IC-NRLF 3DM • THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS, PRUDENCE W. KOFOID & HORSES AND STABLES. BY LIETJT.-GENERAL ' SIR PJ^PITZWYGRAM, BART. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, Jiftb €bttton (1903). f^na^tma RE-ISSUE LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK, BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA 1911 [All Rights are reserved.] Printed by Adlard & Son, London and Dorking. PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION. THE Author desires to acknowledge with very warm thanks the valuable assistance which he has received from V. Colonel J. Drummond-Lambert, C.B., Late Director-General Army Veterinary Department, in bringing this Edition up to date. The principal changes in the present (5th) Edition are — In Chapter ], on Ventilation, the Air-brick under manger is struck out; it is retained over the manger, page 7. The other means of ventilation remain as before. Par. 186, Moss Litter. Chapter 24, Influenza : Some considerable change has been made in treatment. Chapter 29, Glanders and Farcy. Do. do. Chapter 50, Grease and Cracked Heel. Do. do. Par. 633, Side bones, not caused by calkins. Par. 876, Aging of Horses : When some teeth show more wear than others, the age is generally gauged by the younger looking teeth. Par. 931, Dishing: A "dishing" horse usually stands with his Toes turned in. To counteract this, he should be shod, so that during progress he will carry them straight. To this end he should be shod with a shoe quarter of an inch wider than the Crust on the outer quarter ; but the shoe on the inside should be made about quarter of an inch narrower than the Crust ; and the Crust must be rasped down to fit the shoe. The Clip of the shoe must not be placed in the centre of the front, but about three-quarters of an inch towards the outer side. Par. 1021, Navicular disease, cause of. With reference to Mr. Blunt's very interesting letter in the Postscript : Indian experience, I believe, thoroughly supplements his experience. The Arab of the Desert, though thorough-bred on both sides, is not reproduced on either side of the Persian Gulf. The progeny grows 15 to 16 hands high, but loses all the best qualities of the Arab. I had a hope that first-class Arabs brought to this country and kept on dry soil and fed on hard food might have blessed Mr. Blunt' s patriotic endeavour to produce the true Arab of greater stature. But it has not been so, and I am sorry for it. F. W. FITZWYGRAM. LIST OF PLATES. PLANS OF STABLES PAVING. WINDOW, TO DROP BACK GRASSES HERBAGE WEEDS .... HOCK, BONES OF HOCK, CONFORMATION OF FORE-LEG, BONES OF FORE-LEG, CROOKED FORE-LEG, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF HOCK-JOINT, LIGAMENTS OF KNEE, FRONT VIEW OF BONES OF OFF EYE, THE TEETH, THE SKELETON CONFORMATION OF VARIOUS POINTS FOOT, THE < SHOES, FORE AND HIND . TIPS .... TURNED-TJP FORE-SHOES . HIND SHOES FOR OVER-REACH LAMINITIS PAGE . 1 48 at the end CONTENTS. PART I. PAGE CHAPTER 1. — VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES ... 1 CHAPTER 2.— IMPROVEMENT OF STABLES OF FAULTY CONSTRUC- TION ... ... ... ... ... 19 CHAPTER 3.— STABLE FITTINGS ... ... ... ... 21 CHAPTER 4. — WATERING AND FEEDING ... ... ... 28 CHAPTER 5.— FORAGE ... ... ... ... 34 CHAPTER 6.— GROOMING ... ... ... ... ... 66 CHAPTER 7.— SHOEING... ... ... ... 77 CHAPTER 8.— EXERCISE ... ... ... ... ... 77 CHAPTER 9.— STABLE MANAGEMENT ... ... ... ... 88 PART II. CHAPTER 10.— BLOOD, ARTERIES, AND VEINS ... ... ... 104 CHAPTER 11.— PULSE 109 CHAPTER 12.— ABSORBENTS ... ... ... ... ... 114 CHAPTER 13. — STRUCTURE AND USES OF VARIOUS MEMBRANES AND TISSUES ... ... ... ... ... 117 CHAPTER 14.— NERVOUS SYSTEM ... ... 123 CHAPTER 15.— GOOD NURSINO... ... ... .,. ... 126 CHAPTER 16.— INFECTION AND CONTAGION ... ... ... 133 CHAPTER 17.— ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES ... ... 141 VI CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER 18.— INFLAMMATION ... ... ... ... ... 162 CHAPTER 19. — OF INFLAMMATION, ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED, AS A CURATIVE AGENT ... ... ... ... 181 CHAPTER 20.— ABSCESSES ... ... ... ... ... 192 CHAPTER 21.— ULCERATION AND SLOUGHING 197 PART III. CHAPTER 22. — ACUTE DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRA- TION ... ... ... ... ,., ... 201 CHAPTER 23. — CHRONIC DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRA- TION ... ... ... ... ... ... 224 CHAPTER 24.— INFLUENZA ... ... ... ... ... 232 CHAPTER 25.— NASAL GLEET ... ... ... ... ... 242 CHAPTER 26.— STRANGLES ... ... ... ... ... 244 CHAPTER 27.— RHEUMATISM ... ... ... ... ... 249 CHAPTER 28.— DROPSICAL SWELLINGS ... ... ... ... 252 CHAPTER 29.— GLANDERS AND FARCY ... ... ... ... 255 PART IV. CHAPTER 30. — COLIC AND INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES... 262 CHAPTER 31.— MAD AND SLEEPY STAGGERS ... ... ... 270 CHAPTER 32.— MEGRIMS OR VERTIGO ... ... ... ... 276 CHAPTER 33.— TETANUS OR LOCKJAW ... ... ... ... 278 CHAPTER 33A.— PARALYSIS ... ... ... ... ... 279 CHAPTER 34.— STRINGHALT .... ... ... ... ... 283 PART V. CHAPTER 34A. — REPAIR OF INJURIES TO VITAL STRUCTURE ... 284 CHAPTER 35.— DISEASES OF BONES 288 CONTENTS. Vll PAGE CHAPTER 36.— FRACTURES OF BONES ... ... ... ... 294 CHAPTER 37.— CONFORMATION OF THE HOCK ... ... ... 299 CHAPTER 38.— SPAVIN... ... ... ... ... ... 301 CHAPTER 39.-SPLINT 308 CHAPTER 40.— SORE SHINS, RING-BONE, AND OSSIFIED CARTI- LAGES... 315 PART VI. . CHAPTER 41.— BURSAL ENLARGEMENTS ... ... ... 319 CHAPTER 42.— DETECTION OF THE SEAT AND CAUSE OF LAME- NESS ... ... ... ... ... ... 324 CHAPTER 43.— SYMPTOMS OF VARIOUS DISEASES AFFECTING THE FEET ... ... ... ... ... ... 331 CHAPTER 44. — SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE FORE-LEG ... ... ... ... ... 335 CHAPTER 45.— SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE HIND LEG ... ... ... ... ... 347 CHAPTER 46.— POLL EVIL AND FISTULOUS WITHERS ... ... 351 CHAPTER 47.— OPEN JOINT ... 353 CHAPTER 48.— FLESH WOUNDS ... ... ... ... 360 CHAPTER 49.— WARBLES OR SLIGHT TUMOURS AND SITFASTS . 369 PAET VII. CHAPTER 50. — GREASE AND CRACKED HEELS ... ... ... 371 CHAPTER 51.— MANGE... ... ... ... ... ... 374 CHAPTER 52.— RINGWORM ... ... ... ... ... 378 CHAPTER 53.— WARTS... ... ... ... ... ... 379 CHAPTER 54.— BOTS AND WORMS 380 Vlll CONTENTS. PART VIII. PAGE CHAPTER 55. — DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER ... 383 CHAPTER 56.— THE LIVER ... ... ... 391 CHAPTER 57.— DISEASES OF THE EYE ... ... ... ... 396 PART IX. CHAPTER 58.— AGE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH ... ... 416 CHAPTER 59.— LAMPAS ... ... ... ... ... 426 CHAPTER 60.— CONFORMATION... ... ... ... ... 428 „ HINTS ON PURCHASE OF HORSES ... ... 456 CHAPTER 61.— THE LAW OF WARRANTY ... ... ... 458 PART X. CHAPTER 62.— PRINCIPLES OF SHOEING ... ... ... 461 CHAPTER 63.— SHOEING— DETAILS OF ... ... ... ... 471 CHAPTER 64.— SHOEING OF THE FORE-FEET ... ... ... 489 CHAPTER 65.— DISEASES OF THE FOOT ... ... ... 492 CHAPTER 66.— THE PROGRESS OF VETERINARY SCIENCE ... 512 CHAPTER 67.— ORIGIN OF DISEASES ... ... ... ... 521 CHAPTER 67A. — BACTERIOLOGY ... ... ... ... 526 CHAPTER 68. — POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES ... ... 527 CHAPTER 69.— EMERGENT CASES ... ... ... ... 528 CHAPTER 70.— GENERAL SURVEY OF A HORSE ... ... ... 530 CHAPTER 71.— NOTES ON DENTISTRY ... ... ... ... 533 ADDENDA ... ... ... 539 POSTSCRIPT 541 PLATE 1. PLANS SHOWING COMMON AND FAULTY MODES OF CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. CQ LU PLATE 2. o •i Li PLATE 4. PLAN | SCALE, 10 FEET TO ONK INCH. PLATE 5. / / i / i 53 .r I f X • V \ K I \ i Q «*n PLATE 6. PLAN M SECTIONS TO ILLUSTRATE RIDGE VENTILATION BY MEANS OF LOUVKES. SCALK 4 FKKT TO ONE INCH. PLATE 7. PAVING BRICKS. "T^T "'• •• -- f Fig. i. Fig, i. Cross-cut objected to. Enlarged Plan (Ste Para: 1 6.) J, 1 -ill L Fig. 2. pn vi ug .Re.co.mw e.n tied . V_ ( Clm'nnel cow ^^^ Manger ^^, m nni £ to each Stall ^ Fig. 2 Single Brick. LULUJJUU Fig. 2. PLAN OF STALL WITH CONCRETE PAVING. f 4 \ Hi Fig. 4. PLAN OF 4 STALL STABLE WITH CONCRETE PAVING AND CHANNELS. PLATE 8. Fig, r. Iron pulley Iron eye quadrant Cleat SECTION SHOWING A DROP-BACK WINDOW. Fig. 0. Latch Fig. 4- Fig. 4. Keep STABLE LATCH. HOBSES AND STABLES. . CHAPTER 1. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OP STABLES. 1. Importance of pure air. 2. Circulation of the Wood. 3 Effect of breath on air. 4. Composition of the air. 5. Circulation of the air. 6. Natural facilities for ventilation. 7. Escape of foul air. 8. How the place of foul air is supplied. 9. Amount of cubical space required by horses in stables. 11. Faulty plans of construction in stables. 12. True prin- ciples of construction. 13. Louvre boards. 14. Plans of ceiling. 15. Ventilation of stables with rooms over them. 16. Paving. 16a. Drains and paving. 166. Litter sheds. 17. Floor of the stable to be higher than the ground outside. 18. Drainage. 18a. Underground drains. 186. Health without drains. 19. Slope of stalls. 20. Site of stables. 21. Aspect. 22. Walls and foundation. 23. Light. 24. Fireplaces. 25. Dimensions and cost. 26. Cheaper construction. 27. Loose boxes. 27 a. Ventilation and draughts. Loose boxes and stalls. 276. Constant attention needed to ventilation. 28. Argument against the need of ventila- tion. 29. Conclusion. 1. Importance of pure Air. Pure air is as important to the integrity of the blood as wholesome food to the maintenance of the body. The importance of pure air can hardly be adequately appreciated without some knowledge of the course of the circulation of the blood and also of the composition of the air. It is not, however, intended, either in this or any succeeding chapter to enter into any minute descriptions of structures or processes ; but an endeavour will be made to give concisely, and it is hoped sufficiently, broad principles and facts which may enable the non-professional reader to understand the subject referred to. 2. Circulation of the Blood. By each contraction or beat of the heart bright scarlet highly vital- ized blood fresh from the lungs is forced through the arteries to all parts of the body. The arteries dividing and subdividing become smaller and 1 2 CHAPTER 1. smaller, and ultimately terminate in very minute hair-like tubes, called capillary vessels or capillaries. These vessels abound in every vascular structure, and from them each structure absorbs those special nutrient particles which are required for its growth or repair. In the capillaries the arterial or outward-bound system of the circulation ends. In these same capillaries the venous or return circulation commences. Into them also are returned the waste and used-up products of the system. Reversing the previous order the capillary veins now enlarge and coalesce and carry back to the heart dark, purple venous blood, charged with the waste matters of the tissues, and among these with carbonic acid gas. The impure blood thus brought back by the veins is carried to the right side of the heart, and thence at each contraction or beat of that organ is forced into the lungs. The lungs contain an infinite number of cells, which through the bronchiae and windpipe communicate with the outer air. On the outside of these cells the blood-vessels are spread. The blood thus exposed to the air takes up from it a portion of its oxygen, and gives off the carbonic acid gas and various volatile organic matters which have accumulated in it, as described above. Thus freed from impurity, and containing more oxygen, the blood again becomes bright scarlet and adapted for the nutrition of the body ; and in this state it is returned to the left side of the heart for renewed circulation through the frame. From birth to death this process is always going on. 3. Effect of breath on the air. The impurities of the blood are thus transferred to the air. Air, therefore, which has been much breathed in contains too little oxygen and too much carbonic acid gas, and is besides loaded with the organic impurities given off by the lungs and also by the skin. Hence it is obvious that the condition of the blood and the health of the animal depend very much on the purity of the air supplied to the lungs. 4. Composition of the air. Pure air consists of about four-fifths of nitrogen and one-fifth of oxygen with small proportions of carbonic acid gas, aqueous vapour, ammonia, ozone, and other constituents. For the purpose of purifying blood, oxygen is the chief useful part of air. Nitrogen adds largely to its volume and dilutes the oxygen, which would otherwise be much too active. Any excess of carbonic acid gas is unwholesome, and an addition of '5 per cent, is sufficient to render air irrespirable. 5. Circulation of the air. Nature undisturbed takes her own means, into which it is not necessary here to enter, of restoring the purity of the air, or, in other VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 3 words, of maintaining in their due proportion the proper constituents of the air. But in a closed room or stable there are no means by which she can carry on her restorative processes. Hence the need of ventilation. It is absolutely necessary to maintain or restore the proper constituents of the air, if we wish for health for ourselves or our horses. 6. Natural facilities for ventilation. Fortunately the peculiar properties, or rather the state of the gases which respectively constitute foul and pure air, afford great facilities for ventilation. Heat causes all matters to expand, some more and some less ; but gases under the influence of heat expand very rapidly, and to a very great degree ; and as they expand, they of course become lighter. As a general rule, foul air in a stable is also heated air. It is only necessary to breathe on the hand to feel that our breath is generally warmer than the air. And besides the breath a certain amount of heat is given off from the bodies of all living animals. Carbonic acid gas, though at equal temperatures heavier, is nevertheless, when heated, as it is when first given off from the lungs, lighter than pure air. 7. Escape of foul air. The lightness of heated foul air at once affords the key for getting rid of it. It is only necessary to provide the means of exit in the highest part of the stable, and it will escape by its own inherent lightness. In fact we may get quit of it without any trouble. But, on the other hand, supposing that the foul air has no means of escape, what becomes of it1? It has risen to the top of the stable, because being heated it is lighter than the surrounding air. It will escape if it can, but if we deny it the opportunity of doing so, it must remain in the stable. It then gradually cools, and as it cools descends and becomes mingled with the air of the stable, and is in due course again presented to the nostrils to be breathed. Although we cannot see this movement of foul air in a room or stable, it may easily be shown by experiments with coloured gases. 8. How the place of the foul air is supplied. But supposing the foul air to have an exit above, how is its place, how is the vacancy caused by its escape, to be supplied by fresh air? If there are no apertures except those above, it is clear that by the continued ascent and escape of heated foul air a tendency to a vacuum will be created in the stable. It is well known that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to 14 Ibs. per square inch. When, then, even a tendency to a vacuum has been created, the pressure of the air on the outside is sufficient to overcome the upward current of heated air; and cold, fresh air will rush in at intervals to supply the vacancy. When the vacancy is supplied, the upward current and escape of heated air will be resumed until another tendency to a vacuum is created, when a similar 4 CHAPTER 1. indraught will occur again. Hence the unpleasant sensation of cold draughts coming down suddenly on the head, so often complained of in rooms ventilated only from above. To provide against any such sudden change in the direction of the current it is necessary to admit by another and lower series of apertures a certain proportion of the fresh air required. It is not necessary that the lower apertures should be large enough to admit a volume of air equal to that which is escaping above, because, if the upper apertures are properly constructed, a considerable proportion of air will be constantly and regularly — not in sudden draughts — entering on the windward side, whilst the foul air escapes on the leeward side. In addition to which a certain amount of air comes in through the windows and under the doors, even though closed. There is, however, confessedly great difficulty in arranging apertures for the admission of fresh air without causing an unpleasant draught in some portion of the room or stable. In this lies the more difficult and more neglected part of ventilation. No one likes the sensation of a cold draught on their own persons, and horses also appear to dislike it almost as much as human beings. It is well, however, to remember that horses, in this respect, unlike men, rarely suffer in health from cold, unless they are heated at the time, and excepting also those doing very fast work, the pores of whose skins are consequently very open. Their food, however, goes less far, their coats become less sleek, and the highest development of condition cannot be attained when the animals are subjected to such discomforts. 9. Amount of cubical space required by horses in stables. It has not yet been ascertained how much, or rather what is the minimum quantity of fresh air required by horses in stables. In a state of nature the horse, we know, enjoys perfect freedom of air and exercise. He is, moreover, constantly exposed to all the vicissitudes of weather and climate, for he does not, like many other animals, make cover or shelter for himself. A " mare's nest " has become a proverb. We may, therefore, assume that in the domesticated state he ought to have an abundant supply of fresh air, with regular exercise ; and further, that he is not likely to suffer from any moderate amount of cold, although no doubt the increased action of the pores of the skin, which results from fast work and grooming, creates an increased degree of susceptibility in these respects. Unfortunately we have but few statistics to guide us as to the quantity of air required by horses iii stables. Some approximate idea may, how- ever, perhaps be gathered from a comparison with that required for human beings. The Army Sanitary Commission, after much investigation, have recommended that a minimum space of 600 cubic feet should be allowed for each soldier in a barrack room. Now, assuming that the capacity of the lungs of a horse is six times greater than that of a man, we might VENlMLAtlOK AND CONSTllUCTlOX OP STABLES. 5 argue that six times greater space, or 3000 cubic feet, would be required for each horse in a stable. Various circumstances, however, modify this calculation. The horse is not fed on animal food, and therefore the emanations given off from his body are less noxious than those proceeding from human beings ; and, again, as he is far less susceptible of injury from draught or cold than man, it is possible to give to stables a greater degree of ventilation than would be tolerable in a room ; and lastly, and chiefly, the horse cannot, as men too often do, close the means of ventilation. Arguing from the experience gained in barrack stables and elsewhere, the author believes that with the concomitants of good ventilation, good drainage and paving, light and cleanliness, 1200 cubic feet, with a ground area of about 87 feet per horse, are sufficient for the maintenance of health. But no amount of cubical space, however great, will secure pure air, unless the plan of the construction of the stable and the venti- lation is good. See pars. 11 and 12. But, in regard to cab-horse stables, it must be remembered that the horses stand in the open nearly half of the twenty-four hours. As a general rule, cab stables are very well ventilated, clean, and well drained. Cab owners have learned by experience to be excessively particular about ventilation, cleanliness, and drainage. In many cab stables which the author has visited the windows have been wholly removed, and the doors are left wide open all night. Of late years there has been a very great and general improvement in the health, condition, and management of cab horses. In the first edition of this book, the author expressed his opinion that\ the average duration of the London cab horse, from one cause and another, or probably from many causes combined, did not exceed two and a half years. He is glad to be able to say, from recent observations, that the present average duration is from 3J to 4 years. 11. Faulty plans of construction in stables. Many stables from their construction are difficult to ventilate properly. In some the construction is such that proper ventilation is impossible. In others ventilation is easy enough, but at the expense of an objection- able degree of draught on the horses. Lastly, be the construction what it may, insufficient cubical space necessitates an amount of fresh air passing through the stable in order to keep it sweet, which must make it cold and draughty. The six plans annexed will serve to explain our meaning as to faults of construction. Plan A is an eight-stall stable of very frequent construction. It has a door and two windows in front. If the windows are large enough, and if the paving and drainage are good and the cubical space sufficient, the construction is not very bad ; but it is open to the objection, that it gives no thorough ventilation, and consequently there is no sufficient circulation of air through the stable. The windows and doors are all on 6 CHAPTER 1. one side, namely on that furthest from the horses' nostrils. The air enters behind the horses and passes through the stable, and picks up whatever foul emanations may have arisen from the bedding, urine, &c., before it is presented to the nostrils to be breathed. Again, the horse stands in the portion of the stable in which the air is most stagnant. We shall make suggestions hereafter for the improvement of these and other stables of defective construction. Plan B represents a four-stall stable of a construction very common in London. It has only one door and one window at one end. There is no thorough ventilation. The horse nearest to the window may get some pure air, the second must get less, and the evil increases with each suc- ceeding horse. It is impossible to have pure air in a stable of this construction. It is radically bad. Plan C. The mischief is of course immensely augmented when this plan of construction is applied to a six- or eight-stall stable. In London of late years the evil of this plan has been greatly dimin- ished by making the skylight at the end, if there is one, to open. Plan D represents an eight-stall stable having a door and window at each end, with the horses standing in a single row or line. Plan E represents a stable of similar construction with sixteen stalls, the horses standing in two lines with a passage between them. This was until recent years the ordinary barrack construction. Both these stables have the great advantage of thorough ventilation. They can therefore be kept pretty sweet, but not without a sensible amount of draught. It is obvious, however, that only the horses next to the windows obtain really pure air. All the rest must imbibe air tainted by the breath of the horses nearer the windows, and by the other emanations of the stable. The evil necessarily increases as the centre of the stable is approached. Plan F is a double-line stable of similar construction to E, but with 26 horses on each side — i. e. 52 in all. If there is a window on each side over each horse the stable will be healthy ; or if other buildings inter- fere with windows, louvre boards running the length of the stable may be substituted. 12. True principles of construction. From the peculiar properties of heated air, as explained in the early part of this chapter, there need be but little difficulty in getting rid of it. The best means of doing so will be detailed hereafter. The real difficulty lies in providing for the admission of fresh air in quantities sufficient to maintain the purity of the stable without causing in some part or other a sensible and inconvenient draught. This diffi- culty, however, or, in other words, the need of draught, decreases in proportion as the air has a less distance to travel before it is presented to the nostrils of the horse. With this view it is essential, as a primary rule, that no more than two horses should be placed between the opposite sources of air. Plan G. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 7 In all stables the windows should be placed on both sides along the length of the stable. It is then immaterial, as regards ventilation, how many horses the stable is constructed to hold. The air has no greater distance to travel than the breadth of the building. There should be a window over the head of each horse two feet six inches in width and three feet in height. Details as to the best construction of windows and the means of obviating unpleasant draught from them when open will be found under the head of Stable Fittings, in Chapter III. In the plan marked H the sills of the windows are placed eight feet above the floor. In single-line stables there should be a row of air-bricks in the front wall about 14 inches above the floor, and a similar row in the back wall above the window. For pattern of air-brick see Plate 8. By means of the air-bricks there will be a gentle and scarcely per- ceptible stream of air, permeating the stables, a'nd passing out through the upper apertures. In double-line stables with drop-back windows on both sides, the main- tenance of pure air is not difficult. Windows, however, may require to be closed, and therefore it is desirable to have a row of air-bricks on each side above the windows. The lower ventilation will be best secured by leaving a space of 1 inch between the door and the floor. The amount of air entering under these arrangements will undoubtedly be considerable, but at no one point will it be so great as to create a sensible and unpleasant draught. It will be gradually, gently, and con- stantly diffused through the whole stable. Traversed openings are objectionable. They are very apt to get choked, and it is very difficult to clear them out. If the reader will now kindly turn back to plans A, B, C, D, E, and F, he will readily perceive the points in which those constructions are respectively defective. Plans G, H, I, and K, show various views of a sixteen-stall stable of the description which the author would recommend. Though the plans are drawn for a sixteen-stall stable, yet the same construction is equally available and suitable for a less or greater number of horses. Plan L shows a single-line stable for five horses on similar principles, except that there is only one horse instead of two between the opposite sources of air. 13. Louvre boards. For ready means of affording exit for foul air no construction offers so great facilities as an open roof with louvre boards at its ridge running the whole length of the stable. In double-line stables the depth of the louvre should be sixteen inches (plan H), which will afford a ventilating outlet of about four feet of each horse. In stables in which the horses stand in a single line or row the depth of the louvre may be reduced one half. For reasons almost similar to those which have been urged in regard to the admission of fresh air, it is very essential that the foul air 8 CHAPTER 1. should have an exit along the whole length of the stable instead of merely by holes, pipes, or funnels in one, or two or three places. Louvre boards are often objected to on account of their admitting rain, wind, and snow. When they admit rain, or an excessive amount of wind, the fault lies in the architect or carpenter. If each board is made wide enough to overlap well the board below, and if the pitch is suffi- ciently steep, no serious inconvenience will be felt. The different constructions of louvres shown in plan M will, perhaps, explain our meaning. A louvre constructed as represented in fig. 1 will no doubt admit rain, wind, and snow. Fig. 2 will be pretty safe. Fig. 3 will be quite secure against all but snow, which will find its way into every place which is not perfectly closed. The intervals between each board should be three inches, and the breadth of the boards themselves should be nine inches. The pitch of the boards should form an angle of sixty degrees. In some very exposed situations broader boards and a greater pitch may be required. For reasons connected with good light in the stable, it will hereafter (under the head of Windows and skylights) be recommended that the " boards " be made of thick, rough |-inch glass. The pitch of the roof should be somewhat steep. In plan H the height of the roof is one half its span. For cart and other horses doing slow work a raised tile along the apex of the roof is a pretty good and very cheap substitute for louvre boards. 14. Plans of ceiling. Open roofs, notwithstanding the great facilities they afford for ventila- tion, are often objected to, because the absence of ceiling generally implied in the term " open " roof, is apt to render the stable unduly hot in summer and unduly cold in winter, and especially at night. This objection, and it is undoubtedly a very serious objection, may be obviated without losing any of the^real advantages of an open roof by putting a ceiling on the roof, but at a distance of twelve inches from it. The current of air between the slates and the ceiling will keep the stable cool in summer, whilst the distance between the ceiling and the slates will prevent the cold from striking through in winter or at night. This is a curious, but practical fact. Some little extra expense will be incurred by placing the ceiling at this distance from the roof, because the depth of the subsidiary rafters usually employed is not above five inches. There is, however, no great difficulty or expense, because the ceiling may be attached to the prin- cipal rafters. The detail of the plan of ceiling is shown in Plan I along the lines marked A B and c D. It will be observed that the space near the apex of the roof immediately under the louvre boards, shown in the plan by the open lines from B to c, is not ceiled, so that there may be no interference with the outlet of the foul air. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 9 Or the stable may be ceiled in the ordinary manner with the exception of an opening of a yard wide in the middle along the whole length of the stable (Plan K). The plan of ceiling is marked F E and E p, the portion between E and E being omitted. Though the cubic contents of the stable are much reduced by this plan, yet the horses will derive a considerable amount of advantage from the air circulating between the ceiling and the roof. With ceilings on either of the above plans, there is no reason why the louvre boards should not be made fixtures, even in stables intended for horses doing very fast work, such as hunting or racing. But if the owner likes to go to the expense, and can trust the discretion of his servants, there is no mechanical difficulty in making the louvre boards to open and shut. Either side may then be closed or left open according to the wind and other circumstances. But, for the ordinary class of horse in ordinary work fixed louvres are to be preferred in most situations. Where, however, stables are built in very exposed or bleak situations, or where there is a strong prevailing wind, it may be neces- sary to board up one side of the louvre ridge. Ceilings, such as those proposed, are unquestionably advantageous for all horses, and their adoption or otherwise is simply a question of expense. The increased cost per horse in building a stable will be about £5. 15. Ventilation of stables with rooms over them. The foregoing suggestions for louvre ventilation have been made on the supposition that there are no rooms or lofts over the stables. If it is desired to have rooms or lofts over the stable, as is generally the case in towns where the ground is valuable, the means of egress for foul air, though it need not be bad, yet must necessarily be inferior to that described above. Air-shafts lined with zinc and running through the roof into the external air are the best substitutes for louvre ventilation. The open- ings into the air will require to be protected by a cowl at the top, and a board should be placed about six inches below the bottom of the air-shaft with the view of breaking up and diffusing any occasional downcast draught. There should be one shaft of twenty-four inches in diameter for every two horses. It is scarcely of much use to make any recommendations as to the position of the air-shafts in a stable, where there are rooms above, because they must necessarily be fixed with reference to the convenience of the inmates of those rooms. If there are only lofts, the shafts may be placed on both sides ; or one set of shafts of double size may be placed along the centre. A board should be placed about six inches below the bottom of each air-shaft with the view of breaking and diffusing any occasional downcast current. In other respects the addition of rooms or lofts over the stable need not occasion any alteration in the construction recommended in Plans G, H, and L. 10 CHAPTER 1. Neither lofts nor rooms should communicate directly with the stable. If a loft used for storing hay or corn communicates with the stable, the food will become tainted with the emanations rising from below, and the health of the animals will suffer. If rooms communicate with the stable, the health of the inmates, especially children, will suffer. 16. Paving. The material required for really good paving must be non-absorbent, watertight, easily cleaned, durable, and not slippery. It is not, how- ever, easy to find a material which combines all these requirements. Most materials, in proportion as they answer the first-named require- ments, fail in the last. Granite cubes, 6 inches deep are by far the most durable. The first cost, however, is great, and they have the disadvantage of be- coming slippery after a time, but at some little expense they can be re- roughened by the chisel. As the substance of the stone is homogeneous throughout they will stand re-cutting without injury. The cavalry stables at Aldershot, which were laid down with granite cubes nearly 40 years ago, are still in use. Hard-burnt bricks, known by various names in different localities (blue, iron, vitrified, adamantine, clinkers, &c.), are also much used, and are much cheaper than granite. The best come from Staffordshire. They are very good at first, but it is impossible to bake the brick equally hard throughout ; and hence, when the outer face is chipped or other- wise worn through, this sort of paving very rapidly wears into holes. With the view of diminishing their slipperiness, it is the custom to indent the bricks with transverse as well as longitudinal channels. But this practice is most objectionable because the transverse channels cannot be swept out thoroughly, and consequently they retain a portion of the urine and debris of the dung and bedding. Stalls paved with transverse cut bricks are seldom, if ever, sweet. (Fig. No. 1.) 16a. Drains and Paving. If granite cubes are used, the drainage is almost necessarily confined to one drain down the centre of each stall. This is a disadvantage. If bricks are used, the best results will be gained (in the Author's opinion) by longitudinal drains, one drain in each brick. See Plate 7. Each channel should be 1J inches wide, and f of an inch deep. This paving will give sufficient foothold, as the channels are crossways to the horse when he turns round. These longitudinal channels have the advantage that they can be swept perfectly clean without extra trouble to the servant, and they also afford drainage to every portion of the stall. It will be observed that the channel is formed in the centre of the surface of the brick. The channel must be V-shaped. If round at the bottom the urine will not drain off. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 11 Great care should be taken to get bricks of the very best quality. The best bricks at a somewhat higher price are cheaper in the end than an inferior article at a lower price. In order to prevent the percolation of urine through the interstices of the stones or bricks into the ground below, it is essential that all paving should be laid in cement. Of late years various kinds of Concretes and Cements have been tried for paving. They, as long as they remain perfect, have the great advan- tage that no urine can percolate through and foul the ground underneath. This advantage is so great and so essential to health, that the author has no hesitation in recommending them. In all paving, whatever be the material used, the work must be very carefully executed under close supervision by an architect or competent foreman, or the result will be failure. The cost of making the substructure cannot be stated with any accu- racy, as it will vary very widely according to the cost of the necessary material in the neighbourhood. Care must be taken to get the materials from a thoroughly trust- worthy firm. All paving requires to be laid on a substantial bed of concrete 6 inches thick, and the concrete itself should rest on a bed of broken stones 12 inches deep. No paving will long stand the great moving weight of horses unless it has a sound unyielding substructure. No paving, whatever the material employed, will be really sweet and dry unless the whole of the bedding is removed from the stable at the morning stable hour and turned outside. The paving must then be swept thoroughly clean and left to the drying and purifying influence of the air until the horses are dressed after their return from the morning exercise, when they may be bedded down again. Every door and window in the stable should be set open whilst the horses are at exercise. 166. Litter sheds. A shed should be provided for the protection of the litter in wet weather. This shed should be apart from, though near, the stable. If placed against the stable wall the fumes arising from the litter will enter the stable through windows. Again, though this may by care be avoided, the litter generally blocks up the lower ventilating apertures. In fine weather the litter should be spread out in the open, when it will, if turned over twice during the morning, get thoroughly aired and dried. 17. Floor of the stable to be higher than the ground outside. The floor of a new stable should be made eight inches higher than the ground outside. We name this considerable elevation, partly be- cause it facilitates natural and surface drainage, and in some degree 12 CHAPTER 1. secures the stable from damp, partly on account of the tendency of new floors to sink, and still more on account of the probability of the soil outside becoming higher from constant gravelling or repairs. It is a fact easily to be observed that the floors of most old stables are lower than the ground outside, though it is improbable that such was the original construction. A pavement about 16 feet wide along the front of the stable is a very convenient annex for many purposes and especially for spreading out the bedding. 18. Drainage. Surface drains are the best for stables. Each stall should drain into the main drain, which should run well behind the heel-posts so that the bedding should not get into it. When the main drain gets outside the stable, it should be continued as a surface drain for ten feet, after which it may be safely discharged into an underground drain. A considerable amount of space between the stable and the point of underground discharge is desirable in order to prevent any effluvia from the underground drain, which is often more or less choked, from reaching the stable. It is also useful in preventing solid matter from being carried into the underground drain. The distance, in fact, acts as a kind of natural trap. The channel of the main drain should be open, saucer-shaped, of smooth material, impervious to moisture, and with as few joints as possible. Vitrified tiles, sometimes called gutter bricks, or slabs of stone chiselled to the proper shape, set in cement, or wide open wrought iron conduits answer exceedingly well. Cast iron conduits frequently break under the treading of the horses, and are a constant source of annoyance. Narrow iron pipes, almost closed at the upper side, such as are generally used, do not answer, because they very readily become choked, and in fact require to be cleaned out with a picker every morning, a duty which is apt to be neglected. For the drain in the stall a fall of 1 in 80 will be required ; and the same for the main drain in the rear of the stall. Any collection of debris in the channel, and any consequent tendency of urine or water to lodge, can easily be cleared away by the broom. At its starting-point the level of the main drain should be but very little below the surface of the floor, but its depth must necessarily increase towards the outfall. In long stables undue depth of the main drain may be avoided by making it fall from the centre to both ends of the stable. 18«. Underground drains. Of course it is possible to utilise underground drains. But as a prac- tical fact the best plan is to take up the drains, re-make the soil, and adopt surface drainage. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 13 186. Health without drains. It is a practical fact that stables can be sweet and the horses healthy without any drains at all. From various reasons — level of ground, sur- rounding buildings, 2 or 3 tiers of horses, etc. — it may be impossible to drain the stables. The main factor in this system is moss litter aided by abundance of fresh air and cleanliness. Every morning every atom of the bedding, which is wet or otherwise tainted is removed from the stable. The rest is raked to the sides and front of each stall. The floor is then thoroughly swept down and exposed to the air until the horses are bedded down. If the tainted litter is wholly thrown away, 50 Ib. per horse per week will be required. If the litter is dried and used again, 30 Ib. to 40 Ib. may be sufficient. Experience for several years past has abundantly shown that the health of horses can be maintained under this system, if it is thoroughly carried out. 19. Slope of stalls. Horses undoubtedly stand most comfortably on a perfect level, and any slope more than absolutely necessary for drainage purposes is decidedly objectionable. Any great degree of slope is positively injurious, because it throws an undue stress on the hind quarters and also on the flexor tendons of the fore-legs by reason of the toe being more elevated than the heel. 20. Site of stables. The well-bred horse is a native of a dry country, and loves dryness. In damp he soon loses all life and spirits, and becomes debilitated. Disease of any sort is very apt to supervene on debility. The site of every stable should be deeply thorough-drained. The soil selected should, if possible, be gravel. The situation should be mode- rately high, open, and with facilities for natural drainage. Bleak situa- tions are not desirable. Buildings in the immediate neighbourhood, if high, are objectionable. The ordinary custom of erecting stables and coach-houses round three sides of a square is not the best. The air always hangs more or less in any such almost enclosed space. 21. Aspect of stables. A northern aspect is cold and cheerless, whilst a southern aspect is often unduly hot in summer. In stables with windows on both sides east and west aspects will, as a general rule, be found most advantageous. The one side will have the morning, and the other the afternoon sun. There should be a door at each end or in the middle on each side, as may be most convenient to the particular locality. Either door can then be used according to the circumstances of the weather and wind. If the stable is very large, it is desirable to have doors both at the sides and ends. 14 CHAPTER 1. 22. Walls and foundations. The material used in building will of course depend on the cost in the particular locality. If the maintenance of an even temperature be an object, the walls ought to be thick, and they may also be plastered on the inside. But, except for such special purpose, nothing answers so well for the inside of the stable as glazed bricks of any neutral tint. If they cannot be procured, the inside walls should be well pointed and neutral-tint washed. A stable such as that shown in plan G, where the horses stand in double line with a broad passage down the centre, will need walls of fourteen inches thick, if built in brick, on account of the rather wide span and consequent weight of the roof. But single line stables on a similar plan will not require more than a nine-inch wall. The foundations should be laid on slates, or on two courses of hard bricks set in cement, or in asphalte in order to prevent the damp from rising by capillary attraction. New stables should be well and thoroughly aired and dried before they are inhabited. 23. Light. Ventilation, paving, drainage and sufficient cubical space, such as recommended above, will render it possible to obtain almost perfect purity of air both by day and night. But light and the supervision of the owner are likewise necessary in order to ensure cleanliness, and the best stable management. Windows, such as those described, will undoubtedly give more light than is found in most stables, and probably sufficient for the mainten- ance of the health of the eyes. But the best light for the purpose of supervision is that introduced vertically from the roof. It shows the sides and corners of the stable, and enables the cleanliness or otherwise of every part to be seen at once. In unceiled stables, a row of glass " slates " can be introduced without expense in the original construction of the roof ; and if placed on the north side will not cause an undue glare. Skylights in other aspects are open to the objection, that during certain hours of the day, especially during summer, they cause an undue glare, and the rays of the sun fall directly on the bodies of the horses. This may be rectified by white-washing the glass. Details as regards various sorts of windows will be given under the head of Stable Fittings, Chapter III. 24. Open fireplaces. The horse in a state of nature attains his highest physical development in a warm dry climate, as in Arabia. In cold climates, in Shetland for instance, the breed dwindles down to a pony. In wet and moderately VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 15 warm pastures, such as Flanders, the horse grows large and coarse. In cold wet climates the horse is not, we believe, found in the wild state. Warmth and dryness we may therefore assume are needed for the development of the best powers of the animal, though the former is not essential to his health. The Shetland pony is perfectly healthy, hardy, and enduring. Pure air and freedom from positive damp will be obtained by the plans of building already recommended, and a fairly even temperature by night and day may be maintained, if thick walls and ceilings are also adopted in the construction; but sufficient warmth and perfect dryness will be wanting during many days and nights in the course of the year in this climate. Clothing will do much to supply the animal's body with warmth, exercise and grooming with high feeding will do more ; but none of these will raise the temperature of the stable, or get rid of the moisture inherent in the air in this country on certain days and in certain seasons. If the matter rested here, it would not signify much — the coat might stare a little, the food might be to a certain degree wasted in maintain- ing the heat of the system instead of producing flesh, and the general condition might be somewhat lower than it would be under perfectly favourable conditions of warmth and dryness. But the matter does not rest here. The groom will have the stable warm, whilst probably from ignorance he will not object to its being moist or even damp and foul. He will stop the egress of the foul moist heated air produced by respiration, and also the ingress of cold fresh air ; and by these means, aided by the caloric loaded with impurities given off by the breath and bodies of the animals, he will raise the air to the desired temperature. In some cases he will crowd an additional number of animals into the stable in winter on the plea that they will keep each other warm. The air, however, will be foul and moist, not pure and dry, such as the well bred horse loves. As a matter of fact the groom is quite right in desiring warmth for the horses under his charge ; and any owner of horses will do well to meet his views by supplying the stable during the latter part of the autumn, winter, and early spring, with heat artificially generated, such as that produced by open fires. Open fires, though somewhat more expensive, are better than stoves or hot air or hot water apparatus, because they assist and promote ventilation. There is really no good reason why the owner of valuable horses should grudge the expense of open fireplaces. A grate is not an expensive article, nor will coals form any material addition to the expense of a hunting or racing establish- ment. The horses will gain in health and condition far more than is counterbalanced by the trifling extra cost. 25. Dimensions and cost. Six feet is a fair average width for stall, but very large horses require 16 CHAPTER 1. an extra foot. The length of the stalls should be 11 feet inclusive of the heel-post. If the stable be 16 feet, which is a fair average width, it will be best to allot 11 feet to a stall, and 5 feet to the passage. The height of the walls from the floor to the spring of the roof should be twelve feet. In order to give this height in the inside, after allowing for the floor being raised 8 inches above the ground outside, the walls will really require to be 12 feet 8 inches, as shown in plan H. The pitch of the roof should be somewhat steep. A height of one half the breadth gives a fair pitch. Plan H. Flattened roofs, though they may cost a little less in the original outlay, are a constant source of trouble and expense. The dimensions, which are shown in plan G with an unceiled open roof, will give about 1700 cubic feet per horse. With a ceiling placed close along the roof as in plan I, there will be 1660 cubic feet, and with a ceiling placed as in plan K 1030 cubic feet per horse, exclusive of the air circulating between the ceiling and the roof. 26. Cheaper construction of stables. All horses, even though the commonest, equally need for the main- tenance of health the essential requirements of good ventilation, paving, drainage, light, cleanliness, and sufficient cubical space ; though they do not equally need warmth and the maintenance of an even temperature. It becomes, therefore, necessary to consider how the essentials can best be retained, whilst the cost is reduced. Louvre boards demand a certain amount of extra strength in the roof, and are also in themselves a somewhat considerable item of expense. In lieu of them the crown tile may be simply raised along the whole length of the ridge of the roof. The ventilation, though inferior to that given by louvre boards, will be fairly good, and the plan is much cheaper. In a stable intended only for cart or other horses doing slow work much expense may be saved by making use of felt instead of slates or tiles for the roof. Good felt properly tarred every third year will last about twenty years. Corrugated iron may also be used. It has the advan- tage of being incombustible. But on the other hand, it is hot in summer and cold in winter. As the timbers necessary to carry these light materials need not be at all strong, they will require to be supported by posts in the centre. These posts can be furnished with brackets, and thus conveniently made available for hanging up harness. Again, boarded partitions between stalls are by no means essential. A bale hung by a rope is sufficient. The windows, instead of being hung or made to drop back, can be simply made to open on a pivot in the centre. Economy may be also practised, according to local circumstances, in the material used for the walls. In some places, where the nature of the soil affords facilities for making it, concrete may be used, and much money saved. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 17 Good paving, good drainage, and ample light, and ventilation are essentials in stables of any class ; and the author thinks that any saving which entailed deficiency in these points would be very ill-judged. 27. Loose Soxes (see Par, 38). 27 'a. Ventilation and Draughts. Loose Boxes and Stalls. Whilst a constant supply of fresh air is essential to health, draughts are most objectionable. The question is how to supply a sufficient amount of fresh air without a draught in some part or other of a stall or loose box. This trouble has puzzled all human ingenuity in public halls, where every part of the hall is occupied ; and probably the desired end, namely, the admission of fresh air without draught in some part or other of the hall cannot be achieved. There must be a draught ; the real question is, how to get out of it ? In a stall, where the horse is tied up, and practically in a fixed position, he may not be able to get out of it ; but in a loose box the horse can get out of it, and he has instinct enough, or call it sense enough, if you will, to do so (always provided he is not tied up). For this reason, and almost for this reason alone, the author has no hesitation in recommending loose boxes in preference to stalls. 276. Constant attention needed to Ventilation. Our climate is very variable, and therefore the amount of ventilation in a stable requires to be adjusted not once a day, but constantly throughout the day. A good servant will look to this most important point, especially if he find his master takes an interest in it. 28. Argument against the need of Ventilation , &c. In opposition to the views, which have been expressed above as to the paramount necessity of ventilation, light, cleanliness, drainage, and suffi- cient cubical space, it is often urged that the great majority of horses get on without them. To this we reply, first, that the average amount of sickness and mor- tality among horses is far greater than it need be under more rational treatment and management ; and, secondly, that though the horse in common with other animals, and indeed with man, has a certain power of adapting himself to the circumstances in which he may be placed, yet it is evident that the conditions of nature ought to be followed as nearly as possible. Animal life is always most perfectly developed, and its functions best performed by conforming to those conditions. 18 CHAPTER 1. 29. Conclusion. Much more, however, than these primary essentials are needed to ensure health and condition in the domesticated horse. Careful atten- tion to diet, grooming, exercise and general good stable management must be added. IMPROVEMENT OF STABLES OF FAULTY CONSTRUCTION. 19 CHAPTER 2. IMPROVEMENT OF STABLES OF FAULTY CONSTRUCTION. 30. Ventilation. 31. Paving. 32. Light. 33. Deficient space. 34. Con- clusion. 30. Ventilation. THE recommendations which have been made in the preceding chapter in regard to the construction of new stables would be incomplete without some suggestions for the improvement of defective buildings. In our suggestions we shall endeavour to carry out, as far as circumstances admit, the principles laid down above. For illustrations of plans of bad construction the reader is referred to plans A, B, C, D, E, and F in the preceding chapter. All such stables, unless surrounding buildings interfere, may be radically improved by making windows on both sides along the whole length, and by making an aperture under each manger, and inserting in it an air brick. If, however, as is often the case in towns, circumstances, or perhaps the covenants of the lease, even though no buildings interfere, prohibit the making of windows, apertures nine by six inches should be inserted in the wall near the ceiling on both sides ; or, if no aperture can be made, air bricks should be inserted in the front wall. If surrounding buildings or other circumstances prevent the possibility of making apertures along the length of the wall, an air flue with an aperture of four and a half inches by three under the mangers should be carried along the whole length of the stable ; and another air flue with apertures of double the size, or nine inches by six, should be carried along close to the ceiling. The size of the outlet air flues must be the sum of the combined areas of the apertures, and will, therefore, vary according to the number of the horses in the stable. It is absolutely necessary that each air flue should open at both ends directly into the external air. The exterior openings must be protected by perforated zinc, to prevent excessive draught. Ventilation by means of louvre boards along the ridge of the roof should also be provided in every case, where rooms over the stables do not prevent its adoption. Where rooms interfere, air shafts of two feet in diameter, in the proportion of one shaft for every two horses, should be carried up through the ceiling and intervening rooms to the outside of 20 CHAPTER 2. the roof. A board should be placed about six inches below the bottom of each air shaft to break and diffuse the draught ; and the top of the shaft should be protected by a cowl. When merely a loft intervenes, it should be removed, or at least thrown open in the centre, and proper ventilation and light thus secured through the roof. If the owner objects to the expense of any such alterations, he may at least have ventilating panes put in the windows and gratings in the doors, or insist on the windows being left partially open both by day and night. Nothing answers better than cutting two inches off the bottom and one inch off the top of the door. The horses' coats may suffer from the amount of air thus rudely introduced by this latter plan, but their health will improve. 31. Paving. Good paving is essential to health. It may always be obtained, even in the oldest stable, at a certain expense. Advantage, unless the stable is very deficient in height, may also be taken of the repaving to raise the floor, and thus secure the possibility of good surface drainage. 32. Light. If the light is deficient, it is very important, both for the sake of cleanliness as well as for the health of the eyes, to improve it. The question of the best means of introducing light is so mixed up with the nature of the surrounding buildings, that it is difficult to make any suggestions which will be practically useful. Vertical light, when it can be obtained, is by far the best. 33. Deficient space. If the cubical space per horse is insufficient, the simple remedy is to diminish the number of horses in the stable. Twelve hundred cubic feet has been already stated to be a sufficient allowance in a well venti- lated, well paved, drained, and cleanly kept stable ; but if these acces- sories are wanting, a much larger amount of space should be allowed. 34. Conclusion. Finally, in every stable, however ill constructed, much may be done by keeping the doors and windows open as much as possible and by scrupu- lous cleanliness. STABLE FITTINGS. 21 CHAPTER 3. STABLE FITTINGS. 35. Size of stalls, partitions, &c. 350. Breadth of passage behind horses. 36. Inside walls. 37. Doors. 38. Loose boxes. 39. Latches. 40. Slides or bolts. 41. Hinges. 42. Collar ropes or chains, and logs. 43. Casting in the stall. 44. Head collars and neck straps. 45. Foot-fastenings. 46. Muzzles. 47. Mangers. 48. -H#2/ racks. 49. Forage stores and lofts. 50. Paving, slope of stalls, and drainage. 51. TFwcZows. 52. Slings. 35. $i3e o/ Stalls, Partitions, &c. FOR stalls divided by partitions a width of six feet is desirable for horses of the ordinary size ; whilst for large carriage horses seven feet should be allowed. The length should be 11 feet including the heel post. The passage behind should be 5 feet. The heel post, into which the partition is in- serted, should be rounded off, so as to be as little likely as possible to injure the horse if he kicks against it. A height of seven feet and a half should be given to the upper end of the partition, in order to prevent the horses from biting at each other, whilst five and a half feet will be sufficient for the remainder. Both in order that the horses may see each other, and that the current of air through the stable may be as little impeded as possible, the extra height of the upper end should be made of open iron-work of any ornamental pattern. Straight iron railings do not answer, as horses are apt to catch at them with their teeth. The boarding of the partitions should not be continued within 6 inches of the wall. The interval or open space will act beneficially by allowing the air to circulate freely along the back wall of the stable. With a like view to ventilation, and also in order to preserve the wood- work from the injurious effect of damp, an interval of two inches should be left between the bottom of the partition and the floor of the stable. Oak is the best material for the boarding of partitions, but it is expensive. Good red deal, one and a quarter inch thick, answers very well, and is comparatively cheap. For stables divided by bales a width of five feet six inches is sufficient, though six feet are preferable. It is essential that the mode of hanging the bale should be such that it may be easily unhooked in case the horse gets cast. Where each horse is of great value the owner will naturally wish to guard himself against the risk of one horse kicking another by putting 22 CHAPTER 3. partitions between the stalls ; but in a sanitary point of view bales are preferable, both because they interfere less with the circulation of air through the stable and because the stable is more easily swept out and kept clean. On the other hand, horses lie down much more in boxes than between bales. 3 5 a. Breadth of passage 'behind Horses. Horses are tied to the manger, and cannot get further back than the collar ropes allow. Therefore, if the long partitions recommended above are used, the width of the passage may be reduced to the same extent as the partitions are lengthened. With long partitions five feet will be sufficient breadth for the passage in single-line stables, and eight feet in double. If short partitions are used, six and a half feet will be required in single-line stables and nine feet in double lines. 36. Inside Walls. Glazed bricks are the best material for the inside of walls. They may be obtained in most localities at a price very little exceeding that of ordinary bricks. They have the great advantage of not absorbing the moisture or other emanations of the stable, and may be kept clean and nice-looking for years by simply washing with water. If ordinary bricks are used for the wall, it will be an advantage to put glazed China tiles over the manger, as that part of the wall otherwise soon looks dirty and black. If the cement with which they are fastened is good they answer well. If the expense of either such fittings is objected to, a plain well-pointed brick wall, which can be grey-washed as often as need be, answers better than plaster or woodwork. The latter, indeed, is objectionable, especially over the manger, as horses are apt to gnaw it, and dirt and vermin may harbour in and behind it. 37. Doors. The doors of many modern stables are hung on iron bars above, and are made to traverse to the side. In situations where room is an object, this fitting is advantageous ; but for ordinary purposes the common door, which is more easily shut and therefore less likely to be left open, is pre- ferable. Doors should be four and a half feet wide and at least eight feet in height. Horses are apt to be startled on going into or coming out of stables, and then sometimes throw up their heads ; and if the door is low may strike them against the lintel, and may in consequence ever after be shy in entering or leaving the stable. Stable doors which do not traverse should be divided into two equal portions, except in sick boxes, where for reasons given in the next para- graph the height of the lower part should not exceed three feet six inches. As a rule, stable doors should open outwards, and should be STABLE FITTINGS. 23 furnished with a catch in the wall to prevent their swinging to suddenly in windy weather. 38. Loose Boxes. Many modern stables are divided into boxes instead of stalls. The plan has many advantages, principally because the horses can stand out of a draught. Most of us know the extreme discomfort of sitting in draught, and the risk of colds, coughs, and rheumatism. Ten feet six inches square are quite sufficient for stable loose boxes, and the difference of expense in building a stable is but small. The two end boxes, if more room is thought desirable, can be, without cost, enlarged by taking in the passage at each end. The doors of loose boxes should always open outwards or traverse to the side. A door fitted with the ordinary latch, if it opens inwards, may occasion a serious accident, such as an injury to the eye, if the horse happens to be standing near it when it is suddenly opened. But such loose boxes are no substitute for detached loose boxes, which should always be provided for sick horses. Stable boxes share the common air of the stable ; but those intended for sick animals require purer air than is commonly found in a stable, and, moreover, they generally need to be kept at a lower temperature than is desirable for horses in full work. It is not advantageous to make sick boxes over-large. Twelve feet by fourteen with a height of twelve feet is sufficient. In addition to the usual manger and hay rack, loose boxes intended for sick horses should be provided with a staple fixed in the wall about two feet six inches from the ground, on which a pail may be hung. Sick horses carry their heads low and always prefer to feed near the ground. For sick boxes, when the door is on hinges and divided into two parts, the lower portion should not exceed three feet six inches in height. If higher, a sick horse who stands with his head drooped down may not be able to get it over the door so as to enjoy the fresh air. A bar, however, should be provided to go across the upper half, as otherwise horses, especially young ones, are apt to try and jump out. It is essential that this bar be placed sufficiently high above the half door to allow the horse to get his head in and out easily between it and the door. If the space is narrow, an accident may occur to the animal in drawing back his head, if he happens to get frightened. If a traversing door is used, three bars will be needed so as to enable it to be left open. For sick boxes, however, the ordinary door divided into two parts is decidedly preferable, because the lower half shelters the patient's legs from draught, whilst he can put his nostrils over it. 39. Latches. All latches are in some degree objectionable. In all, though so rounded off as to reduce the chance of an accident to a minimum, there is a possi- bility that a rein or stirrup leather may catch in them when the horse is 24 CHAPTEll 3. led in or out of the stable. A pattern of a very cheap but serviceable latch is given in Plate 8. 40. Slides or Bolts. Slides or bolts, if counter-sunk and furnished with a flush-bolt on both sides, are in some respects preferable to the best latches. The groove, however, in which the bolts work, requires to be kept oiled and free from dust and other debris. 41. Hinges. The only really serviceable hinges for large doors are those of the old- fashioned T-pnttern, such as until lately were rarely seen except on old church doors. Doors on such hinges will generally hang true for years, whilst the hinge itself adds to the strength of the door by bracing and binding it together. 42. Collar ropes or chains, and Logs. The rope should be just long enough to allow the horse to lie down comfortably. Any greater length is objectionable. As an ordinary rule the log should just reach the ground when the horse is standing near his manger. If longer than this the rope or chain will become slack in the portion between the collar and 'the manger, and then the horse may get his foot over it. If shorter it will interfere with the convenience of the animal in lying down. A rather heavy log should be used, which by its weight may assist in keeping the rope in a state of tension. The horse may be relieved of the weight of the log by placing a large ring or T on the rope immediately above the manger ring. The manger ring should be large, so that the rope may run easily and freely through it. The practice of tying the rope to the ring of the manger is very objectionable, and is a frequent cause of accident. Chains, though not often used in private stables, are safer than ropes, because their weight, especially when assisted by a rather heavy log, prevents any liability to become slack. The principal objection to chains is the noise made by the animals drawing them through the rings of the manger. Ropes are preferable to leather straps, both because horses are less apt to gnaw them and because being round they run more easily through the manger ring. They are also cheaper. In some stables the stall is boarded up flush with the front of the manger, and the lower part of the rope then runs behind the boarding. An accident may occasionally be prevented by this arrangement ; but the extra boarding seriously interferes with the current of air through the stable, and dirt and dust are apt to accumulate behind the boarding. Horses, which are given to bite their neighbours, or are apt to turn round in their stalls, should be secured by a rope or chain on both sides of the manger. STABLE FITTINGS. 25 43. Casting in the stall. Casting in the stall generally arises from the animal getting his legs entangled in the rope. This accident will rarely happen, where due care is taken in regard to the length of the rope, and the use of a log is insisted on. Casting occasionally arises from the horse endeavouring to turn or roll in his stall. In such cases fastening on both sides, as recommended in the previous paragraph, will be found useful. If any particular horse acquires a habit of rolling, and in consequence fre- quently gets cast, he had better be kept in a loose box. 44. Head collars and neck straps. Some horses are very difficult to secure at night by head collars. All, however, may be effectually fastened by means of a neck strap. A horse cannot slip a neck strap drawn to the proper degree of tightness, because the circle of the strap round his neck is less than that required to go over his head. The objection to neck straps is the injury which they cause to the mane. Of head collars the best are those which approach most nearly to the principle of a neck strap. The great point in fitting a head collar is to take care that the back strap is long enough to come close up against the throat. Again, the neck strap should not pass over the crown of the head collar, but through a loop attached in rear of it. The strap round the neck will then be so short, without being unduly tight, that the horse cannot easily get it over his head. See Plate 8. 45. Foot-fastenings. Horses, which break or slip their collars, may all be effectually secured by a strap buckled round one of the fore fetlocks and attached to a peg driven fast into the ground. The strap should be about 12 inches long. It is a practical fact that this fastening will hold almost any horse. A few horses may pull against it for a few days, and perhaps make the fetlock sore. The strap in such case may be shifted to the other fetlock. Almost all horses, however, after a few pulls find themselves powerless, and give up with a good grace the attempt at getting loose. 46. Muzzles. A really good muzzle is yet a desideratum in stable economy. It is difficult to combine free ingress and egress of air with closeness sufficient to prevent a greedy horse sucking in hay and straw. Wire muzzles interfere but little with the breathing ; but some horses break even the best of them, whilst most succeed in sucking in a certain amount of hay and straw through them. Leather muzzles are objection- able, because they interfere with the egress of the air. Those made of straps of leather are less injurious than solid leather with air holes. A nose band fitted on the collar by closing the mouth answers as well as anything. The horse, it will be remembered, breathes through his 26 CHAPTER 3. nostrils. But this contrivance, though effectual as a temporary remedy, would be uncomfortable to the animal for any length of time. The best mode of tackling a greedy feeder is to bed him down with saw-dust, peat moss, or some material, which he cannot eat. 47. Mangers. Mangers should be made somewhat deeper than the usual pattern, and with a slight lip on the inside, so as to prevent the horse from spilling his corn, which he is apt to do, especially when it is mixed with chaff. A cross bar placed near each end will answer the same purpose ; but it is in some degree objectionable, because it interferes with the thorough and easy cleaning of the manger. Mangers should be made without corners or angles in which dirt can lodge. The material should be non-absorbent. Slabs of glazed fire brick answer well, and in places where the locality affords the material, are very cheap. Iron mangers are used in barracks and answer exceedingly well. 48. Hay Eacls. Many in the present day object to the ordinary hay rack placed above the horse's head. It is certainly not the natural position for food, but the low rack has the disadvantage that the horse may injure himself by getting his foot or head into it. To render such an accident as little likely as possible, the low rack should be made shallow and without any projecting rim on the inside of the upper bar. Again, with low racks the horse is apt to pull out all the hay, in order to choose the best locks, and then the remainder gets trodden under his feet. The author is inclined to think that the old is the best. 49. Forage stores and lofts. Forage is best kept in a building detached from, though near to the stable. Where a loft over the stable, as is usually the case in towns, is used for the purpose of storing forage, care should be taken that there is no direct communication between it and the stable. Nothing can well be more objectionable than tainting the food with the emanations of the stable. 50. Paving, slope of stalls, and drainage. These important questions have already been considered at length in the latter part of the first chapter in reference to the construction of stables. 51. Windows. Ample light is essential to the health of the eyes. Light is indeed food and exercise to them. Without ample light the eyes cannot be. STABLE FITTINGS. 27 strong. If they are altogether deprived of light, the optic nerve becomes paralysed and blindness is the result. Again, ample light is essential to the cleanliness of the stable. A dark stable may be dirty without the owner finding it out, and, in good truth, most dark stables are dirty, and a dirty stable must be unhealthy. Both eyes and lungs are especially liable to injury from the gases produced by impurity. There is an idea that horses put on flesh more rapidly in a dark than in a light stable. It may be so, and it is certain that dealers generally keep their stables somewhat dark. But the main object of the dealer in doing so is, we suspect, to show his horses off to the best advantage to a customer. Horses brought suddenly from comparative darkness into light do not see well at first, and therefore step high in order to avoid possible obstacles in the way. The defective vision so occasioned will scarcely be pleaded as an advantage except for a special purpose such as the above. Windows, as distinguished from skylights, are intended for purposes of ventilation as well as for giving light. Skylights, however, can be made to open. Air bricks and ventilating openings are all very well in their way, but for all real freshness in stables there is nothing like windows wide open whenever the weather admits. Whenever the horses are out at exercise, every door and window should be set wide open. Four sorts of windows are commonly used in stables of the better class, namely, 1st, the ordinary sash windows, which, if furnished with ropes and pulleys, so as to let down easily from the top, answer well enough. They are, however, open to the objection, that a direct draught may come on the horses, and on this account it is often necessary to close them altogether at night and in cold windy weather. A couple of panes of perforated glass are useful in such windows. 2nd. Windows, which turn on a pivot, in the centre. These may be set open to any required degree. They are the cheapest construction, and answer well enough, especially where many small windows are used ; but they are in some degree open to the objection of causing a direct draught on the horses. 3rd. Windows, which do not open wholly, but are furnished with glass louvres, are used in some stables. They are objectionable, inas- much as they are not calculated to admit a sufficient amount of air. 4th. Windows working on hinges at the bottom, as shown in the plan annexed, may be made to open to any required degree. They offer every advantage. They afford ample ventilation, and yet do not throw a direct draught on the horses. They should be blocked, so as to prevent their closing within six inches at the top. As no direct draught can come on the horses, when they are closed to this degree, the author thinks that no injurious result can ever arise from their being left open to the above degree at all times and seasons. Plate 8. When a stable is furnished, as recommended above, with windows on 28 CHAPTER 4. both sides, the sort of window to be adopted is not very material, because the requisite amount of fresh air can at all times be obtained from the windows on the lee side without causing an injurious amount of draught. 52. Slings. A set of slings is a useful adjunct in a stable. When due and con- stant care is used in their adjustment and frequent readjustment, they are calculated to give great relief in some cases of severe injury ; but without such care, they often do more harm than good. CHAPTER 4. WATERING AND FEEDING. 53. Course of the food. 54. Course of water. 55. Small size of stomach. 56. How often is it necessary to feed? 57. Best limes for feeding. 58. Regularity desirable in the hours of feeding. 59. Necessity of good forage. 60. Of watering. 61. Quantity of water to be given at one time. 62. Horses to be watered before being fed. 63. No objection to watering horses when warm. 64. Dirty v. clean water. Hard v. soft water. 65. Scouring. 66. Delicate feeders. 53. Course of the food. IT may be useful in the first instance to trace very briefly the course of food from its reception by the mouth to its final evacuation. Food is gathered by the lips and front teeth. It is worked about by the tongue and cheeks, and is carried by their action to the back teeth or grinders, which by a lateral and slightly rotatory motion of the lower jaw reduce it to a pulp. During this process it is mixed freely with the saliva and mucous secretions of the glands of the mouth. Saliva is essential to the due preparation of the food for digestion. When it is sufficiently prepared, it is" passed on in portions by the action of the muscles of the tongue to the oesophagus or gullet, and thence to the stomach. The stomach is a pouch lined for about one third of its surface with a dense cuticular membrane, and the remaining two thirds is lined with a soft reddish villous mucous membrane. The muscular coat of the stomach is furnished with three layers of fibres, namely, the circular, longitudinal, and oblique. By the action of WATERING AND FEEDING. 29 these three series of muscles the food is rotated over the cuticular and villous linings of the stomach ; whilst by the secretions of the softer or villous lining it is supplied with a fluid called the gastric juice, which is essential to the further process of digestion. The food at this stage is called chyme. The action of the muscular coat producing rotation of the food is due to nervous influence ; but the immediate stimulus on the nervous system of the stomach is the food itself. When the stomach is quite empty, the rotatory motion ceases, and the pouch is then in a state of contraction and quiescence. During the successive rotations such portions of the food, as have become sufficiently soluble, are gradually pressed forward and passed on to the small intestines. In them it is further mixed with the secretions of the pancreas, liver, and intestinal glands. The admixture of these juices completes the preparation of the food, and it is now ready for absorption into the system. The process of absorption is effected in the following manner. The abdominal veins and the lacteal absorbent vessels of the intestinal linings take up from the food its nutritive parts, which in this state are called chyle. The chyle is carried by the absorbent vessels through the mesenteric glands into the thoracic duct, and by it is ultimately discharged into one of the large blood-vessels on the left side of the neck near the heart. It is by this constant admixture of material taken up from the food by the absorbents that the necessary supply of blood is maintained. From the blood thus maintained by the food are furnished the materials required for the maintenance and renewal of the body. The food supplies the blood, which in its turn supplies the body. To revert to the course of the food. When the veins and absorbents of the small intestines have taken up from the food its nutritive parts, the refuse is passed on to the large intestines. In them a further system of absorbents take up from the refuse whatever little nutriment may yet remain in it ; and the residuum, along with the waste products of the body excreted into the intestines, is cast forth by the anus as dung. Such is the preparation and course of the food. 54. Course of water. The course of water through the body is somewhat different from that of solid food. Water does not lodge in the stomach, but merely passes rapidly through it and the small intestines on its way to the caecum or blind gut, which may be considered as the real water stomach of the horse. The caecum, we may mention, is one of the large or lower intes- tines. From the caecum the water is gradually taken up by the veins and absorbents according to the requirements of the system, and poured into the large blood-vessels in the neighbourhood of the heart. Eventually, along with the effete or worn out nitrogenous matters and SO CHAPTER 4. certain salts, it is excreted partly from the lungs in the form of aqueous vapour, partly from the skin in the form of perspiration, and in larger and more notable quantities it is discharged from the body as urine through the medium of the kidneys. 55. Small size of the stomach. The capacity of the horse's stomach is small in comparison to his frame. He therefore requires to be fed frequently. In a state of nature the horse is almost constantly browsing, and yet it is rarely so full as to be unable to exert his power of flight. Convenience, however, of servants, and the hour at which we require the domesticated animal for work, must in some degree modify our times of feeding. 56. How often is it necessary to feed ? Experience has shown that it is sufficient to feed the horse three times a day. Less frequent feeding is decidedly objectionable. The corn should be divided into three portions, and the hay into two. It is best not to give any hay at the feed preceding the time at which the animal is likely to be required for work. He will do his work easier if his stomach is somewhat empty than if it is distended with hay. Hence, if a horse is used in the morning, the portion of hay should be omitted at the early feed, and reserved for midday and evening. If, on the other hand, he is required for work in the afternoon, he should get his hay in the morning and evening. Hunters, however, whose work occurs about the middle of the day, may with advantage, in the author's opinion, though he is aware it is not the usual practice, be allowed half their usual portion of hay along with their morning feed of corn. The same remark applies to troop horses, whose work generally does not begin before 9 a.m. "Cart horses, whose work is always slow, should be fed with hay three times a day. 57. Best times for feeding. Horses should not be fed, when heated, immediately after work. The stomach is not then in a good state for the proper digestion of the food. If the horse is exhausted, as may often occur with hunters after a long day's abstinence, a bucket of warm gruel, which is very easy of digestion, should be given at once ; but the corn should be withheld until the animal is cool and has been dressed. By that time, under the influence of the gruel and of the rest, the stomach will probably have recovered its tone. The best time for feeding as a general rule is at the close of each stable hour. The horse will then feed more quietly, comfortably, and more at his leisure than when servants are bustling about. Besides which many horses, if disturbed whilst feeding, are apt to knock about and spill their corn. WATERING AND FEEDING. 31 58. Regularity desirable in the hours of feeding. Regularity in the hours of feeding is a matter of some importance. Over-lengthened abstinence is for the structural reasons explained above in itself injurious ; and the mischief is often aggravated by the animal eating to excess when he gets his food. An over-hearty meal is hurtful at any time, but it is especially so when the stomach is weakened by long fasting. Undue pressure and irritation are the result, producing indigestion, and in some cases gastritis, colic, &c. 59. Necessity of good forage. It is absolutely necessary that the food supplied should be good and sound. Inferior or damaged forage of any sort, such as mouldy hay, damp or kiln-dried oats, or green meat kept till stale, or grazing on fouled ground, very readily produce intestinal disturbance or disease. Besides which we cannot expect to develop the best powers of the animal, unless we supply him liberally with the best nutriment. 60. Of watering. From feeding we pass on to watering. How often should horses be watered, and what quantity should be given at one time ? The anatomical structure of the horse may here guide our practice. The stomach or receptacle for solid food, as has been stated above, is very small, and consequently the horse requires to be fed frequently ; but the caecum or water gut, on the other hand, is very large. It is not uncommon, indeed, to see a horse drink two or even three pails of water at one time, and most of this passes tolerably direct to the caecum. Hence it is probable that he does not require to be watered often. In a state of nature, though no doubt the succulent nature of the food in part at least supplies the place or want of water, it would be impossible that all the horses on a large plain could be constantly down at the river side. It has been generally noticed in camps that horses standing in the open air, though fed on dry food, never drink more than twice and often only once in the day. But in stables it is certain that horses drink readily and are refreshed by being watered at least three or four times a day. It is not very difficult to conceive that the difference between the close warm atmosphere of a stable and the cool refreshing air of heaven may sufficiently account for this. Though, for the reasons given above, it is not at all necessary, yet there is no objection to horses having water constantly before them, — provided the water in the trough is wholly drained off and supplied afresh at each stable hour. 61. Quantity of water to be given at one time. Of the quantity of water to be given at one time, the horse himself is in general the best judge. Excepting in a few cases, such as where the horse is excessively hot or exhausted, or has from any cause been kept without water for an undue length of time, or where there is a tendency 32 OH APT Kit 4. to purgation or diuresis, the horse may safely be allowed to drink as much as he likes. 62. Horses to be watered before being fed. It is a cardinal rule in stable management that horses should be watered before being fed. The contrary practice is exceedingly likely to cause colic, otherwise called gripes. The reason of this is simple enough. Water does not remain in the stomach. It merely passes very rapidly through it on its way to the caecum. If the stomach is full, the water is very apt to carry with it from the stomach into the small intestines some portions of the food before it is properly prepared for transmission. Now undigested food, though natural to the stomach, in which it ought to be digested and prepared for transmission to the intestines, acts on the latter as a foreign body and produces irritation. 63. No objection to watering horses when ivarm. It is a somewhat singular fact that horses may be watered with safety almost immediately after their return from work, even though somewhat heated. Probably the friction from grooming, which takes place about the same time, prevents the occurrence of a chill. Many regiments water their horses on their way home from a field day, if a river or troughs are handy, and it is certain that no mischief results from the practice. Probably in this case the further slight exercise in returning home prevents mischief. There is less risk of chill from drinking cold water, when the body is still actively warm, than when the system has begun to flag. If, however, the horse is thoroughly tired and fagged, the water should be made slightly tepid, or a bucket of warm gruel may be given instead. In such cases there may not be sufficient vitality to raise a large quantity of cold water to the temperature of the body ; and hence the animal may become chilled, and his coat will stare, his bowels may become deranged, and further serious consequences may result. 64. Dirty v. clean water. Hard v. soft water. It is very commonly, but erroneously, supposed that horses prefer muddy to clean water. The origin of this idea is the fact that the horse prefers soft to hard water, and will drink indifferent soft in preference to clearer-looking hard water. But he will never drink bad soft in prefer- ence to good soft water, nor will he drink bad hard in preference to good hard water, except in so far as all hard water becomes more or less soft by standing and exposure to the air. Where a number of troughs with a stream running through them have been placed in line, the author has often known his horse, though taken to the last, walk to the first in order to get the cleanest water. Water for the horse should always be drawn fresh. If it is too cold, the chill may be taken off by adding a little warm water. The very ordinary practice of refilling the pails after watering and allowing them WATERING AND FEEDING. 33 to stand in the stable until wanted again, in order to take off the chill, is objectionable, because the water so exposed must imbibe some of the de- leterious gases present in most stables, and therefore must become tainted. Hard water, which contains an excess of saline and mineral substances, does not as a general rule agree as well with horses as soft water, such as that obtained from a river or pond. It is apt to produce irritation of the bowels and, as a secondary effect, a staring coat. The salts contained in hard water may be in a great degree precipi- tated by boiling, and most waters become softer by being exposed to the air. Any sudden change in the kind of water supplied to horses is apt to cause derangement and even irritation of the mucous membranes of the bowels, especially a change from soft to hard water. Hence if the water is very hard, it should be boiled before being given to valuable horses, particularly if they are not accustomed to it. Rain or other soft water stored in tanks soon becomes full of decom- posing vegetable matter in hot weather. 65. Scouring. To horses predisposed to scour, water should be given frequently and in reduced quantities, and in winter the chill should be taken off by mixing it with a very little warm water. Perhaps the best plan is to leave water always before such horses, because when so supplied they drink less than when watered at intervals. A diminished quantity of water taken into the system by lessening the secretions of the intestines decreases the tendency to purgation. If reduction of the quantity of water does not produce the desired effect, it may be mixed with a little wheaten meal, which has a slight astringent effect on the bowels. If further measures are needed, boiled linseed or some such demulcent should be mixed with the oats ; and it is as well to bruise the oats, because their ends are liable to cause irrita- tion on an over-sensitive intestinal lining. Horses disposed to scour should be stinted of their water before going to work. Some horses will scour unless a little hay is given to them in the morning before they are watered. Not infrequently, however, the real cause of scouring will be found in an irritable state of the bowels induced by the presence of various crudities arising from imperfect digestion or previous torpidity. In such cases, if the animal is strong and hearty and not usually predisposed to the complaint, a mild dose of purgative medicine may be beneficially administered, followed by tonics. Scouring, especially where a tendency to it exists, may readily be brought on by any sort of neglect or bad management, such as by wash- ing the legs and not drying them, by letting the animal stand sweating after exercise without being dried and cleaned, by copious draughts of cold water when the body is heated, or by being watered immediately before fast work. Light-coloured horses, especially if also long in the 3 34 CHAPTER 5. back and slack in the loin and light in the barrel, are predisposed to this affection. 66. Delicate Feeders. Both care and skill are needed in regulating the diet and tempting the appetite of delicate feeders. Some will reject their food altogether if it is given them in large quantities ; whilst they will eat it if only a small quantity is offered at a time. Others again will not feed, unless they are allowed frequently to moisten their mouths with water whilst eating. Water should be kept constantly before such animals. Others again, apparently of a nervous or timid disposition, will not feed unless there is a spare stall between them and the next horse. Many horses feed very slowly, and are consequently robbed of half the food by their more vora- cious neighbours. The remedy is, if possible, to allow a spare stall, or to rack up the neighbouring quick feeder as soon as he has finished his own portion. A little linseed boiled to a jelly and mixed with the corn will induce others to eat more freely. Hay slightly damp and sprinkled with salt is palatable to some horses, who will reject it when dry. A pretty frequent change of food is acceptable to some delicate feeders. A small quantity of beans, for instance, may be added to the oats, which may be given crushed. When the animal has lost its relish for these, barley or pale malt may tempt the palate for a time. A little wet bran with the oats is grateful for a time to some horses. For others carrots or green forage may be substituted for hay, or mixed with the hay. Delicate feeders will often eat freely during the night, when all is quiet around. Again a very common cause of apparent loss of appetite is some irregularity in the molar teeth, which hinders due mastication. In all cases, therefore, a careful examination of the state of the teeth should be made. In many cases it will be found that the edges of these teeth have become as sharp as razors. The remedy is to file the edges down level. A good servant will always watch the peculiarities of the appetite of the horse under his charge, and will generally be able to adjust the feeding and tempt the appetite, so as to make the animal carry flesh. Tonics no doubt increase the appetite, but no servant should be allowed on any pretence whatever to administer them at his own dis- cretion. CHAPTER 5. FORAGE. 67. Chemical analysis of food. 67a. Division of foods. 68. Oats. 69. Characteristics of good oats. 70. Weight of good and bad oats. 71. Mode of weighing a bushel. 72. Various defects in oats. Kiln drying. Foxy FORAGE. 35 oats. Fumigation or blsaching. Damp oats. Softness. Mustiness. Mouldiness. Sprouting, dirt, stones, ivant of winnowing. 73. Distinction between old and new oats. 73a. Crushed oats. 74. Other grain. 75. Beans. 75a. Peas. 756. Wheat. 76. Hay. 77. Chopped hay. 78. Waste of haij. 79. Quality and value of hay . 80. Upland, lowland, and water-meadow hay. 81. Distinction between upland, lowland, and water- meadow hay. 82. Characteristics of good upland hay, 83. Characteristics of inferior and lad upland hay. 84. Lowland hay. 85. Grasses which compose good upland hay. 86. Inferior grasses. 87. Very inferior grasses. 88. Bad grasses. 89. Upland herbage. 90. Lowland herbage. 91. .Ke- capitulation. 92. TFeerfs. 93. O/ the time of cutting and saving hay. 94. Of late cut hay . 95. Of saving hay. 96. On making hay. 97. Ifow- Zwra£ 7ia?/. 98. Z%s£ m hay. 98ar. Second crop or aftermath. 986. Z)is- tinction between old and new hay. 98c. New v. oZcZ 7^?/, as regards feeding. 98d. Irish hay. 98e. Pressed Imy. 98/. C7ot;er 7^. 980. Oeen forage. 98/i. Carrots. 98i. (rrwc/. 98/. J?raw. 98&. Linseed foods. 98Z. -Bot/ecZ foods. 98w. Straw. 9Sn. Artificial foods. 980. Concentrated foods. 67. Chemical analyses of food. IT is difficult, if not impossible, to estimate accurately by means of chemical analyses the nutritive value of the various substances used as food. All food must of course contain certain nutritive constituents ; but it does not follow that the food which possesses those constituents in the greatest abundance will produce the most beneficial results. Diges- tibility, readiness of assimilation, absence of unduly heating properties, and many other qualities are needed in order to make a substance pos- sessing the necessary ingredients available as food. Chemistry is a valuable but not an infallible guide, and its indications require to be tempered by the test of experience. 67a. Division of Foods. The author does not deem it necessary to enter into a minute descrip- tion of the chemical elements of foods. It will be sufficient to mention that all nutritive foods are divided into three great principles, viz. nitro- genous, non-nitrogenous, and inorganic. Nitrogenous elements contain the various forms of albumen, the func- tions of which are to provide material for the repair and nourishment of the various tissues of the body, namely, bone, muscle, or flesh, &c. Nitrogenous elements exist in all animal and in some vegetable foods. They are nearly identical in their chemical composition, whether found in animal or vegetable food. For instance, the albumen, gluten, and legumen of vegetables are composed of the same chemical constituents, and in nearly the same proportion, as the albumen, fibrin, and casein of animal foods. 36 CHAPTER. 5. Non-nitrogerious elements include starches, sugars, oils, and fat, usually classed under the head of carbonaceous principles. Their func- tions are to supply materials for the production of animal heat ; which is produced by the combustion (in a chemical sense) of the carbon and hydrogen of the food with the oxygen of the air. Secondly, to supply fat, which enters largely into the composition of various substances of the body, and which is stored up or deposited in considerable quantities in different parts of the animal frame. Fat is technically known as adipose tissue. Fat is not wholly derived from oleaginous materials, but also from the starches and sugars of vegetable foods, being readily formed from these constituents by chemical decomposition in the animal body. Besides nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous elements there are also certain inorganic principles in foods, consisting of water and saline materials, which are necessary for the purpose of keeping up the supply of similar constituents existing in the various tissues of the body. From the above description it will be readily understood that horses doing hard and fast work require food containing a large proportion of both Nitrogenous and Non-nitrogenous principles. Not only is the waste of the various tissues accelerated by long-continued exertion, but chemical combustion also takes place more rapidly. If the nitrogenous elements are not supplied in sufficient quantities to repair the " waste," the animal will fall away in muscle. If the non-nitrogenous elements are not supplied in quantities sufficient to compensate for the chemical combustion, the fat stored up in various parts of the body will be called upon to supply the deficiency, and the animal will become thin. Noii-uitrogeiious. Inorganic. . Nitro- — genous. Starches and sugar. Fatty matter. Saline and mineral. Woody fibre. Water. Oats 12-9 53-8 6-0 3-5 10-8 130 Beaus 25-5 45-9 1-6 3-1 9-4 14-5 Barley 10-6 63-7 2-0 2-6 7-1 14-0 Maize 10-4 68-5 5-1 1-6 3-0 11-4 Bran 14-2 50-4 42 6-1 110 14-0 Linseed . . . 20*5 196 37-0 3-4 7-2 12'8 Gram (not including husks) 22-70 63-18 376 2-60 11-39 Kulthee (uot including husks) . . .! 23-27 59-38 2-20 3-19 j — 12-03 Hay . . . 9;7 41-0 2-5 6-2 26-3 160 Clover hay . 12-3 38-2 2'2 5-3 26-0 14-3 Rye-grass . 3-37 12-02 0-91 2-15 O'OG 71'43 Meadow-grass . 3-5 9-2 0-8 20 4-5 80'0 Lucerne 3-83 13-62 0-82 3-04 8-74 69-95 Clover 4-27 8-45 0-69 1-82 3-76 81-01 Carrots . , 0-7 7-7 0-2 0-9 3-5 87'0 FOEAGE. 37 68. Oats. Of grain for the horse long experience has proved oats to be the best. Of the quantity to be given experience is also our best guide. The regulation cavalry allowance of ten pounds per diem unquestionably is sufficient for horses in ordinary work. This weight is about equivalent to what is usually understood as three feeds. But where the work is severe, horses should be allowed as much oats as they will eat. Hunters so fed will not consume on the average of the winter more than from fourteen to fifteen pounds or possibly sixteen per diem. The reader may be surprised at the small amount of the average ; but it must be remembered that horses eat but little on the day or days on which they are employed in hunting or other such long work. If an unlimited quantity of oats were given for one day to a horse usually re- stricted to a small allowance, he would of course eat a great deal more on that day. The author lately selected a horse with a good appetite, whose usual ration was ten pounds, and gave him as much as he liked. The first day he ate twenty-two pounds, the second day the same ; but on the third day he only consumed eighteen pounds, and for the three succeed- ing days he averaged seventeen, but on the seventh he ate only sixteen. At the Newmarket training stables the average quantity consumed by each horse is reckoned at from two and a quarter to two and a half bushels per week ; or assuming the oats to weigh 44 Ib. per bushel, from about fourteen to sixteen pounds per diem. On the other hand, it must be remembered that the oats given by trainers are the very best, and contain a greater amount of nutritive material than those generally sup- plied by owners to their horses. Large carriage horses in ordinary gentlemen's work require 14 Ib. per day. On this allowance they ought to be kept in the best possible condi- tion. It is the amount allowed by one of the principal London firms, when they contract to ration the horses which they let out on job. Cab horses in London generally eat about from 18 to 20 Ib. of oats a day. It appears, at first sight, singular that they should eat more than hunters or horses in training. The fact, for it is a fact, may probably be accounted for partly by their being in the air some eight hours a day, partly by the long, fatiguing nature of their work, which causes a great consumption of animal material, and partly by the excellent habit of cabmen of putting on the nose-bag whenever the horse happens to be unemployed on the stand. The cabman is practically aware of the fact that the more he can get his horse to eat the more work he will do. It must also be borne in mind that the oats given by cabmen, though they are sensible enough not to waste their money on a very inferior article, are not the best. The quality of the oat must also be taken into con- sideration in reckoning the quantity which a horse will eat, or which he requires to keep him in good condition. 38 CHAPTER 5. 69. Characteristics of good oats. Good oats are clean, hard, dry, sweet, heavy, plump, full of flour, and rattle like shot. They have a clean and almost metallic lustre. Each oat in a well-grown sample is nearly of the same size. There are but few small or imperfect grains. The hard pressure of the nail on an oat should leave little or no mark. The kernel, when pressed between the teeth, should chip rather than tear. The skin should be thin. The size of the kernel will be less in proportion as the skin is thick. The colour of the oat is not very material, but white oats are generally thinner in the skin than black. Again, black oats will grow on inferior soils. Short plump oats are preferable to large long grains. Bearded oats must have an excess of husk. Oats are not necessarily bad because they are thick- skinned or bearded ; but they must contain a less amount of flour per bushel than thin-skinned oats without beards. Good oats are entirely without smell of any kind, except that of earth in new samples. In testing oats by smell a double handful at least should be taken for the purpose, and not merely a few grains. The flour should be almost tasteless, except a slight sense of milky sweetness to the palate. In tasting oats the purchaser should put a con- siderable number into his mouth without looking at them, in order to get a fair average of the grains. If he selects one or two oats to taste, he is sure to choose good grains. In testing oats for quality it is a good plan to spread out a quantity on a table or sheet of paper. The small and imperfect grains can then readily be detected. Good samples should be free from any admixture of small black seeds. Inferior foreign oats are nearly always so mixed — sometimes in great quantities. The small black seeds weigh heavier than oats, and, if numerous, give a deceptively heavy weight to the sample. They consist principally of the seeds of the wild rape, tares, and charlock, or wild mustard. 70. Weight of good and bad oats. Good oats weigh about 42 Ib. per bushel. Very good samples reach 44 or 45 Ib., and from a few districts oats as high as 48 or even 49 Ib. may be obtained in favourable seasons. Fair marketable oats weigh about 39 Ib. The Government in their contract for oats for the cavalry stipulate for a weight of 38 Ib. per bushel. Very inferior lots do not weigh above 32 Ib. Very dirty oats, sometimes on account of the dirt and sand in them, weigh better before than after they have been cleaned ; but as a general rule the effect of cleaning and winnowing a sample is to make it weigh more per bushel. The principal part of the refuse which is thrown out consists of husks and of small, imperfect, or mouldy grains, which are very light in proportion to bulk. FORAGE. 39 In some experiments made by a miller for the author he found that a fair sample of oats, per bushel, 30 Ib. per bushel yielded Flour, 19 Ib. 7 oz. = 155 Ib. 8 oz. 34 Ib. „ „ „ 22 Ib. 5 oz. = 1781b. 8 07. 38 Ib. „ „ „ 26 Ib. 14 oz. = 215 Ib. 44 Ib. 32 Ib. 9 oz. = 260 Ib. 8 oz. Another sample at 32 Ib. yielded 19 Ib. 15 oz. of flour, = 159 Ib. 8 oz. per quarter. at 38 Ib. „ 26 Ib. 7 oz. „ = 211 Ib. 8 oz. at 42 Ib. „ 30 Ib. 14 oz. „ = 247 Ib. at 44 Ib. „ 33 Ib. 14 oz. „ = 271 Ib. Another analysis will be found in the Addendum. From the above it will readily be seen that good oats, even at a high figure, are cheaper for feeding purposes than inferior samples at a lower price. The increase in weight per bushel is mainly in flour. The husk forms a much larger proportion in light than in heavy oats. But besides the question of weight, there is the far greater question of the nutritive value of the flour from fully well-grown and well-matured ears over flour from ill-developed ears, the produce of a crop grown on poor soil or under bad climatic conditions. There is no value in any crop except what is extracted from the soil; and if the soil is poor or from bad treatment impoverished, the nutritive value of the produce can be but small. Dealers often offer to make up the weight of a lot of oats to the stipu- lated number of pounds per bushel by giving an increased quantity. This practice should not be permitted. Good oats yield more flour per pound than inferior oats. Besides which the flour in light oats is always inferior in quality to that contained in well-grown, fully ripened, and well-developed grains. E. g. a quarter of oats at 32 Ib. will weigh 256 Ib. per quarter, and, according to the second of the above tables, contain 159 Ib. 8 oz. of flour. If 80 Ib. oats be added in order to bring it up to the weight of a quarter at 42 Ib., viz. 336 Ib., there will be an addition of about 6J Ib. of flour, making the total weight of flour 165J Ib. ; whilst in a quarter of oats at 42 Ib. (natural weight) the flour is 242 Ib. Besides which the difference in the quality of the flour (see above) must be taken into consideration. 