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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 179.

HORSESHOEING

BY

JOHN W. ADAMS, A. B., V. M. D.,

Professor of Surgery and Lecturer on Shoeing, Veterinary Department,

University of Pennsylvania.

WASHINGTON :

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
I9O3.

■?-

TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9090 013 418 310

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Animal Industry,
Washington, D. C, September 14, 1903.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith an article entitled
"Horseshoeing," prepared by John W. Adams, professor of surgery
and lecturer on shoeing, veterinary department, University of Penn-
sylvania, and to recommend the publication of the same as a Farmers'
Bulletin. This article was recently prepared for the revised edition
of the Special Report on Diseases of the Horse, and will appear as a
concluding article in that publication. It is believed that the printing
of the article in separate form will serve a useful purpose. More-
over, the style in which the article is written is quite suitable for its
publication in the popular series mentioned.

Respectfully,

D. E. Salmon,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

179

Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine

Comings S of Veterinary Medicine at

Tufts U

200 Westboro Road

North Grafton, MA 01536

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 7

The foot 7

Gross anatomy of the foot 7

Bones 7

Hinge joints 7

Tendons and flexors 7

Foot axis 8

Lateral cartilages and plantar cushion 8

Pododerm (foot skin) 9

Horny box, or hoof 10

Bars .". 10

The frog 10

The hoof 11

Physiological movements of the hoof 11

Growth of the hoof 12

Care of unshod hoofs - 13

Characteristics of a healthy hoof 1-1

Various forms of hoofs 15

The feet 15

Forms of feet viewed from in front and in profile 15

A front hoof of the regular standing position 16

A hoof of the base-wide position 16

A hoof of the base-narrow position 16

Regular hoof 17

Acute-angled hoof 17

Upright, or stumpy, hoof 17

Wide and narrow hoofs 17

Hind hoofs 17

The shoe 17

Preliminary examination 17

Preparation of the hoof for the shoe 20

Characteristics of the shoe 20

Form 21

Width 21

Thickness - 21

Length 21

Surfaces 21

Borders 21

Fullering 22

Nail holes 22

Clips 22

Special peculiarities of the chief classes of shoes 22

A shoe for a regular hoof 22

A shoe for a base-wide hoof 23

A shoe for a base-narrow hoof 23

A shoe for an acute-angled hoof 23

A shoe for a stumpy hoof 23

Hot fitting 24

The bar shoe 24

The rubber pad 24

Illustrations of shoeing in connection with interfering, etc. „ 27

179 5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Fig. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the regular form 14

2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position 15

3. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toQ-wide standing position 15

4. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position. 16

5. Forms of hoofs 16

6. Limbs and hoofs in profile 18

7. Left fore foot of regular form, shod with a plain "fullered" shoe 22

8. Side view of hoof and shoe 23

9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe 25

10. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster 25

11. Left fore foot of regular form shod with a rubber pad and "three-

quarter" shoe 26

12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide (toe-wide) standing posi-

tion, shod with a plain, "dropped -crease" shoe to prevent the

toe cutting (interfering) 26

13. Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering 27

14. Ground surface of a shoe shown in the previous figure 27

15. Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over"

(quicken the action) in a "forger" 28

16. Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the

action and to prevent injury to the fore heels by the toe of the hind
shoe _ 28

17. A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet 29

18. Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high

action in fore feet 29

6

179

HORSESHOEING.

INTRODUCTION.

Bad and indifferent shoeing frequently leads to diseases of the feet
and to irregularities of gait which may render a horse unserviceable.
It is important, therefore, to consider the principles involved in shoe-
ing healthy hoofs. In this discussion of the subject it is intended
to give the intelligent horse owner sufficient information, based on
experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of the foot and leg,
to enable him to avoid the more serious consequences of improper
shoeing.

THE FOOT.

Let us first examine the mechanism of the foot and learn something
of its structure and of the natural movements of its component parts,
that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the normal and
to apply the proper corrective.

GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT.

Bones. — The bones of the foot are four in number, three of which —
the long pastern, short pastern, and coffinbone — placed end to end, form
a continuous straight column passing downward and forward from the
fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or
" shuttle," bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the
coffinbone and forms part of the joint surface of the latter. The short
pastern projects about 1£ inches above the hoof and extends about an
equal distance into it.

Hinge joints. — The pasterns and the coffinbone are held together by
strong fibrous cords passing between each two bones and placed at the
sides so as not to interfere with the forward and backward movement
of the bones. The joints are therefore hinge joints, though imperfect,
because, while the chief movements are those of extension and flexion
in a single plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are
possible.

Tendons and flexors. — The bones are still further bound together and
supported by three long fibrous cords or tendons. One, the extensor
tendon of the toe, passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches
to the coffinbone just below the edge of the hair; when pulled upon
by its muscle this tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse
to place the hoof flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are

179 7

8

placed behind the pasterns and are called flexors, because they flex, or
bend, the pasterns and coffinbone backward. One of these tendons is
attached to the upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes
down between the heels, glides over the under surface of the navic-
ular bone, and attaches itself to the under surface of the coffinbone.
These two tendons not only flex, or fold up, the foot as the latter
leaves the ground, during motion, but at rest assist the suspensory
ligament in supporting the fetlock joint.

