I THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BEQUEST OF ANITA D. S. BLAKE L. W.Svmmes 630 Harrison S.F. THE HORSE, BY WILLIAM YOUATT. A NEW EDITION, WITH NUMEROUS I LLUSTR ATIONS TOGETHER WITH A GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE; A DISSERTATION ON THE AMERICAN TROTTING HORSE, HOW TRAINED AND JOCKEYED, AN ACCOUNT OF HIS REMARKABLE PERFORMANCES; AND \X ESSAY ON THE ASS AND THE MULE BY J. S. SKINNER, ASSIST! NT POST MASTER GKNERAL, AND EDITOR OF TE 3 TI'RF REGISTEVi PHILADELPHIA : HENRY T. COATES & CO. GIFT u PREFACE TO THE LONDON EDITION. PUBLISHED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. THE First Edition of The Horse, which was completed ID the year 1831, has since had a large and continued sale: and in acknowledging the valuable communications which have been made for the improvement of the work, it is satisfactory to the Committee to be able to state, that no grave errors in it have been pointed out. Veterinary science has, however, made great progress in the last twelve years; the Structure of the Horse, the Injuries and Diseases to which he is subject, and the Treatment of these have been investigated, in this country and abroad, with much diligence and success, both at Colleges and in Societies devoted to the cultivation of Veterinary knowledge, and by practition- ers whose education and experience render their observations worthy of great respect. In these circumstances, the Society intrusted to the Author the preparation of a New Edition of this Treatise ; and he haa subjected it to so complete a revision, as to render it in many respects a new work. This remark applies especially to the •Jiapters relating to the Diseases of the Horse. Respectfully submitted, By order of the Committee, THOMAS COATES, SBC. 42 BEDFORD SQUARE, LONDON 1st March 1843 023 PREFACE, BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. IN undertaking, at the instance of the American publishers, to prepare a new edition of the last London copy of the work here presented, on fte HORSE ; it has been my endeavour to adapt it more exactly to the circumstances of our own country ; and by omitting some portions ol the original, not immediately illustrative of the principal subject, to reduce the volume, without impairing its value for practical uses. Few things have occurred, serving better at once to characterize and accelerate the march of intellect and benevolence which distinguishes the age in which we live, than the well-known formation, in England, of a " SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE ;" composed as it is, of men of the highest repute in the various departments of learn ing and industry ; headed by Lord Brougham. Their proceedings, as far as published, all show them to be animated by a generous desire to collect, simplify, and publish in the cheapest form, the latest and most authentic discoveries and improvements in science, and in arts promotive of the comfort and happiness of the human race. Under their auspices, several series of publications have appeared, one of which is denominated the " FARMER'S SERIES." Of this class, the first is the book on the HORSE. That the Horse should have been placed at the head of the list of domestic animals, having in view a treatise on the breeds, properties and uses of each, is a distinc- tion to which he is justly entitled, in reference as well to the beautiful symmetry of his form, and his extraordinary physical powers, as to his admirable docility of temper, and high moral qualities, fitting him eminently for the various purposes of pleasure and of business. In the work to which we are now introducing the reader, pruned, as it has been, of some preliminary chapters, he will find little to amuse him, of a character merely curious and speculative ; the mysteries of charlatanry, and the nostrums of empiricism, have been carefully excluded ; and where terms of anatomical and medical science have been necessarily employed, they are explained, and applied with a degree of plainness and precision, which bring them within the ready compre hension of every reader vi) PREFACE. vn The ta&k of preparation to render the present edition more useful foi \merican readers, has consisted chiefly in what will be found prefixed to it, on the va.ious stages which have marked and acts which have contributed to the improvement of the English stock of horses ; some of the best of which, as is more particularly shown, have been imported .nto the United States, from time to time, for the last century or more— as also, and more particularly, of what is said of the AMERICAN TROT- TING HORSE. To these have been added, a dissertation on the natura., history and uses of THE Ass AND THE MULE ; the last named animal being deeemed worthy of especial notice, on account of its utility and economy, in American agriculture ; and the yet greater extent to which it is believed it might be employed with advantage in this, as it is known to be in some other countries. But without presuming to recommend the work on account of any observations of his own, the American Editor, who has himself written volumes to illustrate and defend the interests of American husbandry, does venture, with the utmost confidence, to pronounce the work itself to be one which every gentleman may read with certainty of instruction- leaving, as it does, in truth, nothing untold, which need be known of the Horse, in his minutest anatomy, with full directions as to breeding and breaking, food and exercise ; as, also, plain descriptions of his various diseases, and their most simple and certain cures. Such a work ought to be in the possession, for convenient reference, of every owner of horses, whether for the coach, the saddle, the cart, or the plough. The great value attached to this work, and its entire success in England, may be understood, when we state that the new edition just published in London, and from which the present is reprinted, has been nearly rewritten by the author, and improved by the insertion of many new cuts; prepared for it by a distinguished artist. j. as. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. I TROTTING MATCH IN HARNESS FRONTISPIECE 2. HEAD OF THE BLACK ARABIAN TITLE. 3. SKELETON OF THE HORSE Page 68 4. BONES OF THE HORSE'S HEAD .. 70 5. SECTION OF THE HORSE'S HEAD ,.. 72 6. DIAGRAM OF THE SKULL 75 7 OCCIPITAL BONE OF THE HORSE 77 8. SPINAL CHORD, WITH BRANCHING NERVES 80 9. SECTION OF THE EYE 86 0. MUSCLES OF THE EYE 92 11. HORSE LABOURING UNDER LOCK-JAW 103 12. ANATOMY OF THE LEG AND FOOT 113 13. SECTION OF THE UPPER JAW BONE 123 14. MUSCLES, NERVES, AND BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE HEAD AND UPPER PART OF THE NECK 125 15. THE PALATE 142 16. GLENOID CAVITY OF THE HORSE AND TIGER COMPARED 143 17. TEETH OF A FOAL A FEW DAYS AFTER BIRTH 144 18. TEETH OF A FOAL AT TWO MONTHS 144 19. TEETH OF A FOAL AT TWELVE MONTHS 145 20. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A GRINDER 145 21. TEETH AT THE AGE OF A YEAR AND A HALF 146 22. TEETH AT THE AGE OF THREE YEARS 147 23. TEETH AT THE AGE OF THREE YEARS AND A HALF 147 24. TEETH AT THE AGE OF FIVE YEARS 148 25. TEETH AT THE AGE OF SIX YEARS 148 26. TEETH AT THE AGE OF SEVEN YEARS 149 27. TEETH AT THE AGE OF EIGHT OR NINE YEARS.— Bishoped 149 28. FINEST SHAPE FOR THE NECK AND HEAD 159 29. THE RIBS AND VERTEBRAE 167 30. THE STOMACH 221 31. TERMINATION OF THE OESOPHAGUS 222 32. THE BOT-FLY IN ITS VARIOUS STAGES, 224 33. THE INTESTINES 228 34 SECTION OF THE BLIND GUT 229 35. ENTANGLEMENT OF THE SMALL INTESTINES 239 86. CURVED AND STRAIGHT CATHETER 247 37. BONES OF THE LEGS 256 38. SIMPLE LEVER 257 89. MUSCLES OF THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER 259 40. MUSCLES OF THE INSIDE OF THE SHOULDER AND FOREARM. .. 260 41. SECTION OF THE PASTERN 272 42. INSIDE VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE PASTERN 276 43. OUTSIDE VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE PASERN 276 44. ATTACHMENTS OF THE MUSCLES OF THE PASTERN 276 45. DISEASES OF THE FORE-LEG 277 46. INSIDE MUSCLES OF THE HIND-LEG 281 17. OUTSIDE MUSCLES OF THE HIND-LEG 282 18. THE HAUNCH AND HIND-LEGS 283 19. THE HOCK-JOINT 286 >2. THE CORONARY RING 297 S3. PERJIVALL'S SUSPENSATORY APPARATUS FOR THE CURE OF FRACTURES 323 H. THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE 338 J5, THE UNILATERAL 339 56. OPERATION FOR CORNS 340 $7, PERCIVALL'S SANDAL 343 58. PERCIVALL'S SANDAL FASTENED TO THE FOOT 344 (8) CONTENTS INTRODUCTION, BY J. S. SKINNER. The Horse, in England and America — as he has been, and as he is * age 11 Lindsey's Arabian 34 The best Races in America 35 Best Races— Mile Heats 36 Best Races at Two-Mile Heats 37 Best Races at Three-Mile Heats 38 Best Races at Four-mile Heats 39 Lengths of the principal Race-Courses in England 41 Rules and Regulations of the New York Jockey Club 42 The Hunter 48 The American Trotter 49 Rules and Regulations of the New York Trotting Club 54 Trotting at Mile Heats 57 Trotting at Two-Mile Heats 57 Trotting at Three-Mile Heats 57 Trotting at Four-Mile Heats 57 Best Pacing in America on Record. 