71 . Mode of weighing a bushel. In the preceding paragraph we have explained that the value of oats is in a great degree dependent on their weight per bushel. In buying oats, it is customary to stipulate that the lot shall weigh so many pounds 40 CHAPTER 5. per bushel. In weighing them for this purpose it is of course the object of the seller to get as many oats as possible into the measure, and thus to increase the apparent weight of the sample per bushel; whilst the object of the buyer is to make them weigh as light as he can, or in other words, fill the measure with the least possible quantity of grain. Tricks are often played on the unwary, and sundry devices are adopted, such as moving the measure once or twice while it is being filled, or shaking it, or knocking against it with the scoop in pouring in the grain, or heaping it over-full, and pressing down the grain, when it is " struck." The effect of these devices is to cause the oats to lie close together, and thus to make the measure hold more than it otherwise would. But apart from such tricks, which of course are easily seen and checked, a veiy considerable difference may be produced in the apparent weight of oats according to the way in which the measure is filled. In the wholesale trade the bushel measure is pushed into a large heap, and turned over gently and struck at once. It is essential that the heap be large, or the measure will not be filled without the aid of a scoop. A good deal of practice is required to do this in a workmanlike way. This gives the true, otherwise called the " natural " or " trade " weight. In the retail trade some other methods are commonly used. The fol- lowing are the results of various ways of weighing a bushel of oats, of which the natural or trade weight was 38 Ib. Filled quickly from a large shovel, and the strike applied at once, the measure held 38J Ib. The success of the operation depends on the measure being placed on a firm basis, so that it will not move or shake, and on its being filled quickly. The oats then have not time to run together and consolidate. The measure in consequence holds almost the least possible quantity. Filled from the mouth of the sack, by allowing the oats to run in freely and quickly, the measure held nearly 38f Ib., when the operation was neatly and well managed. There is a good deal of knack in getting the oats to run freely. The mouth of the sack must be opened wide, and the sides should be well turned down, so that no interruption may occur in filling the measure. Care must be taken that the mouth of the sack does not touch the measure. With this view, the sack should be placed on a raised platform. The foot-board of the scales will answer for this purpose. Filled very quickly from a small scoop, the measure held 39 Ib. Filled somewhat slowly from the same scoop, 39 J Ib. Filled from a shovel held at the hip, the grain being allowed to flow or trickle in slowly, the measure held 42 Ib. ; or in other words, the sample was made to appear to weigh 42 Ib. instead of 38 Ib., the natural or trade weight. Here both the height from which the grains fell, and the slowness of the operation, combined in causing consolidation. Different samples, no doubt, will give somewhat varying results accord- ing to the greater or less tendency which they may possess for con- solidating ; but from these details the intending purchaser will readily FORAGE. 41 see that, in order to get the article he contracts and pays for, it is neces- sary that he should know how to weigh a bushel. The shape of the measure to a certain degree affects the weight of the oats. In a narrow deep measure, the oats will consolidate when poured in, and the apparent weight will be increased. In the bushel legal measure, the depth is not to exceed one half the diameter. In addition, however, to knowing how to do it, there is a good deal of knack and practice required to fill the bushel properly ; and the reader, if he tries the above experiments for himself, will probably at first fail to get the true weight. The best plan, however, of testing the true weight is by means of a very simple machine, which can easily be made by any carpenter. Make a box 30 inches deep by 12 by 12 inches, which will hold about 1J bushels. At the bottom make a hole 4J by 4J inches, and fit it with a sliding door underneath, which must fit easy, and fill it with oats. Underneath the box, at a distance of five inches below it, place the bushel measure. Draw back the door, and let the oats run through. When the measure is rather more than full, push back the door. Then " strike " the measure, and weigh the bushel and its contents. Deduct the weight of the measure, and you have the natural or trade weight of the oats. This is the best and simplest plan, and there can be no mistake. The box may be placed on a stand, or hung to a bracket fixed at the requisite height in the wall. The next best plan is to purchase a large scoop, holding rather more than a bushel, and from it to fill the measure at once, and then strike it. Even, however, with the proper mode of weighing, tricks are sometimes played by dishonest dealers, which affect and increase the weight of a sample. If a sample, for instance, before going to market receives a good shaking, the friction thereby caused will rub off a good many of the awns and asperities of the husks, and the seeds will then flow in more easily into a compact mass, and thus the weight per bushel will be increased ; whilst the remainder of the lot, which have not been subjected to the same friction as the sample, will not yield the weight supposed. Again, certain descriptions of oats give, if we may use the expression, deceptively good weight. Very smooth and well-closed oats, for instance, lie closely together, and leave but little space unoccupied ; and there- fore, though they may contain but little flour, they may still weigh fairly well. Another sort with really .better filled grains, but with rougher coats, may weigh less. Again, some very good-looking smooth large foreign oats give a great weight per bushel on account of the almost woody nature of their husks. Lastly, damp oats, which have not been damp sufficiently long to cause them to swell, may give an unfairly good weight. The purchaser, therefore, whilst relying on weight as one great, and in most cases the best test, must take care to note well all the other charac- teristics of the lot he proposes to buy. In testing samples of oats in the sack it is a common practice in the 42 CHAPTER 5. trade to thrust an ordinary smooth walking-stick rapidly into the sack. If the grain is of good quality and condition and free from dirt, &c., the stick will pass down comparatively easily. If, on the other hand, the oats are damp, badly screened, and otherwise of inferior quality, more difficulty will be experienced in the attempt. 72. Various defects in oats. Kiln drying is a process resorted to in order to get rid either of damp- ness or softness or of both defects. Oats so dried have a peculiar and easily recognised smell and taste, and in some cases there is a loose and shrivelled appearance about the ends of the husks. This arises from the kernel having swollen when damp, and afterwards contracted in size when the damp was suddenly expelled in the kiln. The colour of the oat is also deepened, and often assumes a reddish hue ; but the colour, as will be explained presently, may be got rid of by fumigation. The process of kiln drying in itself damages the flour to a certain degree ; but the great objection to kiln-dried oats arises from the flour having been in most instances, as regards English oats, damaged before they are sent to the kiln. No amount of drying, we need scarcely say, will restore damaged flour to its original condition, or in fact make bad into good flour. An attempt is often made to get rid of the smell by spreading out the oats in thin layers to the action of the air, and then mixing them with new fresh-smelling oats immediately before they are offered for sale. Foreign oats, even though in good condition, are nearly always slightly kiln-dried before being put on board ship to pre- vent their heating in bulk during the voyage. This process, if the oats are in good condition, as they often are in the finer climates of the Continent, is almost unobjectionable. Oats which have been badly saved, or have become dirty from any cause, are sometimes washed to improve their colour, and are then put in the kiln to be dried. Very good new oats are occasionally slightly kiln-dried to harden them and make them resemble old oats, and thus increase their value. Foxy oats are those which have heated from being kept in bulk, when not perfectly dry ; and in consequence have undergone to a certain degree a process of fermentation. They are easily recognised by a red- dish and sometimes very red colour, and by a peculiar bitterness of smell and taste. They are unfit for horses. The nutritive quality of the flour is in a great measure destroyed. They act injuriously, especially on the kidneys, and produce excessive staling and cause the horse rapidly to lose condition. The red colour is sometimes got rid of by fumigation. Fumigation or bleaching is a process resorted to in order to get rid of the heightened colour imparted to the oats by the process of kiln-drying or by their having become foxy. The dark colour is got rid of and an unnaturally white hue is given by subjecting the oats to the fumes of sulphur. This fraud may be detected by taking a handful of oats from the heap and bringing it quickly up to the nose, or by applying the nose directly to a hollow made in the heap. FORAGE. 43 When, however, the process is well managed, the smell is exceedingly faint. Several large factories have been erected in various parts of the country, in which the processes of washing, kiln-drying, and fumigating are carried on under the same roof. Damp oats are objectionable, and should not be taken. Dampness, however, is in some measure a question of degree, and of the length of time during which it has existed. Continued damp, especially when the oats are stored in bulk, soon produces softness, mustiness, or sprouting. Softness is the first effect produced by damp. The flour, though not in perfectly good condition, may still be wholesome, but any such defect militates against good hard condition in the horse. Mustiness is a further stage resulting from damp. Musty oats are easily recognised by the smell. They are altogether unfit for food, and are sometimes poisonous, being in an incipient stage of decomposition. When examined under the microscope a fungoid growth may be detected on the inner skin. Mouldy oats are in a state of positive decomposition, and are obviously unfit for food. Sprouting is a process of new growth or germination in the oat in- duced by damp combined with some amount of warmth under certain conditions of the weather. In this respect it will be seen that sprouting differs from mustiness or mouldiness, which are processes of decompo- sition and death of the grain. Oats, which have sprouted, are quite unfit for food. Other defects in oats are dirt, stones, and want of proper winnowing. These defects, though they militate against the value, may be remedied by screening and winnowing. 73. Distinction between old and new oats. The chief distinction between new and old oats lies in the smell. New oats smell fresh and of the earth. There is a decided earthy smell about them, which is lost in the old oat. Old oats, if newly thrashed out, may smell fresh, but there is not the earthy smell about them. As a rule, however, they smell rather musty and frequently of rats. In new oats the outside of the husk in well-saved samples is bright and shining, having almost a glazed appearance, especially in the black variety. In old oats this glazing is lost. The outside, though it may be perfectly clean, is dim and the ends of the husks in white oats, and the point of the kernel in both white and black oats, are always a little darkened. Badly saved new oats may in these respects sometimes resemble old oats ; but in such cases they will probably be distinguished by their softness. The taste of the new oat is fresh and somewhat milky ; and its flour, when moistened in the mouth, readily adheres together. The taste of the old oat is slightly bitter. In the mouth the flour feels dry and is not easily moistened. In the new oat there is a certain degree of juiciness, 44 CHAPTER 5. sweetness, and milkiness about its flour. In very dry seasons these dis- tinctions are less observable than in ordinary years. New oats as a general rule are softer than old ; but here again the season, the state of the weather for some time preceding the sample coming to market, and the dampness perhaps of the place in which they have been stored, may cause old oats to handle as soft as new. On the other hand, in very fine seasons new oats may come to market almost as dry and hard as old in average years. In bearded varieties the beards are well preserved in new samples ; but from old oats a considerable proportion of the beards have generally fallen off or been knocked off by friction in carriage, &c. In all kinds the ends of the grains from the above causes always look shorter and sharper in old than in new samples. The husk also becomes tight and locked round the kernel. The skin of the kernel of a new oat is covered with a very fine prickly down composed of very minute hairs. In the old oat the kernel appears and feels more smooth. If the husks are stripped off, this distinction will be quite perceptible to the palate in chewing a few grains of each. All the above distinctions except the first are subject to so many modi- fications according to varying circumstances, that we must advise the reader, whilst not altogether neglecting them, to form his opinion chiefly by the presence or absence of the earthy smell. 73a. Crushed oats. Crushed oats are frequently given with advantage, especially to greedy feeders and animals that bolt their food without sufficiently masticating it. Oats, however, should never be purchased crushed, as inferior grain can easily be, and generally is, substituted for that of better quality. If crushed oats are used, it is advisable to buy a small hand-mill. The oats can then be crushed as required, and the quality can be ensured. 74. Other grain. Indian corn, Barley, Gram. Indian corn crushed or ground is often used in lieu of oats, when the price happens to be moderate, or the quality of the oat crop is indifferent. It answers very well, and some horses put on flesh better with it than with oats. It should be given mixed with about an equal quantity of bran and chopped hay, the whole being slightly wetted. About the same weight of meal may be given as the horses had been accustomed to of corn. Many persons prefer giving Indian corn whole after soaking it for some hours. This process softens the grain and causes it to swell. In this condition it is more readily masticated, and is supposed to be more easy of digestion. The author has not tried it in this form, and hesi- tates to recommend it. In some foreign countries other grain is substituted for oats, some- FORAGE. 45 times because oats cannot be procured, sometimes because those grown in the locality are inferior. Barley is a common substitute. It is more heating than oats, and is apt to produce constipation, derangement of the bowels, and consequent irrits»tion of the skin. On this account it is often desirable to combine it with clover, lucerne, grass, or other green meat as a corrective. The same remarks apply to Gram, a species of pea, which is commonly used in India as a substitute for oats. When a new description of grain is given in lieu of that to which the horse has been accustomed, it is always desirable to introduce the change gradually if possible. 75. Beans. Beans contain more nutritive material than oats, but if given in excess are heating. Beans are beneficial to horses employed on very hard work, especially to old animals and to those which are a little overtasked. About two pounds per diem in addition to the usual quantity of oats is a fair allowance, but the amount may be increased or diminished according to circumstances. Beans weigh half as much again as oats, and hence servants in giving them out by measure sometimes allow a good deal more than they intend. Beans should be hard, dry, sweet, plump, sound, one year old, and should weigh from 60 to 64 Ib. per bushel. They should invariably be split, as otherwise they are apt to pass whole through the intestines. English beans only should be given. The skins of foreign, especially of Egyptian beans, are often so hard as to render them utterly indigestible in the horse's stomach. Beans otherwise good are often damaged by an insect, which eats out the kernel. This defect is easily seen. New beans are less nutritious than old, and are moreover apt to produce flatulence and colic. 75a. Peas. Peas contain nearly as much nutritive material as beans, and are extensively used in some stables. Like beans they should be given split, and should be plump, dry, sound, and at least one year old. 756. Wheat. Wheat should not be given to horses if any other grain can be procured. It is unsuited to the horse's stomach, and is likely to produce serious intestinal derangements. In cases where no other grain can be procured, wheat may be given if previously parched. The parching process appears to destroy the viscidity of the gluten which causes this grain to be so difficult of digestion in the stomach of the horse. 46 CHAPTER 5. 76. Hay. For horses in ordinary work the cavalry allowance of twelve pounds per diem is sufficient. It is very commonly thought that horses in hard work should be limited in regard to hay; but if, as has been recom- mended above, horses in such work are allowed as much oats as they will eat, it is unnecessary and injudicious to put an arbitrary limit on their hay. Practically it will be found that horses, which are not limited in regard to oats, will not usually consume above six pounds of hay per diem ; and nobody probably would wish them to have less. A horse cannot be maintained in health on grain alone. The stomach needs a certain amount of mechanical distension, and without it will not act properly. The same fact is noticed in man, in whom highly concen- trated foods, however nutritious, will not maintain health or even life. 77. Chopped hay. Chopped hay has been highly recommended, but except a little for the purpose of mixing with the corn of greedy feeders, the author cannot see any advantage in its use. The argument commonly put forward in its favour, namely, that by chopping the good and bad parts are so mixed that the horse must eat the bad with the good, in his opinion tells seri- ously against the plan. A horse is better without bad hay in his stomach than with it. Bad forage of any sort is false economy, and the horse in rejecting it shows more sense than his master in trying to force him to eat it. Hay should always be chopped at home, as that sold by dealers is generally made from inferior and damaged growths. If horses are fed from the nose-bag, as is the practice where the hours of work are long, chopped hay must of course be used. 78. Waste of hay. Great waste of hay is frequently occasioned by careless servants stuffing the rack with perhaps half a hundredweight. Then indeed the horse selects only the very choicest locks, and pulls about and breathes over the remainder and eventually tramples it under his feet. If no more than twelve pounds are given with three feeds of corn, or half that quantity where the horses have an unlimited supply of corn, they will not in general waste or reject much that it would be good for them to eat. With some horses, however, it is necessary, in order to avoid waste, to divide the hay into four instead of the usual two portions during the day. 79. Quality and value of hay. The quality and value of hay depend — 1st. On the grasses and herbage of which it is composed. 2nd. On the soil on which it has been grown. 3rd. On the time at which the grass has been cut. 4th. On the way in which it has been " saved." FORAGE. 47 All these points will be further considered in detail. N.B. — If in a sample of the hay, a variety of the best grasses, such as rye-grass, meadow fescue, meadow foxtail, cat's-tail, &c., are found, but attenuated, it is a proof that the soil, though naturally good, is in bad heart, i. e. impoverished by over-cropping or want of manure. The hay is worthless. There is no virtue in grass except such as is extracted from the soil. For an illustration, compare No. 3 meadow foxtail and No. 17 slender foxtail. It is true that these arc different varieties. But meadow foxtail grown on impoverished, though naturally good soil, will look very much like slender foxtail. 80. Upland, Loivland, and Water -meadoiv hay. Hay may be broadly distinguished as either upland, lowland, or water- meadow. Upland is the best. None but upland hay should be used for horses doing fast work. Lowland hay is inferior. Water-meadow hay is altogether unfit for horses. These terms, which are in common use and generally well understood, are not in all cases strictly accurate, e. g. a low-lying meadow may repose on a dry formation, and in addition may be well drained ; and if so, it may grow fine, commonly called upland grasses. On the other hand, a meadow may lie high and yet may be a swamp, and will therefore grow coarse, commonly called lowland or even water-meadow grasses. Still for all practical purposes these expressions may be used, and will be understood by all practical men. Certain grasses grow only on upland meadows, others only on lowland, whilst others are found only on water-meadows. Some sorts are found both in upland and lowland meadows, whilst others are found both in lowland and water meadows. In short, no very sharp line of demarca- tion can be drawn between grasses of upland and lowland and water- meadow growth. They shade into each other according to the pecu- liarities of the soil. The best upland grasses will, however, be found only in upland meadows, but the inferior upland grasses will be found in moderately dry lowland meadows, and vice versa, the best sorts of lowland grasses may be found, to a certain extent, on upland meadows. The same remarks apply to lowland and water-meadow grasses. The inferior lowland grasses may be found in water-meadows, whilst the best water-meadow grasses may be occasionally, though more rarely, found in lowland meadows. 81. Distinction between upland, lowland, and ivater-meadow hay. Upland hay is known generally by the fineness and firmness of the stalks or stems, and by the narrowness of the leaves of its grasses. Specially, it is recognised by the prevalence of certain grasses (of which hereafter) which do not grow on lowland ; and, again, by the prevalence 48 CHAPTER 5. of certain sorts of herbage (of which hereafter) which do not grow on lowland. Lowland hay is known by the coarseness of the stalks and by the broad leaves of its grasses (of which hereafter), and by the absence of good upland herbage. The hay, though coarser, is softer, less firm and crisp than upland hay. The colour is also darker. Water-meadow hay is at once recognised by its very coarse, broad, often reed-like stalks, and by the very broad, often flag-like leaves of its grasses, and by a large admixture of sedge, and of plants approaching the nature of sedge, and rushes. See No. 19, Hushes, No. 20, Sweet- reed grass (Glyceria or Poa aquatica), No. 21, Ribbon-grass (Digr aphis arundinacea}. Water-meadow grass is quite unfit for horses, and will be not further alluded to. The above are only general distinctions. The minuter distinctions, as regards upland and lowland hay, will be detailed below. 82. Characteristics of good upland hay. Good upland hay should be moderately fine, somewhat hard, sweet- smelling, and well saved. The colour should be green, and should convey an idea of newness. Very little heating or fermentation should have taken place in the stack. Some slight heating is, however, almost unavoidable if the crop is cut early, as it ought to be, whilst the juices are still in the grass, or, in other words, before it has run to seed. This slight heating will prevent the best early-cut hay from being very green. A preference has been shown in London of late years for very green hay, arising from the idea that when of this colour, it is most nearly in its natural state ; but, for the reason given above, this idea, if carried too far, is a fallacy. Other causes, such as a shower of rain falling on the grass when nearly ready to be carried, or exposure to a very hot sun, will often cause hay to lose its very green colour, though it may not have suffered any real damage. The flowering heads of the grasses ought to be present in abundance. Hay, which consists of an undue proportion of leaves, is inferior. Every fibre should be firm and crisp, and should appear distinct. The fibres in good upland hay often lie in one direction. In machine-tossed hay, how- ever, the direction of the fibres is not so well preserved as in that made by the hand-rake. A tangled confusion of the constituents is a sign of badly saved or lowland hay. The perfume of the best upland hay, though not so strong, is very like that of new-mown grass. If masticated it has a mild flavour, whilst lowland and inferior growths have a strong pungent taste. Hay grown on good soils is also distinguished by the number and variety of the grasses. Horses prefer hay composed of a variety of good grasses to that consisting of only one sort, even though that sort may be the very best. BEST GRASSES. PLATE 9. No. 1. Rye Grass. (Lolium perenne.} No. 2. Meadow Fescue. (Festuca pratensis.} No. 3. Meadow Fox-tail. (Alopecia-its pratenns.) PLATE 10 BEST GRASSES. I No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. Meadow Cats-tail or Timothy. Crested Dog's-tail. Sweet Vernal in Flower. Sweet Vernal in Hay (fhleum pratense.) (Cynosurus cristatus.} (Anthoxanthum odoratum.) INFERIOR GRASSES. PLATE 11. No. 7. Cocksfoot. (Dactylis glomerata.} No. 8. Smooth Meadow Grass. (Poa pratensis.} PLATE 12. INFERIOR GRASSES, CONTINUED. No. 9. No. 9a. Meadow Soft G-rass, Meadow Soft Grass, in very full flower. in early flower. (Holcus niollis.) No. 10. Yorkshire Fog, in rather early floiver. (Holcus lanatus.) VERY INFERIOR GRASSES. PLATE 13. W V No. 11. False Oat. (Avena elatior.) Flowering head only. No. 12. No. 13. Field Brome. Florin Grass. (Eromtts arvensis.) (Agrostis stolonifera.) PLATE 14. VERY INFERIOR GRASSES, CONTINUED. /is No. 14. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. (Poa trivialis.) No. 15. Quaking Grass. (Sriza media.) BAD GRASSES, PLATE 15. No. 16. Squirrel-tail, or Com- mon Meadoiv Barley . (ffordeum pratense.} No. 17. Slender Fox-tail. (Alopecurus agrestis.) No. 18. Tufted Hair Grass. (Air a csespito*a.) Floivering head only. No. 19. Common Rush. (Junw.s conglomerate.) PLATE 16. WATER MEADOW GRASSES. No. 20. Seed Sweet G-rass. (Glyceria or Poa aquatica.) No. 21. Ribbon Grass. (Digraphis arundinacea.) Small floivering head. HERBAGE. PLATE 17. No. 22. Vhite or Dutch Clover. (TrifoUum repens.) No. 23. Red Clover. (TrifoUum pratense.} No. 24. Little Yellow Clover. (Lotus corniculatus.) PLATE 18. HERBAGE. * No. 25. Little Yellow Vetch. (Lathy rus pratens is. ) No. 26. Saintfoin. (Hedysarum Onobrychis.) No. 27. Sop Trefoil. (Tri/olium procumbens.} WEEDS. PLATE 19. No. 28. Rib Plantain. (Plantago lanceolata.) No/29. Hard or Blackheads, or Knapweed. (Centaurea No. 30. Rattle in Seed. (RMnanthus crista-galli.} PLATE 20. WEEDS. No. 31. Common Bank Sedge. (Car ex rip aria.} Small Sedge. No. 32. Wood Rush. (Lnzula campestris.) WEEDS. PLATE 21. No. 34. — Silverweed, or Goose Grass. of the leaf. (Potentilla anserina.} Part No. 33. — Cat's-ear in flower. (Hypoehseris radicata.) N.£ In Hay this weed shrivels up greatly, and the stalks become a mere thread. PLATE 2lA. WEEDS. No. 35.— Coltsfoot. Small Leaf. ' (Tussilago farfara.} WEEDS. PLATE 2lB. No. 36. — ^Plantain, a common Weed of no value. FORAGE. 49 A proportion of herbage, that is of plants (not weeds) other than grass, is desirable. The different kinds of clover, especially white or Dutch, and the other varieties of trefoils, constitute the great mass of good up- land herbage. These plants are generally abundant where the soil on which the crop is grown is good. Herbage makes the hay sweet and palatable. Hay composed only of the best grasses is not relished so well as when mixed with a proportion of herbage. N.B. — Herbage is a conventional name for plants other than grasses (not weeds) in hay. In a botanical point of view the name is not strictly correct, as all grass is herbage. A mixture of weeds in hay is objectionable. The presence of flowers which have not lost their colour, such as butter- cups and the flowers of trefoil and clover, is always an item of value in hay, as it shows that the crop has been cut early in the season, before the grasses have lost their juices and nutriment. A similar favourable indication is given by certain early grasses, such as sweet vernal (No. 6), being still in flower, i. e. not run to seed. Hay from artificial grass, if early cut, well made, and not over-heated, is suitable for horses. Most samples are, however, deficient in aroma. Rye-grass is most commonly grown for this purpose ; but the farmer, solicitous to obtain quantity, too often delays cutting until the grass is in seed, and the quality of the crop is then reduced. To recapitulate. The characteristics of the best hay are cleanness, firmness, crispness, and green colour, delicacy in taste, aroma, and appearance, the presence of flowers of their natural colour, the presence of numerous grasses, with sweet vernal and other early grasses in flower, and a proportion of good herbage. Brightness of colour is an essential requisite as regards market value, but many samples of inferior colour possess no other actual inferiority. Hay should be one year old. It is then at its best. The author does not believe that hay is improved by keeping for three or four years. 83. Of inferior and bad upland hay. Upland hay, though as a rule superior to lowland hay, may be good, inferior, or bad of the sort. The best grasses grow only on good soils. The goodness of any soil is, however, largely dependent on manure being duly supplied. The best natural soil will seldom nourish the best grasses year after year without renovation by manure. Without proper dressing, the grasses become poor and thin, or very fine and wanting in firmness. The soil, in fact, has become exhausted, the fibres of its grasses become attenuated, and the hay is soft and silk-like. The herbage also in such cases is generally deficient. Such very fine hay, though perfectly wholesome, is not nutritious, and is therefore unfit for horses doing fast work. The want of herbage is, however, often remedied by sowing clover in the autumn. Good upland soils, properly cared for, produce the best grasses in the 4 50 CHAPTER 5. best condition. Inferior soils, or even the best natural soils if badly cared for, produce inferior grasses. Hay grown on such soils is usually hard as distinguished from firm, over-dry, and deficient in colour, aroma, nutriment, and herbage. There are also very poor upland soils, which, especially in dry seasons, grow very little grass. Some are so poor that they will not produce grass sufficient for haymaking. It must be remembered that there can be no nutriment in grass except what it extracts from the land. Therefore poor land, or land in bad heart, must grow poor innutritious hay. Some soils produce grass not merely of inferior varieties, but bad of the sort, which is easily recognised in hay by a peculiar sour appearance and taste, and often by a darker colour. The smell, if any, may probably have an odour of turpentine. Hay grown under trees is readily known by the long, lanky fibres of its grasses, by its lightness, softness, and absence of aroma ; except when grown under fir trees, when a smell of turpentine may be detected. It is very objectionable. 84. Lowland hay. Lowland hay is known — 1st. By the coarseness of the stems of its grasses, by the broad leaves of its undergrowth, and by a large admix- ture of coarse herbage and weeds. 2nd. The direction of the stems and leaves is not well preserved. It is a tangled mass. 3rd. The colour is darker than that of good, well-saved upland hay — though the latter, if heated or badly saved, may be dark. 4th. It has a stronger and less delicate aroma. 5th. The texture is more woolly ; and the sample, though each leaf or stem may be coarser, yet feels more soft or less firm. Altogether it lacks the firmness, crispness, cleanliness, freshness of appearance, and delicacy, both of substance and aroma, of good upland hay. Lastly, lowland hay is at once recognised by the absence of the best grasses, which will be presently described as characteristic of upland soils. 85. Of the grasses which compose good upland hay. The Stems or Flowering heads denote the grasses. The leaves, which surround those heads, are not easily recognised. Therefore we look to the stems as indicating the grasses. According to the prevalence or otherwise of certain stems, so will be the quality of the hay. No. 1. Rye-grass (Lolium perenne) grows naturally on most good up- land soils. It contains much nutriment. It is also found on poorer soils if dry, but on such it dwindles in size. It is also extensively cultivated as an artificial grass on lands under rotation. The hay made from it is good for horses. The variety known as Italian is often grown with sewage. Here it becomes coarse, and, though valuable for cows, is unfit for horses. FORAGE. 51 No. 2. Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis) is a very good upland grass. It forms a considerable bulk of the permanent grass on good upland soils. Its presence denotes good soil. It varies much in its forms, often almost resembling rye-grass, and at other times branching out even more than represented in Fig. 2. There are several other varieties of Festuca, some of which are larger, others smaller than the pratensis. No. 3. Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) is a very good early grass, and is found on good deep soils. It requires moisture, and there- fore will not flourish on light dry soils. It closely resembles cat's tail, but is distinguished from it by long hair-like awns. No. 4. Meadow Cat's tail, or Timothy (Phleum pratense), is a very good grass, and often forms a considerable bulk of good upland hay. It is, however, best adapted for moist rich soils. No. 5. Crested Dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) is a very good upland grass. It is well adapted to light and medium soils. Having long roots, it will resist dryness better than most other upland grasses. No. 6. Sweet-scented Vernal (Anthoxanthum odoratum), though it has no great nutritive value, is very beneficial in hay on account of the fragrance which it imparts. It is a very early grass, and runs early to seed. Hence, if it is found in flower in hay, it is especially favourable as a test that the crop has been cut in good time. If, on the other hand, it has run to seed, it shows that the cutting has been delayed. The above are the best upland grasses ; and in proportion as upland hay contains them, it is good. Some few of them, it will be seen, require that the soil sKould be moist as well as rich. 86. Of inferior grasses, No. 7. Cock's-foot (Dactylis glomerata) is a somewhat inferior grass. It grows on both good and inferior soils. It also flourishes under the shade and drip of trees. Hence it is sometimes termed Orchard-grass. It is coarse and hard, but as it contains a good deal of nutriment, it is constantly employed as a mixture by agriculturists. No. 8. Smooth Meadow-grass (Poa pratensis) is inferior, and contains but little nutriment. It grows abundantly on all soils, whether wet or dry. There are numerous varieties of this grass, some fine, some coarse, according as the soil is dry or wet ; but they all bear a general resem- blance. No. 9. Soft Meadow-grass (Holcus mollis) is another abundant but inferior grass. It grows on all soils. When dried as hay, it has a soft spongy feel. It contains but little nutriment. No. 9 a shows the same in early flower. No. 10. As much may be said of Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus), which it very closely resembles. These last two grasses are found to a certain extent in all samples of hay, but in inferior hay they form the great bulk. 52 . CHAPTER 5. 87. Very inferior grasses. No. 11. False Oat (Avena elatior) is a very common class of grass, especially abundant on light and calcareous soils, and often growing on hedgebanks. No. 12. The Field Brome (Bromus arvensis) is a coarse, common grass. It grows on low-lying ground, and, although not found in water-meadows, will nourish on almost any description of soil. No. 13. Fiorin grass (Agrostis stolonifera) is an inferior, very plentiful grass, and will grow on any soil. It has, however, been found useful, yielding a weighty crop on salt marshes, reclaimed bogs, and other damp soils, where the better grasses would not thrive. No. 14. The Rough-stalked Meadow-grass (Poa trivialis) is a common inferior grass, found on all soils, but especially abundant on poor soils, whether wet or dry. Though unsuitable for horses, cattle thrive pretty well on it. No. 15. Quaking-grass (Briza media) is not abundant, but is found to a certain extent on most poor and low-lying soils. Here and there a few straggling specimens occur on good soils. 88. Of bad grasses. No. 16. Squirrel-tail or Meadow Barley (Hordeum pratense) is a sign of bad and wet land. It has no nutritive value, and is much disliked by horses on account of its bristles, which hurt the gums. No. 17. Slender Foxtail (Alopecurus agrestis) marks poor land, and is common in waste places and road-sides. It can hardly be distinguished from meadow foxtail, except by its being smaller and much more slender. It has no nutritive value. In some districts a variety of this grass grows very tall and large on wet, undrained land, and is locally known as Black grass. No. 18. Tufted hair-grass (Air a ccespitosa) is very tall, and grows in bunches or large tussocks. It marks very poor soil and low land. Its presence in hay is an invariable sign of worthlessness. The drawing shows the flowering head only. No. 19. Rushes (Juncus communis), though not grass, may here be mentioned. They are a marked sign of wet, undrained land. They will, however, continue to exist for years in drained land unless well stocked up, though decreasing each year in size and number. The above are the principal grasses which, according to circumstances, prevail in upland and lowland meadows. A purely upland grass will not be found at all in lowland meadows. Others, however, are common to both, but become ranker and coarser in their stems and leaves in propor- tion as the soil is wet. 89. Upland herbage. Of the plants constituting good upland herbage, the several varieties of the Trefoil are the most important. No. 22. White or Dutch Clover (Trifolium repens) flourishes on good upland soils, wherever there is a fair proportion of lime in the soil. FORAGE. 53 No. 23. Common Ked clover (Tri folium pratense) is found in abund- ance on most good soils, and to a certain extent on other soils, as long as they are dry. No. 24. The Little Yellow Clover (Lotus corniculatus) is good herbage, and prevails on most dry upland soils. It varies a good deal in its growth and appearance in different places. No. 25. The Yellow Vetch (Lathyrus pratensis) is found on soils, whether rich or poor, if dry. These latter two, as they ripen, are apt to become bitter and unpalat- able. No. 26. Sainfoin (OnobrycTiis sativa) is found only on fairly good soils. No. 27. Hop trefoil (Tri folium procumbens) is found on both good and poor soils, if dry. 90. Lowland herbage. Lowland herbage consists of a great variety of plants. It is easily re- cognised by its broad coarse leaves and general rankness. 91. Recapitulation. Good hay contains a large proportion of the best grasses, along with the trefoils and other good herbage, and only a small proportion of the inferior grasses. Inferior hay, on the other hand, consists mainly of the inferior grasses, with only a small, or perhaps no admixture of the best grasses, whilst good herbage will be wanting. Inferior hay generally contains an unduly large proportion of leaves to stems. The absence of a good proportion of stems to leaves is always a sign of inferiority, whether the hay be upland or lowland. The best upland hay consists mainly of the grasses numbered from 1 to 6, with almost always some admixture of the rather inferior grasses numbered from 7 to 10. Inferior hay will contain but little of the grasses numbered from 1 to 6, a very large proportion of those numbered from 7 to 10, and some pro- portion of those numbered from 11 to 15. Very inferior hay will contain none of the grasses numbered from 1 to 6, and the bulk will consist of those numbered from 7 to 15, with some of those from 16 to 19. The specimens of water-meadow grasses are numbered from 18 to 21. 92. Of Weeds. The presence of weeds in hay is generally an unfavourable sign. They indicate land either in bad heart, or naturally poor or wet. Buttercups, however, are often found in considerable quantities on fair moist soils. There are four varieties of buttercups — all more or less acrid. The long-stalked and bulbous varieties are found in considerable quantities on most fair moist soils. The creeping and celery-leaved varieties are found on wet marshy soils. 54 CHAPTEIt 5. Dandelions grow on good soil, but their presence shows that the land has not been kept clean. Sorrel grows on light soils. It gives a subacid taste to hay. A small quantity is not objectionable. The Rib Plantain (Plantago lanceolate) is a common weed, growing on all soils. It is n t objectionable in hay. No. 28. Hard or Black heads, otherwise called Knapweed (Centaur ea nigra), are coarse, tough, and quite indigestible. No. 29. Rattle (Rhinanthus crista-galli) grows on poor land. Its abundance in any sample of hay is a sure sign of poor land, though a very little is sometimes found on good soils. It is a great nuisance to the farmer. No. 30. Common Bank Sedge (Carex riparia), if large, indicates very inferior wet soil. Its presence should cause any sample to be rejected. Smaller varieties, some very small, are, however, found on poor upland soils. No. 31. Smaller forms of sedge are sometimes found on upland, and are not injurious, though indicating poor soil. The Wood-rush (Luzula campestris) is very common on upland soils. Its presence in any considerable quantity indicates an inferior quality of hay. No. 32. Cat's-ear (Hypochceris radicata) is most objectionable. It has a bitter taste, which will cause horses to reject the whole lot of hay, so much do they dislike it. It has a flower somewhat like the dandelion. No. 33. Silverweed or Goose-grass (Potentilla anserina) is found on clayey sands. No. 34. Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) abounds in all moist chalky soils and clays. No. 35. 93. Of the time of cutting liay and saving hay. Hay may be composed only of the best grasses and herbage, and yet may be inferior or bad, because — 1st. It may have been cut too late ; or — 2nd. It may have been badly saved. 94. Of late-cut hay. This is a very common evil. The farmer often delays to cut in the hope of obtaining a greater bulk of under grass. This is especially apt to be the case in dry seasons ; or, on the other hand, the crop in wet seasons may be left to stand over-long in the hope of finer weather. The crop should be cut before the grasses have run to seed. The permanent grasses flower and seed every year. In common with all such plants, the nutriment of the plant passes into the seed for the reproduc- tion of its kind in the succeeding year. We all recognise the effect of seeding on the stem or straw of com. The straw is almost worthless for feeding, because the nutriment of the plant has passed into the seed. This is also to a great degree the case FOBAGE. 55 in regard to grass, though not to so great an extent as in corn, as the grass plant does not absolutely die. Still it exhausts the greater part of its nutriment in its efforts for the formation of its seed. It may be asked, Why should not a horse eat hay seeds as he will eat corn seeds? The Author cannot say, but as a matter of fact the horse will not eat them. Again, the seeds generally fall out when the grass is ripe, and are, therefore, lost. It is, therefore, essential to good nutritive hay that the crop should have been cut whilst the grasses are yet in flower, i. e. before they have seeded. Fortunately it is very easy to recognise in hay the grasses which have seeded, and those which have not seeded. 95. Of saving of hay. Again, hay may be composed of only the best grasses and herbage, and may also have been cut in good time, and may yet be inferior, bad, or even worthless, on account of having been badly saved. This, however, is always a question of degree. No absolute rule can be laid down. A moderate shower of rain, falling on the best upland grass, will cause it to lose its green colour in hay, which yet may be in perfectly good condition, and none the worse as regards real value. Any considerable degree of wet falling on hay, especially when nearly dry, will cause it to lose its natural bright, clear, healthy appearance, and will make it more or less deficient in aroma, and more or less of its nutritive qualities will be washed out. As stated above, it is a question of degree. Hay which has long been exposed to the action of rain, wind, and sun, is easily recognised by a ragged, confused, broken, washed-out appearance, and by dinginess of colour. This subject will be further explained in the succeeding paragraph on making hay. 96. On making hay. The following few remarks on making hay, extracted from a number of the ' North British Agriculturist,' though they may at first sight seem foreign to the scope of this work, will assist the reader in forming a right estimate of its value. " In the operation great attention and quickness are required in order to retain in the hay all the nutritive qualities of the grass. If the grass can be converted into hay without any alteration in its composition, and with little or no loss of its feeding properties, the water only being ex- tracted, it will then be as well made as possible, and will possess the greatest value. With this view it should not lie long in the field after being cut, but should, if possible, be carried the second or third day. Rain will cause the crop to lose its green colour, but does not of itself really injure the new-mown grass, as is often supposed. Mischief, how- ever, ensues if the grass is injudiciously turned over in wet weather, because the blades become bruised and injured in the process, and then 56 CHAPTER 5. the rain washes out the sugar, gum, and other soluble properties. For similar reasons hay ought not to be turned over on damp days, when the air is saturated with moisture." " It is desirable that a crop be cut as soon as it reaches maturity, before any of the nutritive qualities are gone. It is essential that it be cut before the flowering heads have fully seeded. When the mowing is delayed later, the hay will be deficient in nutriment and aroma, and its constituent fibres will be as dry as straws. In grasses, as in other annual vegetable productions, the process of seeding exhausts the plant, and the stem no longer contains nutriment or moisture." Hay made from grass which has been purposely .left standing until perfectly ripe, with the view of threshing out the seed for sale, is alto- gether worthless. 97. Mow -burnt hay. Mow-burnt is a name given to hay which has heated in the stack, either — 1st, from having been stacked too soon, i. e. before the juices of the grass are sufficiently dried ; or 2nd, from the grass having been stacked when wet from rain or dew. Mow-burnt hay is easily recognised by its dark colour and high smell. Whether or not it is fit for use is entirely a question of degree. Slightly mow-burnt hay may be used with impunity, especially if given in moderate quantities mixed with sound hay. Horses are fond of it, but it is apt to affect the kidneys. On the other hand, hay may be so mow-burnt as to be a mere cinder. Such is obviously unfit for use. 98. Dust in hay. Dust in hay commonly arises from the hay having got slightly damp, and having afterwards become quickly dry without passing into the stage of mouldiness. The apparent dust is the debris of the outer coats of the stems and leaves, which decay and fall off in the process of heating, which has taken place as the result of damp. In different atmospheric conditions, or perhaps in another place of storage, hay not more damp might have become mow-burnt or mouldy. Dust may also arise from hay having been overdried before being car- ried, or from having been much exposed to weather. In the first-named case the dust arises from breaking up of the outer coats of the fibres from over-dryness, and in the latter from decomposition owing to expo- sure. Dust is occasionally due to a blight having fallen on the crop whilst growing. Dust, from whatever cause arising, is always an unfavourable feature in hay. 98a. Second crop of hay, or aftermath. The second crop of hay, whether of upland or lowland growth, other- wise called the aftermath, is very inferior to the first, and is unfit for FORAGK. 57 horses. Its characteristics are softness, absence of stems and flowering heads, and total want of perfume. It consists chiefly of the leaves which grow round the stems of the grasses. The stems, after being cut in the first crop, do not in general grow again during the summer. Such stems as do grow, lack the firm, bright, healthy appearance of the first crop. The colour of the hay is always dark, and the various fibres and leaves lie in confusion. 986. Distinction between new and old hay. In the stack there is seldom any difficulty in determining whether the hay is old or new. The weather-beaten appearance or otherwise of the outside tells its tale pretty clearly. On a single truss, however, apart from the stack, it is very difficult to form a correct opinion. Some London salesmen, whom the Author has consulted on this point, agree in saying that they form their opinion chiefly, if not entirely, on their knowledge of the peculiarities of the growth of the crop in each year in the district from which the market is supplied. (Hay, we may remind the reader, is always drawn from a not very extensive district round the market. It is too bulky to pay for lengthened carriage, except under extraordinary circumstances.) For instance, the crop of one year may be marked by abundance of herbage, that of another year by absence of that feature ; or that of one year, as in the hot dry season of 1868, may be distinguished by being universally well saved and also scanty in quantity, whilst in another the crops may be all heavy, or in another year the hay on account of prevailing wet weather may be, as a general rule, badly saved. More than one of these peculiarities may be present in a crop, and may serve to distinguish it very easily from the growth of the previous year. It never happens that the growth in two successive years presents exactly the same features. As hay is not kept above two or, at the outside, three years, the difficulty of bearing in mind the peculiarities of each crop during such very limited period is not great. The wine merchant, who recognises by the bouquet the vintages of many years, has a far more difficult task in his trade. The salesmen appear to prefer this method of distinguishing old from new hay to any of the other distinctions, which the Author will presently endeavour to point out, because it is indepen- dent of those changes in colour, smell, softness, dryness, &c., which are caused by the process of heating or fermentation, to which hay in this country is usually subjected. At a distance, however, from the district in which the crop is grown, this special knowledge, on which the salesmen seem to rely, would fail. There may have been, for instance, heavy rain in one district at the proper season, and in consequence a heavy crop with abundance of herbage ; whilst the crops in another district, from a difference in weather, may be light. Of late years hay has been brought from great distances, and therefore the above hints are not as safe a guide as they were 50 years ago. To aid the general reader, who cannot be expected to possess the above- 58 CHAPTER 5. mentioned special knowledge, we shall endeavour to point out some dis- tinctions, by which in most cases, though perhaps not positively, new and old hay can be distinguished. Two great difficulties are met with at the outset. Changes are very rapidly produced in new hay by heating or fermentation, which cause it to simulate in almost every respect the appearance of old hay ; and secondly, well-saved old hay, which happens not to have heated at all, very closely resembles new hay. New hay, apart from any change which may be produced in it by heating, is marked by green colour, by the perfect freshness of its perfume, by the sappiness of its fibres, by the preservation of the natural colour of its flowers, and by the absence of consolidation. If, however, no fermentation takes place in the stack, the green colour of the grass, the freshness, though not the perfect freshness, of its perfume, and the natural colour of its flowers, may remain for almost any length of time. The sappiness of its fibres, however, will gradually and sensibly diminish as the year draws on. In some seasons the outside of the fibres may be quite dry in perfectly new hay ; but if the outer coat be peeled off, the inner stem will be found to ,be sappy. In old hay the inside of the fibre will be as dry or nearly as dry as the outside. Sap is retained longest at the knots. Hence in cases of doubt the fibre should always be examined at the knots. If the inside of the knot is dry, it affords some proof that the hay is old. Old hay is usually marked, by loss of green colour, by absence of fresh perfume, by dryness of its fibres, by loss of colour of its flowers, fre- quently by greater consolidation, especially towards the centre of the stack, and in some cases by a musty smell. The outer trusses, however, often retain almost all the peculiarities of new hay. Hence it is much more difficult to give an opinion about one truss than about a load. All the above-mentioned peculiarities of old hay may, however, be found in new hay, when it has been in stack for a couple of months or even less, and has heated. For instance, the green colour of its grasses may be lost by a few days' fermentation, and so likewise the colour of its flowers. The perfume will also change from that of a new-mown grass to the smell (in extreme case) of mow-burnt hay. Again, consolida- tion is due to heating, not to the gradual effect of weight and time, as is often supposed. New hay immediately after fermentation will be nearly as much consolidated as it will ever be; whilst a stack, which does not ferment, will scarcely have sunk at all at the end of a couple of years. Fermentation or heating, we must remark, though a farmer would probably smile at so simple a remark, is not a process continually going on or even going on for any considerable length of time in a stack. Owing to the state of the grasses, aided perhaps by the state of the weather and other circumstances, fermentation takes place, runs its course, and then ceases. If it exists to any great degree, or if it lasts for any considerable length of time, the chances are that the stack catches fire. Stacks of hay do not heat evenly or equally all over. The heating generally commences in the centre, and runs to one side or the other FORAGE. 59 according to the wind or other local circumstances at the time. The opposite side may not be affected at all. The outer part is seldom much affected, even on the side to which the heating runs. Old hay, as a general rule, is harder than new; but in exceptionally dry and hot seasons, the grasses composing new hay may be so dried, and even burnt up, that from the very first they are as hard and dry as the fibres of old hay. On the other hand, a great deal of mow-burnt hay, whether old or new, will handle quite soft. Again, the climate at the particular time at which the stack is cut and brought to market, will affect the moisture and flexibility of the fibres. The Author has known two-year-old hay in hot damp weather handle and twist as flexibly as grass. Further, a stack of old hay, when first opened and cut and thereby exposed to the air, will often sweat in particular states of the weather, and the hay in the trusses will handle like new hay. After a few days, however, the effect of the renewed sweating will go off, and the hay will again handle hard. The weeds often found in hay generally afford valuable information as to its age. The sap remains longer in their strong and coarse fibres than in the more delicate stems of the grasses. Of these the Black-head (Centaur ea nigra), No. 29, may be taken as an example. Its stalk, but more especially the pods containing the seed, long retain moisture, and may thereby prove the hay to be new, when the state of the grasses might lead a person to think that it was old. The leaves of the Rib-grass (Plantago lanceolata), No. 28, also afford some indication. In new hay they are brown, soft, and flexible, whilst in old hay they are black and friable, i. e. break and crumble to pieces on the application of friction. These latter indications may, however, be present in new hay after it has heated. The degree in which all the above signs respectively exist will ob- viously vary much according to the month in which the examination is made. They must therefore be applied with discrimination. These remarks on the distinctive differences between old and new hay may seem at first sight to the reader to be so full of qualifications as to be neither very clear nor explicit. The subject is, in fact, a difficult one, and does not admit of drawing any sharply defined definitions. Apart from a special knowledge of the growth of the year and the preceding year, no rule can be given for distinguishing old from new hay. The Author believes he has laid before the reader all the distinctions, and the necessary qualifications to those distinctions, which exist. The in- tending purchaser must balance one fact or appearance against another ; and with care and practice, and the assistance of the above data, he will probably after a time be able to form a pretty correct opinion. The best means, however, of acquiring a thorough knowledge on this subject is to give up a few mornings to going round a hay market with a respect- able and intelligent salesman. 98c. New v. old hay, as regards feeding. New hay, as is well known, has a tendency to cause scouring; but in 60 OH APT EU, 5. November well-saved examples are sufficiently dried to render them in- nocuous in this respect. In the Author's opinion new hay may be given safely after that date to hunters which are not limited in their oats, though he is quite aware that popular opinion is opposed to this view. Hay of one year is desirable, though not essential, to hard condition. After a year and a half, hay, he thinks, loses much of its nutritive quali- ties. It becomes over-dry and, if the expression may be used, stale. Well-saved samples may retain their perfume for two, or even three or four years ; but, nevertheless, they have lost much of their feeding quali- ties. Rose leaves and lavender kept in closed jars will retain their scent for twenty years, although so dried up as to crumble to dust in the hand. 98d. Irish hay. It is the custom of Irish farmers to leave the hay out in the fields for at least two months in cocks, until it is so thoroughly dried that it does not afterwards heat. Much of the nutriment, however, is extracted out of it, as we might expect, by the effect of the sun, wind, and rain during that long period. As the hay does not ferment, there is but little difficulty in distinguish- ing old from new. The state of the weeds generally pretty abundantly found in it affords the best indication of its age. Great reliance may be placed on the state of the Rib-grass (Plantago lanceolata), No. 28. For the first month or so it remains almost green, for the next three months it is brown, for the succeeding three it is black, but pretty flexible. After this time it breaks and crumbles away with a little friction. The Black or Hard-head, No. 29 (Centaur ea nigra), a harsh, stubborn weed, retains the moisture in its stalk for the first three months.. After that period the moisture will only be found in its knots and in the pods. After six months the moisture has left the knots and remains only in the pods. About March the sticky moisture, which has hitherto glued together the seeds in their pod, has dried up, and the seeds are easily separated from each other when the pod is opened. Another plant, known as the Silver- weed or Goose-grass (Potentilla anserina), No. 34, affords excellent indi- cations of the age of hay. It is easily recognised by its growing in bunches. In new hay the under side of the leaf is white. An alteration in colour gradually takes place, until at the end of nine months the under side is quite black, and the leaf crumbles to pieces on friction. Coltsfoot, No. 35 (Tussilago farfara), the under side of the leaf, which is at first white, affords indications similar to those given by the silverweed. The Thistle retains something of its green colour and is sappy till spring. In old hay it will be found excessively shrivelled, dry, and brittle. The Dock retains its colour and sap for about four months, and after that period gradually becomes dry, brittle, deep red, and eventually black. 98e. Pressed hay. Pressing does not injure hay. But the purchaser must bear in mind that frauds are very possible unless due care is taken. FORAGE. 61 98/. Clover hay. Clover hay is much relished by horses. It is very useful in putting on llesh, but militates against very hard condition and good wind, and is therefore not recommended for horses doing fast work. The most valu- able hay is that made from clover only; but the crop is often — indeed usually, sown with rye-grass, and hence there is frequently, especially in the first cutting, a large admixture of the latter in it. The produce of the first cutting is the best, that of the second is much coarser. The third growth is not often made into hay. It consists chiefly of leaves, as the stalks do not grow a third time. It is generally fed down. The most common defect in clover hay is mouldiness or a tendency to it, indicated by loss of colour in the flowers and general blackness. It is, in fact, a difficult crop to save well on account of the great amount of juice in its fibres and leaves, especially in the first cutting of the year. 98$. Green forage. Green forage is laxative and cooling, and therefore well suited for sick or young horses, especially when first taken up from grass. The quantity given to the latter should be gradually diminished, as the system becomes accustomed to more stimulating diet and the warmth of stables. Green forage, if given to horses in fast work, is very liable to cause bowel complaints. From its bulk and laxative action it militates against the hard condition necessary for fast or full work. It is not, however, so objectionable for cart horses, whose work is slow ; yet it causes even these to sweat much and easily, and not unfrequently, especially in early spring, brings on bowel complaints. Green forage of whatever sort should be young and fresh. Grass, rye- grass, lucerne, and sainfoin are to be preferred when they can be obtained. Vetches and clover are also used. Green forage, when old, loses much of its succulence, and vetches in particular become heating. If stale it is apt, from rapid decomposition, to produce colic and intes- tinal disease. Clover, vetches, and other plants of the Trifolium variety contain an acrid principle, which is apt to affect the kidneys. Grass, rye-grass, lucerne, and sainfoin are free from this objectionable property, and are therefore more suitable for sick horses than the varieties of Trifolium. Green forage should always at first be given rather sparingly. Many horses die every spring from neglect of this precaution. 9Sh. Carrots. Carrots are often very acceptable to sick horses, and are especially valuable at those seasons of the year when fresh grass cannot be procured. New carrots are the best. None but sound roots should be selected. They should be sliced longways. If cut transversely they are apt to cause choking. They may be given by themselves or mixed with oats or 62 CHAPTER 5. mash. But the sick horse, whose appetite is very capricious, will more often be tempted by the carrot alone. 9Si. Gruel Gruel made from oatmeal is palatable and refreshing to a tired horse. The stomach seems to assimilate it more readily than hard corn. The very best fresh coarsely ground oatmeal should be used. Good gruel is made by putting about a double handful of oatmeal into a pail and pouring on it a little cold water. After being well stirred, a gallon and a half of hot, but not boiling, water must be added, and the whole stirred again. Boiling water should not be used, because it pro- duces a more starchy compound than is suitable for the stomach of the horse in an exhausted condition. The temperature should be reduced to that of new milk before it is given. If the horse is very much over- tasked, it may be advisable to add to it a wine-glassful of spirits or a pint of ale. Gruel may also be made from boiled linseed, and many persons prefer it to oatmeal gruel. It should be prepared by boiling about one pound of linseed in two gallons of water. The fluid should be strained, and forms a nice drink. The residuum may be utilised by mixing it with bran in the form of a mash. 98;. Bran. Bran, when fresh ground and wetted, is useful as a laxative. It acts mechanically on the lining membrane of the stomach by causing a slight irritation, which increases the secretions and thereby quickens the pas- sage of the contents of the intestines. In the cavalry a bran mash is usually substituted for the feed of oats on every Saturday evening, partly because the horses are not exercised on Sundays, and partly as a preventive to constipation, which might otherwise arise from being kept on hard food exclusively year after year. Whether from this practice or not, it is certain that troop horses do not require those periodical doses of physic which in many stables are supposed to be essential to the maintenance of health. A bran mash should be made as follows : — The bran should be placed in a clean stable pail, and as much boiling water poured in as the bran will absorb. Half an ounce of salt may be added, and the whole should be covered up to keep in the steam until sufficiently cool. A pound of well-boiled linseed is a valuable addition. Dry bran in small quantities is said to have an astringent effect. It is often given after physic, if over-active, to stop its further action. A handful of flour, however, in water will answer this purpose better. Bran should invariably be fresh ground. 9SJc. Linseed. Linseed is the seed of the flax plant, and is a valuable food for horses in low or debilitated condition. It is slightly laxative, is soothing to FORAGE. 63 excoriated mucous surfaces, and has a marked effect in improving the horse's coat. It may be given boiled either in the form of a mash with the addition of bran, or may be mixed with the oats, or given in the form of gruel. 98Z. Boiled foods. Boiled foods fatten, but do not give strength and firmness to the muscles. They are, therefore, unsuitable for saddle or carriage horses, though perhaps they may answer for animals in slow work. Even in these, however, they are apt to produce colic, indigestion, and sometimes rupture, probably from the facility with which this description of food may be bolted without due mastication. 98m. Straw. Straw must be either wheaten, oaten, or rye, and should be clean, dry, and not much broken in the thrashing. Steam-thrashed straw is inferior to that thrashed by manual labour, inasmuch as it is more broken. Wheaten is generally preferred to oaten straw, and certainly looks nicer in the stable ; but there is no real objection to the latter, except that, when new, horses are apt to eat it. This, however, may be pre- vented by a proper arrangement of the bedding. Rye straw is very good, but in most localities its cost is a bar to its use. Barley straw is inadmissible. It is apt to induce disease of the skin. 9Sn. Artificial foods. All food to be useful must supply the special nutrient materials re- quired by the particular animal. For most horses the ordinary articles of food, namely, hay and corn, answer best. Some animals, however, have delicate* digestions, others are troubled with want of appetite. Stomachics mixed with the food of the one may assist digestion, whilst tonics may be useful to the latter. Again, in animals, as in men, it some- times happens that there is some want of nutrition in some part of the system, which must be supplied before the animal will thrive or put on flesh. A harsh coat, for instance, indicates a want of oily material in the system, which may often be beneficially supplied by giving boiled linseed. In other cases the special want may be of fibrinous material in the blood, and then doses of iron will be useful. These instances might easily be multiplied. After a severe debilitating illness, when the system is thoroughly ex- hausted, nothing will be found to answer better than a quart of strong beef soup daily, either given as a drink, if the patient will take it in that way, or mixed with corn. The same recipe will, in some cases, but not in all, answer in putting flesh on a horse which, though in good health, remains persistently thin. Most of the artificial or patent foods advertised in the present day are compounded of a great number of stimulating and fattening ingredients, by means of some one of which the special need of the system may very 64 CHAPTER 5. possibly be supplied. But it is as well to remember that most artificial stimulants cease to have any effect after a time. The chief objection to the use of such foods, even in cases where they act beneficially, consists in the excessive price at which they are sold. The component parts of these foods are easily ascertained by analysis, and, indeed, in most cases are well known. The owner of horses may as well make them for himself as pay a hundred or two hundred per cent, over their value. On this subject the Author has ventured to extract the following sen- sible remarks from the valuable work on ' The Horse in the Stable and the Field/ by Stonehenge, pp. 231-2 : " During the last five or six years various artificially prepared foods have been introduced to the notice of the public, under the names of ' Thorley's Food for Cattle/ ' Henri's Horse and Cattle Food/ &o. The advertisements of the patentees would lead to the belief that their horse and cattle foods contain more real nourishment than the various kinds of food which have hitherto been given to horses and cattle, but chemical analysis shows the incorrectness of these statements. " The following observations in the ' Field ' of the 18th of February, 1860, put the matter in its true light, and show that as a mere article of food these preparations are far from economical : " ' It is not surprising, when artificial foods should thus come to be adopted as so much fattening power, that various mixtures should be employed largely impregnated with stimulating substances. They are thus made extremely palatable to the animal, who naturally enough thrives upon the good things provided for him. We will not now stop to inquire how far this stimulus may be permanently beneficial, even admitting the temporary advantage ; our object is simply a cash account. If the price of cake, ranging at about .£10 a ton, forms the limits from which any ordinaiy return can be expected, how can an article, sold at a price realising from 300 to 400 per cent, on the cost price of the mate- rials of which it is composed, ever bring any return at all? " ' Such savoury condiments, dished up at from £40 to £50 a ton, have no more fattening powers than the ordinary cakes and meal, of which, indeed, their bulk is principally composed. Locust beans, the different oil-cakes, and Indian corn form the basis of these cattle foods so often paraded before the public, with which sundry stimulants, making a kind of curry-powder concoction, are mixed up. This, though it may be highly agreeable, yet at the price above stated forms a most costly addition to the ordinary feeding cost, and an animal once pampered on such material can hardly fall back on ordinary food ; hence the price of fattening is greatly enhanced, but without any increase of the saleable carcass, for there is a natural limit in this direction. " ' A compound at £40 a ton will make no more flesh than oil-cake at £10 ; but if the farmer approves of, and will have, the compound, let him simply mix the materials himself. There is no secret in the com- position, for the test is at hand in a simple analysis. " ' The following is the ordinary formula : FORAGE. 65 " ' To make one ton of meal. cwt. qrs. Ibs. £ s. d. Locust Bean, finely ground, at £6 a ton .600 1 16 0 Indian Corn at £7 a ton . . . .900 330 Best Linseed Cake at £10 a ton . . .300 1 10 0 Powdered Turmeric at 8d. a Ib. . . . 40 168 Sulphur at 3d. a Ib 40 68 Saltpetre at 5d. a Ib. . ,^ " . 20 84 Liquorice at Is. a Ib. . . . 27 170 Cinger at Gd. per Ib. . -, ;. . 3 16 Aniseed at $d. a Ib. . . . . 4 30 Coriander at 9d. a Ib. . . . : ; 10 76 Gentian at Sd. a Ib. ... . 10 68 Cream of Tartar at Is. Sd. a Ib. ... 2 34 Carbonate of Soda at 4rZ. a Ib. 6 2 0 Levigated Antimony at 6d. a Ib. . . 6 30 Common Salt at \d. a Ib. . ..';.' 30 13 Peruvian Bark at 4s. a Ib. . . 4 16 0 Fenugreek at 9d. a Ib. . :-V .. . 22 16 6 Total . -. . 20 0 0 12 18 5 " ' Looking at this composition, it will be evident at a glance that the chief ingredients are the ordinary commercial locust-bean, Indian corn, and oil-cakes. " ' These form its bulk, and constitute nine tenths of the whole, the remainder being made up of condiments and stimulants, the sulphur and antimony being intended to act upon the skin in the production of a fine coat, and the fenugreek for a kind of mucilage to prevent any ill effects that might arise from the stimulating character of the food. " ' These ingredients have no doubt been selected with skill, and an animal may be expected, and not unreasonably, to thrive upon such savoury substances. For this precious article (which it unquestionably is) the modest sum of about 42s. a cwt. is demanded, or at the rate of £42 a ton, or upwards of 300 per cent, on the cost price, even taken at the valuation given above, which for the one tenth or stimulating portion might be considerably reduced, if the several materials were bought at wholesale prices. " ' We prefer, however, to take the ordinary trade valuation, in order to give the widest margin possible for the cost — this, after all, being the simple point at issue. If a farmer wishes for the article, the use of which, containing as it does so much stimulating matter, is very question- able, and chooses to pay from three to four times the intrinsic value, it is of course at his option to do so ; but as the whole question of farming is one of paying, we will put it plainly : Can it pay to feed animals on substances costing from £40 to £50 per ton? A knowledge of the con- stituent elements of these foods may induce a pause before the outlay is made. 66 CHAPTER 6. " ' Some supposed great secret has no doubt with, a few acted as a charin, on the principle of " Onine ignotuni pro magnilico ; " but the analysis at once dispels this illusion, and nothing remains but the cost and its result, mere matters of ordinary calculation.' " A small quantity of powdered ginger, or any cheap aromatic spice mixed with the ordinary feed of oats or hay, will often cause a delicate feeder to relish his food, will assist digestion, and will probably answer as well as the highly advertised and very expensive patent foods. Some horses at first object to the taste of spice, and therefore a very small quantity only should be given to begin with. All such artificial aids to digestion should be discontinued as soon as the system recovers tone. 98o. Concentrated foods. These foods may perhaps be useful for a few days ; for instance, for cavalry employed on a raid in an enemy's country, where supplies cannot be possibly obtained, but they do not answer for ordinary use. The stomach requires a certain amount of mechanical distension to enable it to carry on its digestive operations. Hence, as soon as the stomach be- comes really empty, the concentrated food is useless. CHAPTER G. GROOMING. 99. Reason of the need of grooming. 100. Structure of the skin. 101. Glands of the skin. 102. Perspiration. 103. Structure of the hair. 104. Shedding of the coat. 105. The Whiskers. 106. Objects gained by groom- ing. 107. Useof the brush in grooming. 107rse« from dealers' stdblts. Horses from dealers' stables generally require special care and attention to bring successfully into work. They should, indeed, be treated almost with the precautions recommended above for young horses. They are 6 82 CHAPTER 8. usually very fat and soft. They sweat freely, and in consequence are very liable to chills, coughs and colds, if neglected after exercise. Their respi- ratory organs also are unused to any violent exertion, and hence are very subject to disease, if injudiciously excited. The digestive powers of their stomachs are also frequently debilitated and deranged by the constant use of tonics. 143. Exercise of riding or harness horses. For horses in ordinary condition, such as those used for riding or driving, two hours' work in the course of the day, provided that in that time a distance of ten miles is traversed, is a fair quantum. When the owner cannot give this amount of work to his horses, he should insist on his servants exercising them in the morning for such a period as will make up this time and distance each day. There is nothing servants dislike so much as properly exercising horses. It takes up, of course, a good deal of their time, and makes no immediate outward show. Far more horses in gentlemen's stables suffer from too little than from too much regular work. 143a. Exercise in wet weather. When the weather forbids exercise, grooming is the best substitute. The Author particularly calls attention to this, because, where there is no external sign of dirt, servants are very apt to neglect cleaning the pores of the skin. 144. Exercise of hunters. Hunters generally get work enough during the season, but are seldom fit to go till it is half over. We propose to consider, first, why they are not fit to go, and, secondly, how they may be got fit by the beginning of the season. It will be admitted that hunters are tolerably fit at the end of the season. It has been asserted in these pages, though many for various reasons will question it, that " condition " is cumulative, i. e. goes on and increases with time. If " condition " is cumulative, why should not a horse be in better form at the beginning of a season than he was at the end of the previous year 1 Are there any insuperable difficulties in the way? Is the expense too great? Are not the wear and tear and liability to accident far greater in horses that are not fit to go than in those which are thoroughly fit? Is it not a fact, that when a hunter has got thoroughly well seasoned, neither weak nor over fresh,- he seldom comes to grief ? It is alleged, however, that there are insuperable difficulties in the way of maintaining hunters in condition through the summer, that legs and feet will not stand continual work, that horses hard wrought in winter require rest in summer, that ground suitable for exercise cannot be found, and, lastly, that keeping horses up through the summer is very expensive. We will take these objections seriatim. Whilst we fully admit that the highest development of the powers of nature, such as that required EXERCISE. 83 for racing, cannot be maintained at their utmost for any length of time ; yet we cannot see the difficulty of maintaining a horse in condition through the summer, that is, in such condition that no preparation is needed for hunting, except a few gallops to improve the wind, if only the animal be well fed, well groomed, and exercised two hours a day. It is an advantage, or at least more profitable, if the owner can. utilise the horse by riding him or working him in harness during the summer months. Officers' horses in cavalry regiments are so treated, and they are gene- rally in better condition without any preparation at the beginning of the hunting season than the horses of most sporting men after a vast amount of preparation, physic, and work. 145. " Summering " of hunters. The so called restorative process of " summering " hunters is open to many objections. The animal after his four months' holiday comes up fat, gross, weak, and out of sorts. He requires physic and sweating to reduce his bulk, extra grooming to bring his skin into order, beans to give firmness to his muscles, and carefully regulated, and relatively to his condition severe exercise to develop his strength and wind, and after all he is generally not half fit to go at the beginning of the season. All this, unless we are in error about officers' horses, is needless waste of time and trouble, and, moreover, a severe and unnecessary trial to the animal's constitution. Again, if health is to be preserved, horses, which for eight months in the year are accustomed to be groomed, ought to be groomed during the remaining four. It is a fallacy to suppose that the horse, when thrown out of work, does not require to be groomed. In reality he needs it far more for some months, than when at work. The secretions of his body, which have made use of the pores and glands of the skin (vide Chapter 6, on Grooming) as their organs of excretion, continue to do so for some time after those glands have ceased to receive the stimuli, namely, exer- cise and grooming, which originally brought them into activity. Hence they choke, and in consequence effete matters remain in the system ; and in the end the horse requires, as we might expect, two or three doses of physic to clear his system. Here, then, is a break-down of the theory of summering hunters. The so-called restorative process ends in an amount of constitutional disturb- ance which requires physic to correct it. This constitutional disturbance, caused by want of proper exercise and grooming during the summer months, has been, we believe, the origin of the three doses of physic traditionally supposed to be essential to getting hunters into condition. 146. But will legs and feet stand continual work? But it may be said, — granting that a horse may be in better condition from having been worked through the summer, yet his feet and legs will not stand this perpetual strain and hammering. Feet, we answer, if of good conformation and properly shod, never 84 CHAPTER 8. suffer from work. Joints, tendons, and ligaments may suffer, but feet from their construction are not likely to suffer either from age or work. The foot of an old horse is just as sound as that of a young one. The legs and joints, we admit, do suffer from work, or rather if over- worked, fail before other parts of the frame. The question, however, is not whether they suffer from work, but whether they suffer more from regular than from intermittent work. Arguing from the structure of joints, tendons, and ligaments, we should conclude that intermittent, especially severe intermittent work, would affect them more injuriously than continued strong work. The severity of work is comparative to the power of sustaining exertion. Let a man not used to walking take a long walk and he will find it severe work, and his joints next day will be stiff and sore all round. Let another man used to that degree of exercise take the same walk, and he will not find it severe. Severity of work, then, is in a great degree comparative to what the person or horse is accustomed to. Among the more common effects of work are wind-galls, thorough-pins, and other enlargements about the joints. These all result from increased secretions of synovia thrown out by nature to preserve the joints and tendons from the irritation caused by work. As in the case of the man alluded to above, joints and tendons which are accustomed to the required amount of exertion will be less likely to suffer from irritation than those not accustomed to such exertion. Sprains, also, which are another occasional effect of severe work, must be less likely to occur when the ligaments and tendons are fully and regu- larly developed than when they are in a weaker state, as must be the case at the beginning of a hunting season, when the horse has been idle through the summer. The same remarks apply to spavins, splints, and other exostoses, which result from irritation and inflammation in the bony structures. But it may be asked, " Do not horses, which have suffered from the severity of work during the hunting season, require to be laid up and rested?" If a tendon or ligament is sprained, the horse must of course be laid up and further treatment will be necessary ; or, again, if any disease is set up in the joints, rest and treatment will be required. But supposing no such accident to have occurred, and supposing that the tendons, ligaments, and joints merely show " work," their recovery will be promoted rather than retarded by fair and reasonable exercise, by good feeding and good grooming during the summer. No doubt a horse which shows " work " requires abstinence for a time from severe work, such as hunting; but we question whether he will be the better for total cessation from work. In all such cases the tone of the system requires to be stimulated rather than let down. 147. Exercising ground in summer. Again, it is alleged that ground suitable for exercise cannot be found in summer. Fairly soft ground may generally, we reply, be found in any EXERCISE. 85 neighbourhood up to the end of May. In June a newly-niown grass field can always be obtained, the soil of which, having been protected from the sun, will be soft for at least a month after. Some other field, which may have been mown later, will probably bring us to the beginning of August. About this time a new stubble is generally available, and makes good exercising ground. If, however, in any particular locality it be impossible to find suitable fields, it is better to make artificially an exercising ground rather than run any risk of the horses being insufficiently prepared. 148. Artificial exercising ground. Good exercising ground may be made at no great expense. The first essential of course is drainage, both, because all ground on which water has lain becomes very hard when dry ; and because a dry sound bottom is essential to the preservation of the tan, litter, or whatever material may be used as the basis of the artificial ride. Economy in the cost in the particular locality will necessarily regulate the choice of the material used in forming the ride. A circle of about four hundred yards will be sufficient. 149. Temporary ride during a frost. During a frost a temporary ride sufficient to trot horses round may always be formed by means of refuse litter from the dung heap. 150. Expense of keeping Jwrses up through the summer. Lastly, as regards the expense of keeping hunters up through the summer. — The owner of a large stud may say, " I have too many horses to be able to work them through the summer, and it would cost a fortune to feed them high and keep servants to groom and exercise them." Our answer is very short. " Keep fewer." It is better to have six horses that can go, than a dozen that can't go ; and not only is it better in point of enjoyment, but it is also cheaper. 151. Size of stud required for hunting. A good horse in good condition ought to go three days a fortnight with hounds in most countries. At this rate only four horses would be required to hunt six days a week. Accidents, however, and illnesses will occur, and it is necessary to make allowances for these ; though much fewer accidents will occur with horses thoroughly in work than with others, and illnesses with good stable management ought to be very rare. Making all allowances, six hunters and perhaps a hack, if the distances to cover are great, ought to see a hard-riding man through six days a week from the beginning to the end of the season. If the owner wishes to have a second horse out every day, it may be necessary to add two more to the above number. Masters of hounds, we may observe, very seldom keep more than the above proportion of horses 86 CHAPTER 8. for their huntsmen ; and it is quite certain that gentlemen's horses during the day do not generally do more work than the huntsman's. 152. Kind of exercise most suitable for hunters in summer. The system of throwing hunters out of work in summer is, for reasons given above, we believe, little more than a prejudice founded on ignor- ance, custom, and supposed economy. When the hunting season is over, the kind of exercise best suited to the particular animal should be adopted. Saddle work may suit some, harness may be better adapted to others, whilst a few may require to be led. We only urge that horses should get sufficient exercise of some sort; but we believe that on the whole light harness work answers the best. 153. Objections made to harness work. Many owners object to saddle horses being put into harness because it is apt, they think, to make them go heavy in hand. Heavy harness work no doubt has this tendency, because horses in drawing large loads lean on the collar in order to assist the draft by their weight ; but light harness work is not open to this objection. Nothing, for instance, can be more suitable for hunters in summer than a pair-horse brougham, provided the coachman has " hands." Coachmen, however, very generally have heavy " hands," and the complaint of the ill effect of harness work will more often be found to be due to this cause than to any inherent effect of draft. 154. Hunters in autumn to be occasionally exercised in deep ground. While it is obviously desirable, as a general rule, to select sound ground for exercise, whilst it would probably be injudicious to gallop a horse in a deep ploughed field, yet some exercise in deep ground at a smart trot with or without clothing, according to circumstances, should not be neglected in the preparation of the hunter in autumn. It is as neces- sary to accustom a horse to the ground in which he will have to go, as it is to accustom him to the pace required of him. 155. Hard condition to be antecedent to fast work. Before quitting this portion of his subject, the Author desires to repeat that horses cannot be galloped into condition. If a horse is weak, fast or severe work will only make him weaker ; if he has a big belly, fast work will produce disease ; if he is soft, fast work will make him run up light. Hard condition must be antecedent to galloping ; and if the condition is really hard, very little galloping is necessary to put the horse in wind. 156. Of " two hours " so-called exercise. It has been stated above, that two hours' exercise during the day, pro- vided that in that time a distance of ten miles is traversed, is sufficient EXERCISE. 87 for the purposes of health and for the maintenance of the condition re- quired for the ordinary purposes of riding and driving. It is necessary, however, to give a caution against what servants often call two hours' exercise. In most establishments it will be found that it means little more than an hour and a quarter, and all the time at a walk. Servants are generally supposed to go to the stable at six o'clock in the morning, but are usually somewhat later. Sweeping out the stable, watering, feeding, and saddling occupy some twenty minutes, and it may probably be the half-hour before the horses really leave the stable. They are generally brought in again by a quarter to eight, that is, in time to allow the servants to tie them up, unsaddle, and rub down their legs before their breakfast, which is usually at eight o'clock. This is what is called two hours' exercise in most establishments, but a great many do not come up even to this very moderate mark. 157. Of exercising in clothing. A question is often asked, whether horses ought to be exercised in clothing? In moderate weather it is better that they should be accus- tomed to go without it. It is false in principle to habituate a horse to the need of an artificial protection, which on other occasions it is impos- sible to give him. It may indeed be urged, that horses are usually taken to exercise at an earlier and more chilly hour than they are ridden by their owners. On the other hand, it may be replied, that horses at exer- cise need clothing less than at other times, because they never need and certainly never ought to be kept standing ; whereas in the uses to which the owner puts his horses, it must occasionally, if not frequently happen, that they are kept standing for a considerable time, perhaps even when heated. Horses, however, which have been recently clipped or singed, ought to be exercised in clothing. A single rug or hood will be sufficient under ordinary circumstances. More harm than good is caused by exer- cising in too heavy clothing. When it is desired to sweat a horse, the question of clothing, or no clothing, or double clothing, will of course depend on the amount of flesh and coat which the particular animal happens to cany. 157&. Exercise or work in bandages. When horses are ridden in bandages in deep ground or muddy ground, it sometimes happens that the mud works between the bandage and the skin, and causes excessive irritation and swelling, somewhat resembling mud fever. 158. Time for exercising horses. It is the practice in most stables to exercise the horses in the early morning, for the servants after exercise to go to breakfast, and for the horses to be cleaned after breakfast. The object of this arrangement is to save the servants the trouble of grooming the horses a second time. 88 OH APT Eli 9. Apart from any questions connected with grooming, which were dis- cussed in the previous chapter, the practice of exercising horses in the early morning is objectionable. During a great portion of the year the air at that time is generally cold and raw. It is injudicious to pull a horse suddenly out of a warm stable into the chilly air of early morning. Nine o'clock is quite early enough to take the horses out. When they return from exercise, they can then be cleaned at once ; whereas if they are taken out in the morning, they are always left to stand for nearly an hour, whilst the servant gets his breakfast. Again in the early morning the owner is seldom up and about, and in consequence the regulated period of exercise is often cut short by one half. Other abuses, such as a resort to the public house and tying the horses up outside, are more likely to occur at an early than at a late hour. On the other hand, when the horses are taken out at nine o'clock, the owner has the opportunity without trouble to himself of checking the time of going out and returning. 159. Training of race horses. The treatment and training of race horses is a somewhat different subject, and one which is beyond the scope of the present treatise. The condition of race horses is not, as in other horses, cumulative. The con- dition in which they are required for racing is the very highest. The system cannot for long be sustained at an extreme pitch. The object of the trainer is to bring his horse to the very highest pitch of condition on a given day ; whilst the object of the owners of hunters and other horses is to have their powers fully developed and sustained for a lengthened period. CHAPTER 9. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 160. Introduction. 161. Temperature of staoles. 162. Artificial warm- ing of stables. 163. Of stables in summer. 164. Registering thermometer. 165. Stables, both cold and close. 166. Damp stables. 167. Change of stables. 168. Horses brought from grass into stables. 16Sa. Horses from the country. 169. Horses to be cleaned immediately after exercise. 170. Best time for exercise. 171. Of drying horses, when very hot or wet. 172. Warm baths. 173. Artificial removal of coat. 174. Singeing. 175. Clipping. 176. Shaving. 177. Hair not to be removed from legs in rough hunting countries. 178. Manes and tails. 179—180. Bedding. 181. Of horses ivhich eat their bedding. 182. Bedding to be taken outside every STABLE MANAGEMENT. 80 morning. Litter sheds. 183. Clothing. 184. Hand rubbing the legs. 185. Flannel bandages. 186. Wet linen bandages. 187. Of putting on band- ages. 188. Bandages to joints. 189. Persistent coldness of legs. 190. Feet. 191. Arrangement of horses in the stable. 192. Kicking in the stable. 193. Sleeping whilst standing in stable. 194. Weaving. 195. Crib-biting. 196. Wind-sucking. 197. J/ter a /tard day'* worfc. 198. P%?ic. 199. Jlratt mashes. 199a. Working life of horses in various employments. 160. Introduction. In the preceding chapters an endeavour has been made to lay down the broad principles, which are the basis of good stable management. These essentials, to recapitulate, are : 1st, an ample supply of pure fresh air at all times in the stable ; 2nd, judicious watering and feeding ; 3rd, good forage ; 4th, good grooming ; 5th, good shoeing ; 6th, sufficient and well regulated exercise. These are no doubt simple recipes for successful stable management, — too simple perhaps for many, who believe that there is a mystery in stable management known only to a few. Yet from neglect of these common and obvious requirements, few horses look as well as they ought to do. Many become sick or lame, and thus entail trouble, expense and loss, which might easily have been avoided. To ensure the highest development of health and strength, not one or two or even three of these essentials are sufficient, but all must be com- bined. You cannot have strength in a chain, if any one link be defective. The present chapter will be devoted to the practical application of the principles already set forth. 161. Temperature of stables. Whilst purity of air in a stable is absolutely essential, the maintenance of an even and moderately warm temperature is also a matter of great importance. The horse is a native of a warm climate, and both thrives and puts up flesh in warmth. His food will go further and his coat will look better in a warm than in a cold stable. In spring, autumn, and winter a stable should, we think, be kept as comfortably warm as possible without making it close and offensive. Warmth is good for horses, but purity of air is more essential. Good air must never be sacrificed to warmth. Cold air will but produce a staring coat, whilst foul air is the ready parent of disease. The best test of the purity of air in a stable is the sensation felt on first going into it from the external air. The best time for testing the sufficiency or otherwise of ventilation is the early morning, before the stable has been cleaned and aired. In a well drained, well paved, well ventilated, and cleanly kept stable the temperature may generally be maintained at from fifty to sixty degrees. Ill drained, ill paved, badly ventilated or dirty stables cannot 90 CHAPTER 9. with safety be kept as warm as those of which the sanitary condition is more favourable. Many varying circumstances, however, of situation, whether bleak or sheltered, of thickness of walls, of ceiling or absence of ceiling, of rooms overhead, of adjacent buildings and such-like considerations, must modify any general rules as to temperature. Some regard too should be paid to the state of the external atmosphere. With the thermometer, for in- stance, at zero out of doors, a stable would be injudiciously warm at from fifty to sixty degrees, although that temperature may be taken as a fair average for most seasons of the year. 162. Artificial warming of stables. When the weather is cold and more warmth is desired, — instead of shutting up too closely the stable and thereby destroying the purity of the air, — it is better to have recourse to additional clothing or to arti- ficial heating. The latter is very seldom applied to stables, but we feel sure that it would in the long run be much better economy to go to the expense of fires than to run the risk of the many diseases which are generated by foul air. An open fire, though more expensive than a stove, is of far greater service, because, whilst it gives warmth, it also assists the ventilation. 163. Of stables in summer. In summer time stables generally require to be kept as cool as possible. Doors and windows can scarcely be opened too freely. In some cases where the stables have a southern aspect, an awning along the front will be found advantageous. The question of the best aspect for a stable has been already considered in Chapter 1. 164. Registering thermometer. A registering thermometer to show the extremes of heat and cold is a useful adjunct to a stable. The cost of this instrument is but a few shillings. Servants do not understand the danger of impure air. Fre- quently of an evening, when they think that there is no fear of the master again visiting the stable, in their ignorant anxiety for the horse's health and for the glossiness of his coat, they stop up every opening through which the pure invigorating air can enter. A registering thermometer is some check on this practice, though of course it is very inferior to an occasional visit from the master in the morning before the stable is opened. 165. Stables, both cold and close. It is quite possible to have a stable both cold and close. Such stables are generally also damp. They are most objectionable, and are the con- stant source of disease. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 91 166. Damp stables. The horse in his best and highest form is the native of a dry, warm, sunny country. He loves both warmth and dryness. In damp stables he loses all life and spirit ; and debility, generally followed by disease, soon supervenes. New stables should be thoroughly aired and dried before horses are put into them. 167. Change of stables. Horses rarely suffer in health from a change even suddenly from warm to cold stables, provided they are dry ; but a change from cold to warm stables generally produces coughs and colds. In like manner horses turned out to grass from warm stables seldom catch cold, whilst those brought into warm stables from the open almost invariably suffer. 168. Horses brought from grass into stables. When horses, which have been lying out at grass or in open yards, are brought into stables, every door and window should for many days be left wide open, and the temperature should only slowly and gradually be increased, and during this transitional period any symptoms of disease should be carefully watched for. 168a. Horses from the country. It is the practice among dealers in large towns, especially with horses fresh from the country, to turn them round for some hours on the side reins or pillar chains in inclement or foggy weather. This changes the atmosphere they breathe, which is never so stagnant in the passages or gangways as at their mangers. 169. Horses to be cleaned immediately after exercise. No one point in stable management should be more strongly insisted on, than that the horse be not allowed after exercise, and especially after fast exercise, to stand without being at once rubbed and cleaned. The reasons for this were given in the latter part of Chapter 6, on Grooming. In private stables, when horses are exercised in the morning, it is the common but injurious practice for servants on their return to tie them up and leave their legs wet, whilst they have their breakfasts. An hour or more is often let slip in this way. As morning is the most convenient time for exercise, and as servants require breakfast, the evil perhaps cannot be altogether avoided; but it may be much reduced by the master insisting that the legs are dried or bandaged and the horses clothed before the servants leave, and that not more than half an hour is spent at breakfast. 92 CHAPTER 9. 170. Best time for exercise. Though it is usual to take horses out in the early morning on account of the time and trouble thereby saved, yet the really best time for exer- cise is after breakfast. In the morning the servant is often late in starting and in a hurry to get back to his breakfast. Hence the quantum of exercise is cut short. Again, the climate in winter time is less bleak and cold at a later hour, and the servant, having had his breakfast, can at once on his return get to work at his horse. The animal too has then had his morning feed and water some two hours or more, and is therefore more fit for fast exercise, a point of some importance in the preparation of a hunter in the autumn. The servant also has more time to clean out the stable properly in the morning, and the master can better ensure a proper length of exercise. Other reasons specially connected with grooming in favour of exercising after breakfast have been already given in the chapter on that subject. See also Chapter 8, on Exercise. Whilst the horses are at exercise, the doors and windows of the stable should be thrown wide open, so that during that time the interior of the building may get the advantage of a thorough change of air. 171. Of dryimj horses, when very hot or wet. It is always an object of much importance to get a horse, which returns very hot or very wet after hunting or other severe exercise, dried and cleaned as soon as possible. Two or three men therefore should be set to work at once on him. When the sweat is running off profusely a scraper will answer better than a wisp or cloth. 172. Warm laths. On exceptional occasions, when a horse returns from work more than usually dirty, wet, or tired, there is no objection to washing him all over with warm water, or giving him, as it is termed, a bath. After such washing the horse should be thoroughly dried, and then warmly clothed all over and flannel bandages applied to his legs. The warm water is probably refreshing at the moment to a tired animal, and also soothing to any little irritation about the joints or other parts ; but the chief object of this mode of cleaning off the outside dirt is first to save the servant time and trouble, and secondly to enable the horse to lie down and rest an hour sooner than he otherwise would. But though under exceptional circumstances such treatment may in the first instance be beneficial, it must be remembered that water does not really clean the skin of the horse. As soon therefore as the animal has sufficiently rested, his skin must be cleaned by the application of the brush in the usual manner. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 93 173. Artificial removal of the coat. With good grooming, good stables, and the maintenance of an equable temperature, few well-bred horses, except in old age, ought to require the artificial removal of their coats. When, however, it is requisite, there are three means by which it may be effected, namely by singeing, by clipping, and by shaving. Each has its own advantages, according to circumstances. 174. Singeing. Some horses sweat much in autumn, and are worth nothing until their coats are off. Let such be singed. Singeing cannot be begun too early, whilst clipping must not be done until the coat has fully grown and set. The only real art in singeing is to begin early enough and to remove the fresh growth every week. Gas answers best for the operation. 175. Clipping. Other horses are the better for being worked in autumn in clothing or with their coats on, and will be more fit at the commencement of the hunting season on account of the extra sweating so caused. Let such be clipped or shaved. The horse's coat should be fully set before it is removed by clipping. 