any diminution in the vertical distance resulting from their convexity will be added to the transverse diameter, and thus what is lost in height is gained in width. Ribs of moderate length, but wanting in curvature, may give a faii'ly deep chest, but the sides will be fiat and the capacity of the thorax small in consequence. As Cline has observed, the more the chest departs from a cylindrical form the less becomes its capacity. Ample depth in this region is commonly denoted by the position of the sternum, which should come well down l)elow the point of the elbow. This, however, is not always a reliable indication, as the position of the chest between the fore extremities may be set higher or lower b}' the muscles which suspend it, just as the height of the withers, as we have seen elsewhere, may be influenced by the same cause. From what has been said it will be seen that it is of the first importance to the beauty and utilit}' of our subject that the ribs should Fig. 49. — Two Ribs, showing at A A the Costal Cartilages THE CHEST 65 be long, not onlv that tlie chest may be deep, but, more impoitant still, tliat it may be well arched. Besides this they must l)e well inclined backward towards the haunch, to which the posterior or " back " ribs should nearly approximate. It is equally important that they should 1)6 placed wide apart and united by broad intercostal muscles. So con- structed, the ribs will have plenty of play in their outward and forward movements, and the capacity of the chest will be correspondingly large. Any shortcoming in these respects imparts to the body an appearance of lightness, legginess, and instability. The animal will be, in stable parlance, "slack in the loin", badly "ribbed up", and wanting in power and endurance. ^1. Gayot observes that the distance between the summit of the withers and the sternum in a well-formed chest should lie greater than that between the sternum and the ground. Eeferring to this point, Captain Hayes, in his work on TJie Points of tlie Horse, contrasts the measurements of the race-horse with those of the draught-horse, selecting Ormonde and St. Simon as examples of the one, and the shire horse Cheadle Jumbo and shire mare Chance as examples of the other. The results of his measurements are given in the following table: — Ormonde. St. Simon. Cheadle Jumbo. Chance. Depth from withers to | brisket 1 Distance of girth place 1 from ground ) 29 ins. 35^, ins. •27-| ins. 3Gi ins. 35 ins. 31 i ins. 34 ins. 33 ins. The measurements of Ormonde were taken in July, 1887, when he was a four-year-old, and those of St. Simon in September, 1884, when he was a three-year-old, and presumably both horses would be in racing- condition. It is not, however, stated at what age or in what condition the shire hor.ses were when their measurements were taken, and as this would materially affect the comparison, it is impossible, in the absence of exact data, to estimate the value and accuracy of the conclu.sions at which Captain Hayes has arrived. Both Cheadle Jumbo and Chance were show animals, and if the measurements were taken while in the usual show condition, no reliable conclusion could be drawn as to the relative dimensions of the chest and limbs by comparison with horses in racing form. In referring generally to the depth of chest as compared with length of limb in different types of horses. Captain Hayes points out that " if we take Ormonde as the highest type of the race-horse we 66 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS shall find that the distance fioni the top of his withers to his brisket, if applied down his fore-leg, will reach from his brisket only to the bottom of his fetlock. In the high-class Leicestershire hunter it will come down to the middle of the pastern, in the heavy-w^eight hunter to the coronet; in the artillery 'wheeler', or light cart-horse, to the ground; and in a Cheadle Jumbo it will be four inches more in length." Width. — In the exercise of our judgment on this point it is necessary to view the chest first from the front, whence the extent to which the ribs project beyond the line of the shoulder will be noticed, and then by standing first to the right and then to the left, before and behind respec- tively, a more complete inspection may be made of its general contour. The greatest width of this region will be found at a point corresponding to about the eleventh rib. It is, however, to be understood that in estimating the transverse diameter of the chest some consideration must be given to the condition of the horse as to his state of obesity and muscular development. Very fat animals may display ample widtli and roundness for the time being, only, however, to subside to the meauest proportions after a brief period of ordinary work, or a change from sloppy food to hard corn. Conversely, the standard of measurement presented by horses, and especially young ones, w-hen ill-done and emaciated, may lead to an under-estimate of what the transverse measurement of the thorax may be when they are in fair condition. To be able to appreciate these discrepancies and to form a sound judgment of the actual dimensions of this region is a qualification only to be acquired by long practice and close observation. LEGS The legs are supports situated right and left of the anterior and posterior extremity of the body respectively, hence they are distinguished as front- and hind-limbs. They each comprise a column of bones articulated together at irregular intervals, forming large, free -moving joints, and besides supporting the trunk serve for the attachment of muscles through whose agency the body is moved from place to place. The muscular apparatus by which this is effected is confined to the upper portion of the limbs, and by means of long tendons (fig. 12, p. 20) acts upon and directs the movements of the bony segments below. By tliis disposition of parts the lower portion of the leg is rendered light, and enjoys as the result a freedom and liberty which could not otherwise have been the case. The weioht of muscles attached to the lower extremitv of Plate ix. M EL 1 1 1^ W^ ^ B ^^ i 1 I b. -.: 1 ^:;^^-'-. 1. UOOlj I Ul>'L-l LIjS W HAK 1 ukLi-LHGS LEGS 67 a long lever, such as tlic leg represents, would not only render the steps heavy and the movements awkward, but it would also lower the centre of gravity and seriously interfere with progression. Moreover, the grace and elegance of form and action which the horse now possesses could not in such circunistances exist. Function of the Limbs. — Although the action of the fore and hind extremities have much in common, their functions arc in sonic respects widely different. This might be inferred from the manner of their attachment to the trunk, the fore part of which is supported, as in a sling, by muscles which con- nect it to the fore extremities. \ Bv reference to fig;. 44, p. 50, it ... * ^ ■will be seen that there is no joint or solid union between the fore- limbs and the chest such as is found between the hind extre- mities and the pelvis. In the former case the scapula or blade- bone moves freely over the sur- face of the ribs with which it is in loose contact, while in the latter the head of the thigh-bone (fig. 50) is confined by strong ligaments within the cup-like cavity of the pelvis, with which it forms the hip-joint, through which the hind-limbs transmit their projjulsive efforts and effect the forward movement of the body. It will be noticed later that the weight borne by the front limits exceeds that sustained by the hind ones, and in addition to this they have also to receive and disperse the forcible impact from behind which is imposed upon them in racing and jumping, and in a less degree in the .slower paces. Their ability to meet these requirements is •explained by the peculiar manner of their attachment to the trunk. This, as we have seen, is effected by muscles only, which permit the weight and propulsive force to fall upon the passive organs of locomotion — bones, tendons, and ligaments — without exciting that violent reaction which would neces.sarily result had the scapula a fixed articulation with the trunk, such as exists between the pelvis and the thigh-ljone. It will be seen, therefore, that besides being organs of support, the fore- limbs are specially designed to break and di.sperse the concussion to which they are exposed in the more energetic movements of the body. Fig. 50. -Articulation of the Hip Joint A A, Capsular or enclosing ligament. B, Round ligament. C, Puhio-femoral ligament. D, Cotyloid ligament. E, Head of femur. CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS As organs of propulsion they exercise but slight influence as compared with the hind - limbs. Their greatest efforts in this connection are developed in heavy draught (fig. 51), when "the body strongly in- clined forward gives the fore-legs an oblique direction backward, which permits them to push against the collar to which the shoulders are energetically ap- plied. It is by the extension or opening out of all the articu- lar angles i^reviously semi-riexed that the fore-limbs are able to accomplish this result. When they are di- rected obliquely and in an inverse direc- tion, as is seen some- times at the begin- hich they exercise upon the trunk, minimum. Traction forward can foot directed backward is fixed This is observed in the draught- soil, the point of support, gives (Goul)aux and Barrier.) Copyright 1887 liy Ea.hvear.l Muyliriclge. From '■ Animals iu Motion' Fig. 51. — Oblique Position of the Limbs in drawing a ning of the effort of traction, the force w and therefore against the collar, is at its be favourably executed only when the against the roughness of the ground, horse as he moves his load; when the way, the feet suddenly glide backward. • (Cliapmau 4 Hall) Load THE SHOULDER Of all the parts of a horse none perhajjs come in for so much criticism as the shoulder, and having regard to the infiuence it is capable of exercising over the various phases of locomotion, and in safeguarding the integrity of the limljs with which it is connected, no wonder can be entertained that it should be made so much a matter of concern to the breeder, the dealer, and the user of horses. In this, as in most other regions, no single design can be made to meet all purposes, and between the two extremes of conformation which lend themselves respectively to speed and power some variation will neces- •sarily be found to exist. The measure of mechanical perfection either in regard to the one rcquirenK'nt or the other lieing incapa1)le of accomplish- nient, it must suflice to indicate the more salient features identified with each. THE SHOULDER 69 In estimating the form and character of this region due consideration will require to be given to the general condition of the animal, which may very materially modify, if it does not altogether obliterate, the liner features of the part. This is very much the case in young highly-fed horses, and especially stallions and brood mares, in what is termed " sliow condition", whose tissues, loaded with fat, almost completely efface the outline and bony landmarks of the shoulder. To the real judge of horse form this is not of serious importance, for, recognizing the difficulty, he will endeavour to determine the extent of its boundaries by close obser- vation of its movements and their relation to neighbouring parts, as the withers, the neck, the back, and the chest. In the reverse condition, whether the spareness be the result of poverty or work, every part of the region becomes clearly defined, so that its general form, extent, and direction may be fully made out. One of the first essentials in the make-up of a horse is ample length of the shoulder, in which a long blade - bone provides accommodation and attachment for muscles of proportionate size. The greater the length of the latter the more they will be able to shorten during con- traction, and the greater will be the range of movement they will effect in the act of progression. A long shoulder is much to be desired in horses of speed, and most of all in the thoroughbred. Without it the limbs do not develop that sweeping stride which distinguishes the race- horse and the trotter. On the contrary, the action is short, cramped, wanting in elastic reaction, and conducive to concussion and wear of the limbs. Necessary as length is to the velocity of the gait, it is only when supplemented b}' obliquity (Plate X, fig. 2) that the shoulder can fully profit by it. In all horses of whatever variety, from the heavy draught- horse to the boys' pony, ample inclination of the blade-bone is of primary importance. High, sloping withers and a deep chest usually coexist with a long, well-inclined shoulder. In this condition the shoulder muscles are enabled to enhance greatly the forward movement of the arm-bone, and to favour the elevation and extension of the entire limb. But there are other advantages of equal importance arising out of sloping shoulder.s — they impart liberty and elasticity to the gait, lighten the tread, and save the limbs from the injurious effects of concussion and wear. AVith length and obliquity the shoulder should combine a well- developed symmetrical set of muscles, in volume and strength adapted to the .special services of the animal. In the race-horse, whose purpose 70 CONFORM ATIOX AND ITS DEFECTS is speed, any undue thickness in this Situation will seriously detract from the liglitness of the forehand and prove an obstacle to both velocity and endurance, besides adding materially to the wear and tear of the liml)s. In a less degree the same remarks will aj^ply to the hack and the light harness-horse, in whom thick, fleshy shoulders are not only an eye- sore, but greatly detract from the liberty and luuniony of the gait by overburdening the forehand. This condition is often aggravated by the coexistence of coarse withers and a neck surcharged with muscle. In the hunter and chaser, Captain Hayes observes, the " shoulder- blades should be long and oblique, so as to enable him in the best possible manner to resist the shock of landing over a fence. On account of having this special kind of work to do, his shoulders should be more muscular than those of the race-horse. The fact of his shoulders being sloping will enable him to 'take off' more cleverly at any obstacle than he could do were they upright." In the draught -horse, in whom range and rapidity of movement is subordinate to power, great length and oblicjuity of the shoulders are not of paramount importance, but, other things being equal, they at no time constitute a serious defect of construction. Ample length, besides affording space for the bearing of the collar, is usually in conformity with a deep, wide chest, while shoulders well inclined increase the length, elasticity, and quickness of the step without materially detracting from muscular power. By many an oblique shoulder is regarded as an ol)Stacle to draught. It is said that with such a conformation the hoi'se is incapable of throwing all his weight into the collar. Since, however, " horses cannot be made to fit the harness, it would surely require but little ingenuity to make the harness fit the horse; if at the same time due regard was paid to the line of traction, and the traces attached accordingly, whatever ground of ol)jection to sloping shoulders in the draught-horse may be, would dis- appear ". It should he observed that in some of the finest specimens of the "Shire" and '"Clydesdale" a sloping shoulder is one of the leading features of their make - up, and the grand stride, limpness, and elastic recoil of the limbs in such animals present a striking contrast to the short, stilty wobble of those otherwise constructed. It only remains to notice that as mass is related to power, as length is to speed, the shoulder muscles of the heavy draught-horse should be as large as possible, so that energy and weight together may operate in the collar. Plath X. Lu.Nij SLOPING SHOULDLU STKAKjUT bHOL'LUHK THE ARM 71 THE ARiM The arm is intimately connected with the lateral aspect of the chest, and, like the shoulder-blade with which it articulates above, is completely invested by muscles. The two regions being outwardly undistinguish- able one from the other, some hippotomists have treated them together as jointly forming the shoulder, and large numbers of practical horse- men do not difterentiate between them. The bony base of the u[)per arm is supplied by the humerus, a some- what massive bone whose superior extremity articulates with the scapula to form the shoulder-joint, from which it proceeds obliquely backward, and with the radius and ulna combines to form the elbow -joint. The range of movement of the ujjper arm and the forward swing of the entire limb will very much depend upon its length, which should be as great as possible so long as it is not out of proportion with the shoulder. Any discrepancy in this respect gives rise to relatively short shoulder muscles, whose limited contraction would restrict the movements of the arm both in extent and freedom. When the arm is unduly long the shoulder muscles are overtaxed, and the forward movement of the limb is diminished. There is besides this a lack of liberty in the action of animals so constructed, and a disposition to stumble and to fall. When too short the forearm is not sufficiently advanced, as a result of which the step is shortened and speed is diminished. " On general principles the shoulder and the arm sliould be long absolutely, in order to be favourable to velocity; but with the same total length of these two segments, it is necessary that the former should be long and the latter short." — Goubaux and Barrier. The force exercised by the fore -limb in the forward movement of the body being directed through the arm, some importance must attach to the degree of inclination which this region presents. In this connection it is found that while great obliquity of the humerus detracts from a high rate of speed, in the heavy draught- horse such a condition becomes an advantage, since it gives to the muscles connected with it a more perpendicular insertion, whereby their power is increased. It is hardly necessary to say that to a projier length and direction of the arm should be added a set of well-developed muscles. 72 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS ELBOW The elbow is by no means the least important item in the make-up of the fore-limb, since it atibrds attachment to the largest and most powerful muscles of the fore extremity. Acting as a lever, the power of the muscles connected with it is augmented Or diminished according as the lever arm is long or short. Besides being long the elbow should stand clear of the body, and be directed backward, or with the slightest outward inclination. When inclined too much in the latter direction the toes are made to turn inward, and the animal is said to be " pigeon-toed". When the elbow is directed towards the chest the feet are disposed outward. In addition to being unsightly both these conditions predispose to accident and injury. Speedy cutting, interfering, and stumbling are common consequences of these defects of conformation, besides which they disorder and retard the action and produce a rolling and irregular gait. FOREARM Two bones (fig. 11, p. 19) enter into the formation of the forearm. The radius, the longer and larger of the two, is situated in front, and extends from the arm to the knee; the ulna, whose upper extremity forms the projecting point of the elbow, is situated behind, and unites with the radius by ossific union for about two-thirds of its length. For the purpose of speed, the length of the step in progression, and consequently the velocity attainable, will be greatly influenced by the length of the forearm. From the point of view of speed, therefore, this region should be as long as possible. Although favourable to great range of forward movement and a high rate of progression, a long radius does not admit of that sharp, high knee action so much admired in the park hack. This kind of movement is more likely to be developed when the forearm is short. The muscles of this region both before and behind should l)e large and well set out, so that when viewed in profile the forearm presents ample width throughout its entire length; any undue and abrupt narrowing towards the knee not only disturbs the harmony of jjroportion, but is a sign of weakness, which will be still further emphasized in the tendons and parts below fonning the region of the canon. Viewed from before, the forearm should be thick in conformity with its width. KNEE 73 It is also important, in order that the body may be truly balanced, that it should be well directed. Any deviation from the vertical line in one \va\' or another must be regarded as a serious defect of conformation, inasmuch as it alters the distribution of the body-weight, and in doing so not only tends to impair the natural action, but to relieve certain parts of the limb to the detriment of others. Considered in relation to parts below the knee, the forearm should be long and the canon short in all fast motors such as racers and chasers. The muscles of the former region, being coextensive with the bones, will in these circumstances enjoy a large range of contraction, and be able to move the shorter canon through a greater space and with greater rapidity, and thereby develop a higher speed. KNEE The knee as a factor in locomotion is of much importance in relation to conformation. It is a large and complex joint, made up of a number of bones united by many connecting ligaments, and so arranged as to allow a free and extensive range of hinge-like action between it and the arm. Although the degree of movement which it permits is very considerable, it can only take place in the directions of flexion and extension, i.e. bending the canon upon the forearm and projecting it forward. Important tendons, by whose agency these movements are effected, cross the anterior and posterior face of the joint respectively on their way to the bones below. From every point of view the knee should present ample space, its sui-face should be regular, and its parts clean and well-defined. An aspect of roundness is objectionable, since it denotes a thick skin and a super- abundance of connective tissue beneath it, as well as a low cast of breeding and a soft, lymphatic temperament. Viewed in profile the joint should be wide from front to back, and the projecting angle seen at the outer and back part above should be large and prominent, so as to give room for the play of the tendons which it partly encloses, and to furnish ample space for the attachment of others to it which assist in flexing the knee. Regarded from the front the joint should present a broad, flattened surface for the accommodation of the extensor tendons which pass over it. The further advantages of a large knee will be to provide large articular surfaces and generally to increase the capacity for movement, and to break and disperse the effects of concussion. The direction of the knee should coincide with the vertical direction of the forearm and canon. Deviations from this course of one kind or another are frequently 74 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS obsei'ved, cind present some of the worst and most ohjectionalile defects of couformatiou. When the knee is displaced forward in advance of the vertical line it is said to lip '-bowed", or the horse "stands over", "knee sprung", &c. This deformity may exist at birth and con- tinue through the life of the animal, when it is said to be "congenital", or, as more frequently occurs, it arises out of hard work, injury, and contraction of the weight-bearing structures of the limb, especially the back tendons and liga- ments. Other examples result from an enfeebled state of the tiexor and extensor muscles, whose tendons being relaxed fail to give support to the joint. When of congenital origin "bowed knees" are not a serious defect except in bad cases, but when otherwise induced they imjjair the working powers of the animal and render him dangerous both in the shafts and under saddle. When the knees incline backward (fig. 53) the horse is said to have " calf knees ". This is a condition most frecpiently met with among heavy horses, but we are not aware of any serious defect arising out of it. It may, how- ever, conduce to sprain of the back tendons and ligaments in horses of speed, as some writers have affirmed, l)y displacing the weight unduly backward. Lateral deviation of the knees may also occur in an inward or outward direction. In the former the joints approach each other more or less closely and the feet are turned outward (fig. 55). In the latter they are set wide apart while the feet are directed inward (fig. 56). These disturbances in the conformation of the limbs are not only un- sightly but serious. Besides rendering the animal unsafe to ride or drive and awkward of gait they give rise to an unecj[ual distribu- tion of the body -.weight on the supporting columns and conduce to Fig. 6<1. — Lalt Knet's THE CANON 75 Fig 54. Toes turned out Fig. 55. — In-kneed Fig. 56. — Toes turned in sprain of the coiinectiug and supporting ligaments of the joints and limbs. THE CAXON This region is limited above b\' the knee in front and by the hock behind, and below by the fore and hind fetlock joints respectively. It embraces within its circumference the three metacarpal bones, in front of which are the extensor tendons, while behind, the suspensory ligament of the fetlock, the carpal or check-ligament, and the flexor tendons follow in the order named. The canon bone proper is the longer of the three. It occupies the central position and assists in forming the knee-joint above and the fetlock-joint below. Immediately behind the large canon, lodged in a groove formed by the two small splint-bones, is the suspensory ligament of the fetlock-joint, a strong, flattened band of dense, tough, though ela.stic structure firmly attached above to the upper extremity of the canon and below to the small bones (sesamoid bones) behind the fetlock-joint, which it supports in opposition to the weight imposed upon them by the body. Springing from behind the knee and hock, where it is firmly attached (fig. 12, p. 20), is a thick, short, tendinous cord, the check -ligament, a powerful band which, after passing a short distance down the leg, unites with the flexor tendon on its way to the foot. By this arrangement the weight imposed upon the flexor muscle may 76 CONFORMATION AND ITS D?:FECTS be transferred to the canon, thus enabling the former to rest and re- cuperate after exertion and fatigue. The posterior part of this region is formed by two tendons, the flexor pedis perforans and the flexor pedis perforatus. These two long, dense cords, after traversing the posterior part of the canon, are continued downward over the fetlock-joint, to which they give support, and finally become attached to the pedal or foot lione and the