58 Miscellaneous Examples of Extraordinary Performances of American Trotters &8 Extraordinary Trotting Match 60 Trotting on the Beacon Course 63 Cen* reville (L. I.) Trotting Course 63 Trotting on the Hunting Park Course 64 Height of Trotting Horses 61 THE HORSE, HIS ANATOMY— WITH HIS DISEASES AND REMEDIES. BY WILLIAM YOUATT. CHAPTER I. FHB ZOOLOO CAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE ............ .•• CHAPTER II. THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. ,, ( CON TEJN Tb. CHAPTER III. {^JURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL — THE BRAIN — THE EARS — AHS> THE EYES 93 Fracture 93 Exostosis 94 Caries 94 Compression of the Brain 94 Pressure on the Brain 94 Megrims 94 Apoplexy 95 Phrenitis 98 Rabies, or Madness 100 Tetanus, or Locked Jaw ] 03 Cramp 106 Stringhalt 107 Chorea 109 Fits, or Epilepsy 109 Palsy 109 Rheumatism 110 Neurotomy Ill Insanity 115 Diseases of the Eye 116 Common Inflammation of the Eye 117 Specific Ophthalmia, or Moon-Blindness 117 Gutta Serena 121 Diseases of the Ear 121 leafness 122 CHAPTER IV. Tin ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH 122 Nasal Polypus 126 Nasal Gleet, or Discharge from the Nose 127 Ozena 128 Glanders f 129 Farcy 136 The Lips -. 139 The Bones of the Mouth 141 The Palate . . . , 141 Lampas 1452 The Lower Jaw 142 Diseases of the Teeth. . .151 CONTENTS. i. The Tongue 152 Diseases of the Tongue 1 52 The Salivary Glands 1511 Strangles 154 The Pharynx 156 CHAPTER V. THE ANATOMY *ND DISEASES OP THE NEC K AND NEIGHBOURING PARTS 157 Poll-Evil 157 The Muscles and proper form of the Neck 158 The Blood- Vessels of the Neck 161 The Veins of the Neck 161 Inflammation of the Vein . 161 The Palate 163 The Larynx 163 The Trachea or Windpipe 164 Tracheotomy 165 The Bronchial Tubes 166 CHAPTER VI. THE CHEST 167 The Spine and Back 171 The Loins 172 The Withers 173 Muscles of the Back 173 Fistulous Withers ; 174 Warbles, Sitfasts, and Saddle Galls 174 Muscles of the Breast 175 Chest-Founder 175 CHAPTER VII. THE CONTENTS OP THE CHEST 175 The- Thymus Gland 175 The Diaphragm 176 Rupture of the Diaphragm 177 The Pleura 179 The Lungs 181 The Heart 181 Diseases of the Heart 182 The Arteries 184 The Pulse 184 Inflammation , 1 85 Fever . 187 XI CONTENTS The Veins , 18ft Bog and Blood Spavin 188 Bleeding 189 CHAPTER VIII. THE MEMBRANE OP THE NOSE 191 Catarrh, or Cold 193 Inflammation of the Larynx 1 93 Inflammation of the Trachea . . . 194 Roaring , 1 94 Bronchocele 197 Epidemic Catarrh 197 The Malignant Epidemic 203 Bronchitis 205 Pneumonia — Inflammation of the Lungs 206 Chronic Cough 211 Thick Wind 212 Broken Wind 213 Phthisis Pulmonalis, or Consumption 215 Pleurisy . . 217 CHAPTER IX. ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS 221 The Stomach 221 Bots 224 The Intestines 227 The Liver 230 The Pancreas 23] The Spleen 231 The Omentum 231 CHAPTER X. THE DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES 232 The Duodenum ........ 232 Spasmodic Colic 232 Flatulent Colic 234 Inflammation of the Bowels 235 Enteritis 235 Physicking 237 Calculi, or Stones, in the Intestines , , 238 Introsusception of the Intestines , 238 Entanglement of the Bowels , 239 Worms , . 230 CONTENTS. Xll, Hernia, or Rupture .... 240 Diseases of the Liver 24* Jaundice . , 242 The Kidneys 243 Inflammation of the Kidneys 244 Diabetes, or Profuse Staling 245 Bloody Urine — Haematuria 245 Albuminous Urine , 245 The Bladder ' 245 Inflammation of the Bladder 246 Stone in the Bladder 4 246 CHAPTER XI. BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c 248 Castration 254 CHAPTER XII. THE FORE LEGS 255 The Shoulder 255 Sprain of the Shoulder 255 Slanting direction of the Shoulder 25(i The Humerus, or Lower Bone of the Shoulder 26G The Arm 261 The Knee 264 Broken Knees 265 The Leg 267 Splint 26d Sprain of the Back-Sinews 269 Wind-Galls 271 The Pasterns 272 Lesions of the Suspensory Ligament 274 The Fetlock 275 Grogginess 275 Cutting 275 Sprain of the Coffin- Joint 277 Ringbone 277 CHAPTER XIII. HIND LEGS 27y Thellauneh 279 The Thigh 279 The Stifle 283 Thorough Pin 285 ThoHock 285 «V CONTENTS. Enlargement of the Hock , . . . 286 Curb 287 Bog Spavin , 287 Bone Spavin 288 Capped Hock 290 Mallenders and Sallenders 291 Swelled Legs 291 Grease , 292 CHAPTER XIV. THE FOOT 295 The Crust or Wall of the Hoof 296 The Coronary Ring 297 The Bars 297 The Horny Laminae 298 The Sole 298 The Frog 299 The Coffin-Bone 300 The Sensible Sole 300 The Sensible Frog 301 The Navicular Bone 301 The Cartilages of the Foot 301 CHAPTER XV. THE DISEASES OP THE FOOT 302 Inflammation of the Foot, or Acute Founder 302 Chronic Laminitis 304 Pumiced Feet .' 304 Contraction 305 The Navicular-Joint Disease 309 Sand-Crack 311 Tread and Over-reach 312 False Quarter 313 Quittor 313 Prick or Wound in the Sole or Crust 31£ Corns 317 Thrush 319 Canker 320 Ossification of the Cartilages 321 Weakness of the Foot 321 CHAPTER XVI. FRACTURES . , 322 CONTENTS. \f CHAPTER XVII. ON SHOEING , . . . 338 The putting on the Shoe 335 Calkins 336 Clips ........ 337 The hinder Shoe 337 Different kinds of Shoes 337 The Concave-seated Shoe 337 The Unilateral, or one side nailed Shoe 339 The Hunting Shoe 340 The Bar-Shoe 340 Tips 341 The Expanding Shoe 341 Felt or Leather Soles 341 CHAPTER XVIH. OPERATIONS 344 Bleeding 345 Blistering 346 Firing 347 Setons 349 Docking 350 Nicking 351 CHAPTER XIX. THE VICES AND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS OF THE HORSE 353 Restiveness 353 Backing or Gibbing 356 Biting 357 Getting the Cheek of the Bit into the Mouth 358 Kicking 358 Unsteadiness while being Mounted 359 Rearing , 359 Running Away 359 Vicious to Clean 360 Vicious to Shoe 300 Swallowing without Grinding ... 360 Crib-Biting 361 Wind-Sucking 36SJ Cutting 36i! Not Lying Down * 362 Overreach 362 Pawing , , . . . 363 tin CONTENTS. Quidding 363 Rolling 363 Shying 363 Slipping the Collar 365 Tripping 360 Weaving ^ 366 CHAPTER XX. THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE 366 Air 366 Litter 368 Light 369 Grooming 370 Exercise 371 Food 372 CHAPTER XXI. THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES 361 Hide-bound 583 Pores of the Skin 385 Moulting , 385 Colour , 386 Surfeit 387 Mange 388 Warts 390 Vermin 390 CHAPTER XXII. ON SOUNDNESS, AND THE PURCHASE AND SALE OP HORSES 390 CHAPTER XXIII. A. LIST OP THE MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OP THE Dis- EASES OF THE HORSE . . , . . . . 398 ESSAY ON THE ASS AND MULE, BY J. S. SKINNER. . 41 tf THE HORSE, IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA— AS HE HAS BEEN, AND AS HE IS. OF all the beasts of the field, which, as we are to»d, the Lord formed out of the earth, and brought unto Adam to see what he would call them, none has more engaged the attention of the historian and the philosopher — none has figured more ir poetry and romance, than the horse. Coeval with their domestication, and the knowledge of 'their admirable capacities to minister to our comforts and pleasures, according to Plutarch, the sentiment has been common to all good men, to treat the horse and the dog with especial kindness, and to cherish them carefully, even when the infirmities of age and long service have rendered them useless. For the volumes which have been written on the Horse, whether more or less authentic, as to his original country, his natural history, the time of his subjugation to th0 use of man, and the various purposes for which he has been employed, — whether in the homely gear of field-labour, or in the gorgeous trappings of the tour- nament or chariot of war on all these points of his history and his uses, we might refer the curious reader to various works, some of them elegant, alike in their embel- lishments and their literature ; but to quote and to collate them here, would be to depart from the line of practical utility prescribed for the execution of our task ; hence, keeping that object constantly in view, we shall merely glance at what has been written of his early history and services, and so come down rapidly to the period in the history of the English horse where, after successive importations of foreign stallions, and the observance of judicious systems of breeding, the stock of the mother country, from which ours is derived, had attained about the days of Flying Childers, in th" beginning of the last century, a high degree, if not its maximum of excellence. It was when so improved that the horse was imported into our then British Colonies : and what, after all, it may be asked, is there economical and thrifty in our agricul- tural and domestic habits — or good in our political and social institutions, the ele- ments and general outline of which we have not derived from Old England 1 Some orchardists