176. Shaving. Shaving is a very neat and effectual mode of removing the coat. Some nicety however is required in hitting off the right time for the operation, namely, about a week before the coat sets. If done sooner, the coat grows again, and the horse may require to be singed afterwards. If de- ferred later, he may be bare all the winter. The part of the back under the saddle should not be shaved, but clipped. 177. Hair not to be removed from the legs in rough hunting countries. In rough hunting countries it is not desirable to remove the hair from the legs of hunters, from the swell of the arm or thigh downwards. 178. Manes and tails. Manes and tails should be brushed, not combed. A comb pulls out the hairs, and will soon make a mane or tail thin. A switched tail may always be produced by combing it at the end. Almost any mane may be made to lie on the side desired by frequently damping and brushing it, or if need be, by plaiting it with lead. Civi- lians prefer the mane being laid to the off side. With troop horses it is always laid to the near side, with the view of enabling the dragoon to tfcke a lock of it in his hand before mounting. The practice of mounting with a lock of the mane in the bridle hand is good, because it lessens the chance of giving the horse a chuck in the 94 CHAPTER 9. mouth from the hit. Most horses which are unsteady on being mounted, have become so from having received such chucks. The saddle also is less likely to shift from its proper position, when the rider is assisted in mounting by having hold of the mane. 179—180. Bedding. One great item in a horse's comfort, and consequently in his aptitude to carry flesh, is a good bed. Every horse should be bedded down at mid- day. Where straw is abundant, there is of course no difficulty in doing this ; but where the allowance of straw, as in troop stables, is limited to eight pounds a day per horse, there is some difficulty in combining daily bedding down with good beds. As regards economy of straw, it is essential not to give the horse a chance of eating it. With this view no fresh straw should be placed within its reach. The fresh straw should be brought in first, and put not merely at the bottom, but also in rear of the stall ; and then the old litter should be brought in and put at the top and in front. The horse will not readily eat it, and by the following morning the new straw will have become somewhat tainted, and may then be mixed and dried along with the rest. Servants, however, generally prefer to put the new straw on the top, partly because it makes the stable look nicer, and partly because it keeps the clothing cleaner. Again, great care should be taken in the morning to thoroughly shake up and cleanse the bedding from dung, and any parts which may have become rotten should be thrown out. Good straw rapidly deteriorates if these precautions are not taken. On the other hand, careless servants often throw away along with the bad parts much good bedding, which might be dried and used again. Bedding should be shaken up and turned over at least twice in each forenoon, so as to expose every part to the drying and purifying influence of the sun and air. It is, however, a mistake to expose it over-much to the action of a very hot sun, as it makes it too dry and brittle. Every stable ought to be swept out perfectly clean every morning, and all bedding should be removed outside. The paving of the stables will never be perfectly dry and sweet, unless it is exposed to the drying and purifying influence of the air for at least four or five hours each day. The cleanliness and dryness of the floor of the stable are essential items in stable management. 181. Of horses which eat their bedding. Some horses eat their bedding to an extent which is not merely incon- venient on account of the difficulty of maintaining their beds, but which is absolutely injurious to their wind. It is noticeable that horses doing little work and standing idle during the greater part of the day are espe- cially apt thus to gorge themselves. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 95 When the ordinary devices of muzzling or of giving the horse only the oldest and worst litter for his bed have failed, we know of but one remedy, namely, the substitution for straw of some article which he cannot eat. Sawdust makes an excellent bed, and in many places it may be obtained at half the cost of straw. About 100 Ib. per week is suffi- cient to keep up a bed for one horse. Care must, however, be taken to entirely remove and renew the sawdust at least once a week. Sawdust is an absorbent of urine, and also a deodorizer. From this latter quality its impure state is often not recognised. It is not a chemical agent, but only a deodorizer (see par. 323). In Ireland black bog mould is often used. Sea sand, when obtainable, answers very well, and makes a cool and pleasant summer bedding. Of late years moss litter has come into use, and if kept clean and dry answers very well. 182. Preservation of bedding. A shed outside the stable should be provided for the reception of the litter in wet weather (par. 16&). If, however, there is no such con- venience, the litter should nevertheless be removed from under the horses and well shaken up and cleansed, and placed temporarily in a spare stall or in the passage, until the horses are cleaned. It had then better be replaced under the horses, because if retained long in a mass it will heat and ferment and deteriorate. Wet weather should not be admitted as an excuse for allowing the bedding to remain in the stalls, or, in other words, for the stalls not being properly swept out and cleansed in the morning. In no case should the litter be stored under the manger. Strange to say, servants generally do store it under the manger, though the least reflection might convince them that in this position more than any other it must taint the air which the horse has to breathe, whilst the ammonia arising from it must be injurious to his eyes and lungs. In fine weather the litter should always be placed in the open air rather than under a shed. 183. Clothing. Good large heavy rugs, weighing eight pounds, answer quite as well as what is technically called clothing, and have the advantage of being about half the price. The rug should be hollowed out over the withers, and in addition to the ordinary roller the two ends in front should be brought together and secured by a broad strap and buckle. For most horses one rug in summer and two in winter are sufficient. Old horses, as a general rule, require more clothing than younger animals. Breast-cloths, especially where large rugs secured in front are used, are unnecessary. All clothing ought to be brushed and exposed to the purifying influence of the sun and air for some hours daily. Advantage may be taken of the period of exercise and grooming for this purpose. The clothing of horses, 96 CHAPTER 9. as is the case with the clothes of men, absorbs the emanations of the body, and therefore requires to be frequently cleansed and purified. Separate suits for day and night are very desirable. In hot summer weather the rug may be taken off, and a linen or calico sheet, chiefly as a protection against flies, may be substituted for it. If horses are exercised in clothing, a separate suit should be kept for the purpose. It is not desirable that the horse should stand all day in the clothing which has absorbed his perspiration and other emanations whilst at exercise. If, however, separate suits are kept for day and night, this extra suit will not be needed, as the horse may be exercised in the night suit, which can afterwards be dried and aired during the day. 184. Hand rubbing of the legs. Hand rubbing of the legs is very useful in relieving any little fulness arising from over-work, or in other cases from the absence of proper exercise. The pressure and friction thereby given excites the blood- vessels and absorbents to increased action. 185. Flannel bandages. Flannel bandages are useful in several ways. By their pressure they act to a certain degree like hand rubbing ; and again by their warmth they operate as a mild fomentation, and thereby reduce heat, swelling, and slight inflammation. Ordinarily they are used as a means of saving the servant the time which would otherwise be required to dry the legs, when wet. 186. Wet linen bandages. Wet linen bandages are useful in reducing the heat of superficial inflamed parts. They do so both by the actual cold of the bandage, and still more by evaporation. The mode in which warm and cold bandages produce their effects will be described more fully in Chapter 17, under the heads of fomentations and cold applications. 187. Of putting on bandages. Few servants understand how to put on bandages. They need adjust- ment according to the purpose for which they are required. Those in- tended to give pressure of course require a certain degree of tightness, whilst those intended for warmth should only be tight enough to prevent their slipping down. Servants, however, nearly always put on bandages too tightly, forgetting or not knowing that each succeeding fold increases the pressure underneath. The bandage should be rolled up before it is applied, and the winding on should begin from the lowest part upwards. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 97 188. Bandages to joints. It is difficult to bandage any joint, except the fetlock, so as to give pressure or restrain motion. If it be desired to prevent motion, as in some cases of broken knee, the better plan is to apply splints ; or to blister lightly the neighbouring parts with a view of making them tender and stiff, so that the patient may be disinclined to move. As a general rule, where joints are bandaged, it is essential that the horse be tied up by the head to the rack to prevent his lying down. The patient, in the act of lying down or getting up, nearly always bursts a tight bandage. If the object of the bandage be only to maintain warmth in the part after fomentation, as in cases of sprain in the hock, or on the other hand to reduce the heat of the part, it may be conveniently effected by a covering made of felt or of several plies of flannel cut to the requisite shape and sewn together, with a hole for the point of the os calcis, and fastened in front with a number of straps. This covering may be kept moist with hot or cold water according to circumstances. 189. Persistent coldness of legs. When, in spite of friction and bandages, the legs remain persistently cold, as is often the case in various debilitating diseases, a mustard embrocation or ammonia liniment may be advantageously rubbed on the parts, and the bandages may then be reapplied. Some further directions on this subject, which is connected with disease rather than with stable management, will be found in succeeding chapters. 190. Feet. Feet, if the shoeing is good, as a general rule require nothing but cleanliness to keep them in health. They should be picked out and washed clean every morning and again after exercise. 191. Arrangement of horses in the stable. The arrangement of horses in a stable, especially where bales only are used, is a matter of some importance. Some horses take a special dis- like to others, and will constantly bite, kick at, or fight with them ; whilst they will stand quiet next to particular animals. A vicious horse should be put in a corner stall, and if possible, should have a spare stall next to him. A horse which is given to bite his neighbours, may, if put in a corner stall, be still further restrained by passing the collar rein through a ring driven into the side wall instead of through the ordinary ring in the centre of the manger. Again, any horse that feeds slowly may advantageously be placed in a corner stall ; and his more voracious neighbour should be tied up short as soon as he has done feeding. 7 98 CHAPTER 9. 192. Kicking in the stable. Some horses, by kicking in the stable, are constantly laming or dis- figuring themselves, and endangering the lives or linibs of their atten- dants or of other horses, besides smashing partitions and walls. Kicking is a very troublesome vice, and many plans may perhaps be tried, before one can be found which will stop it in any particular animal. There is, in fact, no one recipe to stop kicking, but among many remedies which may be tried, some one will generally be found to be effectual. When the common remedies, such as a log fastened to the hind leg, or a piece of furze hung up in rear, have failed, it is well to try the effect of a strap connecting one or both hind legs with one fore-leg ; or both hind legs may be strapped together, but some horses, notwithstanding their hind legs are tied together, manage to kick by raising both hind legs at the same time. A block of wood or gutta percha, made to fit exactly into the hollow of the heel, and fastened in front by a strap fre- quently effectually prevents kicking in the stable. Most horses may be stopped from kicking, when being groomed, by strapping up one fore-leg in the manner recommended some years back by Mr. Rarey ; but in this case it is essential that a good substantial bed should be kept under the horse, as otherwise he may injure himself by slipping or falling on his knees. It is not uncommon to find, that horses, which have been stopped from kicking by the use of one of these plans, learn after a time to kick in spite of it. Another plan must then be tried. In the great majority of cases, however, where horses are vicious, the servants are the real culprits. Ill tempered or idle or even timid servants cause horses to be, or allow them to become vicious. With good servants and gentle treatment very few horses give, or at least long continue to give trouble. 193. Sleeping, when standing in the stable. Some horses sleep when standing and rarely lie down, and seem to do well. It appears to be natural to them. But others, who indulge in this habit, are apt to fall down and cut their fetlocks. In such cases the habit has probably arisen from the horse having, at some time or other, been cast in the stall. The remedy is of course to induce the horse, if possible, to lie down. A loose box offers the best chance of effecting this object. If this fails, the only preventive to injury is a thick padded boot running completely round the fetlock, in addition to a good substantial bed in front, so that the parts may not be injured, even if the animal falls. It is essential that the boot should go completely round, because a boot covering only the anterior part may slip, and thus leave unprotected the part which needs protection. If the horse suffers in his legs from not lying down, he may be put in slings at night, or a very broad strap may be fastened from one heel post to the other, against which the animal may lean. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 99 This latter plan gives very little trouble, and often answers exceedingly well. 194. Weaving. Weaving, or constant oscillation from side to side by motion of the fore-legs, accompanied with a corresponding motion of the head from side to side, is a curious and favourite trick of some horses. No parti- cular harm seems to result from it, nor does it appear to be catching among other horses. As a general rule, horses do not weave unless they are tied up, but some will go through the motions even though loose. The trick arises from nervousness at the approach or presence of any one. Though the animal may appear to be always weaving, yet such is not the fact, as the owner may easily satisfy himself by placing the horse in some stable where he can watch him without being seen or heard. 195. Crib-biting. Crib-biting is a serious evil, and generally increases rather than dimin- ishes with age. Several causes give rise to it. It is sometimes learnt by young horses catching at the manger or at any rail which may be within their reach when they are being groomed. In other cases it may originate in mere playfulness or want of occupation. The use of deal or any unseasoned wood, which horses like to gnaw, for stable fittings is apt to induce the trick. But most commonly crib-biting arises from some acidity or chronic irritability of the stomach, which produces a craving for something to appease it, i. e. to suck in wind. Crib-biting, if much indulged in, damages the teeth, and is said in some instances to do so to a degree which interferes with feeding. But inas- much as mastication is performed by the posterior teeth, it is not pro- bable that the domesticated horse can suffer any great inconvenience from injury to the incisor teeth. The office of those teeth is principally to nip off the blades of grass, a duty which is not often required in the stabled animal. Crib-biting, however, from the amount of wind sucked into the stomach often seriously interferes with the digestion, and hence is a common cause of flatulence and colic, whilst, again, by impairing the digestion, it often prevents the horse carrying flesh. In its incipient stage crib-biting may be retarded, if not arrested, by dressing all the stable fixtures within reach with coal tar, which must be renewed as often as necessary ; and it is advisable in all cases, having regard to the disease arising from irritability of the stomach, to keep water always within reach. The use of a wooden bar placed across the mouth, and attached at each end to the head collar has also been recom- mended. Acting somewhat as a gag, this is said to have a good effect in arresting this tiresome and evil habit. A strap drawn tightly round the neck is much recommended as a pre- ventive. If sufficiently tight it will prevent the horse from swallowing the air, which is his chief object in cribbing, and on this account it often hinders him from pursuing the habit. It is, however, a question whether 100 CHAPTER 9. a strap drawn tight enough to prevent the trick, may not do injury to the muscles of the throat, and thus produce serious mischief. It has also been recommended to place a ball on a strap to give more pressure on the windpipe. The use of a swinging manger in the box, and the absence of any projection likely to be seized by the teeth has been found to pre- vent this habit. It will, however, probably recur when opportunity offers. Crib-biting is generally supposed to be very catching. No doubt the trick is sometimes learnt by one horse from another, but inasmuch as it generally arises from derangement of the stomach, this cannot be the case to any great extent. In all cavalry regiments a few crib-biters may be found, but though no trouble is taken to separate them from other horses, it is not found that the habit extends. The Author has no great confidence in any wie of these remedies. It is, however, advisable to try them one after the other, and perhaps one may be found which will be successful with a particular horse. 196. Wind- slicking, Wind-sucking is similar in its causes and effects, and requires the same treatment as crib-biting. 197. After a hard day's work. After a hard day's work the horse should, if possible, be given a loose box. If he seems fatigued or has fasted long, a pailful of gruel given at once, before the operation of cleaning is begun, will be acceptable and easy of digestion. Whilst being cleaned he may be given some hay, of which he will eat a little, and which will revive the powers of his stomach, and get it into a state fit to assimilate the corn. As soon as cleaned, he should have his feed of corn mixed with about a pound of linseed boiled to a jelly, and afterwards his hay as usual. After he has been thoroughly dressed and cleaned, dry flannel ban- dages, in lieu of those originally put on after washing or rubbing down his legs, should be applied and left on during the night. The warmth and pressure derived from them will help to reduce any little swelling or effusion or " gumminess " arising from the day's work. On the following morning, after being thoroughly groomed and his legs hand-rubbed, the horse, if standing in a stall, may be taken out for half an hour's walking exercise ; but if in a loose box the exercise may be dispensed with. At mid-day he should be again thoroughly groomed and his legs hand-rubbed. Nothing refreshes the horse more, or sooner re- stores the energies of the system, than grooming and hand-rubbing. If the legs continue puffed, the bandages may be reapplied. A diuretic ball is commonly recommended after a hard day's work as a means of reducing puffiness of the legs and joints. That it will pro- duce this effect the Author does not question, because it will excite in- creased action in the kidneys, and in this way draw off any superfluous secretions from the system. But inasmuch as those secretions remain in STABLE MANAGEMENT. 101 the system on account of debility or want of tone in the vital powers, it seems to him that the remedy is in a wrong direction. The horse re- quires not depletion but tone. The vital powers will best recover them- selves under the influence of rest, good feeding, good grooming, hand- rubbing, and pure air and a little walking exercise. 198. Physic. Some few words on Physic can hardly be omitted in a treatise on stable management, though physic will scarcely ever be required, if the manage- ment be really good. Some owners of horses give physic periodically, others only when pre- paring for fast work a horse that has been out at grass or is from any cause out of condition. Three doses of purgative medicine are by many supposed to be necessary for the preparation of a horse for hunting. Sensible men do not give physic unless it is needed ; and they avoid giving it, when the object sought can be attained by other and less injurious means, such as by an alteration of diet or exercise. Most physics are poisons more or less strong, and why put ever so small a quantity of poison into the system unnecessarily? It is probable enough that horses do occasionally require medicine ; but there is no sense in giving it when not required. The physic given on these periodical occasions is usually purgative. If the stomach and intestines are healthy and have nothing in them which needs to be forcibly ejected, why disarrange them by thrusting on them medicine? The old-fashioned answer, we presume, would be " to prevent their getting out of order." How the disturbance of a healthy system can be supposed to effect this, we must leave to others to explain. Few horses on the average enjoy such good health as troop horses, and yet from one year's end to another they never, unless really ill, get physic. Let medicine then be restricted to those cases in which it is really required, and even then let it be given as sparingly as possible. If proper and timely notice is taken of the premonitory symptoms of ailments, little active treatment will ever be necessary. Bran mashes instead of corn for a day or two, deprivation of hay, a cooler stable, and above all a loose box, with plenty of pure fresh air will probably do all that is needed, and will do it much better and more safely than physic. 199. Bran mashes. Whilst the periodical administration of purgative medicine is injurious, it is yet good practice to give horses on Saturday evening, if Sunday be a day of rest, a cold bran mash in lieu of the evening feed of corn. Bran mash is cooling and slightly laxative, and therefore a fitting preparation for a day of rest. A warm bran mash for a sick horse is made by pouring boiling water on bran in a pail, and covering it with a cloth to retain the steam. A handful of dry bran thrown on the top of the mash will answer the same purpose. 102 CHAPTER 9. 199a. Working life of horses in various Employments. Some few statistics may be interesting and valuable. The statistics, however, refer only to the duration of horses in the employments for which they were bought. It does not follow that a horse is worn out, because he is no longer fit for the work for which he was bought. Many, in fact most of them, may be fit for slower or lighter work for many years to come. The Author desires to return his warm thanks to those, who have so kindly supplied him with the following information. 1 o 1 .§! S3 6 *2 a« O • O c3 PH °^ ' 1 If gj Pi 1* 8)^ •s -§§ CO rO f I1 So y South-Eastern & Chatham 1,300 5—6 6t £56 1500 18—20 London & South-Western 840 5—6 6* £59 various — London General Omnibus 17,000 5—6 5—6 £43 800 13 Road Car 4,284 5—6 4i £30— £40 800 15 Improved Cab Co. 1,037 6 4| £25— £30 750 20—25 Carter, Paterson & Co. ... 3,000 — 6^ — 750 12—13 Cavalry at Home — 4 8f £40 1200 — The Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police has kindly supplied the Author with the following valuable information : — 313 horses, divided into Patrol and Despatch. Patrol horses do from four to five hours daily, and the despatch horses 21 miles on week days, and half that distance on Sunday. Both classes are subject to considerable extra work when occasion re- quires, and long distances on the road may have to be covered in addition to the duty for which they are required. Cab horses. Cab horses are no criterion. They are bought at all ages. But from the best information which the Author has been able to glean, the average service may be taken at three and a half years. The average distance travelled by the cab appears to be about 20 to 25 miles per day. Job horses. As regards London job carriage horses the Author is inclined to think that in good places the average duration of service may run as high as seven years, whilst in places where they are knocked about, it may not be more than from three to four years or even less. It may seem impertinent to make a suggestion to job-masters, who of course know their business much better than the Author, but he thinks that their interest in the careful and kindly treatment of the horses would be much better served by charging the full price for the first and ADDENDUM TO " CAB HORSES." — Page 103. The distances traversed daily by cab horses, often above twenty- five miles, may seem excessive. There are, however, many halts during the day, and it must be remembered that horses rest and sleep while standing. ll&V/d 'jVodj; li'Jj'lo tS'JeS'l Lyc'if»VJ;*< Eil ^n-tsttr. ^'t&vd'worf t.'WJ5 O'lSiiT STABLE MANAGEMENT. 103 second years, and an annually decreasing sum for each succeeding year the customer retained the same horse. In considering the price charged by the job-master the public must recollect first, the large number of horses which he must keep at his own expense to supply loss from casualties and epizootics occurring, especially in the spring when horses are most in demand. Second, the large num- ber of horses which are returned at the end of the season, which must either be sold at a great sacrifice, or maintained in idleness at a great expense for six months. And third, the very considerable number of horses which after six or more months' training from various causes turn out unfit for London or other carriage work. The extra number of horses from these causes required to be kept may be set down at 20 per cent. PAET II. CHAPTER 10. THE BLOOD, ARTERIES, AND VEINS. 200. The mood. 201. Serum. 202. Crassamentum. 203. Bed Cor- puscles. 204. White corpuscles. 205. Coagulation of blood. 206. Arterial and Venous blood. 207 '. Colour of Blood. 207«. The Heart. 208. Arteries. 209. Veins. 200. The Blood. Blood is essentially the aliment or food of the body. By it all parts are sustained and replenished, whilst from it are drawn all secretions, including all material required for the repair of wounds or injuries. Its specific gravity is about T050 in health, but varies in certain diseases. Its ordinary temperature is about 99° Fahrenheit. In quantity the blood is supposed to amount to about one eighth of the body. It contains a variety of substances, but its ultimate analysis corresponds pretty closely with that of flesh. Throughout life it is always circulating in the heart, arteries and veins. The theory of its circulation has been described above in Chapter 1. Its reaction is constantly alkaline. Blood consists of a clear fluid, principally composed of water, holding in solution about eight per cent, of albumen and two or three parts in a thousand of the elements of fibrin, with a small quantity of salts of potash and soda, lime, magnesia and other matters. Floating in it also are found red and white corpuscles, the red exceeding the white in number as about three or four hundred to one in health; varying from eight hundred to one during fasting, but in certain diseases of the blood the white corpuscles are greatly increased in number. In addition to these red and white corpuscles, the higher powers of the microscope reveal numerous minute molecules or granules similar to those found in lymph and chyle. Blood is recruited from supplies of new material furnished by the pro- cess of primary digestion in the alimentary tract. It also receives matters from the atmospheric air; and lastly, from the secondary diges- tion, as that process is called, by which the tissues, which have served their purpose and become effete, are absorbed into the blood before being discharged from the system. Hence anything which interferes with the process of primary digestion, BLOOD. 105 with respiration, or with the excretory organs, and perhaps also anything which disturbs the healthy condition of the nervous system, will affect the composition of the blood. Inflammatory diseases remarkably modify its character. Blood, when first drawn, appears to be homogeneous ; but on cooling it separates into two nearly equal parts, namely a fluid called Serum, and a red solid portion called Crassamentum or clot. 201. Serum. Serum is a thin yellowish or straw coloured fluid, somewhat thicker than water, consisting principally of water with an admixture of albumen and salts. During life serum, or a fluid very like it, is frequently separated from the blood and effused, whenever the vessels become congested and over- distended. 202. Crassamentum. The Crassamentum or Clot is composed of fibrin holding the red cor- puscles in its meshes, caught as they are sinking to the bottom. It owes its colour to the red corpuscles. Fibrin, when deprived of them by wash- ing in cold water, loses its colour and presents an appearance much resembling bleached muscular fibre. Fibrin, when exposed to the air, usually coagulates spontaneously, and it has the power of interlacing its fibres and of contracting on itself. It is soluble in alkalies and acids, but insoluble in water, oil, or spirits. It is a remarkable fact that fibrin as such does not exist in the liquid blood during circulation, but is formed during coagulation by the union of two substances, paraglobulin and fibrinogen, with the aid of a ferment. 203. The red corpuscles. The Red corpuscles are somewhat heavier than the other parts of the blood. In shape they are like flattened discs, and often adhere by their surfaces to each other and form piles like rouleaux of coins, especially in inflammatory blood. Each corpuscle consists of a wall of tough elastic membrane enclosing a substance called Hsematin, which is the red pig- ment of blood. One of the component parts of hsematin is iron. The main function of the red corpuscles is to act as carriers of oxygen to the tissues. The products generated in the tissues by oxidation are returned in the venous blood in the form of carbonic acid gas, urea, water, and other effete materials. During the oxidizing process caloric is also set free. Many vessels in a state of health are too small to admit the red cor- puscles ; but when their coats under the influence of inflammation are distended, they do admit them. Hence a part hitherto devoid of colour may become red. 106 CHAPTER 10. 204. The white corpuscles. The origin and functions of the white corpuscles are not clearly ascer- tained. By some they are regarded as identical with lymph and chyle cells, and it is thought that they become changed in the ductless glands and absorbents into red cells or corpuscles. During inflammation they are converted into pus cells, and it is also probable that they may become converted into the cell elements of new tissues. By others the walls of the white corpuscles after rupture are supposed to constitute the fibrin. In many morbid states of the blood of an inflammatory character the microscope shows the white cells to be in excess, and analysis shows that the elements of fibrin are also in excess. They are supposed to be generated either in the blood or in the lymphoid tissues of the body. 205. Coagulation of Hood. The spontaneous coagulation of blood after being drawn is caused by the continued power of contraction in the fibrin. It is not completed, when it takes place at all, in less than from twenty to forty hours. The cause of the contraction and solidification of the fibrin in the blood, whether in or out of the body, is not yet positively ascertained. Objec- tions may be made to every theory yet propounded on the subject. Dr. Richardson's idea, that the coagulation is due to or at least attended by loss or evolution of the ammonia contained in the blood was, until lately, generally received; but is now much doubted. A small quantity of ammonia added to blood, when drawn from the body, will certainly pre- vent its coagulation ; whilst, on the other hand, a clot of blood will dis- solve, if treated with ammonia. We only know, however, positively, that rest, warmth, free access of air, and multiplication of the points of contact favour coagulation. The withdrawal of the influence of the living vessels is also in all probability largely instrumental in producing this result. Whatever, however, may be the ultimate cause of coagulation in blood, it is certainly affected by many and various circumstances, such as the rapidity or otherwise with which the blood is drawn, and whether it is taken from a large or small orifice, the temperature of the weather, the amount of fibrin contained in it, the condition of the animal, the amount of exercise he may have had immediately before being bled, the shape of the vessel into which it is drawn, whether shallow, deep, or narrow, &c. The older Veterinarians attached much importance to the appearance of the blood, to the presence or absence of a buffy coat, i. e. the absence of red corpuscles from the upper clot, &c., as indicative of various diseases or stages of disease ; but from the above it will be seen that the causes which affect or modify its condition, are so numerous and varied, that but little reliance can be placed on its appearance after it is drawn. 206. Arterial and Venous blood. There are two kinds of blood in the body, namely, Arterial and Venous. Arterial differs from venous blood in the following particulars : 1st, it is ARTERIES. 107 more scarlet ; 2nd, it has a greater specific gravity ; 3rd, its temperature is slightly higher ; 4th, it contains more fibrin and oxygen, and less car- bonic acid gas. It has also a greater capacity for rendering heat latent. 207. Colour of Blood. The colour of blood is not due, as has been often supposed, to the iron which it contains. The colour remains after the iron has been removed. Again the blood of many invertebrate animals contains iron, and yet is colourless. The degree of colour really depends on the gases in the blood. The carbonic acid gas found in venous blood distends the red corpuscles and therefore allows the hsematin or red pigment contained in them to appear through their coats; whilst oxygen on the contrary shrivels up the corpuscles, and thus gives a light scarlet tint to the blood. 207a. The heart. The heart is the great force pump of the body, and may be described as a hollow muscular organ of about 7J Ibs. weight when the blood is washed out, in a horse of medium size, length about 10 inches and breadth between 5 and 6 inches. It is in the form of a blunt cone, and is situated almost in the centre of the chest, inclined to the left side, and is suspended from the dorsal vertebrae by the blood-vessels which spring from it. The heart is enclosed in a distinct sac of its own called the pericardium, a layer of which is reflected over the external surface. The heart is divided into right and left sides by a longitudinal septum and into auricles and ventricles by a transverse septum, so that it will be seen that this organ has four distinct cavities, two on the right side for the reception of venous blood, and two on the left side for the reception of arterial blood. The beats of the heart are caused by the contraction of its muscular walls, by which the blood is forced into the lungs for purification and from the lungs through the system generally for the purpose of nutrition. 208. The Arteries. The arteries are elastic tubes formed for the purpose of conveying blood from the heart to all parts of the body. The blood from the left ventricle of the heart passes into the Aorta, and from thence by innumer- able channels to all parts of the body. The Pulmonary artery arises from the right ventricle and conveys venous blood to the lungs. The blood after being purified in the lungs by the action of the air is returned by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle of the heart as arterial blood for distribution through the body. The larger arteries are generally deep seated, and run on the inner rather than on the outer sides of the limbs. So placed, they are better protected from the chance of injury. In passing over joints, however, they are most commonly found on the side, which is flexed by the motion of the joint. In this situation, any abnormal extension is obviated, and 108 CHAPTER 10. thus obstruction to the circulation is guarded against. For somewhat similar reasons arteries, when near the surface, such as those of the lips, ears and nostrils, generally take a serpentine course. The extreme rami- fications of the arteries form the arterial capillaries. They are infinitely numerous. In them the outward or arterial circulation ends, and the venous or return circulation commences. Arteries frequently anastomose with each other. By this provision of nature a part still receives a supply, generally a sufficient supply of blood for its nutriment from the collateral circulation, even though the arteries which more immediately supply it may happen to be divided. Arteries have three coats, connected together by areolar tissue, all of which are to a certain degree elastic ; namely, an outer coat of connective tissue mixed with elastic fibres, a middle muscular and elastic coat, and an inner cuticular coat. On account of the elasticity of its coats an artery expands or contracts according to the amount of blood circulating in it. Hence, in a certain sense an artery may be said to be always full. The coats of the arteries are themselves supplied with blood by a minute system of vessels called the vasa vasorum. An artery, when opened, generally continues to bleed freely on account of the force of the circulation running through it, and the blood is forced out in jerks at each contraction of the heart. Hence it is difficult to stanch its bleeding. In order to do so, it is often necessary to take it up and apply a ligature at the point of injury, or a compress, or acupres- sure, or torsion, or styptics. In some cases, where the artery is only partly divided, it may be possible to stop the bleeding by dividing it completely ; because when it is cut right across, it contracts and retracts within its sheath on account of the elastic nature of its coats. The Blood which has escaped, forms a clot at the orifice, and another clot is formed inside the vessel extending from the orifice to the next collateral branch. The clot is conical in shape, and acts as a plug in preventing the fluid blood from escaping. Cautery, either actual or potential, is also useful as a means of stopping the flow of blood. There is not, however, much fear of an animal bleeding to death from the effect of even a severe wound of an artery, because the action of the heart is lowered by any consider- able escape of blood, and the force of the circulation is thereby dimin- ished. Arterial haemorrhage causes greater constitutional disturbance than venous. 209. The Veins. The veins are vessels which convey back to the heart the blood dis- tributed by the arteries to different parts of the body. Veins are usually more numerous and larger than their corresponding arteries. In most cases there are as many as three veins to each artery. Veins are divided into superficial and deep-seated. The former are found immediately below the skin, and hence are sometimes termed sub- cutaneous ; whilst the latter generally accompany the deep-seated arteries. Veins like arteries frequently anastomose. Veins have their PULSE. 109 origin in the capillaries, from whence they gradually increase in size, and run into each other, and form larger and larger veins, and ultimately lead into the heart. In structure the coats of the veins bear a general resemblance to those of the arteries. They do not, however, possess complete elastic coats. What elastic tissue they have is interwoven in their fibro-cellular tissue, which being in itself extensile and elastic enables them to recover the temporary extensions to which they are liable. The part of their walls which corresponds with the muscular coats of the arteries, is composed of fibres resembling those of fibro-cellular tissue combined with well-marked fibre cells of organic muscle ; by the agency of which the veins probably possess some power of independently contracting on their contents. The coats of the veins are supplied with blood by a system of smaller veins called the venae venarum. As a substitute for the strongly developed elastic coats of the arteries, valves are placed in all veins, where they are subject to pressure from the muscles between or near to which they run. These valves prevent any return of the blood, which might otherwise arise from such pressure. In parts, which are not subjected to such pressure, there are no valves. In the foot for instance there are none, and but few in the viscera. It is probable that the veins are the principal agents in absorbing the waste and excrementitious parts of the body. The Pulse will form the subject of the next chapter. CHAPTER 11. THK PULSE. 210. Importance of the indications of the Pulse. 211 . Cause of pulsation. 212. Number of pulsations per minute. 213. Taking the pulse. 214. Irregularities of the pulse. 215. Range of pulse in disease. 216. Auscul- tation as regards the pulse. 217. Action of the "heart. 217 'a. Temperature. 210. Importance of the indications of the Pulse. The Pulse in the horse, as in other animals, is an important guide in determining the healthy state or otherwise 'of the patient. It indicates the number, force, regularity or otherwise of the heart's action, and the quantity of blood sent forth at each beat. In examining the pulse, the characters to be especially noticed are its frequency, regularity, and compressibility. As a general rule, the num- ber of the pulse corresponds with the heart's contractions. In certain cases, however, of heart disease, the impulse is not conveyed far on account of the ventricles receiving only a small quantity of blood. 110 CHAPTEE 11. 211. Cause of Pulsation. The pulse is the beating of the arteries produced by the wave of the blood propelled into them by each contraction of the heart. The sensa- tion which the fingers perceive, when placed over a superficial artery, indicates tne rapidity, force and regularity of the heart's action, and also the relative quantity of blood flowing through the artery. As the volume of blood passing through the arteries, when the horse is in a state of good health, is considerable, the pulse is firm and regular. It is, however, greatly increased in frequency during any exertion. 212. Number of pulsations per minute. The range of pulsation per minute in an adult healthy horse, the tem- perature of the air being 60°, is from thirty-four to thirty-eight ; and instances are not wanting of healthy pulses being as low as thirty and as high as forty. The pulse in young subjects is generally quicker than in aged horses. It is also usually slower in low than in well bred animals. 213. Taking the Pulse. The most convenient places for taking the pulse are the submaxillary, the radial, the temporal, the metatarsal, and the plantar arteries. The slightest excitement, especially when a horse is sick, will cause an alteration in the pulse. To ascertain, therefore, the true character of the pulse, both with reference to tone and number, the animal should be approached very quietly, and should be soothed for a minute or two, before the finger is applied to the artery. The fore and middle finger should be placed on the artery in a trans- verse direction. If it is placed obliquely, the impression will be erroneous as to the true character of the beat. 214. Irregularities of the Pulse. A regular pulse with proportionate fulness is the best criterion of health. Irregularity usually arises from irritability or debility of the system. A strong and full pulse is present during health under any temporary excitement ; but this character is seldom found to accompany any morbid state, into which the animal may fall. The full pulse, which often accom- panies disease, has always some vibratory hardness in it. The intermittent pulse. — A pulse is said to be intermittent, when it beats two, three, or four times regularly, and then ceases for a period of time equal to two or three beats, before it goes again. Irregularity in strength. — The pulse may beat with natural force two or three times in succession, and then the next beat or two may be feeble, and afterwards it may become strong again, and so on. Intermittent and irregular. — The pulse may be both intermittent as to time and also irregular as to tone. PULSE. Ill The above changes indicate disease of the heart, either functional or structural, or both conjoined. Strung and full, or soft and full. — These conditions, though some- what abnormal, are yet quite consistent with ordinary, though not per- haps with perfect health. Weak and small. — This condition is indicative of great debility, espe- cially if the pulse is easily extinguished by pressure. Quick, feeble, fluttering, or imperceptible. — This condition is indicative of speedy death. The wiry pulse. — A hard small pulse, as a wire is hard and small, indicates disease of a sthenic character, and is symptomatic especially of inflammation of the serous membranes and of white tibrous tissue. The thready pulse. — A pulse which is small and soft, as a thread is small and soft, is termed thready. It indicates great debility. The oppressed pulse. — The artery is full, but the beat is indistinct. It is indicative of congestion and inflammation of the lungs. The throbbing pulse. — In the region of any part which is inflamed or congested, or unusually excited from any irritation, the artery will throb more or less violently. The character of the pulse in the vicinity of local disease will indicate its intensity, and in some degree its nature. A remarkably slow pulse indicates disease or injury of the brain or spinal cord. The double pulse. — A double beat caused by diminished arterial and increased venous pressure is the result of feeble action of the heart. This pulse is present in many of the septic diseases, such as purpura hsemor- rhagica. 215. Range of the Pulse in disease. The number of pulsations per minute under different circumstances in disease vary from twenty to one hundred and twenty or even more. The pulse may differ slightly on the two sides of the patient. When it is so feeble that it cannot be felt at the near or left submaxillary artery, it may often be detected at the off or right side of the same artery. The pulse may frequently in disease be felt at the arm, when imperceptible at the jaw. It has been thought by some physiologists that the pulse is always a little stronger on the right than on the left side of the animal. In treating disease we are not satisfied with reducing the number of pulsations, unless we can also produce a soft pulse. Softening of the pulse is an indication that the nervous irritability is subsiding. This character of softness is present in the decline of all inflammatory affec- tions. 216. Auscultation as regards the Pulse. It is highly important that the beats of the heart should be listened for, as its peculiar action may assist us in interpreting the pulsation of the artery. Again, in some cases, when the pulse is nearly or quite imperceptible to the finger, when, in other words, there is not sufficient 112 CHAPTER 11. force in the heart's action to propel forward distinctly a wave of blood, or when the wave of blood which is propelled forward, is too small in quantity to make its passage felt in the artery, we may often gain much information by listening to the beats of the heart. Auscultation may also enable us to detect either structural or func- tional disease of the neart. The heart, however, in the horse is but seldom diseased primarily; though it often becomes so, as a sequel of pleurisy or rheumatic affections. 217. Action of the Heart. When the heart is healthy its rhythms are firm and strong, and its beats are as regular as the ticks of a clock, and the pulse is also firm and regular. In disease the action of the heart may be feeble and even half para- lysed, or it may be violent and over-excited. It is not our intention here to enter into any consideration of the diseases or causes of the diseases and affections of the heart. We shall only note its action as regards the indications of the pulse. If the action of the heart is feeble, the pulse will in consequence be feeble in tone, quick, fluttering, and often intermittent, and the impulse given to the wave of blood in the arteries may be so feeble that the pulse may be extinguished by the slightest pressure of the finger. The difference between the action of the heart in health and in some debilitating diseases may in many respects be compared with the exer- tions of a man in swimming. Whilst the man is strong and vigorous his strokes are regular and true ; but should he become exhausted and be in danger of being drowned, they become quick, irregular, and feeble. This comparison may perhaps afford some clue to the treatment re- quired when the pulse is quick, irregular, or feeble. It would be absurd in the case of the drowning man to do anything which might still further paralyse his already flagging muscular energy. It is equally absurd to bleed or lower the horse in a case such as above described. If we are desirous of rendering assistance, we should not give depress- ants under such circumstances to either the man or the horse, but rather diffusible stimulants with a view of rousing as far as possible the nervous force, and thereby increasing the muscular energy ; until in the one case the man has reached the shore, and in the other case the heart has kept the horse's blood in circulation, so that it may be revivified and purified by the action of the air in the lungs. On the other hand, in the "earlier stages of inflammatory attacks, espe- cially in those of a sthenic type, or when fever is present, it often happens that the action of the heart is over-excited, and the pulse in consequence is unduly full and strong. To the inexperienced bleeding and other depletives naturally suggest themselves as the appropriate remedies. Collapse of the power of the nervous system, however, sooner or later always follows excitement. Now if during the period of excitement extreme measures of depletion are re- PULSE. 113 sorted to, there is great reason to fear that the subsequent depression will be excessive ; and prostration of the system and sinking and even death are likely to supervene. In such cases it is of course needed to reduce, if possible, the over- excited action of the heart ; but in lieu of depletives recourse may be had to aconite or some such medicine, which may act directly on the heart and lower its action without taking away any portion of the vital fluid. No doubt cases do occur, where the pulse is hard or oppressed, when bleeding under certain conditions as to the strength and habit of the patient and the stage and character of the attack will be of benefit ; but relief by this means should never be sought except under the advice of a thoroughly competent veterinary surgeon. The owner of a horse will always act wisely and safely in resisting the entreaties of his groom to be allowed to take " only a few quarts of blood." 217«. Temperature. The ordinary temperature of the blood has already been stated to be about 99° Fahrenheit. In diseases of an inflammatory nature or when fever is present the temperature of the blood becomes increased above the normal standard, and is an important guide in determining the con- dition of the patient. To ascertain the temperature of a horse a small clinical thermometer is necessary. This is inserted in the rectum, and must be allowed to remain for at least five minutes, when it may be withdrawn, and the index hand will indicate the exact temperature of the patient. During the prevalence of influenza or other epizootic diseases, it will well pay the owner to employ a veterinary surgeon to take the tempera- ture of his horses every day, as a rise of two or three degrees will be indicated some hours, perhaps two or three days previous to the manifes- tation of any external symptoms. If the animal is at once taken out of work, the disease will run a milder course. Work in the incipient stage of these diseases often causes them to assume a fatal form. In influenza the thermometer has recorded 106° F. in cases that have recovered. The normal temperature of the horse is 100° or one third more or less. To obtain an accurate register of temperature it must be taken at the same hours daily. It should not be taken immediately after watering or feeding. Nor should the operator proceed to do so immediately on entering the box, but allow the patient to become tranquil before insert- ing the thermometer, if at least the animal has been disturbed by his entrance. Moreover, all interference such as dressing, removal of clothes or bandages should be avoided just before the test is applied. Clinical thermometers by the best makers can alone be relied on. The cheap articles usually sold as clinical thermometers are perfectly unreliable. 114 CHAPTER 12. CHAPTER 12. THE ABSORBENTS. 218. Of the Absorbent system. 219. Structure. 220. Functions of the Absorbents generally. 221. Functions of the lacteals. 222. Functions of the lymphatics. 223. Diseases of the lacteals. 224. Diseases of the lym- phatics. 225. Stimulants to the superficial absorbent system. 226. Weed. 218. The Absorbent system. Besides the arteries and veins there is yet another or third system of vessels in the body, called the Absorbents. Although they play a very important part in the animal economy, yet they are comparatively speaking little thought of or observed, — probably because as a rule they perform their functions so regularly and well, that no disturbance sufficient to call attention to them takes place. When, however, disease does occur in the absorbents, the effect on the constitu- tion as well as on the vessels more immediately affected is not only very marked, but very rapid. For the purpose of description the absorbents may be separated into two divisions, namely, the Lacteals and the Lymphatics. Each class is further subdivided into vessels and glands. The lacteals are distributed in infinite numbers over the whole of the mucous membrane of the intes- tines. The lymphatics are found in almost all the structures of the body. The lacteals are merely the lymphatics of the digestive organs. 219. Structure. In structure the Absorbents are very like the veins, a description of which was given in Chapter 10. Their walls have some power of con- tractility. They are furnished with valves, and in the smaller veins in particular the valves are very numerous. Some peculiarities connected with these valves will be noticed hereafter. The absorbents accompany the veins and arteries, but are more numerous in some than in other parts. They anastomose freely everywhere. Though with difficulty distinguished in the dead animal, they are very readily seen in injected preparations. The Lacteals are very minute vessels, having their origin in the innu- merable villi of the intestinal mucous membrane. Each villus gives rise to a lacteal. They afterwards unite and form larger vessels, which pass into and through the mesenteric glands, and thence on to the thoracic duct, and ultimately they discharge their contents into one of the large blood-vessels near the heart. The lacteal glands are situated in the mesentery. Each gland is com- posed of a plexus of lacteal vessels. The vessels passing out of a gland are less numerous and larger than those entering it. In the glands the ABSORBENTS. 115 contents of the vessels, otherwise termed chyle, undergo certain changes in composition. The Lymphatic vessels are larger than the lacteals. Numerous lym- phatic glands are distributed over the body. All lymphatic vessels at various points of their course run through these glands. Like the lac- teals they all run into the thoracic duct, and their contents are ultimately discharged into one of the large blood-vessels near the heart. The structure and uses of the lymphatic glands are similar to those of the lacteal glands. 220. Functions of the Absorbents generally. The function of absorption is necessary both for the purposes of nutri- tion, and also for carrying off the used up or no longer required or super- fluous material of the system. It is by means of absorption that the body is constantly undergoing change, both receiving new material from the food, and eliminating waste products. It has been generally supposed that the lacteals receive the new material, whilst the lymphatics carry off the waste and effete products. In this latter function the lymphatics are undoubtedly assisted by the veins, which possess considerable powers of absorption. It is now, how- ever, generally believed that the process of absorption of waste material is wholly performed by the veins ; and that the lymphatics as well as the lacteals are engaged in absorbing and elaborating organi sable principles, which are capable of being still further employed in the animal economy. 221. Functions of the Lacteals. The Lacteals absorb from the food the parts useful for nutrition. They contain a white milky albuminous fluid called chyle, abounding in innu- merable particles of oily or fatty matter. In passing through the various lacteal glands, and especially in those situated in the mesentery, the chyle undergoes considerable changes. The quantity of molecular and oily particles diminish ; and cells, to which the name of chyle corpuscles is given, are developed in it, and it also acquires the power of coagulating. The chyle, as mentioned above, after passing through the thoracic duct is ultimately discharged into one of the large blood-vessels near the heart. 222. Functions of the Lymphatics. The Lymphatic vessels absorb from the blood those elements which are capable of being again employed in the animal economy. They con- tain a limpid colourless fluid. As in the case of the lacteals, the fluid, which they absorb, undergoes considerable changes in its composition in passing through the lymphatic glands. After passing through the glands the fluid is carried by the vessels to the thoracic duct, and ultimately discharged into one of the large blood-vessels near the heart. At the period of entering the thoracic duct the lymphatic fluid and chyle appear to be identical except in colour. Chemical analysis fails to detect any difference in their properties or composition. 116 CHAPTER 12. 223. Diseases of the Lacteals. In some cases the Lacteals appear to suffer from torpidity. The blood in consequence is not properly nourished, and as a result the horse falls off in condition. In other cases the lacteals become the seat of active disease, especially of tubercular degeneration. The glands in the mesen- tery most often suffer from this cause. After a time the effused tuber- cular matter destroys their structure, and impedes the passage of the chyle through them. The abdomen in these cases is usually swollen, whilst the other parts of the body are wasted away. Ascites frequently supervenes. It often happens, however, that there are no outward signs by which we can positively ascertain the existence of any derangement or disease of the lacteal absorbents. We can only surmise that such must be the case when the horse falls off in condition without any other cause ade- quate to account for the result. The only treatment we can adopt in any case is attention to the general health, fresh air, good food, and moderate exercise accompanied with the administration of tonics. A run at grass sometimes produces a beneficial effect. 224. Diseases of the Lymphatics. The diseases of the Lymphatics appear to result from a vitiated condi- tion of the blood from which they draw their secretions, rather than from primary affection of the organs themselves. Whether the Lymphatics ever absorb waste material, as a normal duty, may be doubtful ; but it is certain that noxious matters in the blood are readily taken up by them, and when absorbed produce great irritation followed by inflammation and sometimes by total disorganisation of their structure. Virus and pus are also readily taken up by them and carried as far as the nearest Lymphatic Gland. In the gland they occasion inflammation and suppuration, and eventually by this latter action in favourable cases are ejected from the system. Disease may exist in the superficial lymphatic vessels for a length of time without affecting the deep seated vessels or glands; but when it commences in the deep seated vessels, the superficial are always soon affected. As long as the disease is confined to the vessels, whether super- ficial or deep seated, there is no reason to fear danger • but when it has involved the glands, it generally proves very intractable. Having regard to the origin of the disease affecting the Lymphatics, the treatment required appears to consist mainly in attention to the general health and in the very best feeding. Biniodide of copper given internally in doses of one drachm twice a day is also very useful. As a local remedy great benefit is often derived from the application of bin- iodide of mercury to the surface and around the vessels affected. To the symptoms and treatment of Farcy, the most serious disease to which the Lymphatics are subject, a separate chapter, No. 29, is devoted, VARIOUS MEMBRANES AND TISSUES. 117 225. Stimulants to the superficial absorbent system. Whilst the deep seated Absorbents are difficult to affect by treatment, the superficial absorbents and blood-vessels are easily excited to increased activity. Friction and pressure both excite their action. Hence hand- rubbing or bandages will often reduce swelled legs. Stimulants of various kinds applied externally and especially biniodide of mercury cause in- creased absorption. Purgatives by removing the contents of the intes- tines, and diuretics by increasing the amount of urine, cause the absorb- ents to set to work to supply the deficiency, and in doing so they remove superfluous fluids from the system. 226. Lymphangitis or Weed. Weed is a very peculiar disease of the superficial absorbents. It is due primarily at least to irritation of the lymphatics of the part affected. Inflammation speedily follows, resulting in a sudden effusion of serum into the limb. The effusion generally arises from a plethoric state of the system induced by high feeding and want of exercise. The absorb- ents are unable to effect its removal with sufficient rapidity, and in con- sequence become swollen and congested, often to an enormous size. The case, though it looks ugly, is not so really. The treatment consists in rousing the absorbents to greater energy. With this view an ordinary dose of medicine may be given, followed by diuretics and tonics. Warm fomentations should be constantly applied to the part. In slight cases a little gentle exercise will often sufficiently arouse the activity of the absorbents. CHAPTER 13. STRUCTURE AND USES OF VARIOUS MEMBRANES AND TISSUES. 227. Mucous membrane. 228. Villi. 229. Epithelium. 230. Serous membrane. 231. Cartilage. 232. Fibro- cartilage. 233. Inter- articular fibro 'Cartilage. 234. Fibrous tissue. White fibrous and yellow fibrous tissue. 235. Areolar tissue. 236. Fascia. 237. Muscle. 238. Adipose tissue or Fat. 239. Pigments. 240. Glands. 227. Mucous membrane. Mucous membrane is everywhere continuous with the skin. It also lines all internal parts which communicate either directly or indirectly with the air. It lines for instance the whole alimentary canal from the mouth to the anus, the nasal passages, &c. It is the medium by which matters are eliminated from the system, or foreign substances are taken up into it. In structure Mucous membrane much resembles the skin. It varies in thickness in different parts. In the nose, nasal passages, and lungs it 118 CHAPTER 13. is very thin, in the mouth it is comparatively thick, whilst in the stomach and intestines it is found in folds. Everywhere it is soft and velvety in texture and abundantly supplied with blood-vessels, nerves, and glands. In the digestive tract and in the spleen, liver, and kidneys it is liberally furnished with absorbents. The secretions from, its glands vary accord- ing to the part in which they are situated. Mucous membrane is everywhere furnished with an external layer of Epithelium, situated on the basement membrane, and beneath this is a structure of vascular tissue of variable thickness, which in different parts presents either outgrowths in the form of papillae or villi, or depressions and involutions in the form of glands or follicles. In mucous membrane the tissues essential to the production of a secretion exist in their most simple form, namely a simple membrane having on one surface blood-vessels and on the other a layer of cells. The secretion of the membrane, called mucus, is elaborated in these cells. 228. Villi. Villi are the eminences seen on mucous membrane, and when magnified appear like the pile of velvet. Villi are extremely vascular and sensitive, and are largely concerned in the process of absorption. They are plainly seen on the surface of the tongue. 229. Epithelium. Epithelium consists of a layer of cells arranged in one or in many superposed layers on a basement membrane. The epithelial tissue covers the free surface of the body, i. e. the skin and mucous membrane ; and one variety of it is found lining serous and synovial membranes. In these cases it receives the name of Endothelium. The functions of epi- thelium are secreting, protective, and sensorial. In this membrane the nutrient blood-vessels are contained, whilst in the cells the secretion de- rived from them is elaborated. There are several varieties of Epithelium in different parts of the body. 230. Serous membrane. Whilst Mucous Membrane lines all surfaces that communicate directly or indirectly with the air, Serous Membrane on the other hand lines all closed cavities, i. e. those excluded from the air, with perhaps one excep- tion, namely, the opening of the Fallopian tube into the abdominal cavity ; and it also surrounds or envelopes all organs which move in the performance of their functions. It secretes a haiitus or fluid for the purpose of preventing friction between the different parts. Serous membrane is formed of fibre-cellular tissue, interwoven so as to constitute a membrane ; the free surface of which is covered with a single layer of flattened endothelial cells. It is abundantly supplied with nerves, arteries, and blood-vessels. Serous membranes are of two kinds, viz, 1st, those which Hue visceral VARIOUS MEMBRANES AND TISSUES. 119 cavities, such as the peritoneal, pericardial, pleural, &c. ; and, 2nd, those called synovial, which line joints and sheaths of tendons, bursse mucosse, &c. In the first named the fluid secreted is identical in general and chemical characters with the serum of the blood or with very dilute liquor san- guinis. It is probable that it is in great measure separated from the blood by simple transudation through the coats of the vessels. In the second or synovial membrane the fluid appears to be a process of more elaborate secretion by means of the endothelial cells on its sur- face. It is dense and viscid, and contains abundance of albumen. It is commonly known as joint oil. 231. Cartilage. Cartilage is a semi-transparent homogeneous substance, possessing very considerable strength and consistency combined with some elasticity. In colour it is pearly white, but turns yellow when dried. It is insensi- tive and non-vascular. At least no vessels containing red blood can be discovered in it, even by the aid of the microscope. It is, however, covered with a thin film of synovial epithelium, from the blood-vessels of which it is freely supplied with nutriment. Simple cartilage, such as that which covers the articular surface of bones, consists of numerous granular nuclei embedded in a structureless matrix. This description of cartilage is termed articular, and serves to facilitate the gilding motion of bones, and also acts as a cushion between them, preserving their articular surfaces from attrition and the bones themselves from concussion. When the articular cartilages of a joint have been eroded or destroyed by inflammation or other disease in the organ, a sort of repair is set up by nature, which consists in the deposit of fibre-cellular tissue in the place of the cartilage. This new material is, however, no sufficient sub- stitute. It generally binds together the ends of the bones, and so pre- vents further irritation and inflammation, but the joint is stiffened. In other cases this fibro-cellular deposit does not take place, but the exposed surfaces of the bones become soldered together, and the joint is tirmly and permanently anchylosed. In other instances condensation appears to take place at the ends of bones, which under the influence of friction subsequently become smooth and polished. Cartilage is found in various parts of the body, and seems to be employed by nature wherever some degree of elasticity combined with strength is required. Cartilage may be either temporary or permanent. Temporary carti- lage is that which is intended afterwards to be converted into bone. In the early stage of foetal life cartilage exists as the sole foundation of the skeleton, bone being in due time deposited in its meshes and substituted for it. Permanent cartilage in particular parts is sometimes absorbed when the horse grows old, and bone is deposited in its place, as, for instance, between the metacarpal bones. Cartilage once absorbed is never reproduced. 120 CHAPTER 13. The disease to which cartilage is most subject is inflammation, which is very readily set up in it by concussion, pressure, or contusion; also by extension to it of inflammation existing in subjacent or neighbouring bone. The result is frequently absorption of the cartilaginous tissue, and the deposit of bone in its place. Cartilage may be broken by an acci- dent. In such cases the reunion, when it takes place, will be by means of osseous deposit, not by any new growth of the cartilage itself. 232. Fibro-cartilage. Fibro-cartilage is intermediate in its structure and uses between carti- lage and fibrous tissue. It is found in various parts of the body, and consists of both the white and yellow varieties, the latter being of a very elastic nature. It builds up such organs as the external ears, the nose, larynx, &c. 233. Inter- articular fibro-cartilage. Inter-articular fibro-cartilage consists of pads and white fibro-cartilage placed between the articular surfaces of certain important joints for the purpose of acting as buffers in preventing concussion. 234. Fibrous tissue — White and Yellow. All ligaments, tendons, fascia, and the meshes of areolar tissue are formed of fibrous tissue. It is of two kinds, namely, White and Yellow. White fibrous tissue is inelastic. It consists of threads placed parallel to each other, and loosely connected together by areolar tissue. The fibres are exceedingly minute, transparent and undulating. According to their arrangements they compose thin layers of membranes, tendons, or ligaments. In the membranous form white fibrous tissue is seen in periosteum and in the fascia covering the various organs. In the collected form it is seen in tendons. The fibres are collected into small fasciculi, and thence into larger bundles, generally ranged side by side. The fasciculi are held together by areolar tissue. Ligaments are similar in structure to ten- dons, but mixed with a certain amount of yellow elastic tissue. Capsular ligaments are similar in structure to the above, although their form is somewhat flatter and more extended. Tendons, being composed wholly of white fibrous tissue, are inelastic, but ligaments and capsular liga- ments, on account of the admixture of yellow tissue in their structure, possess a certain amount of elasticity. Yellow fibrous, otherwise called elastic tissue, is composed of still finer threads, which have a tendency to divide transversely, as if made up of cells. It possesses the valuable property of elasticity. It is so elastic that it may be drawn out to double its natural length without losing its power of returning to its original dimensions. It is found in a small quantity in all ligaments, more largely in the ligamentum nuchse and between the vertebrae, in the middle coat of the arteries, and in all parts in which much power of motion is required. The fascia of the abdomen, VARIOUS MEMBRANES AND TISSUES. 121 for instance, which is very elastic in order to allow of any sudden expan- sion of the part, is principally composed of it. 235. Areolar tissue. Areolar tissue consists of threads of white and yellow tissue woven inextricably together. It is generated in cells, which elongate and join in lines. It is but very slightly vascular, though many blood-vessels pass through it en route to the skin. Its toughness and elasticity are admir- ably proportioned to the mobility of each part. Areolar tisue is the most universal of the constituents of the body. Under the name of superficial fascia, it spreads under the skin and ties it down to the deeper parts, and it also forms a nidus for fat. It sepa- rates and yet connects muscles and other parts. Hence it is also called conjunctival or connective tissue. As parenchyma, it constitutes the matrix of the most solid organs, and it forms pads for the protection of and smooth capsules for the motion of such organs as the eye. The spaces or areolse, of which it consists, communicate freely with each other. Hence it permits the transmission of air as seen in cases of emphysema, or serum as in cases of anasarca, or blood as in ecchymosis, and other fluids also over a great extent of space. Areolar tissue is some- times called cellular membrane. 236. Fascia. Fascia is a tendinous expansion, and differs from a tendon only in that the fibres in the latter are in a collected form. 237. Muscle. Muscle or Muscular tissue is what is ordinarily called flesh. It consti- tutes the chief bulk of the soft external parts of the frame. Muscle is of two kinds, namely Voluntary and Involuntary. The muscles of organic life, such as those of the digestive tract, the trachea, bronchi, bladder, urethra, &c., belong to the Involuntary class. They are not so red in colour or so large as the voluntary muscles, nor are they attached to bones. They are further distinguished by being " unstriped," that is, they have not the striped appearance which marks the voluntary class. The Voluntary muscles move all those parts which are under the control of the will. They are larger and redder than the involuntary muscles, and present a striped appearance. Muscles consist of fibres, which are collected into bundles and are con- nected together by areolar tissue. Each fibre may be divided lengthwise into fibrillae. Each fibrilla is made up of a number of square or slightly rounded cells arranged like a string of beads. Each fibre is clothed with a fine transparent sheath called myolemma, and it ends abruptly in a tendinous thread. In the Voluntary class the fibres generally run the whole length of the muscle. Besides the voluntary and involuntary muscles, there is also another 122 CHAPTER 13. set, which are partly dependent on the will and partly involuntary, called Mixed muscles. Such are the diaphragm, pharynx and sphincters. Nerves are abundant in muscular fibres, and so also is the supply of blood. It courses freely through the blood-vessels which lie parallel to the fibres and through their capillaries. The red colour of muscle is due to the blood in it. The growth of muscle is due to increase in the size, but not in the number of the cells of the fibres. The function of muscle is its power of contractility. Its contractions are the means by which the various parts of the frame are moved on each other. The entire of a muscle does not move at once, but successive por- tions contract, whilst the other fibres are at rest. The stimulus to con- traction is the impression made on a sensitive nerve, the influence of which is conveyed to a motor nerve. Muscles during contraction become harder, shorter and broader, but do not undergo any change in bulk. What they lose in length, they gain in breadth. Muscles are connected with bones by means of tendons ; or in other words the end of each muscle before its insertion becomes tendinous, and this tendinous end is inserted into a bone. The more fixed end of a muscle is called its origin, and the more moveable its insertion. Under the influence of strong work combined with good feeding and good health muscular tissue increases in size and hardness. In other words the flesh becomes full and hard. With good feeding without work muscular tissue, though it may increase in size, becomes soft and flabby, being in fact much infiltrated with fat. With bad feeding, especially when combined with hard work, muscle loses its development, and be- comes wasted and pale, and its power of contraction is greatly diminished. 238. Adipose tissue or Fat. Adipose tissue or Fat consists of a network of very minute cells, in which is enclosed the oily or fatty matter. The walls of these cells, which are composed of areolar tissue, are exceedingly thin. Capillary vessels, from which the fatty matter is secreted, are looped round each cell. Adipose tissue is found in almost every part of the body. It is mechanically useful in padding exposed parts. Its particles, though they do not move about among themselves, as has often been supposed, yet yield very readily to pressure ; and on this account fat when placed as a cushion under any organ is very useful in obviating the effect of pressure on it. It forms for instance a cushion for the eye and for many joints. It lessens the brittleness of .bones, and also assists in retaining the heat within the body. When an animal is underfed, the system appropriates to its own use the fatty material contained in the cells. Hence under such circumstances a fat horse soon becomes thin. 239. Pigments. The coloring matter of the skin, hair, blood, bile or any other consti- tuent of the body is termed its pigment. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 123 240. Glands. A gland is an organ composed of blood-vessels, nerves and absorbents, and destined for the secretion or alteration of some particular fluid, as for instance the salivary glands secrete saliva, the lachrymal glands tears, and the sebaceous glands oil. Secretions are divided into two classes, technically termed recrementi- tious and excrementitious. The former are those, which after being separated and secreted are returned again to the blood for further employ- ment in the animal economy. The latter are those, which are cast off as superfluous and incapable of administering to nutrition, such for instance as the urine, perspiration, &o. Glands are infinite in variety as to size, shape and physical appearance. They all have absorbent vessels. When the secretion of a gland is very large, as in the kidneys and liver, its blood-vessels are also very large. All glands secrete from arterial blood, except the liver, which is able to secrete from both venous and arterial blood. The blood in its passage through a gland is retarded by means of the convolutions of the capil- laries about the minute ends of its ducts, and hence time is given for the process of secretion. As the circulation in a gland is increased, so is its secretion. Thus in the first stage of inflammation a gland secretes more, because the circu- lation is increased ; whilst in the latter stages, when the circulation is stagnant, the secretion decreases. Again in health we easily recognise the effect of strong exercise and consequent increased activity of the cir- culation in the greater secretion poured forth by the perspiratory glands. The number of very different secretions made by the glands from the blood must excite our wonder and admiration. How different, for in- stance, are serum, urine, bile, and saliva. Each gland performs its office in a mysterious manner, elaborating principles which exist in a latent state in the blood. CHAPTER 14. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 241. Plan of the nervous system. 242. fJ.he Nerves. 243. Functions of the nervous system. 244. Influence of the nervous system in reference to disease. 245. Medicines acting on the nervous system. 241. Plan of the nervous system. According to Bichat the Nervous system may be separated into two great divisions. The first or Cerebro-spinal system includes the brain and spinal cord and the nerves connected with them and their ganglia, This system is chiefly connected with the processes of animal life. 124 CHAPTER 14. The second, or Sympathetic, or Ganglionic system consists of a double chain of ganglia, one on each side, placed along the spinal column from the cranium to the coccyx, and connected to each other by nervous cords. Each ganglion is connected not only with the one immediately before and behind it, but also with the cerebro-spinal system by one or two filaments. From these ganglia the nervous filaments are given off, which pass to the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic viscera. This system is concerned prin- cipally with the processes of organic life. The separation of the nervous system into two divisions is certainly convenient for the purposes of explanation ; but the doctrine implied in it, namely, that there are two distinct nervous systems is objected to by many authors. The pneumogastric nerves, for instance, although belong- ing to the cerebro-spinal system, which presides over the processes of animal life, are yet associated with some important functions of organic life. The Cerebro-spinal nerves have a white colour, whilst the Sympathetic are yellowish grey. In them the outer layer of white substance is wanting. A ganglion is an independent nerve-centre, consisting of vesicular nerve matter traversed by tubular and gelatinous nerve fibres, enclosed in a fine membrane of areolar tissue. 242. The Nerves. Each nerve consists of a bundle of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath. It is connected at one end, called its origin, either to the cerebro-spinal system or to one of the ganglia of the sympathetic system. The other end is distributed to various parts of the body. The nerve fibres of both the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic systems convey two kinds of impression, namely sensation and motion. The sensitive nerves convey impressions from their further or peripheral ex- tremities to the nervous centres, and from thence to the brain. The motor nerves, on the other hand, transmit impressions from the nervous centres to the parts to which they are distributed, producing muscular action and influencing various functions of the body. There are no characteristic distinctions between sensitive and motor nerves, except that the tubes of the sensitive are smaller than those of the motor. Nerves of special sense differ from nerves of common sense only in their functions. Irritation of them does not produce pain, but gives rise to various phenomena peculiar to each. Nearly all nerves except those of special sense consist of both sensitive and motor filaments. They are distinct only at their origin. Afterwards they mingle together. Reflex action is produced by communication of impressions from sensitive to motor fibres. All reflex actions are in- voluntary. A motor fibre can only convey motor impulses, a sensitive fibre only sensation, whilst nerves of special sense can only convey impressions which produce peculiar sensations. In certain parts, however, of their course nerves form plexuses and anastomose with each other and inter- KEEVOUS SYSTEM. 125 change fasciculi. By this means each nerve passing off from the plexus has a wider connection with the spinal cord and more extensive sym- pathies. Again it is by this means that groups of muscles are associated for combined action. Nerve-centres have the power of originating the sensitive impulses, by which muscles are excited to action and various functions are performed ; but few or no motor impulses proceed spontaneously from nerve-centres. Nerve-centres have also the power of transferring the impressions, which reach them through the centripetal nerve fibres, and thereby of diffusing impressions. Nerve force is by some considered to be allied to electricity. 243. Functions of the Nervous system. The functions of the Nervous System are : 1st, Sensation ; 2nd, Volun- tary motion ; 3rd, Co-ordination of motion ; 4-th, Keflex action ; 5th, the motions connected with the processes of nutrition, secretion, &c. Stimuli applied to nerves first increase and then depress their excita- bility. Narcotics have the power of deadening or of entirely destroying the excitability of the nerves. The action of the nerves is also affected by temperature. 244. Influence of the Nervous system with reference to disease. So far as regards the physiology of the nervous system. Beyond this the medical enquirer is almost lost. Very little is really known of the agencies at work in this system. Nervous influence is the most impor- tant and yet the most mysterious influence in life. The nerves them- selves we can trace. We know that they are given off from or, as others think, run to the brain and spinal cord from all parts of the body. We know that sensation felt at one extremity of the body is transmitted with more than electrical rapidity to the brain, and thence re-transmitted to the point at which the sensation is felt. The point of the nerve affected has no sensibility except as connected with the brain. Nerves are merely conductors of nervous impressions. They have no power of themselves of generating force. They require a stimulus in order to manifest their functions. Disease of any part is, we know, connected in some way with disturb- ance of the nervous system of the part. Yet we cannot, we do not know how to treat the real malady ; we treat the effect as we best can. Take, for instance, a simple case of accelerated pulse. The acceleration ia doubtless due to nervous disturbance. Yet we cannot treat directly the real cause. We may give cooling drinks, reduced diet, &c., and so we succeed in lowering the tone of the system. Indirectly and in time our remedies, no doubt, affect the nervous system ; but directly we are not able, in the present state of knowledge, to touch the real cause. Besides which there is at all times great difficulty in ascertaining the causes which tend to produce a lowered or excited state of the nervous system. 126 CHAPTER 15. 245. Medicines acting on the Nervous System. Some medicines, we know, affect and depress the nervous system generally, and in certain cases we can give them with advantage; but we know scarcely any which will act specially in depressing the nerves of a particular part or organ. Other medicines we know excite the nervous system, and in regard to these our knowledge is a little more extended. We know that certain agents excite the nerves of particular parts. Belladonna, for instance, when applied locally, will affect the nerves of the eyes specially and produce dilatation of the pupil. Strychnia acts powerfully on the nerves of motion, and produces spasms of the voluntary muscles. Strychnia is also a special excitant of reflex action. As regards external agents acting on the superficial sensitive nerves we are not so much in the dark. We can easily excite or depress them in any particular parts. Blisters, for instance, pressure, pain, &c., all excite the superficial sensitive nervous system ; whilst opium, cold, ether, chloro- form, &c., have a tendency to allay nervous irritation in the part to which they are applied. CHAPTER 15. GOOD NURSING. 246. Explanation of the term. 247. Loose boxes and quiet. 248. Draughts. 249. Cleanliness, dryness, and sweetness of stable. 250. Warmth of the body. 251. Clothing. 252. Warmbandages. 253. Coldbandages. 254. Sweating bandage. 254a. Fomenting bandage. 255. Fomentations. 256. Cold bathing of the legs. 257. Removal of the shoes. 258. Water. 259. Food. 260. Horses with free discharge from the nostrils. 261. Utensils to be kept clean. 262. Hand-rubbing, &c. 263. Beds. 264. Change of box and air. 265. Apparatus for applying a stream of cold water. 266. Instruction of servants in nursing. 246. Explanation of the term. Of primary importance in the treatment of disease is "good nursing." By good nursing we mean an intelligent appreciation of and kind prompt attention to the minuter wants and needs, whatever they may be, of the patient. These wants and needs will not only vary in each case, but they will often vary from hour to hour even in the same case. Care and kindness, however, are not sufficient. All the care and kind- ness in the world, if through ignorance misdirected or misapplied, will not aid much in the restoration of health. It is impossible to lay down any exact rules for good nursing, but we hope to be able to give some GOOD NURSING. 127 general rules, which, when applied according to the circumstances of each particular case, may be useful in the treatment of sick animals. 247. Loose boxes and quiet. In most cases the first and most important point is to place the patient in a detached, cool, well-ventilated, loose box in a quiet situation. The box should be fitted with a low half door, so that the animal may be able to lean his head over it. This is especially needed in all diseases con- nected with the respiratory passages. It is essential that the half door should be low, because sick horses generally droop their heads, and are unable to raise them over high " half " doors. If the patient carries his head very low, the door should be opened altogether, and a bar, gate, or hurdle placed across it. But in ordinary cases it is better to keep the lower half of the door closed, in order to prevent draught and chill about the legs. In affections of the eyes and nervous system the box should be dark- ened, and as much isolated as possible from passing traffic. In some few cases, such as those of wounds, when it is necessary that the horse should be tied up to prevent his biting the injured part, or in other cases where motion is not desirable, a stall will answer well enough ; though even in these cases the cooler atmosphere of a detached box is preferable. 248. Draughts. Whilst it is essential that there should be ventilation enough to ensure purity of air in the box, it is also very important in most, but not in all cases, that no direct draught should come on the patient. As a general rule, sick and debilitated animals are far more susceptible of injury from such causes than horses in health. In the premonitory and early stage of feverish or inflammatory attacks the slightest draught appears to be most injurious and may bring on a fit of shivering. The access or avoidance of an attack in this very early stage is often determined by care and attention on this point. When, however, inflammation or fever has developed itself, the horse is less sensitive of draught ; and provided he is well clothed, air may be admitted with the utmost freedom. When the crisis has subsided, the patient is again moderately, but not intensely as in the early stage-, sensitive of draught. Much at this time, must be left to the discretion of the attendant. If the animal seems refreshed by more air, he may safely be allowed to have it ; but if on the other hand his coat begins to stare, we may be sure that the draught is doing harm. The above observations, it will be seen, refer to draught, not to tem- perature. In all cases it is desirable that the temperature should be cool, decidedly cool ; but it is not advisable that it should be positively cold. 249. Cleanliness, dry ness, and sweetness of stable. The box must be kept perfectly clean, dry and sweet. For the latter purpose some disinfectant, such as Macdougall's disinfecting powder, may, 128 CHAPTER 15. if necessary, be used. The floor of the box should be kept as dry as possible. The practice of washing the floor is very objectionable, both because it makes the stable damp, and because it induces or at least accelerates decomposition in the debris, which always to a certain extent lodges between the interstices of the paving. If there are underground drains, water should be poured down them daily, in order to keep them clear. 250. Warmth of the body. The warmth of the body and especially of the legs must be maintained by warm clothing and bandages, increased or diminished according to the weather and the requirements in each case. Horses which are very weak, we may however remark, cannot bear heavy clothing. Neck and breast cloths, though not necessary or even desirable for horses in health, are sometimes needed for sick animals. Friction may often be beneficially applied for the purpose of restoring warmth, especially in the legs. In some cases irritants, such as turpen- tine liniment, mustard, &c., may be required for the above purpose. 251. Clothing. All clothing should be put on loosely. Not only is greater ease given, but more warmth is obtained from loose than tight clothing. The sur- cingle especially, if used at all, should be slack. Blankets tied loosely in front and under the belly are however preferable to clothing fastened by the surcingle for sick animals, especially in diseases of the lungs and pleura, when the parts involved are liable to suffer from or to be impeded in their free action by even the slightest pressure. If it can be spared, a second set of clothing should be kept in use ; but in any case the clothing should be taken off and brushed twice daily. If the state of the patient renders him very sensitive of any chill, only a portion of the clothing should be removed at a time. In many cases, especially during the stage of recovery, the animal appears to be re- freshed in a very marked degree by the admission of fresh air to the skin for two or three minutes at a time. Air under such circumstances no doubt acts as a tonic, and its effects may be compared to those of shower bath on the human frame. With a similar view under careful superin- tendence a damp hay wisp may be run once or twice over the skin morn- ing and evening. 252, Warm bandages. Bandages intended to' give warmth are made of flannel, and should be wrapped loosely round the legs. Tight bandages check the feeble circu- lation, and moreover the caloric passes more easily through them than through looser folds. It is believed also that there is a stratum of warm air between the folds, which is beneficial. With the view of producing or increasing this stratum, a little hay may be placed loosely round the legs before the bandages are applied. GOOD NURSING. 129 Bandages should be about three yards long. The bandage should be rolled up before it is applied, and the winding on should be from the lowest part upwards. The bandages should be taken off two or three times a day, or oftener if the legs are cold, and some friction should be applied to restore warmth. When flannel bandages cannot be obtained, a fair substitute may be extemporised out of hay bands. 253. Cold bandages. Cold bandages are usually made of linen, and must be kept con- stantly wet with water and be applied with moderate pressure. A chamois leather bandage retains damp longer than any other. Cold may be conveniently applied to the feet by putting them in a wet bran poultice, or by placing wet swabs round them and felt pads in the soles. 254. Sweating bandage. A sweating bandage is made by covering a wet linen bandage with oil- skin. After it has been applied for some days, an ordinary cold bandage should be substituted for it, as it is apt to cause the skin to become scurfy. A sweating bandage has often a powerful effect in reducing enlargements. 254&. Fomenting bandage. In cases where it is necessary to apply heat and moisture to any part of the leg below the knee or hock, the following is an excellent bandage to apply after ordinary fomentation. A flannel bandage soaked in hot water should be rolled round the limb. A dry bandage may be then applied over all. By this means heat and moisture will be retained for a long time. 255. Fomentations. A steady man should be placed in charge of the patient. This man should be accommodated with a stool. The fomentation should be continued for half an hour, and then the part affected should be loosely covered with flannels, and after an inter- val of an hour the fomentation may be re-applied, and so on according to the requirements of the case. The temperature of the water should not exceed 106°, or hardly as hot as the hand can comfortably bear. The temperature must be kept up to this point by the frequent addition of small quantities of hot water. The sponge or swab should not be allowed to touch the parts affected, but should be applied higher up, so that the water only may trickle down over the inflamed or injured surface. When the fomentation is discontinued, the parts should be loosely covered with flannel in order to obviate the risk of a chill. If flannel is not available, or the part is so situated that it cannot be conveniently applied, ammonia liniment in cases where there is no abrasion of the skin, may be lightly rubbed on. When a servant cannot be spared for the tedious work of fomenting, a 9 130 CHAPTER 15. fair substitute will be found in wrapping the part round with spongio- piline dipped in warm water. This material, which consists of thick woollen stuff covered with oilskin, will long retain both heat and moisture. The leg below the knee may be conveniently fomented by putting it in a deep bucket of warm water. In all large establishments it is well worth while to get a bucket made half as deep again as usual for this especial purpose. The water in such cases may require to be put in after the horse's leg is in the bucket. In most cases three or four fomentations in the course of the twenty- four hours are sufficient. Where large surfaces such as the chest and sides require to be fomented, woollen blankets are used ; but care must be taken, that only a portion of the blanket sufficient to cover the part requiring fomenta- tion, be dipped in the hot water. In most stables an old blanket can be torn up for the purpose. During fomentation a thick rug should be thrown over the fomenting cloth, and removed as soon as the operation is over, as it will unavoidably become damp, and a dry rug must be sub- stituted for it. 256. Cold bathing of the legs. Cold water bathing of the legs is in many cases very beneficial. The cold gives tone to and braces up the structures, which may have become weak or deficient in vital energy. The value of cold, as a tonic, has not been, we think, sufficiently appreciated in such cases. A good jet for this purpose may be made by attaching a gutta-percha or rubber tube to the ordinary water-cock. If the necessary appliances are not available an ordinary watering pot with a rose will answer the purpose fairly well. 257. Removal of the shoes. In most cases of serious illness, especially where fever or inflammation are present, ease and comfort will be given to the patient by removal of all the shoes. Exception however occurs, where horses have flat or pumice feet. 258. Water. Water should always be within reach of the patient, especially in feverish or inflammatory attacks ; and it is essential that it should be changed at least three times a day, or oftener in warm weather. A piece of rock salt, which the horse may lick as often as he likes, should also be placed in the manger. Some medicines may be conveniently adminis- tered along with the water which the patient drinks. 259. Food. Food suitable to the requirements of each case must be supplied. As the appetite of a sick horse is generally very slight and capricious, only small quantities should be offered at a time ; and that which is not eaten GOOD NURSING. 131 should be removed after having remained a few minutes before the patient. Sick horses often prefer to feed off the ground. A little grass or a carrot offered by the hand will often be taken, when a larger quantity put in the manger would be rejected. Sick horses very soon become tired of any particular food, and hence it is desirable to change their diet frequently. Cold bran mash, or warm in catarrhal affections, good sweet hay sprinkled with salt and slightly wetted, grass, carrots cut lengthways to avoid the risk of choking, lucern, bruised oats, malt mashes, linseed tea, linseed boiled to a jelly and added to a bran mash, gruel, and skim-milk are each for a time generally palatable. Boiling water poured on slightly brown hay produces a tea, which is much relished by some animals ; and in some diseases the steam arising from it, whilst the infusion is being made, acts beneficially in soothing the inflamed mucous membrane of the nose. Locks of hay after being so treated are also occasionally picked out and eaten. After gastric or bilious fever stale bread given by the hand will often be taken, when everything else is rejected. After a debilitating disease skim-milk is very beneficial. During the height of fever the appetite is completely lost; and food, even if taken, could not be digested. A liberal supply of water is grate- ful in such cases, and may be the means of introducing medicines suitable to the case. There is no use in attempting to force food on a sick horse, until he shows some inclination for it. But as the fever subsides and recovery commences, it is a good plan to tempt the appetite by placing locks or small quantities of different kinds of hay in the corners of the box. This will also induce slight exercise and brighten up the patient. When there is continued positive inability to swallow, some nutriment may be afforded by frequently giving oatmeal clysters in small quantities. Linseed oil at the rate of about two ounces in the course of the day mixed in the food is often very useful in improving the condition of debilitated animals. The quantity may be gradually increased up to four ounces, if the patient appears to relish it. In cases of emaciation glycerine at the rate of from four to eight ounces may be given daily. For reasons explained under the head of Forage, paragraph 98, grass, lucern and carrots are preferable to clover or vetches. 260. Horses ivitkfree discharge from the nostrils. A horse with a free discharge from the nostrils should as a general rule be fed from a temporary manger or bucket placed near the ground, as the depending position of the head, whilst the animal is feeding, will facilitate the discharge. A wheel-barrow will serve very well as a make- shift for this purpose. But where the patient shows signs of headache, as is often the case, especially in feverish attacks, this position, which would determine more blood to the head, is very undesirable. Steaming the head is very beneficial in catarrhal affections. When a horse has a discharge of a suspicious character as to its nature, he should be tied up sufficiently to prevent his throwing it about all parts of the walls of the box. 132 CHAPTER 15. 261. Utensils to be kept clean. Mangers, buckets and all utensils used in a sick stable or box should be kept scrupulously clean. Particular care should be taken that no sour bran mash be left in the corners of the manger. Hay, on which the patient has been breathing, should be thrown away and not offered to him at another time. 262. Hand-rubbing, etc. Gentle hand-rubbing of the skin and also sponging of the nostrils and dock, and in some cases the whole body, with weak vinegar and water are generally refreshing to sick animals. The sheath should always be carefully cleaned at the outset of any serious illness, and this operation should be repeated if the case is pro- longed. 263. Beds. A good bed is essential to comfort. Fresh clean straw certainly looks nicest, and has undoubtedly the advantages of cleanliness and sweetness ; but many practical men prefer a bed made of old litter collected from the dung heap, but of course carefully cleaned and dried. It makes a softer, firmer, and more substantial bed ; whilst on the other hand the long hard ends of the new straws, especially wheaten, are apt to irritate and annoy a weakly and sensitive patient. In chest diseases, if the horse is very ill, do not fidget him by over care, as to his bed. 264. Change of box and air. Do not move the patient about, if he is very ill; but if his condition admits of his being moved, it is a good plan to shift him occasionally to a fresh box. Though a box in a quiet situation is needed for a sick horse, yet as he recovers his strength, he should be moved during the day to a situation where he can see some of the traffic which may be passing by. A little such excitement acts as a stimulant and tonic to the system. 265. Apparatus for applying a stream of cold water. A very convenient india-rubber apparatus is made for the purpose of bringing a constant stream or trickling of cold water on any part which may require such treatment, as, for instance, in some cases of sprains, or of affections of the brain. - In cases of sprain of the tendons or liga- ments below the knee or hock, the apparatus must be applied above the joint, and the affected part below covered with a wet linen bandage. The water may be allowed to trickle for two hours at a time, twice or three times during {he day. If the weather be cold the water may be made slightly tepid. When a force of cold water from a jet or hose is used, the application should never be continued for more than a few minutes at a time. In both cases the part must be afterwards dried and bandaged. INFECTION AND CONTAGION. 133 266. Instruction of servants in nursing. A good groom to be a really good nurse ought to understand the reason of what he does. The kind of nursing proper at one time and applicable to one phase of symptoms may be inappropriate at another time or under altered circumstances. He should begin by carefully observing the usual appearance and habits of the horse ; for it is only by being familiar with the appearance and tone of the animal in health that any divergence from the normal condition can be ascertained. The earlier variations symptomatic of some coming change, such, for instance, as a slight pawing or a little increase in the respiration, or a heaving of the flanks, or a want of the usual liveliness or tone, may otherwise pass unnoticed. Next he should be taught what to observe in the symptoms of a sick horse. Especially he should note the temperature and moisture of the mouth, and the degree of variation which it presents from what has been usual in health ; also the warmth or otherwise of the legs and body, and whether there is any variation, and if so, at what times. Irregularity of temperature is a marked sign of disease. The respiration must be care- fully observed, and whether it is more affected when the animal lies down. The movements of the flanks generally afford the first indication of quickened breathing. The movements of the nostrils must also be noted. The colour and appearance of the visible mucous membranes will need particular observation. He should also observe, not merely whether the horse is in pain, but how his feelings are expressed. The nature of the cough, if any, should be particularly noted, and also the part from which it proceeds. In catarrhal affections the degree and nature of the running at the nose and the colour and appearance of the membrane of that organ will need fre- quent observation. CHAPTER 16. INFECTION AND CONTAGION. 267. Prevention of disease. 268. Erroneous ideas as to the causes of acci- dents and diseases. 269. Of accidents and diseases, with their ordinary causes. 270. On tlie propagatio nof disease by infection and contagion. 271. Prevalent ideas of infection and contagion a source of evil. 272. Diseases seldom trans- mitted by infection or contagion. 