Foot-axis. — The foot-axis is an imaginary line passing from the fet-
lock joint through the long axes of the two pasterns and coffinbone.
This imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and
coffinbone, should always be straight — that is, never broken, either
forward or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or out
ward when observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long
axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be
parallel to the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis
of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the
hoof exactly at the middle of the toe.

Raising the heels or shortening the toe not only tilts the coffinbone
forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens
the tendon that attaches to the under surface of the coffinbone,
and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and back-
ward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal posi-
tion. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken forward;
that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels
are either too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, raising
the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not
only tilts the coffinbone backward and renders the toe more nearly
horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fet-
lock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. The
foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward — an indication
that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are relatively too
low.

Lateral cartilages and plantar cushion.— The elastic tissues of the
foot are preeminently the lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion.
The lateral cartilages are two irregularly four-sided plates of gristle,
one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the
coffinbone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch
or more above the edge of the hair, where the}' may be felt by the
lingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readily to
moderate finger pressure, but from various causes may undergo ossi-
fication, in which condition they are hard and unyielding. The
plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, fibro-fatty
tissue filling all the space between the lateral cartilages, forming the
fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a buffer to disperse
shock when the foot is set to the ground. It extends forward under-

179

neath the navicular bone and perforans tendon, and protects these
structures from injurious pressure from below. Instantaneous photo-
graphs show that at speed the horse sets the heels to the ground before
other parts of the foot — conclusive proof that the function of this
tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render harmless violent
impact of the foot with the ground.

Pododerm (foot skin). — The horn-producing membrane, or "quick,"
as it is commonly termed, is merely a downward prolongation of the
" derm," or true skin, and may be conveniently called the pododerm
(foot skin). The pododerm closely invests the coffin bone, lateral car-
tilages, and plantar cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot,
and is itself covered by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the
external, or hair, skin in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like
it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And,
just as the derm of the hair skin produces upon its outer surface layer
upon layer of horny cells (epiderm), which protect the sensitive and
vascular derm, so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over
its entire surface soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells
forming beneath, lose moisture by evaporation and are rapidly trans-
formed into the corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper
to regard the hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm, having many of
the qualities possessed by such epidermal structures as hair, feathers,
nails, claws, etc.

The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite
it firmly to the foot.

There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when
the hoof has been removed, namely: (1) The perioplic baud, a narrow
ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along
the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This
band produces the perioplic horn, the thin varnish-like layer of glis-
tening horn, which forms the surface of the Avail, or "crust," and
whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from
the wall. (2) The coronary band, a prominent fleshy cornice encir-
cling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the
heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy frog to
become lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet pro-
duces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions produce
the "bars," which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as a turning-
forward of the wall. (3) The fleshy leaves, 500 to 600 in number, par-
allel to one another, running downward and forward from the lower
edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy sole. They
produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the deepest
layer of the wall, and serve as a strong bond of union between the
middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they dovetail.
(4) The fleshy sole, which covers the entire under surface of the foot,
excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny sole is produced by

179

10

the fleshy sole. (5) The fleshy frog, which covers the under surface
of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog.

Horny box, or hoof. — The horny box, or hoof, consists of wall
and bars, sole and frog. The wall is all that part of the hoof which
is visible when the foot is on the ground (see fig. 8). As already
stated, it consists of three layers — the periople, the middle layer, and
the leafy layer.

Bars. — The bars (see fig. 1) are forward prolongations of the wall,
and are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between
the wall and a bar is called the "buttress." Each bar lies against the
horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other, so
that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog separates or
approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and the
walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall is called the
" bearing edge," and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By
dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal
parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The
"heels," strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of
the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is
usually more slanting than the inner, and the more slanting half of a
hoof is always the thicker. In front hoofs the wall is thickest at the
toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses
it may not exceed one-fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there is much
less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters.
The horny sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed,
is concave and about as thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough,
uneven, and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being
loosened and cast off. Behind, the sole presents an opening into which
are received the bars and horny frog. This opening divides the sole
into a body and two wings.

The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall
and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the cross
section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs of horn
which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. This
white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from
the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, and in the
white line all nails should be driven.

The frog. — The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the plantar
cushion or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the lat-
ter, lies as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between
the edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A broad and shallow
depression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as
they pass backward into the horny bulbs of the heel. In front of the
middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog, which
ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should rest on the

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11

branches of the frog-. In unshod hoofs the bearing edge of the wall,
the sole, frog, and bars are all on a leveL; that is, the under surface
of the hoof is perfectly flat, and each of these structures assists in
bearing the body weight.

THE HOOF.

With respect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely.
The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the
sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in larger or smaller
flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of
the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft horn structures,
and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not, under
natural conditions, become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic,
absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard,
brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine-grained and
tough, while bad horn is coarse-grained, and either mellow and friable
or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and the
harder (dryer) the horn, the more slowly does it transmit extremes of
temperature.

PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF.

A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and
the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than
when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a
foot is continually changing, and the relations of internal pressure are
continuously varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never
at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when
the foot bears the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest
descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An
expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the
coronet to the lover edge of the quarters. This expansion varies
between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of
the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (3) A sinking of
the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are
more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight.