contend that a branch cut from an old trunk and grafted on a young scion, will, nevertheless, sympathize with the parent stock, and under the laws of vegetable life, will decay as the parent tree declines ! Does the theory sometimes apply to ountries and governments 1 or shall we thrive nationally, as plants grow larger and lore robust when transplanted from the seed-bed into wider space and freer circula non ? But these are questions for the politician. None of the writings to which we could point the reader contain more frequent mention, or more glowing descriptions of the power and beauty of the Horse, than the great book jf bonks ! The Bible teaches us that from whatever land this anima] may have been 'originally brought into Egypt, that country had already become a great horse market, even before horses were known in Arabia; the country with which we are apt to associate all that is most interesting in the history of this noble beast. Geol-'gicai researches, however, have discovered fossil remains of the horse in almost 3 * o r T : >fc THE HORSE. §very f art of the world. " from the tropical plains of India to the frozen regions ut Siberia — from the northern extremities of the new world to the southern point of America." But amongst the Hebrews, horses were rare previous to the days of Solomon, who had horses brought out of Egypt after his marriage with the daughtei of Pharoah, and so rapidly did he multiply them by purchase and by breeding, thai those kept for his own use required, as it is written, " four thousand stables, and forty thousand stalls." Hence, when honoured by a visit from the beautiful Queen of Sheba, bringing with her " camels bearing spices," and " very much gold and Krecious stones," it was doubtless in the contemplation of his magnificent stud of orses and chariots, kept for the amusement of his wives and concubines, as wrell as of his other vast displays of power and magnificence, that her majesty exclaimed, in • ho fullness of her admiration, — " Howbeit I believed not the words until I came and mine eyes had seen it, and behold the half was not told me !" This gallant monarch appears to have enjoyed a large monopoly of the horse trade wUh Egypt, for which he was probably indebted to his having an Egyptian Princess for one of his wives. His merchants supplied horses in great numbers to the Hittite Kings of Northern Phoenicia. The fixed price was one hundred and fifty shekels foi one horse, and six hundred shekels for a set of chariot horses. Thus early was in vogue, as it seems, the gentleman-like fashion to drive four-in-hand, which came down to the good old days when in our Republican country the Tayloes, and the Ridgelys, and the Lloyds, and Hamptons still figured and flourished on the race-courses at Annapolis and Washington. That there was in the " olden time," something remarkably luxurious in the style of living and equipage at the ancient metropolis of Maryland, may be gathered from the fol- lowing remarks in " NEW TRAVELS THROUGH AMERICA," in the year 1781, by the Abbe ROBIN, chaplain to the French army. — " Their furniture here is constructed of the most costly kind of wood, and the most valuable marble, enriched by the elegant devices of the artist's hand. Their riding machines are light and handsome, and drawn by the fleetest coursers, managed by slaves richly dressed. This opulence was particularly observable at Annapolis. Female luxury here exceeds what is known in the provinces of France — a French hair-dresser is a man of importance among them ; a certain dame here hires one of that craft at a thousand crowns a year salary." Before the days of Solomon, their honours, the Judges and Princes of Israel, used generally to ride on dsses and Mules ; no less patient and faithful servants of man than the horse ; and to whom the editor will endeavour to render justice, in the course of this introduction to the English work. It is not, be it said, with all our partiality for the Horse, that he possesses any one physical or moral trait, in higher excellence than some otner animals. In sagacity, he falls short of the ponderous and drowsy Elephant ; in muscular development and grace of limb, he surpasses not the Stag ; in ardour and constancy of devotion, he can scarcely be said to equal his friendly companion and rival fo« his master's affections, the faithful Dog ; and his courage fails him at sight of a " Lion in the way," — while in the humbler qualities of patience and availability to the very last, even to the hair and the hoof, that unambitious drudge, the Ox, may well assert his pretensions to com- parison, if not to superiority. It is the admirable combination of the several qualities which, taken singly, serve to confer distinction on other quadrupeds, that united in him, fits the horse for employments so various ; giving him pre-eminence alike in t\ie «vragon or the plough — the coach and the battle-field. While on the one hand, with a flight of speed, compared in Scripture to " the swiftness of the Eagle," he submits his neck, ilothed in thunder, to be restrained by a silken rein in the hands of a Di Vernon, his courage in war is thus eloquently described by Job. We give what is esteemed the best translation of a passage often quoted, no less for its appositeness than fcr itt «ufc ^rnity. " Hast thou given mettle to the horse ? And clothed his neck with ire ? Dost thou command him to spring like a grasshopper f The grandeur of his neighing is terror : With his feet he beats the ground, Rejoicing in his strength ; And goes forth to meet the embattled foe. THEhORSE. iy fht fearful sight he scorns, and trembles not, Nor from the sword doth he draw back. Above him rattle the quiver, the glittering spear, and arrow. Under him trembles the earth ; yet he hardly touches it. He doubts if it be the sound of the trumpet he hears, But when it becomes more distinct, then he exults, And from afar, pants for the battle, The word of command, and the war-cry." And then as to his gallantry ; where, in all nature, does she exhibit such a magnifi- eent display of that conservative passion, by which alone the Great Jehovah has cecurfd the perpetuity of all his creatures, as in the high-formed, pampered stallion, under the impulse of amatory anticipations ! — affording in this resistless necessity of anirm.l organization, proof that should dispel, even in aland of Atheists, all doubt of an overruling design or Providence, " Whose work is without labour ; whose designs No flaw deforms, no difficulty thwarts ; And whose beneficence no charge exhausts." It may be the force of early association, but we apprehend it is almost indispensable to have been born and " raised in the country" to estimate fully the attachment which can there alone grow up in all its power, between a u.an and his horse ! What con- queror, " from Macedonia's madman to the Swede," so proud as the boj and his horse ' Button" or " Bright-Eye," that can beat all competitors in a quarter-race ! Alex- ander was a fool, and Bucephalus a garron, compared to these two great characters, In playtime at a country school. " Hand experientia loquor /" To the valetudinarian, how delightful to escape from his sick room, and once more throw himself in his saddle, to ride abroad and snuff the fresh air of the morning ; 01 no less to one in the manly vigour of health, to mount his sure-footed, high-inettled steed, and go bounding, at three-quarter speed, " Over the hills and far away," iinder the reckless excitement of the chase, or sometimes even solitary and alone, ye* most agreeably exhilarated by that cheerful turn of thought educed by rapid horseback motion, in the bracing air of the country ! He, at least, must have felt these sensa- tions, who described them so happily and with so much enthusiasm, in the old Ameri- can Turf Register and Sporting Magazine ; a work since much improved, and now conducted with rare taste and elegance by W. T. PORTER, of New York. In strong fear of reproach for departing from the strict line of utility laid down for our observance, we cannot forbear to appropriate space enough here to multiply copiet of this beautiM tribute "TO MY HORSE." WITH a glancing eye and curving mane, He neighs and champs on the bridle-rein ; One spring, and his saddled back I press, And ours is a common happiness ! 