273. Mode of propagation by infection and contagion. 274. Distinction between inoculation, contagion, and infection. 275. Distance at ivhich infectious diseases can be communicated. 276. Sequels of disease. 277. Disinfectants. 278. Ventilation. 279. Sick boxes. 134 CHAPTER 16. 267. Prevention of disease. As regards successful stable management, the prevention of disease is far more important than its cure. No disease occurs without a cause. As a general rule the cause of any disease may be found out ; and if ascertained, the disease may in most cases be prevented in future. It is not possible, however, to prevent the causes of every disease. The climate in which we live, and the nature of the work which we re- quire from horses, oblige us to run some risks; but in every case the risk ought to be reduced to a minimum. Suppose, for instance, a dog-cart and horse are sent on a cold wet winter's day to a railway station to meet a train. The horse may pro- bably get somewhat hot in the drive over, the train may be late, and waiting at the railway station on such a day is not favorable to the animal's health. But the risk of injury will be much diminished if the servant has started in good time and driven over slowly ; if he has not forgotten to take with him a rug to put on the horse, in case he is kept waiting ; or if, when circumstances admit of it, he has kept the horse moving about instead of standing still. Again, accidents will occur — in the hunting field for example. The nature of the work entails such a liability. But they will be much less likely to occur when the horse is in good working condition of wind and limb, when he is fit to go without being unduly fresh or above himself, when the shoeing, &c., are good, than when these favorable conditions are reversed. 268. Erroneous ideas as to the causes of accidents and diseases. It is a very common, but very erroneous and mischievous idea, that accidents and diseases spring up spontaneously, that they are necessary black spots in the chapter of life, and that we are powerless to avoid them or to prevent their recurrence. So far from this being the case, almost all accidents and diseases may, if sufficient diligence and perseverance are used in the search, be traced to ascertainable causes ; and in the great majority of cases the causes once ascertained may be guarded against and prevented in future. 269. Of accidents and diseases with their ordinary causes. The subjoined list, in which are grouped together most of the more common diseases and accidents with their ordinary causes, will perhaps make plainer the assertion put forward in the preceding paragraph. 1st. Diseases of the bowels and urinary organs, such as stomach staggers, colic, inflammation of the intestines and kidneys. — Ordinary causes. Bad forage or improper watering and feeding. 2nd. Diseases of the chest, coughs, colds, etc. — Causes. Want of ventilation, overcrowding, exposure, and neglect. INFECTION AND CONTAGION. 135 3rd. Glanders and Farcy are different forms of the same disease. In common with man's other specific disease it is impossible to assign its origin. It is highly contagious. (See Chapter 29.) 4th. Epizootics, such as influenza and low fever. — Causes. Diseases of this class are generally admitted to be of a specific, contagious, or in- fectious character, and are popularly supposed to be in a great measure influenced by atmospheric peculiarities, but the precise nature of this is not well understood. This much, however, is certain, that whilst epi- zootics run almost periodically and with great severity through badly ventilated, ill drained, dirty, badly regulated stables, they seldom seriously affect those where proper sanitary arrangements are enforced and where the stable management is good. 5th. Diseases of the eyes. — Common ophthalmia generally arises from accidents. Occasionally it is due to an extension to the eye of inflamma- tion already existing in the mucous membrane of the nose. True, or as it is usually termed, Specific ophthalmia arises from constitutional causes, for a detail of which the reader is referred to Chapter 57, on the Eye ; and sometimes from hereditary predisposition. 6th. Diseases of the skin, such as mange and ringworm, are generally connected with bad grooming or bad forage, and sometimes with the use of barley straw for bedding. Some skin diseases are occasionally propa- gated by contagion. 7th. Cracked heels and grease and canker nearly invariably proceed from neglect or bad management. No doubt certain horses are more predisposed than others to such affections ; but these diseases, we be- lieve, will never appear where the stable management is really good. Thrush also is usually a disease of neglect. 8th. Diseases of the feet, such as corns, sandcrack and quittor. — Causes. Bad shoeing and neglect. 9th. Sore backs and broken knees. — Causes. Bad saddling and bad riding, and also as regards broken knees, bad shoeing, defective action and accidents. 10th. Bites, kicks and wounds. — Causes. Carelessness of servants and bad stable gear. llth. Sprains and diseases of joints. — Causes. Severe work or work for which the animal is physically unfit, or for which he has been insuffi- ciently prepared ; and also accidents. 12th. Strangles. — Strangles is a specific disease. At some time or other it appears in most horses ; but its development at any particular time appears to be dependent in some cases on atmosphere changes. 13th. Accidents. — Causes may, as a general rule, be summed up under the heads of carelessness and bad management. Some few accidents, however, are confessedly unavoidable. 14th. Laminitis, Weed and some other diseases, though local in their development, usually proceed from constitutional disturbance. Over- feeding and want of exercise in some cases, and the reverse conditions, such as over-severity of work and bad feeding in other cases, are the common causes of the derangement of the general health. 136 CHAPTER 16. From this enumeration it will be seen that diseases and accidents mostly proceed from preventable causes. Whenever, therefore, any dis- ease or accident occurs, the causes should be promptly and diligently sought out; and no owner of horses should rest satisfied until he has found it out and has taken measures to prevent it in future. 270. On the propagation of disease ~by infection and contagion. When a particular disease runs through a stable, it does not by any means follow that it has been introduced or spread by infection or con- tagion. On the contrary, faulty stable accommodation, or bad ventila- tion, or bad drainage, or neglect on the part of servants and such-like causes, either collectively or sometimes even singly, are often sufficient to develop wide-spread disease among all the animals subject to the same cause or causes. When a disease breaks out suddenly in a stable and several animals are attacked at once, it usually depends on their all being subjected to the same noxious influence. In a word, similar causes produce similar effects. The causes, whatever they may be, usually affect first those animals which are weak and predisposed to disease of any sort, after- wards those which are less predisposed, and ultimately may affect all in the stable. The disease is then said to be, and is by many believed to be, infectious or contagious. The earlier cases in any such attack do not in general arise either from infection or contagion. It must, however, be borne in mind that the vitiated atmosphere produced by the exhalations and secretions of a number of diseased bodies congregated in a badly-ventilated place inten- sify the original cause and lead to the further reproduction of the disease. The mode of such reproduction will be explained hereafter. 271. Prevalent ideas of infection and contagion a source of evil. The prevalent ideas regarding infection ancj contagion, though under certain circumstances true, are nevertheless the source of much mischief ; because these agents are often accepted as the adequate and irresistible cause of disease, and therefore no due or sufficiently diligent search is made for the real and active source. 272. Diseases seldom transmitted by infection or contagion. Very few cases of disease either in man or animals are under good sanitary arrangements transmitted by infection or contagion. Certain predisposing conditions are required to enable the poison, whatever it may be, to take effect. It requires, for instance, a certain proximity of the patient, a confined unchanged atmosphere, and as a general rule a delicate, ailing, or otherwise susceptible patient. If these conditions are wanting, diseases seldom spread from one animal to another under ordi- nary circumstances. Many complaints, however, which in a clean, well-aired, and well- drained and not over-crowded stable are quite unable to propagate them- INFECTION AND CONTAGION. 137 selves, become infectious or contagious under less favorable circumstances. The emanations from the sick hang thick and noisome in a close, foul, unchanged atmosphere, and by concentration and ferment acquire a posi- tive power of disturbing health and reproducing disease. 273. Mode of propagation by infection or contagion. We have already stated our belief, that the ordinary cause of a disease running through a stable is simply that the same cause, whether it be miasma arising from bad drainage, or foul air arising from want of venti- lation or from want of cleanliness or over-crowding, or low sanitary con- dition arising from bad or insufficient food, or debility caused by over- work or by neglect or any other such-like cause, affects all the animals placed under the same conditions. We do not, however, deny that diseases under circumstances favorable to their propagation may be communicated by sick to healthy animals, independently of the original cause of the disease. For instance a glan- dered horse, bought we will suppose at a distant fair and placed among healthy animals, may communicate the disease to them. Water as a vehicle for the carriage of contagion has been hitherto somewhat over- looked. Public water-troughs need the most scrupulous cleaning by the sanitary authorities, or they may become very serious sources for the spread of contagious diseases. With fair care, however, there need be no fear. Public water-troughs are a great public convenience, but they ought to be in the hands of responsible authorities and not in those of an irresponsible association. The mode in which the propagation of disease occurs is believed to be as follows. In certain diseases there are given off from the patient's body, in his breath, in his perspirations and other secretions, minute but invisible particles or microbes. Although not sufficiently tangible to be examined even by the microscope or to be subjected to analysis by the chemist, yet it is tolerably well ascertained that these particles, which form the matter of infection and contagion, contain, like many other animal products, the four organic elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. In common with such bodies they possess under certain circumstances the power of ferment, and, like the yeast plant, have under favorable conditions remarkable powers of reproduction. When a sufficient particle of the matter of contagion is either through the lungs or through the skin or otherwise absorbed into a healthy body, it may under circumstances favorable to its development ferment and reproduce itself. This process may occupy, according to the nature of the poison, a few days or several weeks, at the end of which time sym- ptoms of the disease appear. Each infectious or contagious disease gives rise to a ferment peculiar to itself, which in due time develops symptoms similar to those of the original disease. 138 CHAPTEB 16. 274. Distinction between inoculation, contagion and infection. To ensure the transmission of some diseases a tangible portion of the poisonous matter from a diseased animal requires to be placed on a mucous membrane underneath the skin, or on a fresh wound, or on some delicate absorbing surface. This is what is called Inoculation. In this way, for instance, small- pox may be produced in the human subject, or glanders and farcy in horses and men. Under circumstances favorable to its development a very small portion of matter is sufficient to reproduce the original disease. Contagion is but a variety, as it were, of inoculation. In either case the poison is transferred from the sick to the sound. In the case of inoculation the passage of the matter is patent and obvious ; whilst in diseases termed contagious it is sufficient that two animals should come in contact. The particles of matter, which pass from one to the other, may be intangible and invisible. The fact that the matter has so passed, though not demonstrable to the eye, is yet proved by the result. Infection is a term used to denote the spread of a disease by particles of matter floating in the air and absorbed into the system without actual contact of the sick with the healthy animal. No broad line or distinction can be drawn between inoculation, con- tagion, and infection. They glide insensibly one into the other. The difference is one of degree, not of kind ; for in all cases the poisonous matter is carried from the diseased to the sound animal. Infection, it will be observed, implies a greater degree of communica- bility than contagion ; and similarly this latter than inoculation. Many diseases which, under circumstances favorable to health, such as good ventilation, cleanliness and good condition, can only be reproduced by positive inoculation, may under less favorable circumstances be com- municated by contagion ; and under still less favorable circumstances by infection. On the other hand, diseases which are in their nature highly infectious, often become innocuous and unable to reproduce themselves under good sanitary arrangements. 275. Distance at wlticli infectious diseases can be communicated. The question is often asked, to what distance does the power of infec- tion extend. It is not easy to give a definite answer to this question. The emanations, whether proceeding from the poisonous miasma which originally generated the disease, or from the exhalations or excretions of the bodies of the diseased animals, float through the air much in the same way as the invisible scent of flowers. These emanations may be conveyed a considerable distance in a concentrated and undiluted form under circumstances favorable to their transmission. But, as a general rule, just as scent, when separated from the body which gives it off, soon loses its power, so these morbid emanations in general speedily lose their active qualities and power of evil. A few yards of space, if in a thorough draught, is usually sufficient to ensure such a dilution of the poison as INFECTION AND CONTAGION. 139 will render it innocuous. Fresh air plentifully and frequently renewed is the great antidote to all such poison. It cannot bear dilution without being disarmed of its power and rendered harmless. As, however, in the case of different scents, some of which after sepa- ration retain their powers much longer than others — the fox, for instance, can be traced by the hounds for a considerable time after he has passed, even though a high wind be blowing — so it is probable that the emana- tions given off by the bodies of animals in certain diseases possess greater stability than others. 276. Sequels of disease. When an animal has suffered from any disease which has greatly lowered the system, it not infrequently happens that he becomes secon- darily affected with some other disease of a still lower type. Thus, for instance, glanders or farcy often supervene on an attack of diabetes, and carry off the patient. Again, when an animal without any positive disease becomes very debilitated, he will very readily take on some disease of a low type, such as low fever, purpura haemorrhagica, glanders or farcy; and the result is often fatal. Such cases, it will be readily seen, are not really brought about by infection or contagion, but are simply malignant diseases induced by a low state of the system. When several horses at one time or about the same time are affected in any of these ways, the real cause will probably be found in bad stable management. 277. Disinfectants and Deodorizers. The particles of contagious or infectious matter, like other organic ferments, are very unstable in their composition and are easily acted on by various chemical agents. Such agents are called Disinfectants. They act either by poisoning or killing the ferment; or by abstracting the hydrogen from noxious gases and vapours, they break them up. Chlorine gas, carbonic acid, and many other compounds are commonly used for these purposes. A fuller account of these agents is given towards the end of the next Chapter, on the Action and Uses of Medicines. Disinfectants, however, and deodorizers, whose action is somewhat similar, though veiy valuable assistants, should never be allowed to take the place of free ventilation. It is true that they have, as explained above, a very beneficial effect in killing or breaking up the poisonous particles ; but they are not sufficient thoroughly to purify the air. Free ventilation, or in other words a real and actual change of air, whether in the stable or in the sick chamber, is absolutely necessary. It is a well ascertained fact that in hospitals, where much reliance has been placed on the use of disinfectants, disease has often spread with greater rapidity and virulence than in buildings where no such agents have been used, and where in consequence thorough ventilation has been more carefully attended to. Disinfectants and deodorizers are useful auxiliaries, but they must never be regarded as substitutes for ventilation. 140 CHAPTER 16. Disinfectants and deodorizers should not be allowed in stables. They are false friends. They are to destroy noxious smells, but they do not touch the source of the foul air, which is rising from inside, or outside, or neighbourhood of the stable. 278. Ventilation. Wherever a number of sick animals are collected under one roof, especial and extraordinary care is needed to prevent the air becoming contaminated. The fetid breath and unhealthy secretions and evacua- tions of diseased animals require a very large supply of air, in addition to the free use of disinfectants, to dilute and counteract their injurious tendencies. On the other hand, whenever by imperfect ventilation or over-crowding, by want of cleanliness or by bad drainage, these emanations are allowed to accumulate, concentrate, and ferment, they operate most injuriously not only on the sick animals, but also on healthy horses standing within reach of the poisonous miasma. Whilst the Author expresses these views with great confidence as regards horses in good health, it must be remembered that all animals, when their systems are from any cause lowered, are prone to take on disease of any kind, especially of that kind, whatever it may be, which is prevalent at the time. 279. Sick boxes. It is never desirable to congregate a number of sick animals under one roof, for reasons which from previous explanations will be at once appa- rent to the reader. The door of each box intended for a sick horse should open directly into the air, and the party walls should be carried up completely to the roof, so that no communication may exist between it and the next box. Sick boxes should be constructed with a view to thorough and easy ventilation. They need more ventilation than might at first sight seem to be required. The system of ventilation and construction recommended for stables in Chapter 1 will be found to answer well. All boxes used by sick horses should be frequently whitewashed, and every possible means should be adopted to keep them thoroughly clean. But when a box has been occupied by a horse affected with any malignant disease, it is not sufficient to. whitewash it. The walls ought to be tho- roughly scraped, and then with the paving should be washed with chloride of lime, after which ordinary whitewash may be used. If the paving is at all defective, and there is reason to think that there has been any soakage of urine or other debris through it into the soil, it should be taken up, and the soil covered with quick lime before it is re- laid. The wood work, mangers, and racks should also be washed with soap and water and repainted. Similar precautions should be taken in regard to the buckets and other utensils. It is well known that, in the wards of hospitals which have been many ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 141 years in use, the walls, unless plastered with non-absorbing cement, often become impregnated with deadly matter ; and, under the influence of the emanations given off from them, patients, who might under better sani- tary arrangements have recovered, sicken and die. In such cases it has been found necessary to remove the whole of the plaster, to scrape the walls, to remove and renew the whole of the wood work, and to take out all the windows and expose the whole building for a length of time to the purifying influence of the air. Sick boxes seldom require these extreme measures, because as soon as it is ascertained that a horse is affected with a malignant disease, it is usual to destroy him. CHAPTER 17. ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 280. Object with which medicine is given. 281. Classification of medicines. 282. Mode in which medicines produce their effect. 283. Purgatives. 284. Horses difficult to affect with purgative medicine. 285. Super-purgation. 286. Purgatives not to be given to a weak horse. 287. Aloes. 288. Aloes in solution. 289. Linseed oil. 289a. Croton farina. 2896. Croton oil 290. Saline subtances. 291. Clysters or enemata. 292. Diuretics. 293. Dia- phoretics. 294. Depressants. 295. Bleeding. 296. Sedatives. 297. Aconite. 298. Digitalis, tartar emetic, hydrocyanic acid, and belladonna. 299. Nau- seants. 300. Stimulants and diffusible stimulants. 301 . Narcotics. 302. Antispasmodics 303. Anesthetics. 303a. Chloroform. 304. Tonics, mineral and vegetable. 305. Blisters. 306. Caustics or Eschar otics. 307. Astringents. 308. Demulcents. 309. External dressings. 310. Digestive ointment. 311. Diluents. 312. Emollients. 313. Poultices. 314. Fomen- tations. 315. Spongiopiline. 316. Cold applications. 317. Cooling diinJcs. 318. Cooling lotions. 319. Alterative balls. 320. Febrifuges. 322. Fever or Cough balls. 323. Disinfectants and Deodorizers. 324. Antiseptics. 325. Mode of delivering a ball. 326. Mode of giving a drench. 280. Object with which medicine is given. The object with which Medicine is given is to produce an altered — it may be an increased or it may be a diminished — action of some organ of the body or of the system generally. 281. Classification of medicines. Medicines may be roughly classed under the following heads, namely, 1st. Evacuants, which increase the secretions from the bowels, skin, 142 CHAPTER 17. or kidneys. They are respectively termed purgatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics. 2nd. Depressants, including sedatives and nauseants, which lower the action of the heart and nervous system. 3rd. Stimulants, which rouse and excite the action of the heart and nervous system. 4th. Narcotics, which exert a primary stimulant, and secondary, but more permanent, sedative effect. 5th. Tonics, which impart tone and vigour to the system. The above medicines act on the system generally. The following exert chiefly a topical action. 6th. Blisters, which cause irritation of the skin. 7th. Caustics, which decompose solid tissues and fluids. 8th. Astringents, which constringe muscular fibre, repress undue granulations, and cause contraction and condensation in the part to which they are applied. In more familiar language, they dry up sores and induce the formation of a scab. 9th. Demulcents, which act locally by protecting, so far as they reach in an undiluted form, the lining of interior parts. 10th. External dressings, which in cases of abrasions of the skin, wounds, sores, &c., are useful in protecting exterior parts from the irri- tating effect of the air and from flies, &c. llth. Emollients, which soften and relax the tissues and thereby lessen pain, and allow the blood congested in the part to flow away more easily. 12th. Cold applications, which constringe the structures, abstract heat, and moderate inflammatory action. 282. Mode in which medicines produce their effects. Most medicines which are taken internally are absorbed into the blood and circulation generally. But though absorbed, they do not seem to be assimilated with it or with the structures of the body. On the contrary, they are speedily ejected from the blood by their appropriate excretory organs. This is especially the case with the large class of medicines in- cluded under the comprehensive title of evacuants. They seem to pro- duce their principal effect during the process of ejection, — the organ through which they are excreted being excited to increased action. Medicines, however, do not produce the same effects in all states of the system. Their effects, even if not positively determined, are often much modified by any morbid changes which may have taken place. Some medicines, indeed, are completely changed when introduced into the system. Alkalies, for instance, are neutralised when they meet with the acid of the gastric juice. Again, most medicines which produce an effect on the skin, act also in a certain degree on the stomach, intestines, or kidneys, because they are more or less absorbed into the system, especially if applied in large quantities. ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 143 Some medicines are believed to produce their effects by acting on the nerves of the part which absorbs or excretes them. Though we can explain in some degree how medicines produce their effects, yet we cannot explain why particular medicines affect particular organs — why, for instance, aloes acts on the intestines and resin on the kidneys. It is only by continued observations and experiments that these effects have been ascertained to be facts. In applying medicine to the treatment of disease we endeavour to utilise our knowledge of facts, though we cannot always explain the reason of them. 283. Purgatives. Some purgatives seem to act generally on the intestinal canal. The effects of others are confined to the large intestines, but the great majority produce their effect on the small intestines. Though the immediate action of purgatives consists in causing evacua- tion of the contents of the intestines, they also produce an effect on other organs ; because the intestines when excited to increased action draw off secretions from all parts. Thus a dose of purgative medicine will often reduce swelled legs, because the increased action of the intestines drains off the watery parts of the blood from other portions of the system. Again, they often are useful in carrying off those noxious matters which, from impaired secretion during disease, are apt to accumulate in the blood, and tend, if not removed, to keep up fever and inflammation. Although the active operation of purgatives is only temporary, yet their results are often permanent. By their action the intestines are relieved from undigested materials or accumulated faeces, the blood is freed from impurities, and the liver and other excretory organs are roused to healthy action. Before purgative medicine can be safely given, it is absolutely necessary that the horse should be well " prepared for physic," that is, deprived for at least thirty-six, and if possible forty-eight, hours of all food except cold bran mashes, which are in themselves laxative and tend to assist the action of the medicine. Physic does not take any effect until it is brought into contact with the mucous linings. If the stomach and intestines are full, the purgative may never reach those linings. It may pass through with a mass of food, and its properties may not be extracted, or it may act violently in a mass on the part of the lining which it reaches. On the other hand, when the stomach and intestines are somewhat empty, the medicine is diffused over a large tract of mucous surface, and acts more speedily and more safely. After the administration of the medicine the patient should be freely supplied with tepid water. If, however, he refuses tepid water, he may be allowed water from, which the chill has been removed by allowing it to stand for a few hours in a warm room or kitchen. The diet must be restricted to sloppy warm bran mashes. A little walking exercise or a 144 CHAPTER 17. very gentle trot for a few minutes will sometimes also be needed to cause the medicine to operate. With a similar view an enema may be given. Six or seven evacuations are quite sufficient, though grooms generally like to see a dozen. So far as the action of the purgative is concerned, a horse moderately purged may generally be put to work in about three days after the physic has ceased to operate, or " set " as it is technically termed. A dose of physic is very apt to carry off a weakly patient from over- effect ; but in some cases of fever attended with great debility it may remain inoperative from want of tone in the system. Balls, which have been given several days previous, are sometimes found whole in the intes- tines after death. Some purgatives do not act directly on the intestines, but produce their effects indirectly by exciting organs in connection with them, such as the liver and glandular structures. The administration of purgatives is always attended with some danger, and therefore it is desirable to use the smallest quantity which will pro- cure the required effect. 284. Horses difficult to affect with purgative medicine. If it be found difficult to move the bowels of any particular horse with medicine, it is a good plan, in addition to the usual preparation, to put him on linseed meal and bran mashes for a further twenty-four hours before the administration of the dose. If in the end the physic does not act, the stinting of the food will probably have done nearly as much good as the medicine would have done. It is a dangerous mistake to give a second dose of aloes at an interval of less than ten days, or to suppose that the medicine will do harm by remaining in the system, if it does not pass off visibly. Its effect is in reality simply negative. In many cases, however, the medicine is passed off by the kidneys. 285. Super-purgation. If the purging continues over long, and wheaten flour mixed with the water fails to stop it, some rice-water gruel, made rather thick, may be given frequently and in small quantities at a time, and also hay and a little bruised corn mixed with dry bran. The patient should be kept very quiet and warm. His legs should be wrapped in flannel bandages, and his body, especially the belly, kept warm with clothing. Astringent and nutritive enemata are often recommended in such cases, but their utility is very doubtful. 286. Purgatives not to be given to a weaJc horse. Purgatives rapidly reduce the strength — partly by causing the food to pass more quickly through the intestines and thereby giving less time for the absorption of its nutritious parts, partly by the increased secre- ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 145 tions they draw from the system, and partly by the nervous prostration they induce. Purgatives, therefore, should not be given to a horse in a weak state, because he cannot bear further weakening; nor, except in very reduced quantities and with the greatest caution, in diseases of the lungs or air- passages. In these cases the animal is always weak on account of the blood not being properly purified in the lungs. And, again, on account of the active sympathy existing between the mucous lining of the air- passages and that of the alimentary canal, there is always reason to fear that the inflammation already established in the one may extend to the other. Under such circumstances physic is very likely to cause super- purgation. 287. Aloes. Aloes is by iar the best and safest purgative. Cape and East India are inferior to Barbadoes, chiefly on account of the greater proportion of resinous matter they contain. Aloes is usually and most conveniently given in the solid form as a ball. Four or five drachms are a sufficient dose for most horses, if properly prepared ; but large heavy horses may perhaps require five or six. It usually operates in about twenty-four hours. The following prescriptions for an Aloetio mass are recommended in preference to those made up with oils or other fats : Barbadoes Aloes . * ;«,... . 8 parts. Glycerin ,..'._* . . . 2 parts. Powdered Ginger . « . . . 1 part. Melt together in a water bath and thoroughly incorporate. Dose from 6 to 8 drachms. or Barbadoes Aloes . . . • . . . 1 Ib. Treacle . . . . . \ . 1 Ib, Ginger y « . . .." . 2 oz. Melt in a water bath and stir while cooling. Dose from 8 to 12 drachms. In cases where the use of ginger is considered objectionable, the same quantity of powdered gentian may be substituted. The action of the medicine will be slightly increased. Aloetic medicine should not be made up in balls until required for use, but should be kept in a mass in a glass-stoppered bottle. When divided into small portions, as in balls, it soon becomes dry and hard, and is then uncertain in its effects. A single ball can be made up by reducing the aloes (4 or 5 drachms) to powder in a mortar, and adding 2 drachms of ginger with sufficient treacle to form a soft mass. The ball must then be wrapped in soft paper. 10 146 CHAPTER 17. 288. Aloes in solution. Aloes in the solid form contains a resinous principle, and hence is sometimes excreted by the kidneys. In making the solution the resinous matter rises to the top, and may easily be skimmed off. Hence the solu- tion becomes a purer medicine, and may preferably be given in some cases, where the admixture of resin contained in the solid form would be injurious. Its action is also quicker. The solution is made by dissolving four or five drachms of aloes in a pint of hot water, with two drachms of powdered ginger and an ounce of aromatic spirits of ammonia; or half the above quantity may be dis- solved, and half a pint of linseed oil added with two drachms of powdered ginger. The drench should be well shaken before being given. Practically, however, there is always an objection to giving drenches to the horse when it can be avoided, because an uncertain proportion of the medicine is usually spilt and lost in the administration. The action of Aloes, whether in the solid or liquid form, may be in- creased by combining it with gentian. Thus in lieu of five drachms, four drachms of aloes may be given with two drachms of tincture of gentian. 289. Linseed oil Linseed oil taken internally is a purgative. It is less certain, as a general rule, in its action than aloes ; but is preferred in some cases, because it produces less irritation of the intestinal linings than aloes. The dose is from 10 to 30 oz. 289a. Croton Farina. Croton Farina is a very powerful, but dangerous purgative, and is only given in extreme cases of constipation. It acts rapidly, and causes watery evacuation. It is difficult to stop the purgation induced. It sometimes causes inflammation of the intestines. The dose is from 20 to 30 grains. 2896. Croton oil Croton oil is sometimes administered in cases of obstinate constipation dependent on some functional derangements of the nervous system. The oil may be given in doses of 15 to 25 minims, either mixed with linseed meal into a bolus, or with olive or linseed oil in a draught. In cases where neither ball nor draught can be given, it may be placed upon the tongue. Like Croton Farina, this oil is a powerful and dangerous purgative, and should only be administered in extreme cases. ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 147 290. Saline substances. Saline substances, such as Sulphate of Magnesia or Epsom Salts, are also used as purgatives. In addition to their purgative properties, they seem to alter the condition of the blood and to diminish its tendency to coagulation in certain diseases. Hence in fevers they are often adminis- tered with benefit ; but as a general rule they are neither so safe nor so certain in their action as aloes. 291. Clysters or Enemata. Clysters, otherwise called Enemata, soften and loosen the hardened faeces, and also by mechanically distending the lower gut cause it to evacuate its contents. The excitement of the lower intestines sometimes extends forwards and rouses the small intestines to action. The water should be of the temperature of new milk. The quantity of water thrown up at one time should not exceed quarts. No violence should be used in forcing it up. Whether the instruments used are the ordinary syringe, patent pump, common bladder, or leather bag and funnel pipe, the fluid should invariably be injected gently and gradually. The object of an enema is not to wash out the patient's inside, but simply to rouse the powers of nature to evacuation. Purgative enemata usually consist of warm water only, but if a more stimulating effect is desired, common salt, oil, or solution of aloes or soap may be added. Retention for a few minutes should be ensured by keeping the tail down. A second enema after an interval of half an hour is generally beneficial. Nutritive enemata, consisting of gruel or rice water, are beneficial in cases where the patient is unable or unwilling to take food by the mouth. They should not exceed a quart in quantity. If larger, they will probably be ejected. Astringent enemata, made of two drachms each of catechu and opium, or a quart of starch in a gallon of water, are said to be useful in check- ing diarrhoea. Sedative enemata are made by adding about two ounces of tincture of opium to the water. They are said to be useful in allaying spasms in the intestines. Their utility is, however, extremely doubtful. Gaseous enemata, consisting of tobacco smoke, are also used for a similar purpose. Enemata consisting of two ounces of oil of turpentine, diluted with a pint of olive oil, are recommended by some Veterinarians for the purpose of killing worms in the large intestines. 292. Diuretics. Diuretics are medicines which act on the kidneys and cause increased secretion of urine. Like purgatives, they are absorbed in the blood, but not being assimilated, are ejected from it and excreted through the kidneys. During excretion they cause irritation, and hence produce in- creased secretion. The body should be kept cool during the period of 148 CHAPTER 17. their administration. Though the bowels cannot always be acted on, the kidneys are very easily affected. The diuretics in common use are resin, turpentine, etherous substances, and small doses of nitrate or acetate of potash or other saline matters. The latter, however, if given in large quantities, are excreted by the bowels. Diuretics, though acting locally on the kidneys, affect the whole sys- tem, because the secretions which they induce are drawn from the system generally, as explained under the head of purgatives. Hence they are given in fevers with the view of removing from the blood those delete- rious matters which in such cases always accumulate in the system from suspension of the secretory powers. They are also employed to remove from the body excess of fluids or " humours," as they are popularly called, as in cases of swelled legs. The kidneys themselves are rarely affected primarily. Affections of the urine generally arise from derangement of the digestive organs. If the kidneys get into a chronic state of torpidity the cause will probably be found in want of tone of the system. The true remedy in all such cases lies in good feeding, air, exercise, and proper attention to stable duties rather than in the administration of diuretics. Diuretic balls are generally made of two drachms each of resin arid nitre with one drachm of Venice turpentine, mixed in a mass with soft soap and linseed meal. 293. Diaphoretics. The skin is the channel through which the system excretes a large, though variable, amount of refuse fluid matters, holding in solution various salts and effete organic matters. It has been estimated that as large an amount of matter is passed off through the skin of a horse in high condition and active exercise as by all the other excretory organs. Hence exercise, occasionally at least sufficient to produce a good sweat, is essential to health. During those diseases in which the functions of the kidneys, lungs, or bowels are more or less disturbed, and when exercise cannot be taken, it is often of great importance to maintain, and if possible increase, the action of the skin, in order to prevent the blood from being poisoned by the accumulation of deleterious matters in it. Diaphoretics are medicines used to increase the action of the skin by stimulating the cutaneous glands and vessels. They answer well and are frequently used in the human subject; but in the horse, partly on account of the hair with which the skin is covered, and partly on account of the tendency of the medicine to be passed off by the kidneys and bowels, they are not available. The best practical method of causing diaphoresis in the horse is to administer diluents in large quantities, then to apply friction over the body, and to keep the animal well covered with double clothing in a warm atmosphere. A Turkish bath, if avail- able, but this is rarely the case, will produce the desired effect. ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 149 294, Depressants, Depressants proper are those agents which, such as bloodletting, depress the nerve force and system generally. Under the general head of Depressants, however, it is usual to include also Sedatives, which abate the nervous force without causing such positive general depression, and Nauseants, which, as the name expresses, lower the tone of the system by producing nausea. It will readily be seen that, though a broad distinction may be drawn, yet no sharply defined line divides these agents. 295. Bleeding. Bleeding was some years ago considered to be amongst the most power- ful and certain of the depressants, and was much employed by the older practitioners. That it does act as a depressant is beyond doubt, but such action mainly depends upon the weakening effects produced by the sudden reduction of the quantity of blood in the circulation. The idea that bleeding lessens the action of the heart is erroneous, because during the act of bloodletting the heart beats are increased in frequency, but the contractile force of its walls is weakened. Consequently the pulse, al- though quickened, loses any vibratory hardness it may have, and becomes softer in character. When it is thought necessary to employ it, blood enough should be taken to produce a marked alteration in the character of the pulse. The blood should be drawn in a full stream, so as to produce the effect as quickly as possible. If bleeding is resorted to at all, it should be in the very early stage of disease, before the strength fails. Bleeding, however, is not a safe remedy. As a general rule it should be avoided ; and if there is any doubt as to its advisability, it is always safer not to bleed. Far more horses are killed than saved by this remedy. Bleeding is always injurious when the pulse is quick and weak. The prevalent idea that a quick pulse necessarily indicates the presence of inflammation, is wholly erroneous. Such a pulse far more often results from a weak and perverted state of the system, which bleeding will seriously, if not fatally aggravate. Bleeding is especially injurious in the later stages of diseases of the lungs and air-passages, because in them the patient is always weak on account of the blood not being properly purified in the lungs. 296. Sedatives. The term Sedatives is applied to those depressants which abate the nervous force without causing positive general depression. Sedatives may be divided into two classes, namely, those which possess a general, and those which have only a local action. Aconite, which acts by lower- ing the action of the heart, is an example of the first ; whilst warm water, which assuages local pain, may be taken as a type of the latter. 150 CHAPTER 17. 297. Aconite. Aconite is a prompt and effectual sedative in febrile attacks and in acute inflammation. It moderates and lessens the action of the heart, and hence reduces the quantity of blood which passes in a given time to any part. It has the advantage of not reducing the strength like loss of blood. In a large dose it is highly poisonous ; but the tincture may be safely given in doses of from ten to twenty drops frequently until the pulse is relieved. 298. Digitalis, tartar emetic, hydrocyanic acid, and belladonna. Digitalis operates in much the same way as aconite, but is neither so safe nor so certain. In large doses it causes intermittent pulse, and in excess may produce coma and even death. It is apt to accumulate in the system, and symptoms of poisoning may set in after its use has been continued for some time, or even after its administration has ceased. Its action, therefore, should be carefully watched. The usual dose is a scruple three times a day. Tartarized antimony, otherwise called tartar emetic, though powerful in its effect on the human subject, acts very slightly, if at all, on the horse. Hydrocyanic acid is also used as a sedative, but is not a safe medicine in inexperienced hands. Half to one drachm is the usual dose. Extract of Belladonna, in doses of one drachm with one or two drachms of nitrate of potassa, is also employed as a sedative, but in reality its action is narcotic. 299. Nauseants. Although certain peculiarities in the position and structure of the stomach prevent the horse from vomiting except in rare instances, yet nausea sufficient to keep an irritable animal quiet may be produced by giving one drachm of aloes every other day smeared over the molar teeth. In certain cases, such as broken knees, the important object of keeping the patient quiet is sometimes only to be attained in this way. 300. Stimulants and diffusible stimulants. Stimulants as external applications will hereafter be treated of spe- cially in the chapter on Irritants. We therefore pass them over in this place. The internal stimulants used in Veterinary practice are chiefly those known as Diffusible stimulants. They cause rapid, but only temporary excitement of the system. They are very useful in rousing and equalis- ing the circulation, which from any cause may have become languid or even almost paralysed. In shivering fits, for instance, diffusible stimu- lants may by this action ward off attacks of inflammation. Shivering, which is a marked premonitory symptom of such attacks, is produced by ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 151 the blood being suddenly driven from the surface of the body to the internal organs. They also relieve the congestion of internal organs by exciting the general circulation. Hence they are employed in many diseases, especially in inflammation of the lungs. Diffusible stimulants are of the highest value in febrile affections, in diseases attended with great depression, during convalescence after serious illness, and in all cases of prostration, &c. The ordinary dose consists of Spirits of Nitrous ether . . . . 1J oz. Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia » • • J °z- Water .,*- ;* i. ;* . . 1 pint. or Solution of Acetate of Ammonia . ,, . , 3 to 4 oz. Water . ... . . .. . 1 pint. or Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia . . . . 1 oz. Tincture of Gentian • . . .. . . 1 oz. Water . r . -.. » . , 1 pint. The Carbonate of Ammonia is a very valuable diffusible stimulant, and may be given either in the form of ball or draught in doses of from 1 to 2 drachms in a pint of water. 301. Narcotics. Narcotics exert a primary stimulant, but more permanent sedative effect on the brain and nervous system. They are given with the view of relieving pain. Combined with other appropriate remedies, they are useful in alleviating spasms and the pain of some wounds and injuries. Opium, Indian hemp, belladonna, camphor, and tobacco smoke are the narcotics in most common use. Belladonna and camphor and opium are especially valuable in relieving pain. An ordinary dose may consist of Opium . . . . . * 1 to 2 drachms, with or without Camphor . » < 1 to 2 drachms. or in cases of inflammation of the bowels or liver, the above may be com- bined with half a drachm of Calomel. 302. Antispasmodics. Antispasmodics are medicines which act upon the brain and nerves, and through them on the system generally. By their action they overcome inordinate muscular action, such as spasms. They usually consist of a narcotic in combination with a diffusible stimulant and a slight purgative. An antispasmodic draught may be made of — Spirits of Nitrous ether . . . . 2 oz. Tincture of Opium . . . . . 1 oz. Solution of Aloes 4 to 5 oz. 152 CHAPTER 17. or Oil of Turpentine . . .-,.-.*...* 2 to 3 oz. Tincture of Opium . ".,;.*, . 2 oz. Linseed oil . ^ .- > , . .; 1 pint. 303. Anesthetics. Anaesthetics are now very largely used in veterinary practice and are becoming more and more employed as time goes on. 303&. Chloroform. Chloroform ought to be administered in all painful operations, but is not needed in minor cases, such as firing over limited surfaces or castra- tion. The depressing after-effects more than counteract any benefit derived from its operation. In modern surgery chloroform is administered through both nostrils by means of a ventilated muzzle (Raymond's patent), at the bottom of which a flat sponge saturated with chloroform is inserted, and retained in position by a perforated metal plate. Many horses become greatly excited after inhaling for a short time. The chloroform in such cases must be administered more rapidly, until the patient becomes still and his eyes open. The eyelids are generally closed until the last. The eyes should be repeatedly examined, and the sponge should be removed before the eye becomes totally insensitive to touch. If the pupil becomes dilated and insensitive to touch (no matter how small may have been the quantity of chloroform used), its administra- tion must be immediately stopped. But if no such results occur, the administration should be continued until the lid becomes flaccid. Some horses become unconscious with the administration of 2 oz., while others require 8 oz. For veterinary purposes methylated chloro- form answers as well as the pure, and is much cheaper. In all cases it is advisable to ascertain before administration that the heart is free from disease, or a fatal result may be apprehended. 304. Tonics. Tonics are agents which increase the general tone and vigour of the system without producing any sudden reaction. They are supposed, after being first taken into the circulation, to act through the nervous system on the contractile involuntary muscular fibres of the alimentary canal and circulatory system, thereby inducing a more healthy state of primary and secondary nutrition. They increase the appetite, the fulness and firmness of the pulse, the activity of all bodily functions and muscular power. Preparations of iron appear to be especially useful in improving the condition of the blood by increasing the amount of iron contained in that fluid. ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 153 These beneficial effects, however, are only produced when the system has need of such artificial stimulus. When given to healthy animals tonics are likely to do more harm than good. They differ from diffusible and other stimulants in that their action is but slowly established, whilst their effects are tolerably permanent, and their administration is not succeeded by subsequent depression. Tonics, especially mineral tonics, should not be given to horses except under the advice of a well qualified Veterinary surgeon. Even in the human subject great care is required in their administration; but they may be more safely given, because the effect which they are producing can be ascertained daily by inquiry from the patient. In the horse, how- ever, we have not this advantage. We may watch for, but we cannot positively ascertain their effect, until perhaps they have produced a marked result, either for good or for evil. The medical tonics in ordinary use are divided into the two heads of mineral and vegetable. The first named comprise salts of iron and copper and arsenic. They are generally given with the food. The vege- table tonics in common use are infusions of gentian, quassia, and cinchona (which contains the alkaloid known as quinine). Ginger, aniseed, and other aromatics have also a slight tonic effect. Mineral are far more powerful than vegetable tonics. The cordial balls so much patronized by grooms generally contain as their principal ingredient some mild tonic, such as gentian, cardamom seeds, &c. The really best tonics for the horse, except after seriously debilitating illness, are good fresh cool air, well regulated exercise, good feeding, and good grooming. Of mineral tonics the ordinary dose may consist of — Sulphate of Iron 1 to 2 drachms, with 2 to 4 drachms of Ginger, or Sulphate of Copper J to 1 drachm, with powdered Gentian 2 to 4 drachms, or Arsenious acid ... . . . 5 grains. Though the above are the ordinary doses, yet it must be remembered that Mineral tonics are very powerful, and even dangerous medicines, unless their effects are closely watched. Hence the amount and fre- quency of the repetition of the dose may often require to be varied under the ever changing circumstances of the patient. Of Vegetable tonics the ordinary doses are — Quinine J to 1 drachm, dissolved in a few drops of sulphuric acid and a pint of water, or Oak bark 2 to 3 drachms made into a ball with treacle and bran, or Powdered Gentian root 1 to 2 drachms, or Tincture of Gentian 1 to 2 ounces in a pint of water. In some cases the above quantities may be doubled, 154 CHAPTER 17. Though in a far less degree than mineral, Vegetable tonics are power- ful for good or for evil, and the effects which they are producing require to be carefully watched. 305. Blisters. Blisters, by means of their irritant action, produce inflammation of the true skin, and as a result, effusion of the watery parts of the blood. This effusion appears in the form of vesicles or blisters, which raise up the cuticle from the skin underneath. Blisters are used either as local stimulants ; or as irritants with a view of causing an altered, and it may be a healthier action; or as counter- irritants. When the first or mere stimulant action is desired, the blistering liquid is applied sparingly. By such stimulation more blood is brought to the part affected, and increased action is the result. With this view blisters are applied to indolent wounds and ulcers, to parts from which the hair has fallen off, and to the coronet in order to stimulate the growth of the hoof. When an irritant effect is desired, as in some cases of sprains of tendons or ligaments, the blistering liquid is applied more freely. When increased irritation is sought for, the liquid is applied freely over a considerable extent of surface. The agents in use for the purpose of producing stimulation or irrita- tion are of various degrees of severity, from the temporary superficial redness caused by simple friction to the deep and severe action of the actual cautery. Irritants, under which are included all classes of blisters, are much used in Veterinary practice, and are so important that we deem it neces- sary to devote a separate chapter to the consideration of their action and uses, — to which the reader is referred for further information on this subject. See Chapter 19. 306. Caustics or Eschar otics. Caustics act by chemically decomposing solid tissues and the fluids. This action destroys the vitality of the part. They are therefore much used in cases of unhealthy granulations, otherwise called proud flesh. Although they destroy the structure with which they come in imme- diate contact, yet they cause irritation and increased action in the adja- cent parts. Hence they are often made use of for the cure of indolent wounds and ulcers. Some of them possess the property of uniting with albuminous matters, which renders them effectual in coagulating blood and thus stopping haemorrhage, and likewise in producing an eschar or scab over painful or irritable sores or wounds. Caustics differ much in intensity. Those in common use are nitrate of silver, otherwise called lunar caustic, bluestone or sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron and zinc, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, arsenic, corrosive sublimate, terchloride of antimony, and the hot iron or actual ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 155 cautery. These agents are apt to be much abused, being frequently applied in too strong a form or in too great quantities. Inexperienced people in their desire for a decided effect too often forget the delicate nature of the living structures, with which they have to deal, and the pain which such rough treatment gives. Equable well applied pressure, though not a caustic, deserves to be mentioned in this place as a valuable agent in repressing unhealthy or excessive granulations. Nitrate of silver is the most convenient application for repressing too luxuriant granulations, or for promoting healthy action in a sore. Corro- sive sublimate is frequently used with advantage in quittor to promote healthy action in the sinuses. Red precipitate induces healthy action in a sore. Nitric acid applied by means of a piece of tow at the end of a stick is used in fungus on the sole of the foot. 307. Astringents. Astringents partake, though only in a modified degree, both of the action of caustics and tonics. Like caustics they combine chemically with albuminous and watery matters, whilst like tonics they act on, brace up, and constringe muscular fibre. When given internally they are useful in arresting excessive secretions of the mucous membranes and in bracing up relaxed parts. Hence they are often given in cases of diarrhoea. When applied externally, they are beneficial in several ways. They suppress excessive secretions, and hence hasten the formation of healthy cicatrices and promote the process of healing generally. They check the formation of unhealthy granulations ; whilst moreover their constringent action renders them serviceable in reducing superficial inflammation, such as that arising from slight contusions, from inflammation of the mucous coat of the eye, &c. Internally opium, catechu, sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, and rice water are administered. In profuse staling iodine has a very marked effect. For external cases alum, the acetate of lead and zinc, and sulphates of zinc, iron and copper are used. Ice, cold water, and cold generally, though they have no chemical effect, deserve places among astringents by virtue of their action in bracing up muscular fibre. All caustics, if much diluted, have an astringent action. For an astringent powder equal parts of burnt alum and chalk, or of alum and pipeclay answer particularly well. In cases of indolent sores an ounce of sulphate of copper to a pint of water may be used. An astringent lotion may be made by dissolving in water as much powdered sulphate of zinc or acetate of lead as it will take up ; or equal parts of the above may be dissolved together. The lotion may be reduced in strength by adding water according to the nature of the wound to which it is to be applied. An ounce of salt dissolved in a pint of water also forms a very useful mild astringent lotion. 156 CHAPTER 17. 308. Demulcents. Demulcents have a purely local action. When taken internally they form a coating, so far as they reach in an undiluted form, to the mucous linings, and protect them from irritation. In sore throat, for instance, in ourselves, we readily recognise the benefits of demulcents in protecting the mucous lining of the throat from the irritating effects of cold raw air. They are also serviceable in preventing acrid secretions from coming in contact with delicate and irritable surfaces. Hence they are given in cases of diarrhoea. Demulcents are made either of linseed boiled to a jelly and mixed with the food, or by pouring boiling water on the seeds in the proportion of one pint of water to an ounce of seed. The latter must be left to stand till cold, when a thick solution will be obtained. Another and perhaps better preparation is made by throwing the lin- seed by a handful at a time into boiling water. Each handful then gets well scalded at once. 309. External dressings. External dressings in cases of wounds are useful in protecting the parts from the irritating effects of the air, of flies, &c. ; and secondly in lower- ing the temperature of superficial inflamed parts. For the first-named purpose cotton wool or strips of cotton dipped in collodion, or a rag wetted with Goulard lotion or cold water answer well. Carbolic acid made into a paste with chalk, or collodion applied over the part with a camel's hair brush will often be found useful in forming an artificial eschar over a sore. For the second-named purpose a rag kept wet with water or with a refrigerating lotion may be used. To prevent attacks of flies, which in, hot weather are especially apt to be troublesome, the parts may be lightly smeared with spirits of tar, naphtha, petroleum, or diluted carbolic acid. In hot climates much of the success in treatment of wounds and sores depends on keeping off flies. Maggots in a wound will be best got rid of by dressings of equal parts of spirits of turpentine and oil. Under the head of external dressings are also included the applications used for mange, ringworm, lice, &c. These will be given under the heads of the diseases to which they respectively refer. Digestive dressings, for which some recipes will be found in the next paragraph, are also much employed ; but the benefit derived from their use is questionable. 310. Digestive liniments. Turpentine Liniment is much employed as a rubefacient, and as a digestive on abraded surfaces. It is usually made as under. Oil of turpentime . 1 part. QUve oil . , .4 parts. ACTION AND USES OF MEDICINES. 157 Compound Liniment of Turpentine is used when a more stimulating effect is desired, otherwise called Soap Liniment. Oil of turpentine . 8 oz. Camphor . . . 1 oz. Soft soap . . . 4 oz. To be shaken together till mixed. 310a. Digestive ointment. Common Turpentine . 1 part. Hogs' Lard . . . 4 parts. Melt together in a water bath. 311. Diluents. When dissolved in a large amount of water demulcents act as Diluents, which, as their name indicates, dilute the blood and other secretions. They are useful in certain diseases in diminishing the irritating proper- ties of unhealthy secretions. In irritability of the bladder, for instance, they are serviceable in diluting the urine and thus diminishing irritation in the mucous lining of that organ. 312. Emollients. Fomentations and Poultices, otherwise termed Emollients, by virtue of their heat and moisture soften, relax, and soothe the parts to which they are applied. Hence they are used in cases of recent sprains, in colic or gripes, in enteritis, in bruises, and in all such cases. They are also serviceable in cleansing wounds in which dirt or gravel may have lodged. But simple as they are, Emollients may be used too freely or for too long, or until they unduly relax the parts, or in the case of wounds in- duce undue effusion and suppuration, and in some cases excessive granu- lations. The lymphy fluid poured out from the adjacent healthy structures is the material intended by nature for the cementing of wounds and for the repair of lacerated structures. From it the muscles, skin, bones, and all other parts are built up, and hence in the treatment of wounds care must be taken not to interfere with the reparative material or ignorantly remove it. The simple rule appears to be, that Emollients are useful in the first instance in reducing the inflammation, and may in many cases bring about resolution. Or if the progress of inflammation cannot be checked, they may be advantageously continued with the view of bringing on the processes of effusion and suppuration. But as soon as this action has been induced, the emollient should be discontinued, because the object of its application has been attained. 313. Poultices. Poultices intended for the special purpose of giving warmth to a part are usually made of hot bran. Those intended for relaxation may be 158 CHAPTER 17. made of equal parts of moist bran, linseed meal, olive oil; or of boiled carrots or turnips mixed with bran. For ill conditioned sores linseed answers best. If a sore is painful, opium may be added to any of the above. To soften the horn in inflammation of the feet, vinegar may be added to the bran. A poultice may be made an astringent dressing by the addition of sulphate of zinc. Poultices, though very convenient in the human subject, are not equally applicable in the horse, because they are not easily fixed, except on the feet. A poultice, unless made large, dries too rapidly, and is then apt to cause irritation instead of soothing. On the other hand, if made large it is heavy and difficult to secure. The poultice must not be tied so tight as to arrest the circulation or to leave a mark. With this view, a broad tape or a piece of list should be used instead of a string. An old stocking with part of the foot cut off makes a good poultice bag for the lower part of the leg. The substance of which the poultice is intended to be made should be steeped in hot water in a cloth. The water must then be permitted to drain off. 314. Fomentations. Warm water makes the best fomentation, and is only open to the objec- tion that its use demands from servants an amount of time and trouble which they are not very willing to give, unless closely superintended. Directions as to the mode of applying fomentations have been given in the chapter on nursing. 315. Spongiopiline. For sprains and bruises, when the skin is not broken, a thick woollen substance covered with oilcloth, called Spongiopiline, which is manufac- tured for the purpose, forms a good, but still inferior, substitute for the more troublesome operation of fomentation. It should be soaked in hot water, and on account of its thickness and impervious covering will long retain both heat and moisture. 316. Cold applications. Cold applications resemble fomentations in so far as that their action is local, but in other respects their action is diametrically different. They constringe, harden, and brace up the parts to which they are applied. They reduce the calibre and increase the tone of the distended or relaxed superficial blood-vessels, rouse them to increased action, and excite them to absorb the effused products of hyperaemia. They also lower the heat of the part to which they are applied. Hence their value in the treat- ment of sprains after the first heat and tenderness have passed away, and also in reducing bruises and removing simple superficial circumscribed inflammation. Of cold applications cold water is the most common and convenient. AOTION AND USES 0$ MEDICINES. 159 Poured from a height it is sometimes specially effective. Its tempera- ture, if need be, may be lowered by dissolving in it ice and salt, or a mixture of equal weights of common salt, nitre, and muriate of ammonia. Vinegar is sometimes mixed with the water, and is- useful where an astrin- gent and refrigerant effect is desired. Powdered ice is also a valuable means of abstracting heat. An ingenious india-rubber apparatus is now made for allowing cold water to trickle down over any required part. 317. Cooling Drinks. Cooling and refrigerant drinks, though less commonly used in Veter- inary than in human practice, are refreshing and sometimes palatable to sick animals. They often, also exert a slight tonic action, and generally in addition increase the secretions of the bowels and kidneys. Cooling drinks are made by dissolving in water saline matters such as 4 drachms of nitre, or cream of tartar, or 4 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia in a gallon of water. Or acids such as 2 or 3 ounces of vinegar, or 1 or 2 drachms of hydrochloric acid may be mixed in the above quantity of water. Many horses, however, will refuse the water when so mixed. 318. Cooling lotions. Acetate of Ammonia .... . 4 oz. Spirits of wine , ... . . . 4 oz. Water , . . • , • . • 8 oz- Mix and keep the part wet with a rag ; or Sal Ammoniac » * ^ . . , 1 oz. Vinegar , * . •,. . , . 4 oz. Spirits of Wine ... .. , • • 4 oz. Water . ., ... . . 8 oz. Mix the Sal Ammoniac and Vinegar together, and then add the Spirits of Wine and the water ; or Sugar of Lead , ••.. , . - . f . \ oz. Vinegar , , ...... •• • • .» • 2 oz. Water t « . , , . 1 quart. 319. Alterative balls. By slightly provoking the action of the excretory organs Alteratives are sometimes useful in enabling the system to rid itself of any waste materials or matters, which if retained might cause disturbance of health. They may be made of — Nitre, Black Antimony, and Sulphur, 2 drachms each. Or a mass may be made of Aloes in powder 1 oz., Soft soap 1 oz., Lin- seed meal and treacle 6 oz. Dose 1 oz. 160 CHAPTER 17. 320. Febrifuges. Camphor . ,. . 1 drachm. Nitre . . . 2 do. Made into a ball ; Nitre . . .2 drachms. Epsom Salts . . 1 to 4 do. Dissolved in a pint of water ; or Acetate of Ammonia . . . 3 oz. Nitre . ... . .2 drachms. Water 1 pint. 321. Infusion of Chiretta in from 2 to 3 oz. doses mixed with 1 or 2 oz. of Sal Ammoniac in a pint of water is an excellent febrifuge. The Chiretta is also an excellent tonic during convalescence from de- bilitating fevers. 322. Fever or Cough lalls. Aloes 1 drachm. Nitrate of Potassa .... 2 do. Extract of Belladonna .... Half to one drachm according to the size of the horse. To be mixed with Stockholm tar into a ball. 323. Disinfectants and Deodorizers. True disinfectants act chemically by decomposing noxious gases and organic matters. Such are chlorine and its compounds, sulphurous acid, Macdougal's disinfectant, Condy's fluid, chloride of lime and soda, car- bolic acid, &c. Their action is produced by their affinity for hydrogen, which is a constituent of most of the deleterious matters found in the stable. They appropriate to themselves this constituent, and by this means break up the poison. Most disinfectants are also deodorizers. Deodorizers generally, as distinguished from disinfectants, act mechan- ically. They have an affinity for certain compounds floating in the air, and imbibe and absorb them. Such are sawdust, powdered wood, char- coal, plaster of Paris, sulphate of iron, gravel, sand, and permanganate of potassa. Deodorizers may under some circumstances become so overcharged with noxious matters, that they may of themselves voluntarily give them off. Earth, for instance, which is a most valuable deodorizer, may be- come so loaded with impurities as to become stinking. Similarly disin- fectants can only combine with a certain proportion of noxious gases or organic matters, and then become inert and valueless. Along with plenty of fresh air and due regard to cleanliness, disin- fectants and deodorizers are useful means of purifying the air of stables and also in neutralising those noxious emanations given off from the bodies and breath of diseased animals, which, if undiluted or undestroyed may become fruitful sources of diseases. It must never, however, be supposed that they supersede or even diminish the necessity for adequate ventilation and scrupulous cleanliness. ACTION AND USES OP MEDICINES. 161 324. Antiseptics. Antiseptics are agents used to prevent or hinder putrefaction. Accord- ing to modern views, Putrefaction is excited or occasioned by living microscopical animalcules or plants, which, floating in the air, feed upon and decompose dead animals and vegetable substances. The class of medicines termed antiseptics act as a poison on these bodies and destroy their activity. They check that slow breaking up of organ- ised bodies which is termed putrefaction, by destroying its causes. Sul- phurous acid, common salt, salicylic and boracic acids, astringent metallic salts, vegetable substances rich in tannin, sugar, spirits, creasote and pitch oils, and carbolic acid, are the antiseptics in common use. Antiseptics are used in veterinary practice in the treatment of un- healthy sores and wounds, and occasionally with the view of arresting caries and gangrene. They are occasionally administered internally in diseases of a septic nature for the purpose of checking the tendency to putrescence. The administration of salicylic acid in doses of from 1 to 2 drachms, in com- bination with tonics, has been strongly advocated in cases of septicaemia and purpura hasmorrhagica. Carbolic acid is also occasionally given. 825. Mode of delivering a 'ball. There is a good deal of knack in delivering a ball. It should be deli- vered by the hand, not at the end of a stick or by a balling gun. The tongue should be slightly drawn forward and turned up within the mouth by the left hand of the operator, but it should not be pulled out of the mouth. The head should be raised while the ball is being put into the mouth, but the moment the ball is at the root of the tongue, the head should be let down level with the body, because it is only in that position that the horse can naturally perform the act of swallowing. The head should not be let completely down, because in that position the skin .and muscles of the neck are so relaxed that the passage of the ball down the throat cannot easily be watched. The downward passage of the ball is best seen on the near side, because the gullet lies towards that side. If the ball does not go down at once, a gulp of water or a handful of grass should be given. The throat must not be rubbed or pressed upin with the view of assisting the passage of the ball. Any such " assistance " will probably induce cough, and cause the ball to be ejected. To those who have not had much practice a balling iron is useful, because it prevents the possibility of injury to the hand from the horse's teeth. An old kid glove with the fingers cut off will protect the hand from injury from the sharp edges of the molar teeth. 11 162 CHAPTER 18. 326. Mode of giving a drench. A proper drenching bottle or horn should be provided. In its absence a soda-water bottle will answer pretty well. The horse's head must be slightly elevated, and then the fluid should be poured down the throat very slowly. The head may, if necessary, be raised by means of a noose in the mouth, attached at its upper end to the prong of a stable fork. At the slightest sign of coughing the head must be released. Many drenches, it must be remembered, are of such a nature as to cause great irritation, if even a very small portion goes the wrong way. A practice existed some years ago, and may perhaps continue even in the present day among farriers, of giving drenches through the nose. It is both injurious and dangerous, and should be strictly prohibited. CHAPTER 18. INFLAMMATION. 327. Theory of inflammation. 328. Nature of inflammation. 329. Causes of irritation. 330. Effect of irritation on the part affected. 331. Pheno- mena of inflammation. 332. Arrest of the circulation at the inflamed part. 333. Original seat of the stagnation. 334. Changes which occur in the blood after leaving the seat of inflammation. 335. Effects which result in the neighbouring parts from the stagnation of the circulation at the inflamed part. 336. Effect of inflammation on the general circulation. 337. Fever. 338. Effect of inflammation on the nutrition of the part. 339. Local, diffused, and specific inflammation. 340. Acute, subacute, and chronic inflammation. 341. Signs of inflammation when established. 342. Pain. 343. Redness. 344. Heat. 345. Swelling. 346. Throbbing. 347. Con- stitutional symptoms. 348. Shivering. 349. Symptoms indicative of the locality of Ihe part attacked. 350. Sthenic and asthenic types of inflamma- tion. 351. Results of inflammation. 352. Resolution. 353. Second result or effusion. 354. Third result or formation of lymph and adhesion. 355. Fourth result or formation of pus, otherwise called suppuration. 356. Fifth result or ulceration and mortification. 357. Treatment of inflam- mation. 358. Treatment of the primary disease, or disturbance of function in the part affected, otherwise called the inflamed part. 359. Treatment of inflammation when established. 360. Treatment of acute local inflamma- tion. 361. Treatment of subacute local inflammation. 362. Treatment of chronic local inflammation. 363. Treatment of diffused inflammation. 364. Treatment of sthenic inflammation. 365. Treatment of asthenic in- flammation. 366. Later stages of sthenic and asthenic inflammation. 367. INFLAMMATION. 163 Inflammation seldom fatal. 368. After-effects. 369. Treatment by deple- tives and violent counter-irritants. 370. Specific inflammations. 371. Curative inflammation. 327. Theory of inflammation. From the very earliest times the subject of Inflammation has occupied the attention and excited the interest of the Medical inquirer; and the treatment of disease in general has always been largely dependent on the views which have been current at the time in regard to this parti- cular affection. The treatment of Inflammation itself has of course fol- lowed the ideas entertained as to its nature and causes. Until within the last sixty years the state known as Inflammation was universally regarded as one of exalted action and increased nutrition of the part affected. Hence depleting remedies were in repute. The seat of the disease was supposed by some to be in the blood, whilst by others the blood was regarded as the food and sustenance of the disease. Hence bloodletting was a favorite practice, whilst in internal attacks violent irritants or blisters to the skin were also freely employed, with the view of withdrawing the blood from the interior to the surface. These views gradually gave way to the idea that nervous irritation at the part affected was the primary cause; — that collapse of the power of the nervous system of the part rapidly supervened on the previous ner- vous exaltation ; — that then the vessels, deprived of their usual nervous stimulus, lost their contractile energy, and were unable to contract upon and propel forward the current of the blood; — that from this cause stag- nation of the blood followed, and congestion was induced; — whilst from the congestion, constantly increased by the fresh supplies of blood pro- pelled into the part by the action of the heart, arose the well-known results of the disease. The vessels became over-loaded and over-dis- tended, and in consequence the watery parts of the blood, followed in some cases by the fibrinous materials, passed out through the coats, rendered thin by over-distension, — producing, according to circumstances, effusion of serum, exudation of lymph, suppuration, mortification, &c. With the occurrence of these views a great change took place in the treatment. Bleeding, strong depletives, and violent irritants or counter- irritants fell into disuse ; and the object sought was to improve the tone of the system and of the part, with the view of enabling nature to regain her power and restore tone, and thus bring about restoration of the usual healthy current of the circulation. Mild irritants were therefore applied externally to the neighbourhood of the part attacked, and diffu- sible stimulants were given internally. , . These views in regard to the theory at least of the disease have again been of late years modified ; but the treatment indicated above is still in a great measure applicable. Much difference of opinion still prevails as to the exact nature and causes of inflammation, and as to the precise reasons of the various changes which occur in the tissue affected, in the blood, and in the 164 CHAPTER 18. neighbouring parts. If the reader wishes to investigate thoroughly this the most debateable subject in medicine, he may consult the learned works of Goodsir, Virchow, Bennett, Lister, Aitken, Paget, and others. Avoiding as far as possible all minute details and doubtful points, now under eager discussion among medical men, the Author hopes to be able to trace out intelligently, but very briefly, the broad principles and views now generally entertained in regard to Inflammation. The Vital principle or seat of vital activity was long supposed to re- side in some one organ or tissue, — in the brain as some thought, or in the blood as others thought, or in the nervous system or elsewhere. It was supposed that there was some one central point or organ from which all motion, activity, and growth, all life in short, was generated, — that each part derived its vital action from that centre, — that parts or tissues in themselves, as apart from their relation to that centre, possessed no power of motion, activity, growth, or development. These views have given way to a belief that a vital principle, a power of activity, a power of selecting and adapting the various constituents of the blood for its own use, a power of growth and development, exists inherently in each tissue. Whether the living power of the tissue resides in its cells, as some think, or in its molecules, as others think, is not necessary to discuss in this place. It is a sufficiently well ascertained fact that a vital power, a power of growth and multiplication, does exist in the ultimate elements of each tissue. Except as regards the inherent vitality and power of self-action, there is no great difference between the views now and those formerly enter- tained as to the growth of new matter and nutrition. By the cells, as is well known, the various tissues of the body are built up and nourished. The blood is the food of the cells. From it in each tissue they extract those special nutrient particles which are essential to their growth, mul- tiplication, development, and life, — much in the same way as the cells of flowers select the colouring matters which they require. But as regards the nature and treatment of inflammation, the belief now held, that each tissue has in itself a vital power, has led to the modification of many of the ideas formerly entertained as to that disease. It has caused it to be regarded more as a local and specific affection than as a constitutional disturbance. It has likewise enabled several of its phenomena to be accounted for, which were previously inexplicable. 328. Nature of inflammation. Irritation is the starting-point of the state known as Inflammation. From some cause or other the part falls into a state of irritation. Irri- tation acting on the part, either directly or through the medium of the blood, causes it to undergo alterations as regards the composition, con- stituents and arrangement of its cells, which enable them to attract to INFLAMMATION. 165 themselves and to absorb a larger quantity of matter than usual, and to transform, it according to circumstances. It also alters the relations of the cells to the neighbouring parts, whether blood-vessels or other structures. Inflammation may be said to have begun from the moment that this increased absorption of matters into the tissue takes place, and the fur- ther transformation of those matters commences. 329. Causes of irritation. All irritation may in a certain sense be said to be dependent on the nervous system. An external blow, for instance, produces irritation and pain through the medium of the nerves of the part. Nerves may, how- ever, produce irritation and pain from causes other than external. Hence the irritation in the tissue, which produces its altered vital action, may in general language be said to be due to nervous influences. Much that concerns the nervous system, and the causes and agencies which influence it, is still a sealed book to the medical inquirer. We know, however, that many causes elevate it, whilst others depress it, and some even to the extent of paralysis. We know also that prostra- tion generally supervenes very rapidly on nervous excitement. This latter fact is very important in regard to the nature and treatment of inflammation. 330. Effect of irritation on the part affected. The part directly affected by the irritation is the tissue itself. The blood is only indirectly affected from the changes which occur in the performance of function in the tissue. The cells under the influence of irritation, or in other words under the influence of the disturbance of their normal functions, absorb and appropriate material from the blood in greater quantity and in an altered way to what they would do in health ; and again they transform the material so taken up into matters different to what they would do in health. Hence the nutrition of the part is altered, — it may be increased or it may be diminished ; and as a further result, the condition of the other tissues connected with the part is also altered. Among other results of the functional disturbance in the tissue is an alteration in the character of the blood. 331. Phenomena of inflammation. Before proceeding further, we must turn aside for a moment to consi- der the phenomena of inflammation. The various changes in the circu- lation of the part are well seen on irritating the transparent vascular membrane of the web of a frog's foot. The first effect is contraction of the channels of the smaller vessels and increased rapidity of the circula- tion. 2ndly. The same vessels become enlarged, and the current of 166 CHAPTER 18. blood is slower, though regular. 3rdly. The flow of blood becomes irre- gular, and oscillates. 4thly. The current almost ceases, and the vessels are distended with coloured corpuscles. 5thly. If the stagnation be not relieved, the serum will be exuded through the walls of the vessels ; and perhaps ultimately, by reason of ruptures occurring in the over-distended coats of the vessels, the red particles of the blood may pass out. 332. Arrest of the circulation at the inflamed part. In the inflamed part the circulation is to a certain degree arrested, — to a greater or less degree according to various circumstances. This arrest is due — 1st to an altered vital relation between the tissues and the blood ; 2nd to increased viscidity or adhesiveness of the blood in the part ; 3rd to diminished action of the vessels themselves, owing to ner- vous prostration, on account of which they cease to assist in the function of circulation ; 4th sometimes to a mechanical impediment, such as agglomeration of the corpuscles, a foreign body, or a clot of fibrin ; 5th to a tendency in the vessels themselves to become dilated or varicose at parts and contracted at other parts. 333. Original seat of the stagnation. The various tissues in health derive their nutriment from the blood contained in the capillaries or minute vessels which permeate their structure. Hence in disease the disturbance of the regular functions of the tissue is first felt in those vessels. Hence, again, the blood con- tained in them is soonest affected and altered in character. Hence the stagnation or " stasis " of the circulation commences in them earlier than in the larger vessels. 334; Changes which occur in the blood after leaving the seat of inflammation. There is stagnation and sometimes complete arrest of the blood in the inflamed part. In that part the blood, as stated above, is viscid and altered in its character. It leaves the part but slowly. The change in its character has been produced by the action of the diseased tissue on it. As soon as it gets free from that morbid action, it rapidly regains among the healthy tissues its fluidity and proper consistence. The vital processes by which nature restores the blood in a great degree, but per- haps not entirely, to a healthy condition are difficult to explain. An illustration may serve better than an explanation. If a clear stream runs through a muddy pond, it will issue out from it somewhat disturbed and thick ; but after again running a short distance over a gravelly bottom, and exposed also to the wholesome influence of oxydisation from the air, it will soon be as clear as ever. Again it must be remembered that, unless the seat of the inflammation is very extensive, the amount of blood which has become altered in its character from the action of the diseased tissue is very small when again mingled in the mass of the general circulation. INFLAMMATION. 167 335. Effects which result in the neighbouring parts from the stagnation of the circulation at the inflamed part. But around the inflamed part there is an undue and unusual accumu- lation of blood. This accumulation is not in itself primarily a disease. It is simply the mechanical result of the stagnation of the blood at the inflamed part. The heart continues in its usual state of activity, and propels the blood forward through the various channels of the circula- tory system : but the blood, which would in due time come to and pass through the inflamed part, is necessarily arrested by the stagnation and congestion, which has already taken place at the seat of the disease, and consequently the vessels around the stagnation are dilated, and contain more blood than natural. As the current of blood continues to flow into the neighbouring parts, the vessels become more and more overloaded, congested, and dilated. Hence also the strong and heavy throbbing felt in the arteries leading to the part. It is not, however, to be supposed that there is complete arrest of the circulation in those parts. The vessels surrounding the inflamed part, with their innumerable ramifications, enlarge, and thus permit to pass through them a considerable portion of the blood which in health would pass through the vessels at the original seat of the disease. The vessels on the sides may, however, become so much paralysed from over-disten- sion that their contents also may almost cease to flow, and thus the area of the disease may become extended. As, however, the seat of the inflammation is usually among the capil- laries, which have innumerable ramifications in every direction, the check on the circulation is less than might at first sight have been expected, because collateral circulation is so readily established. The undue accumulation of blood thus arising we shall hereafter term " Hyperoemia." 336. Effect of inflammation on the general circulation. The general circulation is but little affected. The hypersemia in the surrounding parts is due to the simple mechanical cause detailed above. If, however, Fever supervenes, as it usually does in all serious and extensive attacks, the circulation will be quickened, sometimes to an excessive degree. 337. Fever. If the hyperasmia be excessive, or if the pain attending the original attack of inflammation be great, or if the patient be very irritable, or if the part attacked be very sensitive, we may expect symptomatic Fever to set in. Fever is general nervous irritability, from which arises a quickened state of the circulation. The pulse in consequence is always affected to a greater or less degree, and increased in frequency. The respirations are increased, and so also is the heat of the body. Fever is generally ushered in with shivering and accompanied with thirst. 168 CHAPTER 18. 338. Effect of inflammation on the nutrition of the part. The effect on the nutrition of the part will be very varied, according to the degree of the disturbance of the functions of the tissue affected, the amount of hypersemia in the surrounding parts, the health and condition of the patient, and on some other circumstances. The nutrition may be excessive, as indicated in some cases by an over-rapid growth of granu- lations ; or it may be diminished, sometimes to an excessive degree, as indicated by a tendency to ulceration. Again, the products poured forth may be unhealthy, or they may be available for the repair of lesions. In some cases the disturbance of function in the tissue may be so great as to induce mortification or death of the part. 339. Local, Diffused, and Specific inflammation. Inflammatory attacks are divided into Local or Circumscribed, Dif- fused, and Specific. The disease is said to be Local when it attacks an organ or definite part of the body. The effects produced on the system will be severe and otherwise according to the importance of the organ attacked and other circumstances. Inflammation is said to be Diffused when it extends over a large tract of tissue, such, for instance, as the cellular tissue, or when it has no tendency to become circumscribed. Constitutional disturbance in a greater or less degree always attends diffused inflammation. Specific inflammation is the term applied to those cases which are caused by animal or blood poisons. The expression often used of " general " inflammation is not strictly correct. It is simply impossible that all the vessels can at one and the same time contain more than their usual quantity of blood. What is termed general inflammation is in reality fever, attended by a quickened state of the circulation. 340. Acute, subacute, and chronic inflammation. Inflammatory attacks are also usually divided into the three heads of Acute, Subacute, and Chronic. When the attack is sudden in its origin, violent in its action, rapid in producing its effects, and attended by fever, it is said to be Acute. Acute attacks are seldom of long duration. It is said to be Subacute when the symptoms mentioned above are less marked. Such attacks are often obstinate and prolonged, and in many cases produce disastrous changes of structure. Chronic attacks partake of the nature of subacute. The name has reference to the abiding nature of the attack rather than to any other features. No sharp line of demarcation can, however, be drawn between these degrees of inflammation. They glide insensibly one into the other, INFLAMMATION. 169 341. Signs of inflammation when established. From the consideration of the theory and primary stage of inflamma- tion, we now turn to the consideration of the disease when it has estab- lished itself in a part. The principal and usual signs in the part are hypersemia, pain, redness, heat, swelling, and throbbing. The whole or any part of these symptoms may be present. The first, or hyperaemia, has been already dwelt upon. We therefore pass on to the next, namely Pain. 342. Pain. The pain varies very much in different structures. Some are more sensitive than others, but as a general rule the pain is least where the parts are capable of yielding and swelling ; and greatest where they are tense and firm, as in bones, tendons, and ligaments ; or where the part, though soft in itself, is enclosed in unyielding structures, as is the case in regard to the interior parts of the foot. Hence many parts, which are ordinarily insensitive, become exceedingly painful under inflamma- tion, and fever may be expected to supervene when such parts are attacked. The pulse, for instance, is often more affected in laminitis than in many other diseases. 343. Redness. Except in the visible mucous membranes, such as those of the nose, mouth, eyes, &c., we cannot see the redness on account of the hair with which the skin is covered. The redness is due to the greater quantity of blood contained in the vessels of the part affected, and sometimes also at a later stage to extravasation of the colouring matter of the blood into the neighbouring textures. The redness in some cases remains long after the subsidence of the inflammation, on account of the length of time which the vessels, after having been much over-distended, take to regain their tone, and also because the extravasated material is but slowly absorbed. 344. Heat. The temperature of the part is increased both by the greater quantity of blood present in the congested vessels, and also by an actual increase in the temperature of the blood at the part. There must therefore be generation of heat in the inflamed part. This cannot be wondered at when the great changes which are going on in inflamed structures are taken into consideration. 31-5. Swelling. Swelling, which is always most appreciable in the soft external struc- tures, is due in the early stage of the attack to the distension of the blood-vessels ; and it is also much increased in the latter stages by the effusion and exudation which take place through their coats. 170 CHAPTER 18. These products, though of very different kinds, are all derived from the blood. They are, first, serum or the watery part of the blood ; secondly, albuminous fluid; thirdly, coagulable lymph; fourthly, the blood itself. The swelling may be hard or may pit on pressure, accord- ing to varying circumstances. Swelling of the part necessarily accompanies every attack of inflam- mation, but the amount may be so small as to be scarcely appreciable. This apparent absence of swelling is particularly noticeable in bones and other firm substances. 346. Throbbing. Throbbing of the arteries is caused by a sort of regurgitation of the blood, which is partially arrested in its onward course by the congested state of the vessels at the seat of the disease. It is a marked sign of inflammation. Throbbing is useful in many cases in enabling us to determine with more certainty than we otherwise could the real seat of the disease. For example, inflammation in the interior of the foot is plainly indicated by throbbing of the plantar arteries. 347. Constitutional symptoms. Inflammation, when tolerably severe or extensive, tells of its existence by other signs besides the local symptoms already detailed. It soon causes constitutional disturbance, which is recognised by shivering, cold extremities, dryness of the mouth and nostrils, constipation of the bowels, and diminished action of the skin and kidneys. When the disease is complicated with or aggravated by fever, as in such cases it usually is, it will be marked by further symptoms, namely, an accelerated pulse, quickened breathing, and irregular temperature of the part at different times. Though in its origin the disease is always local, yet in some cases the constitutional disturbance may precede the visible manifestation of the local symptoms. 348. Shivering. Shivering is a symptom of the greatest importance. It is generally present in the early stages of all serious attacks of inflammation, It often indicates some important change in the character of the blood, or is due to altered condition of the nervous system, or to the shock of an impending disease. No case in which Shivering is present should be ever neglected for an instant. Although the animal may be shivering, the skin may be hot and burning. 349. Symptoms indicative of the locality of the part attacked. The symptoms vary very much according to the part attacked. In all serious cases, such as inflammation of the brain, eyes, feet, lungs, or INFLAMMATION. 171 bowels, there are special characteristic symptoms which mark each dis- ease. These special symptoms will be noticed hereafter under the heads of those diseases. 350. Sthenic and Asthenic types of inflammation. One more feature, and it is a very important feature in inflammatory attacks, yet remains to be considered. The attack may be of a " sthenic " or of an " asthenic " type. (S0tvoc, strength. 'Ao-flt'voe, want of strength, weakness.) This will depend partly on the cause, but mainly on the constitution of the patient. The inflam- mation will probably be of the sthenic type when it affects a vigorous animal ; whilst it will probably be asthenic if the patient is of weakly constitution. Sthenic inflammation cannot be produced in a very weakly animal by any degree of nervous exaltation ; but the asthenio type may be generated in any animal by causes, such as bad food, malaria, &e., which lower the system. The sthenic type is indicated by a quickened, full, and not easily com- pressible pulse. There is also in general thirst. If an important in- ternal organ is attacked, the appetite is usually lost from the first, -the urine is scanty and high coloured, and the faeces are hard and knobby. But when the inflammation attacks even important structures remote from the vital organs, the appetite is often for some time less affected. In both cases there is restlessness and discomfort. The skin is hot and dry. The respiration is quickened, and the breath is hotter than usual. Sthenic inflammation may also exist with a full and very slow pulse. In such cases it indicates an affection of the brain. The appetite often remains for some time, and occasionally the patient continues to eat in a half-somnolent state. In attacks on internal organs the duration of the sthenic stage is often very brief, — after which the disease runs into the asthenic type. The fact has a very important bearing on the treatment to be adopted in such cases. On the other hand, when inflammation of a sthenic type attacks organs, such, as the laminae, remote from the more important organs, the type may remain unaltered for a length of time. In the asthenic disease all the vital powers are from the first greatly depressed. The case assumes what is technically called a " low " type. The pulse is soft and compressible, weak and quick, and the volume of blood flowing through the arteries is comparatively small. The nervous power of the heart is prostrated, and it is unable properly to propel the blood through the system by strong, well-defined rhythms. The patient is weak and downcast. The appetite is impaired, and the animal gradu- ally cares less and less for his food, but it is not completely lost from the first as in the sthenic attack. Fever may be said to be present in sthenic inflammation, when the pulse, in addition to being quick, full, and not easily compressible, is also bounding ; and similarly in the asthenic attack, when, in addition to being soft, compressible, quick, and weak, the pulse becomes very 172 CHAPTER 18. quick. The heart appears to be endeavouring to make up for deficiency of power in each stroke by more frequent beats. Most of the different varieties of inflammation, namely acute, subacute, local, diffused, and specific, may be present with either the sthenic or asthenic type. Chronic inflammation, however, is always, except perhaps quite at first, of an asthenic character. The Results of Inflammation, which will now be detailed, may ensue equally from the asthenic as from the sthenic attack. 351. Results of inflammation. Inflammation, according to its degree and other attendant circum- stances, may result in partial or complete resolution, in effusion of serum, in exudation of fibrinous material, in the formation of lymph and adhe- sion, in suppuration, in ulceration, or in mortification. 352. Resolution. The most favorable termination of inflammation is resolution, or simple subsidence of the congestion. In this case the blood is again set in more active motion. The cause of this effect is cessation of the irri- tation producing functional disturbance, and the restoration of the ner- vous power at the original seat of the disease. The functions of the part being restored, the blood soon again flows in its regular course. The surrounding parts are then speedily relieved, and the abnormal heat, redness, swelling, &c., disappear. The effusion is very slight, and is soon taken up by the blood-vessels and absorbents, and the parts regain in all respects their normal condi- tion and integrity. This result is in many cases a spontaneous act of nature, but in other cases it may be brought about, hastened, or assisted by art. 353. Second result or Effusion. The second and very common result, even of mild attacks of inflam- mation, is effusion of serum or watery part of blood from the overloaded vessels into the textures of the part, producing a soft pitting swelling. Effusion generally gives relief to the pain and more acute symptoms by unloading the over-distended blood-vessels. In favorable cases the blood-vessels and absorbents soon take up the effusion, and the parts are restored to their normal condition. This, however, is not always the case. The original disease may con- tinue, and in such cases the undue amount of blood in the part must increase, and the watery effusion will then in consequence be poured out in increased quantities ; or under certain circumstances, hereafter to be detailed, exudation of fibrinous material and the formation of lymph may take the place of the watery effusion. INFLAMMATION. 173 354. Third result or formation of Lymph and Adhesion. If the distension of the blood-vessels is great, the albuminous parts of the blood may pass out through their coats, and from it fibrin will be formed in the cells of the tissue. The material so generated is known as Lymph. Its more fluid parts are soon absorbed, and the lymph then becomes firm and solid. Lymph, if due to sthenic inflammation, has a tendency very rapidly to become organised. None of the other fluids derived from the blood under such circumstances are capable of this change. Lymph is the material by which wounds are repaired, broken bones are joined, and new parts of the body are built up. Hence in some cases lymph may be useful as a means of repair; but in other cases it may be formed in structures where from its adhesive qualities it may be a source of mischief, as, for instance, in the lungs, pleura, and many other parts ; or it may be deposited in excess of the quantity required for repair, and in this way, when consolidated, may be an evil. Lymph, however, if due to asthenic inflammation, is apt to degenerate. 355. Fourth result or formation of Pus, otherwise called Suppuration. The fourth result of inflammation is the formation of Pus. Pus is formed by the transformation of the cells and nuclei of the areolar tissue into those of pus, — the nutrient matter necessary for their formation being under the diseased action of the tissue exuded from the blood. The process of the formation of pus is known as suppuration. It is seldom attended with much pain, except when the matter is unable to gain an exit. The time required for the formation of pus is very uncer- tain. Sometimes it appears a few hours after congestion has set in, sometimes not until after many days, sometimes not at all. Healthy pus is not offensive, but when the stagnation has proceeded so far as to injure the vitality of the part, the secretion is apt to become thin, acrid, and offensive. There is a marked difference between pus and lymph. Lymph consoli- dates, hardens, and builds up the part on which it is deposited ; while pus on the other hand diffuses itself through the natural textures, and softens, separates, and breaks them down, and either makes an exit for itself externally, or if confined burrows internally and forms abscesses. Suppuration frequently supervenes on an undue and excessive forma- tion of lymph. Lymph is apt to be deposited in quantities greater than required for the purposes of repair. From its tendency to accumulate and consolidate, it might, if permitted to remain, fill up and obstruct important organs and passages. Here nature, ever bountiful even in disease, interferes and prevents its undue accumulation by the production of pus, which breaks it up and causes its disintegration and removal. 174 CHAPTER 18. 356. Fifth result or Ulceration and Mortification. Ulceration generally arises from long-continued or excessive obstruc- tion to the circulation in the part, which in consequence becomes defi- cient in nutrition and weak. The tissues then become softened, lique- fied, and degenerate, and are cast forth as dead in minute particles. Mortification results from similar causes, but in this case parts visible to the naked eye perish and slough away. It will be seen that the two processes differ in degree rather than in kind. 357. Treatment of inflammation. We shall now endeavour to sketch out the principles on which the state known as Inflammation ought to be treated. Inasmuch, however, as every organ and tissue in the body is liable to take on inflammation, and almost each of them has some speciality in its organisation, which may under varying circumstances demand some modification, in the appli- cation of any general rules ; inasmuch, too, as inflammation is often com- plicated with, aggravated or modified by other diseases ; and further, inasmuch as inflammation, whether natural or artificially induced, is fre- quently a means of repair, which needs to be assisted and developed, — the reader must not expect to receive sharply-defined instructions, but only a general idea of the sort of treatment necessary under the varying phases and circumstances of the state. At present, however, we shall only treat of inflammation as a disease. Its curative aspect will be con- sidered hereafter. The cause of inflammation, as stated in the beginning of this Chapter, is irritation of the tissue affected, — of its ultimate elements, — in conse- quence of which their normal power of selection is destroyed, and that of their attractiveness is increased. The removal of blood by bleeding cannot alter this state of affairs, nor can other lowering remedies, except in so far as that if the inflammation be superficial and circumscribed, local bleeding may relieve the congestion ; but if exudation has occurred it cannot relieve this result. The exudation can only be absorbed by undergoing transformation. Now any such process demands strength, and is arrested by weakness. " The strong pulse, fever, and increased flow of blood in the neighbour- hood of the inflamed part are the results, not the causes of inflamma- tion. They may be regarded as agents employed by nature for the restoration of the vital action of the diseased tissue. They may require to be modified, but no attempt must be made to get rid of them by such means as bleeding and depletives." (Abridged from Professor Bennett on the Practice of Medicine.) In treatment our aim will be, 1st to check or diminish the inflamma- tory congestion ; 2ndly when exudation has taken place, to further its removal ; and 3rdly, if this cannot be effected, to render its products as little injurious to the system as possible. The treatment of inflammation may, we think, be divided into two INFLAMMATION. 