The changes of form occur in the following order: When the foot
is set to the ground the body -weight is transmitted through the bones
and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffinbone and navic-
ular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the
short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral carti -
lages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar cushion. This
cushion being compressed from aboveand being unable to expand down-
ward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting against the
horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands toward the
sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and the wall of
the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and increased by

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12

the simultaneous flattening and lateral expansion of the resilient horny
frog, which crowds the bars apart, Of course, when the lateral carti-
lages are ossified not only is no expansion of the quarters possible,
but frog pressure often leads to painful compression of the plantar
cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pressure is therefore
contra-indicated in lameness due to sidebones (ossified cartilages).
Under the descent of the coffinbone the horny sole sinks a little; that
is, the arch of the sole around the point of the frog, and the wings of
the sole become somewhat flattened. All these changes of form are
most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because in them ground pressure
on the frog and sole is pronounced; they are more marked in fore
hoofs than in hind hoofs.

The movement of the different structures within the foot and the
changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to the health
of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by regu-
lar exercise, with protection against drying out of the hoof. Long-
continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing
decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof and some-
times lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and
spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil,
albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses
continuously serviceable on hard artificial roads. However, if in
shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and
apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface,
so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contrac-
tion of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we
need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reason-
able work and his hoofs proper care.

GROWTH OF THE HOOF.

All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal
rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount
of blood supplied to the pododerm, or "quick." Abundant and reg-
ular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof,
going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing
the overgrowth of hoof and regulating the bearing surface, by increas-
ing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into
the pododerm, favor the. rapid growth of horn of good quality; while
lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof
hinder growth.

The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month.
Hind hoof's grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than
shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet
to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by the precited
conditions, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the
ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the horn grows down

179

13

in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in six to eight months,
and at the heels in three to live months. We can thus estimate with
tolerable accuracy the time required for the disappearance of such
defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc.

Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause of
this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof —
that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined
for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of
excessive length. The long toe becomes "dished" — that is, concave
from the coronet to the ground — the long quarters curl forward and
inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of
the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked
foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be
allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for
but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articu-
lar ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure
to regulate the length and bearing' of the hoof may make a straight
leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during
the growing period can greatly improve a congenital^ crooked limb.
If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown
and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from
their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved
improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury to the limbs, we
might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, "splay-footed,"
" pigeon-toed," cow- hocked, interfering, and paddling horses.

If in shortening the hoof one side-wall is, from ignorance, left too
long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be
unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground
first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper
level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at this point.
While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents wear of
the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away beneath the high
(long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time the shoe is worn-out the
tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mistake be repeated from month
to month, the part of the wall left too high will grow more rapidly
than the low side whose pododerm is relatively anemic as a result of
the greater weight falling into this half of the hoof, and the ultimate
result will be a "wry," or crooked foot.

CARE OF UNSHOD HOOFS.

The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs
will then wear gradually and it will only be necessary from time to
time to regulate any uneven wear with the rasp and to round off the
sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent breaking away of the
wall.

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14

Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofs,, so that every four
to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge of the
wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts of the
frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof washed
clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should be provided. Hoofs that
are becoming "awry" should have the wall shortened in such a man-
ner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately produce a
good hoof and will improve the position of the limb.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY HOOF.

A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equall}r warm at all parts, and is not
tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression with

pincers. The coronet is soft
and elastic at all points and
does not project beyond the
surface of the wall. The wall
(tig. 8) is straight from coronet
to ground, so that a straight-
edge laid against the wall from
coronet to ground parallel to
the direction of the horn tubes
x* will touch at every point. The
wall should be covered with
the outer varnish-like layer
(periople) and should show no
cracks or clefts. Every hoof
shows "ring-formation," but
the rings should not be strongly
marked and should always run
parallel to the coronary band.
Strongly marked ring-forma-
tion over the entire wall is an
evidence of a weak hoof, but
when limited to a part of the
wall is evidence of previous
local inflammation. The bulbs of the heels should be full, rounded,
and of equal height. The sole (fig. 1) should be well hollowed out,
the white line solid, the frog well developed, the middle cleft of the
frog broad and shallow, the spaces between the bars and the frog wide
and shallow, the bars straight from the buttresses toward the point of
the frog, and the buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press
against the branches of the frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy
if it presents reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line,
bars, or frog, thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the
heels. The lateral cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure.

179

Fig. 1. — Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the regu-
lar form: a, a, wall; a-a, the toe; a-b, the side walls;
b-d, the quarters; c, c, the bars; d, d, the buttresses;
e, lateral cleft of the frog; /, body of the sole; g, g', g",
leafy layer (white line) of the toe and bars; h, body
of the frog; i, i, branches of the frog: k, k, horny bulbs
of the heels; I, middle cleft of the frog.

15

VARIOUS FORMS OF HOOFS.

As among a thousand human faces no two are alike, so among an
equal number of horses no two have hoofs exactly alike. A little
study of different forms soon shows us, however, that the form of
every hoof is dependent in great measure on the direction of the two
pastern bones as viewed from in front or behind, or from one side;
and that all hoofs fall into three classes when we view them from in
front and three classes when we observe them in profile. Inasmuch
as the form of every foot determines the peculiarities of the shoe that
is best adapted to it, no one who is ignorant of, or who disregards
the natural form of, a hoof can hope to understand physiological
shoeing.

THE FEET.

FORMS OF FEET VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IN PROFILE.