'Tis the rapture of motion ! a hurrying cloud When the loosened winds are breathing loud : — A shaft from the painted Indian's bow — A bird — in the pride of speed we go. Dark thoughts that haunt me, where are ye now t While the cleft air gratefully cools my brow, And the dizzy earth seems reeling by, And nought is at rest, but the arching sky : And the tramp of my steed, so swift and strong, Is dearer than fame and sweeter than song ? There is life in the breeze as we hasten on , With each bound some care of earth has gone, And the languid pulse begins to play, And the night of my soul is turned to day A richer verdure the earth o'erspreads, Sparkles the streamlet more bright in the meada, 20 THE HORSE. A.nd its voice to the flowers that bend above, Is soft as the whisper of early love ; With fragrance spring flowers have burdened the air, And the blue-bird and robin are twittering clear. Lovely tokens of gladness, I marked ye not, When last I roamed o'er this self-same spot. Ah ! then the deep shadows of sorrow's mien Feil, like a blight, on the happy scene ; And nature, with all her love and grace, tn the depths of the spirit could find no place. So the vexed breast of the mountain lake, When wind and rain mad revelry make, Turbid and gloomy, and wildly tost, Retains no trace of the beauty lost. But when through the moist air, bright and warm, The sun looks down with his golden charm, And clouds have fled, and the wind is lull, Oh ! then the changed lake, how beautiful ! The glistening trees, in their shady ranks, And the ewe with its lamb, along the banks, And the kingfisher perched on the wither'd bough, And the pure blue heaven, all pictured below ! Bound proudly my steed, nor bound proudly in vain Since thy master is now himself again. And thine be the praise when the leech's* power Is idle, to conquer the darkened hour By the might of the sounding hoof, to win Beauty without and joy within ; Beauty else to my eyes unseen, And joy, that then had a stranger been. We return without further preliminary to trace the progressive improvements which nave ended in giving us the horse of all work of the present day, and as now employed for ordinary uses. These uses require hardiness and strength for economical ami laborious drudgery, and activity and speed for light harness and the saddle ; while for every purpose it is essential that he should have good wind. The work itself, to which these remarks are but introductory, it will be remembered treats more par- ticularly and fully, and leaves nothing more to be learned about the anatomy and diseases of the Horse. How the qualities designated above hale been gradually estab- lished and preserved from deterioration, it would be impracticable to ascertain and relate without going back as we propose to trace the outline at least of the history of the English Horse, from which ours are descended — and here, before proceeding further, it is deemed proper the better to indicate its importance to every practical husbandman, that we lay it down as a principle, that the horse, in his domesticated condition, where his propagation is conducted arbitrarily and without rule — where the male and female are brought together capriciously, and without care or judgment as to the qualities of each, constant and wide-spread deterioration must be the consequence. On this point, upon which we insist as of the highest consideration, we shall dwell again, to show why it is that animals in a state of nature will pieserve a higher standard than when unskilfully and carelessly bred in a state of domesti- cation. In the meantime, in sketching the history of the English horse, it is not deemed essential to go back anterior to the Invasion of England by Julias Caesar. Even at that period it is clear that there existed in that 'sland a good substratum for forming a superior race, for that observant and accomplished warrior spoke in the highest terms of the horses he found there. So well was he convinced of their excel- lence, that he took back with him many of them to Rome, where English horsos soon grew into great demand; and thus early was an inducement offered to the haidy and enterprising Briton, which since then has suffered no abatement, to pay strict atten- tion to this important source of agricultural wealth. * Le«cb 'n old poetic dialect, means pkysician. THE HORSE. 2j Hugh Capet, king of France, in the ninth century, proposing D himself by intei- tvarriage with Etheldista, to infuse more vivacity into the breed of these semi-barba rous islanders, sent over to her brother Prince Athelstan, a supply of German " running horses," as they were called, this being the first mention of the race-horse in English annals. It is to be supposed that in all cases of male horses thus spoken of, " entire" horses are to be understood ; for then it was not common, as it is now, to violate wantonly the Mosaic Law, which says, " a beast that is crushed, bruised, evulsed, 01 excised, (these being the four modes of castration,) you shall not bring unto Jehovah, nor shall you make it so in your land" A practice as doubtful, as to its necessity or utility in respect to the horse, as it is inhuman wherever it is useless. In the case of edible animals, where emasculation promotes size and fatness, and improves the flavour for the table, as with the hog and the sheep, this execrable mutilation is neces- sary, and therefore more excusable ; but this is not the case with the horse. In France where he is remarkable for strength in proportion to size, the post and the farm horse is rarely, if ever, castrated ; and when horses for the road undergo this operation, it is done in a manner and with such reservations as not to destroy the external appearance of this sexual development ; the suppression of which is there considered a striking disfigurement. Descending next to the epoch of William the Conqueror, whose charger was of the Spanish breed, and whose cavalry won for him the victory at the Battle of Hastings — one of his subjects, Roger de Belseme, justly obtained popularity as a national benefactor, by the importation of Spanish stallions into England. So decidedly beneficial was the result of this munificent act of an individual subject, that it may well be noted as an era in its way, for it is not to be doubted that these Spanish stallions partook largely of the blood of the Barb, brought into Spain by the Moors, as the Norman-French horse in Canada does, of the same blood, carried from Spain and Palestine to Normandy. To show how largely this new infusion of foreign blood must have refined and thinned the wind, so to say, of the English strain of horses, at that juncture, it is sufficient that we exhibit a well-drawn portrait, ready to our hand, of the Barbary horse, more nearly allied than any other to the Arabian, and quite his equal at least in form, if not in spirit — of the same stock, in fact, as Godolphin, com- monly called the " Godolphin Arabian." " The fore hand of the Barb is generally long and slender, and his mane long and rather scanty. His ears are small, beautifully shaped, and placed in such a manner as to give him great expression ; his shoulders are light, flat, and sloping backwards, withers fine and standing high ; loins short and straight; flanks and ribs round and full, without giving him too large a belly ; his haunches strong and elastic ; the croup is sometimes long to a fault, the tail is placed high, thighs well turned and rounded, legs clean and beautifully formed, and the hair thin, soft, and silky ; the tendons are detached from the bone, but the pasterns are often too long and bending ; the feet rather small, but in general sound." In this delineation of the barb, what reader will fail to recognise most of the genu- ine and well-established characteristics of the high form and breeding so much prized by all good judges ? The English Stock, to which a little too much heaviness had already been given oy the dash of German blood, was now approaching that stage which demanded but one more dip of the long-winded, light-footed, silken-coated Eastern courser, such as it received some centuries after with such palpable and finishing effect, from the Darley Arabian; and again from Godolphin, endowing it with both speed an stoutness in a measure, to which no addition has been made by any subsequent sprin kle of exotic blood. When we reach in the progress of these remarks the point whert it will be proper to speak more particularly of this effective agency of these two celo- orated stallions in elevating the character of the English blood horse, we shall give some reasons, drawn from the true principles of breeding, and which we do not recol- lect to have seen anywhere asserted, why it was that they contributed so much to '.hat end, and how it is that similar results have not attended later experiments of the same kind. In the meantime it is necessary to linger on the way in our review, that the chain may not be broken which connects the series of particular importations and other important incidents to which we are indebted for the advantages and delights that obscure but interesting annals of the American turf, consisting until ther of a con* fused mas0 of scattered materials — rudis indigesta QUC moles — arrangirg them ir te THE HORSE. chronological order, and imparting to them all the perspicuity and weight of digested and authentic history. "Additional attention was given to blood during the reigns of Elizabeth ana James. The latter had his running horses, and