175 parts, namely, 1st that of the primary disease, or functional disturbance in the tissue ; and 2ndly that of the disease after it has established itself. 358. Treatment of the primary disease, or disturbance of function in the part affected, otherwise called the inflamed part. In the very earliest stages, namely that of irritation in the tissue or organ, the best treatment undoubtedly consists in removal of the cause, if it can be traced and found out. When the cause is external, such, for instance, as a hay seed lodging in the eye, it is both easy to see it and remove it. With the removal of the cause, the part affected will in general soon recover itself. In other cases we may see and know the cause, such as a blow, but may not be able to remove it. Knowing, however, the cause, we may take measures to lessen its effects. In other cases, such as inflammation of the bowels, though we cannot be perfectly certain of the cause, yet we may pretty safely assume it to be some obstruction in the intestines, and we may accordingly endeavour to effect its removal by suitable means. In most cases, however, we can neither see the cause nor find it out. Hence, as a general rule, we can do little more than assist nature by placing the patient in the condition most favorable for the restoration of a healthy tone in the system and part. For this purpose in inflammation of Internal organs recourse should be had in the first instance to natural tonics. Of these the best and chief is cool fresh air in abundance. There is no other restorative at this stage to the tone of the part, to the nervous power, and to the circu- lation equal to this simple and easily obtained agent. With this view the patient should be promptly removed to a cool loose box, and warmly clothed and his legs bandaged. As regards feeding, the appetite is the best criterion. In attacks on some internal organs, such as lungs, the appetite is generally lost from the first, but in inflammation of some other organs the patient may be inclined to feed. Corn, however, should be withheld, and food of an easily digested character, such as grass, carrots, or bran mashes, should be substituted for it. When the powers of digestion are enfeebled, as they always are either directly or by sympathy in serious internal attacks, food, if difficult of digestion, will not be assimilated, but will act as a foreign body, and cause further disturbance and increase of the symptoms. Still, so far or as long as the animal is inclined to feed, a fairly liberal diet may be allowed, and indeed is essential to the main- tenance or restoration of the tone of the system. Laxative diet is most suitable, and will also be useful in keeping open the bowels, which in all such attacks, probably from want of nervous power, are apt to be con- stipated. If by these simple means tone can be restored, and the blood at the inflamed part can again be set in more active motion, the attack may be said to be over ; and the temporary congestion of the blood or hyper- semia in the neighbouring part will soon pass away. 176 CHAPTER 18. This favorable result, however, does not always ensue. The remedies to which we have had recourse may not succeed in restoring the normal vital functions of the diseased tissue, and the proper flow of the circula- tion ; and we may soon have in the congestion of the blood in the part and neighbouring parts, and in its altered character, a formidable though in reality a secondary disease. In cases of Superficial inflammation cold applications will be useful in the primary stage in checking the flow of blood into the part by causing the capillary vessels to contract, also in diminishing the congestion, in giving more tone to the tissue, and in rousing its vital powers to healthier action. In severe cases fomentations will be required in order to allay the irritation. 359. Treatment of inflammation when established. In the treatment of inflammation, when established, we shall have to consider 1st whether the attack is local, diffused, or specific ; 2ndly whether it is acute, subacute, or chronic ; 3rdly whether it is of a sthenic or asthenic type. 360. Treatment of acute Local inflammation. In the treatment of an acute attack of local inflammation our object is to reduce the violence of the disease. If the part be superficial and not very extensive, cold water dressings may be applied with the view of reducing the symptoms; but if the attack be severe or deep-seated, it is not probable that we shall be able to effect it sufficiently by such means. Fomentations, which act pri- marily by allaying irritation in the tissues, and secondarily by relaxing the coats of the vessels and thereby allowing an enlarged passage for the blood, will be needed. If by these means the irritation and subsequent congestion and hypersemia can be reduced, the tissue affected will in favorable cases gradually recover its normal tone and vital powers, and the part will be restored to a healthy condition. If this effect cannot be produced, we shall have as a result either effusion of serum through the over-distended coats of the vessels, or one of the other results of inflam- mation mentioned above. In the treatment of internal local inflammation, the above local remedies cannot be applied ; and we shall have to consider whether the type of the disease is sthenic or asthenic. The treatment required will be found further on, under" the head of Sthenic and Asthenic inflamma- tion. 361. Treatment 'of subacute Local inflammation. Superficial local inflammation is seldom subacute. It is generally either acute or chronic. Subacute attacks are usually deep seated, as in joints, &c. It is not possible to define any specific treatment for sub- acute cases. The nature and organisation of the parts must be carefully INFLAMMATION. 177 considered. Cold dressings, which might seem to be indicated, will not answer in many cases. In subacute inflammation of the joints, for in- stance, cold dressings might bring on rheumatism ; neither do fomenta- tions answer. Dry warm applications over the region of the part affected seem to answer best as a general rule. If treatment in subacute attacks does not bring about restoration of the parts to health, it is probable that the disease after a time will subside into the chronic form. Sub- acute inflammation seldom produces direct constitutional symptoms, though indirectly and after a time it may induce them through the medium of the changes which it causes in the structure of organs. 362. Treatment of chronic Local inflammation. Our object in these cases is to raise the tone and vital powers of the part to greater vigour. As a local application a stimulating liniment or a light blister may be rubbed on. Much attention, however, must be paid to improving and strengthening the general health. Good feeding, good grooming, plenty of fresh air, &c., are especially needed. Chronic inflammation is not easily amenable to treatment, far less so than the acute attack. The vital power of the diseased tissue appears to be depressed, and unable to rectify the disordered state of its functions. The inflammation is therefore lingering and abiding. It often continues for a length of time without terminating in any result. If any result does occur, it will probably be ulceration. 363. Treatment of Diffused inflammation. Diffused inflammation may be subacute or chronic, but is usually acute. Inasmuch, however, as it generally produces constitutional dis- turbance, we shall have in regard to treatment mainly to consider the type of the disease, — whether it is of a sthenic or of an asthenic type. The signs by which the sthenic may be distinguished from the asthenic form, have been described above in paragraph 350. The one type will need a veiy different course of treatment from the other. We shall therefore divide this subject into the treatment of sthenic and asthenic inflammation, — premising, however, that our remarks also apply to those cases of local inflammation, which produce constitutional disturbance, as noted above in paragraph 360. 364. Treatment of Sthenic inflammation. In attacks of a sthenic character it is necessary in the first instance to lower the diet, — both on account of the primary disease, and of the con- stitutional disturbance resulting from it. There is, however, in general but little appetite. Aconite will be found a most valuable medicine in reducing the hardness and quickness of the pulse. It is believed to act by lowering the action of the heart, and in this way it allays the rapidity and force of the circulation, which is always increased in sthenic attacks. Bleeding and purgatives, which in many respects would appear at first 12 178 CHAPTER 18. sight to be the simplest means of relieving the symptoms, must not be resorted to (unless in very exceptional cases), both because they unduly impair and lower the tone of the system, and because the sthenio stage often so quickly runs into the asthenic. Extra clothing, bandages to the legs, hand-rubbing and other means of restoring warmth to the extremities have a most beneficial effect in equalising the circulation, the balance of which is disturbed by the con- gestion of a large quantity of blood in one part. Good nursing in all respects is of primary importance. The need of an abundant supply of cool fresh air cannot be overstated. Under certain circumstances, which will be detailed more particularly under the heads of various diseases, such as inflammation of the lungs, the application of mild irritants repeated somewhat frequently is useful in giving tone to the parts and in rousing the circulation. If the bowels are confined, as is frequently the case, a saline draught made of four ounces of acetate of ammonia and four ounces of sulphate of magnesia in a quart of water may be administered in the early stage. A slight effect on the bowels may be looked for in twenty-four hours. If necessary, the dose may be repeated. When the powers of nature begin to flag, as they generally do after a time, vegetable tonics and diffusible stimulants may be administered with great benefit. When the fever which usually accompanies the attack has subsided, mineral tonics may be given. In the later stages the bowels generally become costive from want of tone. The remedy at this period will be found to consist, not so much in the administration of aperients, as in tonics and nutritious diet, milk, . Classes of paralysis. As regards the horse, paralysis may be divided into three classes, namely : 1st. Where the paralysis arises from disease of a portion of the brain. This is technically termed hemiplegia. 2nd. Where it arises from affection of the spinal cord, it is technically termed paraplegia. 3rd. Local paralysis. 569c. Causes of Hemiplegia. Cerebral congestion, effusion on, or other morbid conditions of the brain are the usual causes. 569 d. Symptoms of Hemiplegia. Hemiplegia is indicated by loss of power over one half of the body laterally, i. e. the affection is confined to one side of the animal, except as regards the facial muscles. The muscles are paralysed on the opposite side to which the brain lesions exist. Owing to the paralysed condition of the muscles of the neck and trunk on the opposite side, the animal, when made to move, leans over to the side on which the lesions exist. But the muscles of the face are affected on the same side as the brain PARALYSIS. 281 lesions. Loss of power of the facial muscles is evinced by a relaxed con- dition of the angles of the mouth, by a pendulous and protruding tongue, and a difficulty in gathering food, and in drinking. It will be noted that, except as regards the facial muscles, the paralysis is confined to one side. 569e. Treatment. Treatment has -hitherto been considered useless. But of late years Electricity has yielded very good results, especially in facial paralysis and in cases recovering from Paraplegia ; but it ought to be administered by an expert veterinary surgeon. 569/. Symptoms of Paraplegia. This form of paralysis arises from affection of the spinal cord. Affec- tion of the spinal cord is indicated by loss of power transversely. It generally affects both hind quarters. It may appear suddenly or may come on gradually (see below). The characteristic symptoms are a reeling staggering gait, and inability to turn abruptly or to go back. 5691 ood under the skin, or by an ordinary blow produced by striking one leg against the other, has been mistaken, as it easily may be in the early stage, for inflammation caused by a real sprain. In most of such cases, we are inclined to think that a cold water application would have answered equally well. 691. Sprains of the Fetlock Joint. The Fetlock joint is occasionally sprained from injury done to its ligamentous and tendinous connections. There is no special sign in the lameness resulting from the injury ; but the part feels hot and tender. There is very little, if any, swelling. The treatment required is that usual for sprains. Repeated sprains, after a time, will cause the tendons and ligaments about the joint to become hard and cartilaginous, and to feel almost like bone. Knuckling over behind and standing over in front are generally caused by sprains of these ligaments and tendons. 692. Injuries of Sheaths of tendons and ligaments. The synovial Sheaths, which enclose all tendons and certain ligaments are subject to injury from the same causes as their tendons and ligaments. But inasmuch as they are less strong, they are more frequently injured. The injury, however, is not very serious, because the Sheath's are not themselves concerned in bearing weight. They are not the ropes, to revert to the expression used in the early part of this chapter, but merely the cases in which the ropes work. Again the Sheaths, which are all secreting organs, are more vascular than the dense, firm, fibrous tendons and ligaments which they enclose, and therefore they possess more vital- ity and more easily repair themselves when injured. The signs of injury and the mode of detecting the exact seat are the same as those laid down above in regard to tendons and ligaments. 693. To distinguish between sprain of a Sheath of a tendon or ligament, and sprain of the Tendon or Ligament itself. The distinction is marked. The swelling is more puffy and diffused than that which accompanies sprain of a tendon or ligament. On the application of pressure to the swelling the tendon or ligament may be felt through it. If the tendon or ligament is of normal size, we may conclude that the injury is confined to the sheath. Again in injuries of sheaths, the horse, though he will be lame at first, will go less tender after a little exercise ; whilst in sprains of tendons and ligaments, the lameness will increase. SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LTGAMKNTS OP TBE FORE-LEO. 345 694. Treatment of sprains of Sheaths. TCest and cold lotions will generally be sufficient to restore the parts in a few days. A chamois leather bandage, kept wet either with cold water or refrigerant lotion, will answer well. If such treatment is not effectual it is probable that the tendon or ligament is also implicated, — though the owner may have at first failed to detect the injury. If at seaside, it is a good plan to stand horses twice a day in the sea, as sea water followed by friction by hand-rubbing has a wonderfully recuperative effect on sprained limbs. Where this treatment is adopted, the hoofs should lie smeared with Stockholm tar pretty often, as sea water renders the wall, or crust, very brittle. 695. Shoulder Sprain. Obscure cases of lameness in the fore-hand are pretty generally ascribed to the shoulder. But as a matter of fact, the shoulder, except from out- side violence, is very rarely the cause. There are no articular ligaments to the joint, but the bones are held in apposition very firmly by capsular ligaments and muscles, and by the tendon of the muscles, which pass over it. The point of the shoulder is sometimes injured by accidental causes, such as a blow, a kick, or a wound from a shaft, or from a fall in the act of turning. Such injuries are of course apparent. They may pro- duce violent inflammation of the joint or of the tendon passing over the head of the humerus, or even fracture of the outer head of the bone. 696. Elbow lameness. In Elbow lameness, the horse, when standing, will keep the affected limb pendulous, with the toe only dragging on the ground and drawn under the belly. In action the shoulder is brought well forward (and in this way it is plainly distinguished from shoulder lameness, as described in the preceding paragraph) ; but when the weight comes on the limb, a sudden giving way and knuckling over at the knee will be noticed. Pain will be evinced when the thumb is pressed close alongside the ex- ternal lateral ligament of the joint, or at the point of the elbow. Elbow lameness commonly arises from some injury to the point of the ulna, and occasionally from disease of the joint. The treatment is rest, fomentations, and blisters. We may remark in passing, that both shoulder and elbow lameness are very rare, though it is common enough to assign to one or other of these causes, most of those cases of lameness in which the real seat of the disease cannot be discovered. 697. Rheumatic Lameness. The Lameness caused by sprain is sometimes very closery simulated, both in tendons and their sheaths and also in ligaments, by that arising from Rheumatism. The means by which the latter may be distinguished 346 CHAPTER 44. from the former, have been already explained in Chapter No. 27 on Rheumatism. T>98. Conclusion. Tendons and Ligaments, even though but slightly sprained, generally show some trace, and if at all severely sprained, always show considerable trace of the injury, ever after in the way of thickening or shortening. In other words, the products of the original inflammatory action in the part are never completely taken up and removed by the absorbents and blood- vessels, even though the tendon or ligament may be thoroughly repaired and as strong as it ever was. Time and the application of very mild blisters repeated three or four times after recovery, may do much towards removing any such thickening, but still some trace of it will remain. With decrease of the thickening, the apparent shortening will diminish. Whether a horse with a thickened or contracted tendon or ligament is to be accounted " sound " in the strict sense of the word, supposing of course' that no trace of lameness results, is perhaps doubtful. For practical purposes this, like most other questions, is one of degree, — depending first on the amount of injury in each case, secondly on the conformation of the animal and the probability of the recurrence of the lesion as indi- cated by his make and shape, thirdly on the age, and lastly on the sort of work on which it is intended to employ the horse. If, for instance, there are indications of a sprain having at some pre- vious time occurred in one of the flexor tendons, and the intending purchaser notices that the horse is long from the knee to the fetlock, he will do well in such case not to conclude the bargain, because the chances are that with such conformation the injury will recur if the animal is put to severe work. On the other hand, if the horse is young and the confor- mation is good, and if the intending purchaser can afford to lay him up for some time, the probability is that, with the amount of strength gained by increasing age and rest, the injury will not recur ; or if the horse is old, and it can be ascertained that he stood sound for a season's hunting since the occurrence of the sprain, a purchase might safely be made. Something, however, would of course in either case be knocked off the price. Again, much must depend on the price asked, and the use for which the animal is required. A horse may stand sound for hunting, whoso legs will not stand training ; or another horse may last for years in harness, which would knock up in a single day's hunting. SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE HIND LEG. 347 CHAPTER 45. SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE HIND LEG. 699. Sprains of the Hock. 700. Sprain of the Articular ligaments of the hock joint. 701. Treatment. 702. Curb. 703. Treatment. 704. Capped hock. 705. Treatment. 706. Sprains of the ligaments of the Femur. 707. Sprain of the ligaments of, and displacement of the Patella. 708. Sprains of the Fetlock Joint. 709. Sprains of the Loins. 699. Sprains of the Hock. Whilst in the fore-leg the seat of sprain is usually in the tendons or ligaments between the knee and the fetlock, — in the hind leg it is usually in the Hock. The functions of the hock in progression, and the kind of conformation which predisposes to disease, were explained in the Chapters 37 and 38. From the very severe duties which devolve on the hock, we cannot be much surprised that it should be pretty frequently the seat of sprain. See Plates 22, 23, and 24. 700. Sprain of the articular ligaments of the Hock joint. The seat of sprain in the hock is usually in the ligaments, which bind together the various bones of the true, and subsidiary joints of the structure. These ligaments, as we might expect in a structure combining so many bones, are numerous. Any one or more may be sprained ; or any portion of any of the ligaments may be affected. See Plate 28. The tendons, which commence at the end of the large muscles of the hind quarters and pass over the hock, are seldom sprained — though such an accident may occur. 701. Treatment. The particular part which is sprained is indicated by heat and swelling and to that part the remedies recommended for sprains in the previous Chapter must, according to the degree and circumstance of each case, be applied. Very considerable swelling frequently accompanies sprains of the liga- ments of the hock ; but in all such cases the greater part of the swelling is always due to irritation of the various bursae of the different parts of the structure, rather than to the inflammation of the sprained ligament itself. These bursal enlargements are, however, in most cases only tem- porary, and yield to the same treatment as that employed to reduce the inflammation which accompanies the sprain. Should they not do so, a blister may be applied over the part. The detailed treatment of bursal enlargements will be found in Chapter 41. 348 CHAPTER 45. 702. Curb. Curb may be a sprain of the ligament which connects the os calois with the cuboid and external metatarsal bones ; or it may be sprain of the broad annular (calcaneo-metatarsal) ligament, which passes over and binds down the tendons in their passage down the back of the hock. Curb is easily recognised by a protuberance at the back of the hock about five inches below its upper point (A, Plate 29). The examiner should stand exactly at right angles to the line of the back of the leg, when any deviation, from the perpendicular line cannot fail to be noticed. If he stands more anteriorly, he may mistake the prominence of one of the bones for Curb ; whilst if he stands more to the rear, he may fail to notice the deviation from the straight line. Over-bent or " sickle-shaped " hocks, and small hocks, are peculiarly liable to Curb. 703. Treatment of Curl. The treatment is the same as that required for any other sprain. The lameness usually subsides as soon as the inflammation is reduced. The strain of the ligament will be lessened by the application of a high-heeled shoe. Strange as it may seem, the patient, if an aged horse, may generally be put to work again in from ten days to three weeks. But when the sprain occurs in a young horse, whose bones and ligaments are not yet fully grown and developed, rest for a lengthened period is always needed. Nature must be allowed time to strengthen and develop those structures, which the occurrence of a sprain, such as a curb, have shown not to be equal to what has been required of them. Unless time is given, the ail- ment will probably recur as soon as the horse is again put to work. It is seldom advisable either in an old or young horse to resort to any severe treatment in the first instance ; but if the lameness recurs, as is frequently the case, when the animal is put to work, it will be advisable to apply ointment of biniodide of mercury, or equal parts of iodine and cantharides ointment to the part ; and in some cases ultimately it may be necessary to have recourse to firing in order to produce a permanent cure. 704. Capped Hock. Capped Hock may be simply a serous effusion under the skin at the point of the hock; or the above may be accompanied by thickening of the integuments and inflammation of the bursa, and by deposit of coagu- lable lymph. The injury is usually caused by kicking in the stable or in harness. Some horses, however, contrive to injure themselves in the act of lying down or getting up. In rare cases the enlargement may arise from rupture of the lateral attachment of the perforatus tendon at the apex of the os calcis. The injury will be recognised by a. flattened appearance of the point of the SPKA1NS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS Oi1 THE HIND LEG. 349 hock, when the limb is in a state of rest; — which, however, disappears when the hock is flexed. 705. Treatment. The best treatment is to leave it alone. It generally produces no serious effect ; but it is unsightly and difficult to get rid of, both because the causes which produce it are apt to recur, and also because active treatment, such as blistering, creates an amount of irritation, which increases the tendency to kick. Treatment by pressure, which would be very beneficial, is difficult to apply to the part. If it is desired to try active treatment, Biniodide of Mercury should be employed instead of cantharides, as less liable to cause irritation and kicking. Cases of rupture of the lateral attachments of the perforatus tendon at the apex of the hock, must be treated as recommended for sprains. In very rare cases, the horse by violent kicking may injure the point of the bone, and caries may supervene, which will render the animal useless. 706. Sprain of the ligaments of the Femur. Sprains of the ligaments of the Femur occur occasionally from any sudden violent exertion or from slipping-up in the stable. When the injury occurs at the upper end, where the femur articulates with the acetabulum, there is no external sign, for the parts are deep- seated ; and the existence of a sprain can only be surmised by the animal straddling and slightly dragging the leg. In such cases rest is the only treatment, for no external topical remedies will reach the parts affected. At the other, or lower end the ligaments, which really appertain to the femur, are seldom sprained. The external signs, when an injury does occur, are heat, swelling, and tenderness in the part ; and the treatment is the same as that which has been already recommended for sprains, llest, however, in this, as in other cases, is the yreat essential. 707. tiprain of the ligaments of, and displacement of the Patella. Sprain of the ligaments, when the patella is not displaced, is indicated by swelling and heat accompanied with tenderness. In action, the horse carries his leg round instead of raising it properly. The treatment is that usual for sprains. Displacement of the patella is indicated by the foot being flexed back on the pastern bone, by the hock being straightened, arid by inability to advance the leg. If any attempt is made to compel the animal to do so, the pain will be excruciating. The displacement is generally to the outer, and not to the inner side. Dislocation is most apt to occur in young horses, whose tendons and ligaments have not yet acquired their full strength. It is also sometimes occasioned by undue uprightness of the femur, on account of which the patella slips over the outer condyle of the femur. 350 CHAPTER 45. If pushed back, the patella will often slip again into its place. If it does not do so, a rope must be secured round the pastern, and the leg must then be drawn forward by one assistant, whilst another presses on the outer and upper part of the patella, and pushes it in an inward and forward direction. Its replacement will be indicated by a sudden snap. It will sometimes be found that, as soon as the hand is removed after replacing the bone, it slips out again. When such is the case, the operator should continue his pressure on the part for an hour or longer. The horse must be re- strained from lying down for two or three days, and a mild vesicant may be applied to produce soreness of the skin, and thus prevent the animal from moving the leg. When the patella has once been displaced, there is a tendency for the accident to recur, again and again. In such cases it will be necessary to blister over the part. The effusion and thickening thus produced may exercise, as it were, persistent pressure on the part. The stifle joint is also subject to general inflammation of its synovial membrane from the effect of injuries. 708. Sprains of the Fetlock joint. The injury is much the same as that which occurs in the similar joint in the fore-leg, mentioned in paragraph 691 in the preceding chapter, and the causes are usually the same. It may, however, arise from repeated sprains of the flexor tendons which pass over the joint. Knuckling over behind, as distinguished from sprain of the joint, is most frequently caused by spavin, or some other such cause which inter- feres with the due flexion of the hock ; or excessive work while the tissues are immature. 709. Sprains of the Loins. This injury consists of sprains of the ligaments connecting the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, or it may be sprain of the psoae muscles. Horses so affected roll in their hind quarters and have not proper control over the muscles. The injury generally occurs very suddenly, and is the result of some violent over-exertion. The treatment is long rest and repeated blisters. Adhesive plasters, commonly called charges, have been found beneficial, especially when recovering. The chance of recovery is very uncertain. If the injury is at all severe, the better plan is to destroy the animal. If the injury is very slight, the animal may move pretty well in a straight direction ; but the injury will be detected when the horse is backed or turned round. This trial should never be omitted in the examination of a horse as to soundness. POLL EVIL AND FISTULOUS W1THEKS. 351 CHAPTER 46. POLL EVIL AND FISTULOUS WITHERS. 710. POLL EVIL. Nature, seat, and causes. 711. Peculiarities arising from the position of the injury. 712. Treatment. 713. FISTULOUS WITHERS. Nature, causes, and treatment. 710. Nature, seat, and causes. POLL EVIL, as its name imports, occurs on the top of the head, just posterior to the ears. In its earliest stage it is simply a swelling, caused usually by the pressure of the head collar, or sometimes by an accidental blow, such as that which a horse may give himself, especially if frightened, on entering or quitting a stable through a low doorway. If the cause, whether it be pressure or a blow, be continued or repeated, inflammation will probably set in. As a result of the inflammatory action, the wound or injury frequently suppurates, and after a time abscesses will probably form. 711. Peculiarities arising from the position of the injury. From the peculiar position of the injury, the matter has no depending orifice ; and hence it generally happens that, unless artificial assistance by free incision is given for the escape of the matter, it will burrow down- wards among and under the ligaments which support the head. Among these it is apt to form large and deep sinuses and fistulae. These sinuses often extend down to the bone. The offensive smell of the matter contained in them will indicate this extension. If the matter is suffered to remain long in contact with the bone, it will probably cause caries in that tissue. 712. Treatment. With moderate care and attention, no case of real poll evil ought ever to occur. Timely removal of the exciting cause will always check and prevent its development. When, however, the disease by neglect and long-continued recurrence of the cause has been suffered to develop itself, the treatment consists in laying the part open with the knife, so as to afford a depending orifice for the matter. When, the injury is deep seated, it is good practice to assist the escape of the matter by inserting a seton through the sinus, with a view of affording it a depending orifice. The wound itself will require to be treated with a solution of sulphate of zinc in order to excite the parts to increased action, and thus promote the healing process. The best treat- 352 CHAPTER 46. ment, however, if in the hands of a competent Veterinary Surgeon, is the knife. Whatever the treatment may be, if sinuses have formed in different directions (which may be ascertained by the probe), each sinus must be laid open, as far as practicable, from its bottom by the knife, and treated as recommended above. But if the sinuses have been in existence a long time and have become lined with a very low organised membrane, other- wise termed the " core," it may become necessary to cause sloughing of this membrane by the application of a stronger remedy, such as the powder of chloride of zinc, whilst the more external parts may be treated with lunar caustic. A radical cure will not be effected in a sinus so lined, until the core is got rid of. Great care must be taken to keep the wound open, until it has tho- roughly healed from the bottom ; and for this purpose it will be necessary to insert into it a pledget of tow covered with digestive ointment. As the ligamentous tissues, among which the sinuses form, are of very low reparative power, the process of cure is generally very tedious. When the wound is well, great care must be taken to guard against recurrence of the causes which produced it. In cases, which have been long neglected, caries of the bone occasion- ally supervenes. From its position and from other causes, this further development is so difficult to treat, and the process of cure is so tedious and uncertain, that the better plan, in the author's opinion, is to accept the loss and to destroy the animal. 713. FISTULOUS WITHERS. Nature, causes, and treatment. Fistulous Withers are similar in their nature, and require much the same treatment as Poll Evil. They are nearly always caused by pressure from the saddle, or collar, or by injuries. In most cases the mischief is at first Yery slight, and a day or two's abstinence from work with a little alteration of the saddle or collar will generally effect a cure and prevent recurrence. If the skin is tender, a salt and water dressing may be applied. When, however, the cause is continued or repeated, the tissues under the skin become inflamed, and the spines of the vertebrae may be impli- cated. If such should be the case, fomentations must be applied in the first instance to reduce the inflammation. If these fail, as they often do, in bringing about resolution, matter will probably form under the skin. Unless a free opening is made for its escape, it will burrow in, under, and among the muscles, tendons, and ligamentous tissues which lie on •each side of the spine or withers, and will form sinuses. The treatment in such cases is exactly the same as that of poll evil. The sinuses must be freely opened into a common wound, leaving a depending orifice, if possible. The seton, as recommended above, also answers very well. Carbolic dressings may be applied and the parts must be kept scrupu- lously clean. OPEN JOINT. Caries of the spinous processes of the bones of the vertebrae occasion- ally supervenes. It will be indicated by the offensive smell proceeding from the sinuses. Unlike the similar occurrence in poll evil, this further development is easily treated ; and a radical cure without any injurious result, may generally be effected by removing the injured portions of the bone by the bone forceps. The parts, as a general rule, heal over favor- ably, and nothing more than a slight hollow will be noticed about the withers. CHAPTER 47. OPEN JOINT. 714. Three sorts of joints. 715. Synovial Joints. 716. True open, Joint. 717. Tirol-en knee. 718. Chief danger in open Joint. 719. Treatment. 720. After-treatment. 722. Old method of treatment. 723. Amount of blemish resulting from Broken Knee. 724. Wounds or bruises of the Knee not producing open Joint. 725. Injuries of Sheaths of Tendons and Liga- ments. 726. Wounds of the Hock Joint. 727. Wounds of the Navicular Joint. 728. Wounds of the Fetlock Joint. 729. Wounds of the Elbow and Shoulder Joint. 730. Wounds of the Stifle Joint. 714. Three sorts of Joints. A joint is the apposition of two or more bones, however united. There are three sorts of joints, namely, 1st. Those which are immoveable, being united together by sutures. Of this class is the union of the bones of the cranium or skull. 2nd. Those in which there is a limited amount of motion, being united by symphysis, but without synovia. Of this class are the pubis and the bodies of the vertebrae. 3rd. Synovial joints united together by ligaments, in which there is full motion. Of this class are the knee and the hock. 715. Synovial Joints. In synovial joints the bones are protected from friction against each other by being tipped by cartilage. The joint itself is enclosed by a sac, technically called a capsular ligament. The inner surface of this sac is lined with a serous covering called synovial membrane, which secretes a clear viscid fluid for the lubrication of the joint. The bones are kept in apposition, and in fact the joint is maintained by ligaments attached to eminences of the respective bones. Besides the ligaments properly pertaining to the joint, it often happens that it is strengthened by the passage over it of the large and long 23 354 CHAPTER 47. tendons belonging to tne muscles. For instance in the knee, the extensor inetacai'pi tendon runs over the anterior portion of the joint. These tendons, it is necessary to bear in mind, are furnished with synovial sheaths. 716. True open Joint. True open joint is always marked by the emission of synovia, more commonly called joint oil, from the wound. It does not however follow, that the joint is really laid open, because there is an emission of synovia from the wound. Synovia, though in less quantity, will be emitted, if the sheath of any tendon, which passes over the joint, is cut through. If the synovia proceeds only from the sheath of a tendon, the case will probably be neither very serious nor very tedious. If on the other hand the joint is laid open, there is more danger. It is never advisable to explore the wound. Much more injury than good generally results from any such over-anxiety to ascertain the extent of the injury. All synovial joints are liable to be laid open by external injuries ; but the knee for various reasons, which will readily occur to the reader, is far more apt to suffer than any other joint. Principally for this reason, the author proposes to dwell somewhat fully on injuries of the knee, and but slightly on injuries of other true joints. The general principles of treat- ment are much the same, whichever be the joint injured. The minor differences, arising from difference in position of the various joints, and from the nature of the injuries to which they are respectively most liable, will be noticed hereafter. 717. Broken knee. Broken knee is a term used somewhat indiscriminately by the public to express any injury of the knee, whether it be a mere abrasion of the skin, or hair, or a more serious injury, or the true joint be laid open. We have spoken of the knee hitherto as a true joint, but in reality it consists of three true joints. The different layers of bones form three distinct articulations. Each layer or apposition of bones is furnished with its own capsular ligament. A wound perforating the so-called joint may occur in any of these articulations. Practically, however, we find, that it generally occurs in either of the upper articulations and but rarely in the lowest one. Non-professional men are apt to think, that the injury occurs in the lowest articulation, because the exterior wound generally appears to be low down. This, however, is caused by a difference in the position of the skin, when the knee is bent and when it is straightened. It is the upper part of the knee, which usually conies in contact with the ground. The knee, we may remark, corresponds anatomically with the wrist, not with the knee in the human subject. OPEN JOINT. 355 718. Chief danger in open Joint. The chief danger in open joint arises from the excessive pain, which is paused by exposure of the synovial membrane to the air. Hence arise fever and constitutional disturbance. In some cases the whole of the membrane may become inflamed, and then the synovial fluid will be altered in character. The ends of the bones may also become inflamed, and abrasion of the articular cartilages, which tip them, may take place. Hence again will arise increased irritability and inflammation. Bones, though nearly insensitive in health, are in common with all parts which have no power of swelling, exceedingly sensitive under inflammation. Violent inflammation in the joint, if continued, will ultimately destroy the articular cartilages, and the bones themselves will then come in con- tact. In such cases the pain and constitutional disturbance is so great, that either death soon puts an end to the sufferings of the animal, or nature throws out a mass of bone, which causes anchylosis, or stiff joint. The pain ceases when this latter process is completed, but the animal is useless or nearly so. The supervening of inflammation in excess in the interior is not, how- ever, a necessary consequence, even though the joint may remain open for some days. In healthy subjects with judicious treatment joints have been known to remain open upwards of a week without any such occur- rence, and have ultimately healed up satisfactorily. A favorable opinion may indeed always be entertained of any case, unless or until such inflammation sets in. But when this occurs, the chances of a successful result are very doubtful. Again, the process of suppuration or formation of pus always super- venes on any considerable amount of inflammation in the part. When this process has once commenced, there is no use in trying to heal the wound by closing the orifice and thereby excluding the air ; because pus once formed must have an exit, and, if debarred from it in one place, will make it in other. 719. Treatment. The treatment divides itself into two heads, namely, that of the con- stitutional disturbance, and that of the local injury. The first named will be best treated by perfect rest, deprivation of all corn, laxative diet, abundance of fresh air, and by the administration, as soon as the horse is properly prepared, of a mild dose of aloes. Physio in full quantities is apt to produce superpurgation on account of the general irritability of the system. The treatment of the local injury consists primarily in washing the wound clean. There is no need or advantage in probing it or in attempt- ing to remove every particle of gravel from the interior. Nature by her own processes, and with less irritation to the patient than by the use of any mechanical means, will speedily eject any foreign bodies which may have lodged deeply in the wound. 356 CHAPTER 47. Cold water will bo useful in assisting the above action for tbe first, twenty-four hours ; but should not be continued longer. The next and most essential point in treatment is rf*tt that is, entire absence of motion in the injured part. In the human subject this is easily secured by putting the patient on his back in bed and affixing splints on the injured leg. But in the horse the first of these remedies is not in any degree, and the second is only partially available. Slings, under very careful management, are useful in giving rest to the patient. They require however great care and some skill in their adjust- ment, and generally need some little alteration at least once or twice a day. On the one hand the ropes are apt to stretch, and on the other hand the skin often becomes galled in parts from undue pressure. If the patient is turned round in his stall, care must be taken to raise the feeding-box to the level of his head. Such mishaps ought not to occur. It is generally recommended to reverse the horse in his stall, both to prevent the chance of his rubbing or knocking his knee against the manger, and also to enable the wound to be examined in good light with- out disturbing him by turning round. Some very good horsemen, however, think all this a mistake, and that the patient will be more comfortable by standing in his usual way. The wound does not require much, if any, treatment. If the patient paws about, of course, he must be turned round ; but such misbehaviour is not common. Of course the horse must be secured against lying down, and a cradle should be put round his neck so as to hinder his biting the wound ; and if he is not turned round in his stall, the edge of the manger should be guarded against by an old sack filled with hay. The bed should be made level, so that the patient may stand as easily and naturally as possible. If the patient is irritable and knocks about, it is as well to administer some slight doses of opium. ^ As regards the actual wound, our object is to exclude the air as speedily as possible from the interior of the joint. This will be best effected by placing over the wound a fold of lint kept constantly wet with cold water day and night, and secured lightly both above and beloiv, but in no respect approaching a bandage. The india-rubber apparatus mentioned in par. 265 may be used with good effect. In two or three days' time the cold water dressing may be changed to white lotion, which has a slight astrin- gent effect. If a more astringent action is afterwards desired, a powder made of one ounce of sulphate of copper to a pound of flour may be lightly dusted over the wound with the view of inducing coagulation of the synovia round its edges and assisting in the formation of a scab, which may exclude the air. The clot of synovia, which often forms on the edges of the wound, should not be removed. The wound, however, must heal as all wounds must do, from the bottom by the ordinary pro- cesses of nature, that is, by outgrowth of the surrounding parts. As soon as the wound is closed, the recovery is usually rapid. If the opening into the joint is small and the wound is not much lace- rated, and if the case is treated before any inflammation has set in, it is OPEN JOINT. 357 in general safe to attempt to heal it at once by the application of melted shellac and finest tow. In cases of simple puncture the wound may sometimes be closed at once and induced to heal before any irritation or inflammation sets in by applying over it a bandage or packing of tow or by the insertion of a suture. A light blister round the part will also be useful. If a case of open joint takes an unfavorable turn, if the inflammation extends to the interior of the joint, if pus begins to be discharged from the wound, and signs of great constitutional disturbance are apparent, — treatment will probably be of but little avail. It is useless to attempt to block up under such circumstances the flow of synovia and pus. If we do so, the result will inevitably be increased pain and irritation and the formation of abscesses. The only possible treatment in such case is to endeavour to reduce the inflammation by constant cold applications. A favorable result can, however, hardly be expected, and the more merciful course is to destroy the patient. Another very favorite method of treatment is by means of the carbolic spray. One part of carbolic acid is diluted with forty parts of water, and by means of an ingenious little instrument the spray is applied. This should be used several times daily, and in the intervals the part should be covered with lint soaked in the carbolic acid lotion. Cases of open joint, if promptly, judiciously, and carefully treated, as a rule terminate favorably ; but if they are neglected or wrongly treated, there is reason to fear that the inflammation and constitutional disturb- ance may be so great and extensive as to produce an exostosis in the part, and anchylosis or stiff joint may be the result, or the patient may sink under the pain and irritation. Some very bad cases occasionally arise from wounds, which though they do not at first penetrate the joint, yet afterwards from the effect of sloughing extend into it. Such after-development, we may broadly say, always arises from improper treatment. If a proper opening is not main- tained for the escape of the pus, it may (though in most cases it will make an exit for itself in some external part) burrow inwards and eventually cause sloughing of the capsular ligament of the joint. The system of tight bandages frequently adopted has a tendency to produce this result, or it may arise from a scab being allowed too early to form over the wound. This latter effect is generally caused by the use of strong astrin- gents. It cannot be too often impressed on the reader, that all lacerated wounds, whether at the knee or elsewhere, can only heal permanently and safely from the bottom. In other cases the tendency on the part of the wound to slough may arise from general debility of the system of the patient, or from the use of unduly depleting remedies, or more often from both causes combined. The tirst point to be attended to in such after-development is to give a free exit to the pus. Fomentations will be needed for some time to reduce the violent irritation and inflammation, which is certain to have resulted from this increase of the mischief. As soon as the inflammation is reduced, the further treatment will be the same as recommended above. 358 CHAPTER 47. But the difficulty of cure is very great, because the process of sloughing through the capsular ligament and the surrounding parts must have greatly weakened their reparative powers. A favorable result can hardly be looked for. . 720. After-treatment. As soon as possible after convalescence, a little quiet led exercise should be given twice a day ; because all joints from disuse, even in health, but especially in disease, are liable to become stiff. Some interval, however, must be permitted to elapse before the horse is again put to work, in order to allow time for the parts to regain their strength. Repeated mild blisters are often beneficial and in some cases necessary, to excite the action of the absorbents, to remove any thickening of the parts, which may interfere with the proper motion of the joint. Towards the end of the healing process, the superabundant granulations, which often form round the wound, may require to be cut off with the knife. 722. Old Method of treatment. The old Veterinarians were in the habit of plugging up the wound with wheaten or some such paste, or of applying strong astringents such as sulphate of copper to the part. These remedies are, however, too violent. We cannot heal a wound by art, — we can only assist nature to do so. 723. Amount of blemish resulting from Broken Knee. The amount of blemish resulting from Broken knee will depend on the severity of the injury and on the treatment adopted. If the injury be confined to mere abrasion of the skin, no mark ought to be left. If the skin is cut through, some mark will certainly be apparent, either in dis- placement of the natural lay of the hair, or in the appearance of white hairs, or in the absence of hair. If the joint be laid open, the blemish will probably be considerable. A light blister over the part offers the best chance of stimulating the growth of the hair ; but if the injury has destroyed the roots of the hair, or if any portion of the skin has sloughed away, we need scarcely say that no treatment will reproduce hair. 724. Wounds or bruises of the Jcnee not producing open joint. When a horse falls on and injures his knees, it is always advisable, even though the joint may not be laid open, to throw the animal out of work for a few days and to foment his knees. There must be more or less stiffness in the part, which will not be got rid of for some days. If such reasonable precautions are neglected, the owner may not improba- bly pay the penalty by the horse falling down again, when he goes to work. 725. Injuries of Sheaths of tendons and ligaments. When the Sheath only of a tendon or ligament is injured, the case is less serious, and the wound is in general easily closed and healed. The treatment, however, is the same as that recommended for open joint. OPEN JOINT. 359 726. Wounds of the Hock Joint. Next to the knee, the Hock joint is most often injured. From its great extent, injuries of this joint are even more formidable than those of the knee. The general principles of treatment are the same as those recommended for the knee. As, however, the hock cannot be bandaged it clearly cannot be treated on the system of bandages advocated by some Veterinarians for the knee. The patient must of course, be prevented from lying down. A large proportion of cases of open Hock joint arise from punctures, often caused by the pitchfork, and sometimes by the calkin of the hind shoe of another horse. These, if taken in time, before inflammation has set in, may often, as in similar injuries of the knee, be best treated by the application of collodion or some such pledget or by a suture. The results of neglect or improper treatment are the same as in the knee, namely violent inflammation and constitutional disturbance, fol- lowed probably by either anchylosis, or by de'ath. 727. Wounds of the Navicular Joint. Wounds of the Navicular joint are very rare. They are always punc- tures arising from a nail running through the Frog or Commissure. If the injury is detected at once, it may be healed by first intention. If, however, this treatment is not completely successful from the very first, the seat of injury and a very wide circle round it should at once be cleared out, so as to give the freest exit to the joint oil and any pro- duct of inflammation which may probably occur. If this exit is kept open, until nature gradually closes the wound, there is good hope of complete recovery. Nothing further can be done. 728. Wounds of the Fetlcck joint. Wounds of the Fetlock joint need the same treatment as those of the knee. As the joint, however, is comparatively small, and there is not much motion in it, these injuries are more amenable to treatment than those of the knee or hock. 729. Wounds of the Elbow and 8/ioulder joint. The Elbow and Shoulder joint is sometimes, though but rarely pene- trated. The wound, which has been generally caused by a shaft or some such injury, is usually of a contused and lacerated character. The flesh wound must be treated as recommended in the succeeding Chapter on Flesh Wounds, whilst that of the joint will need the same treatment as open joint at the knee. 730. Wounds of the Stifle joint. These are generally caused by kicks. It is of course impossible to bandage the part. The treatment is the same as that recommended for the knee. 360 CHAPTEU 48. CHAPTER 48. FLESH WOUNDS. 731. Definition of a Flesh Wound. 732. Classes of Flesh Wounds. 733. Modes of Healing. 734. Healing by Direct Union. 735. Healing by adhesion, commonly called the First Intention. 736. Healing by Cicatriza- tion or Scabbing. 737. Healing by Granulations. 738. Mode of formation of Granulations. 739. Combination of modes of Union. 740. Recapitula- tion. 741. Cleansing of Wounds. 742. Stoppage of Haemorrhage. 743. Dressing for Wounds capable of being healed by Direct Union. 744. Dressing for Wounds intended to be healed by Adhesion. 715. Dressing for Wounds intended to be healed by Granulations. 746. Wounds, healing by Granulations, to fill up from the bottom. 747. Indolent Wounds. 748. Excessive Granulations. 749. Sloughing. 750. Rest. 751. Sutures, Bandages, &c. 752. Cicatrix. 753. Constitutional effects. 754. Treat- ment of Incised Wounds. 755. Treatment of Lacerated Wounds. 756. Treatment of Contused Wounds. 757. Treatment of Punctured Wounds. 758. Poisoned and Gunshot Wounds. 758a. Blemishes from Wounds. 731. Definition of a Flesh Wound. A FLMSH WOUND is u solution of continuity in soft pails, suddenly produced by violence. 732, Classes of Flesh Wounds. Flesh Wounds may be divided into six classes, namely 1st, Incised, Ihid, Lacerated, 3rd, Punctured, 4th, Contused, 5th, Poisoned, and 6th, Gun-shot. 733. Modes of Healing, Wounds are healed either 1st, by Direct union, or 2ndly, by Adhesion, otherwise called the First Intention, or 3rd, by Cicatrization, vulgarly called Scabbing, or 4th, by Granulations. 734. Healing by Direct Union. Direct union, or the direct and immediate growing together of the opposite surfaces is the most favorable mode of healing ; and therefore it should, if possible, be brought about. It is however only obtainable in incised wounds, and even then only under very favorable circumstances. It is necessary, that we should be able to check the bleeding, to remove all foreign bodies, to bring the divided parts together in their natural FLESH WOUNDS. ool position, and further, to retain them in union. There must also be entire absence of inflammation. The surface of the wound must be excluded from the air, and cold must be applied to prevent the setting in of inflam- mation. If these conditions are attainable, direct or immediate union may probably be procured, if in addition the constitution of the animal be good. 735. Healing by Adhesion, commonly called the First Intention. The 2nd mode of union is by Adhesion, commonly called the First Intention. It consists in the effusion of Lymph between the opposed surfaces. In this mode there is sliylit inflammation of the parts, but not of a destructive character. In direct union the absence of all inflamma- tion is. necessary. In other respects the same conditions are required as for direct union, namely absence of bleeding and of foreign bodies, direct apposition of the sides of the wound, and exclusion of the air. Healing by Adhesion is the most common mode of union. 736. Healing by Cicatrization or Scabbing. The 3rd mode of union is by Cicatrization, commonly called Scabbing. In it the wound is excluded from the air by some substance, such as hair, blood, etc., under cover of which the union takes place. This mode of union is sometimes brought about artificially by covering the wound with collodion, etc. The absence of inflammation is necessary. 737. Healing by Granulations. The 4th mode of union is by Granulations. This is otherwise termed union by Second Intention. It takes place, whenever any of the condi- tions necessary for direct union, or for adhesion are not fulfilled. Union by Second Intention consists in the effusion of lymph from the over-loaded vessels of the part under the influence of active, but not excessive inflammation. The lymph becomes vascular, and from it Granu- lations are formed. All lacerated and some incised Avounds are healed by this mode. Though simple incised wounds may be closed and healed in favorable cases by direct union or by adhesion, yet loss of structure cannot be repaired or cavities filled up, except by material effused from the blood. 738. Mode of formation of Granulations. The Lymplj, spoken of in the preceding paragraph, in a short time after its exudation coagulates, lied streaks soon appear in it, which are incipient blood-vessels formed from, and continuous with the vessels of the adjacent parts. In this way the lymph is formed -into a definite structure and becomes a living constituent part of the body. In it there next appear little eminences, each containing a cell. These eminences are called Granulations. They secrete healthy pus. The upper layers gradually become converted into epithelium, whilst the lower layers are 362 CHAPTER 48. converted into connective tissue. The lymph thus organised always partakes more or less of the structure, into which it is exuded. The deposition of lymph will continue under favorable circumstances, until the chasm is filed up to a level with or above the surrounding parts. Good lymph, it will be remembered, is only secreted in the moderate or " active " stage of inflammation. It is not secreted in the acute or chronic stages. In most injuries the degree of inflammation is at first excessive. Hence in the treatment of wounds our first object generally is to reduce the inflammation by means of cold applications or fomenta- tions. When this has been done, the probability is that good lymph will be exuded. Nature, not art, conducts the healing process. All that man can do is to get the part into a state favorable for the operations of nature ; and if the patient is healthy and other circumstances connected with the particular case are favorable, she will soon complete the cure. In some cases however it happens, and especially where the constitution is weak and unhealthy, or where the part injured is of low organisation, that the inflammatory process becomes torpid, before sufficient lymph has been exuded. It may then become necessary to stimulate the part to renewed activity by the application of irritants. On the other hand, if the local inflammation continues for too great a time, the lymph will soften into pus. 739. Combination of modes of Union. In a wound of considerable extent, several of the above modes of union may often be seen in operation in different parts at the same time, as for instance the 1st, 2nd, and 4th. There is a greater disposition in the horse than in man to suppurative action. Hence wounds of any extent seldom heal completely in the horse by direct union or by adhesion. These modes should, however, be sought for and obtained as far as possible in each case, with the view of reducing the size of the part requiring to be filled up by granulations. 740. Recapitulation. Such are the various modes of healing wounds, and like all nature's processes they are simple enough. In practice, however, innumerable modifications occur, arising from the nature of the wound, the degree and seat of the injury, the presence or otherwise of foreign bodies in the injured part, the amount of haemorrhage, the health of the patient, and degree of irritability peculiar to his system. In short, no two cases are exactly alike. Details connected with these varying circumstances will now demand our attention. 741. Gleaming of Wounds. All foreign bodies in a wound should at once be removed, as far as possible, by allowing lukewarm water to fall in a stream over it from the mouth of a vessel. Or a sponge or a piece of fine tow may be pressed on FLESH WOUNDS. 363 sonic part above, from whence the water may gently trickle over the wound ; but the abraded surface itself should never be touched. Any large particles of gravel or dirt may be carefully removed by the forceps. It is, however, a mistake to irritate a wound by over-anxiety to cleanse it thoroughly. Nature will by her own processes remove, with less irrita- tion than man can do, any foreign matters which will not come away by the simple means recommended above. 742. Accidental Haemorrhage. Accidental Haemorrhage arises from violence of any kind, frequently self inflicted. It is either arterial or venous or both. If the blood is of a bright scarlet colour spurting out, we know it is Arterial; if of a dull red colour flowing in a steady stream, we conclude it is Venous ; if mixed we know that both kinds of blood-vessels are injured. To arrest the Haemorrhage three things are necessary : 1st, careful, very careful removal of foreign material. More harm than good is often ignorantly done by probing the wound in search of such material. 2nd, the application of pressure. 3rd, copious application of cold water or ice. To arrest arterial bleeding in the legs, the pressure must be applied above the wound, whilst in venous bleeding it must be applied below, as in the one case the blood is being carried from the heart, whilst in the other case it is returning to the heart, i. e. flowing in opposite directions. As a matter of fact ordinary haemorrhage in the extremities, can after cleansing be arrested by the application of a plug of wood wool, or lint (not linen) on fine tow, around the fibres of which the blood speedily clots. The plug must be kept in position by a clean linen bandage, and over the whole a continuous stream of cold water should be played. For more serious bleeding as from the groin, the jugulars, etc., the prompt attendance of the Veterinary Surgeon is an absolute necessity. In the meantime treat as above. Bandages and compresses must be removed or loosened, when the bleed- ing is arrested. Erysipelas may follow from neglect of this attention. 743. Dressing fur Wounds capable of being healed by Direct Union. The best dressing for wounds, which comply with the conditions re- quired for direct union,, is carbolic acid paste spread on tow. It effectu- ally excludes the air, and is supposed to destroy those atmospheric germs which hinder the healing process. (See Disinfectants and Deodorizers, par. 277, Chapter 16.) Scarcely any suppuration takes place in wounds when this disinfectant is employed under the above favorable circum- stances. Hence direct union, or at least union by adhesion, is likely to occur. The bandages which retain the dressing should not be removed for some days. The dressing of course must not be applied until the bleeding has ceased and the wound has been cleansed. It will be neces- sary to remove the hair round the part before the dressing is applied. 864 CHAPTER 48. 744. Dressing for Wounds intended to be healed by Adhesion. For wounds capable of being healed by adhesion, lint steeped in Friar's balsam or collodion may be applied. Where collodion is used, the hair about the part must be removed. Or glue, or shellac plaster may be applied to keep the edges of the wound in apposition after removing hair from the edges of the wound. 745. Dressing for Wounds intended to be healed by Granulations. For wounds intended to be healed by Granulations, there is no better dressing than lint steeped in cold water. Care must be taken to keep the lint moist, and for this purpose it may be covered with oil-skin or gutta-percha. Or carbolised oil may be applied with a feather. The carbolic spray, as recommended for open joints, will be found very useful in cases of extensive granulating wounds. These means will be found far preferable and more effectual than the Digestives used in olden time, when Surgery was in its infancy. Nature alone can heal. We only assist her by preventing the interference of retarding influences. 746. Wounds, healing by Granulations, to fill up from the bottom. All wounds healing by granulations must fill up gradually from the, bottom. It must be remembered that there is a greater tendency to union in the edges of the skin and in parts near the skin than in deeper tissues. Hence, all deep wounds require to be kept open, until we are assured that the healing process is fully completed from the lowest part. This object may generally be obtained by inserting a piece of dry lint between the edges of the wound. The formation of a slight scab over the exterior of the wound is useful in many cases as a protection against the irritating effects of the air and accidental abrasion; but no dense firm unyielding scab should be per- mitted to form or remain, because it will unduly check the natural exudation of the matter, which in such wounds always forms. The matter, if confined, will collect until at last it bursts out by some large irregular opening, or, if unable to obtain an exit, will burrow in the deep-seated tissues and cause extensive mischief. 747. Indolent Wounds. If a wound, which is healing either by scabbing or by granulations, becomes indolent, and the healing process is slow and imperfect, it may be necessary to rouse the parts to more energetic action. If the wound is merely in the skin, the edges of it may be removed Avith the knife, and the cut surfaces brought into contact and kept together by sutures. In other cases caustic may be applied to the wound, or the neighbouring parts may be lightly blistered. Indolence in the healing process is a sign of constitutional debility. Hence, in addition to local measures, the general health should be care- fully attended to. FLESH WOUNDS. 365 748. Excessive Granulations. In some indolent wounds and especially in those over the coronet, there is often a disposition to excessive and unhealthy granulations, other- wise called proud flesh. This disposition must he kept in check by the application of some astringent or caustic, such as sulphate of copper or zinc, nitrate of silver, or alum, and in some cases, where it can be con- veniently applied, by pressure. When granulations form in masses, matter will often be found under them, which is apt to burrow in sinuses, unless an opening be made for it. 749. Sloughing. Sloughing is death of a part, produced by disease or injury. The cir- culation is obstructed and the part undergoes decomposition. Sloughing is apt to take place whenever a part has been much lacerated or bruised. The slough may be superficial or deep. When the slough has separated, repair takes place by granulations. The extent of a slough depends on the nature of the injury and on its situation. The parts most liable to slough are those that have 'only a small supply of blood. Vascular parts are not so liable to take on this action. 750. Rest. In all wounds it is an object of much importance to keep the part in a state of rest. In some parts a certain degree of motion cannot be avoided, but an endeavour should be made to lessen it as far as possible. For instance, if the jaw be injured it is desirable to place the patient on sloppy diet, which will not require much mastication. In wounds of the leg, advantage may be taken of particular kinds of shoes, such as those raised at the heels or at the toes, according to the circumstances of the particular case. In some cases the patient will require to be tied up to prevent his moving about, whilst in other cases a cradle will be needed to prevent his gnawing the wound with his teeth. 751. Sutures, Bandages, &c. Sutures are useful in bringing together the edges of the skin in parts where there is but little flesh, such as on the forehead, the nose, and eye- lids ; but they do not answer in fleshy parts, because the weight of the flesh and the swelling arising from the attendant inflammation generally bursts them. In such cases the needful apposition of the parts is best promoted and maintained by bandages. Again, sutures are not advisable where the edges of the wound are much torn, or where there are foreign bodies lodged in it, because the inflammation and suppuration, which ensues in such cases, is aggravated by the confinement of the matter, and in the end the sutures generally break away. Sutures are best applied by means of a curved needle. Interrupted sutures answer better than continuous, because the process of healing by direct union or by adhesion is seldom complete in the horse for reasons 366 CHAPTER 48. already mentioned, and hence the matter which forms needs frequent means of escape. The twisted suture made by two needles and a skein of tow or silk twisted over them answers very well in a small incised wound, such as that caused by bleeding in the neck. In extensive wounds a flexible silver wire suture should be used in preference to silk, because it does not absorb the effused matters, and hence also is less likely to slough out. In extensive flesh wounds, how- ever, especially when large portions are pendulous, sutures do not answer. Bandages applied, if possible, from below upwards should be used. A bandage should be adjusted very evenly, and not so tight as to obstruct the circulation or to cause pain. When circumstances admit of it, the bandage should be applied above and below, but not over the wound. This arrangement will enable the dressing to be easily changed without the necessity of removing the bandage each time. Plasters are frequently used to keep the edges of wounds together. They are made by dipping strips of canvas or linen in glue or shellac. 752. Cicatrix. True skin, when once destroyed, is never' reproduced. Its place is supplied by a cicatrix which is formed of fibre-cellular tissue covered by epithelium. A cicatrix differs from true skin mainly in not* containing hair or glands. 753. Constitutional Effects. The constitutional effects of such wounds, as it is worth our while to treat in the horse, are in general not very serious. Traumatic fever sometimes ensues, but usually subsides in a few days. Temporary debility may follow any excessive loss of blood from an incised wound, but nature soon repairs the loss. 754. Treatment of Incised Wounds. In favorable cases Incised wounds may be healed by direct union. If any of the conditions necessary to that mode of union are wanting, it may probably be possible to obtain union by adhesion. Of late years considerable advantage has been derived from the application of medi- cated wool kept in position with a bandage, and constantly wet with cold water, or, as it is called " irrigation." Medicated wool possesses the advantage of excluding the air. In some cases it may be necessary to have recourse to union by scabbing or by granulations. As incised wounds are generally simple in their character, the details, which have already been given, will probably be sufficient as a guide to their treat- ment. 755. Treatment of Lacerated Wounds. In Lacerated Wounds some of the conditions necessary for direct union are wanting. Some degree of inflammation is always present, and FLESH WOUNDS. 367 again the parts cannot be brought into perfect apposition. Healing by direct union is therefore out of the question. Under favorable circum- stances \ve may perhaps obtain the conditions necessary for healing a portion of the wound by adhesion. Usually however these wounds re- quire to be healed by the more tedious process of granulation. Lacerated wounds seldom bleed much, even though some of the arteries may be divided, because the vessels are torn, and in consequence contract and retract within their sheaths ; and again, the torn filaments favour the formation of an external clot by entangling small particles of the fibrin of the blood. The parts must be brought as nearly as possible into apposition. From the nature of the wound it is not probable that the edges can be made to meet. It is seldom advisable to cut off any portion of the skin, even though it may be detached. Isolated pieces of skin, which may be left in parts, should be permitted to remain. They may become points of connection, and so reduce the size of the cicatrix. True skin, it must be remembered, is never reproduced. If violent inflammation sets in, fomentations and poultices must be applied to reduce it. If this unfavorable symptom is not present, the wound can be treated as recommended in paragraph 754. If the wound subsequently becomes unhealthy or indolent, or if excessive granulations appear, the measures recommended above for such cases must be resorted to. Sutures are seldom of much use or even available in these cases. A depending orifice must be secured. The wound must be frequently cleansed, and the carbolic spray as recommended for open joint may be used with advantage. In those cases, where from pain and irritation traumatic fever sets in, sedatives and a mild dose of physic will probably be needed. As a pre- ventive, it is always advisable to lower the diet of the patient for a few days after the occurrence of the injury. Afterwards a liberal diet is essential, or the powers of nature will not be able to carry on the process of repair. The chief danger to be apprehended in Lacerated wounds is the occurrence of tetanus, or lockjaw. (For Lockjaw see Chap. 33.) 756. Treatment of Contused Wounds. By Contused Wounds are meant injuries inflicted by bruising the skin and subcutaneous tissues without any absolute breach of the skin. Such wounds generally contain serum, or a mixture of blood and serum under the skin. In the progress of any serious contused wound there are two distinct periods, namely the separation of the slough produced by the contusion, and that of the repair of the chasm by granulations. If the parts around are much bruised, superficial slough may ensue to a consider- able extent. Before healthy granulations can form, the wound must discharge itself of all dead matter. Minor contused wounds do not generally run to sloughing. The great principle in the treatment of contused wounds is to render them of a simple character by giving to the confined matter and extrava- sated blood a free exit by making an incision at the lowest part. All 368 CHAPTER 48. contused wounds, however, do not require to be opened, because the effect of the fomentations and stimulating liniments, which may be applied, are often sufficient to rouse the blood-vessels and absorbents to remove the effused fluids. In all contused wounds, whether great or small, there is always, it must be remembered, some destruction, though it may be very slight, of the subcutaneous tissues, or muscles. The products resulting from such causes must be removed. If the powers of nature are not suffi- cient, their more speedy removal must be assisted by art. As in lacerated wounds, the violent inflammation at first existing in the contused and neighbouring parts must be reduced by general and topical measures before the healing process will commence. During the healing process serum is very apt to collect in cavities in the wound. Though punctured, the sacs are apt to fill and refill, and sometimes there is a good deal of trouble in getting rid of them. They are best treated by being freely laid open and injected with a diluted solution of zinc or copper, or a seton may be passed through them. 757. Treatment of Punctured Wounds. Punctured Wounds, if the puncture does not extend into a joint or through the sheath of a tendon, are best treated by being laid open and converted into ordinary incised wounds. Unless this course is taken much pain will ensue, because the deeper tissues, which have been injured and which will become inflamed, have otherwise no room to swell. Again unless a free opening is made, the matter, which is sure to arise from the inflammatory action, will burrow and form abscesses and sinuses. The opening must be kept clean by fre- quent washing and dressing ; and in some cases it may be advisable to insert a pledget of tow smeared with ointment in order to ensure the maintenance of the opening. If there is good reason to think, that the puncture has penetrated a joint or the sheath of a tendon, the case must be treated as one of open joint, — for the treatment of which the reader is referred to the preceding chapter. 758. Poisoned and Gunshot Wounds. Poisoned and Gunshot Wounds are of very rare occurrence in the horse. The Author has therefore decided to omit all notice of them, though the subjects in themselves are interesting. 758C>. Treatment. If the onse is taken in its incipient, state, the treatment is the same as that recommended for grease. After which put on a poultice made up of warm water and the soft part of a good white loaf. After the poultice has been on the heel for a day and night, and if the poultice has had due effect, then wash and dry the heel, and put on the ointment of oxide of zinc as recommended for grease. If another poultice seems necessary, put on a fresh made poultice, made as above. Another good plan of treating cracked heels is after thoroughly wash- ing and drying the heels to apply a dressing composed of carbolic acid one part, glycerine or oil twenty parts, with a feather, cover with lint, and carefully roll a soft, narrow bandage round the pastern and heel. This not only protects the part from cold and wet, but to a certain extent prevents the heel from being flexed, and allows the cracks to heal more rapidly. If the case has been neglected, or if the cracks do not readily heal under the above treatment, a weak solution of nitrate of silver may be applied. If the edges look indolent, it will be advisable to stimulate the parts with turpentine liniment and to touch them occasionally with sul- phate of copper or nitrate of silver. In cases where the heels are much inflamed, an ointment made of acetate of lead or of oxide of zinc with lard or vaseline may be used with advantage. Though this disease is usually associated with neglect and debility, yet we occasionally find it arising from a plethoric condition combined with want of proper exercise. Horses, for instance, in high condition, such as hunters thrown out of work by a frost, are sometimes affected if not well looked after. Race horses, though well groomed and exercised, occasionally suffer from Greasy or Cracked Heels. The process of sweating induces the affec- tion. The sweat runs down into the hollow of the heel, and this part is often not covered, as it ought to be, with the bandages after work ; and then the sudden evaporation of the perspiration, strongly impregnated as it is with the salts of the blood, leads to disease. 767. Conclusion. Horses, which have ever been affected with either of these diseases, are more liable to them again than other animals. Hence in the future man- agement more than ordinary care will be required. 767a. Mud Fever. The somewhat inelegant term Mud Fever is applied to a form of ery- thema or superficial inflammation of the skin of the legs, and frequently of the surface of the abdomen. It is generally supposed to be caused by the irritating effect of wet and dirt, and some particular kinds of clay are believed to have a pecu- liar effect in producing this affection, and in these localities washing the 374 CHAPTER 51. legs on return from work, should be strictly forbidden. The mud should be allowed to dry on the legs and subsequently washed off. That these ideas are erroneous is proved by the fact that the disease is almost unknown amongst cavalry troop horses, and hunters whose legs are undipped, and where the system of washing is not allowed. The causes of mud fever may be said to be from washing and insufficiently drying the legs, especially in cases where warm water is used ; the circu- lation, which has been excited by the warm water becomes suddenly checked by the effects of the cold air, the vessels become congested, and superficial inflammation follows. One of the principal predisposing causes of this affection is the system of clipping hunters' legs, whereby the skin is more liable to become affected by any external irritating influences. The reader is referred to paragraphs 116 to 120, also 177 on this sub- ject in the Chapter on Stable Management. The prominent symptoms of mud fever are swelling of the limbs, heat, and tenderness of the skin, more or less lameness the result of irritation and occasional constitutional disturbance. An eruption of vesicles occurs in patches on the legs, and along the surface of the abdomen, and after a time the hair falls off, and frequently desquamation of the cuticle also takes place to a considerable extent. These symptoms are accompanied by a staring coat and general falling off in condition. The treatment of mud fever consists in placing the patient in a cool, well-ventilated box, and by administering a mild dose of aperient medi- cine. The diet should be laxative in character with green food or carrots. The skin of the affected parts should be well washed and carefully dried with soft flannels, and may then be dressed daily with a liniment com- posed of equal parts of lime water and linseed oil well shaken together. Or a dressing of one ounce of liquor plumbi subacetatis to half a pint of olive oil may be applied. This treatment, with good stable management, walking exercise, and gradually increasing the oat ration, will generally be found sufficient in ordinary cases. CHAPTER 51. MANGE. 768. Nature of Mange. .769. Mange, a sure sign of neglect or mis- management. 770. Mange, not contagious among healthy well groomed horses. 771. Signs of Mange. 772. Treatment. 773. Clothing need not be destroyed. 774. Itchiness of the skin. 774a. Lice. 7746. Treatment. 768. Nature of Mange. The disease known as Scabies, or Mange, results directly from the attack of a parasitical insect which burrows beneath the epidermis or MANGE. 375 scarf-skin. The acari which are the active agents in the production of this disease, are of two kinds, called respectively, the Sarcoptes and Per- modeotes equi. The latter parasite is the more common ; but, as the ravages caused by both are similar, further description is unnecessary. The insects are so small, that they cannot be seen by the naked eye, but they may be discovered by the aid of the microscope or even of the pocket lens. The attacks of these animalculi cause irritation and itching of the skin ; and, as a result, the hair falls off in patches. It is important to bear in mind, first, that Mange is not primarily a skin disease, but the result of insects being allowed to lodge in the skin ; and, secondly, that the skin, either from want of grooming, or from poverty of the blood or system, or from the effect of unsuitable food, or from some or all of these causes, is generally, and perhaps we might safely say, must be in an unhealthy state, before it is in a condition suit- able for these parasites to live in and breed. Young horses taken up from grass, especially if poor, are sometimes found to be affected with the mange insect, but more commonly with lice. 769. Mange, a sure sign of neglect or mismanagement. Mange never occurs in healthy, well groomed, well fed horses. It is a sure sign of neglect and dirt, or of injudicious feeding, or of bad manage- ment of some sort. The owner will do well to change his servants, when- ever this disease appears in his stable. 770. Mange, not contagious among healthy, well groomed horses. Mange is not contagious among healthy and well groomed horses. It is very possible, that some of the insects may find their way from a dis- eased to a neighbouring healthy horse. But they will not remain, they will not lodge permanently, still less will they breed, in a skin to which the brush is well applied and in which they are in consequence disturbed two or three times a day. Horses, however, in a debilitated or neglected state are very susceptible to this disease, and among such it is very readily transmitted from one to another. Hence, when circumstances, which are more or less common to all the animals in a stable or camp, engender this disease in one horse, it is necessary that he should at once be separated from the others. The brushes and clothing must also be kept separate. 771. Signs of Mange. Mange usually commences at the roots of the hair of the mane and tail. As stated above, it is caused by the presence of insects. Multitudes of minute pustules appear, whose summits gradually expand into vesicles, which burst and coalesce with one another, and by their united discharges form patches of encrustation upon the skin. At these patches the hair loosens at its roots, and either falls out, or it rubbed off from time to time, and at length ^the place is left bare. The follicles of the hair desquamate in the form of bran-like scales or meal dust. •°>76 CHAPTER 51. Upon these patches small red spots may frequently be seen, owing to the crust being rubbed off the pustules, and consequent exposure of the inflamed cut is. The skin loses its elasticity, and becomes corrugated in harsh arid folds, especially about the neck and sides. Sometimes blood oozes from the bare places. The disease is accompanied with intolerable itching. 772. Treatment. The treatment of Mange, so far as killing the insects, is very simple. The coat, if long, should be removed by clipping, and the skin must be thoroughly washed with warm soft water and soap, and after being care- fully dried may be dressed with the following liniments. Oil of tar four ounces, common oil one pint, powdered sulphur four ounces. Mix and apply to every part of the skin with a soft brush. The dressing may be repeated on the following day, and allowed to remain on for three or four days, when it may be thoroughly washed off. Any slight irritation that may remain can be allayed by bathing the part with a lotion composed of sulphuric acid two drachms, water one pint. If the skin is inclined to crack or become rough it should be lubricated with a little vaseline or glycerine. Many practitioners advocate a strong infusion of tobacco with the addi- tion of glycerine as a mange dressing, while others recommend a lotion composed of one part of carbolic acid to twenty parts of water. Some of the patent sheep dipping preparations also are very effectual. The animal's head must be tied up to prevent his biting himself. After washing the skin, if clothing is worn, a linen sheet must be placed under the rugs to prevent irritation. In slight and recent cases the skin will soon recover its tone, when the insects are got rid of, and in most cases the hair will grow again. But when the disease is of long standing, or has been engendered, as is usually the case, by neglect, bad grooming, bad feeding, or poverty, or at least is complicated with low condition arising from these causes, — the skin is not easily restored to a healthy condition, even though the insects have been got rid of. Besides the above local remedies, it will be necessary to act on the constitution by invigorating it in every way by the best food and tonics. A change of diet is always very desirable. Green, meat, which by reason of its laxative qualities lessens the irritability of the skin, should always be given if procurable. Pale malt (except when the animal has been pre- viously kept on barley, or boiled linseed answers well. Horses are often a long-time before they recover their condition after an attack of mange ; but this is quite as much due to the fact that the animals had been neglected and were probably in a debilitated state before they were attacked, as to the effect of the disease. Though the disease is not contagious among well-cared-for horses, yet it runs quickly through those, which are out of condition, ill-fed and weak. MANGE. 377 773. Clothing need not le destroyed. Thorp is no need to destroy the clothing of horses affected with Mange. It is sufficient to bake or boil, it thoroughly. Servant's clothing1 should be baked or boiled if it will not be so spoiled. 774. Itchiness of the skin. Horses, especially in hot countries, are frequently subject to itchiness of the skin. The symptoms very closely resemble those of Mange. The head, neck, and shoulders are mostly affected. From the intense itching the animal will often rub off large patches of hair. The local treatment consists in shaving off the hair, and dressing the skin with equal parts of mercurial ointment and soft soap made into a lather with hot water and applied by means of an old brush. The new hair will grow rapidly after this application. Change of diet and laxative food will also be needed for a time. Boiled linseed is very beneficial. Horses, which are kept on barley, are very liable to this affection. In some horses the skin is so exceedingly irritable (without any positive disease) that the animal cannot bear the friction of the ordinary saddle lined with flannel on his back. A linen cloth carefully and smoothly laid under the saddle will often in such cases give relief. Other horses are affected with a skin disease, resembling mange, but not produced by the attacks of parasitical insects, about the head and face or under the brow band. The mercurial ointment recommended above will generally effect a cure. 774a. Lice. There are many varieties of Lice, but only two which need mention as regards horses, viz. : 1st, the common house louse ; and 2nd, the poultry louse. The first-named usually attack old and ill-fed horses ; and also not uncommonly young at grass. The second sort, the poultry louse, attack horses in fair condition, and generally select the best fed. In both cases the ravages of the parasite produce the same effects, viz. extreme itchiness, accompanied by an eruption of vesicles. 7746. Treatment. The horse's coat should be removed by clipping, and the skin should then be well washed, and the liniment recommended for Mange or any of the parasiticides should be applied. One dressing probably will be suffi- cient. In all cases the stable must be thoroughly cleansed and white- washed. The cause — overfeeding in the one case, or want of feeding in the other- must be guarded against. o78 CHAPTRIi 52. CHAPTER 52. RINGWORM. 775. Nature of Ring worm. 776. Causes. 777. Treatment. 775. Nature of Ringivorm. RINGWORM is not connected, as the name might lead us to suppose, with the presence of an insect. It is due to a parasitic growth of fungus made up of organic cells, which affects more especially the hair follicles on the surface of the skin. The disease may commence in any part. The premonitory symptom is usually an unthrifty look about the coat. A white scaly scurf accompanied with staring of the hairs in the parts affected is the first positive indication, followed by a thickened scurf with raised eminences. This spreads rapidly in blotches over the neighbour- ing parts, generally assuming the form of rings, and the hair falls off. The appearance is so peculiar, that the disease cannot be mistaken by any one who has ever seen a case. 776. Causes. Ringworm usually results from an unhealthy condition of the skin, — in most cases produced by neglect of grooming, or by bad food, or by any sudden change of diet, even from bad to good. Occasionally, however, it appears in stables, where both the grooming and the food are unques- tionably good. Damaged oats or hay are very ready causes of this disease. In every case, therefore, the food should be very carefully examined. The oats, in addition to being inspected externally, should be stripped of their husks with the view of ascertaining, whether they have become mildewed under the surface; and their state should be further tested by smelling and chewing the grains. The hay should also be looked to, especially with the view of ascertaining whether it is mildewed. Young horses on first coming into stables are sometimes affected, pro- bably from change of diet. Horses recovering from fever occasionally suffer from this disease. In this latter case, it seems to arise from an im- poverished state of the blood. Ringworm, it is said, can be produced in healthy horses by inserting under the skin a scale of the cuticle from one of the blotches of a diseased horse. In ordinary cases the disease is not very contagious, though gene- rally supposed to be so. It frequently, however, runs through stables, much in the same way as influenza and other diseases, because similar causes produce similar effects. WARTS. 870 777. Treatment. If any positive cause, such as bad forage or neglect of grooming can be ascertained to have existed, measures must of course be taken to rectify it. Without such amendment local treatment will not be of much avail. If, as is often the case, debility is also a symptom, care must be taken to improve the tone of the system by good feeding and good grooming. As regards Local treatment, scrape each spot well with a spatula, not roughly, but sufficiently to clear off the fungus, and also clean off the hair for half an inch round the spot. When the fungus has been removed, the spot will become red and moist, but not bleeding. Wash well with warm water and soap, and then dry it ; and then pass very quickly over it a stick of nitrate of silver ; and also very lightly over the hair on the margin of the spot. It is not necessary to keep the horse off his work, unless there are any spots under some part of the harness. CHAPTER 53. WARTS. 778. Situation and size of Warts. 779. Causes. 780. Treatment. 778. Situation and size of Warts. A WART is an extra secretion of cuticle from the papillae of the dermis. Warts are of rather common occurrence in the horse. They appear on the thin and more delicate portions of the skin, as for instance on the sheath, the inner surfaces of the hind limbs, the abdomen, the eyelids, and the sides of the nose. They seldom' appear on the back, hind quar- ters, sides, or outer surfaces of the limbs. They are sometimes found on the neck, where the skin has. been injured by the collar. They vary in size from that of a pea to that of a large potato. The wart commences as a small round substance, and gradually increases. As it increases, it becomes divided into clefts and fissures, from which the blood occasionally exudes. 779. Causes. The precise causes of these excrescences are not known ; but they pro- bably arise from some peculiar derangement of the nutritive vessels, 380 CHAPTER 54. which secrete the skin. Others think that they originate in undue vas- oularity of the true skin, by means of which an abnormal growth is gene- rated. It is rertain that after removal they are apt to recur. 780. Treatment. Warts should always be removed whilst yet small. The more common practice is arsenic and lard in the proportion of one drachm of arsenic to one ounce of lard. Two scratches should be made on the wart and a small quantity of arsenic paste applied to the scratches. The wart will fall out in a few days. Another good practice is to scrape the surface, and then dress with chloride of lime. Some of our best Veterinary Surgeons prefer the knife in all cases, but in some cases there is danger of cutting an artery. In some cases, when warts, without any appreciable base exist in parts of the body causing them to interfere with the saddlery or harness, it may be necessary to slough them out. A thin paste consisting of sulphuric acid and sulphur, spread over the wart will produce the necessary sloughing process in the course of a few days. The part must be afterwards treated as a simple wound. CHAPTER 51. BOTS AND WORMS. 781. fiutt, 782. Inieaimal Worms. 783. Treatment. 784. Worm in the Eye. 781. Bots. BOTS are the larvae or grubs of the (Estnis or Cad-fly. The eggs are deposited on the legs, arms, knees, or body of the horse during the autumn, and are licked off by the animal and hatched in the stomach — • to the cuticular coat of which they cling by two strong hooks or tenacula. Their heads, which are situated betAveen these hooks, are buried in the lining of the stomach. They often adhere so tenaciously, that their bodies may be broken, before they will quit their hold. They are some- times found in the villous coat, and they but rarely extend into the duo- denum. The mucus of the stomach seems to be their food. About June or July the bots are often voided in the dung, and they then assume the chrysalis or grub form, and remain so for a few weeks, when the case opens, and the fly takes wing. Bots, when being voided, BOTS AND WORMS. 381 often adhere by their tenacula to the fundament. There are several species, but it is not necessary here to describe them. Their presence does not seem usually to act injuriously on the health of the horse, though occasionally the stomach is eroded by them. When they are seen in the dung they are usually undergoing the natural process of being voided before their transformation ; and if we have patience, nature will quietly expel them without our aid. At this period, a dose of physic may perhaps hasten the loosening of their hold ; but we cannot make them quit their tenement much before nature disposes them to do so, inasmuch as their bodies are hard and insensible to the action of any medicine, and their heads are enveloped in the lining of the stomach. 782. Intestinal Worms. The cause of the production of these parasites in the body is enveloped in mystery. Poverty of the system, pasturing in marshy or wet ground, or the use of stagnant waters are undoubtedly predisposing agents. Young animals are more subject to them than aged, arid weakly than stronger subjects. They are however often found in horses to which none of these conditions apply. Worms derive their nutriment by suction from the intestinal secretions. They die, if the animal dies ; or if voided, they perish immediately. Two kinds of worms are commonly found in the horse, namely, first the Ascaris megalocepliala, or long round worm, which we frequently dis- cover in the dung. They inhabit the small intestines, and are sometimes twelve inches long. Secondly, the Oxyuris curvula, a small needle-like lively worm found in great numbers in the large intestines and rectum. This worm is usually white in colour, and about half an inch long. In some cases the presence of Worms may be detected by their being excreted along with the dung, whilst in other cases their presence can only be suspected by a peculiar hard, dry, unthrifty appearance of the coat, or at other times by frequent whisking of the tail and by some diy brownish matter adhering around the anus. Worms may also exist for a length of time without presenting any outward appearance which might lead to their detection. In some cases they injuriously affect the health of the horse, whilst in others they seem to do no harm. We are as little able to explain this difference in effect, as to explain the cause of their existence. As a general rule, when a horse has worms, his system is out of order — possibly not on account of the worms, but perhaps the worms iind a suitable tenement in his intestines, because they are out of order — just as the mange insect will lodge in an unhealthy in preference to a healthy skin. 783. Treatment. Previous to the administration of medicine the horse should be kept without food for at least twelve hours. A dose of two ounces of turpen- tine given in a pint of linseed oil, with hall' an ounce of tincture of opium 382 CHAPTER 54. to prevent griping, will effect a temporary clearance. Or a drachm of tartarised antimony may be given for six consecutive mornings before the horse is fed, followed on the seventh day by a dose of physic. A drachm of calomel for two or three consecutive nights, followed by a dose of physic given on the third morning fasting will also answer. The small worms, which inhabit the rectum, may sometimes be cleared away by injections of a weak solution of salt, or of turpentine and linseed oil, or infusion of quassia. A change of diet is desirable. Salt in the manger is beneficial. Min- eral and vegetable tonics are useful in improving the condition. Worms, however, notwithstanding the temporary clearance effected by medicine, are apt to reappear after a time. 784. Worm in the Eye. In India a worm is occasionally found floating in the aqueous humour. The treatment consists in puncturing the cornea at its upper inner margin. The humour will then escape, and will carry with it the worm. The humour soon re-forms, the wound readily heals, and in general no after-injurious result ensues. The inner margin is selected for the opera- tion because the cornea at that part is least dense ; and the upper instead of the lower margin, because the aqueous humour, which gradually re- forms, will be less likely to again escape (whilst the wound is healing) than if the incision has been made at the lower part ; and the resulting cicatrix on the cornea is less likely to interfere with the vision. PAKT VIII. CHAPTER 55. DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 785. Use and action of the Kidneys. 786. Inflammation of the Kidneys, or Nephritis. 787. Symptoms. 788. Treatment. 789. Irritation of the Bladder, and its causes. 790. Symptoms. 791. Treatment. / '92. Inflam- mation of the bladder, or Cystitis. 793. Symptoms. 794. Treatment. 795. Inflammation of the Neck of the Bladder. 796. Retention of the Urine. 797. Symptoms. 798. Treatment. 799. After-treatment. 800. Bloody Urine. 801. Diuresis, or Excessive Staling. 802. Symptoms. 803. Causes. 804. Treatment. 785. UJse and action of the Kidneys. BY the action of the kidneys, the superfluous fluid, which contains in solution various saline and nitrogenous substances, is removed from the system. The quantity of urine secreted by the kidneys is very variable, even in health; being affected by the quantity of fluid imbibed, by the suc- culence or otherwise of the food, and by the activity of the skin and the amount of perspiration. In some diseases, as for instance in fever, the secretion is very scanty in quantity, acrid in quality, and high coloured ; whilst in some other maladies, as in diuresis, it is excessive, and very clear and almost colourless. The kidneys may be excited to increased action by various saline, ether- ous, and resinous substances. Such agents are termed Diuretics. Cun- tharides has also a similar effect. 786. Inflammation of the Kidneys, or Nephritis. Inflammation of the substance of the Kidneys, otherwise called Ne- phritis, is fortunately rather rare. Its causes will generally be found in prolonged or severe work; or in exposure to wet and cold, producing derangement of the secretions of the skin ; or in over-violent or too fre- quent doses of diuretic medicine ; or in mow-burnt hay, kiln-dried oats, or other irritating food. It may also be brought on by sprain of the 384 CHAPTEli 55. muscles, or in other cases by the presence of calcareous matters in the kidneys. Occasionally Nephritis occurs as a sequel to bronchitis, pneumonia, in- fluenza, or laminitis — probably owing to the secretions of the body, which had been arrested during the acute attack, being afterwards discharged in over-large quantities through the kidneys. It is also found as a sequel of rheumatic affections. Sometimes it is induced by the absorption of the active principle of cantharides from a surface, to which that substance has been applied. Inflammation of the bladder may also extend along the ureters to the kidneys. 