Whether a horse's feet be observed from in front or from behind,
their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the reg-
ular position (fig. 2), the base-
wide or toe-wide position (fig.
3), or the base-narrow or toe-
narrow position (fig. 4).

By the direction of the imag-
inary line passing through the
long axes of the two pasterns
(figs. 2, 4, 5) we determine
whether or not the hoof and
pasterns stand in proper mu-
tual relation.

In the regular standing posi-
tion (fig. 2) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward; in the
base-wide position (fig. 3) it runs obliquely downward and outward,

and in the base-narrow position
(fig. 4) it runs obliquely down-
ward and inward.

Viewing the foot in profile,
we distinguish the regular posi-
tion (fig. 5b) and designate all
forward deviations as acute-
angled (long toe and low heel,
fig. 5«), and all deviations back-
ward from the regular (steep
toe and high heel, fig. 5c) as
steep-toed, or stumpy. When
the body- weight is evenly distributed over all four limbs, the foot-axis
should be straight; the long pastern, short pastern, and wall at the toe
should have the same slant.

179

Fig.

-Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular
standing position.

Fig. 3. — Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide
standing position.

16

A front hoof of the regular standing position. — The outer wall is a
little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. The lower
border of the outer quarter describes the arc of a smaller circle — that
is, is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The weight falls near
the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over the whole bottom
of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the ground of 45° to 50° and
is parallel to the direction of the long pastern. The toe points straight

ahead, and when the horse
is moving forward in a
straight line the hoofs are
picked up and carried for-
ward in a line parallel to
the middle line of the body,
and are set down flat.
Coming straight toward
the observer the hoofs seem
to rise and fall perpendic-
ularly.

A hoof of the base-wide
position. — This is always awry. The outer wall is more slanting, longer,
and thicker than the inner, the outer quarter more curved than the inner,
and the outer half of the sole wider than the inner. The weight falls
largely into the inner half of the hoof. In motion the hoof is moved
in a circle. From its position on the ground it breaks over the inner
toe, is carried forward and inward close to the supporting leg, thence

Fig. 4.

-Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow
standing position.

Fig. 5.— Forms of hoofs: a, side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b, side view of a regular
fore foot, showing themost desirable degree of obliquity (45°); c, side view of a stumpy, or "up-
right," fore foot; obliquity above 50°. In a, b, c, note particularly the relation between the length
of the shoe and the overhanging of the heels. Note also the toe roll of the shoes.

forward and outward to the ground, which the hoof meets first with
the outer toe. Horses that are toe- wide (" splay-footed" — toes turned
outward) show all these peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to
a still more marked degree and are therefore more prone to "inter-
fere" when in motion.

A hoof of the base-narrow position. — This also is awry, but not to so
marked a decree as the base-wide hoof. The inner wall is usually a little
more slanting than the outer, the inner half of the sole wider than the

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17

outer, and the inner quarter more curved than the outer. The outer
quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the bottom. The weight falls
largely into the outer half of the hoof. In motion the hoof breaks over
the outer toe, is carried forward and outward at some distance from the
supporting leg, thence forward and inward to the ground, which it
generally meets with the outer toe. The foot thus moves in a circle
whose convexity is outward, a manner of flight called "paddling." A
base-narrow horse whose toes point straight ahead frequently "inter-
feres," while a toe-narrow (pigeon-toed) animal seldom does.

Regular hoof. — A regular hoof (fig. 5£), viewed from one side, has
a straight foot-axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45° to 50°.
The weight falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate
expansion of the quarters.

Acute-angled hoof. — An acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has a straight
foot-axis inclined at an angle less than 45° to the horizon. The
weight falls more largely in the back half of the hoof and there is
greater length of hoof in contact with the ground and greater expan-
sion of the heels than in the regular hoof.

Upright, or sttfmpy, hoof. — In the upright, or stumpy, hoof (fig. 5c)
the foot-axis is straight and more than 55° steep. The hoof is rela-
tively short from toe to heel, the weight falls farther forward, and
there is less expansion of the heels than in the regular hoof.

Wide and narrow hoofs. — Finally, there are wide hoofs and narrow
hoofs, dependent solely upon race and breeding. The wide hoof is
almost circular on the ground surface, the sole but little concave,
the frog large, and the quality of the horn coarse. The narrow hoof
has a strongly "cupped" sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicular side
walls, and fine-grained, tough horn.

Hind hoofs.— Hind hoofs are influenced in shape b}^ different direc-
tions of their pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is not
round at the toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its greatest
width is two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the sole is more
concave, the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10° steeper than

in front hoofs.

THE SHOE.

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION.

The object of the examination is to ascertain the direction and posi-
tion of the limbs, the shape, character, and quality of the hoofs, the
form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the number, distribu-
tion, and direction of the nails, the manner in which the hoof leaves
the ground, its line of flight, the manner in which it is set to the
ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the next and subsequent
shoeings proper allowances may be made and observed faults corrected.
The animal must therefore be observed both at rest and in motion.
6777— No. 179—03 2

18

At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant of the
long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant downward and
outward (base- wide foot), or downward and inward (base-narrow foot) ?
AYhatever be the direction to the long pastern, an imaginary line pass-
ing through its long axis, when prolonged to the ground, should appar-
ently pass through the middle of the toe. But if such line cuts
through the inner toe the foot-axis is not straight, as it should be, but
is broken inward at the coronet, an indication that either the outer
wall of the hoof is too long (high) or that the inner wall is too short
(low). On the contrary, if the center line of the long pastern falls
through the outer toe the foot-axis is broken outward at the coronet,
an indication that either the inner wall is too long or the outer wall
too short.