with great judgment, imported from Arabia. A south-eastern horse was brought into England and purchased by James of Mr. Place, who was afterwards Stud-master to Oliver Cromwell. This beautiful animal was called Place's White Turk. Shortly after appeared the Helmsly Turk, imported by the Duke of Buckingham. Charles I. ardently pursued the amusements of the turf, now a favourite diversion with English gentlemen. With but few ex ceptions, the oldnst English pedigrees end in Place's White Turk. At the Restoration a new impulse was given to breeding and running fine horses. The system of improvement was thenceforth zealously pursued. Every variety of Eastern blood was engrafted upon the English ; and the superiority of the produce, above the very oest of the original stock, began to be evident. Their beauty of form, speed, and stout- ness, greatly surpassed the original breed. In the latter part of Queen Anne's reign there was still further improvement caused by the introduction of the Darby Arabian, Having to contend with prejudice, it was some time before he attracted notice. From him sprung a strain of unequalled beauty, speed, and strength. The Darby Arabian has been properly termed the parent of the racing stock. The present English thorough-bred horse is of foreign extraction, improved and perfected by the influence of climate and diligent cultivation. " The pedigree of English Eclipse affords a singular illustration of the descent from pure Eastern blood, both of himself and his ancestors, Marske, Regulus, Squirt, and Childers. The strictest attention has been paid to pedigree. In the descent of almost every modern racer, not the slightest flaw can be discovered ; or when, with the splendid exceptions of Sampson, and his son Bay Malton, one common drop has mingled in the pure stream, it has been speedily detected in the degeneracy of their progeny. The Stud-Book, which is authority acknowledged by every English breeder, traces all the old pedigrees to some Eastern courser, or until they are lost in the uncertainty of early breeding. " The thorough-bred horse enters into every other breed, and adds or often gives to it its only value. For a superior charger, hunter, or saddle-horse, three parts, or one- half should be of pure blood ; but for the horse of all work, less will answer. The road-horse, according to the work required of him, should, like the hunter, possess different degrees of blood. The best kind of coach-horse is derived from mares of some blood, crossed with a three-fourth or thorough-bred stallion of sufficient size and substance. Even the dray-horse, and every other class of horse, is improved by a partial mixture of the thorough-bred." The late John Randolph, a connoisseur as well as an amateur in all such matters, used to say, that the long, slouching walk of the blood horse would tell, even in the plough, in a hot summer's day. A retrospective glance at the low condition of the turf, and of the blood horse in this country, at the date of the establishment of the AMERICAN TURF REGISTER AND SPORTING MAGAZINE, by MR. SKINNER, at Baltimore, in 1829, will show how the influ- ence of that official record of blood and of performance, revived this ancient amuse- ment, and, as if by magic, retrieved and brought into demand again, the still pure but long-neglected descendants of illustrious ancestors. Pedigrees were thenceforth strictly scrutinized, the grain was winnowed from the chaff; and while some bastards, claiming high family pretensions, were exposed and repudiated, the rust which, through time and carelessness, had accumulated on the bright escutcheon of the real Simon Pure, was brushed away, and the mark of legitimacy indelibly stamped upon his brow. Prior to the establishment of the Turf Register, the dam of Kate Kearney and of Sussex, two among the best nags ever bred in the Old Dominion, was sold at public auction, for thirteen pounds, tobacco cuirency, and was afterwards bought out of a cart for $50, by Col. J. M. Selden, a fair specimen, himself, of the good old Virginia stock ; without, at t) e time, h is true, a knowledge of her pedigree. She was used as i common farm hack, in the heaviest and hardest work, going in the wagon and breaking up heavy James' River bottom-lands in the plough ; and, as Col. S. has THE HORSE. 25 assured us, was the only horse on the estate, whereof there were many much larger, that never lost a day's work, or required to be turned out and rested occasionally, from sickness or exhaustion. Being informed of her blood, she was rescued from theF* "baj»e uses" and sent to Sir Archy, by whom she produced Kate Kearney, and to FIT Charles, and produced the renowned, but ill-fated Sussex, sire of Lady Clifden. La iy Lightfootwent out of a common livery-stable at $500; and old Eclipse, not long be/jra his race with Sir Charles, was offered to the writer of these remarks for $2,500. At an advanced age he sold for $10,000, and is now, at twenty-seven years old, in vigor- ous health, covering in Kentucky at $100. One of his get by Lady Lightfoot was sold to a gentleman of Pennsylvania for $10,000, and that only on condition, as it waa rumoured, that the buyer would reciprocate the favour, by letting the gallant ownei of him have one hundred bottles of his old Bingham wine, for ten times that number of dollars. Sir Archy was in a great measure indebted to his fame, if not to his great value as a stallion, during his declining years, to the establishment of the Turf Register, in which were heralded the brilliant achievements of his renowned get and their descendants. Ho had been made but a mere addition in the exchange, for but so-so high-bred cattle, by his breeder, the late Col. John Tayloe, of Mount Airy ; and thus passed into the hands of his nephew, the late Ralph Wormley, Esq., of Rosegill, at whose death, shortly thereafter, he was purchased in his three year old form, after being beaten, by our re- nowned turfman, W. R. J., Esq., of Chesterfield, Virginia, who soon placed him at the head of the turf, with the reputation of being as good a four-miler as had ever run in Ame- rica. Such fame soon supplied his Harem — and at once he acquired a higher name in the Stud than any stallion that had ever been in our country ; and now, thanks to the Regis- ter, is very generally regarded as ourGodolphin Arabian — the ancestor of Boston, and Fashion, and Wagner, and Grey Eagle, and J. Bascom, and Postboy, and Mingo, and Lady Clifden, and Fanny, and Sarah Washington, and Grey Medoc, and Jim Bell, &c. It would here be unjust, not to say ungrateful, in one who has so often been the hon- oured medium of his favours in that way, not to make acknowledgments to the truly vene- able JUDGE G. DUVALL, for the light shed by him on the earlier annals of the American Turf. So wonderful is his memory, that he can place each horse as he saw them come out in remarkable races before the revolution ! How gratifying to his friends to behold this old Maryland-born advocate of our revolutionary claims ; compatriot of Washington, and Tilghman, and Howard ; asserter of all we have achieved that ia good in political — examplar of all that is commendable in private morals ; approaching his centenary, and yet erect in port and in spirit, like one of our majestic old poplars, enarsely surviving the ravages of the axe and the peltings of the pitiless storm — memo- rials of the virgin soil and better days in which its roots were struck. When we insist that the great objects to be aimed at, action and power of endurance, are only to be secured with certainty, by exact trials of speed and the preservation of authentic pedigrees, we may perhaps be met by the suggestion that this theory is at war with all observation as to the effect of indiscriminate intercourse among wild horses, which are said to display high powers and excellence, not only on the plains nnd pampas of North and South America, but yet more in the deserts of Arabia, where this animal is generally supposed to be found in his highest finish. As to the fine specimens of their race, which are taken with the lasso, from immense herds roaming at large on the plains of this continent, it is to be borne in mind, that while none but the best are thus selected, the basis of these herds was originally brought, like that of the fine cattle of Louisiana, from old Spain ; being deeply imbued with the fine blood of the Andalusian or Barb Horse. That such a race, running at large, in a countrv highly adapted to its constitution, should not have degenerated and become worthless in f Drm and spirit, is not so discordant with the principles of artistieal bleeding, foi which we contend, as may at first sight appear — for it is well known that in these wild herds, the work of procreation is conceded not indiscriminately to all, but is fought for and engrossed by the m^st spirited and vigorous stallions among them ; following, in this case, the