787. Symptoms . The horse is feverish, restless, and uneasy, and perspires freely. He often lies doAvn cautiously and rises up again, as if suffering from colic ; but the abdomen, instead of being hard and distended as in that disease, is tucked up. He moves with caution and experiences temporary relief from lying down, but is not relieved by hand-rubbing. Owing to the pressure of the psoae muscles on the inflamed kidneys he is unwilling to move — he stands with his hind legs wide apart, crouches and straddles in his gait, and groans if turned sharply round. Tenderness and wincing are evinced on the application of pressure to the loins. At frequent intervals he stretches himself cautiously as if about to stale, but passes no urine, or only a small quantity, highly coloured and often tinged with blood. In very acute attacks, the horse will sit on his haunches, groan, and look round to his flanks. The bowels are usually constipated, and the pulse is accelerated and soon becomes very quick and weak. Inflammation of the kidneys is distinguished from a similar affection of the bladder by the secretion being very small and emitted with much groaning and effort, whilst in the latter disease the urine is secreted freely and ejected almost as soon as secreted. In both diseases the bladder is empty. It may also be distinguished by examination of the bladder by the hand through the anus. If the disease is confined to the kidneys, the bladder, when it can be felt (but it is not easy to find it, inasmuch as it is empty) will not feel warmer or more tender than usual ; but if the bladder is the seat of inflammation, it will be very hot and tender. The kidneys themselves may be felt ; and if inflamed, they arc hot and painful. When the inflammation is caused by the presence of calcareous sub- stances in the kidneys, a very marked symptom is afforded by the penis hanging pendulous and a, constant dripping of urine, often tinged with blood. If the patient be a stallion, the testicles are retracted. The thigh on the side of the inflamed kidney, if only one be affected, is generally be- numbed. If the disease is not relieved, the strength fails rapidly, and from retention of the constituents of urine in the system the skin often acquires a urinous smell. The retention of these matters in the blood exerts a poisonous influence on the (system, and often produces coma and paralysis. DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 885 788. Treatment. The depressing and destructive influence of the arrested urinary secre- tions must be diminished, as much as possible, by exciting the activity of the skin and bowels. Flannel cloths steeped in very warm water should be at once applied to the loins, and covered with some waterproof mate- rial to keep in the heat and moisture. A pint of oil with a scruple of calomel may be given, and warm enemas should be administered. After forty-eight hours the dose of oil may be repeated, if needed, in order to produce moderate purgation ; but it is not probable that it will be required. When the purgation has ceased, the calomel may be advan- tageously repeated in half-drachm doses with one drachm of opium in a ball night and morning for three or four successive days. Aloes should riot be given, as it is apt to cause increased irritation in the kidneys. Saline purgatives are also inadmissible. If the pain and straining are great, belladonna and camphor, in doses of one drachm, or combined with opium, or opium alone may be given twice a day for a period not exceeding two days. The functions of the skin should be stimulated by warm clothing and hand-rubbing. Woollen cloths wrung out of very hot water and covered with a waterproof sheet and a dry rug to delay evaporation may be applied to the loins. The skin of a newly-flayed sheep with the flesh side inwards, and changed for a fresh one every second day, will also be beneficial. Care must be taken to avoid the occurrence of a chill, when the cloths or skin are removed. With this view the parts may be rubbed with an embrocation made of six ounces of oil, one ounce of the strong solution of ammonia, and two ounces of tincture of opium. Mucilaginous drinks, such as linseed tea, hay tea, etc., should be offered ; but if the animal will not take them, he should be supplied with slightly tepid water, mildly acidulated by some mineral acid. The food, which must be sparingly given, should consist of grass, carrots, or lucern. Clover, vetches, and all varieties of the trifolium species are objection- able, because they contain an acrid principle, which injuriously affects the urinary organs. Irritants and counter-irritants, such as cantharides and turpentine, are wholly inadmissible, because they are apt to become absorbed and to exert an injurious effect on the kidneys. Clysters, however, of warm water are useful, both in relieving the bowels and in acting as fomenta- tions to the inflamed organ. As soon as the congestion is relieved by these measures, the kidneys will again begin to resume their secreting functions. The urine, however, at first secreted is always very acrid, and therefore causes great irritation in the organ. In order to diminish this effect, every endeavour must be made throughout the attack to get the horse to take mucilaginous drinks or even water. Half an ounce of bicarbonate of soda given two or three times a day in the drink will act very beneficially at this period in lessen- ing the acidity of the urine. If there is much pain, a drachm of powdered opium with half a drachm of camphor may be given in a ball, and re- peated once or twice if necessary, at intervals of three hours. 25 386 CHAPTER 55. If the disease terminates in suppuration, it will be indicated by pus being mingled with the urine, which will continue for some time during the period of convalescence. In fatal cases, the kidneys, if the disease has been of any standing, will be found to be very much enlarged and softened ; and in some cases disorganisation of the structure may have taken place. 789. Irritation of the Bladder and its causes. Irritation of the Bladder may arise from excessive doses of diuretic medicine, from absorption of cantharides too freely applied for blistering purposes, from sympathy with inflammation of the kidneys, from over- long retention of urine, from calculi, from strain of the psoa3 muscles affecting the kidneys and the bladder by sympathy, from a sudden check to the cutaneous perspiration by exposure to cold when the animal is hot, or from bad or irritating food. If the case is of a persistent nature, the state of the bladder should be examined through the anus, to ascertain if there be a calculus in it. 790. Symptoms. Irritation of the Bladder is indicated by restlessness, frequent strain- ing, protruded penis, and by the passing at short intervals of small quantities of urine. If the symptoms are more grave than the above, it is probable that the disease has passed from the stage of irritation into that of inflammation of the organ. The bladder on examination through the anus will be found either shrivelled up and empty, or hot and tender. 791. Treatment. The cause in the particular instance must be sought for, and if possible, removed. To relieve the symptoms, many of which depend on the acidity and scantiness of the urine, the patient should be encouraged to drink plenty of water and mucilaginous fluids, in which may be given half an ounce of bicarbonate of soda and potash. The food should consist of mashes and hay with but very little corn. Grass, carrots, and lucern are very beneficial ; but clover and other plants of the trifolium variety are for reasons already given objectionable. Rest is indispensable. Some laxative medicine, such as a pint of linseed oil, is useful in unloading the bowels. Warm rugs should be placed over the loins, and clysters may be freely thrown up. The warm water will exercise a soothing influence on the irritated membrane. The effect, if need be, may be increased by adding to each clyster an ounce of laudanum or a drachm of extract of belladonna, and to insure its being retained the clyster should not exceed two pints. If the animal is debilitated, and especially if the irritation appears to proceed from weakness of the bladder, vegetable tonics may be given with benefit. DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 387 792. Inflammation of the Bladder, or Cystitis. Inflammation of the Bladder itself is very seldom met with. When it occurs, it is generally consecutive on irritation of that organ, or it may be induced by sympathy with inflammation existing in the kidneys. 793. Symptoms. Inflammation of the Bladder is indicated by the same symptoms as irritation of that organ, but they appear in an aggravated degree. Con- siderable fever is present, indicated by a quickened pulse, injected visible mucous membrane, and a high temperature. There is restlessness with arching of the back, whisking of the tail, frequent straining, and a pro- truded penis. At short intervals a few drops of urine, which is generally thick, high coloured, and mixed with ropy mucus and pus, will be passed with difficulty. In some instances, blood may even be voided. In pro- tracted cases the skin of the neighbouring parts becomes scalded by the continued dribbling of the urine. Occasionally the animal lies down, as if suffering from colic. If the hand be introduced into the rectum, the bladder will be found shrivelled up and empty, and oftentimes hot and tender ; and upon the application of pressure to it, the patient will wince and strain violently. During the voiding of the urine, some few dung pellets may be passed. The skin is hot and dry, and the animal often looks at his flanks. If the disease is not relieved, the walls of the bladder will lose their contractile power; and in such cases the bladder may be found full, but this would only occur in the last stage. The bladder may be ruptured through over-distension. 794. Treatment. The treatment in most respects is the same as that recommended for nephritis. The case is quite as urgent, and every precaution pointed out in that disease should be adopted in this. The condition of the bladder should be ascertained at an early stage of the disease. If much distended, gentle manipulation and pressure per rectum may evacuate it, if there be no obstruction from calculus, or unless the neck of the cyst is inflamed or spasmodically contracted. If this fails the fluid must be evacuated by means of the catheter. If the disease be due to the presence of calculi, nothing but an operation promptly per- formed can give relief. 79-3. Inflammation of the Neck of the Bladder. Inflammation of the neck is more common than inflammation of the body of the bladder. Its prominent symptom is retention of the uriiiu on account of the inflamed condition of the orifice through which it ought to pass. Though the neck is principally concerned, yet the inflammation affects more or less the remainder of the organ. The treatment of the inflammatory attack is much the same as has 383 CHAPTEE 55. been detailed above in reference to nephritis. But in addition to such treatment, it will probably be necessary to relieve the retention of the urine by other means. Those means and also the chief signs of retention of the urine will be detailed in the succeeding paragraphs. 796. Retention of the Urine. In the majority of colic cases the patient suffers temporarily from retention of the urine, owing to spasm of the neck of the bladder. But, otherwise, the disease is not common in the horse. It may, however, arise from inflammation of the neck of the bladder, or from calculi in some of the urinary passages, or from want of tone, or from the bladder becoming over-distended with urine, or from any cause producing functional derangement of the nerves supplying the muscular coat of the bladder with nervous force, as may sometimes happen when horses are driven a long distance without stopping, sometimes from fatigue — as in hunters, or in the case of animals which will not stale out of their own stables, lletention may also take place in peritonitis, on account of the pain which it gives the animal to use the abdominal muscles in expelling the urine, and also in tetanus. In some cases, espe- cially in prolonged diseases, retention is caused by an accumulation of debris and dirt about the orifice of the urethra. 797. Symptoms. The symptoms of retention of the urine are great uneasiness, distress and anxiety of countenance, colic pains and straining. The pulse is not at first much affected ; but if relief is not soon obtained, it becomes quick and hard, and ultimately imperceptible. The patient will frequently stand stretched out as in the act of straining to void urine. lie will lie down and rise frequently. Clammy sweats will break out over him. In the last stage the pulse will entirely sink, and the animal may have a little ease before dissolution takes place. In the early stage any doubt as to the nature of the affection may be removed by putting the hand up the rectum and feeling the bladder. 798. Treatment. The making up of the bedding and shaking about fresh straw often creates a desire and attempt to pass urine, and the effort may be success- ful. The steady pressure of the hand passed through the anus on the fundus of the bladder will often cause the urine to be discharged. Clys- ters will often assist in producing this effect. Hand rubbing of the belly is also beneficial. In those cases, which arise from an accumulation of dirt and debris about the orifice of the urethra, a thorough washing will often be found sufficient. If these means are not successful in producing evacuation of the con- tents of the bladder, a catheter must be used, or the animal may die from irritation, or the bladder may burst. In a mare the catheter is easily passed, but in the horse the operation requires care and dexterity. The DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 389 penis will usually be found retracted. The hand, being well oiled, must iirst be passed up the sheath, and the penis must be grasped and gradu- ally brought forward, and held by an assistant. A flexible catheter, well oiled, should then be introduced and gradually pushed forward, and, when its point reaches the perineum, it should be guided forward and inwards by gentle pressure with the lingers. If an obstruction, such as a calculus exists, it must, if possible, be re- moved by gentle manipulation. An endeavour made to direct it into the urethra and to guide it forward. If very small, it may perhaps be ex- pelled, by the force of the urine, or it may be gradually manipulated forward, and then possibly extracted with a small forceps from the point of the penis. If, however, it is of any size, it will not pass the curvature of the urethra, and then can only be removed by an operation. Hydro- chloric acid given twice a day in doses of two drachms in a pint of water will in some cases, where the calculus is small or in small fragments, or where no urgent symptoms are present, be successful in dissolving the concretion.- 799. After-treatment. In all the above cases, the after-treatment consists in careful avoidance of the causes, which may have induced the attack, in good nursing, spare diet, and the administration of tonics. Especial care must be taken that the animal be not subjected, for some time at least, to exposure or over- hard work. 800. Bloody Urine. Bloody Urine may arise from inflammation of the mucous lining of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethral canal; or from sympathy with in- flammation arising from sprain of the muscles in the neighbourhood of the kidneys. It may also be due to an escape of the colouring matter of the blood, without any inflammation being present. Careful chemical and microscopical examination of the urine will assist in correctly diagnos- ing these obscure cases. The general treatment in such cases is rest and laxative diet, especially grass. Linseed tea should also be given. More rarely this disease arises from weakness of the urinary organs, and must then be treated by the administration of tonics. Half a drachm each of nitric and muriatic acid with half an ounce to one ounce of the tincture of gentian, or half a pint of the infusion daily will answer exceedingly well. Some Veterinarians prefer to give diluted sulphuric acid in doses of a drachm three times a day. Bloody Urine is a somewhat uncommon disease in the horse. Covering stallions, however, sometimes suffer from it, probably on account of the amount of stimulants often given them by their care-takers. In hot countries, it is very common among horses in high condition for the urine to be deeply stained. This is not due to the presence of blood, but to an excess of colouring matter, the result of functional derangement of the liver. A simple laxative will in such cases invariably effect a cure. 800 CHAPTER 55. 801. Diuresis, or Excessive Staling. For the sake of convenience we have grouped this affection along with diseases of the Kidneys and Bladder; but in diuresis the urinary appa- ratus is not in reality diseased; there is only excessive action of the organs, due to derangement of the digestive functions, or to an abnormal condition of the blood. Diuresis, or excessive staling, of very clear urine, produces great pros- tration of strength, and may, if neglected, end fatally. More often, however, if not relieved, it brings on such a deteriorated state of the system that some* acute disease supervenes and carries off the patient. 802. Symptoms. The principal symptom, other than excessive staling, is extreme thirst. The horse drinks readily and greedily, and if he be not indulged will refuse his food. The skin is dry, and the coat is rough and staring. The digestion is generally out of order, and the bowels are torpid. The appetite is capricious, depraved and impaired. From the prostration induced the horse sweats easily and is incapable of much exertion, and falls away rapidly in condition. 803. Causes. The causes of this disease are various. Most frequently they are con- nected with the use of bad forage. Mow-burnt or mouldy hay, and kiln- dried oats are especially apt to produce it by reason of their diuretic effect on the kidneys. The water in particular localities sometimes also affects these organs. More rarely it occurs as a sequel of any glandular disease such as strangles, or of any derangement of the organs of diges- tion. In some cases it may be traced to the frequent use of " condition balls," a main constituent of which is often nitre or turpentine, which act as stimulants on the kidneys, and by their irritating action cause con- tinual and excessive function of those organs. Diuresis must not be confounded with that simple augmentation in the amount of urine, which may arise from a multitude of causes, some of them alimentary, and others of a nervous character. Such augmentation when only temporary, must not be viewed in the light of disease. Change in the food, for instance, often affects the secretion. Thus, if a horse be put on tares, the urine will not only be increased, but will become whitish and show a great deal of sediment. 804. Treatment. The treatment must necessarily vary according to the cause from which the disease proceeds in each particular instance. If the forage is in fault, it will probably be sufficient to change it. In all cases, however, a change of food is beneficial. Grass, whenever it can be procured, should be given. THE LIVER. 891 If, in addition to flip pauses described above, the organs of digestion, as is frequently the case, are also 'out of order, laxative diet, with linseed tea, in lieu of water, and a slight dose of linseed oil, will be useful. If the animal will not take linseed tea freely, he must be allowed water. If the water which he has been drinking is hard, it should be exposed to the sun and air for a considerable period, or boiled. Clay mixed with the water given to drink sometimes acts most beneficially. Iodide of potassium and iodine have a very marked and beneficial effect in this disease. Of the former one drachm, or of the latter half a drachm, may be given daily. Iodide of iron in doses of one drachm daily also answers well. Iodine and its compounds should be given be- tween meals. If given immediately before or after a meal, it combines with the starchy matters of the food, and is rendered comparatively inert. Lastly, if the horse has been dosed with condition balls, they must be discontinued. As great prostration accompanies this disease, a liberal diet should be allowed. In addition to good sweet oats pale malt and boiled peas may be given. High dried nialt is very objectionable, as it acts on the urinary organs. If the disease continues for a length of time, the patient will lose condition, and in such cases vegetable and mineral tonics will be needed. In most cases, with proper management and attention, the attack will pass off in a few days ; but great care must be taken to guard against recurrence of the cause which produced it. The disease in general is only serious when neglected. CHAPTER 56. THE LIVER. 805. Situation and Functions of the Liver. 806. Diseases of the Liver. 807. Causes of temporary Functional derangements. 808. Symptoms of slight derangements. 809. Treatment. 810. Congestion of the Liver. 811. Treatment. 812. Inflammation of the Liver. Acute Hepatitis. 813. Treatment. 814. Organic disease of the Liver. 815. Treatment. 805. Situation and Functions of the Liver. The Liver is the largest gland in the body. The greater part of it is situated within the short ribs on the right side. A small portion lies on the left side, and also in the epigastrium. The outer covering of the liver is derived from the peritoneum, within which is a cellulo-vascular lining, called the capsule of Glisson. The chief function of the Liver is the secretion of bile, a yellow, alksi- 392 CHAPTER 56. line, soapy fluid. From the liver the bile passes directly into the intes- tines. The horse is not furnished, as are many other animals, with a gall-bladder. Unlike most secretions, bile is elaborated chiefly from the venous blood. Mixing with the partially digested food, it hastens its solution, and adapts it for absorption into the system. By some it is thought also to stimu- late the intestinal linings to increased secretion of their solvent fluids. The bile poured into the intestines is nearly all taken up again by the absorbents before the fasces arrive at the anus. The secretion of the Liver is increased by rich abundant food, by indolence, by heated stables, also by mercury, any preparation of ammonia, mineral acids, and by purgatives generally. Conversely it is diminished by light diet, strong exercise in the open air, cool stables, compounds of iodine administered internally, and by carbonate of soda given whilst the process of digestion is going on. 806. Diseases of the Liver. The Liver, though subject to frequent derangement in man and also in some of the lower animals, is comparatively seldom diseased functionally or organically in the horse. Its diseases may be divided into two classes, namely, temporary func- tional derangements, such as inactivity, congestion, and inflammation ; and secondly, organic structural changes, such as enlargement, atrophy, softening, and induration. The first named ordinarily result from pre- ventible causes, such as excess of food, want of proper exercise, or expo- sure to vicissitudes of temperature or weather. The latter are seldom primary affections ; but as a general rule result from other diseases, such as influenza, inflammation of the lungs and pleurae, etc. 807. Causes of temporary Functional Derangements. Inactivity, often followed by. congestion, is frequently caused by excess of food, especially if it be of a stimulating character combined with in- sufficient exercise. The liver becomes loaded with bile, and this condi- tion is afterwards succeeded by a diminution of the quantity of this secre- tion formed in the hepatic cells. This is in conformity with the usual rule of nature that, when any organ is put to excessive use for a time, reaction follows. The horse then becomes hide-bound and debilitated. In many cases the appetite falls oft7, but in others the patient may feed even ravenously. He will not however thrive until the organ again re- sumes its normal function.. Congestion may also be brought on by a sudden chill or exposure. In London and other large towns it is very prevalent in densely foggy weather, owing to the systemic depression thereby produced and the impurity of the blood from its imperfect revivi- fication in the lungs. A state of passive congestion may exist for a length of time without any very noticeable symptoms. On the other hand inflammation may supervene on the congestion, whether arising from previous inactivity, or THE LIVER. 393 from chill, or exposure. In very acute cnscs the period of congestion may l>e so short as to escape notice. 808. Symptoms of slight derangements. Slight derangement of the Liver is often indicated by irregularity of the appetite. The animal feeds well one day and will not feed the next. The skin is rough, dry, harsh, and itchy, and the mucous membranes are yellowish in colour, owing to retention in the blood of the material which should have been formed into bile, or from re-absorption of the bile due to some obstruction in its proper channel. 809. Treatment. A little saline medicine, or some slight purgative followed by more careful feeding and proper exercise, or half a drachm of calomel with a little ginger every day for three or four days, will generally effect a cure. The derangement is often spontaneously relieved by a slight attack of diarrhoea. 810. Congestion of the Liver. If the slight symptoms indicated above are neglected, and the derange- ment is allowed to continue for a length of time, — or in other cases without any such premonitory symptoms, Congestion (often followed by inflammation) may take place in the organ. The attack, however, generally comes on gradually. The animal is dull and indisposed to move ; the appetite fails and the bowels become disordered ; the eye and mucous membranes assume a more decidedly yellowish tint ; and the faeces are hard, scanty, light coloured, and foetid. Great uneasiness is evinced on the application of pressure to the right hypochondriac region. The breathing in general is not much affected, but there are frequent fits of blowing, and there is also a hollow cough. The pulse is full, soft, and compressible. The tenderness arising from a diseased state of the liver often causes the animal to favour his right fore-leg in action. 811. Treatment. In Congestion of the liver, the bowels must be acted on from time to time, according to the strength of the patient, by purgatives ; and such agents should be used as will in addition specially affect the liver, and cause an increased flow of bile. With this view saline purgatives, such as four ounces of Epsom salts, may be administered once or twice a day ; or calomel may be given in doses of thirty grains with two drachms of extract of gentian daily, until the congestion is relieved. Fomentations followed by mustard rubbed occasionally over the region of the liver have often a marked effect in relieving the congestion. The diet should be sparing in quantity, easy of digestion, and somewhat laxative. In the later stages, when the strength begins to fail, tonics may be 394 CHAPTER 56. given. None answer better than half a drachm each of nitric and hydro- chloric acid in a pint of water with one ounce of tincture of gentian, or half a pint of the infusion. 812. Inflammation of the Liver. Acute Hepatitis. If the congestion runs into Inflammation, the pulse will become hard, quick, and small, and the usual symptoms of fever will be present. Pain will be felt, if pressure be applied to the right side just behind the saddle place, but the pain is not great, because the parts are soft and capable of swelling. If the attack is not checked, the faeces usually become clay-like in colour and consistency. The dryness, itchiness, and yellow tint of the skin increase, and the unhealthy, rough, arid staring appearance of the coat is more marked. The glands about the throat and other parts of the body sometimes become enlarged. The animal rapidly loses condition. Occasionally severe diarrhoea supervenes and complicates the symptoms. Ascites, or dropsy of the belly, is a common sequel of the attack. The liver is also occasionally, though but rarely, subject to sudden acute attacks of Inflammation. This disease is known as Acute Hepatitis. The horse becomes dull and moping, and probably coughs occasionally. He hangs his head, his eye droops, and he loathes his food. He seems to suffer from inward pain, but not of a severe kind. He has not lain down during the previous night, the dung balls are small and dark coloured, the urine is scanty, the mouth is hot, and the animal is feverish. The fever runs on, and the inner side of the lips, cheeks, tongue, and the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes are tinged with yellow colour accompanied with a pasty state of the mouth with a rather sour smell. If blood be abstracted, the serum will be of a golden hue. The dung balls are tinged or perhaps deeply stained with bile, and often encased in viscid mucous matter. The urine is of a yellow colour with a copious sediment. The patient lies down occasionally, looks at his side, rises again, and occasionally walks round the box in a circle to the right. This is a common symptom in acute hepatitis. If the right side bo pressed upon, he will flinch, or perhaps bite, arid show signs of tender- ness. The pulse becomes quick, strong, and bounding, the breathing is dis- turbed and short. The patient appears dull and stupid and often sinks into a lethargic state, or he may stagger in his walk. In either of these attacks, if the symptoms are not soon relieved, the case may end in rupture of the liver. 813. Treatment. Both in Inflammation of the liver and in the cognate affection Acute Hepatitis, no time must be lost in attacking the disease. In most cases in the early stage a dose of aloes should be administered. By this cathar- tic the overloaded condition of the bowels will be relieved. Warm fomentations should be applied to the region of the liver, as recommended THE LIVER. 395 for acute nephritis, followed l>y ammonia liniment or an application of mustard. The diet should consist of grass, carrots, bran mashes, etc. As soon as the more acute symptoms are abated iodide of potassium may be given in one drachm doses daily, combined with gentian and ginger. The effect of this medicine is to diminish the action of the liver. During the acute attack calomel should not be administered, because it is an excitant to the glandular structures. In the after, or chronic stage, it is highly useful, and tends again to excite the organ to proper secretion. 814. Organic diseases of the Liver. Organic disease of the Liver rarely occurs as a primary affection. It is usually a sequel of other diseases, especially of any diseases which pre- vent the free circulation of the blood through it. A state of hyperaemial congestion, or undue accumulation of blood in the capillary vessels, is the usual commencement of almost all structural disease. This congestion may arise from any affection which interferes with the passage of the blood into the pulmonary artery, such, for in- stance, as inflammation of the lungs and pleura, influenza, peritonitis, any violent visceral inflammation, valvular disease of the heart, or disease of the pericardium. Enlargement of the liver to a great size, and softening of its structure, often follows low typhoid affections. It is also common in old cart horses. On the other hand, atrophy sometimes occurs, and the organ dwindles down to half its proper size. In some cases the Liver takes on a scirrhous or indurated state, and ceases in a great measure to perform its functions. Ordinary congestion of the liver, especially when it has become chronic, sometimes leads to enlargement and softening of the organ, known as hypertrophy of the Liver. It is most often seen in very fat horses, such for instance as brewers' and millers', or in pampered animals, such as gentlemen's carriage horses, which have not sufficient exercise. The liver slowly and gradually augments in size, sometimes with no sign of ill health about the animal, until it suddenly bursts its capsule, and death soon follows. The liver may also become the seat of tubercular and cancerous deposit. The bile ducts may likewise be obstructed by calculi, when the same symptoms are evinced as in congestion and inflammation. The existence of any such organic change, though its exact nature may not be discoverable during life, is indicated-*— but often only very obscurely — by the same symptoms as those previously described under the head of temporary functional derangements. Accidents, such as a heavy fall on one side, may occasion rupture of the organ, when death will rapidly ensue. 815. Treatment. In the early stages of organic disease of the Liver, there is often great difficulty in diagnosing it. There is frequently only a passive state of 396 CHAPTER 57. congestion. If diagnosed, the treatment will be the same as that recom- mended for congestion. In extreme cases of hypertrophy, an external enlargement is not unfrequently observed. Percussion may aid in form- ing a correct opinion. In many cases however the disease creeps on insensibly to a very serious extent without any well-marked symptoms. When any change of structure has taken place complete restoration is not to be expected ; but the further progress of the disease may often be checked for a length of time by keeping the bowels moderately open by means of saline laxatives, careful feeding, and exercise. The iodide of potassium and carbonate of soda are useful in reducing the excessive action of the organ. Tonics are also beneficial in assisting it to regain its tone. CHAPTER 57. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 816. Introduction. 817. Shape and size of the Eye. 818. Older cover- ings or Coats. 819. Cornea. 820. Sclerotic or outer Coat. 821. Choroid or middle Coat. 822. Retina or inner lining. 823. Conjunctiva! Mem- brane. 824. Interior structures of the Eye. 825. Aqueous humor. 826. Vitreous Humor. 827. Crystalline Lens. 828. Iris. 829. Corpora Nigra. 830. Optic nerve. 831. Other nerves of the Eye. 832. Arteries of the Eye. 833. Appendages of the Eye. 834. Eyelids. 835. Eye-lashes. 836. Tears. 837. Muscles of the Eye. The Retractor oculi. 838. Membrana Nictitans or Haw. 839. Nature and seat of the Diseases of the Eye. 840. Common Ophthalmia. 841. Symptoms. 842. Treatment. 843. Specific Ophthalmia. 844. Nature of Specific Ophthalmia. 845. Causes. 846. Treatment. 847. Cataracts. 848. Examination of the Eye for Cataract. 849. Lenticular Cataract. 850. Capsular Cataract. 851. Capsulo- lenticular or Interstitial Cataract. 852. Absorption of Cataracts. 853. Degree of injury to vision caused by true Cataract. 854. No cure for true Cataract. 855. Spurious Cataracts. 856. Amaurosis. 857. Causes. 858. Treatment. 859. Gutta Serena. 860. Minor diseases of the Eye and its appendages. 861. Lacerations of the Eyelids. 862. Diseases of the Lachrymal passages. 8.63. Shying. 863a. Worm in the Eye. 816. Introduction. Before treating of the diseases of the Eye it will be necessary to give some slight description of the principal structures of the organ and of their functions. Without such description it would be scarcely possible to make intelligible to the unprofessional reader the diseases of the Eye DISEASES OF THE EYE. 897 and their causes, or the treatment required in the various cases. As far as possible all minute anatomical description will be avoided. 817. Shape and size of the Eye. The Eye is nearly globular, except at its anterior part, which, probably for the purpose of better converging the rays of light, is more convex. The size of the eye is nearly the same in all horses. Any apparent difference arises chiefly from the depth at which it is placed in its socket in different animals. 818. Outer coverings or Coats. The outer surface of the anterior portion of the eye is formed by the Cornea. The remainder of the globe is invested by three coats, — namely the Sclerotic or fibrous outer coat, the Choroid or vascular middle coat, and the nervous or inner lining called the lletina. ai9. The Cornea. The cornea covers about one fifth of the globe of the eye. It is firm in substance, elastic, and capable of resisting considerable pressure, and therefore well calculated to protect the eye from external injury ; whilst its perfect transparency allows the free passage of light through it to the interior. In form it is convex, so as to act as a lens for transmitting the rays of light. The cornea consists of two layers, but is denser in the centre than on the sides. By this arrangement greater converging power is gained, and better protection is also afforded to the more exposed parts. Its struc- ture is laminated, and its anterior surface is covered with the epithelial part of the conjunctival membrane. There are no blood vessels in the cornea itself, only nutrient canals; — but the conjunctival layer under inflammation becomes very vascular. This is the only layer of the Cornea which is sensitive. The posterior or inner layer is epithelial. 820. The Sclerotic or outer coat. The Sclerotic or outer coat is composed of white fibrous tissue inter- woven in every direction. Its use is to give strength to the globe, and it also serves to give attachment to the various muscles which move the eyeball. It is itself loosely invested by a very fine tunic called the vagi- imlis, which allows the eye more easily to glide over the soft cushion of fat on which it rests. 821. The Choroid or middle coat. The Choroid or middle coat is highly vascular and supplies the nutri- ment required by the internal structures. It is covered with a brown pigment, except at its upper back part, which is invested by a bright green pigment, termed the tapetum lucidum. This peculiarity is found in all animals intended to see in a diminished light. 398 CHAPTER 57. 822. The Retina or inner lining. The Retina or inner lining is mostly composed of a soft pulpy expansion of the optic nerve, covering the interior surface of the globe. It is the essential part of the organ of vision. The nerve enters by a foramen at the inner and posterior part of the eye. The principal artery, which supplies the internal parts of the eye, also enters through the same foramen. 823. The Conjundival Membrane. To the above three coats may be added a fourth, called the Conjunc- tiva, which has been alluded to above. It is a thin delicate mucous membrane covering the anterior portion of the sclerotic coat, the inner surface of the eyelids, and the margins of the cornea. Its epithelial layer is continued over the rest of the cornea. Its name is derived from its connecting the exterior parts of the eye and the eyelids. 824. Interior Structures of the Eye. The interior structures of the eye consist of three humors, namely the Aqueous, Vitreous, and Crystalline. 825. The Aqueous Humor. The Aqueous humor consists of clear slightly saline watery fluid which fills up the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens. In this humor the free border of the Iris floats. The space occupied by the aqueous humor in front of the iris is termed the anterior, while that in the rear of it is termed the posterior chamber of the eye. This humor is secreted by an extremely fine membrane, which everywhere lines the wall of these chambers. It forms a liquid medium in which the iris can float and carry on its peculiar duties, hereafter to be detailed. It also assists in maintaining the convexity of the globe, whilst by its transpar- ency it readily permits the passage of the rays of light to the retina. 826. The Vitreous humor. The Vitreous humor is a transparent fluid contained in innumerable cells, formed by the hyaloid membrane. In appearance it resembles jelly. It lies posterior to the aqueous humor and crystalline lens, and fills up the remainder or about four fifths of the bulk of the ocular globe. 827. The Crystalline Lens. The Crystalline humor or Lens, so called from its form and high re- fracting power is a circular biconvex body, having its greater convexity on the posterior side, highly transparent and of firm consistence, im- bedded behind the iris and immediately between the aqueous and vitreous humors. It is enclosed within a capsule of its own, and is connected with DISEASES OF THE EYE. 399 it by a fine tissue, which quickly undergoes decomposition after death and forms the liquor Morgagni. It is held in its situation by attachments formed from the circumfer- ence of its capsule to the zonula ciliaris, which latter is the thin mem- brane prolonged from the vascular portion of the retina. It is supported in its position anteriorly by the aqueous humor, and posteriorly by the vitreous humor, contained within the hyaloid membrane. The exceed- ingly thin membrane at the anterior surface of the lenticular capsule is a part of the membrane that secretes the aqueous humor. In structure the Lens is rather soft externally, but increases in density towards its centre. It is composed of concentric lamellae, which can be easily separated from each other by immersion in boiling water or alcohol. These lamella, when separating, split into three portions on the back and front ; and the edge of the line of junction is serrated. The Lens is supposed to be nourished on the principle of endosmose and exosmose through these serrated edges. The structure of the capsule of the Lens is identical with that of the cornea elastica ; and like that membrane, it rolls up upon itself, when a portion of it is removed. It retains its transparency when immersed in spirit or macerated. It is composed of chondrine, a substance almost analogous to cartilage. From its shape, density, and perfect transparency, the Crystalline Lens acts on the rays of light entering the eye in the same manner as an ordinary artificial lens. It is the chief agent in producing the impression of an object on the retina, or expansion of the optic nerve. The question of the passage and refraction of light through various media is in itself exceedingly interesting ; but any detailed consideration of this subject would be foreign to the scope of this work. The reader, if he wishes to pursue the inquiry, will find every information in works on the human eye. No blood-vessels, nerves, or arteries have as yet been discovered in the lens. Yet we know that it must be organized, because it undergoes the phenomena of growth and morbid changes. The manner in which it is supposed to be nourished has been stated above. The Lens does not, however, appear to have any diseases of its own ; but it suffers from diseases of neighbouring structures in various ways, as will be hereafter described. 828. The Iris. The Iris is a loose movable curtain floating in the aqueous humor. In structure it is muscular and vascular. It is attached at its outer margin only to the sclerotic coat and cornea by the ciliary ligament. As mentioned above, it divides the space containing the aqueous humor into two portions or chambers. The action of the muscular fibres of the Iris is involuntary. The agent which controls and affects its nerves, and through them its muscles, is Light. In a strong light the pupillary open- ing is more or less diminished through contraction of the circular order of the fibres of the Iris. When the stimulus of light is removed, the muscles of the radiatiny order of fibres again come into play, and then 400 CHAPTER 57. according to these circumstances the pupillary opening is proportionately enlarged. The opening in the centre of the Iris is called the pupil. Though circular in man, it is transversely oblong in the horse and in many other animals intended to seek safety in flight. The diameter of the pupil, or opening formed by the iris, varies, as explained above, in an inverse ratio to the amount of light to which the eye is exposed. The colour of the iris varies in different horses, but it is always bril- liant. Its posterior surface, called the uvea, is in most cases brown or nearly black. In wall-eyed horses this pigment is partly wanting, whilst in albino or cream-coloured animals it is altogether absent. The iris is highly endued with nerves, in order to give it due suscepti- bility to the ever-varying degrees of light to which the eye is subject. It is also furnished with arteries, veins, and absorbents. From its situation, structure, and office of regulating the amount of light admitted to the retina, from its connections with most of the opera- tions of the organ of vision, and from its diseases, the iris is a structure of great importance. 829. The Corpora nigra. The Corpora nigra are little black pigmentary globular bodies, belong- ing to the uvea or posterior lining of the iris and attached to its margin, to which they fonii a kind of fringe. Three or four hang down from the upper border of the iris, and usually one or two are attached to the lower margin. Their use, as indicated by their colour, appears to be to absorb and modify the rays of light entering the eye. They may be said to be auxiliaries to the iris to some extent, and perhaps partly supply the want of eyebrows in the horse. 830. The Optic nerve. The Optic nerve, which is given off directly from- the brain, enters the eye by a round cribriform aperture at the inner inferior and posterior part of the globe. Its expansion forms the chief part of the retina. 831. Other nerves of the Eye. The various structures of the eye are, as we might suppose, very highly endued with nervous power. The chief peculiarity of its nervous system is the intimate connection between the two eyes. Each part of each eye is supplied with branches of the nerve which supplies the correspond- ing part of the other eye. Hence in amaurosis in one eye the pupil may contract, when the other eye, which is not so affected, is exposed to a strong light. The retina of the blind eye of course does not feel the effect of the light, but its iris is moved in connection with the motion of the iris of the other eye, which does feel the effect of the light, but not quite to the same extent. Hence also disease of the internal structures, such as specific ophthalmia in one eye, is apt to affect the other eye ; and DISEASES OF THE EYE. 401 to a lesser degree, even in affections arising from external causes, one eye generally sympathises to a certain extent with the other. 832. Arteries of the Eye. The internal structures of the eye are supplied with blood by the oph- thalmic artery, which enters by a foramen at the back of the globe. From the fact that the internal structures of the eye are wholly sup- plied by a deep-seated artery entering at its posterior part, it is plain that local bleeding can have little or no effect in specific ophthalmia and other diseases of the internal structures. 833. Appendages of the Eye. The principal appendages of the eye are the eyelids ; the lachrymal glands, which secrete fluid for its lubrication ; the lachrymal ducts, which carry off these secretions ; the muscles which move the eye and its various appendages ; the nerves, which affect those muscles ; a mass or cushion of adipose membrane or fat, on which the globe of the eye rests ; and lastly, the membrana nictitans or haw. 834. The Eyelids. The Eyelids form a sort of curtain, by means of which the horse closes at will the anterior aperture of the orbit. They are made up of skin, muscular fibre, cartilage, mucous membrane, and glands. The corners of the eyelids, where they meet, are termed canthi. The skin of the eyelid is peculiarly thin and delicate. The interior is lined with conjunctival membrane. Its glands, termed the meibomian, are very numerous, and secrete an oily material which prevents the lids from adhering to each other or to the cornea. The size of the aperture between the eyelids varies in different horses. In some a greater, in others a less portion of the globe is exposed to view. 835. The Eye-lashes. The Eye-lashes grow from the anterior margins of the lids. A distinct branch of the nerve is supplied to each bulb, from which a hair grows. Hence the eye-lashes are exceedingly sensitive. 836. The Tears. The Lachrymal glands are situated in a depression in the outer and upper angle of the orbit. Under certain circumstances, such as the irri- tation of foreign bodies, various deep-seated inflammatory affections, or recent inflammation of the conjunctival membrane or of any of the ex- ternal tunics, the glands are excited to increased action, and the surface of the eye is washed by a more than usually copious amount of saline watery secretion. When the ordinary channel is unable to carry off this secretion fast enough, it is poured over the lower lid and is then recog- nised as tears. 9ft 402 CHAPTER 57. In n state of health there. is always a slight secretion from the lachry- mal glands, which is carried along and conveyed away by two small canals into the lachrymal sac at the inner canthtis of the eye, and thence by means of a duct into the nose. This duct has been sometimes mistaken for the ulcer of glanders. 837. Muscles of tlie Eye. The Retractor oculi. The muscles of the eye, as we might expect in a part so sensitive and so rapid in its motions, are both numerous and powerful. None however call for any special remark, except the Retractor oculi. Owing to the great strength of this muscle the horse possesses in a peculiar degree the power of withdrawing at will the eye into its orbit. This power is greatly assisted by the fact of the eye resting posteriorly on the cushion or bed of semi-fluid fat mentioned above, which on the application of pressure yields very rapidly and thereby admits of easy retraction of the eye. The displacement of this body also causes the haw or membrana nictitans to come forward over the eye. 838. The Membrana nictitans or Haw. The Membrana nictitans or Haw, which is situated in the inner corner of the eye, constitutes a very marked peculiarity of that organ in the horse. " The haw has two principal uses, first, by moving backwards and forwards it wipes off the dust or other extraneous particles which may lodge on the surface of the eye ; and, secondly, by protruding forward when the eye is drawn back on the approach of danger, it guards the cornea to a certain degree from any accidental blow. Its motion may be said to be involuntary, because it is forced over the eye mainly by the withdrawal of that organ into its socket. This peculiarity of structure renders it very difficult to perform on the eye of the horse many of those delicate operations which are so useful in human surgery for the relief of various ocular diseases. With some trouble however the eye may be got at. The operator must frequently touch or threaten to touch the eye ; and though for some time it will be drawn back at each threat, yet at last the retractor muscle will be wearied out and certain operations may then be performed. This practice is adopted with success in India in cases of worm in the eye. Of late years chloroform and cocaine have been used in operations on the eye. 839. Nature and seat of the Diseases of the Eye. By the nature of its organisation, by its office and situation, and by its connections with other parts of the system, the eye is exposed to numerous external "and internal causes of disease. The diseases of the eye may be divided into two great classes ; namely, those which result from external influences, and those arising from con- stitutional causes. Most, but not all of the diseases of the eye, whether resulting from the one or the other classes of causes, are of an inflamma- tory character. DISEASES OP THE EYE. 403 ft40. HAW, COMMON OPHTHALMIA, AND CONJUNCTIVITIS. Of diseases resulting from external causes common Ophthalmia or inflammation of the conjunctiva is the most frequent. It usually has its origin in some casual injury, or from the presence of some foreign body. Atmospheric causes are an occasional but not very common source of this disease. Most of those cases, which may seem at first sight to arise from atmospheric causes, will be found to be merely an extension to the eye of inflammation already existing in the membrane of the nose. 841. Symptoms. The first noticeable symptom is the closing of the eye, accompanied by a profusion of tears. Unless the seat of injury is wholly external, and therefore at once apparent, the eye should be examined. Here however we at once meet with some difficulty. The animal closes his eyelids firmly. He is impatient of light. As soon as we attempt to separate the lids he withdraws his eye into the socket, and the haw is thereby pushed forwards and the tears flow profusely. A sharp rap of the hand on the neck will sometimes cause the animal to open his eye, and an opportunity to examine it will then be afforded. If this device fails, the hand should be laid steadily on the brow with the thumb resting on the margin of the upper lid. The thumb must be kept quietly and firmly on the lid, until the retractor muscle ceases to act violently, and then the lid should be gently pushed upwards, and the index finger of the other hand may at the same time draw down the lower lid. A disturbed state of the blood-vessels and a reddened hue of the con- junctival membrane will probably be noticed. Possibly on further exa- mination we may detect a wound of the cornea, such as that inflicted by a whip or by a bite from another, horse. If however there is no such wound, the chances are that some foreign body, such as a hay seed, has lodged on the eye. The seat of such lodgment is generally under the tipper eyelid. In such cases the removal of the foreign body is of course the primary requisite. The upper eyelid is easily everted with a little tact by pressing against its outer surface with a blunt probe or some such instrument, and turning the margin of the eyelid upwards and inwards at the same time. Foreign bodies seldom lodge on the cornea, because the action of the haw, aided by the flow of tears which are at once effused, speedily carries them away. Although blows over the eye or upon it are not usually productive of dangerous symptoms, yet we occasionally find disastrous results. Con- cussion of the retina may take place from the effect of a violent blow on the eye, and may be followed by temporary or permanent amaurosis. Again, the humors of the eye may be lost ; or the rupture may be internal, and we may then have an escape of blood into the anterior chamber of the eye ; or the ciliary margin of the iris may lose its connec- tion, and may afterwards by process of adhesive inflammation become attached to some adjacent structure ; or there may bo displacement of the crystalline lens, which may be driven into the vitreous humor, or it may fall forward into the anterior chamber. When the blow is so violent 404 CHAPTER 57. that the cornea is lacerated and penetrated, there is but little chance of a cure, because the retractor oculi muscle acts so strongly, that the lens is usually forced out. Common Ophthalmia, that is, inflammation of the conjunctival mem- brane, often accompanies catarrh and influenza and also dentition. In these cases however the affection is only sympathetic and subsides with the primary disease. The inflammation of the membrane is only an extension of the inflammation previously existing in the neighbouring mucous membrane of the nose or gums. Inflammation of the conjunctival membrane seldom appears as a sepa- rate disease. When it cannot be traced either to some external injury or to sympathy with a previously existing affection, such as catarrh or influenza, it should be looked upon with great suspicion lest it should be the prelude of specific ophthalmia. In common ophthalmia the cornea from the effect of the inflammation sometimes appears blue, but in other cases it remains clear and bright. The size of the pupil, it is to be particularly remarked, is seldom dimin- ished, whilst in the specific disease this symptom is always present. Again, in common ophthalmia there is a state of general suffusion and redness about the cornea ; whilst in the specific disease the vessels which traverse the palpebral portion of the conjunctival membrane investing the cornea take a circular direction round it with ramifications proceed- ing towards its centre. 842. Treatment of common ophthalmia. The treatment of common ophthalmia, when it arises from slight ex- ternal injuries, is simple. If due to the presence of a foreign agent this must be removed in the manner before directed. The patient should be placed in a diminished light, and his head should be tied up to the rack to prevent his rubbing his eye against the manger. This position also will accelerate the return of the blood from the part affected, and retard its upward flow. In the early stage fomentations of wann water are desirable, but as soon as the active inflammation has subsided, cold water dressings should be substituted. The parts will need bracing up in order to restore their usual healthy tone. The eye should be shaded by a single fold of softest linen suspended from the brow band, and kept con- stantly wet with cold water. It should be taken off at night, or it will get dry and irritate the eye. If feverish symptoms appear, an alterative or cathartic dose will be advisable. These simple remedies will generally be found sufficient. For severe injuries, such as those mentioned in the preceding para- graph, little more can be done than to place nature in the most favourable condition to exert her restorative powers. It is sometimes desirable to abstract blood from the angular vein. The treatment of the external laceration or injury, as distinct from its effect on the eye, is the same as that of any other laceration or injury. Any very severe injury of the cornea or parts in its neighbourhood, whether arising from a blow or from irritation produced by a foreign DISEASES OP THE EYE. 405 body, occasionally results in partial or even in complete, though generally only temporary, opacity of that structure. This opacity is caused by the deposit left on the part by the results of inflammation. The deposit is indicated by a white fleecy appearance, and is usually situated between the conjunctival membrane a"nd the cornea, or in severe cases between the layers of the cornea. Under favorable circumstances the deposit will be removed in time by the ordinary operations of nature, but in aggravated cases it will probably be in some degree permanent. The best chance of removing it consists in the use of stimulants and astringents, with view of exciting the absorbents to increased action ; but these agents must be used with great caution. The after deposit must not be confounded with the general opacity of the cornea, which often accompanies the inflammation and generally sub- sides with it. In cases of redness of the eye, such as may occur from various causes, a lotion of one third of a grain of cocaine in six ounces of water will be found very beneficial. For exceedingly severe injuries, such as concussion of the retina, rup- ture of the internal blood-vessels, loss of proper connection of the iris, and displacement of the lens nothing can really be done. It will of course be advisable to use the remedies recommended above for reducing the in- flammation and placing the parts in as favorable a condition as possible. Partial or complete opacity will however be the result. Loss of the lens necessarily produces total blindness in the horse, though in man its loss may be partially supplied by glasses. These very severe accidental injuries are happily rare, because the violence is generally mitigated, as regards the eye, by the projection of the supra-orbital process and by the power which the horse possesses of drawing the eye far back into its orbit. For common ophthalmia, arising from or rather connected with catarrh and influenza, no treatment is necessary beyond cooling lotions and diminished light, as the disease is only sympathetic and usually subsides with the primary affection. In treating diseases of the eye we must always remember the great sympathy which exists between double organs, such as the eyes. Nothing is more common than to find that the eye, which was not at first affected, also becomes involved. 843. Specific Ophthalmia. Specific, otherwise variously termed Periodical, Constitutional, Heredi- tary ophthalmia, or moon blindness, is inflammation of the deep-seated tissues of the eye. In the very early stage many of the symptoms are the same as those of common ophthalmia. If, however, on examination we can discover no sufficient cause for the closing of the eye, such as an external wound or a catarrhal affection, there is always some reason to fear that the attack may be the Specific disease. As the treatment in the early stage is the 406 CHAPTER 57. same in either disease, we may wait patiently for the development of further symptoms. Sometimes the disease comes on slowly, at other times it gains ground rapidly. There is turgescence of the lids, a flow of tears, intolerance of light, and an inflamed state of the conjunctiva investing the outer margins of the cornea. As the above symptoms increase, the eye becomes some- what sunk in its socket by the action of the retractor oculi muscle, and at the same time the membrana nictjtans is brought partly forward over the eye. Then, there is a great redness of the conjunctival membrane, and blood-vessels appear in it, some of them running in a circular direc- tion and others radiating to a central point; there is also general dim- ness of the surface, and a copious flow of hot tears. These symptoms will soon be followed by the aqueous humour appearing thick and muddy, and by the iris losing its brilliancy. In very acute cases there soon occurs a deposit of lymph often tinged with blood, which fills up the anterior chamber of the eye, so that the state of the interior can no longer be seen; The lymph is the result of exudation from the inflamed vessels of the internal structures. When amendment is about to take place, the curtain of lymph gradu- ally falls down from the superior border of the anterior chamber, if it has been attached there, and we are then enabled to see what mischief has been going on within the eye. These changes, both for better and for worse, take place in a remarkably short space of time. We may find even after the first attack, that the iris is adherent to the capsule of the lens, or that cataract has commenced to form in the lens or in its capsule. But these marked effects do not usually appear until after several attacks. More generally we find no other trace of the attack than that the iris has lost in a very slight degree the brilliancy of its colour, the lens a little of its clearness, and that the pupil of the eye attacked is somewhat smaller than that of the other. A little opacity, varying more or less according to the virulence of the attack, is also left in the cornea, particularly round its margins. The iris also does not act quite so freely in the diseased as in the other eye, and hence the pupil is not kept quite so dilated as it ought to be. All these effects are due to the effused products of inflammation not being completely absorbed and carried away. In a first attack the patient usually recovers quickly after the disease begins to decline. These symptoms show clearly enough that the malady affects the deep- seated tissues. In common ophthalmia, on the contrary, the interior of the eye, except when the cornea itself is injured, seldom shows any alteration. The great peculiarity of Specific ophthalmia lies in its frequent remis- sions of intensity, as described above, and the almost certainty of future attacks. It is very common for the second attack to take place in the eye not first affected. This also shows plainly that the disease is con- stitutional, not local. The first, second, and third attacks may last from about ten days to a fortnight ; but as they become more frequent, their period of intensity is shorter. After each attack the structures within the DISEASES OF THE EYE. 407 eye will be found to have become more disorganised, until at last cataract, adhesion of the iris, or other disorganisation ensues, and the disease is then at an end. After the second attack there will be more or less haziness of the cornea, the iris will have lost its bright colour, .and the pupil will be con- tracted. The corpora nigra will be more pendulous, and will not show the usual jetty blackness ; or they may exhibit slight specks of opacity. After further attacks, the cornea will become so opaque that all within will appear cloudy and confused, except when the lymph clears away to a certain degree at eagh periodical intermission of the attack. We may then find the iris changed into a dark-looking substance, and the struc- tures visible through the pupil may have assumed a glassy green colour, or cataract may have commenced. The lids will become corrugated, and the eye generally will have a sunken " three-cornered look." The disease generally affects each eye alternately; but occasionally, when the primary attack is very virulent, cataract forms at once in the eye affected and the disease then ceases, while the other eye remains sound. Usually only one eye is affected at a time. It is very rare that both eyes are attacked simultaneously. Specific ophthalmia usually ends in cataract. As soon-as that process is well established, the inflammation generally leaves the eye and does not return. The force of the disease appears to have expended itself, but the formation of cataract nevertheless goes on. Occasionally the disease terminates even more destructively. The crystalline lens may escape from its capsule, and full forward and become attached to the cornea. Sometimes the margin of the iris is torn, and the iris may then hang ragged or may become adherent to the neighbouring structures. During the attacks the usual symptoms of fever as indicated by the pulse, by dryness of the mouth, and by constipation of the bowels and scantiness of urine, are present ; but the appetite singularly enough is seldom affected. The period of intermission between the first and second attacks varies from three weeks to three months or longer ; but succeeding attacks often follow more rapidly, until the sight is destroyed. Though after the first attack the eye may recover so completely that an ordinary person would not notice anything wrong, yet an experienced observer can always detect some trace, such as an unusual degree of pen- dulosity of the upper eyelid, a somewhat prominent haw, a little contrac- tion of the pupil, a slight appearance of gloom and sunkenness about the globe, and an increase of the depth of the white margin encircling the cornea, with, loss of pellucidity immediately round it. The animal is also shy about the head and suspicious of all around, especially on the side of the diseased eye. Each succeeding attack leaves increased traces of mischief. As soon as cataract has fully formed, the pupil, instead of being con- tracted as heretofore, becomes dilated, because tile eye is less sensitive or in severe cases wholly insensitive to light. The nature of cataract will be treated of hereafter. 408 CHAPTER 57. Such are the usual symptoms and course of the attacks. But the disease does not always progress in the violent way described. Specific ophthalmia may run its course and lenticular cataract may form without any outward or noticeable symptoms. The author has known several such cases among troop horses. It may seem, and it is undoubtedly very strange that a disease producing such destructive changes in an organ can occur without at some time or other giving rise to any noticeable out- ward local or constitutional symptoms ; but it is beyond question some- times the case. Iritis or inflammation of the iris seldom occurs as a separate disease. It is usually combined with inflammation of the other structures. 844. Nature of specific Ophthalmia. The disease, it will be seen, is inflammation of the internal structures of the eye. The opacity, which ensues whether in the lens itself or in its capsule, or in the aqueous humour, or in the cornea, is simply the result of the deposit of the exudations from the inflamed blood-vessels. This part of the subject will be referred to again under the head of Cataract. 845. Causes. Specific ophthalmia is commonly regarded as an hereditary disease. The author is not inclined to deny that it may arise directly from heredi- tary taint. Like begets like in most points of conformation, and the progeny of animals with constitutionally diseased eyes are likely enough to inherit the failing. There are also probably many animals with a slight, or very slight, hereditary taint, in which the active disease will be developed with a less amount of stable mismanagement than would produce it in other horses. But in such cases he believes that the predisposition is comparatively rarely developed except under the influence of some exciting cause. In support of this opinion he would urge, that in many years' experience he has but rarely known a case of specific ophthalmia among the troop horses. It is difficult to believe that all those horses can have been free from any taint or hereditary predisposition. Whether derived from hereditary taint or otherwise, Specific Oph- thalmia is clearly a constitutional rather than a local disease. In most cases the exciting cause seems to be a vitiated state of the blood pro- duced by any or many causes acting on the organ, especially if it be naturally weak, defective, or predisposed to disease. The ordinary ca,uses of such deterioration of the blood are no doubt foul air, sewer gas, neglect, and general bad stable management. Dark stables are also a predispos- ing cause. The structures of the eye become weakened by want of their natural stimulus, namely, light. Such are, in the author's opinion, the usual causes of specific oph- thalmia, where it prevails as an epizooty or even affects a small number of animals. This opinion is borne out by the fact that cases of specific ophthalmia are rare in comparison to what they were in past years, when DISEASES OF THE EYE. 409 sanitary laws were indifferently applied to stable management. But isolated cases occurring where the stable management is undoubtedly good, he thinks may probably depend on minor causes acting on the organ, which is, either from hereditary predisposition or from defective structure, abnormally susceptible. For instance, high feeding causing fever and slight inflammatory symptoms, or excessive or deficient light, or other such minor causes may in horses so predisposed bring on a disease in the Eyes. An opinion has gained ground of late years, that the malady is allied to rheumatic inflammation in many, if not in all cases ; and that it owes its origin to the same or similar causes as that disease. Hence some modern scientific Veterinarians have designated it rheumatic ophthalmia. The iris is the chief seat of disease, — a circumstance which, under the above supposition as to its origin, might be explained not only by the high vascularity of that organ, but also by its structure being almost entirely muscular. Cold damp stables in which other rheumatic affec- tions are most apt to occur, yield more cases of Specific Ophthalmia than perhaps any others. 846. Treatment. Active treatment is practically useless. The best chance is to turn the horse out to grass. If. cataract begins to form, the disease will run its course. As the disease, whether it arises from hereditary taint, or from any of the other causes mentioned above, is constitutional, the treatment must be mainly constitutional, though of course local remedies must not be neglected. Treatment, however, though every sort and kind of experi- ment has been tried, has not as yet often proved very successful in pre- venting a recurrence of the attacks. A laxative followed by calomel and opium in large doses (60 grains of the former and half a drachm of the latter) twice a day for several days in succession as soon as effusion has taken place, is now generally recommended. Special regard should, in all cases, be paid to the causes from which it seems probable that the disease may have arisen. When an isolated case of disease is clearly traceable to hereditary taint, not much hope of relief can be held out. But where the disease is general among the horses, or frequent in any particular establishment, we may be pretty sure that some gross mismanagement exists, and it will be necessary entirely to reform the stable arrangements. Stable management is too large a question to be discussed incidentally, and the author must refer the reader to the chapter bearing on that subject. The best grooming, the best feeding, the utmost care, carefully regulated exercise, good ventila- tion, attention to the due and proper admission .of light, and the adminis- tration of tonics, afford the best chance of enabling nature to throw off the present and to resist future attacks of the disease. No very great results can be expected from local treatment ; but still no item, which can give relief, should be neglected. The patient should be placed in a cool ventilated loose box, and a diminished light only 410 CHAPTER 57. should be admitted ; the body should be kept warm by clothing ; a linen shade kept constantly wet should be applied over the eyes by day, as the organ is intolerant of light. When the attack is an isolated one, a diligent search should be made for the causes which may have induced it; and any such causes, if dis- covered, should if possible be removed or reversed. Thus, if the horse is fat and in high condition, depletives may be beneficial; whilst on the other hand, if the animal is low, good feeding and tonics will be appro- priate. If the horse has been standing in a dark stable, and the eyes on that account perhaps have become weak, it is probable that the tone of the part will be benefited by the stimulus of a little more light during .the periods of intermission of the attacks. If, on the other hand, the eyes have been affected by excess of light, relief may be given by de- creasing it. Such measures may not perhaps have very much effect, but still they ought not to be neglected. Their benefit consists not so much in reduc- ing any existing attack — for that will abate under almost any or indeed without any treatment; but in the chance they afford, that by careful avoidance of all predisposing causes, added to careful attention to the general health and to good stable management in every detail, they may ward off the recurrence, or at least mitigate the violence of future attacks. By such care, with time, age, and increasing strength, there is some little reason to hope that kind nature may enable the system to wear out the disease and resist its occurrence. In most cases, however, Specific Oph- thalmia in spite of all treatment runs its course, sometimes unobtrusively and with scarcely noticeable force, and at other times with acute symptoms. i Bleeding, however, as a general depletive, may be useful in some cases, where the pulse and other symptoms indicate the need of such a remedy. Setons under the eye, or preferably, rowels in the space between the jaws, or blisters to the face and between the jaws, have been frequently tried, but generally without producing any beneficial result. ,.; 847. Cataracts. Cataracts are divided into true and spurious. The seat of true cataract is in the crystalline lens, in its capsule, or in both, or even between the lens and its capsule. Any opacity in the lens must seriously interfere with the vision. So likewise, though in a lesser degree, any opacity in the capsule or between the capsule and the lens will affect the power of sight. There are three classes of true cataract, distinguished as to name by the position they occupy, namely Lenticular, Capsular, and Capsulo- lenticular or Interstitial. The colour of a cataract depends on various circumstances, and espe- cially on the length of time that has elapsed since its formation. In the very early stage the lens may show only a slight nebulosity ; later there may be seen in it streaky lines radiating to a centre, and at last cataract may be fully developed as a circumscribed white spot gradually increasing in size. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 411 As a general rule, after several attacks of ophthalmia the pupil dilates aud clears, and cataract forms. But in special cases the pupil may re- main constantly contracted, because adhesion has taken place between the capsule of the lens and the iris ; or, on the other hand, the pupil may remain abnormally open, if there is paralysis of the optic nerve or a ten- dency to amaurosis. In such a case the eye is more tolerant of light, because less susceptible of its effect. In rare cases a portion of the capsule of the lens may be partially clouded, as a result of any injury or blow on the eye. Such cloudiness is usually only temporary, though sometimes it may be persistent. Spurious cataracts consist of an effusion of lymph into the posterior chamber of the eye, perhaps adherent against or upon the anterior surface of the lens. The lens itself is not really affected. Flakes of white lymph are also sometimes seen in the aqueous humour in the anterior chamber. These, if they do not become adherent, are usually soon absorbed. 848. Examination of the Eye for Cataract. The state of the pupil is best seen in a diminished light. The existence or otherwise of cataract, the proper motion of the iris, and the state of the structures of the eye generally, are then as a rule very easily observed. But in some cases it is advisable to take the horse into a darkened stable and to examine his eye by the light of a candle, when the pupil will be found to be fully expanded. In health, when a candle is moved before the fully expanded pupil, three images of it will be seen. First an erect image moving upwards and downwards, according as the candle is moved. This image is pro- duced by reflection from the surface of the cornea. Secondly, another erect image produced from the anterior surface of the lens ; — this also moves upwards and downwards, according as the candle is moved. Thirdly, a small inverted image reflected from the posterior surface of the lens ; — this moves downwards when the candle is moved upwards. In lenticular cataract, in the early stage, the inverted image is indis- tinct. In its later stage it cannot be seen at all. When the cataract has fully formed, the deep erect image is invisible. In capsular cataract only the front image is visible. 849. Lenticular Cataract. Lenticular cataract, or in other words partial or complete opacity of the lens, is the result of the deposits left by repeated attacks of inflam- mation. The effusion is at first interspersed through the substance of the lens, but gradually, as the more watery parts of the effusion are taken up, the deposit concentrates to one spot and forms the opaque speck known as cataract. Cataracts are generally of very gradual formation. The first attack of inflammation, though it probably leaves some, yet generally gives rise to no perceptible deposit or opacity ; but after several attacks the deposit or speck becomes apparent. In old horses similar changes sometimes go on insensibly, ending in 412 CHAPTER 57. cataract without any perceptible periodical attacks of inflammation. The Author has also known the same to occur in a young troop horse. He recollects the case of a troop horse purchased in a sound state at five years old, and which was found to be affected at eight years old with lenticular cataract in both eyes, though it had never shown outwardly the slightest sign of disease in those organs. 850. Capsular Cataract. Capsular cataract proceeds from the same causes and is formed in much the same way as lenticular ; but for some reason not very easy to explain the deposit fixes itself on the inner surface of the capsule instead of in the lens. If the lens be examined by a good reflected light, it will be found to be clear behind its capsule. In some cases capsular cataracts form from causes other than attacks of specific ophthalmia, In such, it is probable that the deposit on the capsule may be absorbed, and the eye restored to its pristine state. 851. Capsulo -lenticular or Interstitial Cataract. The third variety of true cataract, known as Capsulo-lenticular or Interstitial cataract, is found in the form of an opaque fluid between the lens and its capsule. By taking a side view of the eye, these cataracts are easily distinguished from lenticular, because the transparency of the lens can then be seen behind the opaque deposit. 852. Absorption of Cataracts. True lenticular cataract is very rarely, if indeed it is ever absorbed. Capsulo-lenticular are occasionally, and capsular cataracts are somewhat more frequently absorbed in time. 853. Degree of injury to vision caused by true Cataract. The degree of injury to vision caused by true cataract is very uncer- tain. Probably it depends more on its position than on its size. A small speck, for instance, in the centre of the lens will obviously be more in- jurious than a larger opacity on the side. The best plan in each case is to test the horse's vision by. taking him up to an obstacle, and then to notice how far his sight is imperfect. Horses which see imperfectly are very apt to shy, and on this account many horsemen prefer an animal totally to one partially blind. Again it may be remarked that blind horses generally step high, so as to enable them to clear unseen obstacles. They instinctively select the hard road, and are afraid of soft ground. The sense of hearing also becomes more acute, and is shown by the almost constant movement of the ears. 854. No cure for true Cataract. Veterinary science knows no cure for true cataract. We cannot avail ourselves of those operations which in the human subject are so valuable, DISEASES OF THE EYE. 413 not indeed for the cure, but for the relief of this disease. The horse, as previously stated, possesses a very peculiar power of withdrawing at will the eye into its socket, which would much increase the difficulty of per- forming any operation ; but even if this difficulty be got over, the opera- tions common in human surgery, such as couching the crystalline lens, would not be of any use, as it is obviously impossible to supply the horse with glasses. 855. Spurious Cataracts. Spurious cataracts are opaque specks on the cornea, or flocculi of lymph in the anterior chamber of the aqueous humour, generally adherent to the anterior surface of the capsule of the lens or to the posterior sur- face of the cornea. They are generally the result of an effusion of lymph arising from the inflammation of common ophthalmia, into the aqueous humour. They are also occasionally found as a result of the specific disease. The amount of detriment which they occasion to vision depends on their size and position. If on the cornea, they will not interfere much, but on the capsule they become a more serious evil. Spurious cataracts are frequently absorbed after a time. Sometimes they appear quite suddenly and without any apparent cause, and disap- pear as suddenly. 856. Amaurosis. Amaurosis, partial or complete, results from paralysis of a part or of the whole of the optic nerve. According to the degree of the affection, the blindness may be total or partial. The eye is generally in all other respects perfect. On account of the insensibility of the retina to the effects of light, the pupillary opening remains unnaturally large, the pupil possesses more than ordinary brilliancy, and the eye has a ghastly stare. This appearance of the pupil at once points out the cause of blindness. Again, in his action the animal has all the appearance of a blind horse. In partial amaurosis the movement of the iris may not be wholly lost. It may be only sluggish. 857. Causes. Disease of the optic nerve may proceed from various causes — either peculiar to that one nerve, such as excess of glare or heat, or from pres- sure on it, such as that induced by the formation of a tumour, by extrava- sation of blood, or any morbid effusion ; or it may proceed from some abnormal condition of the brain generally, induced by causes such as those last named. Disease of the optic nerve may also proceed from some abnormal condition of the body, such as an overloaded stomach, which affects the nervous system generally, and with it the nerve of the eye. Amaurosis is also occasionally, though but rarely, the result of the violent inflammatory action of specific ophthalmia; and it occasionally arises from extreme debility of the whole system or from excessive loss 414 CHAPTER 57. of blood. Pressure from a full backwards or a blow on the head may also bring on the disease. 858. Treatment. The treatment of Amaurosis must depend on the cause from which it arises or is supposed to arise. When originating in atrophy or wasting away of the optic nerve, it is incurable. There is more hope of cases resulting from some affection of the brain. Tumours and morbid effusions on the brain are sometimes removed by kind nature, and with their removal the optic nerve may recover its tone. Art can do but little to assist in promoting this change. In oppression of the brain induced by an overloaded or disordered condition of the stomach, a dose of purgative medicine will be useful. On the other hand, if the disease is connected with general debility, generous diet and tonics will be of service. In all cases, as topical remedies, cold applications to the head and diminished light are to be recommended. 859. Glaucoma. Glaucoma is indicated by a yellowish or sea-green appearance of the eyes, which comes on gradually in old age. This appearance is due to opacity or cloudiness of the vitreous humour. It terminates in total blindness, and is incurable. Its cause is not yet understood. 860. Minor diseases of the Eye and its appendages. We now pass on to the consideration of some minor diseases of the eye and its appendages. 861. Lacerations of the Eyelids. Most common among minor injuries is laceration of the eyelid arising from a bite or other accidental injury. The treatment usually consists in bringing together the lacerated parts and maintaining them in proper apposition by pins or silver-wire sutures. Great care is needed to pre- vent the patient from rubbing his eye against the manger. A wet linen rag should be hung loosely from above over the eye, and the animal should be reversed in his stall. No part of the injured structure should be cut away, unless it is so hopelessly lacerated as to make reunion very improbable. The horse has need of the protection of all his eyelid, as a guard against the admission of too much light as well as against accidental injuries and the admission of foreign bodies. There is always a strong natural tendency to reunion of these parts ; and therefore with judicious management a successful result need not be despaired of, even in very severe injuries. If the parts have dried up, they should be pared enough to make the edges slightly raw, and then when skilfully pinned together they will adhere at once. Let them DISEASES OF THE EYE. 415 bleed a little before pinning them together, i. e. until bleeding stops, which it does in a very few minutes. By that time a coating of lymph will have formed, and will cause the part to adhere when the pins are withdrawn or have fallen out. 862. Diseases of the Lachrymal passages. When a weeping or flow of tears over the cheeks is permanent, the cause will usually be found in some obstruction of the lachrymal ducts or canals, which lead from the eyes to the nose, and by which in a healthy state the tears are discharged. The obstruction is generally due to a thickening of the membrane of the duct, arising from inflammation. We are not acquainted with any remedy for this affection. It is unsightly, but not serious. A similar effect may be produced by loss of the lower eyelid. A trickling unconnected with disease may arise from an excessive secre- tion of tears caused by some external irritation, by inflammation of the conjunctival membrane, or from swelling of the eyelids, which then obstruct the entrance of the tears into the lachrymal duct. Slightly warm foments may be useful. In these cases the effect will cease with the removal or cessation of the cause. 863. Shying. When a horse has a trick of shying, it is always well to have its eyes examined by a Veterinary surgeon. Defective vision or incipient disease of the eyes is a common cause of this unpleasant habit. If however examination fails to detect anything wrong with the eyes, and especially if the horse is in other respects quiet and tractable, we are inclined to think that the habit may arise from the animal being short-sighted, or slow of sight. There is no anatomical reason why these defects should not exist in horses as well as in men. Indeed, modern experience has demonstrated its not infrequent occurrence, though it has as yet failed to furnish a remedy. The adoption of glasses is impracticable. 863a. Blind Horses. A blind horse at once betrays its malady even to the casual observer by the one-sided carriage of its head, and the pricked though constant moving of the ears, as they intently listen for every sound. These peculiarities are as obvious with blinkers as without them. 863fc. Worm in the Eye. Worm in the eye, a disease not very unfrequent in so'me parts of India, has been treated of above in Chapter 54. 416 CHAPTER 58. CHAPTER 58. DENTITION, OB AGE AS INDICATED BY TBE TEETH. SSL Introduction. 865. Structural alterations in the Teeth. 866. Bad- Teeth, otherwise called Molars or Grinders. 867. Anterior Teeth or Incisors. 868. Distinction between the Temporary and Permanent Incisors. 869. Temporary or milk Incisors. 870. Development of the Permanent Tteth. S70a. Drawing of Milk Teeth. 871. The Mark. 872. Bishop-ing. 873. The Fang-hole or Secondary Mark. 874. Further changes indicating thy Age — Lateral breadth — Triangularity — Length — Slope —loss of circularite in form of the jaw, etc. 875. The Tusks. 876. Collateral circumstances to be token into consideration. 864. Introduction. The principal guide to the age of the horse consists in the indications given by the Teeth. We shall proceed to explain the changes which take place, more with the view of enabling the reader to form a correct judgment in regard to age, than of giving a general dissertation on the nature and structure of the Teeth. 865. Structural alterations in the Teeth. Structural alterations take place in the teeth every year from birth up to the sixth year. Hence there can rarely be any question as to the real age of a horse up to that date, though dealers often try to deceive the unwary by various tricks. Such tricks are, however, easily detected. After the mouth is fully completed, the age can only be approximately determined by the effect of wear in altering the shape of the teeth, by the receding of the gums, and by other such signs. Many circumstances, however, often contribute to modify the effect of wear on the teeth, and also to increase or decrease the action of time in other respects. Hence, after six years old, a correct opinion can only be formed by those who have given to the subject some time, thought, and trouble. igi 866. Of the Back teeth, otherwise called Molars or Grinders. The foal is born usually with two, sometimes with three, temporary molars in each jaw. About twelve months old another molar, a perma- nent tooth, appears, and before the completion of the second year a fifth molar, also" a permanent tooth, shows itself. About two and a half years old the two anterior temporary molars are replaced by permanent teeth, and between three and four the remaining AGE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH. 417 or third temporary molar is similarly replaced ; and about the same time the last or sixth permanent molar begins to appear. Thus when the mouth is completed, there are six permanent molars in each jaw, or twenty-four in all. These structural changes afford a very good index of the age of the horse up to the period when they are completed, namely four years old. The Molars, however, are sejdom referred to, because their position at the back of the mouth renders their examination inconvenient and often very difficult. Nevertheless, it is useful to be acquainted with the struc- tural changes of these teeth in cases where there may be a doubt as to the true age as indicated by the incisors. After four years old, the molars are not often taken into consideration in determining the age of the horse. We may mention in passing, that a supplementary molar known as a " Wolfs tooth," sometimes appears in either jaw. Such teeth seldom cause any inconvenience. If they do so, they can easily be removed by the pincers, as they are only of a rudimentary character. 867. Of the Anterior teeth or Incisors. The Anterior teeth, or Incisors, are six in number in each jaw, when the mouth is complete ; and in the immediate rear of these in males, there is usually added one very peculiar pointed tooth on each side in each jaw, called a tusk. Though there are two crops of incisors, yet there is but one of tusks. In fact, these teeth, though they begin to appear about four years old, are not usually fully developed until the last permanent incisor is more or less up. For the sake of brevity we shall confine our remarks to the lower jaw, as the structural changes, which take place in the upper, are nearly similar. In passing, however, we may remark that the upper incisors are considerably longer and larger than the lower. 868. Distinction between Temporary and Permanent Incisors. Temporary, otherwise called Milk (Plate 39), are easily distinguished from Permanent incisors by the following well-marked signs, namely, they are smaller, whiter, and have more distinct necks. They are smooth externally, and grooved on the inside, — probably in order to enable the foal more easily to grip the teats of the dam. Their fangs are small and have but little attachment to the giflns. The jaws are plump, fleshy and round, and the teeth are arranged in something like a semicircle. Permanent teeth, on the other hand, are larger, broader, wider in their necks, grooved externally and smooth internally, and more discoloured than milk teeth. The discoloration is due to the lodgment of the juices and other matters connected with the food in the grooves. The object of the external grooving probably is to enable the animal to get a better grip on grass and such like food. The plumpness and circularity of the jaw is less than in the younger animal, and it gradually decreases, until in very old age the teeth are arranged in a nearly straight line. 27 418 OHAPTEE 58. 869. Of the Temporary or Milk Incisors. The foal is born with his teeth in a rudimentary state in the gums. At various periods during the first ten months the different temporary incisors appear (Plate 39, figure 0). Under one year old the foal is also clearly distinguished by a woolly tail. The yearling is complete in all six incisors, but several well-marked signs distinguish his mouth from that of the two-year-old. The teeth at this period show but little signs of wear. The corner teeth are mere shells, having no inner walls, and all the teeth are in close juxtaposition. (Figure 1.) At two years old, the inner wall of the corner teeth has grown up level with the outer wall. The centre teeth show considerable signs of wear, and indeed all the teeth appear somewhat smaller than they did in the yearling. They also stand somewhat wide apart at their necks on account of the gradual growth of the jaw in width. (Figure 2.) Inexperienced persons have been known to mistake a two-year-old for a five-year-old mouth. But the difference in the conformation of the animal, as well as of milk and permanent teeth (see par. 808), ought to make such a mistake impossible. 870. Development of tlie Permanent Teeth. A few months before three years old, the horse sheds the two centre milk teeth, which are replaced by permanent. Thus the jaw contains at three years old two centre permanent teeth and two milk teeth on each side. (Figure 3.) A few months before four, the horse sheds the two next milk teeth, which are replaced by permanent. Thus the jaw now contains four per- manent and one milk tooth on each side. (Figure 4.) The appearance of the mouth when closed, and also the mode in which the teeth meet, are shown in figure 4 a. This figure will be presently contrasted with figures 26 and 27, which show the mode in which the mouth closes and the teeth meet in extreme old age. A few months before five, the horse sheds the two remaining milk teeth, which are replaced by permanent. Thus the jaw is now furnished with six permanent incisors, but the corner teeth are mere shells, having no internal wall. The absence of this wall distinguishes the five from the six-year-old mouth. (Figure 5.) A few months before six, the inner wall of the corner teeth has grown Mp level with the outer wall. (Figure 6.) The mouth is now fully complete in incisors, and no further structural changes take place in them. As a general rule, we may add that the upper temporary teeth fall out a little before those in the lower jaw. Up to six years old, therefore, inasmuch as we have structural changes to guide us, there can seldom be any doubt as to the age of the animal. There are, however, some well-authenticated instances of abnormal deve- lopment of the permanent incisors, but they are rare. Thoroughbred horses date their age from the 1st of January, whilst AGE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH. 419 other horses are reckoned from the 1st of May. Thoroughbred mares are covered so as to throw their foals as soon as possible after the 1st of January ; whilst in regard to other mares the owner does not wish to have their progeny born before the spring grass is available for the sus- tenance of the dam and her foal. High feeding encourages the growth of the teeth in common with the rest of the frame. Hence thoroughbreds (independently of their earlier date of foaling) are somewhat more forward in their mouths than half- bred animals, though on the other hand it increases the wear and so hurries the obliteration of the marks. 870a. Drawing of Milk Teeth. A practice prevails of tampering with the milk teeth, in order to make the animals appear of more mature ages than they really are. In horses rising four years old the corner temporary incisors are pulled or punched out, in order to hasten the growth of the permanent teeth, which would in the process of nature take their place at. a later period, and thereby give the horse the appearance of rising five years old. More rarely attempts are made to give the three-year-old mouth the appearance of four by drawing the outer milk tooth on each side. In the foreign horses now largely imported it is common to find both milk teeth drawn on each side in three-year-old animals. No doubt in all these cases nature does to a certain degree hasten the development of the permanent teeth, in order to supply the vacuum. There is, however, no need for anyone to be deceived as to the real age of an animal which has been subjected to such treatment. The upcoming permanent tooth is usually displaced in its alveolus or socket by the violence used in punching out the milk tooth. Again, the removal of the milk tooth before its time deprives the upcoming permanent tooth of its natural guide to the surface of the jaw, and causes it to make its appearance slightly diagonally to the curve of the jaw, thus leaving a space between it and the neighbouring tooth, which is quite abnormal. Again, the enamel of the crown of the new tooth, from having been brought into use before its natural time, is not properly consolidated, and hence presents an irregular appearance, quite different from that of the naturally developed tooth. In males this trick may be at once detected by the absence of the tusk, which will not come up before its proper time ; but in mares we have not this assistance. 871. OftheMarJc. Hitherto we have taken no notice of the " Mark," or Infundibulum. We have abstained from doing so, not because the marks in the young mouth do not afford some indication of the age, but because fuller and more satisfactory evidence up to six years old is afforded by the structural changes detailed above. At and after six, however, we are compelled to have recourse to the indications given by the marks and other slight, but 420 CHAPTER 58. gradual, alterations which take place in the form of the teeth and their position — these latter, however, are more reliable than the marks. A satisfactory explanation of the mark cannot, we are afraid, be given without entering at some length into the structure and organisation of the teeth. The Mark or Infundibulum is a very peculiar hollow extend- ing, when the tooth first comes up, about half an inch down the temporary and rather deeper down the permanent incisors. (Figure 18.) Teeth practically may be said to consist of two materials, namely, enamel and dentine. Enamel, which is very hard, sharp, and originally of pearly whiteness, covers the outside of the teeth, and also lines the sides and bottom of the hollow or infundibulum. Thus in the tooth, as it originally appears, there are four walls of enamel. The remainder of the tooth consists chiefly of dentine, a substance of considerable, but less hardness than enamel, and more like ivory. A small quantity of crusta petrosa is also found on the outside of the fang extending upwards and overlapping the enamel covering the crown. When an incisor first comes up, the hollow affords lodgment for the debris of the food and the juices expressed from it, and therefore soon looks black. As the tooth wears down, the hollow of course disappears ; but the surface of the dentine immediately below the original hollow, being a somewhat soft material, has become stained for some distance down. Thus there is still a black mark. With the further wear of the tooth the stained portion of the dentine wears away, and the " mark " is then said to be out. The mark, as the reader will easily see from this description, is in a constantly changing condition. Premising that the time, which the mark will take to wear out, will vary to a greater or less degree according to certain circumstances de- tailed hereafter, we shall now endeavour to give some general rules for guidance. Between three and five years old all the marks are very plain in all the permanent incisors. (Figs. 3, 4, 5.) At six, the marks are wearing out of the two centre teeth, which came up at three years old. They are plain in the two next, and perfectly fresh in the two corner teeth. (Fig. 6.) At seven, the marks have disappeared from the centre teeth, are wear- ing out of the two next, and are distinct and plain only in the corner teeth. (Fig. 7.) At eight, the marks have disappeared from all but the corner teeth, in which they are becoming indistinct. (Fig. 8.) At nine, the marks are not usually found in any of the teeth. (Fig. 9.) For about two years after the mark has disappeared in each tooth, there may still be seen in the form of a star a trace of the enamel which lined the bottom of the original hollow, and which underlies it for some depth. This star of course decreases in size with the wear of the teeth. About twelve or thirteen the last traces of the enamel have usually dis- appeared even from the corner teeth, but it may remain some time longer. Many casual circumstances, however, cause a certain degree of devia- AGE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH. 421 tion from these general rules. The time, which the mark takes to wear out, will vary in different horses according to the hardness or otherwise of the teeth and according to the nature of the food on which the animal is kept. In grass-fed horses the marks usually remain at least a year and sometimes two years longer than in those fed on hard food. Again in parrot-mouthed horses, that is, where the upper overlaps the lower jaw, the marks may remain for many years. (Fig. 29.) On the other hand, some horses, which have a trick of biting the manger, wear down their teeth very rapidly, and therefore lose their marks very early. Horses fed on salt marshes where the sea sand is washed up among the grass, or on sandy plains or meadows, are affected by the increased friction on the teeth caused by the sand. Occasionally a projecting tooth in the upper jaw may cause unusual friction on the corresponding tooth of the lower jaw, and so may hasten obliteration of the mark. Most of these and other causes of irregularity of wear, which might be mentioned, are at once apparent to a careful and accurate observer, and will scarcely prevent his forming a pretty correct opinion of the age. The upper incisors, as previously stated, are considerably longer and larger than the lower, and the infundibulum is nearly twice as deep. The marks therefore remain longer than in the lower teeth. We mention this in passing, lest the reader should be misled, if he should by chance refer to the indications given by the upper teeth to corroborate or correct any opinion as to age, about which he may be in doubt from the appear- ance of the lower jaw. Occasionally the dentine on the side of the infundibulum may become stained and even black, and in such cases something like a double mark may be observed. The mouth taken as a whole is broader at seven years old than at any other period. After this it gradually narrows with age. In this respect the drawings, taken as a consecutive series, are in some degree at fault, as the Author found it impossible to get mouths of the required ages to form a perfect ideal series. For instance, the mouth represented in figure 16 (extreme age) obviously has belonged to a very different animal from that shown in the preceding figure. Again, figures 16 and 17 are fair specimens, though very diverse, of what may be expected in extreme age. 872. Bishop-ing. Marks on the incisors are occasionally simulated by means of caustic or the hot iron by low dealers with the view of deceiving the unwary. The fraud is readily detected, because though it is easy to make a black mark on the crowns of the teeth, yet it is impossible to restore the wall of pearly enamel, which surrounds the natural mark. (Figs. 19, 190.) 873. The Fang-hole or Secondary Mark. About nine years old, in consequence of the wearing down of the teeth, a slight trace of the fang-hole usually appears in the centre teoth, and 422 CHAPTER 58. somewhat later in the other teeth. It is indicated by a slight discolora- tion of the tooth at the above point. There is, however, no actual hole, because with advancing years the upper part of the original cavity has become filled up with a sort of spurious dentine, which is more yellow than the true material, of which the body of the tooth consists. As age increases, this indication of the fang-hole, which is sometimes called the " Secondary mark," becomes rather more plain. It, however, affords no reliable data by which to judge of the age, and is only mentioned in this place lest the reader should mistake it for the remains of the infundibu- lum. The enamel, it will be remembered, is pearly white, whilst the mark of the fang-hole is brownish yellow. The position of the fang-hole is shown, fig. 18 B. 874. Further changes indicating the age. It will be seen that about nine the " marks," never very reliable, entirely fail us, and indeed after seven or eight they can hardly be said to afford any very reliable data. Veterinary surgeons and horsemen prefer to judge the age mainly by the changes which gradually take place in the shape of the teeth. But the public always rely a good deal on the marks. From eight years old and upwards the best indications of the age are given by the gradual alterations, which take place in the shape of the teeth from wear and in the closing of the mouth. Lateral breadth, &c. — The teeth originally are broad laterally at their upper surfaces, otherwise called their crowns or " tables," and thin from front to rear. (Figures 4, 5, and G.) They narrow gradually towards their necks and fangs. Hence as their upper surfaces wear off, the teeth become narrower year by year. In very old horses there is often a posi- tive interval between the teeth (figures 16 and 17), and they appear like sticks in the jaw. The gradual effect of wear in producing this alteration is shown in figure 20, where successive portions of the upper surface of the tooth are represented as having been removed by the saw. The original form of the tooth is shown in ±ig. 21. The amount of wear on the upper surface of the teeth is greater in the young mouth than it is afterwards, because in youth the teeth meet more fairly than they do in after years. (Compare Figs, ia and 27.) . The rate of wear gradually decreases as years increase, because the teeth do not meet so directly, but on the contrary project more and more for- ward in something like two parallel lines. For example, a quarter of an inch will usually be worn "off the surface between five and six years old, whilst probably not more than that quantity will be worn off between twenty-and twenty-five years old. Triangularity. — A further very well-marked indication of increasing age is given by the increasing depth from front to rear in the upper sur- faces or crowns of the teeth. This increase of depth will be noticed if figs. 7 and 8 are carefully compared with figs. 4, 5, and 6. Further wear causes the crowns of the teeth to assume a triangular form. The cause of AGE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH. 423 this will be clearly seen on reference to fig. 20. The teeth, though they diminish in lateral breadth, increase in thickness from front to rear all the way from the crown to the fang. (Figs. 20 and 21.) At six and up to eight years old, the teeth are all broad laterally at their upper surfaces. (Figs. 6, 7, and 8.) Up to this time the exact year, as the reader will recollect, is pretty well known by the " marks." At nine, when the marks fail, the alterations in the crown surface or table come to our aid. The two centre teeth, which came up at three, become somewhat triangular. (Fig. 9.) At ten, the two next teeth show similar signs. (Fig. 10.) At eleven, the corner teeth have become some- what triangular. (Fig. 11.) At twelve the triangularity has increased in all the teeth. (Fig. 12.) This alteration continues to increase in all the teeth, until in very old horses the depth from front to rear exceeds the lateral width of the teeth. Figure 13 shows an average mouth of sixteen years old. Figure 14 represents the appearance at twenty. Figure 15 shows twenty-four ; whilst figs. 16 and 17 may serve as specimens of the teeth in extreme age. Length. — Again, as age increases, the teeth, notwithstanding they really wear down, become apparently longer. This effect is due to the fleshy parts of the gums receding faster than the teeth wear down. In extreme age, however, when the guns have receded as far as they can, the effect of wear causes the teeth to become visibly as well as really shorter. Slope. — An alteration also takes place in the position or " slope " of the teeth, as regards their closing. This is due to the effect of wear. The original form of the tooth is shown in fig. 21. Its upper portion, it will be seen, is nearly perpendicular, whilst the lower part lies in a more horizontal position. Hence in youth the teeth meet directly, whilst in extreme age they can scarcely be said to meet at all. Their stumps project forward in two almost parallel lines. (Figs. 26 and 27.) The various changes which take place in the position of the teeth in reference to their position or " slope " are shown in figs. 2 to 27. At two years old (fig. 2) the gums are full, fleshy, and prominent, and the teeth are nearly perpendicular. The gradual changes, which take place in the slope with increasing years, are shown perhaps more clearly in the plates than could be explained in words. Up to twelve years old, there can scarcely be much difficulty in forming a pretty correct judgment as to the age. After that time it requires more time, practice, and opportunity than most people have at disposal to obtain the requisite knowledge. It would probably scarcely interest the non-professional reader to trace very minutely the changes which take place after twelve years old. Suffice it to say, that the gums continue year by year to recede, the teeth become apparently longer and longer and really narrower, and conse- quently the intervals between them increase, and they project forward more and more in a straight line. About twenty or twenty-two, and in some instances a good deal sooner, the teeth, which up to this period have apparently increased in length, begin to grow visibly shorter, because the gums are so far absorbed that 424 CHAPTER 58. they can recede no further. Hence all further wear shows its effects by diminishing the length of the teeth. Loss of circularity. — In the very young horse the teeth are arranged almost in the form of a semicircle. Year by year this form decreases, until in old horses the teeth are arranged in something like a straight line. Compare figs. 