short pastern respectively. The length of this region is greater behind than in front in all varieties of the horse, and, as might be expected, all things being equal, it is also slightly longer in the race-horse, the hunter, and other fast-moving types than in the heavy, slow-moving draught-horse. Considered in relation to the arm in front and the second thigh or leg bone behind, the canon in the thoroughbred should be short, for as Goubaux and Barrier observe: "When it is thus the muscles experience less fatigue and contract to better advantage. A short canon is less heavy, oscillates more freely . . . and does not necessitate the same elevation of the limb above the ground to reach the limits of its move- ments." Viewed in profile the canon should be straight and form a line per- pendicular to the ground. Any marked deviation in this respect is' pre- judicial to the integrity and consequently to the work-bearing capacity of the legs. It tends to bring about an unequal distribution of weight on the underlying joints, and to impose undue strain on some of the connecting ligaments, which, sooner or later, results in active disease. As the region of the canon is made up of weight-bearing structures, size and strength in its several parts are of the first importance to the resistance of wear and tear and prolonged endurance. In every variety of the horse this part should present great width from front to back, with little or no variation from beneath the knee downward (fig. 57, and Plate IX, fig. 1) until approaching the fetlock- joint, where it will gradually widen out in conformity with a relatively large articulation. This quality of amplitude is not only an evidence of power in itself, but also of a high state of development of those parts related to it — the knee- joint above, the fetlock below, the muscles of flexion and extension, and the tendons which proceed from them and concur in the formation of the canon. Most horsemen know how important it is, and insist on substantial measurement below^ the knee. This is no doubt a good working rule, but it must be observed that lightness of the parts under consideration is not always to be -regarded as an absolute defect of conformation, but THE CANON iinpu.sL' uiidtie stniiu must be considered in relation to the services they have to perform. From this view-point it will he obvious that such a condition will be serious in proportion as the body is large and the weight to be borne is excessive. A massive frame supported by small canons woul on tendons and ligaments alike, and impart ruinous concussion to the joints. Congenital deficiency of development is sometimes observed in the flexor ten- dons and parts inmiedi- ately below the knee (fig. 58), which, instead of being well set back from the bone, are here con- stricted and narrow. This "tying-in", as it is termed, of the tendons is a grave fault of conformation not only in itself, but also because it is invariably associated with a small knee. Captain Hayes is of opinion that this defect is " in almost all cases due to an admixture of more or less cart Ijlood". Whether this be so or not we are not prepared to say, but we agree with him in the statement that animals 30 constructed are "unfit for fast work or for jumping". AVidth from side to side, always greater in the fore- than in the hind- limb, is no less important than that from front to back, As this dimension is entirely made up of the bones, it affords a clear index not only of the strength of the 1>ones themselves, l)ut also of the width and the general scope of the knee- and fetlock-joint which they concur in forming. Aloreover, the greater the transverse diameter of the canon the larger and stronger will be the tendons and ligaments in relation to it. Narrowness in this region is a mark of weakness, and mostly accom- panies a slight development of the entire limb. Fig. 57. — Good Fore-arm and Canon 58. — Weak Fore-arm and Canon 78 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS We have already pointed out that in horses of speed the canon should be absolutely long to give length and range to the stride. It should, however, be short in proportion to the forearm. When weight is thrown upon the limbs the flexor tendons and the suspensory ligament should stand out in bold relief, the one behind the other, with a well-marked groove between them (fig. 57). A similar depression ought also to be seen im- mediately behind the canon -bone, between it and the suspensory liga- ment. To the touch these tendinous structures recj^uire to be hard, tense, and well developed. In common-bred horses the out- Fig. 59. — Bones of the Fetlock and Pastern A, Splint-bone. B, Canon-bone, c, Suffraginis or first ph.alanx. D, Second phalanx. E, Pedal bone, p, Xavicidar bone. 0, Sesamoid bone. H, Ergot Fig. 60. — Attachment of the Scsivmoid Bones to the Skeleton of the Leg A A, Suspensory ligament. B, B, Outer and inner branches of the same, c, c, Outer and inner sesamoid bones. D, Superficial sesa- moid ligament. E, Deep sesamoid ligament. K, F, Lateral phalangeal ligaments. G, Crucial sesamoid ligament. H, Intersesamoid liga- ment. 1,1, Posterior phalangeal ligaments. line of the parts compo.sing this region is obscured by a thick skin and a superabundance of subcutaneous connective tissue. The legs are then said to be coarse and fleshy, and present a rounded, unshapely appearance. THE PASTERN 79 THE FETLOCK The fctlock-joiiit, with its anatoniicul rehitions, constitutes an interest- ing and important piece of animal mechanism. The bones entering into its composition are shown in fig. 59, and consist of the inferior extremity of the canon, articulating below with the long pastern and behind with the two sesamoid bones, the four together combining to form a joint whose movements, although confined to ilexion and extension, are in these directions of great range. The sesamoid bones are connected with the back part of the knee by- means of the suspensory ligament (fig. 60), a powerful elastic band by which the bones are supported in opposition to the downward and back- ward pressure imparted to them by the canon. While offering considerable resistance to the descent of the fetlock-joint, the elasticity of the suspen- sory ligament still permits it to yield more or less in accordance with the weight imposed upon it. The spring-like action thus imparted to the joint is still further amplified by the fiexor tendons, which, in descending the leg, play over the sesamoid bones behind as does a rope over a pulley, and by limiting the descent of the fetlock thereby prevent any undue strain on the elasticity of the suspensory ligament. It will be seen, therefore, that besides supporting weight, the con- struction of this joint is by its elastic mechanism specially adajated to the important purpose of warding off concussion. To be in other respects efticient, the fetlock -joint should be broad from side to side and from front to back, thus providing for a large surface of articulation on the ends of the bones and greater leverage from the back- ward projection of the sesamoid bones, which unite to render the range of movement both free and extensive. THE PASTERN The pastern, which, as we have seen, assists to form the fetlock-joint, is situated between it and the coronet. The points of special interest attach- ing to this region are its length and its oWiquity, in both of which excess or deficiency will constitute a defect of conformation proportionate to its extent. The longer the pastern the more the reaction of the soil against the weight of the body augments and fatigues the muscles and taxes the tendons and ligaments which are connected with the sesamoid bones. Deficiency of length of the pastern evidently has inverse draw>)acks. The .short-jointed horse surcharges his bones beyond measure. He lacks suppleness in consequence of the insufficiency of the fetlock as an apjiaratus 80 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS of dispersion, and has, from this fact, hard reactions; l)esides, he is more predisposed to osseous blemishes of the bones of the limbs, as ring-bones, &c. The direction of the pastern is intimately allied to its length ; that is to say, a long pastern (fig. 62) is in most cases too horizontal, while it becomes more vertical when it is too short. An exception is illustrated in fig. 63, where the pasterns are both short and sloping. The close relationship which associates long- jointedness with low- jointedness is easy of comprehension, the pastern becoming less and less 61. — Good Pasterns Fig. 62. — Long sloping Piisterns-' Fig. 63. — Short sloping Pasterns a column of support in the one, and more and more an elastic spring in the other in proportion as its length increases. A spring gives all the more as it is more elastic and as the pressure wliieli it supports is greater. This is precisely what takes place in a long-jointed pastern ; which is at the same time nearly always low-jointed, because it is relatively weak and flexible under the weight and the reactions of the body. The long and oblique pastern renders the horse more supple and more })leasant to ride; it enables him to disperse more easily the violent reaction of locomotion at great speed, and it would be very desirable in the saddle- horse, the driving-horse, and the race-horse were it not a source of danger to the integrity of the tendons. "The short and straight pastern is strong; it has no very ])rejudicial influence against heavy-draught services, but it renders the reactions hard, and jeopardizes thereby the integrity of the osseous apparatus, hence it unfits a horse for fast riding." — Goubaux and Barrier. PLATE XI. UPRIGHT PASTERNS GOOD QUARTERS AND GASKINS THE FOOT 81 It need hardly be said that to appropriate length and direction must be added ample width from front to back and from side to side, affording space for broad articulations and coextensive ligaments and tendons. THE FOOT Strength, beauty of proportion, energy and endurance, however well con- tained in the equine frame, are of little avail in the absence of a good foot. To realize the highest services which these qualities are capable of developing re(iuires the coexistence in this region of a high standard of excellence both in conformation and strength. It must be recognized that as the power of the motor becomes greater, so much more perfect and resisting should be the parts specially exposed to w-ear. It is too often the case with the uninitiated to lose sight of the foundation in presence of an attractive superstructure, a course which in the experience of the writer ha.s cost many pangs of disappointment and regret to many self-constituted judges. Size and Proportion. — This region is liable to considerable variation as a result of the operation of shoeing and other causes, so feet naturally ample in volume, and well conformed, may by unskilled treatment be rendered abnormally .small and unshapely. This is a question which must always receive consideration in estimating the true character of this organ. The relative size of the feet will first demand attention. Discrepancies in this respect are for the most part indicative of chronic disease, but now and again horses come into the world with one foot smaller than another. This irregularity of development is objectionable in so far that it indicates weakness, diminishes the base of support, and renders the foot liable to disease. To differentiate between congenital and acquired disparity in the size of the feet sometimes requires an amount of technical knowledge which the amateur cannot be expected to possess ; as, however, the former is of seldom occurrence, any departure from the standard of uniformity should at all times be regarded with the greatest suspicion. Although ample size is a quality much to be desired in the feet of all horses, undue development in this direction is distinctly prejudicial to the well-being of the animal. Large feet call for large shoes, hence the limlxs are encumbered with superfluous weight and the muscjes are early fatigued; moreover, the action becomes heavy and unsteady, which sooner or later brings about brushing, stumbling, and premature decay of both legs and feet. Less objectionable, but still to be condemned, are feet wanting in 82 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS volume. When unduly small they neither supply a good base of support nor take a sufficient grip of the ground. Many are .structurally weak, and all fail to conserve the limbs for want of that breadth and substance necessary to diffuse and disperse the ruinous effects of concussion. The objection to small feet will be more serious in proportion as the action is high and the hoof is wanting in stoutness and strength. Objectionable as are these conditions of excess and deficiency of de- velopment, there are defects of conformation still more inimical to work and wear which require to be noticed in dealing with this region. Flat feet are among the worst of this group, for the reason that Hat- ness is nearly always associated with weakness of the general structure of the organ. Besides being Hat, the feet are usually on the large side. The heels are low, the frog full and fleshy, and the crust thin, loose in texture, and brittle. Feet of this character are commonly found in animals bred and reared on soft fen or marsh- land. They are liable to lamiuitis, l)ruis- ing of the sole and frog, and especially predisposed to corns. The pasterns in horses of this class are wanting in substance and usually much inclined. Upright Feet. — Feet so termed are deep in the crust, from the coronet to the ground surface, from heel to toe, and at the same time wanting in forward slope or obliquity. The direction of the pasterns in this formation follows more or less closely that of the feet, as a result of which the weight is directed towards the front of the foot, causing it to fall more immediately on the bony columns, and much of the elastic reaction of the tendinous and ligamentous structures behind is lost to the limb. Upriglit Foot THE HIND LIMB In dealing with this division of the IxmIv, it would have been more in accord with anatomical teaching to have commenced with a consideration of the pelvis as forming the upper extremity of tlie hind-limb, but as we have already dealt w-ith it wdien speaking of the croup, it only remains to say that although the pelvis is the counterpart of the shoulders, its intimate connection with the spine, and the share it takes in enclosing the viscera, render it permissible to regard it for our present purpose as the posterior part of the trunk. . Plate Xl THE HIND LIMB 83 Wr liavo already pointed out that while the foiv-limhs are uniteil to the trunk by museles alone the hind ones have the additional connection pro- vided 1)}' the hip-joint, where the head of the femur (fig. 66) fits into the acetahulum or cup -like cavity formed by the bones of the pelvis. By this arrangement the hind extremities are brought to act directly on the haunch, and through it on the spine, so that as the feet grip the ground and the limbs .straighten out by effacement of the articular angles, the body is forced forward in a succession of propulsive efforts which the muscles of the haunch impart to it. The various regions composing the hind ex- tremity have their analogues in the fore one, but it is noticeable that the order of direction in the one is reversed in the other — at least so far as the upper segments are concerned. Thus, that portion of the pelvis which slopes downward and backw^ard is the analogue of the shoulder, which slopes downward and forwarcL The thigh, which passes downward and forward, is the counterpart of the humerus or upper arm, which slopes downward and backward. The tibia or second thigh, whose inclination is downward and back- ward, is the equivalent of the radius or forearm, which is straight. The parts lieneath these are more or less uniform in direction in the two memljers. It will thus be seen that in both the fore and the hind extremities the ossific segments are so disposed as to form a series of angles which are more or less considerable in proportion to the length and slope of the bony levers. In the act of progres.sion these angles are alternately closed and opened, resulting in the consecutive shortening and lengthening of the limbs. On the extent to which these movements are capable of being effected will depend the length of the stride and the force of the impulse which the hind-limbs are capable of imparting to the body. In this connection it is observed that in speedy animals the angles below that of the shoulder in front and the pelvis behind are remarkable for their open condition, hence the peculiar straightness of the legs of the race-horse. The greater obliquity of the shoulder and the more horizontal position of the croup in horses of speed tend to diminish the scapulo-humural and coxo-femoral angles, and, as Goubaux and Barrier observe, " facilitate the forward and backward movement of the inferior regions, and give them the freedom of extending themselves effectively to pass over the ground or communicate the impulsion". In horses of draught, where the steps are short, extreme lengthening of the locomotory column, so necessary to animals of speed, is not required. The shoulder therefore is less sloping, the croup more inclined, and the upper angles consequently more open. The lower angles of the limbs, which, as we have seen, are open in hoises of Si CONFOUMATrOX AND ITS DKFI'X'TS speed, are less so in horses of power. The greater obliquity of the mov- able segments of tlie limbs in the latter enable the muscles to act at much greater mechanical advan- tage than they otherwise would do. The hind - limits, although assisting in supporting the body, are pre-eminently organs of jjro- pulsion. United by solid union to the pelvis above, and po.ssessed of muscles larger and more power- ful than those of the fore-limbs, they are in these and in other respects admirably constructed to exercise their power in the for- ward movement of the trunk. The manner in which this is eft'ected will be best understood by refer- ence to Plate XII, where it is seen that in commencing the fast gallop the first act of the horse is to bring the hind-limbs under the body and raise the forehand. The former at this time are short- ened by the closing of the articu- lar angles. Gradually these are again opened, and one after the other the legs are forcibly ex- tended; and as they become more and more backwardly inclined, the body is forced forward to a point when the ground ceases to offer further resistance, and they leave it to take a fresh and more forward position in order that the movement may l)e repeated. It will be seen, therefore, that the greater impulsive force which the hind -leg is capable of transmit- ting to the trunk is due to the column of bones of which it is made up being directly and firmly connected with the trunk through the medium Fig. C6. — Posterior View of Pelvis and Hind Limbs of Horse A, Pelvis. B, Femur or thigh-bone, c, Tibia or lower thigh-bone. D, Fibula. E, Astragalus. F, Calcaneus, forming point of hock. G, Cuboides. H, Large metatarsal or canon-bone. I, I, Small metatars.il or splint-bones. J, Sesamoid bones. K, Os sufFr.aginis or large pastern. L, Os coronie or small pastern. M, Navicular bone. N, Os pedis or Foot bone. LEG (SECOND THIGH) 85 of the lni)-joint, a condition, as we liave ween, which lias no parallel in the fore-limb. Thigh. — The thigh is the uppermost of the free -moving segments of the hind extremity. Mewed from without, it embraces that portion of the quarter enclosed within the limits of the croup and haunch above, the iiaiik in front, the buttock behind, and the stifle and leg below. It has for its bony base the femur or thigh-bone, one end of which unites with the pelvis to form the hip-joint, and the other articulates with the tiliia and patella to form the stitle. The importance of the thigh in the function of locomotion is indicated by the mass of the muscles which enter into its formation. In no other region of the locomotory columns do these organs reach such volume and power. For the most part the forcible impulses by which the body is driven forward in the various modes of progression originate in the muscles of the thigh, and as an element in equine conformation this division of the body deserves the fullest recognition. Not the least important consideration affecting this region is that it should be well directed, neither inclined unduly forward nor backward. AVhen the former inclination prevails the leg as a whole is brought too much under the body, whereby its range of forward movement is curtailed, and its power is in some degree expended in raising the trunk at the expense of its proj^elling force. With a too backward inclination the limbs are carried too far to the rear, in which case the horse is said to " leave his legs behind him ". It is also important in race-horses, hunters, and chasers that the inferior extremity of the thigh should be outwardly inclined, so as to clear the trunk when moved forward in the act of galloping and jumping. Viewed in profile, the thigh should be broad and exhibit ample mus- cular development from top to bottom, or, as it is expressed, be " well let down". Seen from behind, it should be thick in proportion; any lightness in this dimension gives to the part a lean, "split-up" appearance, which is always a sign of weakness. [Plate VIII.] LEG (SECOND THIGH) That segment of the hind-limb situated between the thigh and the hock is properly designated the leg; more commonly it is spoken of as the second thigh. Two bones enter into its basement structure, the tibia and the fibula. The former is much the larger and more important of the two, and supplies well-nigh all the conditions pertaining to the mechanism of the region. It is a requirement of all fast motors that the leg should be long, thus 86 CONFOKiMATION AND ITS DEFECTS providing for a large range of action, and also for the accommodation of muscles proportionate in extent. Any shortcoming in these respects diminishes the horse's stride, in which case the speed can only be kept up by multiplying his movements, which, of course, tends to physical exhaus- tion. With a long leg velocity of the gait is best served by a short canon. As in the case of the thigh, the direction of the leg should neither l)e too straight nor too much inclined. A leg that is too straight brings the limb unduly forward, and shortens the step by limiting the power of exten- sion, while one that is too much inclined throws the leg too far back and limits the power of flexion. It is important that the superior part of this region should be well furnished with muscle brought down from a well-developed thigh and buttock. The lower part or " gaskin " should be wide, the hamstring- thick and bold, and well set away from the bone (tibia) by connection with a long calcaneum or point of the hock. The longer this point is, the greater will be the length of the lever arm, and the more power will the muscles exercise in propelling the body forward by straightening the hock. HUCK This is the most complex, as it is also the most important, joint concerned in the mechanism of locomotion. It is here that the strain in the efforts of propulsion chiefly falls, and the joint at which the con- cussion thereby developed is for the most part broken and dispersed. We may venture the statement that no joint in the body of the horse presents such a variety of natural conformation in ditt'crent indi- viduals as the one under consideration, and none calls for such careful scrutiny and analysis of detail both as to conformation and soundness. Two sets of bones enter into the construction of the hock-joint, each having a purpose of its own. One group of four small bones (l, 2, 3, 4 in Fig. 67), arranged in two rows and resting on the head of the canon, are united together and to adjacent bones by short, powerful ligaments, and so close is the union that the movement of one bone upon the other is reduced to a simple gliding action of the most limited extent. This movement, slight though it be, is of the first importance in bi'caking the jar communicated to the joint in the act of progression. The second division comprises two large bones — the astragalus and the calcaneus. The former presents in front two smooth, prominent ridges and a deep, intervening furrow, after the fashion of a pulley, which, when articulated with a corresponding formation on the lower extremity of the tiljia or leg bone, form a joint whose action in the PLATE Xlil \ f mm ^"if ^^'''^IHI ?! toe M ' '^ ■^P" llrS^. 1 ■■ ^ ■_ ^^ F/jd ■■■■■ V * , ri \' \) ' ^t!-iA MB p^ ^r*^^ ^1 r • ^. • ''v'!.