laws that govern all animated nature, where might takes the place of right, and courage and strength, there, as elsewhere, usurp the Lion's share — hence, tbough in general the size, too often made a matter of primary consideration, may be Velow thfc medium stmdard of the domesticated Horse, the more estimable qiralitiei 3 D 26 THE HORSE. of fine properties, activity, and game of the sire, are transmitted to his get. It n ay well be supposed, too, that this monopoly of sexual enjoyment is rarely allowed to continue more than one or two years. As the season of love opens with the budding of the leaf, in the genial warmth of spring weatlu r, this envied privilege becomes again a prize for the most desperate rivalry ; the fiercest conflicts, often mortal, then ensue ; and the delights of the harem are at last yielded for a time to the victor who proves himself the possessor, in a superior degree, of the very qualities — strength, spirit, and activity — which, under the best management, we should desire to impart! This sufficiently accounts, as we apprehend, for such excellence in several points, ae is admitted to be often found in the horse of the desert and the pampas; pre- sending him from that degeqeracy, both moral and physical, which, under the system » breeding "in-and-in" too closely, is seen to show itself in monstrous shapes, in King's evil, sometimes in idiotcy. Lord Byron, himself a nobleman, and unfortunately not exempt from personal deformity, could not forbear sarcastic allusion to the effects of this in-and-in system, which, prompted by reasons of state and of family aggrandize- ment, is sometimes followed too far in the royal and noble families of Europe : " they breed in-and-in, as might be known ; Marrying their cousins, nay, their aunts and nieces, Which always spoils the breed, if it increases." The natural-born children of high-born sires are often observed to be more sprightly and energetic than those which spring lawfully from parents so nearly allied ; it may be because they are made like the Frenchman's incomparable shoe, in a " mo- ment of enthusiasm," which, in more enterprises than one, is the guarantee of a foi- tunate issue. There has been, since long before the American Revolution? on the islands along the sea-board of Maryland and Virginia, a race of very small, compact, hardy horses, usually called beach-horses, which, in a sketch like this, deserve a passing notice. They run wild throughout the year, and are never fed. When the snow sometimes covers the ground for a few days in winter, they dig through it in search of food. They are very diminutive, but many of them are of perfect symmetry and extraordinary powers of action and endurance. The Hon. H. A. W. of Accomac, has been heard to say that he knew one of these beach-horses, which served as pony and hack for the boys of one family, for several generations; and another that could trot his 15 miles within the hour, and was yet so small that a tall man might straddle him, and with his toes touch the ground on each side. He spoke of another that he believes could have trotted 30 miles in two hours. As an instance of their innate horror of slavery, he mentions the fact of a herd of them once breaking indignantly from a pen into which they had been trapped, for the purpose of being marked and otherwise cruelly mutilated ; and rather than submit to their pursuers, they swam off at once into the wide expanse of the ocean, preferring a watery grave, to a life of ignominious celibacy and subjugation ! Why might not one of these small but symmetrical stallions, on the principles which we shall hereafter explain, beget superior stock, if put to large, well-formed, high-bred mares 1 Mr. W. is clearly of opinion, from all circumstances and appearances, that these small horses, smaller even than the Canada Stallion, possessing such powers as he describes, are descendants of thorough-bred stock ! Other animals in a wild state, no less than the Horse, are doubtless preserved from degeneracy under the same con- servative polity of nature. Thus we see the graceful stag loses in the wildernesa none of his exquisite symmetry of form, delicacy and hardness of bone, and matchless swiftness of foot. When Autumn is first seen to put on the " sere and yellow leaf,1' the Doe, having then performed her maternal office, feels the sexual passion revive in hei bosom ; but its indulgence is postponed, until the rival bucks have settled again foi the season, the question of physical superiority by actual, sometimes deadly combat So desperate are these encounters, that Stags have not unfrequently been found dead, ae related by that scientific officer, Col. Long, upon his own observation, with theii antlers inextricably interlocked, presenting striking and melancholy pictures of the universal passion " strong in death." A large pair of antlers thus entangled were "bund, in a WPS tern wilderness, and sent to Nicholas Biddle, Esq., and may be seer »ver the door r»f his studio at Andalusia, overgrown with ivy. The same reason- THE HORSE. ^ ing aoxnmts for the great size and beauty observable ii cattle that roam at large, /n South America, as indicated bj the hides we often see on the wharves in our large seaports — though at other times the males mingle in all kindness and social harmony, yet in these affairs of love, still more than in trade, all nature proclaims there is " no friendship." How much of truth to nature, in the chaste and pious Thomson' description of the effect of this vernal influence on the temper of the Bull! " Through all his lusty veins The bull, deep-scorch' d, the raging passion feels Of pasture sick, and negligent of food: Scarce seen, he wades among the yellow broom, While o'er his ample side, the rambling sprays Luxuriant shoot ; and through the mazy wood Dejected wanders, nor the enticing bud Crops, though it presses on his careless sense. And oft in jealous maddening fancy wrapt He seeks the fight, and idly butting feigns His rival gored in every knotty trunk." In these cases, where nature is left without disturbance to preserve herself from decay, Providence, which never works in vain, will take care that all goes right ; — but how different the result when animals tamed and domesticated by the cunning of man, are brought together for reproduction, arbitrarily, and, as is generally done in our country, perhaps above all others, in utter disregard of everything like rule or system, and in total ignorance or carelessness of their respective points°and qualities, as well as of their adaptation or relationship, the one to the other ! With this igno- rance and carelessness almost universal, there is constant danger, as we have before stated, of general deterioration ,- and in introducing a work intended to promote the health and improvement of this animal, it cannot be too strongly urged that this ever- existing tendency is only to be counteracted by presenting those strong incentives which alone can prompt a few to devote the time and the skill which are indispensa- ble to maintain the blood horse, sans tache, and in the highest perfection. Nothing can more clearly show the wise and benevolent order of Providence that man should exercise his superior intellect for the improvement of all around him, than the ease' and certainty with which it is seen that, by close attention, we can modify and meliorate all organized existences in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Hence the most acid and worthless grape is by skilful culture rendered sweet and luscious ; flowers without attraction are gradually nurtured into beauty and fragrance; tne cat may be made to present all the rich colours of tortoise-shell, and the pigeor, may be "bred to a feather." These remarks might appear foreign or super- fluous, but for their obvious design to enforce the necessity of breeding the horse with incessant regard to an ever-existing susceptibility of improvement on the one hand, and liability to degenerate on the other. Without some such strong incentives as above referred to, in a few years, one might as well look among the black Dutch for a dancing-master, as to look anywhere for breeding horses that will insure speed, and stoutness, and spirit. In regard to the prevalent impression that the Arabian horse runs wild in the desert, breeding promiscuously, and that where he has been domesticated, no attention is paid to pedigree, and no recourse had to racing to test their powers, — all accounts go to show, on the contrary, that no people preserve their equestrian/^jmYy trees with more seduloua care. To reach the root of some, they go down many centuries. Although, according to Strabo, an historian of high repute, who lived in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, much about the era of Christ's appearance, Arabia was still without horses; yet it is undoubtedly a fact that they soon took the most effectual methods