The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three
paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note the
size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the animal, and

Fk;. G. — Limbs and hoofs in profile: a, Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a
result of too long a toe. The amount of horn to be removed from the toe in order to straighten the
foot-axis is denoted by a dotted line; b, side view of a properly balanced foot, with a straight foot-axis
of desirable slant; c, side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken forward as a result of overgrowth
of the quarters. The amount of horn to be removed in order to straighten the foot-axis is shown
by a dotted line.

the obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight? that is, does
the long pastern have the same slant as the toe 'I or does the toe of the
hoof stand steeper than the long pastern (fig. 6c)? — in which case the
foot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, usually, that
the quarters are either too high or that the toe is too short.

If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe (fig. 6a) the foot-axis
is broken backward, in which case the toe is too long or the quarters
are too low (short). In figures 6a and 6c the dotted lines passing
from toe to quarters indicate the amount of horn which must be
removed in order to straighten the foot-axis, as shown in figure 6b.
Note also the length of the shoe.

Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note the
outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and quality
of the frog, form of the shoe, wear of the shoe, and the number and

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19

distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire lower
border of the wall? or is it too narrow or fitted so full on the inside
that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been nailed on
crooked? or has it become loose and shifted? is it too short or so wide
at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses of the
hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? Are the
nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with the expan-
sion of the quarters ? are there too many ? are they too large ? driven
too "line" or too high? These are questions which the observer
should put to himself.

Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeachable
evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground
since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable "pointers" in lev-
eling the hoof. Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe and
the ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly leveled
hoof is set flat to the ground, the "grounding wear" of a shoe should
be uniform at every point, though the toe will always show wear due
to scouring at the moment of "breaking over." Everything which
tends to lengthen the stride tends also to make the "grounding wear"
more pronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which
shorten the stride, as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork,
or disease, bring the grounding wear nearer the toe.

An exception should be noted, however, in founder, in which the
grounding wear is most pronounced at the heels.

If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner than
the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the middle
line of the foot (fitted too close), where it has been bearing greater
weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much more
often the case, the section of wall above the thinner branch has been
too long (too high), or the opposite section of wall has been too short
(too low). "One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an
unnatural course of the wall are often found together." How much an
old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher its scars!

The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or pace,
from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the "breaking
over," the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to the
ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not always
move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often there
is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or two
hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when a few
steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by showing us
the line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to the regular, base-
wide, or base-narrow form.

No man is competent either to shoe a horse or to direct the work
till he has made the precited observations.

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20

PREPARATION OF THE HOOF FOR THE SHOE.

After raising the clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch-
cutter ("buffer") and drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is
critically examined and laid aside. Remaining stubs of nails are then
drawn or punched out and the hoof freed of dirt and partially detached
horn. The farrier has now to "dress" the overgrown hoof to receive
the new shoe; in other words, he has to form a base of support so
inclined to the direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface
shall be set flat upon the ground. He must not rob the hoof nor
leave too much horn; either mistake may lead to injury, if he has
made a careful preliminary examination he knows what part of the
wall requires removal and what part must be left, for he already
knows the direction of the foot-axis and the wear of the old shoe, and
has made up his mind just where and how much horn must be removed
to leave the hoof of proper length and the foot-axis straight.

A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp
nippers and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The con-
cave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may be pared out around the
point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of exfoli-
ation. The wall should be leveled with the rasp till its full thickness,
the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of the sole
are in one horizontal plane, called the " bearing surface of the hoof."
The bars if long may be shortened, but never pared on the side. The
branches of the sole in the angle between the bars and the wall of the
quarters should be left a little lower than the wall, so as not to be
pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. "Corns," or bruises of
the pododerm, are usually a result of leaving a thick mass of dry,
unyielding horn at this point. The frog should not be touched fur-
ther than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to form no
protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontaneously by the exfo-
liation of superficial layers of horn, while if the frog is diy, hard, and
too prominent it is better to soften it by applying moisture in some
form and allow it to wear away naturally than to pare it down.
It is of advantage to have the frog project below the level of the wall
an amount equal to the thickness of a plain shoe, though we rarely see
frogs of such size except in draft horses. The sharp lower border of
the wall should be rounded with the rasp to prevent its being bent
outward and broken away. Finally, the foot is set to the ground and
again observed from all sides to make sure that the lines bounding the
hoof correspond with the direction of the long pastern.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SHOE.

The shoe is an artificial base of support, b}r no means ideal, because
it interferes to a greater or less degree with the physiology of the

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21

foot, but indispensable except for horses at slow work on soft ground.
Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in pre-
serving the health of the feet and legs, it is necessary to consider the
various forms of shoes best adapted to the different forms of hoofs.
Certain properties are common to all shoes and may be considered
first. They are form, width, thickness, length, surfaces, borders,
''fullering," nail holes, and clips.

Form. — Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which it
is intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape; but for every
hoof that has undergone change of form we must endeavor to give the
shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front shoes and
hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different and easily
distinguishable.