*^ • J ^ ;'^ -J^l^'^ H(X'K direction of flexion and (>xtension is marked by great range and freedom. The calcaneus serves an entirely different purpose. Forming the point of the hock, to which are attached strong tendons (fig. 23), it represents a lever more or less powerful in proportion as it is long or short. The examination of this joint should be made from various stand- points, so that all its dimensions as well as its general outline may be duly appreciated. ^ The first and most important re(juirement of this region is size. The hock should be large, shapely, and well directed. The calcaneus, or bone forming its " point ", should be long, so that the lever of which it forms an important part is increased in length and power, while width and strength are at the same time imparted to the gaskins (Plate XIII, fig. 1). Viewed in profile it should be wide from front to back and rest on correspondingly broad canons; any narrowing or " tying in " (Plate XIII, fig. 2) at this part is a serious defect of conformation. Seen from before, the bend of the hock should be full and clean, with ample width from side to side well maintained and apportioned from top to bottom. Quality is an important adjunct to strength and proportion, and will be marked ])y an absence of any appearance of roundness, a thin, supple skin from beneath which the bones stand out in sharp relief, imparting to the joint both leanness and neatness of outline. Full, round, fleshy hocks in which all the anatomical parts are obscured, whatever may be their size and proportion, are objectionable, as they denote a common descent, a lymphatic temj^erament, and a lack of energy and endurance. Given a large, well-directed hock, the power of the muscles which act upon it and the segments of the limb below it will generally be found proportionate in size and strength. The direction no less than the form of the hock is materially influenced by the greater or less inclination of the tibia or second thigh above and the canon below. When these bones approximate to a vertical position the hock and the limb as a whole are rendered straight, and the angularity of the Fig. 67 A, Astragalus. B, Calcaneus. c, Tibia. D, Great Metatarsal or canon-bone. E, Splint-bone. 1-4, Small tarsal bones. CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS joint is least pronounced. It is this variety of conformation combined with length of limb that oives the race-horse his immense stride, and in turn enables him to extend the hind extremities to their farthest limits, and to realize all the power of his propelling muscles. It matters not how strong the quarters may be, if the tibia or second thigh slopes too much backward, or the canon too much forward, the hock is no longer straight, and the power of extending the liml) is more or less curtailed, and the speed proportionately diminished. The importance of a straight hock and of a straight hind-limb generally, so manifest in the race-horse, is not an essential point in the conformation of the draught-horse. The great power which the latter puts forth in the act of draught is favoured by a greater obliquity of the bony segments, for in this position the muscles are alJe to act in a direction more at right angles to their levers, and con- sequently at consider- alile mechanical ad- vantage. In shifting a heavy load the cart- horse takes advantage of this by bending the joints (fig. 68) so as to increase still further the obliquity of the bones and give more etfective action to the muscles. Acting in this attitude the limbs are less considerably extended, whereby the steps become short and the movements slow, but the power is greatly augmented. In conformity with the anatomical disposition of the bones which form the true hook-joint, the movements of the hock are restricted to tiiose of flexion and extension. In the former case the canon is carried forward and upward, in the latter it is drawn downward and backward. It is also noticeable that, viewed from behind, this joint is directed some- what obliquely outward, so that its hinge-like formation is enabled to give the entire limb an outward inclination in its forward stroke, by which the stifle is prevented from being brought into contact with the belly, a provision pf the highest importance to race-horses, chasers, and Copyright 1SS7 by Eadweanl Muybr " (Chapmnn ami H;iH) Fig. 68. — The Hind-Limbs bent in drawing a Load BOW-LEGS 89 hunters, where the hind-limbs while being raised rcquii'e at the same time to be advanced well under the body. COW-HOCKS This terra is applied to that defect of confoimation in which the points of the hocks are turned in (fig. 69). Animals so constructed are not unfrequently defective in other respects, often leggy, badly coupled, split up, and narrow behind, with the toes directed unduly outward. Although in -turned hocks in moderate de- gree do not interfere with a horse's useful- ness, in the more pro- nounced cases it is not only an eyesore, but when coexisting with the other defects re- ferred to, it is a mark of weakness, and materi- ally impairs the action of the limbs, which are made to move too much away from the body instead of in a line parallel to it. As a result of this an awkward roll is imparted to the gait, and both jjower and speed are thereby more or less impaired. Fig. 69.— Cow-Hucks Fit'. 70.— Bow-Leg B0W-LEr4S In this state of development (fig. 70) the points of the hocks are directed outward, the legs are set wide apart, and the toes are turned inward. This is not only a more unsightly defect than the one last referred to, but it impairs to a still greater extent the locomotive powers and usefulness of the animal. A striking feature of this variety of con- formation is the peculiar rotary movement or outward twist of the hock which occurs at the moment when the foot comes to the ground. Moreover, viewed from behind, the gait is rolling and unsteady, the steps are short and wanting in liberty and grace. 90 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS SICKLE OR CURBY HOCK In this variety of (•onlornuition (Plate XIII, tig. 3) tlie canon, instead of occupying a vertical position, inclines more or less forward, so that the leg is brought under the body, or, as it is said, the horse is " under himself behind ". The effect of this is to increase the angularity of the hock and give it a bent or sickle-shaped appearance. In such a disposition of parts it results that " the column of support below the tibia being situated too obli(|uely forward, the pressure of the weight of the Ijody, instead of being transmitted to the ground by the bones exclusively, as in the vertical position of this segment, causes a strain proportionable to the degree of obliquity on the ligaments which unite the hock to the canon, and imposes upon them an abnormal function " (Bouley). To this it might be added that by bringing the hind extremities more immediately under the centre of gravity, the strain on the extensor muscles and their tendons is considerably augmented. Horses with curby hocks are not generally desira))le property, although for harness-work, and especially in a level country, they may prove serviceable and enduring. They are not, however, adapted to carry heavy weights, or to j)ut forth severe efforts of draught without injury. BODY AND LBIBS As we have already observed, the body and the limbs make up the sum of the height. In considering the latter, only those portions se2)arate from the trunk are referred to, viz. parts below the elbow in front and the stifle behind. The rest is accounted for by the depth of the chest and the abdo- men. The proportion which these two parts bear to each other will vary to some extent in animals of different types. All things being equal, the limbs of the race-horse and other light breeds are always longer than those of the heavier varieties. " The body containing the organs which are most essential to life, such as the heart, the lungs, and the digestive apparatus, cannot be deficient from excess of development, since these organs are precisely those from which the animal machine draws its power and resistance. If dispro- poi'tion seems to exist in the upper part compared to the lower part, then the latter is not properly constructed to support the former, but generally, although excess may not be objectionaljle, the same cannot be said of dcH- ciencv of development. Our machitic liaving a weak chest, a small abdo- men, will tie without energy, without wind, and capable of very little DISTRIBUTION OF THK WEIGHT OF THE BODY 91 exertion. Such an animal will lio a poor feeder, and will not last long. All these are great imperfections if he is called upon to perform laborious services. . . . The xiphoid region (pit of the stomach) should descend several fingers' breadth below the elbow, the ribs should be round, the chest wide behind, and a head wide in its middle j^art. The abdomen should be full, quite cylindrical, and a head thick from its inferior line to the middle of the back. " As to the limi)s, they cannot he too strong. As soon as such seems to be the case, the reason of it is that the upper part is not in projDortion. " If the supports of the motor are slender, weak, too long, and ill-ad- justed— in a word, disproportionate in relation with the weight, . . . the most irreproachable body will be powerless; the machine will be without force, without solidity, without speed, and destined soon to wear out. " Our way of ascertaining their disprojoortion consists in measuring the distance between the passage of the girth and the pastern -joint. It is known that, in a beautiful conformation, this distance is equal to a head in horses of ordinary size, a little longer in large horses, and a little less in small ones." (Goulwiux and Barrier.) DISTRIBUTION OF THE WEIGHT OF THE BODY The weight of the body is borne by the fore and hind limbs, but its distribution between these two pairs of supports is not, as might be sup- posed, equally shared by them. The experiments of General Morris go to show, that with the head elevated and occupying a natural position, the proportion of body-weight sustained by the fore extremities is about one-ninth, or, eleven per cent greater than that supported by the hind ones. This difference in the disposition of the weight before and behind is capable of considerable modification. It is found that when the head is raised and drawn backward the weight imposed on the hind extremities is increased from 4 to 10 kilogrammes, from which the fore extremities are at the same time relieved. If, on the other hand, the head be lowered and drawn towards the chest, a like amount of weight is dis- placed forward. Horses with long necks add more to the weight of the fore extremity than those whose necks are short and thick. The following table, taken from Goubaux and Barrier's exhaustive work, gives the results which General Morris obtained in a series of experiments performed to establish the relative weight of the fore and hind extremity of the body. 32 CONFORMATION AND ITS DEFECTS Observations upon Horses. Average of eleven horses,"! good combination, head • and neck liglit J Average of eleven horses, j body well proportioned, . neck short, head strong....,) Average of two horses, body 1 well formed, neck short, [■ head ordinary J Average of two horses, neck \ strong, head light J Avei'age of two horses, neck ) long, head ordinary j One horse, neck strong, head | strong, croup short and ■ oblique J One horse, neck and body | well formed, head strong... | One horse, neck strong, head [ strong J One horse, neck strong, headl strong J Weight. Head at forty-flve degrees. Fore Hind Extre- Extre- mity, mity. lbs. 572 541i 528 539 5.")0 528 572 594 517 11)8. 429 440 429 462 440 440 473 Total. lbs. 1001 981i 957 979 979 990 1012 1034 990 Weight Head raised and drawn backward. 583 506 Hind Extre- mity. lbs. I lbs. 550 I 451 453i 462 451 484 Total. lbs. 1001 981i 597 979 979 528 451 5191 I 4704 I 990 550 '462 1012 1034 990 WeiKht. Head lowered and drawn towards tlie chest. Fore . Hind Extre- ^ Extre- mity. I mity. lbs. I lbs. 587f 413g 550 43 li 539 418 561 418 572 407 5364 453i 594 418 583 : 451 528 462 9811 957 979 979 990 1012 1034 990 In considering this difference in the weight of the fore and hind extremity Goubaux and Barrier have succeeded in showing how materially it is influenced by the height of the withers. In a series of experiments, the particulars of which are given below, they demonstrate that in horses low in front the fore-limbs are permanently surcharged with weight, and in proportion as this condition exists so will be the liability to undue wear and tear of the fore-legs, especially where the nature of the occupation compels the imposition of weight on the back; and conversely, that a low croup favours the imposition of undue weight on the hind-limbs. From the accompanying tables it will be seen how the distribution of weight on the fore and hind extremities may be increased or diminished by certain attitudes which the animal may assume, as well as by the fixed conditions of natural conformation. These changes are but some of many more or less pronounced, which must necessarily result from displacements of the centre of gravity occurring in the various phases of locomotion. The manner and the importance of these displacements will be best understood when con.sidered in relation to that conditiuii wliith is known as equilibrium. HEIGHT 93 ELEVATION OF THE HEIGHT AT THE WITHERS 1 1 6 i Distribution of Weiglit. i Distribution of Weight. "S 1 a 1 o s ill HO 1^ If ■ 686% 5674 1184 Percheron gelding. 8 16 1 16 0 1210 682 528 154 4r 693 517 176 Norman mare. 9 13 1 13 3 726 440 286 154 A 4464 2794 167 Coi-sican gelding. 10 14 2 14 3 979 572 407 165 * 606 473 33 Irish cob. 11 16 1 15 3 1386 814 572 242 ^^ 818a 5674 2504 Boulon gelding. 12 15 1 15 0 1001 6334 367f 2664 A 6444 374 2704 Percheron gelding. 13 14 3 15 0 902 539 363 176 ^eat the colt by Balfe-Katrine for the Maiden Stakes. At Derby, in the same year, he won the Devonshire Nursery Plate, carrying 8 st. 12 lbs. in a large field; and later, at Doneaster, he won the Prince of \\' ales' Nursery Plato, carry- ing 9 St., and giving U lbs. to the heaviest weighted of his twenty-one opponents. He finished up his first season by beating the Duke of Richmond in a match at equal weights for £500. As a three-year-old he continued his unlirokon record. Commencing at Newmarket, he won the Trial Match from Tristan, and walked over at Epsom for the Epsom Gold Cup. Later- in the year he won the Gold Cup at Ascot, the Gold Cup at Newmarket, and finished up a brilliant season liy winiu'ng the Goodwood Cup from O.ssian, who was beaten twenty lengths. As a stallion he has been widely patronized, and his stock have displayed an amount of speed and stamina perhaps unprecedented in the annals of the turf. His sons and daughters have won more classic races than those of any horse since the time of Stockwell.- The Derby was won by Persimmon (1890), and Diamond Jubilee (1900); the St. Leger by Memoir (1890), La Heche (1892), Persimmon (1896), and Diamond Jubilee (1900); the Oaks by Memoir (1890), La Fleche (1892), Mrs. Butter- wick (1893), Amiable (1894), and La Roche (1900); the Two Thousand Guineas l)y St. Frusquin (1896), and Diamond Jubilee (1900); and the One Thousand Guineas by Semolina (1890), La Fleche (1892), Amiable (1894). and Winnifreda (1900). His daughters have also been fruitful of good horses, especially those of the blood of Hampton and Mellx)iu-ne. In 1896 his stock won £59,740: neai'ly approaching to that of Stockwell, whose offspring in 1886 aggregated the sum of £61,195. ENGLISH BREEDS 115 as a guide for the conduct of the breeding operations of the latter, are as worthy of credence amongst impartial men as is the dictum of a contem- porary horse-raiser who transmits all information concerning his horses to the editor of a stud-book. The exact sources from which the Hackney originally sprang nearly two centuries ago are never likely to be known — that is to say, of course, so far as the dams of the original animals are concerned. On the sires' side, however, the most ample and sutticient evidence is forthcoming, and many animals now before the public can be traced back to the Darley Aral)ian and other pillars of the Thovoughhred Stud-book. A very tenable theory that has been propounded as throwing light upon the origin of the Hackney, is that which suggests that Eastern stallions, such as the horse above re- ferred to and the Godolphin Arabian, were put to many sorts of mares, and whilst the offspring of their unions with gallopers were utilized for racing purposes, their sons and daughters from trotting and Flemish mares formed the tap-roots of the various strains of Hackney. The above contention is, however, nothing more than conjecture, founded, it is true, upon very substantial grounds, though conjecture all the same; but regarding the antiquity of the Hackney under the name by which he is still recognized there is no question whatsoever. This is most clearly demonstrated by Mr. H. F. Euren in his preface to volume I of the Hackney Stud-book, which contains a veritable mine of wealth so far as references to the breeding of this class of horse is concerned. John Laurence, too, in his Philosophical and Practical Treatise on Horses, which was published in the course of the eighteenth century, alludes definitely to the Hackney; and again in his Histo)-y of the Riding Horse the last-named writer associates the Hackney with the Eoadster as an acknowledged \'ariety of horse. One might go even further back, were it necessary to do so, to discover references to the Hackney in ancient writings, for at so remote a period as A.D. 1350 the following sentence appears in the Vision oj Piers Plowman, " Hakeneyes hadde thei none, bote hakenej^es to hyre ". The very expres- sion itself bears evidence of the antiquity of a distinct variety of horse, for as Mr. Euren very forcibly puts it, there can be but very little ground for doubting that the word Hackney is derived from the Anglo-Saxon hnegan, which meant to neigh. There appear substantial reasons, therefore, for assuming that the mares of this variety, and very possibly, as suggested above, of Flemish blood as well, were put to the Eastern stallions, which effected so much improvement in the Thoroughbred, and that from these unions have spl-ung the strains of Hackney that can be traced back to the eighteenth century. One thing about the horses of one hundred and fifty years ago that is 116 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE certain, is that they were far smaller than their descendants, but the ditier- ence in size may be easily accounted for by the better stabling, feeding, selection, and management that the Hackneys of the present day are favoured with; though it may be added, that beyond a doubt all varieties of horse have increased in stature since the period referred to. It does not, however, appear from the published writings of old authors that the horse- breeders of the past were over particular as regards the height at shoulder of their steeds. Master Blundeville, of Newton Flotsham, Norfolk, who wrote and flourished in the reign of good Queen Bess, was careful to im- press upon his readers the desirability of breeding from tall roomy mares " of a high stature strongly made large and faire ", but unfortunately he omits to mention the stature which in his opinion was high. Blundeville, however, was exceptionally well qualified to express an opinion upon the subject of what he was pleased to refer to as the "trotting pase", for his part of the country, East Anglia, has from time immemorial been one of the strongholds of trotting horses. Even so far back as the fifteenth century, one Dame Margaret Paston, in the course of a letter addressed to her absent lord, informs him that "there be bought for you three horses at St. Faith's Fair, and all be trotters, right fair horses, God save them, and they be well keeped". One of the earliest reliable references that may be quoted as applying to the height of stallions in the olden days appears in the Nurivich Gazette of 1725 in the form of an advertisement of a gray horse which stood 14 hands; but before a hundred years had elapsed such giants as Silvertailed Fii'eaway (West's), who was foaled in 1807 and stood IG hands, were in existence, and it may be mentioned that he in turn sired Pheno- menon Fireaway, who stood IG'2 hands. This height was considerably in advance of that which was common a few years ago, when 15 "2 hands was recognized as the maximum shoulder measurement by the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England; but in response to the appeals of Hackney- breeders the Council of the "Royal" removed their restrictions upon horses over this height competing at their shows, with beneficial results to all parties concerned. Of late years a very perceptible increase in the height both of Hackneys and Hackney-bred horses has been perceptible, and in the summer of 1895 King Edward (then Prince of Wales) disposed of a pair of Hackney-bred harness horses, which stood just a trifle under 16 hands, for a thousand guineas, a circumstance which, did it stand alone, would aftbrd a practical and unassailable demonstration of the value of Hackney blood, and likewise of the height to which Hackneys may attain. It will pro- babl\', however, be some little time before this class of horse will average an\tliing like 16 hands, especially when it is remembered that for years the Royal Agricultural Society of England was disqualifying animals Platl XVI. s ^ ■a ■^ o '^ ENGLISH BEEEDS 117 exceeding 1 5 '2 hands, but nevertheless the fact remains that the stature of the Hackney is steadily increasing. Reverting, however, to the palmy days of this breed of horse, which may be taken to have been at the commencement of the nineteenth century, at which time the variety was well established and vastly popular amongst farmers generally, some allusion may be made to the speed and stamina of the Hackney of those days. For instance, the doings of a grand- daughter, by Driver, of old Shales, the fountain-head of many a femous modern .strain of Hackney, is credited ^\'ith the negotiation of 15 miles within the hour carrying 15 stone upon her back. This is smart trotting certainly, but the old horse himself possessed a record of 17 miles within the 60 minutes — an altogether extraordinary performance when the con- ditions under which the feat was performed are considered, as the state of the roads was doubtless inferior to that met with now by equestrians in the country. So far back as the year 1800 a 14"2 hands, twelve years' old mare, named Phenomena, negotiated 17 miles on the Hunt- ingdon Road in 4 minutes under the hour, and was afterwards backed to trot 19|- miles within the 60 minutes, but the match fell through on account of the supporter of time paying forfeit when he learned that Phenomena had covered 4 miles in under 11 minutes in a trial. Of course this little mare was an altogether exceptionally speedy trotter — in fact, the Duke of Leeds cheerfully paid 1800 guineas for her at one period of her career — but at the same time a number of the Hackneys which existed about that period were very fast. A case in point is Read's Fireaway, which, after he had carried off the second prize offered at the Agri- cultural Society's meeting, was again brought out, and trotted his mile in 2 minutes 49 seconds, though the weight he carried is not recorded, an omission that is certainly to be regretted in the interests of sport. It is probable, of course, that the accuracy of such performances as those quoted above may be questioned by some who read these lines; but the fact remains that in each case there was a backer of time who paid his money over them, and he at all events would scarcely have been weak enough to do so unless fully satisfied tliat he had lost his wager. Moreover^ the announcement that the party behind time in the last of Phenomena's matches referred to above — which was for 2000 guineas — was content to pay forfeit affords ample proof that the correctness of the time test was then accepted, and attention paid to it. Consequently, therefore, there appears to be but very little justification for traversing the accuracy of the old records, and more especially so as the then watch-holder was confining his calculations to fractions of minutes, and not of seconds, as is now the case on trotting tracks. It is therefore highly probable that had the sport 118 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE of trotting been as popular amongst Englishmen as it is on the other side of the Atlantic, the Hackney, instead of now occupying the honour- able position of emperor of harness horses, and the most useful of ride- and- drive animals, would be regarded as a valuable instrument for gambling purposes, and that this extra appreciation of his merits would have efi'ected a considerable increase in both his monetary value and his speed. Having thus discussed the origin and acquirements of the early Hackney, it becomes necessary to consider the appearance of the horse, which, it may reasonably be inferred, was a heavier, stouter animal than the type now fashionable. This conjecture may legitimately be hazarded for two reasons: first, because the horse has become more finely bred, and has got further away from the old foundation stock, the mares of which were probably pretty coarse and plain; and secondly, on account of the requirements of his owners being very different from what they were well-nigh a century ago. The class of horse that was required to carry a burly agriculturalist, and occasionally his wife as well, to market upon his back, must naturally have been more stoutly built than the quality-showing animals which now grace the show-ring and charm the public by their display of elegance combined with action. Upon this part of the question there can be no two opinions; and it would be paying but a very sliglit compliment to the intelligence and resources of Hackney breeders to deny them the possession of the amount of acumen which would lia\-e convinced them of the advisability of raising lighter animals, and the faculty for accomplishing what they desired by careful selection of their breeding stock. It must consec[uently be accejDted as a fact that the old-time Hackney was exceptionally powerful, and was possessed of a considerable amount of speed at both actions, walking and trotting — for many a Hackney can trot faster than he can gallop; the latter gait is not aflected by the breed — for, as Mr. Euren asserts, it is quite true that it was not an unusual occurrence for the old Norfolk farmer to ride fifty or sixty miles a day. Therefore it is certain that, in addition to being strongly built, the old horse must assuredly have possessed both speed and stamina. To ensure the latter he must have had plenty of depth of chest, and likewise ample width, so as to give ample accommodation for his heart and lungs; whilst his shoulders must have been long and sloping, else he would have proved a very rough, if not impossible, conveyance for the fanner who rode liini, to say nothing of the lady seated on the pillion behind her husband. Associated with these sloping shoulders, if old portraits are to be believed, were short fiat legs and a • plentiful, if not excessive, supjjly of bone, whilst the DENMARK (BOURDASS') 177 Denmark was a chestnut horse, 15 -2, bred by William Eickell, Warter Wold, Pocklington. He was foaled in 1S62, by Sir Charles (Beal's) 768, out of a mare by Merrj'man 1309 by Lund's Merrylegs 449. His dam was 23 years old when, with Denmark a foal at her foot, she won the first prize at the Great Yorkshire Show at Driffield. The great majoritj' of the most fashionable hackneys of the present day have de- scended from this horse. Among his more famous sons are Confidence (Moore's) 163, Danegelt 174 (for which Sir Walter Gilbej' gave 5000 guineas), Dorrington 184, Lord Derwent 418 (a great prize-winner). Candidate 920, Dorrington II 956, Coniiaught 1453, Ritualist 1542, and others. Among his more famous daughters are Princess 289, Lady Dorothy 185, Sovereign 325, Lady AVatton II 470, Apology 527, Lady Mary II 464, Sweetbriar 514, Nelly III 800, Countess 424, Primro-se 827, and Ophelia 1301. Denmark won a number of prizes in Yorkshire between 1865 and 1876, but his achievements at the stud were greater than in the show rinji. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE LORD DEKBV IT (Bl'KXHAMS) 417 Liird l)rrl>y II was hred liy Mr. J. R. Hnniham, Froding- liam Hall, Wiiiestead, Yorkshire, in 1871. He was a dark- brown hoi-se by Lord Derby (Leake's) 415, out of Nancy by Achilles (Hainsine's) 2 by Fireaway (Scott's) 223. This horse has sired many notable animals, and his blood when crossed with that of Denmark has given us some of the most distinguished of our modern hackneys. Among his sons who have made names at the stud and in the show ring are: County Member 948, Cadet 1251, East Riding 1475, Lord Derby III 1508, Lord Rattler 2566, Grand Fashion II 3024, Gentleman John 3624, Lord Denby II 3092, Contest 1746, and others. Among his daughters are to be found Princess 499, Lady- bird 177, Silver Belle 508, Brunette 49, Lily 219, Modesty 1731, Dorothy 2016, Propriety 4597, Lady Sarah 2963, Dorothy Derby 1081, Levity 2247, Frisk 439, and Falka 2043. Lord Derby II was equally successful in the show ring as at the stud, and in the course of his career won many piizes in Yorkshire. 