to' improve them to the utmost, and among these, says a very learned commentator on the Mosaic Code, *• I am inclined to consider the spirit of horse-racing, an exercise in which the Aiaba eagerly sought for renown, as the primary cause of that perfection which the art of horse-breeding so rapidly attained among them ; but I by no means exclude soil and dimat*., and food, as contributing causes." — "Wherever, (says the same writer,^ racing is established either as a source of fame or profit, good horses will be sough! ror, and thf breed improved in the first instance by the best foreign stallions, ami then 28 THE HORSE. oy tnftse home-bred ones which show the best qualities; and thus the countiy tul* by degrees acquire an excellent breed." " That races (says he,) were introduced among the Arabs, very soon after they began to breed horses, appears from the very names of the coursers. Ten horses started together, and from the victor to the last, each has its own proper name 01 epithet ; — one of their best scholiasts enumerates them in the following manner at they came out in the race : — Sabek, the foremost — the inspirer of joy and banisher of caio — because his aster can behold the race with delight, and without concern, 1 Mutgalli — because he had his head on the back of the winner, 2 Musalli — because he satisfies his owner, 3 Tali — the pursuer, 4 Murtach — the ardent, or mettlesome, 5 Jltif—the keen, or well disposed, 6 Muvaimnal — the inspirer of future hopes, 7 Hadi — the lazy, 8 Latim — the belaboured, because taken into the stable with blows, .... 9 Lucait — or whose name is not to be named, and of whom nothing is said, because the case is too bad, 10 The admitted excellence to which the general stock of English horses has been brought, is then the result, as has been seen, of a good foundation to build upon ; of successive and in most cases judicious crosses, by the use of foreign stallions, most frequently Barbs ; and of superabundant wealth employed in the breeding and train- ing of stud ; those addicted to all the luxurious uses of the horse, having besides jther facilities a wide latitude before them, in the various strains to select and breed from. The reason why the Barley Arabian, and after him the celebrated Barb, Godolphin, contributed more decidedly than any Arabians have done since, to the improvement of the race-horse, is, that they were imported at the very juncture when the British stock was in a condition to need a cross that would impart more muscle and harder bone, and give better wind ; while it diminished the size and weight of the carcass, which had been made too heavy by repeated uses of the Flemish and German breed. In our own country we know, and probably in all others, the progress of improve- ment of domestic animals has been much retarded and counteracted, by the vulgar persuasion that the largest males should be selected for the purpose of procreation. — Than this common impression no error could be more pernicious. This fallacy is the source of the disappointment and mortification experienced by farmers who give enormous prices for overgrown bulls and rams, and who always give the preference to stallions that measure "full sixteen hands and upwards under the standard." — On this point we cannot do better than refer to an able essay of Professor Cline of Lon- don, on the form of animals, published in the third volume of the American Farmer. With the principles laid down in that essay, every farmer should make himself tamiliar. A few passages may be quoted, no less for their appositeness to the point here made, than for their general applicability and value in the study of all animal economy. "Muscles. — The muscles, and tendons which are their appendages, should be large; by which an animal is enabled to travel with greater facility. " The bones. — The strength of an animal does not depend on the size of the bones but on that of the muscles. — Many animals with large bones are weak, their muscles being small. Animals that were imperfectly nourished during growth, have their bones disproportionably large. If such deficiency of nourishment originated from a consti' nitional defect, which is the most frequent cause, they remain weak curing life Large bones therefore generally indicate an imperfection in the organs of nutrition. " On the improvement of the form. — When the male is much larger than the female, the offspring is generally of an imperfect form. If the female be proportionably larger, the offspring is of an improved form. — For instance, if a well-formed large ram be pit to ewes proportionab y smaller, the lambs will not be so well shaped a* thefc THE flORSE *# parents ; but if £ small ram be put to larger ewes, the lambs will be of an improved form. " The proper method of improving the form of animals consists in selecting a well formed female, proportionably larger than the male. The improvement depends on this principle ; that the power of the female to supply her offspring with nourishment is in proportion to her size, and to the power of nourishing herself from the excellence of her own constitution. " The size of the foetus is generally in proportion to that of the male parent, and therefore when the female parent is disproportionately small, the quantity of nourish- ment is deficient, and her offspring has all the disproportions of a starveling. But when the female from her size and good constitution is more than adequate to the nourishment of a foetus of a smaller male than herself, the growth must be propor- tionably greater. The large female has also a greater quantity of milk, and hei offspring is more than abundantly supplied with nourishment after birth. " To produce the most perfect formed animal, abundant nourishment is necessary from the earliest period of its existence until its growth is complete. " The power to prepare the greatest quantity of nourishment from a given quantity of food depends principally upon the magnitude of the lungs, to which the organs of digestion are subservient. " To obtain animals with large lungs, crossing is the most expeditious method, because well formed females may be selected from a variety of large size to be put to u well-formed male of a variety that is rather smaller. " Examples of the good effects of crossing the breeds. — The great improvement of the breed of horses in England arose from crossing with those diminutive Stallions, Barbs, and Arabians ; and the introduction of Flanders mares into this country was the source of improvement in the breed of cart-horses. " Examples of the bad effects of crossing the breed.- — When it became the fashion in London to drive large bay horses, the farmers in Yorkshire put their mares to much larger stallions than usual, and thus did infinite mischief to their breed, by producing a race of small-chested, long-legged, large-boned, worthless animals." Such, we believe, was the ill effect of the cross by a large " Cleveland bay" stal- lion, imported and sent to Carroll's Manor in Frederick County, Maryland, some years since, by the late Robert Patterson. His younger brother, George, a gentleman 0f fortune by inheritance, but a farmer by choice, and of uncommon sagacity and judgment, would have foreseen the result of such a cross. Nowhere so systematically as on his estate, have we ever seen so fully carried out and completely illustrated, this important principle in breeding as already quoted from Professor Cline, that " to produce the most perfect formed animal, abundant nourishment is necessary from the earliest period of its existence until its growth is complete." So thoroughly is Mr. P. impressed too with the expediency of getting as much blood as you can into the horse of all work, consistently with the weight which is indispensable for slow and neavy draught, that he seeks to have as much of it as can be thrown into his plough and wagon horses. Were the question doubtful, the argument must preponderate which is supported by the practice of an agriculturist, rare in all countries, who is ready with his reason for everything he does, and " no mistake at that." Enough, it is believed, has already been said to show how exactly opportune was the cross of the Arabian and the Barb, on the English stock ; nor does it require any further reasoning to sustain the position before laid down, that these males of exquisite form, but proportionably smaller than the females of their day in England, having accomplished their purposes by enlarging the lungs and improving the conformation of their progeny, giving more muscle and less bone ; the same stallions, could they rise, phoenix-like from their ashes, could probably not now be employed with the wme beneficial effects. , A review of his most distinguished performance*, leads us to think that in culti- vating the powers of the horse, the ne plus ultra of success was reached in the days of Flying Chiliers, in the beginning of the last century, and was sustained wir> tnfailing excellence to the time of Highflyer in 1774 (perhaps we might say to the present dan '"I — a period embracing, cons Bcuti rely, the wonderful performances . 