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 with figs. 14, 15, 16, and 17. If the reader should happen to be in the neighbourhood of a cavalry barrack, he will have the best possible opportunity of studying the age of living horses, because in every regiment an accurate register is kept of the age of every horse. As all the horses are bought at four or five years old, it is almost impossible that any mistake can occur. Memorandum. — The drawings of the teeth have all been made from nature ; and hence, although pretty normal specimens have been selected, yet in various ways they present in some instances irregularities and deviations from a positively regular rule of wear. Perfect regularity in wear and in the effect of wear is seldom found in nature. In some in- stances it will be observed that the enamel is higher and more prominent than in others. This difference does not indicate or in any degree depend on age, but simply on the comparative hardness or softness of the enamel and dentine. 875. The TusJcs. In horses, as distinguished from mares, great assistance in determining the age is derived from the presence of the Tusks, which are generally wanting in the latter. The tusks usually begin to appear in a very slight degree about three and a half or four years old. Their sharp points then just pierce the gums, and they continue to grow until fully developed about five or five and a half years old. They do not meet like other teeth, and therefore do not suffer from wear from that cause. They suffer however from wear in the course of mastication, and in fact undergo greater changes than any other teeth, and so form a valuable guide as to age. The tusk is a very peculiar-shaped elongated tooth. Internally it con- sists of dentine, and is protected on the outside only by enamel. The enamel however overlaps the dentine, and hence arises the sharp edge or hook of the newly developed tusk, which may be felt if the finger be brought round it from behind. This sharpness gradually wears off. After seven it has disappeared, and in each succeeding year the Tusk becomes not only rounder and blunter, but its upper portion wears off. It also appears yellow, on account of the dentine becoming exposed by reason of the enamel wear- ing off its exterior surface. The tusks, unlike other teeth, do not appa- rently increase in length with years, but become shorter and shorter. In fact the effect of wear is greater on them than on other teeth, and it is also greater than the process of the receding of the gum. In very old horses the tusk is very little above the level of the gum. Mares some- times have four small rudimentary tusks. The alterations, which gradually take place in the form of the tusks, are shown in a series in fig. 28. AGE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH. 425 876. Collateral circumstances to be taken into consideration. In judging of the age of the horse by the teeth, every collateral cir- cumstance requires to be taken into consideration, such as the form of the mouth, the way in which the teeth meet and close on each other, the food on which the animal has been kept, any irregularity in the upper teeth which may cause increased or diminished wear on the lower teeth, and also the habits of the horse in the stable. The teeth of animals, which bite at the rack or manger whilst being cleaned, invariably present appearances of wear beyond their real age. The body also presents many indications of the age which may assist us in forming an accurate opinion, and sometimes may enable us to cor- rect an erroneous impression produced by some abnormal appearance of the teeth. The young horse is fleshy about the gums and head, and the hollow over the eye is shallow. Year by year, as age increases, the gums lose their fleshiness, the head becomes more lean, and the hollow over the eye deepens. The shoulders lose much of their thickness and become finer, and assume an appearance of greater length. The hind quarters in like manner lose some of their roundness, and the animal generally gains an appearance of more breeding than he had in his younger days. The back becomes more or less hollow, a result partly due to the effect of weight, especially in long-backed animals, and partly to loss of fleshiness of the muscles which run along the spine. Again, as the horse becomes old, the fulness of the chin under the mouth disappears. The inferior margin of the branches of the bone of the lower jaw also becomes thin. Lastly, the general appearance of the aged horse is much influenced by the work he has done and the treatment he has received. Age must not be judged by any one sign, but by a mean judiciously struck between all the signs, and by a careful consideration of all colla- teral circumstances. It never happens that all the signs combine to- gether to deceive a careful and well-informed observer. From these pages the reader will perceive that after six years old, i. e. after the structural changes in the mouth are completed, it is impossible to lay down any one single definite rule by which the age can be ascer- tained. Still, with a little trouble and attention there is no real difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the horse's age up to a comparatively late period of his life. Such a knowledge is always valuable to an intending purchaser. Horses of weight or nine years old are still in their prime ; but from want of knowledge of the means of ascertaining the real age, and from very natural distrust of what the owner may tell them, the public are very shy of buying such horses ; and consequently they may generally be obtained at prices far below their real value. The Author is well aware of the popular feeling in favour of young horses ; but in his own opinion a moderately fresh " aged " horse is gene- rally a much more useful, presently available, and therefore more really valuable animal, than a young untried horse with all troubles, ailments, diseases and liability to disease before him. 426 CHAPTER 59. CHAPTER 59. LAMPAS. 877. Lampas. 877a. Dentistry. 8776. Stomatitis. 877c. Glossitis. 877. Lampas. Lampas is congestion of the blood-vessels in the lining membrane of the Palate. It is most common in young animals from irritation set up by the growth of or changes in the teeth. It may also occur in horses at work from inflammation set up by bit injuries, and in old horses from irregularity of the teeth. The soreness so caused will prevent the horse from masticating his corn, and the inflammation may give rise to feverish symptoms. Where the inflammation and soreness is due to the processes of denti- tion, no treatment is necessary except to put the animal on wet bran and soft food for a few days, by which time the inflammation will have sub- sided and the soreness passed away, and the horse will again feed. Where the inflammation is due to injuries from the bit, the remedy of course is to remove the cause and treat as above. When Lampas occurs in old horses, the cause will be found in some irregularity of the teeth, generally of the molars. The irregularity must be carefully removed by the rasp (see infra, Dentistry). Other treat- ment as above. In cases where the congestion is excessive, and causes the palate to project on a level with or below the tables of the Incisors, free scarifica- tion, which consists of superficial incisions with a lancet, will afford immediate relief. A brutal practice was in fashion some years ago of burning the palate with a hot iron. This barbarous and useless custom is now happily extinct. 877a. Dentistry. In young horses some febrile diseases, which are commonly attributed to atmospheric or other causes, are often due to Teething, especially in blood stock, which are forced and artificially developed from the moment of weaning to prepare them for their turf engagements. It is therefore always wise to examine and be guided by the state of the gums before adopting any treatment. The mischief is generally caused by some irregularity in the development of the permanent molars, especially when their growth is interfered with by retarded removal of the crowns of the temporary ones. The gums will show considerable irritation and inflammation. The treatment consists in keeping the animal on soft diet and grass if obtainable, with slight scarification, lancing of the congested membrane, or the sunncal aid indicated. LAMPAS. 427 In aged horses the attention of the equine dentist is, however, most needed to the molars. As age increases the permanent molars in many cases require periodical rasping to prevent their sharp points from wound- ing the inside of the cheeks, and thereby causing the horse to bolt his food instead of properly masticating it, and thereby gives rise to indiges- tion ; and in some instances the pain so caused will altogether prevent the animal from feeding. Another commoner cause is irregularity in the height of the molars. One or more may be so much higher than the others as to interfere with mastication. The remedy is the rasp in the hands of a skilful operator. When the Molars have to be smoothed or shortened, each tooth should be rasped singly, not collectively, as was formerly the practice. Horse tooth rasps have been very much improved of late years. Those of one or not more than two inches in length in the rasp with ridge guards are the best. A careful servant, who watches his horse while feeding, will readily detect dental trouble by the Slobbering or " Salivation " that attends painful or difficult mastication. In many cases the animal will eat with his head on one side, whilst in worse cases the food after imperfect mastication will be quidded or ejected from the mouth. 8776. Stomatitis. In addition to the febrile conditions produced by Dentition, there are some other diseases of the tongue and mouth, of which a short descrip- tion may be useful. Stomatitis, or inflammation of the mouth, more frequent in old than in young horses, is due to various causes, but most commonly to mechanical violence or to barbed grasses, especially Squirrel-tail or Meadow barley. The treatment is removal of the cause. Occasionally it occurs in foals, whilst yet with their dam. Stomatitis usually takes the form of vesicles, which rupture suddenly, leaving ulcers, which sometimes run into each other, and if occurring in horses of bad habit of body they are tardy of healing. General treatment— ordinary care of health and surroundings. The local treatment consists in pulping the food, which should be given in boiled linseed jelly. Gargling the mouth after feeding is also needed. After gargling the excoriation may be painted with chlorate of potash, half an ounce to a pint of water. Where foetor is present, a solution of Sanitas, one part to six of water, will quickly subdue the smell. If the ulcers become chronic, they may be rendered healthy by being dressed with lunar caustic. 877c. Glossitis. Glossitis or inflammation of the Tongue is a rare affection in the horse. It is indicated by tenseness and protrusion of the tongue from tumefac- tion. The dorsum or upper surface of the tongue becomes brown in colour. There is difficulty in swallowing and an accumulation of glairy saliva which, if not carefully removed, gives rise to foetor. 428 CHAPTER 60. The treatment must for obvious reasons be yer anum and laxative in its nature. A clyster of linseed oil four ounces, warm water one pint (well shaken), may be injected occasionally to keep the bowels open. The patient should be encouraged to suck linseed tea or thin gruel, either of which can be medicated with chlorate of potass, half an ounce to a pint of water. The tongue should be scarified and then gargled with warm water. The head should be freely steamed. A larger bucket or nosebag than usual should be used, so as to permit free respiration. The causes of both Stomatitis and Glossitis are often obscure. CHAPTER 60. CONFORMATION. 878. Conformation to be studied. 879. Idea of a good-shaped Horse. SSO. Mechanical reasons for good and bud shapes. 881. Defects, dependent on the use required. 882. Special points needed for some sorts of work. 883. Of the bony frame. 8847. Fore- feet. 908. Soles. 909. Frog. 910. Ltg below the Knee. 911.. Bad'. 912. Ribs. 913. Pelvis. 914. Loins. 915. Hind quarters generally. 916. Femur, Tibia, and Stifle. 917. Hock. 918. Great and. Small Meta- tar sal Bones. 919. Sesamoid and Navicular bones of the Hind leg. 920. Hind feet. 921. Tail. 922. Sheath. 923. Dock. 924. Belly. 925. Body. 926. Bone in different breeds. 927. Muscles. 928. Tendons and Ligaments. 929. General Remarks. 930. Action. 931. Defects in Action. 931 a. Stumbling. 932. Position in standing. 933. Colour. 934. Constitution. 935. Breeding. 936. Distinctive Maries and Colour. 937. Sulkiness. 937a. Conclusion. 878. Conformation to be studied. Whilst with some men a knowledge of the shape of the horse appears to be almost intuitive, with others and indeed with the great majority it is not so. Many acquire it only by continued experience of losses and disappointments. Even with those who are naturally pretty good judges of horse-flesh, a better knowledge of the leading points would probably assist them, especially at the commencement of their dealings. CONFOEMATION. 429 Conformation in good truth requires to be studied and learnt in the same way as any other item of knowledge. Some may learn it quickly, some slowly, but all may learn. The drawing of the skeleton is reduced from a large print by Professor Varnell, late of the Royal Veterinary College. (Plate 39.) 879. Idea of a good-shaped Horse. A good horse is an animal with many good, few indifferent, and no bad points. Any one radically bad point neutralizes any number of good points. As in a chain any one really defective link will destroy its power of holding, so in a horse any one radically bad point will render useless the aptitude and compactness of the conformation in other respects. The greatest strength of a chain is limited by its weakest link. Similarly in a horse, his strength is limited by his weakest point. But this is not all. In addition to the absence of weak links, in the horse it is needed that all the links should be of proportionate strength. Though in a chain it would not signifiy much if one link were stronger or heavier than the rest; yet in the horse, whose primary value is his power of locomotion, in whom every limb or part has to be moved or carried in the process of locomotion, it is essential that no one limb or structure should be disproportionately heavy or strong, or in other words cumbersome in comparison to another. Excess of power or development in one part in a horse may not be merely useless, — because the strength of the animal is limited by the weakest point ; — but it may be and often is a positive source of evil, and, if we may use the expression, of weakness. For example, a well-developed carcass with good deep back ribs on the top of weak legs will by its disproportionate weight and substance cause the under-structures to fail sooner than they would otherwise do. Simi- larly a strong powerful fore-hand is not an advantage if the hind quarters are light; because the stress on the propelling agents will be unduly great, and they will in consequence be more liable to fail. Similarly, if the fore-legs are weak, they may suffer from excessive propulsion com- municated to them by powerful hind quarters ; whilst they might per- haps have lasted for years if the propelling power had been less good. These examples, which might easily be multiplied, will probably be suffi- cient to illustrate our meaning. In a well-formed horse there must be no weak point ; neither must there be any part disproportionately power- ful to the other parts. We cannot, however, expect to find in a horse, or indeed in any animal, our ideal of perfection. The Author wishes to be careful not to lead the reader to look for perfection. A good horse is an animal " with many good, few indifferent, and no bad points" Minor deficiencies are often lessened, though never quite compensated for, by other points of conformation. For instance, a horse may have short back ribs, and may therefore appear hollow in the flank ; but if he has wide hips and strong loins, it affords some compensation for the de- fect. It may even happen, that points in themselves somewhat objec- 430 CHAPTER 60. tionable may to a certain degree remedy other faults. For instance, a horse deficient in bone below the knee will be less likely to fail at that point, if also somewhat light in his carcass. 880. Mechanical reasons for good and lad shapes. Good points in a horse are not mere matters of ideal beauty; but shapes, which on principles of mechanics, are likely to answer the re- quired ends. For every so-called good shape a sensible reason can be given ; and so likewise a mechanical objection can be shown to every bad shape. 881. Defects, dependent on the use required. But shapes, which may be decidedly objectionable for one class of work, are not necessarily equally objectionable for another description of work. Thus a hollow back, which would be very objectionable in a troop horse, an animal especially required to carry a heavy weight on its back, is not equally objectionable in a draught horse. Again good feet, which are essential in hackneys, are not equally essential in harness horses. Good feet, however, are valuable in any horse, and any defect in this organ always leads to trouble, — though perhaps with care and attention the animal may continue to go sound for years under favorable circum- stances. 882. Special points needed for some sorts of work. It is nearly impossible to obtain perfection of shape, except perhaps occasionally at a very long figure. The intending purchaser should there- fore pay special regard to those points which are essential for the class of work, for which he needs the animal ; whilst in other points he may be content with something short of the ideal standard. Again, each class of horse, the racer, the hunter, the hackney, the cob, the draught horse, (fee., has some particular points in his best conforma- tion which would be absolutely faulty in another class. For instance, in the dray horse we look for circularity of the ribs, breadth of chest, and fore-legs wide apart, — points which would be absolutely ruinous in a race- horse, whose special vocation requires a deep chest, and legs closer together. In the one animal we want all that contributes to strength and weight and aptitude to put on flesh ; whilst in the other we need those shapes which are most likely to give speed combined with endur- ance. The respective conformations of the bull-dog and the greyhound will perhaps illustrate our meaning. The remarks on Conformation, which follow, are chiefly directed to the better class of horse, used for racing, hunting, riding, and light-harness work. 883. Of the Bony frame. As outward forms are mainly dependent on the formation of the bony skeleton, we shall at once proceed to the consideration of that structure. CONFORMATION. 431 In a, well-bred horse the tendons, ligaments, and muscles are generally in keeping with the bones, i. e. large bones usually give attachment to large powerful muscles, tendons, &c. Again the processes of the bones are much more developed, and thereby give a great mechanical advantage to the muscles. In the underbred horse, on the other hand, we fre- quently find large, coarse bones accompanied by small tendons and liga- ments and deficient muscular development. The bone of a thorough-bred horse, we may remark, is relatively stronger in proportion to its size that that of a coarse animal. Its struc- ture is more dense and firm. It is said to be an ascertained fact, that an inch cut from the metacarpal bone of a thorough-bred horse will weigh more, when dried, than the same quantity cut from the metacarpal bone of a low-bred animal when similarly dried, although the latter may be much thicker. The difference between them is the same as that which exists between " ivory " and " bone." The power and value of a horse increases with his size, provided the relative proportion of the parts and the general compactness are main- tained. This, however, is but rarely the case. A good big horse, it is true, will always beat a good little horse ; but then good big horses are, for the reason given above, few compared with the number of good little horses. Very large horses are seldom good for much. There is a certain size beyond which the parts do not seem to grow in due proportion to each other. Again, size and development must not be made up of or be largely interspersed with fat ; but it must arise from natural develop- ment of bone, muscle, and tendon. Without good structural formation we cannot expect strength; but it by no means follows that even with it we get the desired qualities. 884. The Head. In considering the various bony structures, we shall commence with the Head. The head should be small. A large head acts like a heavy weight at the end of a long lever. It has a tendency to make the horse heavy in hand, — though this also much depends on its setting1 on, and on the obliquity or otherwise of the shoulders. It also operates unfavorably on the pro- gression, is apt to make the horse stumble, and, if he does stumble, may help to over-balance him. A silly remark is sometimes made in favour of big heads, viz. that horses do not go on their heads. This is no doubt true ; but a heavy weight at the end of a long lever like the neck is likely enough to cause a horse to come on his head. For riding horses large heads are very objectionable ; but for harness work this point is not of much consequence, except as a matter of appear- ance. A small head is a marked sign of breeding, whilst a large head de- notes an underbred animal. A long, lean head is, however, often found in well-bred horses. The well-bred head, though usually small, is wide across the forehead, 432 CHAPTER 60. lean, unencumbered with flesh, finely chiselled, and terminates rather wide at the nostrils. The base of the skull is wide. The distance from the eye to the angle of the jaw is great. It is also wide under the jaw, or as it is sometimes called in the jowl or channel, in order to allow ample room for the larynx and respiratory passages. In high-bred horses wo often have a prominence in the forehead with a sinking in just above the nose. Fig. 1 represents a very good, fig. la a common, and fig. Ib a very coarse underbred head. (Plates 32 and 33.) 885. The Forehead. Whilst the head should be small, the Forehead and base of the skull should be not only relatively, but absolutely broad, in order to give due capacity to the cavity containing the brain and great nervous centres. Energy and resolution largely depend on the development of the nervous system. Pluck and endurance will assuredly be wanting if the nervous power is deficient. It is rather a curious fact that small well-bred heads are actually wider between the eyes than large coarse underbred heads ; or in other words the brain region is larger in high than in underbred animals. Figs. 2 and 3 represents the forehead of a well-bred horse, fig. 2a that of a common animal, and figs. 16 and 26 that of very coarse brutes. 886. The Nose. In fig. 1, and 3 and 36, a veiy good nose is shown. A projecting or Roman nose (figs. Ib and 26) usually indicates want of breeding. A tendency however towards that form in a rather long, lean, and otherwise well-bred head is occasionaly found even among some of our best thorough-bred stock. 887. Nostrils and Muzzle. Breeding or its absence is very plainly indicated in the Muzzle. In the well-bred horse every part is boldly marked. The borders of the nostrils are scanty and end abruptly. The Nostrils themselves should be large and wide and unencumbered with hairs in the entrances, and they should occupy nearly the whole of the lower part of the facial structure (Plate 32,. fig. 1, and Plate 33, fig. 3). The horse, unlike man, who breathes chiefly through his .mouth, breathes entirely through his nostrils. Hence in all horses required for fast work and endurance, well-developed large nostrils are of great importance. In the low-bred horse the entrances of the nostrils are contracted by the overlapping of their borders, and the entrances are small and beset with long bristly hairs. Plate 32, figs. 16 and 26. CONFORMATION. 433 888. The Mouth. The Mouth of the well-bred horse is small and the lips are small aiid thin and yet firm. Fig. 1. The mouth of the underbred horse is large, and the lips are large and flabby. Fig. 16. Also fig. 26. 889. The Eye. The Eye should be large, prominent, and mild, with a well-developed brow and fine eyelids. The weapons of defence in the horse consist of his power of flight and in his heels. Nature has made the eye of the well-bred horse prominent, by means of which he is enabled to command a great range of vision. Fig. 1. Such horses are generally fearless and bold ; whilst an animal with a sunken eye is nearly always suspicious, — perhaps because he cannot see so well around him, and he is often also sulky. Fig. 16. Also fig. 26. An eye which is unduly round in the anterior portion of its globe, and on this account over-prominent, is objectionable. It is believed in some cases to be productive of short-sight, and, as a consequence, of shying. The prominence in the formation of the eyeball itself must not be con- founded with the prominent setting on of the socket mentioned above. There is much to be gathered of the character of the horse from the expression of his eye. The rather sunken sour, or " pig " eye is allied to vice, whilst a mild expression generally indicates good temper. Horses which show the white of the eye, when looking askance, are said to be vicious ; but the Author has not been able to verify this tradition in his experience. 890. The Ears. The Ears should be thin, delicate, small, and pointed, that is, directed forwards. The points should be nearer to each other than the roots. Horses with their ears close at their base are generally nervous. When the horse is at work, the ears should be kept firm. Figs. 1 and 3. If they hang loosely, it indicates want of tone and of muscular development. Large flabby ears mark an underbred horse. Figs. 16 and 26. Lop ears are ugly, but are found in all classes of horses. 891. The Mane. In the well-bred horse the hair of the Mane is fine, silky, and generally rather scanty. In the underbred animal it is coarse, curly, and gene- rally thick and abundant. 892. The Necl-. The neck should be light, moderately long, and taper off towards its upper end in order that the head may be set on at a suitable angle. It should be " long in the rein," i. e. longer at its upper than at its under side. Unless it is so formed, the neck cannot be properly arched, nor can the head be well set on. Fig. 3. Also fig. 1. The upper line of the neck from the wither* to the head should form 28 434 CHAPTER 60. an elegant curve ; whilst its lower surface should be gracefully incurvated as it approaches the jowl, and it should join the chest by an easy flowing line rather above the point of the shoulder. In stallions, however, thick- ness of the neck is to be looked upon as a distinctive sexual mark. The Crest should feel firm under the grasp of the hand. The Throttle or commencement of the larynx should stand out boldly, and the lower branches of the jaw-bone, adjoining the neck, should be wide apart, so as to give ample room for the respiratory passages. If the neck be short and thick, fig. 3#, the horse will be unhandy and awkward in turning. If the neck be thick, and especially if the thickness be continued to its junction with the head (even though the neck be long enough) the horse will carry his nose poked out, and no bit can make him do otherwise. Fig. 36. If the rein be short, and the lower part of the neck be long, and especially if it be also thick at its junction with the head, the horse will probably be a " Star gazer." Fig. 3c. Ewe necks are unsightly, and the formation has a tendency to cause the horse to carry his head too high with his nose poked out. Fig. 3) arc obviously very objectionable. For drawing of the bones of the knee see Plate 27. 902. The Metacarpal Bones. The Metacarpals or bones between the knee and fetlock are three in number. The centre or great metacarpal bone, otherwise called the cannon or shank, cannot be too short or strong (Plate 25). It is a bone which often suffers from overwork, and therefore it is very important to have it short and strong. Shortness is a material item in its strength. This bone should be quite straight in its course from the knee to the fetlock, — neither bowed backwards nor forwards, nor curved laterally. Any deviation from a straight line is both a cause and sign of weakness. The small metacarpals or splint bones, which lie on each side of the great bone, but do not extend down to the pasterns, play only a very subordinate part in sustaining the weight. Their chief use appears to be to give support to the outer bones of the knee-joint. The breadth of the knee, which is greater than that of the cannon bone, seems to be an arrangement made by nature to diffuse and thereby obviate concussion in that important joint. See Chapter 39 on Splint. 903. The Fetlock. The Fetlock, under which term we include the large or upper pastern bone or os suffraginis, and the small or lower pastern bone or os coronrc, should be of moderate length (Plate 37, figs. 14, l±a, 146). If the fetlocks are very long, fig. 14a, they are necessarily weak, and there will be undue strain on the ligaments and tendons. From the effect of such strain wTe may expect exostoses or windgalls. If on the other hand the fetlocks are short, fig. 146, they must be also upright, and the horse will be unpleasant to ride on account of the concussion to wrhich this formation gives rise. From such increased concussion we may expect exostoses or windgalls about the part, if the work is at all severe. ERRATA. — Page 438, par. 903. Line 3. For " 14 a, 14 6 " read " and 15. Line 7. For " 14 b " read " 15 a." CONFORMATION. 439 Tho eminences and ihe depressions of the inferior head of the upper pastern bone should be well developed, so as to dip well into the corre- sponding parts of the lower or coronet bone. This formation gives strength to the articulation, and eases the strain on the ligaments and tendons. 904. The Sesamoid Bones. The Sesamoid bones (marked 9 in skeleton) are situated at the upper back part of the fetlock. Into them is inserted the superior sesamoideal, commonly called the Suspensory ligament. It is important that these two bone.s should be large and well developed in order to give proper attachment to that important ligament. They also act as rollers for the great flexor tendons of the leg, which pass over them. The sesamoid bones are occasionally subject to ulceration, but the disease does not usually originate in them. The tendons, when over- taxed, often become inflamed, and then the bones, over which they pass, become secondarily involved in the neighbouring inflammatory action. (See Plates 25 and 26 on Splint and Plate 27 on Sprains of the Tendons and Ligaments of the Fore-leg.) 905. The Coffin bone or Os pedis. The Coffin bone or os pedis or bone of the foot (k. Fig. 10, Plate 35) varies somewhat in size in different horses. But the size, of the foot does not depend so much on the size of the bone, as on the quality and condi- tion of the crust or horn which encloses the bone. The crust, as the reader is aware, frequently alters in size according to many varying circumstances ; but the bone, we need scarcely say, does not alter in size except in cases of very serious disease. The coffin botie rests on innu- merable springs. Concussion is thereby so expended, as to be greatly lessened in the frame above. In the disease, known as Founder, the attachment of the laminae (b b. c c. Fig. 10) to this bone becomes loosened, and the toe of the bone then comes on the sole ; and the peculiar condition recognised as " pumice " foot is produced. See Plate 56, Figs. 23 and 24, for Laminitis, also par. 1027. 906. The Navicular Bone. The Navicular is a small bone placed at the inferior and posterior part of the coffin bone (/ Fig. 10). It acts chiefly as a roller for the flexor perforans tendon (m.m. Fig. 10), where it makes its bend prior to inser- tion into the lower part of the coffin bone. It is somewhat frequently the seat of disease, especially of caries. The disease appears to originate in the bone from the effect of concussion or other such causes. (See Chapter 65, par. 1021, Navicular Disease.) The tendon, which passes under and round this bone, is very apt to become secondarily involved in the disease affecting the bone ; or it may become sprained at the point marked X in Fig. 10, section of a foot, where it makes its bend round the navicular bone, prior to its insertion into the coffin bone. • 440 CHAPTER 60. 907. The Forefeet. The Feet (Plate 35, Fig. 10), regard being had to the make and shape of the horse, should be of medium dimensions. A foot rather below the standard size is preferable to one above it. Both, however, are objec- tionable. In large feet the crust is generally weak, the animal on account of the size of his feet may probably brush, the action is rendered heavy and lumbering, and the horse soon becomes fatigued. In small feet on the other hand the crust is generally brittle, the basis of support is insuffi- cient, and the animal is apt to stumble or stand over. The above remarks apply to natural conformations. Large wide flat feet which have become so as the result of disease, or feet which have become contracted, are of course very objectionable. Any difference in the size of the feet should be regarded with the greatest suspicion, as it is a sure indication of disease either past or present in the feet or in some portion of the frame connected, though perhaps only indirectly, with the feet. The slope of the crust of the fore-feet should form an angle of between 50 and 52 degrees with the ground. If the feet are more upright, they will generally be found to be contracted. If more flat, they are usually weak and predisposed to many diseases, especially to corns. The hind feet are generally more upright than the fore-feet. The horn should be tough and sound. A ringy condition of the horn is very objectionable. It indicates weakness and want of tone in the secreting organs. It frequently follows inflammation of the feet or any debilitating disease. Rings however are common on feet of horses at grass. They are not serious. They are often due to alterations in the succulence in grass at varying seasons. If the horn shows signs of much chipping or breaking away at the nail-holes, it indicates undue brittle- ness. White feet are more predisposed to disease than dark-coloured feet. Some reasons for this peculiarity will be found under head of Colour, par. 933. .:: 908. The Soles. In the well-formed foot the Sole is moderately concave. When so formed, its margins receive a fair amount of wear and pressure, just suf- ficient to ensure the health of its tissues. In upright feet the sole is often unduly concave, and is then apt to become very hard. In flat feet on the other hand the sole is always unduly flat, and sometimes even convex. In this position it is liable to become injured and inflamed by excessive wear and pressure, or by bruises from stones, respectively represent good, slack, and light ribs. 913. The Pelvis. The Pelvis (No. 4 in Skeleton, Plate 31) should be broad, deep, and oblique, and its spinous processes called the hips should be moderately wide ; but they need not be so wide as to be unsightly or to give the appearance known as " ragged hipped." Breadth and depth are needed in order to give space for and attachment to the muscles of the hind quarters. All propelling power in the horse is derived from these muscles. They should therefore be large and well developed ; and it is essential to appearance that they should be laid on smoothly and evenly. Obliquity in the pelvis is needed in order to give due length to the quarters. Many horses with great jumping power often have very broad " ragged " hips. This breadth in the Irish hunter is frequently combined with a sudden drooping of the quarters and great length of hock. These conformations give great leverage for the muscles ; and although the formation is not handsome, yet when it is combined with powerful muscles, it often produces a horse valuable for hunting and steeple- chasing. The question of power however is one which must always be considered relatively to the other points of the conformation. As a general rule, an over-broad pelvis is not desirable in riding horses. It causes the hind legs to be set on too wide apart, and is therefore apt to produce an unpleasant rolling motion in the gait. Similarly the hips should not be too wide or too prominent. On the other hand, a narrow pelvis and a flat thigh invariably indicate a worthless animal. If the pelvis is defi- cient in width, the horse will be " split up," and the muscles on the inside of the thigh will be deficient. 914. The Loins. The loins should be large, long, well arched, and fully furnished with muscle. The muscle should be evenly supplied, so that the outward appearance may be smooth and round. Any great prominence on either side of the loins with a depression in the centre indicates want of breed- ing. In race-horses the muscular development of the loins is a point of the utmost importance. The thighs should be deep and full. There should, however, be suffi- cient interval between them to prevent friction. Horses with heavy thick thighs set closely together will not answer for fast work. On the other hand a want of muscular development, such as is indicated by the animal being " split up behind," is most objectionable. Most of these points are illustrated in the drawings given in Plate 24. 915. The Hind quarters generally. The Hind quarters, taken as a whole, should be long, deep, full, rounded externally, and placed well under the centre of gravity. 444 CHAPTER 6C. The well-made thorough-bred horse is straight and long in the portion of the back from the pelvis to the tail (see Skeleton). Due length in this part is essential both to power and to appearance, Fig. 18. Want of .length is found in horses of all breeds, Fig. ISa ; but short round rather drooping quarters are essentially an under-bred formation, Fig. 186. Very drooping or " goose " rumps are unsightly, and (except sometimes in Irish hunters) are only found in low-class animals, Fig. 18c, Plate 37. Length from the pelvis to the hock is also essential for speed and power. Although a race-horse, hunter, or riding horse may be disadvan- tageously broad across his hips, yet he can never be too long or too much " let down " in his quarters. The muscles will be thereby increased in length and volume, and the animal will gain in power and speed. Due proportion is, however, necessary between the strength or development of fore and hind quarters. Very great propelling power behind, if the fore-hand is not equally good, will cause failure in the structure. For example, in the hunting field horses with abnormally developed hind quarters are apt to over-jump themselves and to come on their heads, especially over "drop" fences. This applies in .a greater degree to Steeplechasers of similar build. For more detailed information and illustrations, see Chapter on Conformation of the Hock, and Plates 22, 23, and 24. 916. The Femur, Tibia, and Stifle. The Femur (No. 6) and Tibia (No. 7 in Skeleton) jointly form the upper part of the hind quarters. The femur should lie obliquely for- ward in order to bring the hind leg well under the horse. The tibia on the other hand should lie obliquely back, so as to bring the hocks under the direct line of the incidence of weight. In addition to lying obliquely forward the femur should be strong and long, so as to give due length to the quarters. The tibia should be strong and cannot be too long, having due regard to the general proportions of the horse. It is essential that it should be well let down into the hock. The muscles of the femur and tibia should be very well developed. They should appear especially prominent immediately above the hocks. This swelling out, or what are sometimes called " second thighs," is a formation essential to excellence in the racer or hunter. (Plates 22, 23, and 24.) The Stifle, in which the Patella is situated, marked No. 5 in Skeleton, should appear prominent and well defined. This will always be the case when the two bones, namely the femur and tibia, which articulate at this joint, are respectively properly placed, that is one obliquely forward and the other obliquely back. -. > 917. The Hock. The outline of the Hock should be clean, rigid, and well defined. Puffiness or swelling in any part is a sign of weakness or disease. The bones should be large and prominent. Size is essential to strength, and prominence is necessary in order to afford due leverage and attachment to the ligaments and tendons. Large and prominent bones are usually CONFORMATION. 445 accompanied by large and well-developed tendons and ligaments. The hock as seen laterally should be wide both above and below. Strength and size of bones and ligaments are both indicated by lateral width. The leg from the point of the hock down should incline a little under the body. This conformation is best adapted both for jumping and speed, because it allows the legs to be brought well forward in action. If the leg is inclined very much forward, the formation becomes weak, because the great bend made at the hock will occasion strain on the liga- ments and tendons of that important structure. (Plates 22, 23, and 24.) On the other hand, if the leg be placed perpendicularly under the hock there will be excessive concussion and great strain, especially in halting and turning, and consequent liability to diseases such as spavin, bog- spavin, and thorough-pin. If the leg inclines backwards, the horse cannot draw it well under his body, and there will then be want of pro- pelling power. The hock, too, will be liable to sprain, and to become affected with bog-spavin, &c. In short, the angle formed at the hock by the tibia and metatarsal bones should be neither very great nor unduly small. In itself, as distinct from the angle just spoken of, the leg should be perfectly straight from the point of the hock to the fetlock. Any deviation laterally from the perpendicular line, as is the case when the hocks are inclined either too much out or too much in, is a source of weakness and therefore of disease. By the public, hocks which bow out are generally considered less objectionable than those which incline towards each other. The author very much questions the correctness of this opinion. In the former case horses are said to go " wide behind," whilst in the latter they are called " cow-hocked." (Plate 24.) The os calcis or prominent bone at the posterior point of the hock, No. 21 in Skeleton, should be very well developed, very prominent, and isolated as it were from the substance of the thigh, in order to give due leverage to the tendons passing over it and attached to it, and also attachment to the ligaments belonging to it. This formation is essential to power and speed. More detailed information in regard to the conformation of the hock will be found in the Chapter specially devoted to that subject, No. 37. (Plates 22, 23, and 24.) 918. Great and small Metatarsal bones. The remarks made in the earlier portion of this Chapter on the bones of the fore-leg below the knee apply equally to the bones of the hind leg below the hock. Briefly however we may say that the portion of the leg below the hock cannot be too short. The greater length should be in the bones above the hock. The metatarsal bones, though their posi- tion should be slightly obliquely forward, must be in themselves perfectly straight. o 919. Sena moid and Navicular bones. Hind legs. The Sesamoid and Navicular bones, though their functions are similar to those of the corresponding bones in the fore leg, are less often diseased, 446 CHAPTER 60. because from a slight difference in the position of the leg, less concussion and strain comes on them than on those of the fore-leg. (See Skeleton.) 920. The Hind Feet. The same remarks apply generally to the hind as to the fore-feet. But from various circumstances, into which it is not necessary now to enter, the hind feet are much less subject to disease than the fore-feet. We may remark however that the hind foot is generally more upright than the fore-foot and also narrower, and its lower surface or sole is more recessed. On account of this formation its frogs are less subject to pres- sure and wear, and hence in the shod horse, at least, they are generally less well developed. The frogs are also somewhat liable to suffer from thrush, probably because the hind feet usually stand in the dirtiest and wettest part of the stall. In the fore-foot the toe and outer quarter are the strongest parts, whilst in the hind foot the greatest strength is in the quarters. 921. The Tail The hair of the tail in the well-bred horse is distinguished by its fine- ness and straightness. Figs. 13 and 13a. A thick, coarse, or curly tail generally indicates want of breeding. Fig. 13&, Plate 37. In the well-bred horse the tail is carried firm and well away from the hind quarters. There is an appearance of force and muscularity about its root. It is set on almost in a line with the back-bone. When so placed, it is capable of affording great leverage to the hind quarters. A tail well set on is a great ornament to a horse. The Arab (Fig. 13) carries it almost straight out in a line from the spine. Fig. 13« repre- sents an ordinary well-bred tail. In the under-bred animal the tail is usually set on low down, possesses no muscular power, clings to the hind quarters, and altogether looks mean. Fig. 13&. Fine curly hair is occasionally, though not very often, found in the tails of even thorough-bred horses. 922. The Sheath. The Sheath ought to be large and well developed. Horses with small sheaths are seldom lasting or strong. 923. The Dock. The Dock should be large and muscular. Horses with small docks are seldom good for much. *I 924. The Belly. The Belly is mainly supported by the back ribs. Horses which are short in the chest, or long and loose loined, and at the same time great feeders, often distend their bellies, so that they " hang down." Such animals are unpleasant to ride, because the saddle has a tendency to work forward on the shoulder. The same unpleasant result is produced when CONFORMATION. 447 the bides of the chest are narrow, and the ribs just behind the saddle are unduly circular. There is also an opposite evil. If from want of proper length and due convexity of the middle ribs the circuinferent measurement decreases from the fore-hand to the rear, the girths and with them the saddle will slip back, and in the stable the same result will happen with the roller and the clothes. 925. The Body. The Body should be long and low, that is, it should stand over a good deal of ground, and yet be deep and broad in all parts. The length should be due to a large, long, and oblique scapula, and long quarters — not to long and badly coupled loins. Such conformation is calculated to give both speed and endurance. Length is essential to speed, and breadth to endurance. Neither the one nor the other, however, must be disproportionate. In the body as in every other part of the frame we need to combine, in their just relative proportion, opposite qualities, namely, those which give speed and those which give endurance. 926. Of Bone in Different breeds. Bone must not be measured solely by reference to size. Bone varies very much in quality in different breeds. That of the under-bred horse is coarse, porous, and light, being what is in common parlance termed 4i bone " as opposed to ivory ; whilst that of the thorough-bred horse is dense and heavy and more nearly resembles ivory, and the projections for the attachment of muscles and tendons are well and boldly developed. 927. The Muscles. The Muscles throughout require to be well developed. Those of the arm, thigh, and back are of especial importance. No horse is fit for hunting or racing if these are in any degree deficient. Again, if they are at all deficient, it is more than probable that the tendons and ligaments, which join on to their extremities, will also be weak. A full round hard firm appearance of the muscles of the thigh is an indication of strength in those parts. The muscles of the back should completely fill up the space between the ribs and the upper portion of the spinous processes of the backbone. (See Skeleton, Plate 31.) Any hollow, or in other wrords any deficiency in the muscles on the sides of that bone is an indication of weakness. 928. Tendons and Ligaments. The Tendons, which are most frequently sprained, are those of the legs. They should be hard, clean, free from any gumminess, broad, and fiat. Breadth and fiatness are the chief elements in the conformation of a, good tendon. The same remarks apply to the superior sesamoideal ligament, commonly called the suspensory ligament. All the other many Ligaments which keep in apposition the bones of the various joints likewise need to be strong and well developed ; but out- 448 CHAPTER 60. wardly their conformation is not actually visible. Their size, however, as a rule, is pretty correctly indicated by the size of the bones at the joints. Large well-formed joints are accompanied and knit together by large well-developed ligaments, whilst small joints are usually held toge- ther by small ligaments. In examining the tendons, the eye alone should not be trusted to. They should also be carefully examined by pressure with the forefinger and thumb along their course, — namely, the more flattened perforatus, which is situated posteriorly, the corded perforans immediately in front of it, and the suspensory ligament in front of the last named. See Plate *27. After examining the leg with the weight on it, it should be lifted up, and the tendons and ligaments (being then relaxed) should be again examined and compared with those of the other leg. The inside of the knee should also be noticed to see if there is any mark of speedy- cut. (See X Plate 25.) 929. General Remarks. We stated in the beginning of this Chapter, that like as the strength of a chain is measured by its weakest link, so is the power and endurance of a Horse limited by the weakest point in his structure. It does not, however, necessarily follow that a horse will eventually fail at that point, which was originally the weakest. For example, in a chain cable with a weak link no storm, may occur for years to test its utmost strength, and under such circumstances the weak link may last as long as the rest of the chain. Similarly in a horse which is moderately worked and well cared for, the particular defect may never go against him, before age has worn him out altogether. Again circumstances may cause an excessive strain on a part which is not weak, and that part may yield, whilst weaker points, which are not subjected to strain in the particular animal may continue sound. For 'instance, a horse may have good hocks and bad feet. From the peculiar nature of the work, such as hunting, to which he may be subjected, it is very possible that he may fail in the hocks ; whilst the feet, to whose health soft ground is favorable, may stand srund. Again a horse may have a defective chest, and yet die of some disease totally unconnected with that weak point. Nevertheless our comparison with the chain holds good in the main ; and a horse with defective conformation at any given point is especially liable, if pushed, to fail at that point. In estimating, however, the com- parative degree of importance to be attached to the various points, con- stant reference must be made to the special use for which the intending purchaser requires the horse, and also to the price at which the animal with certain defects can be obtained. Certain defects will not go much against a horse for some sorts of work, whilst they may be most objectionable for other descriptions of work. For example, a somewhat hollow back is not of much detriment to a horse intended solely for harness : whilst it would be most objection- able in an animal intended to carry a heavy weight on his back. Again, CON FORMATION. 449 Certain sorts of work require special strength or features in particular parts of the frame. For instance, good hocks are especially essential in a hunter, good feet in a hackney, high courage and the best blood in a race-horse. Furthermore, circumstances in a great measure modify or increase the importance of particular points even in horses intended for the same class of work. Thus good ribs and chest or an aptitude to carry flesh even under short rations and hard work are essential in a troop horse ; whilst in a well fed, well cared for, moderately worked riding horse, no ill effect from slack or short ribs may ever become apparent, even though the owner rides eighteen stone. Again, length, especially in the hind quarters, is essential, where pace is required, whilst in animals not required for fast work, it is not equally material. A blind horse is inconvenient and dangerous to ride, but yet may go very well and safely in double harness. These instances and remarks might easily be multiplied to any extent. Our object, however, is only to impress on the reader, that instead of looking for perfection, which either cannot be obtained or can only be obtained at a very long price, he should look out for a horse suitable and good for the purposes for which he wants him. If the purchaser finds that he has made a mistake in the animal he has bought, the author would recommend him to get rid of him at a sacrifice, rather than persist in putting him to a class of work for which he is physically unfit. 930. Action. Good true action generally, but not always accompanies a well-formed outline. Action is greatly dependent on the muscular power and on the tendons and ligaments, though these again depend on the bony conforma- tion. Strength of muscle and leverage derived from the conformation of the bones must go together. If the muscle is strong, but the leverage is weak, it is of no avail. On the other hand, the position of the bones, however favorable it may be, will be of no use unless there are muscles powerful enough to work them. We must not forget that the bone in the well-bred horse is stronger, heavier in proportion to size, and more solid than in the under-bred animal. The muscles partake of the same character, being clean, fibrous, and free from adipose tissue. When the muscles are in the state fittest for exertion, the horse is said to be " in condition." The thorough-bred horse owes his speed to the mechanical arrange- ment of his frame ; whilst the cart horse for his particular work requires solidity and squareness of make. These are the two extremes. Between them lie those structural formations which are most suitable for ordinary riding purposes and light harness work. Again, the well-bred horse is endowed with much greater nervous energy than the cart horse. The quality of blood, as is generally sup- posed, but more probably greater brain power and generally increased nervous development, give this mysterious vital stamina. — the will and the endurance. 20 450 OH APT ELI 60. When horses grow over-large, they seldom increase in good points ill due proportion. Hence so many overgrown horses are of little value. A good big horse with all his parts in proportion will always beat a good little horse. The very best shape, however, we may remark, will gene- rally be found in small horses and ponies, especially in the latter. Action should be true, that is, level and straight, and above all it must be free. If a horse performs his walking pace freely, he generally does his other paces equally so. If he moves cramped or short at a walk, the other paces are usually bad. In a hack or charger a good free indepen- dent walk is indispensable. A horse that stands well, that is, with his limbs in a proper position, will probably walk well. A naturally bad shuffling walker should be refused. The lift of the foot in the walk should be sufficient to clear all ordinary obstacles in the road, and the action should be collected and perfectly within the animal's control. The foot should be well flexed in the air without any great deviation laterally, and the toes should not be much turned either in or out. In a hackney we desire to have a horse with a quick walk rather than with the long pace of the thoroughbred. A horse should place his foot firmly and flatly down. Still his action should be so light and nimble, that there should be but little noise from his tread. A clumsy-going horse is at once known by the noise of his tread. The shoe should be fairly worn at all parts. Any undue wear at the toe is an indication that the horse may probably be a stumbler. Horses that stick their toes in the ground are easily thrown off their balance, and may come down. On the other hand the knee should not be raised too much, nor should the horse " wind " his foot when raised. Such action takes off from the speed and security of the walk. In trotting, the hind and fore-legs must act truly and correctly and in unity with each other. The hocks should be well flexed and brought well under the body, the fore-legs should be lifted quickly and lightly, and all the movements must be in harmony. High action in walking and trotting, though fashionable, is not really good. A horse loses in progression, all that he steps unnecessarily high. For this reason high-stepping horses generally tire soon, and are then apt to stumble. Besides they are uncomfortable to ride, and moreover they knock their legs to pieces, and are likely to suffer from the effects of excessive concussion. It is essential that the action should be high enouyli to be perfectly safe, but all beyond that the Author thinks an evil. The action should suggest the idea that it commences from the top of the shoulder. Good action does not consist merely in the flexion of the knee. Dealers are great adepts at temporarily improving and developing walking and trotting action ; or if we may be allowed the expression, in producing action artificially. The trick is simple enough. One man with good hands leads the horse with a sharp bit in his mouth, whilst another cracks a whip behind him. As the horse attempts to go forward, he is sharply checked by the bit. The result is that his knees go up, because progress is checked, when the impulse is given from behind. After a few lessons the horse begins to step high, and will continue to do CONFORMATION. 451 so, for fear of tlie bit and the whip, whilst in the yard and perhaps during a short ride, such as the intending purchaser may wish to take. Very heavy shoes have been used with same object, and with more permanent effect. But the plan fails, because the heavy shoes must be removed before the horse can be shown to a customer. More lately and more ingeniously, the same object has been gained by shot-bags, weighing from 4 Ib. to 6 lb., round the front fetlock. These can be removed in two or three minutes. But the action is not natural, and the purchaser will generally find that after a few days the animal reverts to the action appropriate to his conformation. Defective action may however undoubtedly be improved by good riding and suppling of the shoulders. But it is not the intention of the Author in this treatise to enter into the question of horse-breaking. In galloping, the hind legs must be brought well under the body, and the animal must go low and near the (/round. 931. Defects in Action. The Author is afraid that he would render this chapter too long if he were to enter into a detail of the innumerable defects which occur in action. Any and every deviation from light, springy, easy, quick, straight action is in some degree a defect. The more prominent defects however are rolling, dishing, cutting, and stumbling. Want of harmony between the fore and hind legs is also very objectionable. If a horse, for instance, has powerful hind quarters and straight shoulders, the extra propelling power is an evil ; or con- versely the best shoulders are of no avail without good hind quarters. Pitching action, i. e. the fore-foot being darted straight out, is very un- pleasant to the rider. Winding of the fore-foot is also very objection- able. Any action of the hind legs, which is performed by or accompanied with swaying of the loins, is unpleasant in a riding horse and unsightly. 931 a. Stumbling. Stumbling is more often due to the way in which a horse puts his foot down on the ground than to want of height in raising the foot in action. It is rare that a horse strikes an obstacle in transitu. He generally strikes the obstacle as he puts his foot down on the ground. Hence high action is not itself a bar to stumbling — though it is probable that a horse with light easy action will put his foot more nimbly down on the ground than a sluggish goer. Stumbling ho.vever in the Author's opinion far more often arises from want of nervous appreciation of the obstacle, or, in other words, want of delicate sensibility of touch, than from defect either in the manner of raising or putting down the foot. Such want of nervous appreciation of obstacles of course constitutes the worst class of bad action. Some horses appear to have an intuitive appreciation of all obstacles, inequalities of ground, hollows, elevations, &c., whilst others with appa- rently good action blunder against everything. 452 CHAPTER 60. 932. Position in Standing. The horse should so stand, that the weight may be evenly distributed on the legs without interfering with their free motion. No precise rules can be laid down as to exact position, because as soon as the animal is put into motion, so much will depend on the kind of action he may have. The eye must principally guide us. Still some general rules may be given. 1st. A vertical line let fall from the point of the shoulder should meet the ground nearly at the point of the toe, Fig. 14, Plate 37. If the foot is removed much behind that point, the equilibrium is imperfect and the horse is unsafe, Fig. I4.a. If on the other hand the line falls much behind the foot, the horse is probably long in the fetlock and with low heels, and he will in consequence be very liable to sprain of the ligaments of the fetlock, Fig. 146. 2nd. A vertical line let fall from the middle and back part of the arm should equally divide the knee, cannon, and pastern, and should reach the ground a little behind the heels, Fig. 15. If the line falls within the heels, the horse must have an upright pastern, Fig. I5a ; whilst if it falls at a considerable distance behind that point, the pastern is unduly long, Fig. 156. 3rd. A vertical line let fall from the middle of the fore-arm ought to divide equally all the inferior parts, Fig. 1G. If the said line falls more exteriorly, the legs are too close, Fig. 16a; whilst if it falls within, the legs are too wide apart, Fig. 166, Plate 38. 4th. If the said line divides equally the knee and leg as far as the fet- lock, but afterwards falls on the inside, the toes will be unduly turned out, Fig. 17 ; whilst if the line falls more exteriorly, the horse will be pigeon- toed, Fig. 17«. 5th. The lines applicable to the position of the hock were given in Chapter 37, Conformation of the Hock. 933. Ctlour. It is often said that a good horse cannot be a bad colour. This saying1 is scarcely true. It would be more like the truth to say that a good horse never is a bad colour. There is but little choice in regard to colour provided only that the colour be good of the sort. All colours which are light of the sort are bad ; whilst all are good which are decided of the sort. For example, a rich brown is good — so also is a bright bay with dark legs ; whilst a common brown running to .bay about the legs and flanks, or a bay with light mealy legs is objectionable. Chestnuts, both dark and bright, arc good if the richn'ess of the hue be maintained to the extremities; but both are objectionable if the tail and legs are lighter than the body. The same remarks are applicable to other colours or shades of colour. Colour, if wanting in depth, almost always fails towards the extremities. The explanation of this peculiarity is said to be, that all colour is depend- ent on light and heat. Now the heat of the body is greatly dependent CONFORMATION. 453 on tlie circulation, which again is dependent on the vigour of the consti- tution. If the circulation be weak there will be a want of tone through- out the body producing the weakness or washiness of colour to which we object. This weakness will of course be felt especially in the extremities, which are furthest removed from the centre of the circulation. Whether this explanation be correct or not, it is certain that horses, whose colour fails in the extremities, are generally weak in constitution. Hence the common saying, " Washy in colour, washy in constitution." 934. Constitution. A good Constitution generally accompanies a powerful frame ; but this is not invariably the case either in horses or men ; and a powerful frame we need scarcely say is not of much use without a good constitution. Some horses apparently well made are yet so highly nervous, that they will never carry flesh. Others, again, with the best appearance some- times deceive us from want of spirit and pluck. We cannot always ex- plain these things. Many a horse, however, may be dull and sluggish, when in poor condi- tion, which may be a very different animal when well fed and cared for. As a general rule, unless a horse is naturally a good feeder, we cannot make much of him. 935. Breeding. Breeding or " blood " exercises a mysterious influence in the horse. Closely allied with it is nervous organisation. It may be, perhaps, that the well-recognised effects of breeding are really more dependent on the latter than on blood. In the high-bred animal the thought almost of the rider, the slight feeling of the hand or leg is conveyed to the horse ; whilst the under-bred animal is very slow in receiving any such impres- sions. Endurance and courage are also notable characteristics of the well-bred horse ; whilst a lazy sluggish feeling and a desire to save him- self mark the under-bred animal. A good thorough-bred horse will go till he drops. A low-bred animal will always stop in good time. The rider may think that he has urged him by whip and spur to the utmost extent of his power ; but on a visit to his stable a few hours after, he will probably find that the brute shows no great signs of having over-exerted himself. A high-bred horse fights against difficulties, whilst the other yields to them. A high-couraged horse, when he comes to a hill, will face it and pull harder than on level ground. On a downward slope he will probably not care to exert himself. The low-bred animal may perhaps show a disposition to increase his pace downhill, but will " shut up " at a stiff ascent. The well-bred horse will go as pleasantly and gaily at the end as at the beginning of a long day ; whilst the other, though he may very likely be troublesome and fractious at the onset, will pro- bably require both whip and spur to keep him to his work. Our best-bred horses are derived from an admixture of Arab blood. The English " thorough-bred " is not of pure Arabian stock. Arab sires 454 CHAPTER CO. only were imported at the date at which our stud book commences, and their produce out of certain mares, called the Royal mares, which had been collected by the King during the latter half of the (seventeenth century, both from home and from foreign countries, constitute what is now called our " thorough-bred " stock. It will be seen, therefore, that the name is in some degree a misnomer. Careful breeding and high feeding have, however, developed a race of horses, with which the real thorough-bred, i. e. the produce of the Arabian sire and dam, cannot at present compete on the turf. On the other hand, it must be remembered that the pure high caste Arab does not measure over 14-3 hands. What might be the result if the Arab were in the course of years by careful breeding and early good feeding de- veloped to the size of the English thorough-bred the Author cannot say. This experiment is now being tried by Mr Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, of Crabbet Park, Three Bridges, Sussex. Mr. Blunt has imported the very best Arab sires and dams ; and every lover of the horse will rejoice if his spirited endeavour results in increasing the bone, stamina, and endurance of our English breed of horses. Mr. Blunt's experience so far has been that it is difficult to increase greatly the height of the English-bred Arab without losing something of the original type and quality. He is of opinion that 14*3 or 15 hands will long remain the maximum height in pure-bred English Arabs, though their power and endurance may be indefinitely improved by selection and better feeding. Best Arab time 1 mile — 1874, Madras, Lucifer, 10 st. 2 lb., 1 minute 52 seconds. 1877, Calcutta, Saracen, 9 st., 1 minute 50J seconds. For "2 miles, Calcutta, Sherwood, 10 st. 2 lb., 3 minutes 49 seconds. Best Derby time, 1887, Merry Hampto-n, 2 minutes 43 seconds ; 1888, Ayrshire, 2 minutes 43 seconds. Best Oaks time, 1892, La Fleche, 2 minutes 43 1-5 seconds. Course, 1J miles and 29 yards. Hilly and not good for time. Sandown Eclipse Stakes, 1893, Orme, 10 st. 2 lb., 1J miles, 2 m. 10 s. Time is not often taken on the English turf for 1 mile races. The Author has not been able to get any thoroughly reliable statistics, but as far as he can ascertain 1 m. 43 s. is the best time on record for 1 mile. Best Steeplechase time is probably 1893, Cloister, 12 st. 7 lb., Grand National, Liverpool, 4J miles, 9 minutes 8 seconds. The best Waler (Australian) time, 2 miles, 3 minutes 54 seconds. It will be seen from the above that there is not much difference between English and Arab time. But " time " comparison is not alto- gether fair to the English horse. Arab races are run at full speed throughout. This is not the case on the English turf. Something is always reserved for the final struggle. What would be the best possible time of the English horse the Author has not been able to ascertain. The custom of running Arabs at full speed throughout is doubtless due to their great staying power. But when the English and Arab horses meet, the former can give the Arab 4 st. or more. The explanation of this curious fact is that the N.B. — For latest best English and Indian time see Postscript. CONFORMATION. 455 English horse has a longer stride and can outpace the Arab for the first £ mile. The Arab will struggle to keep up to the pace of his competitor, and in this hopeless struggle will exhaust himself ; and then the English horse canters in an easy winner. As regards English thorough-bred horses, there is some reason to fear lest the present system of very short races should lead to the breeding of horses more with a view to speed than endurance. It is, however, a mistake to suppose that very worthless animals will ever be used on the turf. No horse can be trained at all, not even for the very shortest race, unless he has considerable strength of bone, tendon and ligament. The misfortune rather is that in the endeavour to produce a speedy animal, so many horses worthless for any purpose are brought into existence. Whilst the Author yields to no one in his appreciation of the value of blood, yet he must remind the reader that high-bred horses do not answer so well for some purposes as those of a lower caste. For many sorts of work involving slow, patient drudgery, the sluggish nature and broader and heavier build of the under-bred horse is far more suitable than the eager exertions and slighter frame of the thorough-bred. In the mean between these two lies the horse most useful for ordinary purposes. 936. Distinctive Marks and Colour. In taking the description of a horse, after detailing of course the colour, age, and sex, it is usual to specify any Marks, whether natural or acquired, which the horse may have about him. A Star is a round or roundish white spot on the forehead. A Race is a narrow white streak down the face. It may be a continuation of a star or it may be separate and distinct from it. It may be straight or crooked. A. Snip is a white mark on a nostril or side of a nostril, running down to the mouth. It is sometimes continued to the lower lip. The part is often almost devoid of hair, and in such case has a flesh-coloured appear- ance. All these marks may be separate or they may be combined. A Blaze consists in the whole or half of the face being marked by a broad white streak extending to the mouth. White legs or heels, spots of any colour, grey hairs in the mane or tail or about the body, are also always recorded in the description. Blemishes, if any, such as saddle marks, scars, broken knees, per- manent enlargements about any part, &c., should also be detailed. The Color of a horse in doubtful cases is decided by the color of the muzzle. Thus, if it be a question whether a horse is black or brown, the muzzle would determine the point. An almost black horse, for instance, with a brown muzzle is counted as brown ; whilst a horse of similar color of body with a. black muzzle would be reckoned as black. 937. Vice and Sulkinees. Awkward-shaped horses are often vicious or sulky, probably because from awkward shape they cannot readily comply with the indications of the hand and leg, and the wishes of the rider ; and hence they are often Jiarshlv treated, and in consequence become vicious or sulky. 456 CHAPTER 60. Again, .many high-couragcd sensitive horses become vicious from rough or awkward usage. The original fault more often lies in the usage than in the animal. A bad rider or an ill-tempered man had better get an imder-bred slug. 937ft. Conclusion. We shall conclude these remarks by observing that neither frame nor constitution is of much use without good condition. This latter great essential can only be obtained by good grooming, careful and regular feeding on the best forage, strong and regular exercise, fresh wholesome air in the stables, and general good management. HINTS ON PURCHASE OF RIDING HORSES. A horse should be rejected for any one really bad fault. The greatest strength of a horse is limited by his worst point. Horses are often bought because they possess one or more very good points. This is a wrong principle in buying. The selection of horses should begin by rejection for bad points. Bad points are of course, in a great measure, a question of degree. Discretion is needed in rejecting as well as buying. 1. In measuring a horse or judging of his height and size by sight, take care that he stands on a level with yourself. Dealers generally stand a horse, if under-sized, on higher ground, or if over-sized on lower ground than the intending purchaser. 2. Want of a fair amount of breeding should be an absolute bar. 3. Reject a horse with a big coarse head. 4 with a small sunken eye. They are generally ob- stinate and sulky. 5 of a colour light of the sort. 6. with a long slack back. It will not carry weight. 7 with a hollow back. The formation is weak. 8 with flat sides. They will not do work or look well. 9 with a slack loin, i. e. undue length between the last ribs and hind quarters (sacrum). They are often bad feeders and will run up light with work. 10 with a light loin, i. e. want of breadth over the loins. . They run up light with work. 11 with scraggy hips. They never do credit to feeding, particularly if also slack in the loins. 12 with a bad girth, i.e. "light through the heart." This formation will always cause trouble in saddling. 13 with a thick or short neck. 14. unless it has a good Rein. With a clumsy neck the head is in consequence badly set on. Without HINTS ON PUHCHASE OF RIDING HORSES. 457 a good rein a horse will never break well, or bo pleasant to ride. 15. Reject a horse with very low withers. The saddle will be apt to work forwards, and the " rein " will probably be deficient, and the leverage for the muscles of the fore-hand is defective. loa a slug always a nuisance. 16. To see the above points stand on the side and form your opinion before the horse moves off. 17. Reject a horse with a narrow or shallow chest. There is not suffi- cient capacity for the Lungs. 18 , with fore-legs very close together. This and the former defect generally go together. To see these points stand in front. 19. whose fore-legs are not straight. They will not stand wear. Stand behind the horse as he walks away from you, and you will be able to notice these defects, if they exist. 20 which is light below the knee, especially if light immediately below the knee. The conformation is essentially weak. 21 with long, or with short, or with upright pasterns. Long pasterns are subject to sprains. Short or upright pasterns make a horse unpleasant to ride, and on acount of extra concussion are apt to cause ossific deposits. 22 with toes turned in or out. The twist generally occurs at the Fetlock. Toes turned " out " are more objectionable than toes turned " in." When toes are turned out, the fetlocks are generally turned in, and animals so formed are very apt to cut or brush. Both, however, are weak formations. 23 whose hind legs are too far behind. Good pro- pelling power will be ^wanting, and disease as a result may be expected in the hocks. 24 which goes either very wide or very close behind. 25 with very straight or very bent hocks. The former cause undue concussion, the latter are apt to give way. 26 which is "split up," i.e. shows much daylight between his thighs. Propelling power comes from behind, and must be deficient in horses without due muscular development between the thighs. 27 with flat feet or over-large feet, also with very small feet. Medium size are the best. 28 with one foot smaller than another. 29. A goose rump is not objectionable as a mechanical formation, but it is ugly. 458 OHAPTEE 61. Action must be light, easy, free, and straight. Reject a horse that crosses his legs in walking or trotting. He will be unsafe. Freedom, power to move easily along, is the great point. A good walk is absolutely essential. Reject a horse that does not walk well ; he is never pleasant to ride. If a horse walks well, he will proba- bly trot well • but a horse may trot well without walking well. To ascertain whether the action is true and straight, stand behind the horse as he walks and trots away from you. You cannot ascertain this important point by standing on the side. Never omit to stand behind a horse as he walks away. A good sloping shoulder is an important item in a riding horse, but bad action may co-exist with a good shoulder ; and, vice versd, good free action may co-exist with a somewhat straight shoulder. Reject a horse which is straight in the shoulder and long from the point of the shoulder to the upper part of the forearm. This formation places fore-legs too much under the horse, and makes him unsafe to ride. You may have a plain horse, even if all the above very apparent defects are absent, but you will, at least, have a serviceable one if in addition found sound on veterinary examination. Having first of all kept clear of all absolute defects such as the above, then select your horses for the presence of good, serviceable, and hand- some points, and easy, free, graceful carriage. But, I repeat, begin by rejection for any one positively bad defect. The greatest strength of a chain is limited by the strength of its weakest link. In purchasing Horses, it is a great point not to lose time. // you see any one radical defect, reject the Horse at once. The Dealer will, of course, try and persuade you to do otherwise, and will call your attention to some very good point or points in the really defective animal. Do not lose time. A dealer, if you are a stranger to him, will probably bring out and try and palm off on you his inferior horses. But if you are quick in seeing bad points, and at once reject defective animals, he will soon find it necessary to show you his best horses. CHAPTER 6i. TEIB LAW OF WARRANTY. 938. Uncertainty of the Law. The English law of Warranty is in a very unsettled and unsatisfactory state. No man, who gives a warranty, is safe. The seeds of disease or lameness may be legally traced back almost any length of time. On the other hand, a bona fide purchaser even in cases of downright fraud often finds the greatest difficulty in recovering his money from an unscrupulous dealer. In almost every case some Veterinary Surgeon may be found to give his professional opinion that tl}e cause of unsoundness may have been anr| THE LAW OF WARRANTY. 459 probably was antecedent to the sale ; whilst on the other side an equally eminent practitioner may be found to give a directly opposite opinion. Hence arise tedious lawsuits and conflicting decisions. The jury are puzzled by contradictory professional evidence. The- judge' explains to them the law of the case, namely, that if in their opinion the cause of unsoundness was antecedent to the sale, the horse can legally be re- turned ; but if they think that the cause was not antecedent, the animal cannot be returned. He then reads over his notes and tells them that they must be judges of the question of fact. The state of the law is also made in many cases a means of oppression and injustice, even where the matter does not come to trial. Take a very ordinary case. A farmer sells a young horse to a dealer for £70, and warrants him sound. Ten days after the purchase the dealer writes to say that the colt has turned a roarer, and that he must return him. The farmer lives at a distance from , and has no means of investi- gating the truth or otherwise of the statement. An angry correspondence ensues, and the dealer threatens an action. Rather than have the trouble, expense, and uncertainty of a lawsuit, the farmer eventually re- turns half the money; whilst the horse may be all the time perfectly sound, or may have become diseased from want of due care in bringing him suddenly into the confined atmosphere of a town stable. Or take another case. A dealer sells a horse to a customer. The animal's legs by judicious management, laxative diet, moderate exercise, and bandages have been got pretty fine, and he passes muster on the day of sale. After a few days' work the horse goes lame. The purchaser then takes the animal to a veterinary surgeon, who tells him the un- pleasant truth, namely, that he has made a bad bargain, or in other words has been " done." The buyer threatens an action, but the dealer laughs at him, and says that he can produce evidence, plenty of evidence, that the horse has been in regular work for six months previous and has always been sound. The purchaser is deterred by the probability that the seller will produce the required evidence — whether the jury will be- lieve or not may be doubtful — but he is afraid of the uncertainties and expense of the law, and so he puts up with the loss. An excellent custom — not law, for there is no law on the subject — pre- vails in Ireland, namely, that the purchaser may take the horse to a veterinary surgeon of his own selection any time within forty-eight hours after the purchase ; and that both parties are finally bound by his deci- sion. If the purchaser neglects to do so, the bargain is nevertheless com- plete at the end of the above time. Of late years this has also become customary in England. As regards soundness, the Author would earnestly recommend the seller only to give a warranty of the above description, namely, " sound, subject to the opinion, to be taken within forty-eight hours, of a veteri- nary surgeon selected by the purchaser ; " and on the other hand he would advise a purchaser not to ask for anything more. It may however occur, that the veterinary surgeon may recommend that a special warranty be given for a specified time on some particular 460 CHAPTER 61. points which he thinks suspicious. To such special warranty on any one point for a given time the Author sees no objection— either on the part of the buyer or of the seller. Warranties are also given as to freedom from vice. These are very apt to lead to difficulty. A horse may be quiet with one person and trouble- some with another. A horse may be quiet if properly exercised, and fractions if left in the stable and over-fed. Again, a horse with a really beautiful mouth will often show temper and perhaps rear, if the rider has bad hands. As regards the temper or vice, the intending purchaser ought to pro- tect himself by riding or driving the animal, and ascertaining by such trial that he suits his hands and seat. If he is too timid to do it himself, he can always find a friend who will not object to make the trial ; though for the reason given above such trial is very inferior to that made by the intending purchaser personally. Seeing a horse ridden by the dealer or his man is worth nothing. Horse dealers, though they make a point of abusing their men and declaring that they have no " hands," in reality always provide themselves with good riders for the purpose of showing off their cattle to the best advantage. In trying a horse, the animal should always be ridden in front of, alone, and in company. Many vicious horses go quietly along with another horse, especially with one to which they are accustomed ; whilst others go quietly alone, which are excessively unpleasant to ride along with other horses. The horse, when tried in company, should always be ridden a little behind as well as in front of and alongside others. Some animals fidget all day unless they are in front, whilst others start and shy when in front, though quiet when ridden behind or with others. 939. Purchase of aged horses. The advisability of buying a mature horse of six or seven years old should never be lost sight of, notwithstanding a few lumps or bumps, the result of work, in preference to an absolutely clean-legged animal of that age. The chances are that perfectly clean legs at that age are due to a delicate constitution, a bad temper, or an attack of serious disease, which has kept the animal out of the influences likely to cause these signs of " honest work." An unbroken technically, i. e. absolutely sound six-year-old horse, is an object of grave suspicion to all practical horsemen, who know that no ordinary reason would induce the breeder to keep the animal till that age, when it was as marketable at four years old. Moreover Conformation -must play a very important part in expressing an opinion regarding the unsoundness of Legs, which may presumably be the result of work or accident. 939a. Responsibility of Veterinary Surgeons. As in the human subject specialists are often mistaken in the views they take of the patient's constitutional ailments, so it may occur that PBINCIFLES OF SHOEING. 461 Veterinary Surgeons, even the most skilled, with the greatest possible care may fail to detect latent defects, and it seems unreasonable that juries should hold them pecuniarily responsible. The medical man who makes a mistake with the patient who consults him is not so held respon- sible ; or take another case, which is perhaps more closely allied to the examination of horses for' soundness. An insurance office employs a medical man to report on the constitutional and probable longevity of a person wishing to be insured. The medical man is not held by the insurance office to be pecuniarily responsible, if he makes, a mistake in his diagnosis and the person insured dies shortly afterwar4s. CHAPTER 62. PRINCIPLES OF SHOEING. Plates 47 to 57. The figures are consecutive throughout these Plates. 940. General principles. 941. Structure of the Foot. 942. The outer case of the Foot. 943. The Crust or Wall 944. Effect of rasping on the Crust. 945. Why then do farriers rasp? 946. Of lowering the Crust versus rasping its external surface. 947. Prevention of splitting of the Crust after being lowered. 948. The Bars. 949. The Sole. 950. Of undue pressure on the sensitive Sole, as a result of paring. 951. Of undue pressure on the sensitive Sole from mutilation of the Crust. 952. The Frog. 953. Cleanliness. 954. Shape of the Foot. 955. Size of the Feet. 956. Feet to be pairs. 957. Contraction and expansion of the Foot. 958. Conclusion. 940. Principles of Shoeing. I SHALL dismiss for the present all questions of particular patterns of Shoes, — though I have my own preference. At the outset I shall treat only of that which is essential to all good shoeing, namely, the preserva- tion of the foot in a sound and healthy state. Certain sorts of shoes may be adjuncts to good shoeing, but they are not absolutely essential to it. Without a healthy foot any sort of shoe will more or less fail. With a healthy foot, most sorts of shoes will answer tolerably well. I attach far more importance to the treatment of the foot than I do to the1 shoe. One great principle runs through all good shoeing, namely, the pre- servation of the outer case of the foot; this includes — 1st. The preservation of the Crust and Bars whole and entire. 2nd. The preservation of the Sole. 3rd. The preservation of the Frog. 941. Structure of the Foot. The Foot is a sensitive vascular structure with a bone, or rather two bones and a portion of a third, enclosed within its outer case. 462 CHAPTER 62. All that we need do — or perhaps I * should rather say, all that \ve can do in shoeing — is to preserve the outer case whole and entire ; namely, the Crust and Bars, the Sole and the Frog. Nature in most cases takes care of the interior structures, if we preserve the outer case. The excep- tions to this rule are diseases resulting from constitutional or accidental o causes. But if we do not preserve the outer case whole and entire, the interior structures will certainly suffer in various ways, to be described hereafter. 942. Of the outer case of the Foot. The outer case consists of three parts, viz. 1st, the Crust, otherwise called the Wall (Plate 47, A, fig. 1), and the Bars ; 2nd, the Sole (B, fig. 2) ; 3rd, the Frog (c, fig. 1). The Bars are not shown in this drawing. See B, fig. 6. 943. Of the Crust or Wall The Crust or Wall (A, fig. 1) will suffer if it be rasped outxide. It con- sists of a number of fibres (containing a soft cellular nutritive material), running down longitudinally from the coronet. In technical language the crust is said to be secreted by the plexus of blood-vessels round the coronet, called the coronary band or cushion. In plainer words, it grows from the thickened skin round the coronet (B, fig. 1). In the human fingers the nails grow in a similar way from the skin. The crust is over- laid externally by a gluey glazed superficial layer — of which hereafter. The fibres of the crust contain the above-mentioned soft cellular mate- rial in an organised form for a considerable, perhaps two thirds of the distance down. In their lower portion the crust becomes dry and hard ; and the fibres are then in a condition, first, to stand wear and pressure without sensation ; and, secondly, they are in a state almost ready, and in their lowest portions quite ready, not exactly to be cast off, but to be worn off by friction with the ground. The fibres are constantly being renewed by growth from above. No doubt under the wise laws of nature the renewal or rate of growth is exactly proportioned to that amount of wear which would be incidental to a horse in a state of nature, such as would be required for obtaining food and water. I am aware that when horses are turned out in this country in a field with no distance to go in search of food or water, this natural wear does not sufficiently take place, and in consequence the feet become long. But it must be remembered that this is a semi-artificial condition. A horse really in a state of nature would probably have to travel many miles a day in search of food and water. I may here remark, if the reader will pardon a short digression, that nature appears to furnish horses with feet suitable to the locality in which they are bred. The low-bred horse, which is a native of rich wet pastures, where he would not have far to travel in search of food and water, has usually large, wide, somewhat fiat, " fieshy " feet. Such feet are more convenient to the animal in such pastures than narrow and more PRINCIPLES OF SHOEING. 463 Upright feet, which would sink deep at every step. But certainly they would not stand much wear. The high-bred horse, which is a native of the arid sandy plains of Arabia, must in a state of nature travel many miles every day in search of food and water. Nature has accordingly furnished him with feet more capable of withstanding wear. Hill ponies often have feet almost like those of donkeys. Such feet are suitable for rough rocky hills. 9-44. Effect of Rasping the Crust. 1st. Of rasping the crust high up, where the fibres are vitalised (A, fig. 2). Rasping produces two evils : 1st, the outer and strongest layers of fibres are destroyed ; and 2nd, the gluey superficial layer which overlies the outside of the crust is destroyed, and then the moisture of the horn, which is essential to its toughness, escapes. In consequence, the horn becomes brittle and then shrinks and contracts. Again, the moisture having escaped, the horn becomes hard. Having become hard and contracted, the horn then presses unduly on the vascular and sensitive parts within, especially on the sensitive laminae, and causes them to become hot, inflamed, and ultimately diseased. We recognise the earlier of these effects in the foot being hot. I do not say that the permanent and more injurious results above mentioned will ensue in a day or in a month, or even perceptibly in a year, but surely and slowly the maltreatment produces and must produce an ill effect on the vascular and sensitive structures of the foot. 2nd. Of rasping the crust below the point to which vitality extends (A, fig. 3, Plate 48). What harm is there in that ? it may be said. Well, two evils result — the one mechanical, the other vital — through injury to the mechanical arrangements of the foot. The width of the crust " proper," taken by itself, is about half an inch. But including the fibres, which interlace it with the laminae, it may be said to be about three quarters of an inch in width. These latter fibres are not so strong as those of the crust, but they are capable of sustaining some weight. On this three quarters of an inch has to be borne the greater portion of the weight of the horse and his rider, and the pounding and concussion occasioned by fast riding on hard roads. Now three quarters of an inch is not a great width on which to sustain all this weight and concussion. Two evils, the one mechanical, the other vital, as I said above, result from rasping the crust. Its width is probably diminished to half an inch ; and moreover, the strongest fibres have been destroyed. This re- duced width is one third less than nature intended. And nature is always right. In consequence of diminished width and strength, the crust be- comes insufficient to carry the weight of the horse. Hence undue con- cussion, heat, inflammation, and disease. The first portion of the injury is mechanical ; the second, a result of the mechanical injury, is vital. The sensitive internal structures are injured. Moreover, the strongest 464 CSAPTEE 61 horn fibres having been destroyed, the nails have a less firm hold and consequently the shoe is more easily pulled off, and probably a consider- able portion of the weakened crust will come away with it. 945. Why then do farriers rasp the Crust ? First, because an apparently good fit of the shoe to the foot is essen- tial. Secondly, because it is easier to produce to the eye of an inexperi- enced person the appearance of a good fit by rasping down the foot to a shoe rather too small for it than to fit the iron to the real size and shape of the foot. The primary essential of all good shoeing is that the outside of the crust be not rasped. 946. Of lowering the crust versus rasping its exterior surface. The crust or wall having been protected by the shoe from that natural friction and wear against the ground to which it would have been sub- jected if it had not been so protected, it is necessary each month to lower the crust as much as will represent what would have been the natural detrition by wear. How much this will be must vary in different horses. In some feet the growth is much more rapid than in others. In some hoofs of soft material the crust wears away considerably, even though protected by a shoe. This question must be left to the practical and practised eye of the farrier. But it will be asked, How is the crust to be lowered without causing the injuries described above to its structure? Simply by removing all that requires to be removed from the inferior or ground surface of the crust, without touching the superior part. This will be best done by the rasp from underneath, though, if the crust be very long, the knife may be used (A, fig. 4). After a sufficient quantity has been removed, the inferior or ground surface must be made perfectly level, for the reception of the shoe, by tne use of the rasp. The strength of the fibres of the crust will not be in any degree less- ened by shortening them. On the contrary, it will be rather increased. Let me illustrate what I mean by an ordinary quill or pencil. If I shave it longitudinally it will be weakened as regards its power of sustaining weight on its top ; but if I cut half an inch or an inch off its lower end it will practically be strengthened. For illustration see A, figs. 2 and 3, as compared with A, fig. 4." 947. Prevention of splitting of the Crust after leing lowered. Feather edge. When the crust has been sufficiently lowered and made level by the rasp, as above described, it will be sharp all round its exterior circle. This sharp or feather edge must be removed by the rasp before the shoe i>RlKCIPLES OP SHOEING. 465 is applied, in a way which I will endeavour to describe, but which can be much more easily shown practically. The foot being held up, the rasp must be applied from below to the under edge of the crust, and must be drawn round it so as to produce a blunt edge. If properly done no mark of the rasp will be visible above the rounding off (A A A, fig. 5, Plate 49). Again, this rounding off must be done before the shoe is applied. It cannot be done afterwards. Try and do it after the shoe is nailed on, and then take off the shoe and you will find a sharp edge. Memo. — If a sharp edge be left the crust will be liable to split and chip, which is a great evil. All splitting and chipping may be obviated in ordinary feet by rounding off the crust in the way described before the shoe is applied, provided always that the exterior of the crust has not been previously injured by rasping. Farriers almost always — I think I might say always — rasp the lower edge of the crust after the shoe has been nailed on, and thereby produce a sharp edge. They use the rasp at this time in order to produce the appearance of a good neat fit of the shoe to the foot. 948. The Bars. The bars (B, fig. 6) are a reduplication inwards of the crust at the heels. In addition to other uses the bars are the stays provided by nature to the back part of the foot against contraction. The continuity of the circle of the crust is broken at the heels by the intervention of the frog. Here some stay or buttress is needed to prevent a wiring in of the crust at the heels. The bars demand no special treatment, except to be let alone. If let alone, they will perform their duties efficiently and well. It is, however, the common practice of farriers to cut them away, because their absence gives a wider and more open appearance to the foot at the heels. But the result, the inevitable result, except perhaps in very strong feet, is contraction at the heels, and in many cases corns. It is also the common practice to pare out the sole from the angle between the crust and the bars. This angle is the seat of corn. It is pared out under the impression that this operation will relieve the part from that pressure which is the cause of corn. This idea, as preventive of corn, is a fallacy. Nature has filled up the angle with sole, and nature is never wrong. The portion of the sole between the crust and the bars acts beneficially in sustaining the bars in their proper position. When it is removed, the bars from want of its due and natural support are apt to wire in towards the crust. This wiring in produces undue pressure on the seat of corn, and may ultimately induce corn. Corns, however, are also due to other causes, of which hereafter. Bars, which have been cut away for a number of years, almost cease to exist. Pressure and weight are essential to their development, and in common with other parts, which are deprived of that duty for which nature intended them, they will dwindle away, and nothing but the germ will remain. In most cases, however, they may be again developed and 30 466 CflAPTEB 62. brought into their natural prominence by use and pressure, especially if the horse be shod with tips. 949. The Sole. Supposing the crust to have been properly treated and cared for in the manner above described, the sole needs nothing except to be let alone (A, fig. 6, also B, fig. 1). This is a very simple and easy mode of treat- ment, and anyone can follow it. But, before going further, I must earnestly caution my readers that this natural treatment of the sole is only applicable to feet in which the crust is good and has not been mutilated or otherwise abused. If the crust be mutilated, the sole must also be mutilated, as otherwise lame- ness will ensue. The reason for this will be explained hereafter. Having given this caution, I now proceed to consider the structure of the sole and the reasons arising therefrom, which under the circumstances of a naturally good and well-preserved crust render advisable, the negative treatment recommended above. The sole is not constructed -for sustaining weight except at its junction with the crust or wall, where it is thickest and strongest. Its fibres are composed of softer horn cells than those of the crust. Nor is it intended for sustaining pressure, except at this particular part. It is a recessed surface ; recessed surfaces are never intended to be exposed to pressure. Whilst the crust is worn away by friction with the ground, the sole — • which from its recessed position is not exposed to any such wear — of its own accord, from some peculiarity in the material composing its fibres, exfoliates in flakes, when its outer surface becomes effete. The sole consists of two layers, an outer and insensitive, and an upper and sensitive layer. Immediately above the upper sensitive layer is the coffin bone or os pedis. Hence it will be seen that the sensitive sole is placed between two hard substances, namely, the lower insensitive layer and the bone of the foot (D, fig. 1). Hence, if undue pressure comes on the lower layer, the upper and sensitive layer will be crushed between the two hard substances, and great pain and perhaps inflammation will ensue. Undue pressure may come on the sensitive sole from two causes : — 1st, from paring away the outer or insensitive layer, which renders it incapable of duly protecting the sensitive sole ; and 2ndly, from mutila- tion of the* crust and frog. 950. Of undue pressure on the Sensitive Sole as a result of paring. A fallacy exists among many horsemen and farriers, namely, that the insensitive sole, if not pared away, will unduly accumulate, and so cause pressure on the sensitive sole. Hence farriers cut it away — with good intent, no doubt, but in ignorance of its structure. For reasons given above, connected with its structure, the sole will never, except in disease, unduly accumulate. At the proper time it will exfoliate in flakes. Another fallacy also commonly exists, namely that the outer or ground surface of the sole will, if not pared out, become very hard, and will then PRINCIPLES OF SHOEING. 467 be liable to cause injury to the sensitive sole. Therefore the farrier cuts it away. In fact, the direction usually given is to pare out the sole at each shoeing, until it will yield to the strong pressure of the thumb, with a view of giving relief to the sensitive sole from undue pressure. In truth, however, the sole will never become unduly hard unless it be pared out. Its hardness or its softness is mainly dependent on its thin- ness or its thickness, except in certain diseases. If left in a state of nature, the thickness of the healthy sole is sufficient to preserve its own inherent moisture ; but if it be made artificially thin by paring the whole remaining substance will dry up and become hard. On the other hand, the outer flakes, if allowed to remain, though they may be apparently hard, will preserve the moisture of the inner flakes. If, however, the outer flake be removed, the next flake becomes hard, and so on ; and if by constant and premature removal of successive outer flakes by the knife, the insensitive sole is made very thin, the whole remaining substance will become very hard. Let me take an illustration. If I take a quire of paper and soak it in water, the underneath sheets will remain soft for a long time ; but if I take off each upper sheet as it becomes dry and hard, the next sheet will soon become dry and hard ; and if I continue the process of removal as each sheet becomes dry, the lowest sheet of all will become dry and hard. 951. Of undue pressure on the Sensitive Sole from mutilation of the Crust and Frog. The effect of rasping the crust was pretty fully described in the early part of this Chapter. The crust or wall of the foot, with the aid of the frog, is intended by nature to sustain the greater part of the whole weight of the frame. If the crust be weakened by rasping and thereby rendered insufficient to sustain the weight, a portion of the weight will come on the sole at the part not intended by nature to bear weight or pressure (H, fig, 2, also u, fig. o). A similar effect is produced by mutilation of the frog. The frog is intended by nature to sustain a large portion of the weight of the animal. 