15 ENGLISH BREEDS 119 middle piece of the ancient horse was a good deal heavier than would now be cared for in a show animal. At the same time, the modern Hackney nmst he accepted as represent- ing very strongly the leading characteristics of the old stamp of horse. Admitted that he is lighter, and perhaps more blood-like to suit the requirements of the age as suggested above, his form is, generally speaking, very much the same, even though it be presented upon somewhat more delicate lines. As to conformation: — The head should not possess the delicacy of that of the Thoroughbred; neither should the coarseness of the Shire horse be apparent in it, a plain underbred expression or a clumsy head-piece being most particularly objec- tionable in any Hackney, and especially so in a mare. At the same time, an eflfeminate look, or the appearance of a gelding-like head upon a stallion, is a serious fault, for the prepotency of this horse is great, and a sire which fails to impress a masculine appearance on his colts is seldom popular amongst breeders. Moreover, it may be remembered that though style in a horse is indispensably associated with merit in most breeds, one does not require a superfluity of the commodity about the head, but would rather have it distributed equally and in correct proportions about the animal. Thus, an exceptionally blood-like head on a Hackney stallion would, if the horse w^as symmetrically proportioned, necessitate a reduction of his substance, and then he would become a weed; and consequently it may be repeated, that the head of a Hackney stallion should be there in plenty, provided always that it be properly proportioned in itself and in its relation to the rest of the body. It should be rather wide about the jowl, and taper gradually towards the muzzle — a Eoman nose or a narrow jowl are abominations in any horse, the one frequently de- noting a surly disposition, and the other completely destroying the character of the head. The eyes of a Hackney are of a good size, and nicely placed in his skull, and should be soft, amiable, and intelligent- looking, denoting the courageous and confiding disposition which is very characteristic of the horse. A small or sunken eye is usually identified with uncertainty of temper and general unreliabilitv, whilst its pos- session detracts immeasurably from the beauty of any animal. Finally, the ears should be small, pointed, carried erect, and set on high; a big round-tipped ear is not infrequently accompanied by objectionable coarseness, whilst a lop ear which is carried out almost level with the top of the head is simply hideous, and should tell greatly against any sire, for the form.ation is often hereditary. The crest should be pronounced in the case of a stallion, and the neck rather long, though it looks shorter than it really is on account 120 VAKIETIES OF THE HOESE of its massiveness; but it must not be imagined tliat because the neck of a Hackney is big and powerful it should necessarily be coarse. A thick clumsy neck is as bad as a short one in the case of any saddle- horse, and worse than a thin narrow one. The neck of the Hackney possesses a peculiarly graceful bend, and gradually increases in its dimensions until it reaches the shoulders. But it should be quite free from coarseness. The shoulders themselves are one of the most important points, for if they and their associated muscles are short there is no flexibility to be found about them. They should also slope well backwards to ensure the much-sought-for smoothness of action that everybody admires; wliilst the existence of a mere suspicion even of superfluous lumpiness about the points is a very serious fault. The chest of the Hackney should be broad, not so broad as to influence his speed or action, but yet wide enough to afford room for the free play of both heart and lungs. For similar reasons it should be deejj, but this depth is not so striking in the Hackney as in the case of some other varieties, owing to the fact that this horse is, or should be, exception- ally deep about the back ribs, and consequently is more level in his lower line than most breeds. The fore-legs should be short; very big in the arms; heavy and flat in l)one; with nicely sloping powerful pasterns, not long enough to be weak, yet sufliciently springy and sloping to minimize concussion ; and the feet should be on the large side, deep and set on dead straight, an in-toed Hackney being simply an abomination. The knees should be rather big, but so should the entire limb; and it is a most serious fault if the horse stands back upon them — a calf-kneed horse, in fact, should never take a prize of any kind, or be utilized as a sire. The back should not be long; but a sufliciency of room both in front of and behind the saddle must be sought for, whilst the back itself must be level and present an exceptionally powerful appearance. Of course in the case of aged horses a dip is no disqualification, as late in life its appearance is only to be expected. A flat-sided Hackney is not appreciated, for the ribs should be well sprung, and, as stated before, the back ones should be unusually long. The quarters, another most important feature, should be long. To this formation an appearance of length of back is often due. They must, moreover, be as level as possible and powerful-looking. The tail, which is usually docked short, is set on high, and carried gaily when its possessor is excited, or set going at his best. The hind-legs .are very muscular about the thighs and second thighs. ENGLISH BREEDS 121 not too inucli bent at the hoek, and possess a considerable amount of bone below that joint. The pasterns, moreover, should be of a nice length without showing a trace of weakness. In general appearance the Hackney, assuming that he is a representative horse, should strike even a stranger to the merits of the breed as a remark- able combination of activity, strength, and symmetry. Unless he carries himself jauntily the first attribute is likely to be lost sight of, and if he does not display power all over he ceases to be a good specimen of his race. In the case of no other variety of horse is symmetry a more important property than in the Hackney, for a coarse animal is as unlikely to command success as a very light one. Perhaps even more so, for, as it has been suggested above, there has been a strong disposition of recent years to introduce a more blood-like class of animal to the public; but whilst breeders can scarcely be blamed if they attempt to meet the requirements of the market, it will be an eri'or on the part of judges if they award prizes to narrow split-up stallions. Even that great equine attribute, "quality", may be too dearly purchased, and the recognition of a light flashy race of Hackney stallions wdll assuredly effect an immense amount of mischief to the breed; moreover, it is by no means impossible for refinement to be associated with substance, many splendid instances of the combination being alive. The action of the Hackney is one of the most important, in fact the most characteristic feature of the breed, no horse in existence being capable of extending himself as does a good specimen of the variety. As is only to be supposed, it is his shoulder action that plays the most prominent part in his movement; but it may still be observed that a Hackney, before he can be regarded as a goer, must use all his joints in harmony with his shoulders. His knees, pasterns, stifles, and hocks must all be correctly flexed before the beau ideal of that poetr}- of motion, that incomparable one, two, three, four, which so distinguishes the Hackney from all other horses, can be arrived at. There should be an immense amount of liberty about the shoulder action, the fore-legs being as it were dashed out in front so that it almost appears that the horse is endeavouring to get rid of them. The knees in turn should be doubled and then extended straight, whilst the pastei'n -joints first bend the hoof backwards and then straighten themselves, so that the feet are stretched out in a straight line with the fore-leg, and afiect a momentary poise in the air before being brought down upon the ground. All these varied movements are transacted so instantaneously as to be almost imperceptible, but the tout ensemble is as described above. Mean- W'hile the back-legs are acting, or should be, as powerful motors for the 122 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE propulsiou of the body. The hocks and stiHes are bent, the former being tucked in under tlie horse's belly, so that when the feet reach the ground they are in a line with, and apparently close behind, the fore ones. Great goers, especially if they are fast, are often inclined to move wide at the hocks, but this is an unsightly style of action, and will tell against a horse to a greater or less extent, though it may be added that some very notable performers, both upon the turf and elsewhere, have moved with their hocks very far apart from one another. Dash, fire, and freedom in his action are all essential to the success of a Hackney; and if possible to a still greater extent, so is that smoothness and levelness of motion which is always a characteristic of the perfect-actioned horse. Dash, in fact, need no more necessitate the presence of roughness or rockiness in a horse's action than need the fault of dishing, i.e. throwing out the feet beyond the line of the fore-leg when the pasterns are bent upwards, be associated with high stepping. Botli are nasty faults, and the possession of either will most probably mean the forfeiture of a prize. The question of shoulder and knee action is one, however, upon which opinions of Hackney breeders may be accepted as difiering somewliat. Otherwise it would not be possible for some horses to have won the prizes which stand to their credit, for animals have before now carried off high honours in the show-ring which have entirely failed to get away in front, owing to their having used their knees to a far greater extent than their shoulder,s. This is the class of horse that conforms to the description " all action but no go", for he lifts his knees almost up to his bit, and then puts his feet down again close to the place whence he took them up. This fighting style of going is surely not comparable to the action advocated above, especially when it is remembered that the feet must sufi'er from being smashed down upon the ground, and that half the animal's energies are being wasted in his fruitless beating of the air. A horse that uses his shoulders need not necessarily omit to bond Ids knees, and in addi- tion to proving a fine and showy mover, will undoubtedly be a far more comfortable conveyance for his rider, whilst it stands to reason that his legs will last much longer than those of the other class of animal. The position of the shoulders, and other points in the structural development of the Hackney, such as the length of neck, strength of loin, and length and slope of pasterns, are of course a more important consideration in the selection of a Saddle than a Harness horse; but it must always l)e borne in mind that the latter is the more saleable animal, in addition to being the more correct type of the breed, and consequently, when the two varieties meet, the pre- ference should always be given to the Harness horse. Indeed, the modern Hackney is not an ideal saddle horse. CONFIDENCE (D^OYLEY'S) 158 The most famous of Norfolk's Hackneys in recent times was the celebrated horse Confidence. Bred by Mr. AVilliiun Rose, Dykebeck, ^Vymondham, in 1867, he passed into the hands of Henry D'Oyley, of Hempnall, Long Stratton. Con- fidence was a black-brown, 15-2 hands high, and had foi' his sire Prickwillow (Tice's) 614, his dam being by Highflyer (Jacob's) 360. Among his best sons were Confidential 1379, Canvasser 114, Confidant HI 1741, John Gilpin 1499, Harvester 1799, Gem 2082, Felicity 2064, Doctor Syntax 877, Cassivelaunus 2198, Hedon Surprise 2509, Fashion (Grout's) 199, Reality (Flander's) 665, Honesty 369, Lord Bardolph 412, and others. His best daughters during his later life were Her Majesty 1137, Acclamation 1, Kiss me Quick 2853, Nelly 2349, Carmen Sylva 3578, Lady Isabella 2194, Wild Mint 1399, Twilight 4819, and Mascotte 1706. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE FIKEAWAY (TKIFFETT'S) 249 TiifTett's Fireaway 249 was a dark-brown horse, 15'2 hands high, bred by Philip Trift'ett, Holme, Yorkshire, in 1859. He was by Achilles ( Hairsine's ) 2, out of Nancy by Per- former (Ward's) by Norfolk Phenomenon (Bond's) 522. He won a great number of prizes in Yorkshire, and continued his show career up to 1874. As a stud horse he produced some excellent stock, especially mares, among which were a number of high-ckss animals, such as Polly 494, Jenny Bother'em 2124 (dam of Ophelia 1301), Polly Horsley 495, Queen Mary 295, Fanny 114 (dam of Connaught 1453), Empress 95 (dam of Sweetbriar 514, Prin- cess 289, and Pi'imrose 827), Lady Jane 197 (dam of Sovereign 325), and Lightsome 2248. ENGLISH BREEDS 123 The walk of the Hackney is second in importance only to hi.s trot, for however free a mover a horse of this breed may be when fully extended, he is sure to lose admirers if he is incapable of settling down to his slower paces when required to do so. Moreover, it stands to reason that no horse can be always moving at a trot, and he will soon disgust his owner if, instead of striding out and using his joints and limbs properly at his slower paces, he goes shuffling along in a fashion that partakes somewhat of the nature of a cramped trot, and yet is slower and more exhausting to himself than a good honest walk. Great as is the show made by a good Hackney when he trots, it is doubtful if he is not more majestic- looking when walking — that is to say if he can do so in proper form, for when he strides out with head erect, no nobler -looking horse exists than a good Hackney stallion; and moreover, as remarked above, the possession of a natural gift for walking adds considerably to the value of a sire. Before leaving the Hackney, the extraordinary success of Sir Walter Gilbey's Hedon Squire at the Horse Show held in connection with the great International Show at Paris in 1900 must be referred to. Upon the occasion in question Hedon Squire was awarded the champion prize, offered for the best stallion in the show other than an Arab or a Thoroughbred, by a jury of judges representing different foreign countries. Surely no greater tribute to the merits of the breed could be desired, as he met and defeated the best Harness type of horses that the world could produce. The Pack-horse. — It is unfortunately rather to the discredit of British horse-breeders that so useful a variety as the Pack-horse, which at one time was so commonly met with in many parts of the country, and particularly in Devonshire and Yorkshire, should have become practi- cally extinct; but the fact remains, that until the occasion of the Crystal Palace Horse Show of 1897 it was popularly believed that no siDCcimens of the breed could be found. After an infinite amount of trouble, however, had been expended on the search, a stallion and a mare were discovered, and by permission of their owners were included in the Diamond Jubilee parade of British horses, which was arranged in honour of Her Majesty Queen Victoria's long reign. The reproach, therefore, of per-mitting a breed of horse, to which in all probabilit}' more than one modern variety owes its existence, to die out entirely, cannot be applied to the men of Devon, though unhappily there is no denying the fact that instead of increasing in stature and power, the existing Pack-horses are lower at the shoulder and built on smaller lines than their ancestors. This is in all probability a direct result of the inbreeding which followed their 124 VARIETIES OF THE HOKSE abiiiidonment; the breed in its original purity falling into so few liands that the very limited number of adherents who have remained staunch in their allegiance to it have not been able to secui'e the crosses tlu-y desired, and consequently the stature of the Pack-horse has become less, and the old breed practically extinct. A couple of hundred years ago, before the Hackney invaded Devon- shire and Yorkshire, and when no other means of locomotion existed, the Pack-horse was an institution in the west and north of England, where he was not only employed in agricultural and ordinary I'oad work, but as the medium for carrying supplies to the inhal)itants of outlying holdings on the moors and wolds. In order to be of service in this respect, it was necessary that the horses should be powerful and sure-footed, and these are two properties which the ancient Pack-horse possessed to a very considerable extent. What the precise origin of this most ancient breed may have been there are unfortunately no means of ascertaining, but it is reasonable to assume that he was, in the first case, a cross-bred Eastern and old English War-horse. This theory is c|uite a possible one when it is remembered that a succession of English sovereigns engaged themselves in importing both Arab, Barb, and Turk stallions into this country with the laudable object of improving the native horses; whilst the existence of the AVar-horse, which had been increased in size by crossing with Flemish mares, renders it highly probable that this variety may claim the distinction of being a parent of the Pack-horse, and con- sequently a still more remote ancestor of the Cleveland Bay. Be the origin of the Pack-horse, however, what it may, the indisputable fact remains, that until the invasion of Devonshire by railways and Hackney horses, the old breed was regarded on all sides as essential to the existence of the inhabitants of the west country, and he would have been a rash, if not reckless, individual who would have A'entured to prophesy that it would ever become out of date, or be neglected by Devonians, who up to comparatively modern times utilized the Pack- horse for sporting as well as for general purposes. An illustration of this is forthcoming in the 16-hands Cottager, the property of Mr. Skinner, a resident near Totnes, which in a steeple-chase run at the annual race- meeting, held in that town about the middle of last century, suc- ceeded in defeating the Thoroughbreds and cocktails which competed. The owner of this horse, moreover, had previously issued a challenge to trot him, against any animal in the west country, 4 miles on the road, carrying 14 stone, a fact which goes a long way towards proving that the Pack-horse was a Hue and fast mover both at the gallop and at the trot. ENGLISH BREEDS 125 Generally speaking, the Pack-horse, so far at all events as he exists at the present day, has a very great resemblance to the Hackney, as he has a deep chest, big level back, deep middle, and powerful c^uartcrs; his legs too are short, heavy in bone, and carry a great deal of muscle on the arms and thighs; but he diliers very considerably from the Hackney in three most important points, namely, head, shoulders, and action. A Pack-horse's head is far more bloocl-like than that of the Hackney, its small size and delicate outline being most probably due to the posses- sion of a strong strain of Arab blood; whilst his shoulders, as a rule, are longer and more obliquely set, for the Pack-horse was largely utilized for saddle work, the moors and hills of Devonshire being most unsuitable for vehicular traffic. Nor is the action of the Pack-horse so high as tliat of the Hackney, as in the first place an animal largely utilized for saddle purposes, if a stepper, would be a rather uncomfortable mount when negotiating the steep declivities and stony bridle-paths of Devon- shire; and in the second place, the c|uestion of sure-footedness was more sought for by Devonians of the old school than an ability to bend the knee. At the same time it must not be imagined that the Pack-horse was not a very free and attractive mover, as all references to the breed allude to his action as being excellent in both respects. Another point of difference which exists between the Hackney and the Pack-horse is seen in the colours of the two breeds, for Packs were always bay, black, or brown, whilst a large percentage of Hackneys are chestnuts. Still, the resemblance between the few remaining survivors of the Pack-horse and the popular Hackney is considerable, though it is to be hojied that the slender ranks of the former will not be further reduced by crosses with the trotter, grand horse though the latter is, for England is large enough to find accommodation for a few specimens of an ancient horse, which has done good service in assisting old breeders to produce some popular varieties of the present day. Probably, moreover, there could be no finer cross for Hunter-breeding than the Pack-horse upon weedy, light- boned, " breedy " mares, from which it is desired to produce short-legged, heavy-boned stock capable of carrying weight. The Cleveland Bay. — The subject of this paper stands pre- eminently forward as the eldest large-sized carriage horse of the day, and, as will be shown later, his antic[uity is undeniable, though a very considerable amount of ambiguity exists as regards the precise origin of the lireed. The date of his production is also quite unknown; but on the other hand there are good reasons for believing that, like most other English varieties, he is a descendant of the old English War- horse, which played so prominent a part in the early history of our 126 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE country, and wliicli is fully referred to in the description of the .Shire horse. The War-horse, however, though small in stature, eventually in- creased in bulk by a judicious system of crossing with imported stallions, and no doubt became in due course of time too heavy an animal for light draught purposes, and hence it is but reasonable to infer the inhabitants of some districts were glad to do their best to produce an animal more suited to their requirements. This horse, it apjjears most probable, was the original tap-root from which the modern Cleveland Bay is descended; but owing to the fact that the majority of English horse-breeders were devot- ing their resources to the production of a powerful class of animal which would be serviceable in times of war to carry soldiers clad in armour — it being the command of successive kings that they should do so under heavy penalties — -it is but natural that the advent of the lighter variety should have been delayed. Indeed, his services were scarcely required until a comparatively recent period in the history of the country, as it was not until almost the conclusion of the reign of Queen Elizabeth that Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel, first introduced light coaches into England, the aristocracy of which country had up to that period been in the habit of indulging in their carriage exercise in carts. No doubt, however, the coaches designed by the Earl of Arundel were cumbersome affairs, as the roads in his days were not exactly adapted for light vehicular traffic; but on the other hand, it is reasonable to infer that a less powerful horse than those which had been bred up to that time would be equal to drawing them, and hence it may be assumed that the attention of certain breeders was directed to the production of a lighter class of animal somewhere about the reign of good Queen Bess. From that period until the present time there has, of course, been a steady improvement in our highways and a corresponding diminution in the size and weight of conveyances, with, of course, an increasing demand for the more lightly built yet powerful harness horses; and no doubt as highways have improved and the vehicles become more shapely and less cumbersome, horses have been bred to meet the requirements of the times. Consequently animals of the Cleveland type, either as he now exists or in his less finished form, have more and more been sought for by a certain class of horse owners, who have been anxious to procure an upstanding, imposing-looking animal, possessed of plenty of substance, and sutHciont strength to draw heavy loads, but yet showing some quality and an ability to get over ground more actively than the breeds which were solely adapted for agricultural purposes. As observed above, there can be very little doubt regarding the anti((uity ENGLISH BKEEDS 127 of the Cleveland Bay, altliougli diversity of opinion might reasonably be allowed as to his precise origin. Very probably the Thoroughbred has entered largely into his composition, and as it is in turn extremely likely that the Pack-horse was a scion of the old English War-horse, which is fully referred to in the chapter on Shire horses, it may be justifiable to argue that the ancient British race and the Eastern importations are responsible between them for the existence of the Cleveland Bay. The theory that the breed is the result of the successful manipulation of the Thoroughbred and Cart-horse is scarcely so tenable as the one just pro- pounded, as though it may be admitted that the Pack-horse and the Cart- horse are both descendants of the old English War-horse, the similarity that existed between them was by no means pronounced, the former being a far lighter, more blood-like animal, and therefore a better horse to work upon. It may also be observed that the quarters and some other points of the Cleveland Bay are the reverse of carty, and this circumstance aflbrds further e%'idence of the improbability of the presence of Cart-horse blood. Although it is suggested that the southern districts of England deserve some credit in the production of the Cleveland Bay horse, there can be no doubt at all that his dcA^elopment and improvement, indeed one might almost add his present existence as a recognized breed, is due to the northern pai-t of the country whence he derives his name. This assertion is strengthened to some extent by the theory, that the black points which are so characteristic of the horse are the result of the introduction, at some remote period, of Scandinavian blood, and this was naturally far more easily procurable for the purpose of experiment in the Cleveland district than in the south. Nor, it may be added, was the Pack-horse solely confined to the last-mentioned part of the country, as under not only that designation, but under the title of the Chapman's Horse, he was pretty extensively known throughout England, and Yorkshire especially, being frequently alluded to by old writers on the equine race. On the other hand, the possibility of the south of England having produced the original tap-root of the Cleveland Bay, or the still greater probability of there at least being a strong dash of Devonshire blood in his com- position, lies in the fact that the dark streaks or " list " down the back, which up to not so many years ago was a treasured point in the Cleve- land Bay, is a distinguishing feature of the dun animals commonly found in the Devonshire district, though, of course, it is not entirely confined to the horses of the west country. From all this, and much more that could be written were it necessary to do so, as to the possible origin of the Cleveland Bay, it will be seen that the question of the precise composition of the breed, like that of other 128 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE established varieties, can only receive an approximate answer, and tlus is by no means astonishing when it is remembered that the horse now under consideration can be traced back to the commencement of the eighteenth century. In fact, that not invariably reliable authority, " the oldest in- ha1)itant", has asserted that the black-pointed bays were common in some parts of Yorkshire long before the importation of the Darley Arabian was an accomplished fact. This may, however, be quite possible without affecting the correctness of the contention put forth above, to the effect that the Cleveland Bay originated in an Arab cross, as undoubtedly Eastern horses had been imported into England years and years before the Darley Arabian appeared upon the scene; but under any circumstances full credit for the production of the Cleveland Bay is due to the district from which he derives his name. The strong probability that a Thoroughbred cross was introduced some hundred and fifty years ago into the mares which have produced the modern Cleveland Bay is referred to by Mr. W. Scarth Dixon, in his admirable article on the breed which appears in Light Horses, as he there states that many of the best pedigrees trace directly back to a mysterious stallion known as "Old Traveller", of which no further information is forthcom- ing. There are evidences, however, to prove that a Thoroughbred stallion named " Old Traveller " was at the time covering mares in the Yarm dis- trict at a low fee, and there is much reason to believe that this animal was the horse whose name appears in many Cleveland Bay pedigrees. It must not be supposed, however, that the horses which were bred two hundred years ago in Yorkshire under the name which heads this chapter, were all utilized as coach-horses. On the contrary, the majority of them were relegated to duty on the farm, a fact which is referred to in the Farmers Magazine of seventy years ago, which states that, when a lighter class of animal came to be the fashion for carriage traffic, the Cleveland Bay was permitted to become practically extinct until its value for agricultural purposes was noticed by some practical farmers in the north of England. This statement would go to prove one of two things, namely that the Cleveland Bay of that period was a far more powerful animal than the modern possessor of the name, or that farm-work was not so heav\- ; and indeed it may be very likely that both these conditions are reconcilable, for oxen were largely utilized for the heaviest work. At the same time, the certainty that exists that Thoroughbred blood had been introduced long l)efoi:e the period to which the Farmers' Magazine refers, shows that the then existent Cleveland Bay was not a heavy horse; and assists in suljstantiating the correctness of the contention propounded some lines above, that the. Cart-horse was not a component part of the variety. SPECIALITY 1561^ Speciality is ;i Ija}' horse without white, and stands 16 hands 1 inch high. He is by JMenyheart 129y, out of Beatrice 93:2, and was bred by Mr. J. Lett of Killington, York. He has been exhibited on ten occasions, and won nine first prizes and one second, including Champion prize for the best Cleveland Bay Stallion at the Great Yorkshire Show, and first prize at the Royal show at Cardiff in the same yeai'. Speciality is a typical Cleveland showing excellent quality and grand all-round action. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE ENGLISH BREEDS 129 Indeed, it may l)e added that the experiments for introducing a strain of Cart-horse blood have been attended with most unsatisfactory results so far as the Cleveland Bay type has been concerned. According to the Cleveland Bay Stud-hook, which may l)e accepted as a reliable authority upon the subject with which it deals, namely the breeding of this class of horse, there exist three families — the "Dart", the "Barley Harvest", and the "Hob Hill Horse", to one of which all the best and most typical Cleveland Bays belong. No particulars, unless the statement " pedigree missing" can be accepted as information, is forthcoming regarding the first of this trio of tap-roots, but his sou Agar's Rainbow, afterwards known as King George the Fourth, sired some excellent stock, though the date of his being foaled is not given in the Stud-hook. The "Hob Hill Horse", or, to give him his real name, "Farmer's Glory", was foaled about 1798, and "Barley Harvest" a little before that period, since which, time the pedigrees of Cleveland Bays have been far better kept. Un- fortunately, however, all the breeders of this class of horse have not taken pains to keep it pure, and, moreover, the Cleveland Bay, as remarked above, was a victim of experiments which contributed a good deal towards his loss of prestige and popularity during a portion of the nineteenth century. As a case in point, the article written by J. B. Lloyd, which is published in the first number of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, may be quoted as proving how the breed was crossed. This gentleman states that about the year 1827 he "determined to try and breed some agri- cultural horses with more activity and little or no diminution of strength " on Cleveland lines, and for this purpose " purchased some Gloucester cart mares, as clean in the legs as he could get them ". Consequently it behoves intending purchasers on the look-out for pure-bred Cleveland Bays to study the pedigrees of the animals which take their fancy very carefully, for though it is quite possible for the evidences of cart blood to be absent in some horses which inherit it, the taint is likely to appear sooner or later in their stock, and money may be thrown away and time wasted in breed- ing from them. It appears, however, that the example of Mr. Lloyd was not followed by many breeders of the Cleveland Bay, and according to the Stud-ljook of the society wlijch has been formed to further the interests of the breed, the period between the years 1851 and 1867 was a very fine one for the horse. After the latter year its popularity began to dwindle somewhat, probably on account, at least so it is suggested, of the increased attention which was being paid to the Shire horse and Clydesdale, for though the varieties in question can in no sense be regarded as rivals of the Cleveland Bay in looks or adaptability for fast harness work, the favour with which 130 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE tliey became regarded no doubt diminished the number of admirers of the lighter horse. The advent, or perhaps it may be more properly termed the resuscitation of the Hackney, has also proved beyond all doubt injurious to the progress of the Cleveland Bay, and the steady increase in the stature of the former breed causes it to become a more formidable rival every year. Public taste, too, has rather set in in favour of action, and here again the Hackney takes precedence of the big horse; whilst the hardness of the times has caused many scores of country gentlemen to reduce their studs; and in most instances the coach-horses, the duty of which was to draw the family landau round the Park during the London season, have been the first to go. At the same time the Cleveland Bay's position in the equine world is, at the time of writing, a very long way removed from being an unsatisfactory one. Indeed, it is incomparably superior to what it would have been had there been no Society at the back of the breed to look after its interests, and to provide some satis- factory guarantees as regards the genuineness of pedigrees. Many dealers too are consistent in their support of the big coach-horses, and favour the Cleveland Bay — when they can get them at a reasonable price- — above all others; but in the case of professional purchasers, who only buy to sell again at a profit, their support is naturally more a matter of pounds, shillings, and pence than a sincere devotion to the breed they patronize. Consequently it must always be borne in mind that when a dealer has made his connection as a seller of a certain class of horse, it is to the highest degree improbable that he will forsake that particular variety for another if he can by any possibility avoid so doing. It may, however, be once more repeated, that the resuscitation of the breed was accomplished by the appearance, in 1884, of volume 1 of the Cleveland Bay Stud-book, and since that date the managements of some of the great horse shows have evinced a disposition to try and give the variety a help along. This, it may be stated, has not invariably been associated with profitable results, and even the Royal Agricultural Society of England has found it necessary to amalgamate the classes of Cleveland Bays and Yorkshire Coach-horses, to the extreme concern, expressed and implied, of the admirers of either breed, who, nevertheless, have only themselves to thank for the reduction of their prizes, as they did not support the shows sufficiently. This rather suggests the existence of an apathetic spirit on the part of breeders of Cleveland Bays, who certainly are not to be credited with the push and go which characterizes the action of other horse-breeders; but against this charge the excuse may be made that the breed is in, comparatively speaking, a few hands, as the Cleveland Bav, though an excellent horse in his own particular lino, is scarcely to ENGLISH BREEDS 131 be regarded as being an animal for every liody'.s money. He possesses one great qualification, however, which should commend itself to all horse owners, and this is an unusually robust constitution; which circumstance is no doubt the cause of a good deal of the crossing that is going on between the Cleveland and other breeds, and possibly accounts for the relatively small number of the pure-bred " Bays" which are to be found. No doubt, however, the Cleveland and Hackney cross is fairly successful when the production of a sizeable animal possessed of higli action is the object of a breeder, and extremely long prices have been realized for animals thus bred. Plenty of good hunters have also been bred from Cleveland Bay mares; but upon the whole this sort of breeding partakes so very much of the nature of a lottery, that the wise man who desires to turn a penny, usually seeks to produce a harness horse from his Cleve- land Bay. At the same time stories are told of the ability some pure- bred representatives of the breed have displayed in the hunting-field, but it is scarcely conceivable that many very great feats were accomplished in this direction with any of the crack packs. As to conformation, the head of a Cleveland Bay cuu scarcely be described as a very attractive or taking one, being inclined to plainness, but it is not a coarse head, and is usually well carried. The neck is of fair length and slightly arched, showing plenty of strength at the setting on, but at the same time it is free from coarseness and superfluous lumber. Some difference of opinion — up to a certain extent: — exists amongst judges on the question of shoulders, for though it is probable that every- body prefers them well set and sloping, many persons argue that they regard the Cleveland Bay as a harness horse above all things, and that therefore the possession of a long sloping shoulder is not so essential in his case as it would be if he were used for saddle purposes. This con- tention is, of course, strongly opposed by those who regard the cajjacity of the breed from the other point of view, and there can be no doubt that the vast majority of the active supporters of the horse are dead in favour of a nicely placed shoulder. Upon the question of middle there are no differences of opinion, however, as the judges agree that the back of a Cleveland should be short, his girth considerable, his loins powei'ful, and his quarters long and level. He is wide in chest, and short on leg, though his height often makes him appear longer on his legs than he really is, and his arms and thighs can scarcely be too big and muscular. In the matter of l)one the Cleveland Bay is conspicuously good, as not only is there plenty of it, but it is remarkably flat, and the quality is quite excellent, it being extremely dense, and the sinews show up prnmiiionth'. Tlie pasterns slope well, and the feet are large and truly 132 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE formed, the hocks being of good size with plenty of the right sort of bone below them, whilst the tail is set on rather high. His usual height is about 16 hands 2 inches, or a little more or less. So far as the action of the Cleveland Bay is concerned, it cannot be successfully contended by his admirers that he possesses any of the fire and dash of his great rival the Hackney. Neither does he show the snap of the knee and peculiar poise of the fore-feet just before they touch the ground; nor of course does the big bay go nearly as high. On the other hand, the Cleveland Bay succeeds in giving a fine show when he is a good one, and he can get over the ground without losing much time, for he has plenty of shoulder and hock action, and cannot be accused of being a slovenly mover, but very much the reverse. In colour the true Cleveland must always be a bay. There are no two 023inions about this, though it does not necessarily follow that the bay must always be of any one particular shade. On the contrary, although the lighter shade predominates, many of the finest-looking specimens which have been seen of the breed, animals possessing moreover pedigrees which have been absolutely above suspicion, have been of the darkest shade, and no objec- tion has been raised against any of them, nor ought any to have been. The legs below the knees and hocks should be quite black, and above them, on the forearms and second thighs, some black horizontal stripes, such as those which appear on the zebra, are often to be seen. These, when found, are not objected to, in fact many persons regard them as signs of good breeding; but a white blaze on the forehead, or a white heel, are regarded as signs of impurity of blood, and will at once condemn their possessor to be suspected as a cross-bred. Some authorities would not reject an otherwise good horse for a very small star on the forehead, or a few white hairs on the heel, but a Cleveland Bay is all the better without either. The dark stripe down the back, or " list", is regarded very favourably by many breeders, but is not to be accepted as an infallible proof of pure breeding any more than are the zebra-like stripes on the thighs and quarters. A possible explanation of the appearance of these markings has been suggested above, and assuming it is a correct surmise, it speaks volumes for the prepotency of the old Devonshire dun. So far as the general appearance of the Cleveland Bay is concerned, it may be stated that he is a big upstanding, massive, yet active-looking animal, and conveys the impression to those who look him over of being an extremely powerful carriage horse, and therefore well calculated for heavy vehicles; but his "quality" is not conspicuous. Finally, the temper of a pure-bred Cleveland Bay is all in his fevo'jr, as he is a docile, willing worker, if not ill-treated and put to feats beyond ENGLISH BREEDS 133 his strength. It is true, liowever, that his reputation for pluck and stamina has been impugned by some persons who have crossed him with the view of producing a hunter, and who have pronounced him soft. This, however, is scarcely a fair charge to bring, as, in spite of the pro- testations of the thick-and-thin admirers of the Cleveland Bay, the horse is more adapted for harness than for saddle, and it therefore is surely running him out of his course to expect an animal to discluirge duties for which he was never intended. The Yorkshire Coach-horse. — The subject of this article so closely resembles the Cleveland Bay in appearance that there is considerable diffi- culty in distinguishing between the representatives of either breed on the part of those who are not experts on the subject of horse-flesh. It is there- fore perhaps permissible, heretical though it may appear to some minds, to regard the Yorkshire Coach-horse as an ofishoot of the Cleveland Bay, which he is very like, though he shows more quality and breeding. The Yorkshire Coach-horse has been recognized by horse-breeders as a distinct variety for a hundred years. It is only, however, within a com- paratively recent period that he has been taken seriously in hand by those who, in the best interests of the horse, have placed restrictions on the operations of breeders, with the result that the Yorkshire Coach-horse is now the recipient of a fair share of public attention. At the same time, the existence of a remote Thoroughbred cross has been fully recog- nized by the members of the Yorksliii'e Coach-horse Society, who, whilst endeavouring to promote the interests as a breed of the animal they are pledged to support, are sufficiently liberal in their views to admit the benefits which the Coach-horse has derived from lioth the Thoroughbred and the Cleveland Bay. Beyond all doubt the Yorkshire Coach -horse owes his origin to the Cleveland Bay-Thoroughbred cross, the object of the founders of the breed being the production of a horse which stood very high at the shoulder, and combined a great amount of quality with a sufficiency of substance. As time progressed, more Thoroughbred blood was introduced, the result being that a certain amount of weediness ensued, and this weediness it has been the chief desire of later breeders to counteract. A coaching stallion of quality to a Cleveland Bay mare was a very popular cro.ss, and the result was, as might be expected, a valuable harness horse — as the plain- ness of the Cleveland Bay was neutralized by the breeding of the sire, whilst there was plenty of power about the youngster. On the other hand, the introduction of a superfluity of Thoroughbred blood resulted in loss of size and lightness of bone; and as the Yorkshire Coach-horse should be a tall animal and yet possess substance, it was speedily recog- 134 VAKIETIES OF THE HORSE nized that the Thorouglil;)red cross, if jjersisted in, might soon become prejudicial to the interests of the breed. The difficulty in attempting to trace the pedigrees of Yorkshire Coach- horses may be appreciated when it is stated that at least one animal appears in the Stud-books of both the Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach-horse Societies. Still, the efforts of the society which bears the name of the breed will doubtless be rewarded by an improvement in the horse, and will eventually lead to the encouragement of breeders to abjure the in- troduction of extraneous blood, with the result that the stylish blood-like Yorkshire Coach-horse will be universally recognized as a defined breed, as he deserves, and without the further assistance of either a Thoroughbred or a Cleveland Bay. As may be supposed from the greater amount of quality he shows, the Yorkshire Coach-horse is a more active-looking and stylish animal than the Cleveland Bay, and his action and liberty are preferred by many. On the other hand, he does not possess the bone and substance of the Bay, as may readily be imagined when it is remembered that the blood of the Thoroughbred circulates so freely in his veins. His close relationship, however, with the aristocracy of the equine world assures the Yorkshire Coach-horse the possession of a great deal of quality, and beyond all doubt the acquisition of this great virtue endears him to many jjcople who vote the Cleveland Bay a commoner. At the same time it must be confessed that at present there is a good deal of dissimilarity amongst even the best-known Yorkshire Coach -horses, some of which are much more blood-like and therefore narrower than others, this being no doubt due to their relationship to either the Thoroughbred or the Cleveland Bay, as the case may be. In appearance, however, the Yorkshire Coach -horse very closely resembles the Cleveland Bay, but he shows a good deal more style and finish, and is not so pronounced in substance, owing to his possession of so much Thoroughbred blood. Indeed, he displays far more quality than would be acceptable to the ordinary judge of the big Bays, whilst his head is more refined and his crest more arched. Perhaps, too, his action is freer upon the whole, but this is more a matter for consideration when the points of individual animals come to be reckoned up, than a general characteristic of tlie breed. Tlie Coach-horse likewise fails in bone when brought into comparison with the Cleveland Bay, and is, generally speaking, the lighter, corkier animal of the two. He is usually a taller horse, as good specimens often reach 17 hands, and in colour may be either bay or brown. Any other shade of coat is strongly objected to, and wliite markings are disliked, though a spot on the forehead or ENGLISH BREEDS 135 a little white on the heel are not unfamiliar to judges. In most of theii- essential properties, however, the Cleveland Bay and the Yorkshire Coach- horse are very closely allied, the two varieties representing the best type of heavy coachers we possess, whilst both of them have been frequently crossed with the Hackney of late years. The Hunter. — Although there are few horses more sought after than a tirst-rate weight -carrying Hunter, the fact remains that in the vast majority of cases the animal belongs to no definite breed, most Hunters being made up of the Thoroughbred sire crossed with a mare of more or less doubtful pedigree. It may, however, be at once conceded that a very great number of men who ride to hounds would prefer being mounted on a clean-bred horse to a half-bred one, provided that a suitable animal was forthcoming; but the supply of Thoroughbreds available for the purpose of hunting men is limited, and consequently a composite animal has to be produced. It is scarcely complimentary to the Hunter, that he should be the only variety of horse whose admirers confess them- selves unable to produce him as a distinct breed. On the other hand, tlie confessed inability of most Hunter - breeders to work without the direct assistance of the Thoroughbred is a direct testimony to the value of the latter horse. At the same time, although surprise may be expressed at the recognized difficulty of producing a breed of Hunters, the general admission of the fact must be accepted, for the present at all events. It is a very re- grettable circumstance, nevertheless, as until there is some reliability concerning the pedigree of a breeder's stock, there will always be a great deal of uncertainty regarding the results of the experiments he may make. The establishment of the Hunters' Improvement Society has, however, done much to assist the raisers of this class of animal, and the inclusion of mares in the Stud-book they publish must in the course of a few years contribute very materially to further progress in the direction of their purpose. It is therefore possible that in the dim and far-off future Hunter-breeders may succeed in establishing a definite breed for themselves. Nor should modern Hunter- breeders be blamed by those who may disagree with their opinions as to the necessity for the introduction of Thoroughbred blood, for every important authority of the past has expressed some A^ery similar views upon the question. Whyte Melville, in his Hunting RecoUections, thus places what was in his mind before his readers : " In all the qualities of a Hunter, the Thoroughbred horse is, I think, superior to the rest of his kind " ; but this good sportsman and fine writer proceeds immediately to qualify somewhat his praise by adding 136 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE that the Thoroughbred all the same may uot always be the pleasantest of mouuts. Dick Christian, whose valuable opinions upon the question of Hunters have been immortalized by " The Druid ", was precisely of the same opinion, and he expressed himself in very similar though perhaps more emphatic terms; whilst "Nimrod" (Mr. Apperly), iu 1842, although he did not advocate the claims of the clean-bred horse as a Hunter, recognized the desirability of a bit of blood in his composition. The remarks of the last writer, so far as they have reference to the Thorough- bred being used in the field, may perhaps be accepted as a reply to the suggestion made by Blaine two years previously, when he observed that it would be well worth the while of hunting men to purchase some likely young Thoroughbreds that were not fast enough for racing, and having thrown them up for a time, to proceed to make them into Hunters. From these references to the opinions of men whose names are still household words in the hunting world, it will be seen that if the out-and- out sticklers for blood are wrong in the views they possess upon the subject of Hunter-breeding, they are erring in extremely good comijany. Moreover, in view of the uncertainty which the opinions referred to foreshadow, it is scarcely probable that Hunter-breeders would summon up the heart or courage to make experiments on a large scale. They certainly do not appear to have exerted themselves very much until the last few years, to produce even the proper kind of mare to cross with the Thoroughbred stallions whose services they so implicitly rely upon, the result being that Hunter-breeding has generally been a lottery, in which the number of the blanks has been far in excess of that of the prizes. Any sort of mare was promiscuously put to Thoroughbreds by enterprising farmei's, who were prepared to chance their fortune; and the produce of the union was recrossed with the Thoroughbred or not just as luck would have it. This is illustrated by the statement of an elderly farmer, which is repeated by the Druid. This breeder told him that he had never produced the type of Hunter he wanted until he had put a short-legged cart mare to a Thoroughbred horse, and then had the female produce of the union served by another Thoroughbred, and this brought him what he wished to get. The above system has no doubt been practised with varying results by many Hunter-breeders of the past, and some also of the present time. Others have set to work on different material, and have used the Thorough- bred upon all sorts of light mares from the Coach-horse downwards. It may be noticed, too, that there were " hunters " of some sort or