Width. — All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends of the
branches. The average width should be about double the thickness of
the wall at the toe.

Thickness. — The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe last
about four weeks and should be uniform except in special cases.

Length. — This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof viewed in
profile. The acute-angled hoof (fig. 5 a) has long overhanging heels,
and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg falls
in the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches of the
shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearty double
the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form (figs. 5b
and 8) the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness
of the shoe. In a stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the shoe need not project more
than one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover the
entire "bearing surface" of the wall.

Surfaces. — The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known as
the "upper," or "hoof surface," of the shoe. That part of the hoof
surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the "bearing
surface" of the shoe. The "bearing surface" should be perfectly
horizontal from side to side and wide enough to support the full thick-
ness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch of
the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be perfectly
flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe ("rolling-motion"
shoe, fig. 5 a, b, c). The surface between the bearing surface and the
inner edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent
pressure too far inward upon the sole. This "concaving," or "seat-
ing," should be deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more
concave. As a rule strongly "cupped" soles require no concaving
(hind hoofs, narrow fore hoofs).

Borders. — The entire outer border should be beveled under the
foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead to
interfering.

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22

Fullering. — This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. It
should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be clean,
and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes the shoe
lighter in proportion to its width, and, by making the ground surface
somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping.

Nail holes. — The shoe must be so "punched" that the nail holes will
fall directly on the white line. They should be confined to the fore
half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two-thirds of hind
shoes. For a medium-weight shoe three nail holes in each branch are
sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those provided with long
calks, eight holes are about right, though three on the inside and four

on the outside may do.

Clips. — These are half-circular
ears drawn up from the outer
edge of the shoe either at the toe
or opposite the side wall. The
height of a clip should equal the
thickness of the shoe, though the}7"
should be even higher on hind
shoes and when a leather sole is
interposed between shoe and
hoof. Clips secure the shoe
against shifting. A side clip
should always be drawn up on
that branch of the shoe that first
meets the ground in locomotion.

SPECIAL PECULIARITIES OF
THE CHIEF CLASSES OF
SHOES.

Fig. 7.— Left fore hoof of regular form, shod with a
plain "fullered" shoe. Note the distribution of
the nails, length of the fuller (crease), and the
closeness of the endsof the shoe to the branches
ipf the frog.

(1) A shoe for a regular hoof
(figs. 7 and 8).— This fits when its
outer border follows the wall
closely in the region of the nail
holes and from the last nail to the
end of the branch gradually projects beyond the surface of the wall to
an eighth of an inch and extends back of the buttresses an amount equal
to the thickness of the shoe. The shoe must be straight, firm, air-
tight, its nail holes directly over the white line, and its branches far
enough from the branches of the frog to permit the passage of a foot
pick. Branches of the shoe must be of equal length.

In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form of the
hoof, but in base-wide and base-narrow hoofs, which are of irregular
form, wo must pay attention not only to the form of the hoof, but
also to the direction of the pasterns and the consequent distribution of
weight in the hoof, because where the most weight falls the surface of

179

23

support of the foot must be widened, and where the least weight falls
(opposite side of the hoof) the surface of support should be narrowed.
In this wa}^ the improper distribution of weight within the hoof is
evenl}r distributed over the surface of support.

(2) A shoe for a base-wide hoof. — This shoe should be fitted full on
the inner side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because the
inner side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch are
placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward toward
the toe.

(3) A shoe for a base-narrow hoof. — This shoe should be just the
reverse of the preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat
longer than the inner.

(4) A shoe for an acute-angled hoof. — This shoe should be long in the
branches, because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of the
foot. The support in front should be diminished either by turning
the shoe up at the toe or by beveling- it under the toe (tig. 5a).

i^g£g&&wvv«-.

Fig. 8. — Side view of hoof and shoe shown in fig. 7. Note the straight toe, weak ring formation
running parallel to the coronet, clinches low down and on a level, length of the shoe, and the
nnder-hevel at the toe and heel.

(5) A shoe for a stumpy hoof. — This shoe should be short in the
branches, and for pronounced cases should increase the support of
the toe, where the most of the weight falls, by being beveled down-
ward and forward.

In many cases, especially in the hoofs of draft horses that stand very
close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand out
be}rond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer
branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full that
an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just meet
the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other hand,
must be fitted as "close" as possible. The principal thought should
be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn side.
Such n. practice will render unnecessary the widespread and popular
fad of giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes an extreme

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24

outward bend. Care should be taken, however, that in fitting the
shoe "full" at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at the
quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be pinched
and squeezed inward against the frog. This will be obviated by
making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punching it
so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line.

HOT FITTING.

Few farriers have either the time or the skill necessary to so adjust
a cold shoe to the hoof that it will fit, as we say, "air-tight." Though
the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid picture of the direful con-
sequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, it is only the abuse of
the practice that is to be condemned. If a heavy shoe at a yellow
heat be held tightly pressed against a hoof which has been pared too
thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage may be done. But a shoe at
a dark heat may be pressed against a properly dressed hoof long
enough to scorch and thus indicate to the farrier the portions of horn
that should be lowered, without appreciable injury to the hoof, and to
the ultimate benefit of the animal.