952. The Frog. The Frog (o, iig. 1, also c, fig. G, Plate -ID), except in disease, needs only the same treatment as the sole, namely, to be let alone. The frog is an clastic pad placed oil the back of the foot. It exfoliates in flakes in due time in much the same way as the sole. Therefore it does not need to be pared. The structural reasons against paring it are much the same as those detailed above in regard to the sole. There is, however, another reason against paring it. Unlike the solo the frog is prominent and convex. It is therefore obviously intended by nature for pressure and friction. Under the influence of its natural use viz. pressure and friction, it will thrive, develop, and become strong. "Without pressure and friction, it will shrink up and dwindle away and 468 CHAPTEE 62. almost cease to exist. There is no fear of the frog wearing away, if ex- posed to wear. The contrary is the invariable result. The frog has three principal uses, which it will only fulfil well if it be large and prominent. The frog is an elastic pad intended first to receive on itself a large portion of the jar and concussion which results from the movement of so large carcassed an animal as the horse ; and again, by receiving it on itself, it diminishes concussion in other parts of the frame, such as the bones and joints, which are not by nature adapted for sus- taining jar and concussion. Secondly, the frog being elastic and wedge- shaped, acts as a stay to the ground against slipping. Hence its main- tenance and development are objects of great importance. Thirdly, the frog, when properly developed, acts as a support to the coffin-joint, espe- cially to the centre of the navicular bone. Memo. — I have said above that the frog ought not to be pared at all. This is true in theory and correct in practice as regards a sound, healthy frog. But all frogs are not sound and healthy. Disease, most commonly thrush, is very soon set up in the frog by any carelessness, such as not carefully and frequently washing out the feet, and especially by allowing the horse to stand in his own dung or urine. Disease commences in the frog, not in the outer layer, but under it, i. e. in the interior layer. Hence it is often not discovered until it has run to a considerable extent. Therefore it is a wise precaution in all cases, where there is any doubt, as indicated by raggedness or unpleasant smell, to remove the ragged parts with a view of ascertaining whether any disease is latent under- neath. Such removal of the ragged parts ought not, however, to be made an excuse for paring down the frog; nor is any such removal allowable, unless there are at least some indications of latent disease. The frog especially requires to be kept not only clean but dry. 953. Cleanliness. One other point remains to be. considered, namely, cleanliness. Clean- liness is essential to the health of the foot. The foot must be kept clean, not only by washing and picking it out, but more especially by keeping the stall clean and free from dung and urine. Stalls cannot be kept clean unless the paving and drainage are good. Stables, I may add, are seldom kept clean and sweet, unless in addition to good paving and drainage there is also ample light and ventilation. 951 Shape of the Foot. The shape of a good Foot (fig. G) at its lower or ground surface ap- proaches that of the circle. The crust should grow down at an angle of between 50 and 52 degrees (A, fig. 1). The ground surface has doubtless been made circular, because that form affords within a given circumference a greater weight-bearing space than any other. Other circumstances, however, require a slight modifi- cation of the circular form. The continuity of the- circle is somewhat broken at the heels by the insertion of- the wedge-like frog, and anteriorly S or SHOEING. 469 it is somewhat squared off by the wearing away of the toes. Again the circular form is less perfect on the inner than on the outer side, because the crust is thinner on the inside than on the outside, and more upright (fig. 6). Two advantages are gained by the diminution of the thickness of the crust on the inside, and by its uprightness. 1st, the chance of interfer- ence of one foot with the other is lessened ; 2nd, greater elasticity is afforded. Greater elasticity is required on the inside than on the outside, in order to obviate the greater concussion which, as is well known, falls on the inside. Greater concussion falls on the inside because greater weight falls on it than on the outside. It may perhaps seem strange to the reader that less thickness of crust should be given on that side on which the greater weight falls. But a similar formation with a similar view, namely, elasticity and the lessening thereby of concussion, is found throughout on the inside of the limb up to the knee. In considering, however, the strength required on the inside, it is im- portant to bear in mind three points. 1st. Although greater weight falls on the inside, yet it falls more perpendicularly than it does on the outside ; and the two inside crusts are more directly under the centre of gravity than the two outside crusts. 2nd. The two inside crusts are nearer each other than the two outside crusts, and therefore each requires less strength — a principle well known to all builders. 3rd. The fibres of the crusts on the inside are more perpendicular than those .of the outside, and are thereby better placed for sustaining weight. The crust is placed by nature on the outer edge of the circle of the foot, because in that position it affords the greatest circumference for sustaining weight. The shoes will be found to be most worn on their outer circumference, because they there rest on the portion of the crust best adapted for sustaining weight. 955. Size of Feet. Feet of a medium size, in proportion to the size and breed of the horse, are the best. In large feet the horn is generally of a coarse inferior quality, deficient in toughness and strength, and slow in growth. In small feet the horn is generally tough and sound, though sometimes it may be brittle. Small feet, if equally so all round are, as a rule, preferable to wide spreading feet. Small feet, when of a natural forma- tion, are easily distinguished from contracted feet by the fact that they are correspondingly small all round. Contraction rarely, if ever, affects all the feet, and never affects all the feet equally. One foot smaller than another is rarely, if ever, a natural formation. Small feet are common in the well-bred horse, who is a native of dry, sandy plains, whilst the under-bred horse, living in low wet pastures artd fed on succulent diet, has a tendency to large coarse feet. 956. Feet to be pairs. Whether feet are large, medium, or small, it is essential that they should be pairs. Any difference in size between the two fore-feet or 470 CHAPTER 62. between the two hind feet is the almost sure and certain sign of disease, either past or present, in the foot or in some part of the limb directly or indirectly connected with it, or of some irregularity of action. There are, however, some few families of thorough-bred horses which are notorious for having odd fore-feet, and yet seldom go lame on them. , 956a. Malformed Feet. Malformed feet, if congenital, such as " Fleshy " feet, which have abnormally thin walls and thick soles ; or in some cases " Club " feet, *. e. one more upright than the other, are not necessarily unsound, though under certain conditions they may speedily become so. " Mule " feet, which are the result of rearing on very dry or rocky soils, will stand wear, but are objectionable in horses, such as hunters, which are required to go in deep ground. 957. Contraction and Expansion of the Foot. The question of the contraction and expansion of the foot has long been a subject of keen discussion among Veterinarians. Three different views are held. 1st. That the foot expands on coming to the ground by reason of the weight and pressure imposed on it ; and contracts when it is raised off the ground. 2nd. That the foot contracts on coming to the ground by reason of the weight and pressure imposed on it ; and expands when raised off the ground. 3rd. That the foot neither expands nor contracts to any perceptible degree. This latter view I believe to be correct. No doubt there is a certain degree of elasticity in the horn, as in all living structures, but not suffi- cient to constitute expansion or contraction. It has been often remarked that there is in general a bright mark on the upper surface of the shoe towards the heels, which is by many sup- posed to be due to the effect of contraction and expansion at that part. These marks, however, it may be noticed, run along the web of the shoe and not from side to side, as would be the case if they were due to expansion and contraction. They are in reality caused by the backwards and forwards motion of the heels of the shoe, which is produced by the leverage at the toe when the horse is in motion. There are no such bright marks on the quarters of the shoe where the effect of contraction and expansion, if it existed, would surely show itself, inasmuch as the greatest weight and pressure falls on that part of the foot. 958. Conclusion. I have now said all that I conceive to be necessary for maintaining the health of the foot in the shod horse. Other cognate subjects remain which are of much interest, such as the DETAILS OP SHOEING. 471 best kind of shoe ; but these, though important, are not so immediately concerned in the health of the foot. The treatment of feet not in a state of perfect health is also important, as is also the treatment of feet in a state of disease. Again, there may be feet of delicate structure or of indifferent conformation, which, though free from positive disease, require special treatment. But if a person buys a horse with good sound feet, and if in the treat- ment of the feet and in shoeing he complies with the requirements of nature, he will probably find that he is never troubled with any foot disease. Feet do not wear out with age as do many other parts of the frame. The foot of an old horse is generally just as good as that of a young horse. CHAPTER 63. SHOEING — DETAILS OP. Plates 47 — 57. Figures are consecutive throughout. 959. Shoeing. 960. Breadth of Fore-Shoe. 961. How thick should the Shoe be ? 962. How often should horses be shod ? 963. Of removing Shoes. 964. Upper surface of Shoes. 965. Under or ground surface of Shoe. 966. Length of the Shoe. Heels of the Shoe. 967. Fitting of the Shoe. 968. Objections to close-fitting Shoes. 969. Removal of the old Shoes. 970. How many Nails are required. 971. Nails to be frequently examined. 972. Form and materials of Nails. 973. Position of Nails. 974. Punching of nail-holes and Driving of nails. 975. Nail-heads. Countersunk Nail-holes. 976. Hose-headed Nails. 977. Nail-heads not to project below the Shoe. 978. Clenching of Nails. 879. Nail-bound. Tight nailing. 980. Importance of Nails and nailing. 981. Fullered Shoes. 982. Loss of Shoes. 983. Tips. 983a. Charlier Shoes. 9836. Bar Shoes. 983c. Eocldng Shoes. 984. Hind foot and Shoe. 985. Form of the Hind Shoe. 986. Calkins. 987. Shoes to be level. 988. Directions to Farrier for Shoeing ordinary Fore-feet. 989. Directions to Farrier for Shoeing ordinary Hind feet. 990. To Shoe a troublesome horse. 991. Roughing. 959. Shoeing. In the present chapter I shall endeavour to avoid all crotchets, and shall treat only of the broad principles of the art of shoeing, viz. those which are — - 1st, Essen.tial to the health of the foot. 472 CHAPTER 63. 2nd. Necessary to maintain the shoe on the foot, especially in deep ground. The directions given as regards the weight, width, and thickness of shoes will be those applicable to ordinary riding horses. Heavy draught and cart horses will need heavier shoes, whilst race horses will require lighter. For very heavy horses, see Calkins, par. 986. In the succeeding chapter I shall advance some reasons in favour of a change in the ordinary form of the toe of the fore-shoe. But this change, though I believe it to have many advantages, both as regards the com- fort of the horse in progression, and as regards the safety of the rider, is not essential to the health of the foot or to the security of the shoe. 960. Breadth of the Fore-Shoe. For ordinary riding horses, hunters and carriage horses, it is usual to make the shoe about one inch wide. I believe that three quarters of an inch is sufficient. The crust or wall of the foot, including the substance intervening between the crust " proper " and the sensitive lamina?, is about three quarters of an inch in width. This, as explained in the pre- vious chapter, Par. 944, is the proper weight-bearing structure of the foot. The shoe must be as wide as the weight-bearing structure. It must rest not on a part, but on the whole of this structure. . To enable it to do so the shoe must, contrary to the usual practice, be made flat towards the foot (Plate 50, AA, Fig. 7) (see also Par. 964). The shoe must not be wider than the weight-bearing structure. Any greater width than this must be useless, and moreover, will be the means of allowing dirt and gravel to lodge between the shoe and the recessed sole, and will also render the shoe liable to be sucked off in deep ground. The shoe should be of even width until it approaches the heels. To- wards the heels, where the crust gradually comes to a point at its junc- tion with the bars, the shoe must also come to a point, the inner edge of its heels exactly following and resting on the bars (Plate 50, B, fig. 7). The narrowing of the web of the fore-shoe at the heels may seem un- natural to those who are not accustomed to it. But if it is the shape, as it undoubtedly is, which nature has chosen for the crust at its junction .with the bars, can it be either unnatural or unsuitable? On the other hand, the ordinary square or rounded heels are objectionable, because that part, which overlaps either the crust or the bars, rests on nothing, and is therefore useless ; and moreover affords a handle, as it were, by which to wrench off the shoe in deep ground. 961. How thick should the Shoe le ? The growth of the foot renders it necessary that the shoe should be refitted at the end of a month. It is obviously undesirable to burden a horse with a greater weight of iron on his feet than is absolutely neces- sary. Weight tells much more (on the well-known principle of the steel- yard) at the end of a long lever, such as the leg practically is, than it DETAILS OP SHOEING. 473 on the back. I am not aware of any means of showing practically what is the difference of weight carried on the back and on the feet, but it is certainly very considerable. Primd facie, therefore, shoes should be as thin as is compatible with their wearing for a month. But practically there should be a week's wear to spare at the end of the month ; both because it is not always convenient to send a horse to be shod on any particular day, and because it would be inconvenient to be liable to the risk of a shoe breaking, if the owner happened to take an extra long ride towards the end of the month. No absolute rule can be laid down as regards the weight of shoes, 1st, because horses' feet vary very much in size ; 2nd, because some horses, from peculiarity of action, wear out their shoes much quicker than others ; 3rd, because some horses are called upon to do much more work than other horses ; and lastly, much will depend on the nature of the ground or roads on which the horses are worked. However, nine ounces may be taken as the minimum, and fourteen ounces as the maximum for ordinary riding horses. On very large cart horses in London I have seen shoes which weighed as much as seven pounds each ; four pounds is a common weight for the shoes of such horses. I cannot say from my own experience whether such weights are really necessary. 962. How often should a Horse be shod ? The growth of the foot renders it necessary to refit every shoe at the end of the month. For reasons given above, it is undesirable to burden a horse with heavier shoes than necessary. Therefore the horse should be shod with new shoes every month. 963. Of removing Shoes. Shoes, if properly fitted, and if resting on a sound unrasped crust, should not require to be removed during a month. The nails, however, should be frequently examined, and any that are faulty should be re- placed. 964. Upper surface of the Shoe. The upper surface of the shoe should be flat, so that it may rest on the whole surface of the crust. Nature has intended the whole of this width to be employed in sustaining the weight of the horse; and in moulding a shoe we should endeavour to follow as nearly as possible the arrangements and structures of nature (Plate 50, A, Fig. 7). Shoes, however, are generally " seated out " on their upper surface in such a manner that only one half of their width rests on the crust. At first sight it may seem curious, that an arrangement so obviously incor- rect and opposed to nature should so extensively, indeed almost uni- versally prevail in our forges. There is, however, a good reason for it. The crust is usually weakened by "rasping, and then it gives way under 474 CHArTEii 63. the weight of the horse ; and a shoe of the usual width (one inch) flat towards the sole would press unduly on the sole, unless the pressure was obviated " by seating out " (A, Fig. 8). " Seating out " is a practice wrong in itself, but generally rendered necessary by another bad practice. There need, however, be no fear of undue pressure on the sole, if the crust be preserved whole, sound, and tough. Again, it is obvious that the superincumbent weight is more diffused by gaining a wider bearing for the shoe ; and hence those diseases which arise from undue concussion are less likely to occur. 965. Under or ground surface of the Shoe. The under or ground surface of the shoe should be concave (A, Fig. 9). This is the form in which nature has moulded the horse's foot, and wo cannot do wrong in following it. I am not aware of any objection which can be urged against it. This form, it is true, is not adopted in the shoe in ordinary use ; but this arises not from any objection in theory, so far as I am aware, but from the simple fact that inasmuch as, for the reasons given above, it is usual tq seat out the upper surface, it is im- possible also to seat out the lower surface. A double seating out would render the shoe so thin that it would be liable to break. A concave ground-surface has a great practical advantage, inasmuch as the shoe gets a much greater hold on the ground, and the horse is there- fore less liable to slip, or pick up stones. 966. Length of the Shoe. Heels of the Shoe. The length of the shoe is determined by the length of the crust. The shoe must- be the exact and full length of the crust. Nature, in fact, in all cases points out the proper length of the shoe by the termination of the crust. If shoes are made shorter than the crust, their heels or " ends of their branches " will be apt to press upon and dig into the seat of the corn. If, on the other hand, the shoes are longer than the crust, tne hind shoes may catch in the heels of the fore-shoes and pull them off. An objection is sometimes raised to fore-shoes being made the full length of the crust, on account of a fear lest the hind shoes should catch in them. This accident, however, is not likely to occur where the shoes are not longer than the crust. The possibility of it will be prevented by sloping off the heels of the fore-shoes in the direction of the fibres of the crust (fig. 9), and again by sloping off the inner or posterior edge of the toe of the hind shoes. (See Over-reach, Chap. 65, par. 1002.) 967. Fitting of the Shoe. The crust having been lowered by the rasp, aided as little as possible by the knife, and rendered smooth by the rasp, and its sharp edge having been rounded off, the shoe must then be so fitted that its outer edge corresponds exactly with the crust. It must not be smaller than the DETAILS OP SHOEING. 475 crust, nor overlap it in the slightest degree. If n shoe be applied smaller than the crust — and such is the usual practice- — the crust must be rasped down to it. If, on the other hand, the shoe be larger than the crust, treads and other injuries may be the result, and in deep ground the shoe may be pulled off. Though the above directions may seem very simple and reasonable, yet practically there is great difficulty in getting them carried out. The accurate fitting of the shoe must be produced by the troublesome process of moulding the shoe to the foot — not by the easy process of rasping the foot down to the shoe. Any mark of the rasp on the crust is the sure sign, that the farrier has not taken the trouble to fit the shoe to the foot. The shoe may be tried on warm enough to mark the crust. It is diffi- cult to fit the shoe accurately without such marking. There is no real objection to the practice, as the horn is quite insensitive. But this per- mission must not be made an excuse for burning down the crust. 968. Of objections to close-fitting Shoes. It is often objected to close-fitting shoes that they do not allow room for the expansion of the foot, and will therefore be liable to cause con- traction. It may be sufficient to observe that all shoes are, for fear of treads and interfering, fitted close on the inside, where contraction al- most invariably occurs, and that they are left wide on the outside, where contraction is seldom or never found. It is needless to say that a shoe left wide on the outside can have no effect in preventing contraction on the inside. The question of the contraction and expansion of the foot was dis- cussed above in Par. 957. 969. Removal of the old Shoes. The clenches should be cut carefully without injury to the crust, and then each nail should be drawn separately. Much damage is often done to the crust by neglect of these simple precautions. It takes very little time to remove an old shoe properly, and there is really no excuse for the hurried and violent manner in which this operation is too often per- formed. 970. How many Nails are needed? The fewest which will retain the shoe securely in its place is, of course, the theoretical answer. The practical answer will, however, depend on various considerations — with the size of the foot, the soundness and toughness of the crust, the accuracy of the fitting of the shoe, and the nature of the ground on which the horse is to be worked. For ordinary riding horses and for hunters, if the crust be sound and good, and if the fitting of the shoe be also good, five nails, namely, three on the outside and two on the inside, are sufficient for the fore-shoe, pro- vided that the heads of the clenches are not rasped. If, however, the crust be rendered thin and brittle by rasping, or if the 476 CHAPTER 63. shoe projects beyond the crust, or if the clenches are filed away after turning down, or if the nails are bad, no number of nails will retain a shoe under circumstances favorable for pulling it off. N.B. — If the shoe be what is called " back punched," i. e. the upper end of the nail holes opened out too much, the shoe may drop off, leaving all the nails in the foot. 971. Nails to be frequently examined. Where few nails are used, it is absolutely necessary that the farrier or groom should frequently examine them and see that each nail and clench is good. A broken nail, or one with its head or clench gone, is obviously useless, and must be replaced. The necessity of replacing a damaged nail is often urged as a serious objection to the use of few nails by persons whose horses are seldom seen by the farrier, except at the end of the month. This objection may, however, be easily obviated by making the groom responsible for looking to the nails, and taking the horse to the forge whenever neces- sary. , 972. Form and material of nails. Nails must be made of the best and toughest iron, for none other can stand the. strain and jar of fast work. The quality of a nail may be easily tested by fastening it in a vice. It should not break before point- ing under five bendings. The operation of " pointing " renders nails more brittle, and they will then generally break at the third bending. A great improvement has taken place of late years in the manufacture of machine-made nails, and some competent judges think them as good as the best hand-made nails. The size of the nail must be varied according to the size of the foot and the weight of the shoe. The dimensions of the head must of course be proportionate to the size of the nail. The point should be hammered out fine and sharp. A nail larger than necessary is objectionable, be- cause it needlessly damages the crust, and besides requires a larger hole, which obviously must weaken the shoe. When a nail breaks in a shoe, the seat of fracture is generally at the neck. The ordinary cause of its breaking at that point arises from the neck having been made too thick for the upper part of the hole. When this is the case, there is a difficulty in driving the nail home, and the neck is frequently so injured in the operation that it breaks off when subjected to the strain and jar of work. Whenever the head requires to be much battered in the operation of driving the nail home, the farrier may be pretty sure that it has become injured in the neck, and he should draw it and substitute another. On the other hand, if a nail be too small for the hole, it gets but little hold, becomes loose, and by working about soon breaks. Wnen the neck is sound, the nail seldom breaks during a month's wear. DETAILS OF SHOEING. 477 973. Position of Nails. The position of nails in the fore-shoe is a mutter of great importance. There is greater wear on the toe of the shoe in ordinary use than on any other part. If the anterior nails are placed so Tar forward as to be sub- ject to this extra wear, their heads will soon be worn off and the nails will then lose their hold. The anterior nail on each side should there- fore be placed just posterior to this extra wear (Figs. 7 and 9). The two remaining nails on the outside should evenly divide the distance to the heels. On the inside, on which there should be only two nails, the second nail should be placed exactly opposite the second nail on the outside. It is a practical fact, that nails placed exactly opposite to each other have a greater holding power than if placed irregularly. Five nails, as stated above, are sufficient. Therefore there must be throe on one side and two on the other. The inside is chosen for the omission of the third nail, because the crust on that side is thinner and more clastic, and therefore affords less hold ; and because contraction, when it occurs, is generally found on the inside. I do not think that nailing is a real cause of contraction. But as there is an opportunity of omitting a nail, I prefer to leave it out on the inside. 974. Punching of Nail-holes, and driving of Nails. The Nail-holes should be punched rather nearer the outside than the inside of the web of the shoe, and should be brought out on the upper side with a very slight inclination outwards, so as to diminish the risk of pricking. The practice of punching nail-holes almost on the outer edge of the web is, in my opinion, objectionable, as the nails do not get a sufficient hold in the crust. When however the crust has been reduced in thick- ness by constant rasping, the nails must of course be driven very " fine ; " but where the crust is sound and unrasped, the punching may be placed as directed above, and certainly with great advantage to the holding power of the nails. (Figs. 7 and 9.) The nails should be brought out in the hoof about an inch above the shoe. If brought out higher, there will be risk of injury to the sensitive part of the horn. If lower, they will not get sufficient hold. But in feet which have been maltreated, it will be safer to bring the nails out somewhat lower. The heel nails may be brought out somewhat lower than the toe and quarter nails. 975. Nail heads. Countersunk Nail-hotes. A great advantage is gained in the form of nails by making use of countersunk holes (Fig. 9, Plate 51). With them the heads of the nails can never wear out, if they fit the holes, until the shoe itself is worn through. With these nails (Fig. 10) the heads should exactly occupy and completely fill the holes. No portion of the thin part of the nail should be in the shoe, nor any portion of the thick part in the crust. 478 CHAPTER 63. The thin part should begin where the nail quits the shoe to enter the crust. 976. Rose-headed Nails. Kose-headed nails eaimot cxaetly fit and fill the nail-holes. A portion of the neek of the nail must be in the shoe, and at that point it will be apt to break. Again, a portion of the head generally projects below the shoe, and that portion must soon be lost by friction with the ground. (Fig. 11.) 977. Nail heads not to project below the shoe. The heads of the nails should be driven down very nearly but not quite flush with the under surface of the shoe. A very little projection, however, is necessary in order that the pincers may be held firm against the heads of the nails, whilst the clenches are being turned down, other- wise it is difficult to get a good firm clench. The needed accuracy in punching the countersinks of the proper size, and selecting the nails to fit them will give the farrier a little extra trouble. The objections to nails projecting below the shoe are that the exposed portion of the head will be very soon worn off by friction with the ground ; and, again, with the further wear of the shoe the remaining portion of the head will be worn away. A nail without its head or without its clench is useless. The shoe is held on by the head of the nail and its clench. 978. Clenching of Nails. Clenching is the technical term for turning down the end of the nail after it has been driven through the crust. The nail should be broken off as short as possible, and turned down and flattened by the hammer. The rasp should not be applied to the clench. Any filing will weaken it and may cause it to break off. Farriers often say that they cannot turn down and flatten the clench properly with the hammer ; but they can do so with safety if the crust be sound. But where the crust has been rasped, and thereby rendered thin and brittle, it is probable enough that the hammering down of the clenches may cause pain and pressure on the underlying sensitive layer of the crust. In such cases it may be advisable slightly to file the under side of the clench, so as to make it bend easier. There is no sense whatever in filing the upper side of a clench after turning it down. 979. Nail-bound. Tight Nailing. These arc terms applied to irritation of the feet, occasioning slight lameness, from the nails having been driven too near the quick. The injury is of the same nature, but less serious, than that known as " j •rick- ing." (See Chapter 05, Tar. 1006.) Tho remedy consists in carefully drawing the nails and replacing them by others driven more fine. DETAILS OF SHOEING. 470 To tight nailing, properly so culled, i. e. to driving well home the nails, there is no objection. On the contrary, it is essential to the security of the shoe. 980. Importance of Naih and Nailing. 1 have dwelt at length on this subject, because it is really one of importance, as the best made and best fitting shoes will not remain on the best feet unless due attention is paid to nails and nailing. Without good nails and good nailing all the labour is thrown away. Again, I have entered more fully into detail, because I advocate the use of a smaller number of nails than usual, namely, five in the fore-feet, and six in the hind feet ; and it is obvious that where few are used, the efficiency and right placing of each individual nail becomes of greater importance. Before quitting this subject, it may be as well to repeat that no trouble should be spared to obtain nails of the very best quality. 981. Fullered Shoes. By fullering is meant a groove extending round the web of the shoe. The advantages supposed to be gained by it are — 1st, that the farrier is enabled to punch the nail-holes more easily and more accurately than ho could do without the assistance of such an artificial line ; 2nd, that the groove will prevent slipping ; 3rd, that the nail-heads being in the groove will be thereby better protected from the effect of wear. (Fig. 12.) None of these reasons have much force. A tolerably good workman ought not to need the assistance of a fuller-line to guide him in punching the nail-holes. Again, admitting that the groove may have some effect in preventing slipping when the shoe is new, yet this advantage will be lost as the shoe wears, and the horse, being deprived of this artificial assistance, will be more prone to slip during the last fortnight's wear of the shoes than if he had not had such assistance during the first fort- night. Lastly, the groove does not protect the nail-heads any more or even as much as counter-sinks. Fullering, moreover, is objectionable because the groove weakens the shoe ; and, again, nails never fit so well or so tightly into the groove of the fuller as into countersunk holes. 982. Loss of Shoes' The ordinary causes of the loss of shoes are — 1st, the use of bad nails ; 2nd, the non-removal of broken or defective nails ; 3rd, rasping and mutilation of the crust; 4th, filing of the clenches; 5th, wearing out the head of the nails ; 6th, shoes wider or longer than the crust ; and lastly from the toe of the hind shoe catching in the heel of the fore-shoe. All these causes arc, as a general rule, preventable. Accidents, no doubt, will occur, but it can be safely said that shoes ought very seldom to be lost off good sound feet. 480 CHAPTER 63. 983. Tips. Some reasons were given above, why closely fitted shoes, such as recommended, are not more likely to cause contraction than the shoes in ordinary use. If, however, it be desired especially to guard against contraction, let the horse be shod with tips. (Plate 52, fig. 13.) A tip should cover the toe and anterior portion only of the quarter, whilst the heels and bars are left uncovered or unprotected, as some call it. The length of the tip should be about half that of the ordinary shoe. Tips are generally made much too long ; so much so that they are little else than short shoes, and of course produce the many evils of such shoes. Tips should be turned up at the toe. Tips should be sloped from the first nail-hole to prevent undue strain on the fetlock. The advantages gained by the use of tips may be summed up as under, viz. — 1st. Freedom is secured to the heels, which are the the most common seat of contraction. Whatever a shoe may do, a tip cannot cause contraction at the heels. 2nd. Concussion, and the diseases which arise from it, must be greatly diminished by substituting the natural action of the heels and frog for the jar of the iron shoe against the ground. 3rd. The heels and frog are strengthened and developed by being brought more actively and prominently into work and wear. 4th. The liability to slip is much less in horses shod with tips than with any kind of shoe, because the heels perform their functions more perfectly when brought into contact with the ground than when elevated from it by a shoe. The frog and bars are, from their structure, the natural stays of the foot against slipping. The principal objections urged against tips are — 1st. That they do not afford sufficient protection for the foot; that a horse, for instance, cannot travel safely over stones. This is a question which can only be settled by the test of experience. The Author has tried them for years, and is satisfied that they do afford sufficient protection. 2nd. It is urged that with our hard roads and hard work the heels and frogs will wear away. This, again, is a question of experience. The Author has found that both heels and frogs strengthen and develop under use. Time is, of course, necessary after substituting tips for shoes, to allow the heels and frogs to grow strong. It will not do to take the shoes off a horse to-day and to rattle him in tips over stones to-morro\v. In shoe- ing with tips it is necessary to shorten the toe rather more than for the ordinary shoe to make up for the absence of iron at the heels and to maintain the natural obliquity of the foot and pastern. Tips ought to be removed every fortnight. 983a. Ckarlier Shoes. The Charlier shoe consists in fitting a narrow rim of iron into a groove cut round the lower margin of the crust of the hoof by means of a special knife protected by a rnoveable guide. The appearance of a horse's foot shod in this fashion is very similar to the iron heel of a man's boot. DETAILS OP SHOEING. 481 This method of shoeing is well calculated to preserve the natural con- dition and functions of the foot, and is valuable in cases where, from previous mutilation or other causes, it would be difficult, if not impos- sible to bring the frog to the ground. For upright blocky feet with contracted heels and shrunken frogs it acts admirably, and the majority of cases of this sort will be permanently benefited by the frog and posterior parts of the hoof being allowed to perform their proper functions. The Charlier shoe may also be applied with benefit in special cases, the result of previous defective shoeing or other causes, such as con- tracted feet, weak heels, ossified cartilages, brushing, speedy cutting, &c.— provided that the hoof is strong, but it must be remembered that it is unsuited to flat feet with weak soles. This fact, combined with the amount of skill required to make it fit the Charlier shoe properly, has prevented its being brought into general use. The shoe should be made less than half an inch in width at the toe, narrowing gradually and becoming thinner as it approaches the heels, and it should be rather shorter than the ordinary shoe. The inner upper edge must be rounded off to prevent inconvenience arising from pressure against the adjacent sensitive structures. Ordinary iron does not answer well for the Charlier shoe, because, when worn somewhat thin, it is apt to spread. A mixture of equal parts of iron and steel well welded together, or Bessemer steel rod answers admirably. The nail-holes should be oval to prevent splitting or spreading out of the narrow rim of metal. The heads of the nails must be of the same shape, and should fit well into the holes. For ordinary feet four nails are sufficient. No clip is required. Previously to applying the Charlier shoe for the first time, it is advis- able to work the horse for a few weeks in ordinary tips, so as to accustom him gradually to frog and heel pressure. At the first shoeing the groove in the crust should be made rather shallow, and the shoe should b'e let in only half its (the shoe's) depth. At each shoeing the groove may be cut deeper, until eventually the under surface of the shoe is flush with the sole. The shoe must be fitted hot, as it is important that it should have a level bed to rest on, and it must fit the groove perfectly. Charlier shoes are not well adapted to hind feet. 9836. Bar Shoes. A Bar shoe simply consists of a bar or band of iron connecting the heels, and thereby gives a considerably increased bearing surface, espe- cially on the frog. They are very valuable in cases where it is necessary to relieve some part of the crust of the hoof from pressure, such as in corn or sandcrack, or when it is advisable to apply pressure to the frog. They are not suited for ordinary use. 31 482 CHAPTETl 63. 983c. Rocking Slioes. Rocking shoes are made of very stout iron about twice the thickness of the ordinary shoe in the centre, becoming gradually thin at the toe and heels. In form they are somewhat like the rocker of a cradle. They are made wider in the web than the ordinary shoe, so that the solo may take its share in bearing the weight, and thus relieve the- crust and sensitive laminae to a great extent. The advantage of Hocking shoes is that the animal can throw his weight at his will either on the anterior or posterior part of the foot. They are valuable in some cases of foot disease, and especially in laminitis (see Par. 1027). 984. Hind Foot and Shoe. The general principles are the same as those which regulate the shoe- ing of the fore-foot. The crust must not be rasped, the sole must not be pared out, the frog must not be mutilated, and the shoe must be accu- rately fitted. There are, however, some points of difference between the hind and fore feet. The crust or wall of the hind foot is more upright than that of the fore-foot. It is also thinner. As it is thinner, i. e. narrower, the web of the shoe must also be narrower. It should not much exceed half an inch, which is the width of the crust. (Plate 53, fig. 14.) 985. Form of the Hind Shoe. There is no objection to the form of the hind shoe in ordinary use. Two or three points, however, require to be noted. In ordinary cases the shoe should be of the same thickness all throughout ; especially the height of the shoe should be the same at both heels. I lay stress on this, because where calkins are used it is very common to make the out- side heel, to which the calkin is usually applied, higher than the inside heel. Nature has made the two heels of the same height, and any deviation from this arrangement of Nature will be liable to cause disease especially in the hocks. In order to prevent over-reach, the under inner posterior edge of the hind shoe should be rounded off (fig. 14) in a way which is more particu- larly explained in the article on " Over-reach," Par. 1002, Chapter 65. 986. Calkins. Calkins are used generally as a stay to the foot, which may be needed in heavy draught work or on slippery ground, and sometimes for the purpose of effecting an alteration in the action, and also in certain diseases. Calkins, though sometimes necessary, are in all cases more or less of an evil. They are not really required for ordinary riding or driving. They cannot be as much needed as is often supposed, because, although they are usually worn away long before the horse is re-shod, the. public DETAILS OF SHOEING. 483 seldom complain that their horses go worse towards the. end of a set of shoes than at the beginning. Calkins are an evil, because they interfere with the natural bearing of the foot on the ground ; ; because they deprive the hinder portion of the foot of its fair share of work and pressure ; because they unduly raises the hind quarter and thereby tend to increase the risk of sprain so common in the hock ; because they are a frequent cause of injury from treads and kicks, and because they make both treads and kicks, when they occur, more severe than they would otherwise be. Calkins on the : inside are especially apt to cause injuries from treads. If, however, it is thought necessary to use calkins, the better plan is to apply them to the outside heels only, and the heels of the shoe on the inside should be proportionately thickened, so as to give a level bearing to the foot on the ground. * ,A calkin should be turned up wide (A, fig. 15) and made of steel. If made, as is often the case, narrow or little more than a spike, it soon wears down, and ceases*to be of any use (n, fig. 15). Calkins are utterly inadmissible on the fore-feet. (For Calkins on very heavy horses, see 633.) 987. Shoes to le level. A natural and level bearing of the shoe on the foot, and a natural and level tread, are matters of primary importance. All that interferes with such natural and level tread is an evil, except in special cases of disease or malformation!. In a succeeding chapter, No. 65, in regard to the treatment of injuries and disease, frequent reference will be made to the advantages gained by the use of three-quarter shoes or of shoes raised at both heels or at one heel only. But all such deviations from a natural tread are an evil, except in special cases. As soon as the injury or dis- ease ceases to require such artificial bearing, the horse should be again shod level. 988. Directions to the Farrier for shoeing ordinary Fore-feet. 1. With your rasp remove from the ground surface of the crust, as much as may represent a month's growth. Remember, that there is usually a more rapid growth of horn at the toe than at the heels or quarters. More, therefore, will require to be taken off the toe than from other parts — in other words, shorten the toe. Having lowered the crust to the necessary extent, make the under or ground surface perfectly level with the rasp. 2. Hound off the lower edge of the crust with the rasp in the manner explained in Par. 947. Do this carefully and thoroughly with the fine side of the rasp. If a sharp edge be left, the crust will be apt to split and chip. The preparation of the foot is now complete. It remains to fit the shoe to the foot. 3. Make a shoe with J-inch web, of even width all round except to- 484 CHAPTER 63. wards the heels (see Direction No. 7), flat towards the sole, concave towards the ground. 4. Make the anterior portion, i. e. the toe of the shoe, somewhat square from quarter to quarter, so as to fit and correspond with the shortened toe. 5. Make five countersunk holes in each shoe, viz. three on the outside and two on the inside. Make the anterior hole on each side in the ante- rior portion of the quarter (not in the toe), just behind where the shoe begins to be squared off in front. In this position it will be just behind the line of greatest wear. Let the second and third nails on the outside evenly divide the remaining distance to the heels. Let the second nail on the inside be exactly opposite the second nail on the outside. 6. Fit the shoe accurately to the foot. It must be as large as the crust, but no part must project beyond it. The shoe must be as long as the crust at the heels, but not longer. 7. The web of the shoe must be narrowed at the heels, so that its inner edge may rest on and cover the line of the bars, but no more. 8. Slope off the heels of the shoe in the same 'direction as the fibres of the crust, so as to prevent the possibility of their catching in the toe of the hind shoe. (Plate 51, fig. 9, B B.) 9. Select nails which will fit exactly into and completely fill the nail- holes. 10. Twist off the clenches as short as possible, re-hammer the nail- heads, then turn the clenches down with the hammer, and let the pincers during this time be firmly pressed against the heads of the nails. The clenches must not be filed either before or after turning down, nor is a ledge to be made in the crust to receive them. 989. Directions for shoeing horses with ordinary Hind feet. 1. For ordinary Hind feet the pattern of shoe in common use is recommended, but with a clip on each side instead of a single clip at the toe. 2. The web should be made somewhat wider at the toe than in the other parts, in order to allow space for the thorough sloping off of its inner edge, as recommended under the head of over-reach (Par. 1002). 3. Six nails, viz. three on each side, are needed to hold a hind shoe securely in its place. From the peculiar action of the hind quarters and the greater length of the hind leg, the hind is more liable to get twisted than the fore shoe ; and, again, it is more apt to be displaced by stamp- ing and kicking. 4. The other directions given above, as regards lowering the crust, rounding off its inferior edge, accurate fitting, clenching, &c., apply equally to hind as to fore feet. 989a. What to look for in a newly shod horse. 1. No mark of the Rasp on the hoof. 2. That the Nailing is regular, i. e. with equal distance between the clenches, if at least the state of the wall admits of regularity. DETAILS OF SHOEING. 485 3. That in a fairly normal hoof the nails are brought out — the centre nail one inch above the shoe, and the anterior and posterior nails slightly less. Allowance however must be made according to circumstances in very flat and in very upright hoofs. 4. That the Shoe is not wider than the natural edge of the wall. 5. That the Feet are the same length — i. e. that one has not been lowered more than the other. 6. That the Nail heads fit accurately into the nail holes or fullering. 7. That the Sole of the foot is not pared out. 8. That the Frog has not been pared, unless from unhealthy action it has become ragged. 9. That the Wall has not been cut into too deep to seat the Clips. 10. That the Clenches have not been rasped after being turned down. These instructions are for Riding horses and for the lighter class of Harness horses. Such horses require to be shod " close," as any Projection of the shoes beyond the wall or any Length of the shoes at the heels greater than the heels of the hoof, will render the shoes liable to be pulled up in fast work or in deep ground. Heavy Draught horses with their wide fleshy heels and not unfre- quently weak watts to their feet, need the amount of cover afforded by a greater width of shoe and consequent projection both on the sides and at the heels. Practically there is no fear of brushing in the heavy breeds, as the legs are by nature placed much further apart than in well-bred horses; and the slower pace of work renders the heels of the shoes of the horse in front less liable to be pulled off by the horse behind. Weiylit of shoes. — For riding and light draught horses 14 oz. to 1 Ib. is a fair average weight. For heavy draught horses the weight of the shoes will require to be increased according to the side and weight of the horse. In London the weight of the shoes of railway van horses is generally about 2 Ibs. to 2J Ibs. ; whilst in the very large heavy " trolley " horses used in the docks 4 Ibs. is quite common, and 7 Ibs. per shoe is occasionally found. 990. To shoe a troublesome Horse. The chief difficulty generally occurs with the hind feet. I have tried the following plan with success. 1st. To prevent the possibility of the horse getting loose, put a rope about ten yards long on the ring of the snaffle. The horse may start backwards or forwards, but a rope of the above length will be sufficient to hold him without any undue or violent check. Practically horses do not run backwards or forwards above a few yards. .hid. Put a stout, well-padded shank with a strong ring round one fetlock. Attach a long rope to the ring of the shank. 3rd. Pull up the leg of the foot, which you desire to shoe, from before. The horse will resist this at first and try to get his foot to the ground. 486 CHA.PTER 63. If he succeeds in doing so, pull up the leg again immediately. . Never let his foot rest on the ground for a moment. It will probably require three or four 'men at the rope to prevent his getting his foot down. But in time, in half an hour or more, he will be tired, and glad to rest his leg on the farrier who comes to shoe him. It will be observed that in this mode of treatment the horse is com- paratively free. There is nothing in it to alarm him or make him nervous, or more difficult to shoe on any succeeding occasion. My ex- perience has been that horses so treated in time get over their dislike of being shod. The contrary is the case where side lines, violence, or cast- ing are resorted to. I admit that there may be horses more vicious than I happen to have met with, and perhaps it may be necessary to cast such animals. For horses difficult to shoe on the fore-feet, I recommend strapping up the fore-leg with a " Rarey " strap for a few hours. At the end of that time the chances are that the horse will be glad enough to lean on the fftrrier who comes to shoe him. Another very simple mode is often very effectual. Give the horse a very long and very hard day's work, and shoe him immediately on his return. The chances are that he will stand quiet. 991. Temporary Roughing. The old plan of roughing, though it gives a good foothold, is open to some serious objections, namely, 1st, that it entails removal of the shoes and re-nailing; 2nd, that the roughing soon wears smooth, and if the frost continues, the shoes must again be taken off, re-roughed, and nailed on again, this of course damages the hoofs ; 3rd, that this plan cannot be' carried on without the services of a farrier. Another and better plan is to make 2 screw-holes in each shoe — not when a frost comes, but in all shoes put on after 1st October. It taken very little time or trouble to make the holes with a proper tool ; and when a frost occurs, the screws can be put in without trouble and without the services of a farrier. No injury is done to the foot, and the screws can be withdrawn and renewed as often as necessary. This plan answers very well with harness horses. N.B. — Screws can be used on both sides of the feet, but on the outer side of the hind shoes, for fear of tread, where somewhat heavy shoes are used, which will carry a screw with a strong worm ; but it does not answer so well with light shoes. The third plan is that known as the cabman's nail. It has been in use in London for a good many years, and it certainly answers as an antidote to slipping. But it has a serious defect. The shoe must be considerably wider at the heels than the crust. On this projection a hole is punched perpendicularly, through which a nail with a special large head is driven, and the shank is battened down on the outside. The hoof is not penetrated by the nail — and therefore the nail can be re- moved and replaced as soon as its head is worn down, without injury to the hoof. So far good. But the extra width of the shoes at the heels is DETAILS OF SHOEING. 487 apt to cause the horse to cut or brush or interfere, as it is variously called. These three terms all mean the same. 4th. The plan now proposed is a modification of the cabman's nail. It has been introduced into the Army after careful trial for some years in the Royal Horse Guards under Vet. Lt.-Col. Mathews. The shoes are made only of the usual width, and the hole for the frost-nail is made obliquely from the centre of the under or ground surface of the shoe, and brought out on the outer edge of the upper surface of the shoe, so as just to clear the crust at the heels. (Plate 56, fig. 20.) In the cabman's plan the full length of the shank of the nail is battened down outside. This projection of the nail increases the liability to brushing, and the long shank is apt to get loose, and this again increases the liability to brush. In the improved plan the shank, after being battened down, is nicked by the edge of the fine side of the rasp just one eighth of an inch below the upper surface of the side of the shoe, and it must be well and firmly battened down. When so shortened it is not liable to spread out and thereby cause brushing. It also gets a better and firmer hold than the lengthened shank in use by the cabman. This may seem somewhat con- trary to what might be expected, but it is a practical fact. The leverage is less. The services of a farrier are not required to put in frost-nails or draw them. Any fairly intelligent stable servant, if he is provided with a hammer and a file, can put them in, and he can draw them out if he is provided with pincers. He should also have a hollow cap to put on the head of the nail which is driving. Frost-nails ought to be of the best hard temper as regards the head, but the shank should not be tempered. Frost-nails and frost-screws can in the present day be obtained in almost any town, but to prevent incon- venience and delay on the occurrence of a frost, some two or three dozen should be kept in stock in every stable. The " life " of a frost nail or screw of course depends much on the material of the road, but twenty miles may be taken as an average. All roughing, whether the old plan or screws or nails, is liable to cause treads, both on the road and in the stable. In this respect there is not much difference between screws and nails. But both have the advan- tage over the old system, because they can be drawn when the journey is finished. And as after a journey they will probably be pretty well worn, and therefore not fit for another journey, it is as well to draw them on return to the stable. The fourth or improved plan of temporary roughing is applicable only to riding and the lighter classes of horses used for draught. For heavy draught horses it will be better to adopt the permanent methods in ordinary use. The tools necessary for screws are a spanner, of required size, a driving hammer with a buffer to clear the holes in the shoes. For frost nails—a pair of pincers, a driving hammer, a buffer, a hoof 488 CHAPTER 63. rasp, a hollow cap for finally fitting nail head to hole without injury to sharpened or projecting portion. Plate 20, A. Hardening, i. e. tempering frost nails. — Ordinary frost nails are readily hardened by being dipped while at a black heat into water. Great care is necessary that only the " frosting " portion of head is so treated ; if the shank be hardened it will be rendered brittle and useless. The vendor should be made to exchange all found to be so hardened in the shank. In these nails the wearing or frosting face of nail should at least project | inch. 991a. Slippery pavements. The pavements in use in London and other large towns are — 1st. Macadam, i. e. broken granite stones. This pavement is safe in all weathers, except of course in frost. 2nd. Wood, which is safe when dry and also when thoroughly wet. It is dangerous in the intermediate stage, especially when greasy, which it becomes when there is rain enough to turn the dust into mud, and not rain enough to wash away the mud. The same applies to artificial watering. 3rd. Asphalte, which is more dangerous. It is least dangerous when quite dry or very wet, and most dangerous in the intermediate stage, as in the case of wood. Various patent pads and shoes have been brought out to obviate these dangers. Pads over the sole may be used for a day or two, as in frost. But their constant use will produce lameness, as the sole is a recessed surface, and therefore not intended to bear pressure. Frog pads are better, but expensive. Anti-slipping shoes of many various patterns have been brought out. Those in most common use are llodway's and Rowley's. Uodway's answer well enough for a time, but the edges will not stand a month's wear ; and when the edges are worn away, they necessarily lose their effect. Martin's shoes, 30, Olding Place, Marylebone, and Chelsea, will stand the month, and the author has no hesitation whatever, both as to durability and safety, in recommending them. Tips answer far the best ; but coachmen are generally prejudiced against them. The Frog, which is nature's wedge against slipping, is brought more thoroughly into use than with any kind of shoe. See Tips, par. 983, especially the last sentence, regarding the time necessary after substituting tips for shoes to allow the frogs and heels to grow strong. But after all, habit is the great point. Horses get used to travelling on slippery surfaces. Horses fresh from the country, where the roads are made of gravel, must "be gradually accustomed to the streets. A "country" horse on coming to London should be driven first on maca- dam, then on granite stone pavement, next on wood, and last on asphaltu. 9916. Ice shoes for winter wear in cold countries. Fig. 21 represents Russian, and fig. 22 American trotting shoes, i. e. for fast work in winter. They are of value as showing the systems found SHOEING OF THE FOKE-FEET. 439 to answer best in the two countries, whose climatic conditions are iden- tical, and which necessitate auxiliary aid to foothold in the shape of projections for half the year. The Russian shoe is provided with a steel toe wedge and a longitudinal sharpened wedge at each heel, whilst the American is provided with a wider toe steel wedge and a transverse wedge at each heel. For ordinary carriage work however screws are generally used in Russia. CHAPTER 64. SHOEING OF THE FORE-FEET. Plates 47 to 57. Figures consecutive throughout. 992. Of Fore-shoes. 993. Wear of the Fore-shoes. 994. Form of t lie toe of the Fore-shoe. 995. Fitting of turned-up fore-shoes. 996. Action of the fore-leg. 992. Of Fore-shoes. In the two previous chapters I have stated all that I believe to be necessary to the health of the foot and the security of the shoe on the foot. The following remarks in regard to the best form of the toe of the fore-shoe do not concern the health of the foot, nor is the system recom- mended in these remarks essential to good shoeing. I advocate the turning up of the toe of the fore-shoe because I believe it gives ease and comfort to the horse and safety to the rider. But I admit at once that it is not essential to good shoeing or to the health of the foot. I must ask the reader not to regard it as a cardinal point in the system I have recommended, but simply as a valuable adjunct. (Plate 54, figs. 16 and 17.) 993. Wear of the Fore-shoes. Every person accustomed to horses must have remarked the very uneven manner in which the wear is distributed over the fore-shoe in ordinary use. At the end of the month the toe is the only part worn out. It is inconsistent with the general structure of the foot, and with the beautiful economy of space and material shown by Nature in all her works, to suppose that such unequal wear can be natural. The structure of the weight-bearing portion of the foot sufficiently indicates that the weight, and consequently the wear, is intended to be pretty evenly dis- tributed over the foot. In our adaptation of a shoe to the foot we should endeavour not to 490 CHAPTER 64. interfere with the natural bearing of the weight on the foot or with the natural tread of the animal. Any artificial interference with the na- tural distribution of weight and wear over the surface of the foot, such as that produced by the straight shoe in ordinary use, must induce many evils, much inconvenience to the animal, and, in some cases, disease. 994. Form of the toe of the Fore- shoe. If it be desired to maintain in the shod horse the natural and really level bearing and tread of the foot, it will be necessary to turn up the toe of the shoe in the same manner as the toe of the unshod foot would be naturally worn away and turned up by friction with the ground. The reader will probably ask at this point how much should be taken off the toe of the foot in order to represent the effect of natural wear. The answer is simple. As much as is necessary in each case to give the horse a level bearing on his foot and a natural tread, or, in other words, as much as is necessary to make the wear nearly even all over the shoe. The wear is never completely even all over the shoe, because, when horses are shod according to the natural formation of the foot, the greatest weight will fall on the quarters, which are the broadest part of the foot, and are therefore most capable of sustaining weight ; here also will be the greatest wear. Most persons must have noticed how badly many horses go when newly shod, and how apt they are to stumble, and that it is not until the shoes have been worn some days that they seem again to go at their ease. The reason of this is simple enough. The horse has neither ease, com- fort, nor safety in travelling, until by friction with the ground he has worn off some portion of the projecting toe of the straight shoe. But the relief gained by wearing away the toe of the shoe is only comparative, and is very inferior to that gained by the use of turned-up shoes, adjusted to fit the crust, previously shortened and lowered to represent the natural rounding off of the toe by wear in the unshod horse. The evils occasioned by the ordinary straight shoe may be summed up briefly as follows : — 1st, stumbling and inconvenience to the horse in action ; 2nd, a tendency to contraction of the heels and shrivelling up of the frog from absence of a due and natural proportion of wear at the back part of the foot ; 3rd, loss of speed from resistance of the toe against the ground ; 4th, undue strain on the flexor tendons, whose office is to raise and flex the leg; 5th, undue stress on the suspensory ligament. In action when the foot is brought to the ground, a great portion of the weight falls on this ligament. Straight toes have a tendency to produce these results, but they do not produce them to the extent which might be expected, because the animal frame has been so beautifully and aptly constituted by nature that it will stand a good deal of mismanagement without, for a time at least, sustain- ing perceptible injury. Many objections have been raised to the turned-up shoes now recom- mended. Among the most prominent are — 1st. That the horse when so shod cannot get a fair, level, and natural bearing on the ground with SHOEING OF THE FORE-FEET. 491 his foot. This objection, if well founded, would be fatal to the proposed plan, but the even wear of the shoe disproves it. 2nd. That horses will be liable to fall and come on their heads when deprived of the fulcrum of the toe against the ground. This objection will not stand inquiry. Horses generally stumble from striking their toes against the. ground. They are certainly not saved from falling by the length of the toe. On the contrary, it is usually the length of the toe which first causes the horse to stumble, and afterwards prevents him from recovering himself, the toe forming the lever which overbalances him. 3rd. It is urged that a horse must be much more liable to slip in turned-up than in ordinary shoes. This objection, though at first sight it may seem formidable, arises from misconception of the functions of the different parts of the frame. The frog and bars are, from their structure, the stays of the foot against the ground. Turned-up shoes, by causing the weight and wear to be evenly distributed over the foot, develop the frogs and bars, and therefore, instead of facilitating, must have a tendency to prevent slip- ping. 4th. It is alleged that turned-up shoes are unsightly, and make a horse looks as if he wanted shoeing. The first of these two objections is a matter of opinion ; the second is a matter of habit. Lastly, it is urged that the toes in the new-born foal are not turned up. Assuredly not, for the feet have not yet been subjected to wear. 995. Fitting of turned-up Shoes. Both skill and practice are necessary in fitting a shoe to the natural tread. A farrier seldom succeeds well in his earlier attempts. The following hints may assist the workman. The turn up of the shoe is made on the horn of the anvil by beating out the toe of the shoe. The process of beating out the web at the toe will necessarily make it wider. This extra width must be removed by the file, for, as has been recom- mended above, the web should be of even width all round. The breadth of the turn up must be from the anterior part of the quarter on one side to the corresponding part on the other side. The degree of turn up is, of course, greater at the toe than at the sides. A very common error is committed by merely turning up the point of the toe. This may be of some use in preventing stumbling, but it is not sufficient to restore the natural tread, nor to make the wear nearly even all over the shoe. To effect this object the turn up must be broad, namely, from the anterior part of each quarter. The farrier has always a simple guide in the old shoe. Where he finds undue friction going on he must ease off the part, and not attempt to fight against Nature by thickening it or by inserting a bit of steel. 996'. Action of the Fore-leg. With reference to the tread of the horse, it is a mistake to suppose that in action he merely lifts up and puts down his feet. If he did so there would be no objection to straight shoes, for such shoes would per- fectly suit such a movement, but then there would be no progression. 492 'CHAPTER 65. Progression is gained by a semicircular movement of the fore-leg, aided by impulse from behind. To assist the movement it is necessary that the fcoe should be shortened and rounded off. The horse, when shod with straight shoes, has every time he lifts his foot to overcome the resistance of the straight toe against the ground by extra exertion of the flexor tendons. Simple rule to begin with. Turn up the toe of the new shoe, if the horse has been shod with straight shoes, as much as the old shoe is worn away at the toe ; and at each successive shoeing increase the turn up until the wear is nearly level all over the shoe. CHAPTER 65. DISEASES OP THE FOOT. Plates 47 to 57. 997. General sketch. 998. Of Horses which stick their toes into the ground, and thereby stumble. 999. Brushing, Catting, and Interfering. 1000. Speedy-cut. 1001. Clicking or Forging. 1002. Over-reach. 1003. Leather. 1004. Stopping. 1005. Treads. 1006. Pricking, Picking up a nail, and Punctures. 1007. Treatment. 1008. Punctures of the Frog. 1009. Corns. 1010. Treatment. 1011. Quittor. 1012. Sand-crack. 1013. False Quarter. 1014. Seedi/ Toe. 1015. Thrush. 1016. Treat- ment. 1017. Chronic Thrush. 1018. Neglected Thrushes. 1019. Canker. 1020. Treatment. 1021. Navicular disease. 1022. Causes. 1023. Nature of the Disease. 1024. Symptoms. 1025. Treatment. 1026. Neurotomy. 1027. Laminitis. 1028. Causes. 1029. Symptoms. 1030. Treatment. 1031. Results. 1032. Chronic Laminitis. 1033. blistering round the Coronet. 997. General sketch. In this chapter I propose to treat — 1st, of horses which, from pecu- liarity of action, or from defective action, or from abnormal conformation of the feet, require special shoes ; and 2nd, of the various diseases which affect the feet. 998. Of Horses ivhich stick their toes in the ground, and thereby stumble. The owner will do well to have the toes of the fore-feet shortened by lowering the anterior portion of the crust by the rasp from underneath — not by rasping the crust in front. The new shoe should then be turned up to correspond with the toe so shortened. It will be observed DISEASES OP THE FOOT. 493 in all horses which "toe," that the shoe is much worn in front. Now take the old shoe for your guide, and make the new shoe like it in form. Probably at the end of the month you will find that the toe of the shoe is still unduly worn. Well, make the new shoe again like the now old shoe, and so again in the succeeding month. At the end of a few months you will have found out how much that particular horse requires to have his toes shortened and his shoes turned up, in order to enable him to travel safely and comfortably. It has been often noticed that horses which " toe," do so much more when newly shod, than afterwards. The reason is obvious enough. My attention was first called to the need of shortening the toe and turning up the shoe by noticing this fact. 999. Brushing, Cutting, and Interfering. The above are different names given to an injury of the fetlock, either fore or hind, from its being struck by the opposite foot. In the outset it is important to ascertain the exact part which comes into collision with the fetlock. It will then enable us at once to detect and remedy the cause. With this view a wet pipe-clayed bandage should be put round the' part struck, and a mark will be left on the part which strikes it. As a general rule, the part which strikes the opposite fetlock is the anterior portion of the quarter, about half-way up. It is very generally supposed that the contact is with the side of the foot; but such is not usually the case. Having ascertained the exact part which comes in collision with the fetlock, we have still to ascertain the cause in each particular case. The cause of collision may arise from carelessness in shoeing, such as the clenches not being properly turned down, or from the shoes being too wide. Such cases admit of easy remedy. More difficulty occurs where the collision is due to some peculiarity in the shape of the foot or leg, especially if combined with peculiarity of action or from the toes being turned out. In these cases the best plan is to try the effect of increasing the height of the shoe on the inside, or, what amounts to much the same thing, to apply a j-shoe on the outside ; and in severe cases both remedies may be tried. The result of this change will be to slightly alter the action, and by throwing the parts outward to cause avoidance of collision. If this fails, the opposite remedy, viz. raising the outer side of the shoe, may be tried. The appli- cation of Charlier shoes will frequently prevent brushing from this cause. But there is yet another cause, namely weakness and want of condition. As a temporary measure, alterations in the shoeing are useful. The real remedy, however, in these cases will be found in good feeding, in better grooming, and in increasing the constitutional stamina. When the horse acquires a more lively or more steady gait, collision will often cease. Most owners of horses must have noticed that brushing and cutting are common when a horse gets tired and leg-weary in a long day's work, although at other times the injury does not occur. Young horses sometimes brush or rut from throwing their legs about. . CHAPTER 65. Steady work, careful riding, and more practice in carrying weight on their backs will often in due time remedy the defect. It is very seldom advisable, though there may be cases in which it may be necessary, to remove the prominence of the hoof by the rasp. As soon as the horse is observed to brush, it is advisable, unless the cause is obvious and at once removable, such as a projecting clench, to put on a boot, until it is ascertained that the remedy applied has been effectual. If this precaution is neglected, the fetlocks may become per- manently enlarged. In all cases, where the fetlocks have become sore or enlarged, the horse should be rested until the parts have regained their natural size. If, however, all these remedies fail, a boot must be worn permanently. 1000. Speedy-cut. Speedy-cut is a far more serious evil than brushing. It is an injury caused by collision of one or other foot with the leg immediately below the knee. It is due to peculiarity of action, but it may be aggravated or possibly caused by any or some of the causes mentioned above in regard to brushing. It is, however, generally incurable. It is most common in impetuous horses with exaggerated action and which carry their heads high. A boot may be tried, but the pain caused by the collision is often so severe that this shield fails to afford the necessary protection, and then the horse comes down suddenly. A horse with a mark on the seat of speedy-cut should not be purchased. Such a horse is unsafe to ride. At best he is only fit for slow harness work in a four-wheeled carriage, when the nuisance of his coming down will not be very serious. The animal should be driven very quietly and in a snaffle. For seat of Speedy-cut see Plate 25 X. 1001. Clicking or Forging. The noise known as Clicking or Forging is produced by the toe of the hind shoe striking against the under inner or posterior edge of the toe of the fore-shoe, when the feet are raised in action. Primarily it arises from a quicker action of the hind quarters than the corresponding motion of the fore-quarters. The remedy as regards shoeing is to shorten the toes of the hind feet, and to bevel off the posterior edge of the toe of the fore-shoe. Shortening the toes of the fore-feet and turning up the shoes will also assist in decreasing the evil, because these measures will enable the horse to raise his fore-band more easily and more quickly, and so avoid collision with the hind feet. The noise, though not the actual collision, will be decreased by setting back the toe of the hind shoe behind the toe of the foot. The noise is also greatly diminished and frequently is entirely stopped by the application of Charlier shoes. Good riding, holding the horse together, and making him step out quickly and lively are, however, the truer remedies. Again, many horses which DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 495 click when in low condition and over-worked do not do so when they gain strength. 1002. Over-read. Over-reach is the result of a blow struck by the under inner posterior edge of the toe of the hind shoe. The injury is not occasioned by the anterior, but by the under inner posterior edge of the hind shoe. It usually occurs in deep ground, when the raising of the fore-hand is some- what delayed ; or it may occur in the act of springing for a leap, when the hind quarters are very suddenly advanced. The remedy is easy, and in almost all cases effectual. "It consists in thoroughly rounding off the under inner posterior edge of the toe of the hind shoe. This edge should be completely sloped off from front to rear or made " half round " on the anvil before the shoe is put on. It cannot be effectually done afterwards. The edge can be cut off by the rasp in the anvil, but it is more easily and completely done by a little tool made for the purpose. Round-toed hind shoes should always be used for hunting. When this precaution is taken, a blow may notwithstanding be struck on the heel of the fore-foot by the hind shoe ; but it will not be of so severe a nature as to amount to. the injury known as over-reach. (Plate 53, fig. II, under inner posterior edge rounded off; fig. 15, edge left sharp.) 1003. Leather. Leather is not needed as a protection to the sole in a healthy foot, unless Nature's leather, i. e. the sole itself, has been removed by paring. There are, however, cases in which, for a time at least, leather is useful. In cases of pricks or picking up a nail, it is necessary to remove a considerable portion of the sole, in order to allow a free exit for the matter which will form under the sole in consequence of the injury. -Here leather will be useful as a protection against sharp stones in lieu of the portion of the sole removed. A horse so protected can be put to work some days sooner than he could otherwise be worked. 1004. Stopping. The non-paring of the sole obviates the necessity of the old-fashioned practice of stopping the feet. The supposed object of stopping is to keep, or rather to make the sole moist and soft. Nature will do this better than art, if the natural outer covering of the sole be not removed. 1005. Treads. Treads are injuries of the coronary band or coronet, generally inflicted by the shoe of the other foot in turning, backing, or shying, and very rarely by a tramp from another horse. Treads are most common in the- hind feet, especially when horses are 496 CHAPTER 65. shod, as is often the ease with heavy draught horses, with calkins on the inside as well as on the outside. In these cases the best remedy is to substitute a raised heel well bevelled off for the inside calkin. If, how- ever, it is considered absolutely necessary to use a calkin on the inside, the liability to injury will be decreased by making it long and broad (Plate 53, fig. 15 A) instead of short and narrow (fig. 15s). Shoes pro- jecting beyond the crust are also a common cause both in hind and fore feet. A little attention to properly fitting and rounding off carefully the edges of the shoe, will render treads less frequent as well as less serious when they do occur. Young horses are more prone than others to injure themselves in this way. The treatment of a tread is the same as that of common wounds. But when lameness is present, a poultice may be beneficially applied and a dose of laxative medicine may be given. Treads, if neglected, especially when they occur towards the heels, are apt to run into quittor. When such is the case, the treatment recommended under the head of that disease should be followed (par. 1011). 1006. Pricking, picking up a nail, and puncture. Pricking is a technical name given to injuries of the foot caused by the misdirection of a nail in shoeing. Punctures may arise from the above or any similar cause. Picking up a nail is a somewhat similar injury, and may occur at any time at exercise. When the sensitive sole is injured by any such cause, inflammation is necessarily set up in it. The inflammation, unless very slight, produces a secretion of pus, or what is commonly termed matter. The pus, which forms in the internal structure, i. e. in the sensitive sole, must have an exit. The processes of suppuration and ulceration are the means by which Nature provides an exit for the pus thus produced. These processes, however, can only take place in organised structures. The insensitive sole is of too inorganic a nature to be capable of suppura- tion and ulceration. Hence the pus which forms in the sensitive sole is unable to gain an exit through the insensitive sole, and will collect, or a* it is termed " under-run " the horny sole. Therefore, not being able to escape below, it must, unless relieved by treatment, work its way upwards through the soft vascular parts of the interior of the foot, which are capable of suppuration and ulceration, and will gain an exit for itself immediately above the coronet. The fistulous sore so formed is known as Quittor. - 1007. Treatment. In all cases it is essential to pare out freely, not merely the seat of the puncture, but the whole of the surrounding insensitive sole for a consider- able distance with the view of affording an easy exit for any matter or pus, which may form in the sensitive sole, as a result of the'inflammatory action caused by the wound. The foot should then be bathed in hot- water for an hour. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 497 Having taken these precautionary measures, it is, in general, safe in cases which are treated immediately after the recurrence of the injury, i. e. before inflammation has set in (but not otherwise), to close the puncture at once by the application of tow and tar placed over the wound, with a view of excluding the air and thereby decreasing the chance of the occurrence of inflammation. The shoe must be nailed on lightly in order to secure the stopping in its place. A dose of physic in most cases is advisable. Perfect rest is essential. In favorable cases the horse will be fit for work in a few days. Very few cases, however, are taken suffi- ciently early to render the closing of the wound advisable. As a general rule, inflammation will have set in and the formation of matter begun before the injury is noticed. The evil with which we have then to deal is the confinement of the pus in the interior of the foot. In addition to paring out the sole, recourse must be had to fomentations and poultices of linseed meal and bran, with the view of modifying the inflammation and relieving the pain. When these measures are efficiently taken, injuries of the sensitive sole seldom prove either serious or tedious. A portion of the insensitive sole, however, having been freely removed, the horse will not be fit for work until Nature has re-supplied a sufficient quantity of horn for the protection of the foot, or until an artificial covering, such as leather, is provided. When suppuration has ceased, the part should be dressed with tar, covered with a pad of tow, and the application kept in its place by means of a leather sole retained by crossed pieces of thin hoop iron slipped under the edge of the shoe. This can easily be removed and the foot re-dressed as required. For treatment of neglected cases, see " Quittor," par. 1011. 1008. Punctures of the Frog. Punctures of the Frog are similar in nature and require similar treat- ment to those of the sole. They nearly always arise from picking up a nail. When taken in time, they are riot serious and yield to treatment even more readily than injuries of the sole, inasmuch as the insensitive frog is more permeable than the insensitive sole. If neglected, however, they are apt to lead to extensive disease of the frog, and canker may be the probable result (see " Canker," par. 1019). In some cases the inflammation caused by the puncture may involve the neighbouring navicular joint, and serious and tedious disease may ensue. In still rarer cases a nail may even penetrate the joint. (See par. 727, " Wounds of the navicular joint,") 1009. Corns. The seat of corn is in the angle between the crust and the bars (see Plate 49, fig. 6 D), usually on the inside heel, because greater weight and therefore greater pressure falls on the inside than on the- outside. In horses, however, which turn their toes in, and thereby throw the greater weight on the other side, corns will not unfrequently be found on the outer heel. 32 498 CHAPTER 65. The presence of a corn is easily recognised by a reddened appearance of the sole in the angle above mentioned. The redness arises from extravasation of the blood of the part. A similar appearance is found in other parts of the sole when bruised or subjected to undue pressure. Corn is an injury produced by pressure, generally by continued pres- sure on a sensitive part, i. e. on the sole of the above-mentioned angle, which is not intended to bear any great pressure. Corn may also be the result of a bruise. With good shoeing, corns ought never to occur in good feet. When the shoe is so fitted, that it rests fairly on the crust and on the bars, no undue pressure can come on the seat of corn. Of direct causes of pressure on the sole at the seat of corn the most common are short shoes, the ends of which press on the seat of corn ; and the shifting of shoes from bad fitting or from over-time. The indirect, but equally real and more common causes of this disease will be found — 1st, in the ordinary practice of rasping the crust, by which it is rendered thin and insufficient to carry the superincumbent weight ; 2nd, in the removal of the bars, which jointly with the crust ought to sustain the shoe at the heels ; 3rd, in the practice of paring out the seat of corn, by which the sensitive sole becomes exposed to injury from bruises and from the accumulation of dirt and gravel under the shoe in the hollow so made ; and lastly, from lateral pressure on the seat of corn from wiring in of the crust and bars, when the insensitive sole in the angle between the crust and the bars is pared out. There is a predisposition to corns in flat feet and in feet where the heels wire in, because with either of these conformations undue pressure is liable to come on the seat of corn. Great care is needed in the shoeing of such feet, and in some such cases it may not be possible to avoid the occurrence of corns. 1010. Treatment of Corns. The treatment of a corn in its early stage consists simply in removing the cause, namely, undue pressure. In very slight cases, not causing lameness, it will be sufficient to apply shoes somewhat longer than the crust, and somewhat broad in the web at the heels, i. e. slightly projecting over the crust and bars. But when lameness is present, the seat of the corn should be pared out carefully and without injury to the crust or bars. After which a J-shoe, or a shoe so narrow in the web at the heel that it may rest only on the crust, should be applied. Either of these measures will remove the cause, viz. pressure. The first-named remedy (J-shoe) is very easy to apply. A farrier can .scarcely be so clumsy as to make a mistake. The latter, which is perhaps the best, requires some skill and attention on the part of the farrier. The common practice of applying a complete bar shoe with the view of protecting the seat of the disease from bruises is objectionable, because dirt and gravel are apt to lodge under the shoe in the hollow made by the paring out ; and great and increased irritation may be thereby occasioned. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 499 In good-shaped feet, the cause, namely pressure, being removed, tlio corn will soon cease to exist. It is, however, essential to bear in mind that though, as a temporary measure, undue pressure may be prevented by paring out and by the use of special shoes, yet the only real means of preventing a recurrence of the disease consists in the maintenance of a good sound unrasped crust and unpared bars, on which a well-fitted shoe of the proper length can rest firmly and securely without undue pressure on the seat of corn. Corns, when treated only by paring out, even though they may by such means be got rid of for a time, generally re- appear. Their permanent removal can only be effected by careful preser- vation of the crust and bars and by attention to the proper length and fitting of the shoes. If, however, the cause of the corn, namely pressure, be not removed, the inflammation of the sensitive sole in the above-mentioned angle will increase, and the suppuration or, in other words, the formation of matter will ensue. In such cases it will be necessary to rest the horse and to apply poultices in addition to adopting the treatment recommended above. If further neglect takes place, the disease may run into quittor, of which the appropriate treatment will be found in the succeeding part (par. 1011). It is a common practice to pare out the seat of corn even in sound feet with the view of preventing pressure on it. Nature, however, in this, as in other cases, is our safest guide. A certain amount of insensitive sole is supplied to this part of the foot, and is useful to it as a protection against bruises, 571 35 . . . I — exostoses on . . 580—1 PAH. Bones, fractures of —Chap. 36 . 584 Bone, qualities of, in different breeds . . 883, 926 Bots and worms — Chap. 54 . 781 Bowels, evacuation of (see Purga- tives) . . 283—91 — inflammation of — Chap. 30 . 533 — spasm of — Chap. 30 . . 533 — as affected in influenza . 480 Boxes, loose . . 27—38 | — for sick horses . . 279 i Brain (see Nervoussy stem— Chap. 14) 241 — fevers (see Staggers— Chap. 31) . 547 I Bran . . . . 98i i — in mashes . . . 199 I — in poultices . . . 313 1 Breaking out after cleaning . 124 Breath, effect of, on air . .3 Breeding (see also Postscript) . 935 ! Broken knees— Chap. 47 . . 714 : — wind . . .465 Bronchitis . . 428—31 Brush, use of, in grooming . 107 | Brushing, cutting, or interfering . 999 I Bursal enlargements — Chap. 41 . 637 ' Bursaj, synovial . . 638 I Bushel of oats, mode of weighing . 71 Calculi in urinary organs . 794 — 8 j Calkins . . .986 ) Camphor . . .301 Canker . . 667, 1019 ! Cantharides in reduced strength . 382 I — in full strength . . 386 j Capillary vessels . . 3 I Capped hock . . .704 | Capsular cataract . . 850 — ligaments . . . 234 i Capsule of lens . . . 827 Capsulo-lenticular cataract . 851 i Carbolic acid, as disinfectant . 323 — paste . . 309, 743 Carbonic acid gas . . 2, 4 1 — weight of . .6 i Caries of bone . . . 576 ; — of teeth . . . 1069 ; Carrots . . . 98g — for poultices . . . 313 Cartilage . . .231 — fibro- . . .232 I — inter-articular fibro- . . 233 — the arytenoid . . 457 Cartilages, ossified . 633—6, 665 '< Casting in stall . . .43 Cataracts . . . 847 — capsular . . . 850 — capsulo-lenticular . . 851 — lenticular . . . 849 — spurious . . . 855 ; — absorption of . . 852 ! Catarrh, common . . 412 INDEX. 551 PAR. Cattle plague or rinderpest . 1036 Caustics . . . 309 Cautery, actual . . 306, 378 — thermo- . . . 390a Ceilings of stables . . 14 Cellular or areolar membrane . 235 Chaff . . . .77 Chaius, collar . . .42 Chapped heels— Chap. 50. . 761 Chemical analysis of food . 67 Chest, conformation of . . 898 Chills. . . 113—17 Chloroform . . . 303a Chopped hay . . 77 Choroid coat of eye . 821 Chronic cough . . . 450 — diseases of organs of respiration —Chap 23 . . . 450 — foot lameness . . 669 Chyle. . . .53 Cicatrix . . . 752 Ciliary ligament . . 828 Circulation of blood . . 2 — of air . . . 5—8 Clean v. dirty coat, how to distin- guish . . . 125 Cleanliness . . . 953 Clicking or forging . . 1001 Clipping . . . 175 Clot or crassamentum . . 202 Clothing . . . 183 — of exercise in . . 157 — for sick horses . . 251 Clover . . . 98/ — hay . . . 98e Clysters or enemata . 291, 1062a — in colic . . . 540 Coagulation of blood . . 205 Coats, artificial removal of 173 — 6 — glossy and short . .110 — do., improper means used to pro- duce . . .111 — shedding of . . . 104 Coffin bone, conformation of . 905 — disease of . . 905 — joint, injuries to . . 728 Colchicum . . . 503 Cold, common, or catarrh . 412 — applications . . . 316 — extreme, produced by evaporation 115 — as tonic . . . 304 — water, apparatus for applying stream of . . . 265 Coldness, persistent, of legs . 189 Colic— Chap. 30 . . 262 Collars, head . . .44 Collar ropes or chains . . 42 Collodion . . . 309 Colour of blood . . . 207 — of horses . . . 933 — and distinctive marks . 936 PAH. Colts, exercise of, to be gradual 136—41 Coma— Chap. 31 . . 547 Common cold or catarrh . . 412 — ophthalmia . . .840 Concentrated foods . . 89 1 Condition, essentials to produce 160, 937a — hard, to be antecedent to fast work . . . 155 — in hunters . . 144—55 Conformation— Chap. 60 . . 878 Congestion of blood in inflammation 331-6 — of liver . . .810 — of lungs (see Acute diseases of respiratory organs, also other diseases— Chap. 22) . . 407 Conjunctival membrane . . 823 Constitution . . . 934 Construction of stables — Chap. 1 . 1 — faulty plans of . .11 — good plans of . .12 — ceiling of . .14 — cheap plans of . .26 Consumption, pulmonary . . 470 Contagion and infection — Chap. 16. 267 — conveyed by water trough . 273 Contracted feet . . 670, 957 Contused wounds . . 756 Cooling drinks . . . 317 Copper, salts of, as astringents . 307 — as caustics . . . 306 — as tonics . . . 304 Coronet, blistering round . . 1033 Corn (see Oats), — other than oats . . 74 Cornea . . .819 Corns. . . . 1009 Corpora nigra . . . 829 Corpuscles, red and white, of blood 203 — 4 Corrosive sublimate . . 306 Cost and dimensions of stables . 25 — cheap construction of do. . 26 Coughs, distinctive signs of various 410, 411 — chronic, of . . .450 Cough balls . . .322 Counter-irritation . . 375 Counter-sunk nail-holes . . 975 Cracked heel— Chap. 50 . . 761 Crassamentum . . . 202 Crib-biting . . .195 Croton farina . . . 289a — oil . . . . 289* Crust or wall of foot, structure of 940—3 — effects of rasping on . . 944 — of lowering and rasping . 946 — prevention of splitting . . 947 Crystalline lens . . . 827 Cubical space, amount required in stables . . .9 — in various stables . . 10 552 INDEX. PAR. Curb . . . .702 Cuticle or scarf skin . . 100 Cutis or true skin . . ICO Cuts (see Flesh wounds- Chap. 48) . 731 Cutting, interfering, or brushing . 999 Cystitis . . .792 Daily exercise, amount of. . 143 Damp stables . . .166 Dealers, horses from stables of . 142 Demulcents . . .308 Dentistry— Chap. 71 . . 1065 Dentition . . . 877a Deodorisers and disinfectants . 323 Deposits, absorption of new 391, 602, 622 Depressants . . • 294 Diabetes . . .801 Diaphoretics . . . 293 Diffusible stimulants . . 300 Digestion, process of — Chap. 4 . 53 Digestive ointments . . 310 Digitalis . . .298 Diluents . . . 311 Dimensions and cost of stables . 25 Direct union, healing by . . 734 Dirty v. clean coat, how to distin- guish . . . 125 — v. clean water . . 64 Diseases and accidents, ordinary causes of . . .269 — erroneous ideas as to . . 268 Diseases, prevention of . . 267 — seldom transmitted by infection or contagion . . 272 — sequels of . . 276 — of foot— Chap. 65 . . 997 — home-bred and foreign 1038 — 41 — origin of— Chap. 67 . . 1045 — specific . . . 1046 — spontaneous . . . 1055 — germs of, growth of . . 1051 Disinfectants and deodorisers 277, 323 Disinfection of stables after malig- nant diseases . .531 Diuresis or excessive staling . 801 Diuretics . . . 292 Dock, conformation of . . 923 Doors for stables . . 37 — for loose boxes . . 38 — for sick boxes . . 38 Dorsal vertebrae, conformation of . 894 Douche, water, for application to parts 265 Drainage . . 18 — in old stables . . 32 Draughts on horses in health . - 8 — on sick horses . . 248 Drenches, mode of giving . . 32G — objections to . . 288 Dressings, external . 309, 310 — for flesh wounds . 743 — 5 Drinks, cooling . . . 317 Dropsical swelling — Chap. 28 Dust in hay Dysentery PAR. 509 98 541 Ears, conformation of . . 890 Effusion of serum in inflammation . 353 — in diseases of lungs and pleurae . 445 — in formation of exostoses 391, 580 Elbow lameness . . . 696 — capped . . . 400a — wounds of . . . 729 Electricity . . . 569 e Emergent cases— Chap. 69 . 1062 Emollients . . .312 Emphysema . . . 467 Enemata or clysters . 291, 1062a — in colic . . . 540 Enlargements, bursal— Chap. 41 . 637 — nature and causes of . 637 — 9 — bog-spavins . . . 640 — thorough-pins . . 741 — windgalls . . . 644 Enteritis or inflammation of intes- tines . . . 541 Epsom salts . . . 290 Erysipelas (see Addenda). Escharotics or caustics . . 306 Ether . . .303 Examination to detect seat of lame- ness—Chap. 42 . . 649 — of eye for cataract . . 848 — of foot . . . 661 Excessive staling . . 801 Exercise — Chap. 8 . . 127 — reason of need of . . 127 — effect of, on various organs 128—33 — regularity in, desirable . 133 — neglect of . . . 135 — age, condition, etc., to be con- sidered . . . 136 — of young horses . 139 — 42 — of riding or harness horses . 143 — of hunters . . 144 — 55 — in clothing . . . 157 — best time for . . 158 — hard condition to be antecedent to work . . .155 — horses to be groomed immediately after . . 113, 169 — summering of hunters . . 145 — best time for. . . 170 Exercising ground in summer . 147 — in frosty weather . . 149 — artificial . . . 148 Exfoliation of bone . . 579 Exhaustion after work, treatment of 197 Exostoses, mode of formation 580 — 1 — symptoms of lameness caused by . 655 Extensor tendons, duties of . 679 — seldom sprained . . 679 External form— Chap. 60 . . 878 INDEX. 553 PAB. Extremities, liable to chill. . 116 — to be dried first . . 116 Exudation and organisation of lymph . . .354 — in disc tses of respiratory organs . 446 Evacuants . . 283—91 Evaporation, cold produced by . 115 — danger of leaving horses to dry by 120 Eye, the— Chap. 57 . . 816 — structure of . . 816—38, 889 — diseases of . . 839—63 — pink . . . 473a — worm in . . 784 Eyelashes . . . 835 Eyelids, lacerations of . . 861 False quarter . . .1013 Fang-hole or secondary mark . 873 Farcy— Chap. 29. 1 524 — diseases mistaken for J Farrier, directions for shoeing . 988 Fascia . . .236 Fat or adipose tissue . 67. 9 . 160 Stables, ventilation and construction of— Chaps. 1, 2 . . 1, 20 — appliances useful in . 1062a — aspect of . .21 — cheap construction of . .26 — artificial warming of . 24, 162 — change of . .167 — damp . . . 166 — drains . . 18, 32 — temperature of . . 161 — registering thermometer for . 164 — in hot weather . . 163 — of horses brought into, from grass 168 — plans of —faulty . . 11 — do., good . . .12 — cubical contents of various . 10 space required . . 9 — light . . 23—33 — loose boxes . 27, 38 — dimensions and cost . . 25 — walls and foundations . 22, 36 — windows . . .51 — site of . .20 Staggers, mad and sleepy — Chap. 31 547 Staling, excessive . . 801 Stalls, slope of . . .19 — width of . . .35 — partitions between . . 35 Standing, position of horse in . 932 Starch for astringent enema . 291 — for stiffening bandages . 587 Sthenic inflammation . . 350 Stiff joint . . . 582 PAB. Stifle, conformation of . . 916 — joint, injuries to . . 730 — dislocations of, and sprains of . 707 Stimulants, diffusible . . 300 — irritant . . 372—83 Stomach . . 53—8 Stomatitis . . . 877« Stopping of feet . . 1004 Strains (see Sprains) . . 409 Strangles— Chap. 26 . . 493 Straw . . . 981 — (see also Bedding) . . 570 Stringhalt — Chap. 34 do. . . 658 Stud, size of, for hunting. . 151 Stumbling . . 931«, 998 Sulkiness and vice .- . 937 Sulphuric acid . . . 306 — ether . . . 540 Summering of hunters . . 145 Superpurgation . . . 285 Suppuration . . 355, 392 Suspensory ligament . 678 — 84 Survey, general, of horse— Chap. 70 1063 Sutures . . . 751 Sweat or perspiration . . 102 Swelled legs . . .517 Swellings, inflammatory . . 345 — dropsical— Chap. 28 . . 509 Synovia . . . 230 Syuovial membranes . 230, 638 — joints . . . 715 Tail, conformation of . . 921 Tails and manes . . 178 Tartar emetic . . . 298 Tears . . . .836 Teeth— Chap. 58 . . 864 — mark in . . 871 — bishop-ing . . . 872 — structural alterations with . 865 — further changes and collateral circumstances indicating age . 874 Temperature, animal . . 217« — in disease . . . 483 — of stables . . .161 Tendons and ligaments, conforma- tion of . . 129, 928 — structure of . . 234, 674 — of fore-leg, sprains of — Chap. 44 673 — of hind leg, sprains of — Chap. 45 699 — extensor, duties of . . 679 — flexor, duties of . . 676 — • strengthened by exercise . 129 — remarks on conformation of . 928 — and ligaments, distinction be- tween . . 234, 674 — sheaths of . . 692 Tetanus or lockjaw— Chap. 33 . 563 Thermo-cautery . . 390a Thermometer, registering . . . 164 — clinical . 217a 560 INDEX. PAB. Thick wind . . . 452 Thorough-pins . . . 641 Throbbing of arteries . . 346 Thrush . . 666, 1015 — chronic . . . 1017 — neglected . . . 1018 — symptoms of. . . 666 Tibia, conformation of . . 916 — fractures of . . . 593 Time, best, for exercise . 158, 170 — for grooming . 112 — 17 — required to clean a horse . 123 — racing, English and Arab . 935 Tips . . . .983 Tissues, structure of various — Chap. 13 227 — cartilage „ . . 231 — fibro- cartilage . . 232 — inter-articular fibro- . . 233 — fibrous, yellow and white . 234 — areolar or cellular . . 235 — fascia . . .236 — muscular . . . 237 — adipose . . .238 — ligaraentous and tendinous . 674 Toe, seedy . . . 1014 Tonics, mineral and vegetable . 304 Treads . . . 1005 Trephining . . .492 Tri folia, objectionable as food for sick horses . . . 98/ Trotting action . . .930 Tumours, slight, or warbles . 759 Turned-up shoes— Chap. 64 . 992 Turpentine, as diuretic . . 292 — as liniment . . . 310 Tusks. . . .875 Ulceration and sloughing — Chap. 21 ; also par. 356 . . 401 Ulcers, varieties of . . 404 Ulna, conformation of . . 900 Union, modes of, in flesh wounds — Chap. 48 . . . 731 Unnerving for spavin . .611 — for navicular disease . . 1026 Upland hay . . 80—83 Urinary organs — Chap. 55 . 785 Urine, bloody . . .800 — retention . . .796 — excessive in quantity . . 801 Veins. . . .209 Venous and arterial blood . 206 — system . . -. . 2 Ventilation — Chaps. 1, 2. — arguments against . . 28 — natural facilities for . . 6 — improvement of, in old stables — Chap. 2. — of infirmary stables . . 278 — boxes . . .279 — of stables with rooms over them . 15 PAR. Vermifuges . . . 783 Vertebrae, conformation of dorsal . 894 Vertigo or megrims — Chap. 32 . 561 Vesicants . . .385 Vetches . . . Q8f Veterinary science, progress of — Chap. 66 . . . 1034 — sanitary science, progress of . 1036 — and human medical science, dis- tinction between . . 1037 — sanitary legislation * . 1038 Vice and sulk mess . . 937 Villi . . . .228 Vital structures, repairs of injuries to— Chap. 33a . . 569 Vitreous humour . . 826 Walking action . . . 930 Wall or crust of foot . . 943 Walls and foundations of stables . 22 — inside of . .36 Warbles . . .759 Warming, artificial, of stables 24, 162 Warmth of body in disease . 250 Warranty, law of— Chap. 61 . 938 — responsibility of V.S. . . 939a Warts— Chap. 53 . .781 Washing of skin . .118 Water, hard and soft . . 64 — clean and dirty . . 64 — for sick horses . . 258 — apparatus for applying cold stream 265 Watering and feeding — Chap. 4 . 53 Water-meadow hay . 80, 81 Weaving . . . 194 Weed . . . 226, 517 Weeds in hay . . . 92 Weighing oats, mode of . . 71 Wheat . . . 75i Whiskers . . .105 Whistling . . .463 White fibrous tissue . . 234 White and grey legs, cleaning of . 121 Wind, broken . . 465—9 — thick . . .452 Wind-sucking . . . 196 Windgalls . . .644 Windows . . .51 Withers, conformation of . . 894 — fistulous . . . 713 Wood-wool, medicated . . 754 Work (see Exercise). Working life of horses . — cab and job . . Worms— Chap. 54 . . 781 Worm in the eye . . 784 Wounds, flesh— Chap. 48 . . 731 — of joints— Chap. 47 . . 714 . 234 , 307 Yellow fibrous tissue Zinc, sulphate of PRINTED BY ADLARD AND SON, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE, E.G., AND 2O, HANOVER SQUARE, W. PLATE 22. Bones of the Hock. 1. Astragalus. 2. Cuneiform magnum. 3. Cuneiform medium. 4. Cuneiform parvurn. 6. Os calcis. 7. Tibia. 8. Great metatarsul, or cannon bone. 9. Inner small metatarsal. N.B.— Cuboid is on outer side of cuneiform bones, and therefore does not appear in above diagram. PLATE 23. Fig. 1. Conformation of Hock. Fig. 2. JIocJc. — Too straight. Too much bent. Fig. 3. Too far behind. Position usually recommended. Best position. PLATE 24. Conformation of Hock. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Hocks — Too close. (Too much in.) Hocks— Too wide. (Too much out.) Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Prominent o.v calcis. Strong hock "well let down." Sadly developed os calcis. Weak" hock "not well let doivn.' PLATE 25. Bones of Fore-leg. Inner -side View. 1. Great metacarpal, otherwise called the cannon or shank bone. 2. Inner small metacarpal or splint bone. 3. Outer ditto. 4. Sesamoid bones. 5. Upper pastern or os suffraginis. X. Seat of speedy cut. Posterior View. 1. Great metacarpal bone. 2. Outer small metacarpal or splint boue 3. Inner ditto. 4. Sesamoid bones. PLATE 26. Crooked Fore-legs. PLATE 27. Tendons and Ligaments of the Fore-leg. S. Splint bone. E. Extensor tendon. M. Great metacarpal, or cannon or shank bone. E. Extensor tendon. .A Flexor perforatus. B Flexor perforans. C Metacarpal ligament. D Superior sesamoideal ligament, or true suspensory. Insertion of Metacarpal ligament into Flexor perforans. uperior sesamoideal ligament at bifurca- tion. Flexor perforans. Flexor perforatus. Sesamoideal ligament at its insertion into fetlock (on both sides). Continuation forward of branch of the sesa- moideal ligament. Continuation of the Flexor perforans — afterwards inserted into the lower side of the os pedis. Coffin bone. PLATE 28, View of the £ones of the Off Knee. 1. Cuneiform. 2. Lunar. 3. Scaphoid. 4. Unciform. 5. Magnum. 6. Trapezoid. K. 13. — The trapezium or bone at the back of the knee is not shown in this drawing. PLATE 29. Ligaments of HocTc Joint. II A Seat of curb. The Eye. PLATE 30. 1. Conjunctiva. 2. Cornea. 3. Sclerotic coat. 4. Choroid coat. 5. Retina. 6. Aqueous humour. 7. Vitreous humour. 8. Crystalline lens. 9. Capsule of lens. 10. Iris. 11. Pupillary opening. 12. Corpora nigra. 13. Ciliary ligament. 14. Hyaloid membrane. 15. Optic nerve. 16. Arteries and veins. PLATE 31. d R ^ S «" ^ u S3 •C'^fcwS'u'QJS: -^-s ° ^ S°^2 lliiHii^lJjijiilii * i o v> i» * S^feo ^^ ^OD^Cii 72 35H H PLATE 32. Fig. 1. Fig. la. Fig. Ib. UTTMC. Fig. 2a. Fig. 2ft. UTTItWX Fig. 35. Fig. 3c. Fig. 3d. Fig. 3e. PLATE 34. Fig. 4. Fig. 4a. A — Withers; B — Scapula; C — Humerus. A — Scapula; B — Humerus; C — Shoulder-joint. Fig. 6. Fig. 6a. UTTIMO. Fig. 7. Fig. 7a. B PLATE 35. Pig. 8. Fig. 8a. Fig. 9a. A. Long pastern. B. Short pastern. Good knee. Calf or buck knee. Small knee. Fig. 10.— Section of a Foot. A A. Crust or wall. b b. Insensitive laminae. c c. Sensitive laminae. D. Insensitive sole. E. Sensitive sole. //. Insensitive frog. G. Sensitive frog. H. Coronary band. I. Small pastern bone. The apparent position of the is due to the section being made concave. The lateral appearance Jc. Coffin bone, or os pedis. I. Navicular bone. X. Seat of sprain of tendon pass- ing over the navicular bone. m m. Flexor perforans tendon. N. Great pastern bone. 0. Extensor pedis tendon. P. Long inferior sesamoid liga- ment. Os pedis pointing down so much at the toe in the centre of the bone, where it is most would be flat. PLATE 36. Figs. 11, 1 la, and 11 b. Fig. 12a. Fig. 12. Fig. l'2b. PLATE 37. Fig. 13. Fig. 13«. Fig. 13i. Fig. I4a. Fig. Ub. Fig. 15. Fig. 15a. Fig. 15J. PLATE 38. Fig. 16. Fig. 16a. Fig. 16*. Fig. 17. Fig. Via. Fig. 18. Fig. 18o. Fig. 18*. Fig. 18c. PLATE 39. Fig. O.—The Foal Fig. 4a. — Four-year mouth closed. PLATE 40. PLATE 41. Fig. 7. — Seven years. Fig. 8. — Eight years. Fig. 9.— Nine years. PLATE 42. Fig. 10.— Ten years. Fig. 11.— Eleven years. Fig. 12. — Tivelve years. Fig. 13. — Sixteen years. PLATE 43. Fig. 14. — Tiventy years. Fig. 15. — Twenty -four years. Fig. 16. — Extreme age. Fig. 17. — Extreme age. PLATE 44. Fig. IS.— Section of a Tooth. A — Infundibulum. B—Fang Hole. Fig. 20.— Removal ly the saw of successive portions of a Tooth. Fig. 19. — Seal and simulated marks. Fig. 19a. Fig. 29. — Parrot mouth. Fig. 21. — Original form of a Tooth. PLATE 45. SLOPE OF THE TEETH AT DIFFERENT AGES. Fig. 22.— Two years. Fig. 23.— Six years. Fig. 24. — Twelve years. Fig. 25. — Eighteen years. Fig. 26.— Extreme Age. Fig. 27. — Closing of Mouth in Extreme Ag Fig. 28.— The Tusks. JTour years. Five years. Six years. Eight years. Twelve years. Old. PLATE 46. FIG.! ,- FANGS CROWN F.c.2. Molar Tooth — Upper Jaw. Natural size. PLATE 47. Fig. 1. A. The wall or crust. B. Insensitive sole. D. Sensitive sole. C. Insensitive frog. F. Sensitive frog. E. Coronary band. Gr. Small pastern bone. H. Great pastern bone. I. Flexor perforans tendo't. X. Seat of sprain in navicular disease. 0. Navicular bone. L. Sensitive lamina?. LL. Insensitive laminae. K. Os pedis. M. Long inferior sesamoid ligament. N. Extensor pedis tendon. The apparent position of the Os pedis pointing down so much at the toe is due to the section being made in the centre of the bone, where it is most concave. The lateral appearance would be flat. Fig. 2. A — Crust rasped high up. PLATE 48. /A" Fig. 3. A — Crust rasped low down. Fig. 4. Crust lowered and shortened from underneath (par. 946). PLATE 49. i. 5. b— Cleft of fro-. C— Frog. D— Seat of corn. B— Bars. A— Sole. — E — Crust or wall. b— Cleft of frog. C— Frog. D— Seat of corn. | _ B— Bars. i — A— Sole. - E — Crust or wall. Ground surface of the foot. Fig. 7. PLATE 50. Shoe flat to the sole. Fig. 8. Seated-out Shoe. A A A— Seat 'ing -out. PLATE 51. Fig. 9. Concave ground surface. Fig. 10. Fig. 11. V7V7 Countersunk nails. Rose-headed nails. PLATE 52. Fig. 12. Fullered and seated- out shoe. Fig. 13. A Tip. PLATE 53. Fiff. 14. Hind Shoe. Under inner posterior edge of the toe rounded off. Fig. 15. B —Calkin turned up narrow. Under inner posterior edge of toe not rounded off. A — Calkin turned up wide. PLATE 54. Turned-up toe — ground surface. A A — Upper surface of shoe flat to sole. B B — Web narrowed and sloped off at heels. Fig. 17. Turned-up toe— sole surface. PLATE 55. Fig. 20. Nails for Roughing without Penetration of Crust. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Russian Ice Shoes. American Ice Shoes. PLATK 56. Pig. 23. Outward appearance of Hoof in Laminitis. Fig. 24. Section of Hoof in Laminitis. 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