other in England at a date prior to the period when the Thoroughbred horse us we know him Itecame available for a cross, but it is pretty certain that ENGLISH BREEDS 137 no efforts were made to perpetuate or improve the race as it then existed, and perhaps for the reason that Hunters were not required to do the same work as the modern animal of the shires. Still, even in those early days Hunters were not without admirers; for so far back as the year 1602 Gervase Markham expresses himself as follows: "The Hunting Horse, both for his virtue, strength, goodness, and endurance, I place next to the horse of service ". Markham also described at some length, and in his usually quaint style, " the three especial characters or forces by which a man shall choose a good Hunting Horse". These were: (l) his breed, (2) his colour, and (3) the shape of his lineaments. Markham, however, in spite of his professions of allegiance to breed, appears to have possessed a somewhat open mind, as he commences his observations on the subject by stating that if the horse were a bastard Jennet, or bastard Polander, he would not be amiss, that is to say if the parent on one side were English bred. He never- theless expressed a predilection for the native article. Markham was still more catholic in his taste for colours, as bays, browns, grays, and roans were all admired by him; but he strongly objected to blacks — on superstitious grounds apparently — and chestnuts marked with white he was also opposed to. Tlie third property upon which Markham was accustomed to base his opinions of a Hunter was shape, on which he expatiates with unusual prolixity. Briefly, the points this old writer looked for were a long, lean, large head, with a spacious, wide jowl, a short sharp ear for preference (but if these organs were long and pointed forward it was to be accepted as a sign of speed), a long and rising forehead, eyes full and round, and nostrils wide. The sort of neck Markham liked to see was the straight and firm, " as it were of one piece with the body", a strong broad chest, exceedingly short flat legs with well-knit joints, and straight upright pasterns, the hoofs being strong and yet long and narrow. Upon the question of the mane and tail, how- ever, Markham was most emphatic, as he held that the thicker and denser the hair of these were, the greater the sign of dulness, whereas if they were thin it was a sign that the horse was possessed of spirit. John Lawrence, whose work was published in 1809, bears testimony to the fact that a good deal of progress had somehow been made by the Hunter since the days of Gervase Markham, but the chief credit for what had been accomplished appears to have been due to Irish breeders, for he commences his observations by stating of their horses that, " The Irish are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world ". Lawrence, more- over, does not show signs of being perfectly sound upon the question of Thoroughbred blood, for he prefaces his description of a Hunter by saying: 138 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE " Hunter.s are of all degrees of blood from the Thoroughbred to the Cart- horse. It depends on the nature of the country for which they are chosen, and still more on accident. ... If a man desires to make a figure in a capital hunt he must provide a Thoroughbred Hunter. He nmst be equal to the weight of the rider, neither leggy, nor long-waisted, nor slight-boned, nor have crooked pastern joints. He should be well set upon his haunches previously to being used as a Hunter. In general a Hunter should have a good loin and spreading haunches, strong and well-knit joints, should go clear of his legs, have a good mouth, a striding gallop, and reach at least the height of 15 hands". Eleven years later John Scott, writing in the Sportsman's RejMsitory, again alludes to the superiority of the Irish horses, which he says " are renowned as leapers both standing and flying, to be attributed in some measure to their form, shape, and frigate build ". He refers to the English Hunter as being "a horse between 15 and 16 hands in height from the half-bred to the Thoroughbred species, and ought to be of a lofty forehand, and shoulders well formed for action, with wide and substantial loins, moderately short legs and pasterns, and sound feet." " Nimrod ", although credited with being a first-flight man in his day, does not appear to have been so profoundly impressed by the sanctity of the Hunter as some modern authors, for he admits that a Hunter may be put to many purposes in addition to field, as he can carry a man to battle, or be used for draught. " It is therefore singular," he adds, " that out of a hundred men at covert side not half a dozen of them are on their own bred horses." This he accounted for by the uncertainty of breeding, for which it was difficult to lay down rules, but he thought the chief difficulty was to obtain the services of a good stallion; and therefore he, unlike most writers upon the Hunter, advocates a cross of Arab blood. So far, however, as he dared to go into the question of breeding Hunters " Nimrod " went, the cardinal principles that he laid down for the guidance of his readers being to observe the peculiarities of the horse and mare, and cross accordingly, a tall horse to a low mare, and so on, selecting only animals with moderate-sized carcasses, as he "never saw a very closely ribbed large -carcassed horse brilliant as a hunter". "Nimrod", moreover, appears to have been a little heretical as regards his opinions on the subject of a Hunter's head, and he expresses himself as indiff"erent to its size and shape, provided it is well hung on, which is important, for he states his belief that even more than the mere length of neck, the set-on of the head is connected with the heavy bearing on the hands. He considered, however, that the length of the head and neck should be proportionate; if one were long so ought the ENGLISH BREEDS 139 other to be, and vice versa. Length of shouhlers " Nimrod " was quite positive was a uecessity, au oblique scapula being indispensable for up- hill and down-dale work; and though, of course, he did not like coarse shoulders, he objected to them less than straight ones. The arms he liked long, strong, and muscular, the knees broad and deep, the fetlocks of fair length and sloping, and the feet wide; chest deep, quarters lengthy, with long muscular thighs and well-placed hocks. Upon the cjuestion of action "Nimrod" had a great deal to say, being a hard-riding man, and it was only natural that he should advocate a gentle action with no dwelling about it. So far as the general appearance of his ideal Hunter went, " Nimrod ", like every modern judge, preferred to see a horse appear to be smaller than he really was, for then he was sure that the animal was symmetrically built; whilst he adds that according to his experience the long-backed horses were the best brook jumpers, whilst the short- backed ones excelled over timber. Youatt, unlike "Nimrod", was a great stickler for blood, believing that though half-bred Hunters could continue to get along, if stoutness were really wanted a hard rider should be mounted on at least three- quarter or seven -eighths bred animals. According to this writer, no Hunter should stand less than 15 or more than 16 hands at shoulder. If he were below that height Youatt considered he could " always measure the object ", and if above the prescribed limit the horse was apt to be leggy and awkward at his work. In the opinion of this writer the first point to be sought for in a Hunter was lightness in hand, and therefore he, again disagreeing with " Nimrod ", sought for animals with neat small heads, with thin necks, and especially those that were light on their underside. He also insisted upon broad chests, big arms, and short legs, with pasterns of fair length; whilst, though he desired that the feet should be set on straight, he would regard their being turned outwards slightly as an unimportant fault, though he would reject a Hunter that was pigeon-toed. Finally, Youatt advocates a short and compact body, and therefore is once more at variance with " Nimrod ", who appears to have been tolerant of a long back. From all that has gone before it is pretty clearly shown that the breeders of the past, so far as they were afforded opportunities, were glad to avail themselves of the services of a Thoroughbi'ed horse for getting Hunter stock. Then, as now, it was not often that a clean-bred animal was to be found up to more than 13 stone. The consensus of opinion that has been expressed in favour of the Thoroughbred as a Hunter sire, both by past and present writers, renders it impossible to expect that the day is yet at hand when Hunters shall exist as a ItO VAEIETIES OF THE HORSE distinct variety having the faculty of reproducing themselves; and the idea has been well-nigh abandoned of attempting to establish a class of Thoroughbred animals up to greater weight than the half-bred horses now available for men who ride to hounds. Whether this is practicable, experience alone can show, but unquestionably a move is being made in the direction of the prevailing practice of sending mares to Thoroughbred sires, and again repeating tlie process with the fillies that are thus obtained. The results of the second cross are again sent to Thoroughbreds, and so it may be continued until the foals are, virtually speaking, themselves Thoroughbreds, though whether they will have retained the substance of the original dam, together with the bone and size which she may have possessed, is a question which can only be replied to when the experiment has been worked out. The rooted antipathy which exists in many quarters to the half-bred stallion affords a very probable cause for believing that the manufacture of a breed of weight-carrying Hunters would not be an exceptionally difficult task; but until the prejudice against the half-breds subsides breeders who are trying to raise animals for sale, and cannot therefore afford to offend the susceptibilities of their patrons, may be excused if they decline to digress from the beaten track that has been traversed by their predecessors for generations. No doubt, too, the course adopted by the Royal Commissioners, who are entrusted with the distribution of the money voted for the King's Premiums, has exercised a very decided influence upon the feelings of the public. According to the practice of, and rules laid down by, the Commissioners, the premiums are only divided amongst Thoroughbred stallions which are considered to be suited for serving half-bred mares and breeding Hunters therefrom, but whether the conditions go far enough or the reverse is a point upon which opinions differ very materi- ally. To commence with, the judges are not informed of the pedigrees or performances of the competitors for these jDremiums, and as many of the horses are either non-stayers themselves, or descendants of such, it is a debatable point whether they are likely to instil stamina into their offspring. Secondly, as the selection of the districts in which tlie horses are to travel for the season is left to their owners, and the competi- tors are grouped in classes accordingly, it naturally follows that many a fine stallion, which happens to have the bad luck to compete in a strong class, fails to gain a jjrize, and his services are thereby lost to breeders in other districts, whereas, had he been entered in another elass, he might have won easily, and would thereby have done much better public service during the succeeding season than the horses that were awarded pijemiunis in that class. It appears therefore that the ENGLISH BREEDS Ul money devoted to tlie King's premiums would be much lietter applied if the judges were to select the horses that were to travel each district from the whole of the competitors, and not class by class, as there would then be increased prospects of having the money distributed among all the best animals, which would be a distinct benefit to the breeders of horses. Besides this, it is quite possible, under the existing order of things, for a stallion to be given a premium as a su'e to travel a district for which he is totally unadapted by his shape, size, make, and breeding. Thus a small-bred, little horse may be selected to serve mares in a pouy-breeding part of the countr}-, or a big coarse one in a district where the mares require quality put upon them. Consequently it is certain that the King's premiums would accomplish more good if the judges were empowered to select the stallions which in their opinion were best calculated to serve in each particular part of the country. The desirability or the reverse of introducing the Arab cross into Hunters is one that has often been debated. No doubt the reputation of the Arabs was considerably affected by the ignominious figure they cut at Newmarket some years ago, when they finished behind some very moderate Thoroughbreds over a distance of ground ; but under any circum- stances it is dithcult to see in what respect the Arab is superior to the English horse, provided that the latter is carefully selected for the purposes of a Hunter-breeder, and therefore if a sire has to be found to cross with half-bred mares, it surely would be safer to cross with an animal that has been a good performer himself, or else comes of running and of staying blood. The latter qualification is probably more powerful than the former, but it too frequently happens that horses which have passed through a long turf career come down to the level of a Hunter sire only because they lack the quality of endurance. It is also cj^uite possible that a good performer on the course may be found to be incapable of begetting race- horses, although his offspring may be quite fast enough for work across country. A second objection that is not infrequently raised against using horses that have done much work upon the turf for Hunter - breeding is, that these animals have been forced from a very early age, and have been generally subjected to conditions of life which are likely to have impaired their energies for begetting staying stock that are capable of carrying weight to hounds, and lasting out a long day beneath it. A considerable time ago, as the history of the turf informs us, the Thoroughbred of the period had to run oA'er long courses under welter weights and in heats, and in fact was subjected to treatment that their descendants of the present day could not stand. Such animals were far more likelv to produce Hunters than the modern race-horse; 142 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE and therefore it once more may be suggested that as the Thoroughbred is accepted as indispensable to Hunter-breeders, all the more care should be exercised by the breeders of weight -carrying Hunters in selecting a stallion that can stay. So much space having been given to the selection of a Hunter sire the question of the mare may now be considered, for after all there can be no denying the fact that she plays a very prominent part in the production of a Hunter. The latter is, however, very frequently the offspring of quite a haphazard cross, between a mare of a heavy or light breed as the case may be, and the first available stallion, regard- less of merit either in respect to pedigree or performances. But this method of breeding is merely groping in the dark. It is impossible to expect business men to embark in such an undertaking as raising Hunters as an enterprise with nothing but their luck to influence the results. For fiirraers it may do very well, for they possess the mares, and can work them very nearly up to their time of foaling and soon after it, so there is not much time w-asted, and if the youngster proves a misfit there is but Httle loss over the transaction. If, on the other hand, Hunter-breeders can be induced to act upon the advice of the Hunters' Improvement Society, a great step might be made in rendering their enterprise more reliable ; for even if, failing an established breed of Hunters, it is admitted that the Thoroughbred as a sire is essential for the production of a Hunter, it is the fashion that the mare should be half or three-parts bred. Consequently, it is not only possible, but pro])able, that any breeder who pays due regard to the individual merit of his mares, and ascertains their pedigrees before he buys them, may reasonably anticipate that his results will be more satisfactory than if he crossed the clean-bred horse indis- criminately with any sort of mare, and chanced the rest. Cart blood may, moreover, be a capital thing in its way — that is to say, it is satisfactory enough if a farmer's mare flukes a good stamp of weight- carrier to a horse that happens to suit her — but how about the oflspring of the union if a filly? The ancient breeder referred to above, who told "the Druid" tliat he had never produced the sort of Hunter he wanted to breed until he crossed a cart mare with a Thoroughbred and their filly foal back again to the clean-bred animal, was no doulit a lucky man to get what he required in two crosses, but it is not recorded that he did so a second time. Unquestionably the prepotency of the Thoroughbred is great, but tliis circumstance gives no guarantee that the cart blood will not assert itself, and until a breeder provides himself with a stud of mares that possess some good back-breeding for several generations he must expect some disappointments as the result. ENGLISH BREEDS 143 Tlie task of breeding a heavy-weight Hunter is a very much nioie difficult one than the production of a light-weight animal, and the cross- country men who are not troubled by superfluous flesh or bone can mount themselves, if they please, on Thoroughbreds or cross-bred animals for, comparatively speaking, small amounts. This being the case, it is naturally the ambition of every breeder, whose ulterior object is the sale of his young stock, to produce a weight carrier, and consequently the raising of light-weight horses is seldom seriously attempted, except by amateurs who breed for their own requirements and not for market. Size, in addition to power, stamina, and action, is a great desideratum in any Hunter, for a big horse possesses the charm of making the fences look smaller than they really are, and vice versa, and therefore a little horse will not command the price that would be given for a bigger one, however clever he may look or be. At the same time it must be noted that the quality of a weight carrier is usually in inverse ratio to his strength and stature. There is no valid reason for preferring a great clumsy mare to a sym- metrically built one for a cross with the Thoroughbred when it is desired to produce a Hunter — in fact, the less coarseness she possesses the better are the chances in the lottery — but still she must have bone and size. If weedy, it would be too much to expect her to throw a weight -carrier; whilst if coarse, the foal will very probably be pronounced too common for a Hunter, and be condemned to a life of slavery between the shafts. A bit of breeding somewhere is, of course, essential to a mare from which it is hoped to breed a foal possessed of quality, and a good-girthed, big- quartered, short -legged one will most commend itself to the practical breeder as the sort to go for. In process of time the Stud-hook of the Hunters' Improvement Society, if it does not degenerate to all intents and purposes into a replica of the General Stud-book, will be accepted by breeders as an invaluable guide in the selection of their horses, both for work and breeding purposes; but rapid as has been the progress of the volume, it must take many years before it can assume the propor- tions of a reliable guide to Hunter- raisers generally. Only one foal a year at best can be expected from a mare, and therefore the progress of building up foundation stock must be slow; but meanwhile a work of reference of inestimable value to the Hunter-breeder is being steadily compiled, and this volume, in course of time, must become a most reliable source of information regarding Hunter mares. It is highly probable that a mare which herself has proved a valuable Huntress will produce a foal of merit; but whilst fully accepting the theory of the poet Horace, who mentioned that Fortes creantur fortihus et bonis, it does not invari- ably follow that a clever Huntress will produce a saleable foal, let alone 144 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE a weight-carrier. Still, the produce of really good mares is usually good in turn, but uufortunately the supply of high -class matrous is limited and with difficulty obtained. There is yet another point in connection with the breeding of Hunters which must be considered, and this is that the same class of horse is not required for every hunting county in England. This circumstance is a very fortunate one both for breeders and sportsmen, as in the first case there is a more elastic market in which to dispose of their horses, and in the second the demand for any particular class of animal is restricted to those who hunt in a particular district. At the same time it is essential that every Hunter should gallop and be safe and quick at his fences. Size, as has already been pointed out, is a most important quality, and so of course is action, but there are men who, provided their mount possesses the other attributes of a good Hunter, are so happily constituted as to be dis- posed to give way a little on the subject of action if only they feel satisfied that their horse will carry them to the end of a run. It must not, how- ever, be imagined that action is not a great point in the Hunter, for it is, and a horse that is deficient in this respect is never likely to command a high figure. He must possess freedom at the shoulder and a knack of bending his hocks above all things, as, if he fails in these points, it will not be at all likely that he can see the end of a long run beneath a welter w-eight, whilst, so f;xr as his rider's comfort is concerned, a good shoulder action in his mount is a ])lessing which all horsemen must appreciate. The appearance of a Hunter must naturally conform to the work that he is expected to perform, and the animal that is expected to carry a welter weight over a stiff country is, of course, different in shape and make from the horse which is required to gallop under a less severe burden. At the same time there are several points which all Hunters must possess in com- mon, for they are all required to stay and jump, and therefore the chest should be deep enough and wide enough to provide ample accommodation for the heart and lungs, whilst the quarters and thighs must be big and powerful. Nor can the importance of good legs and feet be overestimated. An animal that is bad upon his fore-legs is always an unreliable mount. This fact has been recognized by most people from time immemorial, and amongst the older writers none was more emphatic in his denunciations of indifferent fore-legs than the Duke of Newcastle, who wrote in 1667. He states as follows: "Some say if a horse have a great head, and thick neck and fleshy shoulders, that he is hard on the hand. You must know, that if he have any imperfection in his leggs or feet, but especiall before, the horse must be hard on hand; for he leans on the hand to ease the grief of his leggs, as gouty man doth use his staff. And let him be finely ENGLISH BREEDS U5 shap't or ill sliajj't, if he have any imperfection in his leggs, he must be hard on the hand." The secondary importance which was attached by the Duke of Newcastle to the head of a Hunter will scarcely be in accordance with the opinions of modern experts, who for the most part are greatly influenced in their selection of an animal by the opinion they form of this portion of his anatomy, a refined-looking intelligent head being regarded by most hunting men as a sine qua noa in the comjjosition of the horse that has to carry them. The subjoined description of a Hunter that may be expected to find favour with hunting men of all degrees may be offered for the guidance of the reader. The head should be small, lean, and bear an intelligent expression; it should be fsiirly wide at the jowl, and taper gradually towards the muzzle, which should be of a good size. The forehead is broad, the eyes rather full and soft, and the ears small and nicely carried. The setting on of the neck is an important point, for if the head meets it at a sharp angle, not only is an awkward appearance the result, but the horse loses a considerable amount of his natural power to recover himself if he makes a mistake; whereas if he possesses a head set gracefully on his neck in a gentle curve in the throat, he is capable of greater activity in moving it suddenly upon an emergency, and thereby may save his rider a fall. The neck itself should be lean, though muscular, quite free from lumber, slightly arched and increasing in size until it reaches the shoulders, a coarse heavy neck being a very bad fault in a Hunter. The shoulders themselves should be long and sloping, well laid back at the withers, which in turn should be well raised but fine, most judges, though not all, being opposed to wide withers. His chest should be both broad, fiat, and deep, so that the girths are well behind the forearms, whilst the forearms should be long and muscular, with big deep knees, and plenty of good sound flat bone and wiry sinews below them. The canons should be short from knee to fet- lock, and the pasterns of fair length and sloping. The middle piece must be very powerful, with well-sprung ribs, strong loins, and a big flat back. The hips should be wide, and the quarters very long, level, and powerful, with deep and very muscular thighs, big clean hocks, and a considerable amount of vein below them. The tail must not be set on too low, or else the horse will present a goose-rumped appearance, which, in addition to being an eyesore, will convey to many minds the impression that the animal is descended from common stock. The feet should be large, and of course perfectly sound and symmetrical, dark in colour, mth a rather high heel, healthy frog, and thick soles. In general appearance, therefore, the Hunter may be described as being an intelligent -looking, short -legged horse, possessed of great power behind, and an ability to carry the weight Vol. I. ^ " 10 14G VARIETIES OF THE HOESE required of him through a long day. Regarding the action of a Hunter, all that need be said is that galloping and walking are the two most useful gaits that he can possess. When fully extended his gallop should be smooth, without any disposition to fight about it, but rather of the low creeping order; and of course the faster he is the better. An ability to trot, too, with ease to his rider is, of course, an additional and a valuable attribute, for it usually happens that this mode of progression is resorted to in the journey to and from the meet; but it is not every galloper that can trot, and