The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. Thej"
should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above the
shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on the
wall destroys the least possible amount of horn, has a wide and strong
clinch, rather than a narrow one which would be formed near the point
of the nail, and furthermore has the strongest possible hold on the
wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a right angle to the
grain (horn tubes) of the wall than if driven high. Finally, do not
allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches.

THE BAR SHOE.

The bar shoe (fig. 9) has a variety of uses. It enables us to give the
frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activity and devel-
opment when by reason of disuse it has become atrophied. It gives
the hoof an increased surface of support and enables us to relieve one
or both quarters of undue pressure that may have induced inflamma-
tion and soreness. The bar of the shoe should equal the average
width of the remainder of the shoe and should press but lightly on the
branches of the frog. The addition of a leather sole with tar and
oakum solo-packing allows us to distribute the weight of the body
over the entire ground surface of the hoof.

THE RUBBER PAD.

Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes,
and other contrivances to diminish shock and prevent slipping on the
hard and slippery pavements of our large cities are in use in ditfer-

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25

ent parts of the world. In Germany the rope shoe (a malleable-iron
shoe with a groove in its ground surface in which lies a piece of tarred

Fig. 9. — An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe. Note the width and position of the
bar and the fact that the nails are placed well toward the toe, so as not to interfere with the
expansion of the quarters.

rope) is extensively used with most gratifying results. It is cheap,
durable, easily applied, and effective.

Fig. 10. — A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster. The toe and outer-heel calks cut at right
angles, and the inner heel calk is slender and blunt. The back surface of the toe calk should be
perpendicular.

In the large cities of England and the United States rubber pads are
extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite efficient
in preventing slipping" on polished and gummy pavements, though not

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26

so effective on ice. Figure 11 is an illustration of one of the best of
many rubber pads. The rubber is stitched and cemented, to a leather
sole and is secured by the nails of
a three-quarter shoe. Such a pad
will usually last as long as two
shoes. They may be used contin-
uously, not only without injury to

Fig. 12.— A narrow right fore hoof of the base-
wide (toe-wide) standing position, shod with
a plain, " dropped-crease " shoe to prevent the
toe-cutting (interfering). The dotted line at
the inner toe indicates the edge of the wall
which was rasped away in order to narrow the
hoof along the striking section. Note the in-
ward bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped
crease, the distribution of the nails, the long
"full" inner branch, and the short "close"
outer branch.

179

Fig. 11. — Left fore foot of regular form shod with a
rubber pad and " three-quarter" shoe. (Ground
surface. )

the hoof but to its great benefit.
The belief, unsupported by evi-
dence, that rubber pads " draw the
feet" keeps many from using them.
A human foot encased in a rubber
boot may eventually be blistered
by the sweat poured upon the sur-
face of the skin and held there by
the impervious rubber till decom-
position takes place with the for-
mation of irritating fatty acids; but
there is no basis for an analoov in
the hoof of a horse.

27

ILLUSTRATIONS OF SHOEING IN CONNECTION WITH "INTER-
FERING," ETC.

Some illustrations, designed to illustrate shoeing- in connection with
"interfering" and "forge," are given herewith.

Fig. 13.— Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner branch has no nai]
holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position of the nail holes,
the clip on the outer side-wall, and the narrowness and bend of the inner branch.

Fig. 14. — Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner nailless branch has the
thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters of the hoof are
equidistant from the ground.
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28

Fig. 15.— Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over" (quicken the action)
in a " forger." Note the short shoe, heel calks inclined forward, and the rolled toe.

Fig. 16.— Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the action and to prevent
injury to the fore heels by the toe of the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the short toe by means
of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When such a hoof has grown more
toe the toe calk can be dispensed with and the shoe set farther forward.
17y

29

Fig. 17.— A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are placed too
far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form, but the weight is properly placed.

pIG. is.— Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet. The
profile of the shoe shows a " roll " at the toe and "swelled " heels. The weight is well placed, but
"rolling" the toe and raising the heels lower action. The shoe would be much more effective if
of uniform thickness and with no roll at the toe.
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30

FARMERS' BULLETINS.

The following is a list of the Farmers' Bulletins available for distribution, showing
the number and title of each. Copies will be sent free to any address in the United
States on application to a Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Numbers omitted have been discon-
tinued, being superseded by later bulletins.

No. 16. Leguminous Plants. No. 22. The Feeding of Farm Animals. No. 24. Hog Cholera and
Swine Plague. No. 25. Peanuts: Culture and Uses. No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber. No. 28.
Weeds: And How to Kill Them. No. 29. Souring and Other Changes in Milk. No. 30. Grape Dis-
eases on the Pacific Coast. No. 31. Alfalfa, or Lucern. No. 32. Silos and Silage. No. 33. Peach
Growing for Market. No. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking. No. 35. Potato Culture. No. 36.
Cotton Seed and Its Products. No. 37. Ka.lr Corn: Culture and Uses. No. 38. Spraying for Fruit Dis-
eases. No. 39. Onion Culture. No. 41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. No. 42. Facts About Milk. No. 43.
Sewage Disposal on the Farm. No. 44. Commercial Fertilizers. No. 45. Insects Injurious to Stored
Grain. No. 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. No. 47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. No. 48.
The Manuring of Cotton. No. 49. Sheep Feeding. No. 60. Sorghum as a Forage Crop. No. 51.
Standard Varieties of Chickens. No. 52. The Sugar Beet, No. 53. How to Grow Mushrooms. No.
54. Some Common Birds. No. 55. The Dairy Herd. No. 56. Experiment Station Work— I. No. 57.
Butter Making on the Farm. No. 58. The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. No. 59. Bee Keeping. No. 60.
Methods of Curing Tobacco. No. 61. Asparagus Culture. No. 62. Marketing Farm Produce. No. 63.
Care of Milk on the Farm. No. 64. Ducks and Geese. No. 65. Experiment Station Work— II. No.
66. Meadows and Pastures. No. 68. The Black Rot of the Cabbage. No. 69. Experiment Station
Work— III. No. 70. Insect Enemies of the Grape. No. 71. Essentials in Beef Production. No. 72.
Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. No. 73. Experiment Station Work— IV. No. 74. Milk as Food.
No. 75. The Grain Smuts. No. 76. Tomato Growing. No. 77. The Liming of Soils. No. 78. Experi-
ment Station Work— V. No. 79. Experiment Station Work— VI. No. 80. The Peach Twig-borer.
No. 81. Corn Culture in the South. No. 82. The Culture of Tobacco. No. 83. Tobacco Soils. No. 84.
Experiment Station Work— VII. No. 85. Fish as Food. No. 86. Thirty Poisonous Plants. No. 87.
Experiment Station Work— VIII. No. 88. Alkali Lands. No. 89. Cowpeas. No. 91. Potato Diseases
and Treatment. No. 92. Experiment. Station Work— IX. No. 93. Sugar as Food. No. 94. The Vege-
table Garden. No. 95. Good Roads for Farmers. No. 96. Raising Sheep for Mutton. No. 97.
Experiment Station Work— X. No. 98. Suggestions to Southern Farmers. No. 99. Insect Enemies
of Shade Trees. No. 100. Hog Raising in the South. No. 101. Millets. No. 102. Southern Forage
Plants. No. 103. Experiment Station Work— XL No. 104. Notes on Frost. No. 105. Experiment
Station Work— XII. No. 106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. No. 107. Experiment Station Work— XIII.
No. 108. Saltbushes. No. 109. Farmers' Reading Courses. No. 110. Rice Culture in the United
States. No. 111. Farmers' Interest in Good Seed. No. 112. Bread and Bread Making. No. 113.
The Apple and How to Grow It. No. 114. Experiment Station Work— XIV. No. 115. Hop Culture
in California. No. 116. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. No. 118. Grape Growing in the South. No.
119. Experiment Station Work— XV. No. 120. Insects Affecting Tobacco. No. 121. Beans, Peas,
and Other Legumes as Food. No. 122. Experiment Station Work— XVI. No. 123. Red Clover
Seed. No. 124. Experiment Station Work— XVII. No. 125. Protection of Food Products from Injuri-
ous Temperatures. No. 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. No. 127. Important Insecti-
cides. No. 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. No. 129. Sweet Potatoes. No. 131. Household Tests
for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter. No. 132. Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat.
No. 133. Experiment Station Work— XVIII. No. 134. Tree Planting in Rural School Grounds. No.
135. Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. No. 136. Earth Roads. No. 137. The Angora Goat. No. 138. Irri-
gation in Field and Garden. No. 139. Emmer: A Grain for the Semiarid Regions. No. 140. Pineapple
Growing. No. 141. Poultry Raising on the Farm. No. 142. The Nutritive and Economic Value of
Food. No. 143. The Conformation of Beef and Dairy Cattle. No 144. Experiment Station Work—
XIX. No. 145. Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. No. 146. Insecticides and Fungicides. No.
147. Winter Forage Crops for the South. No. 148. Celery Culture. No. 149. Experiment Station
Work— XX. No. 150. Clearing New Land. No. 151. Dairying in the South. No. 152. Scabies in
Cattle. No. 153. Orchard Enemies in the Pacific Northwest, No. 154. The Fruit Garden: Prepara-
tion and Care. No. 155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. No. 156. The Home Vineyard.
No. 157. The Propagation of Plants. No. 158. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. No. 159. 'Scab
in Sheep. No. 161. Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. No. 162. Experiment Station Work—
XXI. No. 164. Rape as a Forage Crop. No. 165. Culture of the Silkworm. No. 166. Cheese Making
on the Farm. No. 167. Cassava. No. 168. Pearl Millet, No. 169. Experiment Station Work— XXII.
No. 170. Principles of Horse Feeding. No. 171. The Control of the Codling Moth. No. 172. Scale
Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. No. 173. Primer of Forestry. No. 174. Broom Corn. No. 175.
Borne Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. No. 176. Cranberry Culture. No. 177.
Squab Raising. No. 178. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. No. 179. Horseshoeing. No. 180.
Game Laws for 1903. No. 181. Pruning. No. 182. Poultry as Food. No. 183. Meat on the Farm —
Butchering, curing, etc. No. 184. Marketing Live Stock. " No. 185. Beautifying the Home ({rounds.
No. 186. Experiment Station Work — XXIII. No. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. No. 188. Weeds Used
in Medicine. No. 189. Information Concerning the Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil. No. 190. Experi-
ment Station Work— XXIV. No. 191. The Cotton Bollworm. No. 192. Barnyard Manure. No. 193.
Experiment Station Work— XXV. No. 194. Alfalfa Seed.

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Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medicine
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at
Tufts University
200 Westboro Road
North Grafton, MA 01536

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