after all the former is far the more important action in a Hunter. A horse of this description that can walk well is, of course, an animal for selection over one that cannot, as the rider of a tired Hunter which cannot step out is not to be envied when he has to make his way home on a strange road and in the dark. There can be no two opinions upon the question of temper in a Hunter, as an awkward head- strong animal, let alone a vicious one, is always a danger to his rider and the rest of the field. Finally, the manners of the perfect Hunter must be exceptionally good, his mouth should be light, his intelligence great, and while possessing courage, he should be steady and tractable, with his heart in the right place. A puller will soon wear down the strength of his rider, whereas a horse with manners will carry him without demanding half the expenditure of energy and trouble to keep him straight. Briefly speaking, therefore, a Hunter, for whatever purposes he may be required, should possess — First, the best of legs and feet. Second, action, strength, and courage. Third, long sloping shoulders, without which the action will not be there. Fourth, powerful quarters and big muscular back-legs. Fifth, a neat intelligent head. Sixth, a deep chest, and a flat and not too short back. Some points of a Hunter were briefly epitomized by Whyte Melville as follows: — " A heeid like a snake, ,ind a skin like a mouse. An eye like a woman's, bright, gentle, and brown, With loins and a back that would carry a house, And quarters to lift him right over a town ". With every word of the above all hunting men will cordially agree, their principal regret being, no doulit, that the gifted author did not still further extend his poetical description of a very valuable class of horse. The Saddle Horse. — Having referred to the various distinct breeds ENGLISH BREEDS H7 of horses which are recognized in England, it is desirable that a short space should be devoted to the Saddle horse — not necessarily as regards his breeding, but so far as his structural development and qualities are concerned. In so far as a breed of Saddle horses is concerned, there is nothing of the sort in this country, though in America l)rceders have made one. In the first place, perhaps the most essential point of all is to secure good manners, as no matter how excellent a Hack may be in other ways, he will never be a safe, whilst he will often be a very dangerous, ride, if through vice, bad breaking, or some other cause, he is not to be depended upon to answer his bit, or be easily controlled by the slightest touch of the rein. After manners the question of shoulders in the riding- horse is a subject for the gravest consideration of those who have to judge him, as a short-, straight-, or heavy -shouldered animal can never be expected to move at any of his paces as smoothly as one whose shoulders are long, obliquely placed, and free from lumber. " No shoulder no saddle horse ", is an expression made use of by a hard-riding and practical Yorkshire gentleman, who most truthfully maintains that no matter how good a Hack's legs and feet may be, if his shoulders are faulty he will be a sorry mount for anyone. Of course it would be most foolish to ignore the importance of the legs and feet of a Hack or any other horse, and so it should be a subject of care to a judge to note that the arms of the animal he is looking over are big, the knees large and properly placed — not standing back or over — the bone between them and the pasterns short and flat, with nice springy sloping pasterns terminating in sound, properly-shaped feet. The importance of a good pastern is great when the horse is to be used for saddle w^ork, as if the pasterns are too short or straight the animal is not so well calculated to preserve his balance if he stumbles, whilst he will certainly be a rough-actioned Hack. The head of the typical Hack should be breedy-looking and small, with neat ears, fair-sized eyes — a pig eye looks very objectionable through a bridle — and an elegant muzzle with large nostrils, the jowl being moderately deep, but in no respects heavy, and the forehead wide. This sort of head, if set upon a delicate and slightly arched neck, which widens as it nears the shoulders, is always attractive; and it must be borne in mind that a short, thick, heavy neck is an abomination in a Hack. The withers should be fairly high, and, like the shoulders, sloping, so as to assist in keeping the saddle in its place. There should be a nice depth of chest, but at this point extreme width is not required. US VARIETIES OF THE HORSE The back sliould be neither long, weak, nor dipped, but there must at the same time be plenty of room to carry the saddle and leave a reason- able amount of space behind. The Hack should be well ribbed up, and possess nice long straight quarters, as, if the latter are short or slope, they are a great eyesore to judges; a weak quarter is a very serious defect. The hind-legs should be nicely bent at the stifles with a good length of bone down to the hocks, and short thence to the ground, the pasterns, though not so long and sloping as those of the fore-legs, being lengthy enough to ensure elasticity of action, whilst the feet must, of course, be sound and healthy. The tail is set on rather high, and is not usually docked short in a Hack, but neatly squared. The hocks should be large, free from all blemish, and so placed that they are neither so close together nor so wide apart as to prove a source of weakness to the horse, which they will if either of these defects is present. The action of the Park Hack should be free, well-timed, and elastic, his principal paces being the walk and the canter; he is rarely required either to trot or gallop, and any approach to a high fighting style of going- is very strongly to be deprecated. A horse which creeps along, as it were, over the ground with a smooth easy canter will always command attention, whilst a fast level walker is almost always as much admired. It is re- markable to notice how often the walking action of a Hack is neglected by judges and purchasers of this class of horse; but the discomfort and danger of riding an animal which is an awkward walker are both so apparent, that in selecting a Saddle horse his style of going at this gait should be closely studied. The important suliject of manners may also be regarded as including action within its scope, for no horse which does not move smoothly and answer its bit and its rider's knee, can ever be expected to possess the perfect manners which are so inseparably asso- ciated with the true type of riding horse. The great points, therefore, to be sought for in a Hack are manners, which includes mouth and freedom from vice; action, which is invariably associated with good shoulders and limbs; and elegance of form, in other words, quality — a trio of properties which it is not easy to combine in any one animal; and hence the great value of a perfect Saddle horse. How to produce this much-sought-after class of animal is a subject which causes breeders a great deal of anxious thought, but it is the prevailing belief, founded upon experience, that as a rule the beau ideal Park Hack should possess a great deal of Thoroughbred in his composition, even if he is not perfectly clean -bred himself The possession of this blood win almost certainly ensure a fine neat head, and the right sort of shoulder, though in the latter point Thoroughbreds diflcr like every ENGLISH BREEDS 149 other horse, some being fur superior to others. It not infrequently occurs, however, that a blood-horse is much too high-eou raged for a timid rider, who consequently seeks for an equally good-actioned but steadier mount. To such the advantages of an Arab cross may be suggested, for although the Eastern breeds are decried by many authorities, there can be no disputing the fact that, in spite of their not uncommon ten- dency to be faulty in shoulder, the Arabs are usually very excellent Hacks, provided they are given a fair chance to do their merits justice. They certainly put good heads upon their offspring, whilst their docility is great, so that although their action may not invariably be so imposing as might be desired, they will, if judiciously crossed, throw most excellent Saddle horses, whilst in their pure state they can carry a lady or boy very comfortably and well. The style, too, in which an Arab will come up to his bit, and change his legs as often as desired, is worthy of all the praise that can be bestowed upon any horse; and therefore to this breed and the Thoroughbred the would-be breeder of a Park Hack may look when seeking a cross for suitable mares. Weight-carrying Saddle horses of the stamp which is sought for by elderly gentlemen of considerable bulk are naturally built on far more substantial lines than the Park Hack. They must also be heavier in bone and the possessors of irreproachable decorum; but valuable though they be, the art of producing this class of horse has hitherto remained a mystery, the appearance of a weight- carrying cob being usually a matter of chance, though possibly the crossing of an Aral) and a powerful Hunter mare might produce the animal required. For Covert Hacks a dash of Thoroughbred blood is most desirable, as the duties of these horses are so varied, and their work is often of so arduous a nature, that high courage combined with manners and style are chiefly desired by those who use them. Many an excellent Covert Hack has been the oflspring of a blood-horse and a pony mare, or rice versa, and it is from such sources that the best of them are most likely to spring. The Harness Horse. — The formation of the ideal Harness horse is naturally very different from that of the Park Hack, or even the ordinary Saddle horse, one at least of the most difficult points to secure in the latter — long, sloping, well-placed shoulders — not being so essential to per- fection in the case of a Harness horse. This stamp of animal should be long and low and stand over a great deal of ground. His loins should be powerful, and his quarters lengthy and level, with muscular thighs and broad, flat, well-placed hocks. A sour head is seldom associated with good in any horse, as it usually betokens a sullen or vicious temperament, whicli 150 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE is shunned by driving men, wliilst a heavy head and a dull expression generally accompanies a soft, cowardly disposition, which prevents its possessor from struggling on under difficulties, as many Harness horses are called upon to do. The neck of a Harness horse should not be short or heavy, as both these faults are apt to make him clumsy, a defect which is prejudicial to the merits of any horse. His neck, too, should be firmly placed on his shoulders, which need not necessarily be so oblique as those of the Saddle horse, nor is it imperative that the withers should lie so far back. Indeed, many persons advocate a moderately straight shoulder in the Harness class of animal, being of the opinion that such a formation more readily adapts itself to the collar, but in this respect, as in all others, it is no difficult thing to go too far, as coarse shoulders not only are liable to injure action, but detract very much from the appearance of any horse. Big forearms, with plenty of length above the knee, and short from this joint downwards, with broad flat canon- bones, are very desirable features for a Harness horse to possess, whilst the pasterns should slope, and the feet all round be of good size, well formed, and of course sound. Considerable depth and fair breadth of chest should also be present, so that whilst the speed and " handiness " of the animal are not affected, there may be plenty of room for the play of both heart and lungs. It is not al)solutely necessary that the back of a Harness horse should be as level as that of a Hack, as he is not required to carry any considerable weight upon it; but a distinctly hollow or dipped back is a great eyesore, and should always be avoided when possible, though a really good animal in other respects need not be discarded if his back happens to be hollow. Neither is a badly ribbed-up middle piece or a slack loin a fatal defect, though any signs of weakness, such as these, depreciate the value of an animal and detract from his appearance. On the other hand, the import- ance of good quarters can scarcely be overestimated, as a horse which is cramped here is naturally placed at a disadvantage for harness work; whilst good thighs and hocks are quite essential to him. The stifle joints should be nicely bent — but not too much so — and there should be plenty of length of limb between them and the hocks, which in turn should be large and powerful, and of course quite clean and free from blemish. A capped hock, let it be mentioned, though an unsightly disfigurement, does not of a neces- sity betoken unsoundness or an incapacity for work, and therefore need not entail the discarding of an otherwise good horse, provided he is passed sound in other respects ; but they are always better avoided if possible, if only on account of their ugly appearance. There should not be too much of a bend at the hocks; " sickle hocks" are very often associated sooner or later with ENGLISH BREEDS 151 weakness, and they sliould be well placed, not being carried outward below the line of the body or inwards according to the conformation known as " cow hocks ". The tail should be set on high, as must be the case when the quarters are level, for though plenty of " goose-rumped " horses are good workmen, a droojjing quarter never adds to the appearance of any animal. The question of manners in a Harness horse is a matter of great iniijort- ance, as an animal with a naturally bad mouth, or one which has been ruined by injudicious breaking or heavy hands, to say nothing of a vicious or timid dispositioned one, is always an unsatisfactory and very often a dangerous horse to drive. Very frequently, of course, the manners of a horse become affected by bad bitting, and consequently in trying a recent purchase of which nothing is known it would be unwise to discard him, if not at first satisfactory, until the peculiarities of his mouth have been carefully studied. Indeed it may safely be asserted that as many equine tempers have been ruined, and manners spoiled, by injudicious bitting as by any other means, and therefore in forming an estimation of a strange horse's manners, it is always necessary to pay attention to his mouth. Again, the question of manners is so often associated witli temper that no one is ever justified in ignoring the character an animal may possess. Some animals entertain peculiar aversions to certain objects which they may possibly encounter when being tried, and although they may be steady enough under any other circumstances, may earn for themselves a bad reputation amongst strangers. A bolter, however, and particularly one whose eyesight is at all affected, is never to be trusted, for if a horse once decidedly gains the upper hand over his driver, he rarely forgets his power, and is therefore liable to repeat the outbreak at any moment. Action and style are two 23oints about a Harness horse which are ab- solutely essential to success in the show ring, or inclusion in the category of valuable animals. Unfortunately, however, they are both difiicult to secure, nor are they always associated with each other. Yet they must be there if a horse is to be accepted as a good one, for no matter how perfect his formation may be, or how well he moves, he will go down before a good judge if he does not carry his two ends up; whilst if he accomplishes this and is deficient in action his other merits will all be overlooked. To com- mence with, a good Harness horse should hold his head uj) proudly as it were, and not be dependent upon a bridoon bit for keeping it in ^Josition ; but, on the other hand, a " star-gazer " which throws his head-piece back us if he were taking an observation of the sky is never an animal to be admired, and not infrequently is an awkward horse to drive. When it is noticed, therefore, that a Harness horse is driven in a martingale, it is as well to try and ascertain how he carries his head without one; whilst, on the 152 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE other hand, it may be mentioned that it is no unusual thing for animals to 1)6 shown off with the reins attached to the bridoon bits in thsir mouths, instead of to the other bits which are merely added for the sake of ap})ear- iince. The action of a Harness horse is necessarily a most important part of his composition, as an imposing show is the oVjject most sought after by both judges and purchasers. A considerable difference of opinion however exists regarding what is required, though in all cases lofty knee action is insisted upon. Many high movers, however, appear to be incapable of doing any- thing except bending their knees, and such animals usually possess an evil propensity for smashing their fore-feet down in almost the same place from which they raised them, and leaving their hind-legs behind them, after a fashion which is simply distressing to a lover of real action. Still, such horses can win prizes under some judges, but this feet does not necessarily prove that their style of moving is at all in conformity with the ideas of jjractical men who really understand what action is. In the first place, a Harness horse should use his shoulders and pasterns as well as his knees, for when he can do so he possesses an ability to "get away" which the shoulder- tied high knee-actioned animal can never hope to do; whilst if he does not ilex his hocks and tuck his hind-legs well under him, the smoothness of his going, to say nothing of the dash which is so characteristic of a good Harness horse, will be entirely absent. In short, there should be plenty of power and fire about the going of this class of animal, and this there never will be if he does not move from the hocks, which should couvey the appearance of propelling his body forwards, as indeed they should do. Having thus endeavoured to describe the leading points to be sought after in a high-class Harness horse, it may perhaps be desirable to offer a few suggestions upon how to produce the sort of animal which is wanted. There are, however, in existence at the present time, as has been shown in the foregoing pages, at least three English varieties — the Hackney, the Cleveland Bay, and the Yorkshire Coach-horse — which in their pure and unadulterated state should between them be able to supply the require- ments of most seekers after a high-class Harness horse. It not infre- quently happens, however, that a buyer is anxious to combine the brilliant action possessed by the Hackney with greater size than that breed usually attains, and in such instances a cross with a Cleveland Bay mare may be the means of securing what is wanted, though the plainness which is so frequently associated with the latter breed may possibly provide a disappointment. The fact that the Yorkshire Coach-horse is the result of a Thoroughbred and Cleveland Bay cross, however, does not commend the Coach-horse as a desirable cross for the Cleveland Bay; but many most PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 153 biilliant-actioiied and sizeable liorses have been produced from the C'oacher and the Hackney. Assuming that action and not great stature is required, the iiitroducliou of Hackney blood, provided always that the stallion used is Hackney-bred, and not therefore the possessor of a strain of alien blood either Thoroughbred or otherwise, is morally certain to produce what is required, though, of course, if the mare is hopelessly bad, or else is bred in such a way that her blood will not " nick " with that of the sire, a disappointment is likely to result. All things being equal, however, it may safely be expected that the old and true type of Hackney wdll provide his stock wdth action all round, a good middle piece, and short, flat legs; whilst the Cleveland Bay will produce an increase of size, though if bred to underbred mares his offspring will probably be very plain. At the present time, a large number of American Roadster mares are being imported into this country, but the greatest care should be exercised in breeding from them, as, excellent though their style and manners may be, it should always be remembered that the horses on the other side of the Atlantic possess a tendency to be light in barrel and bone, and so if not bred to the right sort of horse are likely to throw back to a weedy ancestor. Still, these should throw something very good to an old-fashioned short-legged, heavy-boned Hackney. Of the heavy breeds of draught-horse, the Suff'olk undoubtedly is to be regarded as providing the greatest field for valuable Harness crosses, and if bred to the Thoroughbred or Arab, and then to the Hackney, it is very possible that a good stylish Harness horse might be produced, though the majority would be more likely to be of the Vanuer type. The first crosses with either of the above varieties produce some extremely useful animals, but as a rule these cannot be expected to possess the brilliancy of action and the breediness which are associated with the highest class of Harness horse, such as has been described above. PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING As many writers have truthfully observed, the first difficulty that confronts a person who is attempting to describe a pony is the diversity of opinions which exist upon the subject of the description. An animal that is regarded as a Pony in one part of the country is styled a Cob in another, the inhabitants of one district possessing very different ideas upon the qualifying height from those entertained by the residents in another. Tlien again these little horses appear in such different forms, that a description which holds good for one variety would not apply in the least ^"o another, the truth being that ponies are as varied in 154 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE their character and conformation as they are in their adaptation to diflerent ^Jurposes. The public, however, or at all events a very considera])le number of persons, ignore this fact entirely, and though they readily distinguish between the different varieties of large horses, they are very prone to regard anything below a certain height, fixed by themselves, as merely a pony, and unworthy of that careful division and classification which has been adopted with such good results towards kindred varieties. This, of course, is altogether wrong, for the equine bantams exist in Cjuite as many varieties as the bigger horses. This being so, the consideration of the varieties of the pony becomes extremely difficult, for not only do representatives of old - established breeds appear in strong numbers in some parts of the country, but cross- bred and manufectured animals are still more numerous, the result being that breeding ponies to any particular type or ideal standard is a great lottery, though unquestionably profitable. There is no doubt that the pony is to a certain extent the survivor of the old English horse which was possessed by the ancient Britons, as there is ample evidence to show that the equine race in those early days was far smaller than now. The increase in size in our general horse stock is a natural result of scientific breeding and attention to the feeding and general welfare of brood stock. Civilization encourages the domestication of animals, and domestication ensures an increased development of frame, and therefore, even were evidence not at hand to prove the fact, it is beyond all dou])t that the horses of the Britons were very little taller than many so-called j^onies of the present day, though undouljtedly they were stronger m build. There appears, however, to have been a desire from the very first to increase the size as well as to improve the quality of the native pony, as, in addition to crossing these animals with others which had been imported from abroad, several rigorous laws were made and enforced against the practice of permitting undersized stallions to run on connnon land with breeding mares and fillies. These restrictions very naturally contributed to the quasi - extinction of the old-fashioned pony, though it must at the same time be remembered that many long- established breeds still exist in various localities, and that although it is quite possible that their type has a good deal changed, still enough remains behind to connect many of them with their lost ancestors. No doubt tlie principal difficulty that pony-breeders have to contend against is the tendency to increase of size amongst their stock. Improve- ments in regard, to shape and make are, comparatively speaking, easy. INSERT FOLDOUT HERE PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 155 but it is the propensity to ;uld inclies to his statui'c that makes a pony a difficult animal to produce. All horses which are reared in luxury are prone to grow and spread, as has been observed before, and conse- quently pony-breeders have discovered tliat it is necessary for them to adopt rigorous measures with their studs. To commence with, it is not a judicious act to attempt raising ponies on good land where the keep is plentiful and very nourishing in quality. A pony from liis earliest youth should be compelled to live on poor land, and in fact to go short of commons, if the size is to be kept down to the required standard. Of course, this rule cannot be made to apply to ponies which are in work, but even in the case of these overfeeding is most unde- sirable. It may be pointed out that ponies are naturally small feeders, though an artificially large appetite can always be produced by treating them to a too liberal diet. The fact that ponies can be more satisfactorily reared on sterile than on rich land is in itself a direct encouragement to persons who own, or who can acquire a lease of, mountainous or moor- land ground, to try their fortunes as breeders, and certainly to the man who possesses patience, and can afibrd to wait, an enterprise of this de- scription should turn out a complete pecuniary success. Not only is such land comparatively speaking worthless at the present time, but the cost of attending upon the stock and feeding them is very small. The value of their winter keep cannot possibly amount to more than a trifle, and the quarters required for the brood stock during the more inclement seasons of the year may be of the most primitive kind. The chief aim, in fact, of pony-breeders should be to bring their stock up hardy and to encourage the survival of the fittest, so that these little horses may continue to possess what they now enjoy, the most robust constitu- tions of any variety of the equine race. In fact, in their case health and soundness appear to exist in direct ratio to their diminution of size; hence an infirm pony is comparatively seldom met with. In addition to short commons and outdoor life on the mountain-side there is another important requirement, viz. to arrange the breeding ojjera- tions so that the foals shall be dropped late in the season. This of course is reversing the ordinary practice of horse-raisers, but it will be readily seen that the very motives which require that breeders of large animals shall procure early foals, are those which induce pony men to breed late ones. "When the young animal finds a quantity of rich keep at hand he naturally feeds himself well, and proceeds to spread out and extend his lines in all directions; whereas, if his growth is not forced on at first, and there is not an over-abundant supply of food for him, as his age advances he will naturally become stunted, and this is IDG VARIETIES OF THE HORSE exactly what his owner wants. A foal dropped in the early spring gets all the best of the grass, and so does his dam, with the result that hei milk is richer and more plentiful than it need be; whereas one which comes later on in the season obtains less luxuriant fare, and wdth bene- ficial results so far as the intentions of his owner are concerned. That all horses can stand cold and privations fairly well is an accepted fact, but it is equally true that there is in this respect, as in all others, a limit to their powers of endurance. The colder the latitude in which he resides the smaller in stature he will be; therefore it may once more be suggested for the guidance of pony-breeders that the three cardinal points of their creed should be a cool mountainous climate, a sufficient though not over-liberal supply of food, and late foals. There is, however, another and a very important subject to be dis- cussed in connection with the raising of ponies, and that is the desira))ility or otherwise of practising a system of close breeding. That "sibbing" has been most successfully practised by the leading pony-breeders of the day is incapable of being disputed, and certainly Mr. Christopher Wilson of Kirkby-Lonsdale carried this practice to an extreme which was absolutely daring in the case of the well-known pony stallion Sir George, whose victories at the Royal Agricultural Society's shows were so frequent as to become almost monotonous. Mr. Wilson bred Sir George to a daughter of the little horse, and then again to the female offspring of this union, repeating the experiment a third time, and yet he not only lost nothing by doing so, but actually gained immeasurably, as in this way he produced one of the very finest pony mares that ever looked through a bridle. Strange to say, too, he did not lose any bone nor an ounce of strength; on the contrary, the mare in question was bigger below the knee, and as sound in constitution as any member of his stud. Having regard to Mr. Wilson's experiences, it can scarcely be contended that in- and-in breeding, so far as ponies are concerned at all events, is a bad policy if judiciously carried out, and doubtless the system will be found necessary in order to impress type and keep down size. In inbreeding, however, as in everything else, there is a limit that must be reached sooner or latei-, and breeders who adopt such methods must always be on the look-out for evidences of deterioration in stamina and constitution amongst their stock. One can scarcely avoid suggesting, moreover, that it is quite possible that some particular animals or some strains may be more peculiarly adapted for the purposes of inbreeding than others; and here again is a possible danger on which the attention of breeders must be fixed in carrying out their crossing experiments. It is obvious, too, that any sire which may be selected for inbreeding purposes should not only possess a strong PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 157 constitution and he absolutely sound, hut must also he as near perfec- tion in his looks as can he secured. AVeaknesses and faults, it must be remembered, are as likely to be perpetuated as are the best and most attractive points, and when imperfections are strongly rooted in a strain of horses they are most difficult to eradicate. Of course, the ^•alue of an inbred animal — provided always that he or she, as the case may be, is sound and good-looking — as a stock pony is immense, and a breeder possessing such an article may seek for an outside cross with some degree of confidence, knowing that at all events on one side there is good material to work upon. In ponies, however, as in all other stock, a male will oftentimes nick with one female and not with anotlier, and I'icc versa; and therefore the breeder who may fail at first will not be acting wisely if he at once makes up his mind that his sire or mare is worthless, because their first foal turns out to be a disappointment. The efiect of a suitable sire upon common pony mares is extraordinary, and the rapidity with which a strain has been improved by the influence of a desirable stallion in the stud has upon many occasions been noted with astonishment, and even by those best acc|uainted with the history of the mares. This is a most satisfactory circumstance, for beyond a doubt many valuable strains or varieties of pony have been so long neglected as to render their owners sceptical as regards the possibility of improve- ment. Experience, however, has so. amply proved the contrary that no one who is associated with the raising of this class of stock should permit his mares to run with a moderate stallion. A difficulty, however, exists in selecting the horse pony to run on common land on which mares of many and varied types are kept, for an animal that will suit some may fail with others, but there is always safety in following blood. A good- constitutioned Thoroughbred pony is sure to leave good results behind him, and may be safely used to any class of mare; and in such cases as those in which owners are either unable or unwilling to provide separate accom- modation for such mares as may not be quite adapted to the stallion running with the drove, he is not likely to do them more harm than many horses which are permitted to be at large on common ground. It is the indifierent typeless class of horse that has done so much harm to ponies generally, and it would be an excellent thing if a law were passed that no stallions should be allowed to run at large amongst mares on public land unless they had previously received a licence to do .so; and surely no man is justified in enforcing his legal rights to the detriment of the property of other persons possessing similar privileges. Having thus attempted to explain the principles which have influenced the operations of the most eminent pony-breeders of the day, it now 158 VAEIETIES OF THE HORSE l)ecoines necessary to enlighteu our readers as to what a pony really is. The differences of opinion which have existed in different parts of the country as to the necessary stature that qualifies its possessor to be accepted as a pony have already been referred to, and it may be added that the 14-h.-2-in. standard which now marks the line of distinction between the pony and the horse at most of the principal shows, is possibly not sub- scribed to by every breeder. But assuming that it is, and that there is a hard-and-fast rule making every animal under 15 hands a cob if he stands 14-h.-2-in. or over, and every one a pony if he does not reach the latter standard of height, difficulties almost innumerable still confront the writer who attempts to describe the points and conformation of a pony. This is mainly due to the existence of so many varieties of the breed, in behalf of all of w^hich some special features of type are claimed by their respective admirers. Unfortunately, however, a writer is opposed by a still more serious obstacle that must be encountered, namely, the divergence of opinions that exists amongst the chief admirers and supporters of these different breeds. Doubtless this is in no small degree attributable to the fact that all sorts of undesirable and irregular crosses of blood have been introduced into each variety; partly as a result of mistaken theories that have been applied, and partly to the indifference of many persons whost first duty it should have been to have kept the particular variety of ^ony with which they were connected pure and free from any undesirable taint. As suggested above, there is little doul)t that the person who pro- poses to breed ponies, and to found a new .stud upon raw material which he has succeeded in collecting hap-hazard from all the four points of the compass, will act wisely if at the commencement of his operations he trusts to the good offices of a Thoroughbred pony sire. There are plenty of these little horses to be picked up every year whose breeding is as good as that of any animal in the Stud-book; but valuable though they are as corner-stones in the establishment of a strain, it must always be borne in mind that there is a strong probability of their begetting stock that is taller than themselves, whilst they are not likely to introduce high action into tlieir stock. Of course, the possibility of the former being the case is somewhat discounted by the fact that the foals they get will be out of small mares ; but then, as in all likelihood the mares in question have been picked up here and there with little or no information as to pedigree, there may be the taint of size on their side, and if this is so, the appear- ance of big foals at the commencement of the operations might reasonably be expected. Still, as it is not within the power of everyone who proposes founding a stud, to buy his mares from well-established herds, the beginner is compelled to do. the best he can for himself; and provided he po.sse.sses PONIES AND PONY-BREEDING 159 the golden gift of patience, and can aflord to wait a few years for tlie return of lii.s monev, he should eventually succeed, as others have succeeded before him. Of course, if a person possesses the means, and is impatient to show profitable and satisfactory results, he can indulge at once in the luxury of procuring the best of blue-blooded pony mares and stallions ; and unless his operations are attended by the most cruel luck, he can then start with almost a certainty of breeding good-looking foals that can be raised at a profit. On the other hand, the man who proposes to begin at the begin- ning, as other successful breeders have done before him, and who possesses both judgment and patience, should in the course of a few years show even better results, for though he will naturally have to wait longer for a return of his money, the profits will be proportionally higher in the end, and his stock will be increasing every year in value. On the contrary, if he starts with expensive animals he runs the risk of incurring severe losses by death, or having to pay large premiums for insurance; besides which, there cannot be so great an increase in the value of his stud as there would be if he commenced with lower-priced foundation stock and worked at it until the desired improvement had been effected. There is, moreover, the fact remaining that although his capital, or a great deal of it, should lie idle for a few years, the working expenses of a pony-breeding establishment are not very heavy, even if they are not actually insignificant. The rent of a hillside, a very appropriate situation for such a place, cannot pos- sibly be more than a few shillings an acre; the necessary attendance upon the animals whilst they were upon it cannot be much, and the expenses of such additional forage as would be required in the winter and on certain special occasions will not be likely to amount to more than a compara- tively .small sum. There is another point, moreover, for the pony-breeder to take into consideration before he commences operations, and this is the probability that exists of his always finding a market, and a ready one. for his surplus foals. This in itself should form no small inducement to a person who may be anxious to try his luck, as the prospect of having stock on hand which he is desirous of disposing of not infrequently acts as a deterrent to an intending breeder. There is always a demand for ponies, be they good- looking or only commoners, and therefore so long as the small tradesman and the costermonger exist, .so long will a man be able to dispose of his culls, and such transactions .should certainly yield some profit to the vendor. If the mi.sfits can pay their own way, the profits on the better class of animal, not to mention the " cracks " when they begin to make their welcome appearance, will be considerable. 160 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE The introduction of a bit of blood into tlie newly-founded pony stud will be doubly valuable if high action is not sought for at the outset, for the superfluous males and the mares which are not considered good enough to keep for breeding jjurposes would assuredly command a readier market than many of the continental monstrosities which now find their way into the country to supply the home demand. No one would willingly invest his money in the purchase of a coarse underbred-looking animal with straight short pasterns if he could get hold of an active, symmetrical, wear- and-tear-looking pony with some apjiroacli to the type of what may be regarded as the correct one. Consequently an investment in a little Thoroughbred blood, it may be once more repeated, is of the highest im- portance to the founder of a stud of ponies brought together from all quarters. It is noticeable that some sires will always get foals bigger than they are themselves, and beyond the limit of height allotted to the pony, whilst others, happily for their owners, invariably produce smaller ones; so if the beginner is fortunate enough at the outset to procure a horse pony belonging to the latter category, which at the same time possesses the invaluable merit of impressing his own quality upon his foals, the path of that particular breeder will be a rosy one indeed. In commencing pony-breeding there is one question that the speculator must always put to himself and answer before he sets to work. This is, what type of pony is it that he proposes to raise. In all other varieties of horse there are lines laid down to guide the operations of a breeder, as the standards are pretty well fixed; but in the case of the pony matters are somewhat mixed. It is not merely sufficient to try and produce a little horse; a breeder should have something more definite before him than that, or else his operations will be conducted on a happy-go-lucky method of progression which can only end in disappointment and disaster. Perhaps the most valuable and saleable type of pony is the Harness type, possessed of a high, free, and graceful action. Very few ponies, and especially the higher-priced ones, are required to gallop, the canter and the trot being the paces that are most affected by their owners. For the production of such as these the Hackney pony is, of course, the best of all sires to use in the first instance, provided always that his merits as a stock- getter are proportionate to his other qualifications. He should at all events be equal to the task of introducing action into his foals, and it is remarkable for how long this most essential "entity" will remain in a strain when once it becomes fairly rooted in it, which, by the way, it is sure to be in the case of closely inbred strains, such as those most pony- breeders now possess. The Hackney sire of small stature, combined with action, finds many PONIES AND PONY-BEEEDING 161 friends amongst admirers of ponies, but the services of a sire possessed of Hackney blood to an\' considcraljle extent are apt to produce a heavier chiss of foal than those now in request. The fashion, of course, may change, and perhaps it will liefore long, as it is by no means improbable that a heavier breed and, on the whole, more powerful type of pony will be in demand. As it is, generally speaking, there is naturally far more action in the first cross Hackney than in the first cross Thoroughbred pony; and wdiilst the latter shows, as a rule, the more quality, the former possesses the greater amount of substance. The Hackney, it must always be borne in mind, is a trotter above all things and then a w^alker, whereas the Thoroughbred is a galloper, and it is only natural to expect that the inherent qualities of the sire in either instance will be transmitted to a greater or less extent to his offspring. Of course, the character and breeding of the mares — especially the breeding — will have a great deal to do with the appearance and value of the foals. That goes without saying, as otherwise the mares could be collected from all parts and merely selected by their looks, without any attention being paid to their ancestors; but in such a case it is to be feared that the success of the stud, if ever attained, would be delayed for many a year, as the foals would come season after season in all shapes and sizes; and unless a breeder can get hold of a " sorty" lot of mares, all bred on pretty much the same lines, he cannot reasonably expect anything like uniformity amongst their produce if they are all served by the same horse, as no doubt they would be for a season or two at least after the stud had been established. This brings us once again to the all-important question of inbreeding, which has been alluded to above, when a reference was made to the remarkable successes of Mr. Christopher \Yilson. Here, of course, lies one of the greatest secrets of the triumphs of that gentleman; but it must be remembered that when he " sibbed" so strongly he was only combining blood of which he thoroughly understood the projaerties. It is c^uestionable, therefore, whether a person who starts a pony farm by collecting a herd of Dartmoor, or New Forest, or any other breed of mares, and crosses them with a Thoroughbred or Hackney pony sire, would be acting quite wisely if he determined to commence close inbreeding at once and to shut his eyes to the imperfections of his stock, or their approach or otherwise to the approved type. He may, of course, be fortunate in getting one or two youngsters of exactly the class he wants in the first or second season, and these he might breed together, and thus make good progress towards the goal he has in view; but the wise man will first of all try to establish the tvpe he requires amongst his breeding stock, and when he has produced the material, and enough of it to work Vol. I. 1 1 162 VARIETIES OF THE HORSE upon, he will make no more experiments, Imt will iubreed to a greater or less extent until he has possessed himself of a herd of ponies of the required shape and make. By this it is not intended to convey the meaning that a series of first or second crosses must result in a breeder getting what he wants. On the contrary, some time may be required ere he can possess himself of the number of foundation stock necessary to his purpose. At the same time, if it clearly appeal's to him that his stallion does not suit his mares, and that the crossing and recrossing is not advancing him much along the road he wants to travel, he will lie foolish to persevere in it, and if he is wise he will commence again, in the case of the first foals bred from "native" mares — the term "native"' may be accepted as applicable to the more or less pure-bred mares of some old established variety that have been purchased as foundation stock — and the Hackney or Thoroughbred sire, it will be best to cross them with their sire; but sooner or later — and probably sooner — it will be necessary to find a stallion of their own breeding, else in time the original pony blood will be absorbed by that of the Thoroughljred or Hackney, as the case may be, and all traces of the original pony will be obliterated. Consequently breeders must bear in mind that if they desire to found a strain that shall make a name for itself, their stock must be something diff'erent from either bantam Thoroughbreds or bantam Hack- neys, though participating in the best qualities of the one or the other, whichever may be used. The services of a " native" sire may perhaps be resorted to by some owners in certain instances; but a difiiculty will always exist in discover- ing an animal of unimpeachable jjedigree which also fulfils the requirements of a breeder in other essential points. The fact is, as stated above, that the " commoners" who have for centuries po.ssessed the privilege of grazing their ponies on common land, have not been careful in protect- ing their property, the result being that many good mares have acciden- tally been served by uncut two-year-olds of an indifferent character, whilst many quite undesirable entire horses have been permitted to roam about the land, and work destruction amongst the different herds. Of late years the indigenous stock — or what remains, if any, of it — has received some attention, but the assistance has come so late that many reputedly pure-bred ponies of a certain variety are simply improvements upon the mongrels that have been produced in the course of a long period of neglect. It therefore appears that the founder of a jjony- breeding stud may be acting more wisely in relying upon a Thorough- bred or Hackney-bred sire in the first instance — provided lie cannot produce a stallion of the Wilson, or some other established strain — than PONIES AND POXV-HHEKDIXG 163 upon a pony which may lie all he is described as regards looks, ])ut which, on the other hand, may be full of most undesirable blood. In the case of mares it is a different matter. A beginner would be nnfortuiiute indeed if all his investments in foundation stock turned out worthless; but it inav be remembered that each mare stands or fixlls to a certain extent upon her own merits, whereas a sire possessing a bar sinister in his pedigree is liable to injure the produce of every mare he serves, in fact there is no limit at all to the mischief such a horse may create in a stud. Regarding the native breeds of ponies which have existed — or in some cases still exist in a more or less modified form — in certain parts of the kingdom, it may be said that the efibrts that have been made to rescue them from extinction have met with fairly satisfactory success, though unhappily great mischief has been accomplished through injudicious crosses. The best-known varieties of pony will now be briefly dealt with, begin- ning with — The Dartmoor. — Almost from time immemorial the Dartmoor ponies Jiave been highh' thought of, but, like many other kindred breeds, they have sufi'ered to a certain extent b)' the apathy of those whose first consideration their welfare should have been. The region of Dartmoor embraces an area of some 20,000 acres, the chief portion of which is included in the Duchy of Cornwall, and consec|uently belongs to H.R.H. the Prince of AVales. The rights of common are let by the Duchy, and there are also some manorial rights of pasturage. At one time it was laid down that no stallion exceeding 12 hands high should be permitted to run on the famous moor, the duty of supervising the Forest and its occupants being relegated to a family of " moormen", who succeeded to the ofiice from generation to generation. ]\Iany owners of the ponies, and to their credit be it said, have attempted from time to time to improve the race, the services of a Thoroughbred sii'e of as diminutive proportions as could possibly be obtained being usually the animal selected for the purpose. There is very little doubt, too, that Ai-abs have been tried as crosses for the Dartmoors, with cjuestionable results, as there has always existed a disbelief in the minds of breeders as to whether the constitution of these sons of the desert would stand the rigours of a winter on the moor, the climate of which at times is most inclement. At the present time many good ponies come from Princetown, being raised by some of the officials connected with the convict establishment which is situated there. Although the breed has l)ecome a good deal mixed here and elsewhere by crosses with Exmoor, Pack-horse, and other blood, there are 'many excellent ponies to be found in the neighbourhood, and enthusiasts believe that by the enterprise of pony-breeders the improved 164 YAIilETIES OF THE HORSE Dartmoor will, in course of time, multiply and become more generally dis- tributed throughout the country. In this respect the modern breeders will only be following the example of a little band of energetic pony-lovers, who laboured hard to introduce stamina and quality into their herds, but, as suggested above, the great difficulty that invariably presented itself was the acquisition of a suitable cross-bred pony that was small enough to be turned out with the native mares. Perhaps the best known breeders of the past were a well-to-do farmer named Elliot, known as Lord Elliot, owing to the fact that he was lord of the manor of Brent, and Mr. John King, who possessed a herd of ponies that ran upon the Buckfastleigh moors. The former died about the year 1860, and many of his stock came into the possession of Mr. Hamblin of Buckffistleigh, where their offspring are no doubt to be found at the present time. Probably the best representatives of the Dartmoor pony more closely resemble the pocket edition of the Hunter than any other variety of the equine bantam tribe. They certainly might display a greater amount of quality about their heads, but their shoulders, as a rule, could not be improved upon, wdiilst their weight-carrying capacity and powers of endurance are extremely great. Being ponies of a most robust constitu- tion, they can rough it anywhere; they are wonderful stayers, and excellent in both harness and saddle when they have not been ruined by injudicious crosses. As regards their fore-legs and feet, they are excellent, though in the eyes of some judges they might be a trifle heavier in bone; but light- ness below the knee in the case of a showy, blood-like looking pony is a very venial fault, whilst it may be added that appearances are very often deceptive, and the little horses are frequently far heavier below the knee than they appear to be. The chief point that is unsightly in the composition of the Dartmoor pony lies in the direction of the quarters. Here, besides being wanting in length, they not infrequently droop, disturbing the otherwise elegant top line and symmetry of the whole. Cow-hocked specimens are unfor- tunately to be found in too many instances, and no doubt this defect is a great cause of trial and disappointment to breeders wdio are desirous of raising good-looking stock for the market. There is, however, consolation to be derived from the knowledge that, even if a pony possesses sucli defects, the cost of his production is so small that a very fair margin of profit may still remain after he is disposed of The ears of the Dartmoor are rather large for a pony whose height should not at the utmost exceed 18 hands, but they are characteristic of the variety and must be accepted as such.