3* 30 THEHORSE. and progeny of others besides Matchem, Marsk, the sire of Shark (who won ID matches upwards o> $80,000), Mirza, Bay Malton (who in seven matches won $30,000), King Herod, whose get in nineteen years won more than a million of dollars ; Shark himself, aftei wards imported to the U. States, who, besides a sup of the value of one hundred and twenty guineas, and eleven hogsheads of claret, won the vast amount of $77,000. Eclipse is said to have run the four miles at York in 1770, in eight minutes, carrying one hundred and sixty-eight pounds, being forty- two pounds over the standard weight — making the result equal to four miles in 6 m. 27s. If, according to the opinion of experienced sportsmen, the correctness of which is questionable, seven pounds weight be equal to a distance of two hundred and forty yards in a four-mile race ; and giving him a right to dispute the palm of superiority with Flying Childers himself. It is to be remembered that neither of these two paragons of the English Turf, aa they are generally esteemed, were trained before they were five years old. Some assuming as a fact, what we consider problematical — a falling off, in stoutness, of the English racer, since the days of Highflyer, — have ascribed it to the modern prac- tice of bringing horses forward too young ; but it must not be forgotten that High- flyer himself, who won and received little less than $50,000, and who was never beaten, nor ever paid forfeit, came on the turf in his three year old form, carrying one hundred and twelve pounds, and ran his last race on the 14th of September, 1779, when, though lame and out of condition, he won easy, and retired to the breeding fetud at five years old ! But may we not with more reason, attribute the reality, 01 the assumption, as it may be, of less bottom, or to speak more distinctly, less capacity to carry weight and repeat long distances, in the modern English courser, rather to the modern fashion of training for short racing, and to their reliance on the foot of the horse, and the skill of the rider to bring him out in a brush at the run home, than to any real degeneracy of the stock ? On these points we find some observations in a journal which well sustains the title of " THE SPIRIT OF THE TIMES." The remarks by the Editor are regarded by us as of such high authority, and so apposite, that we cannot forbear giving them a place." " The superiority of the English horses over the American, as regards speed, is almost universally allowed by those American turf-men and amateurs who have witnessed their performances at home. We might name Captain Stockton, Majoi Davie, Judge Porter, Mr. Corbin, Mr. Neil, the late Mr. Golden, Mr. Kirkman, and many other gentlemen with whom we have conversed upon the subject. The forte of the English horse of the present day is speed, beyond a doubt ; and while Americans give up the point, as to short distances, they think our four-mile horses can beat the English in races of heats at that distance. There is no encouragement offered to the English turf-man to breed a four-mile horse, save here and there a plate of 100 guineas value; all, or nearly all the valuable prizes are offered for two and three year olds, so that the object of the breeder is to bring out a colt in the fall of his two year old form, having such strength and substance as shall enable him to take up heavy weights, and go from half to three-quarters of a mile at a flight of speed. As colts that have won frequently, beating good fields, as three year olds, are subse- quently very heavily handicapped so as to place them upon an equality with indiffer- ent performers, they almost invariably give way in competing for the valuable public prizes offered, such as the cups at Goodwood, Liverpool, Ascot, &c. Ji very fine four mile horse in England would not command one-quarter of the price, which could be obtained for a tried two year old. He would soon be broken down by having twenty or thirty pounds extra clapped upon his back, to place him on a level with an untried three year old carrying a feather." "Investigator," who we cannot doubt is Mr. B. O. T. of Washington, explains conclusively, to our minds, " the yet unexplained difference between the time of the racing in ;he two countries," when he attributes it, in a great measure, to the shapt and soil of the English courses, &c., emphatically called the turf. In confirmation of this opinion of the effects of soil, it may be mentioned that a gentleman amateur has just remarked to us, that when Miss Foote lately won a four mile heat on the Melaric Course, New Orleans, in 7m. 35s., *he shortest time in \ine*ica unVil now beaten by Fashion ana Boston on Long Island, the course was THE HORSE. jj ^uite elastic, and that though the surface was dry, water might have been found within a few feet, if not inches, anywhere below it. We apprehend, however, that these " very fine four-mile King's plate horses" are exactly such as ought to have been selected for importation to this country, instead of the fashionable stock, bred to speed, under the influences before mentioned. The question has been raised, and may well be entertained without implying any narrow or unbecoming feeling of national jealousy; — whether the turf-horse of Eng- lish stock does not degenerate in America ? Referring to the controling influences of climate, soil, and food, there is certainly no reason to infer that he should ; but, from the very nature of these, quite the contrary ; and why may we not believe that there is in nature, a power which will coerce animal, as we know it will vegetable produc* tions, to forego their original peculiarities, and partially conform themselves, in pro- cess of time, to the more immutable laws of soil and climate ! We recollect to have heard Mr. Jefferson, in proof of the influence of soil over vegetables, state, that he knew a French gentleman, on his inheritance of a famous and very profitable wine estate, impair at once the quality of the wine, and his own income, materially, by employing some crude and unsuitable manure to fertilize his vineyard. The vines bore more abundantly, but the wine lost its flavour, and the vineyard its \\ ^nted repute. So it is with other vegetables. The celebrated white wheat will change from white to red, on being transplanted into any other from its natale solum — the eastern shore of Maryland and Virginia ; and the celebrated Havana tobacco, with change of soil and climate, loses both its fine texture and rich fragrance. Thus, without any violence of presumption, we may assert the influence of both soil and climate on the constitution and temper of the horse. How long would the satin-coated, thin-skinned, flint-footed, hard-boned, muscular and proud-spirited Arabian, accustomed to a short bite, and delighting in a hot sun, retain, after being transferred to the rich and suc- culent pastures of the " low countries," the high and peculiar characteristics which have given him pre-eminence over all the families of his race? Exposed in rigorous climates, the horse could not long survive in a state of nature, but when protected and well supplied with food, it is difficult to determine how fai towards the pole he might be sustained ; and we may here quote from good authority, " That this animal existed before the flood, the researches of geologists afford abundant proof. There is not a portion of Europe, nor scarcely any part of the globe> ifom the tropical plains of India, to the frozen regions of Siberia — from the northern extremities of the new world to the very southern point of America, in which fhe fossil remains of the Horse have not been found mingled with the bones of the Hippopotamus, the Elephant, the Rhinoceros, the Bear,~the Tiger, the Deer, and various other animals, some of which, like the Mastodon, have passed away." In point of fact, however, every other circumstance being nearly similar, the Horse thrves best in countries within or near the torrid zone. In the mild climates of Northwestern Europe, this noble animal reaches a high development. The wild horse of this continent, brought from Texas, or the more remote provincias infernos, and tamed, we have been told, though in general unsightly when compared to the high-bred horse of the United States, is greatly superior in hardiness and ease of support. We may further sustain these reflections on the influence of climate, with the opinion of a gentleman of great observation and know -edge of geography and natural history, Mr. Darby, who thinks that " in the zone of North America, com- prising Western Louisiana, Texas, &c., to the Gulf of California, this most splendid iuxiliary of man, with anything like equal care and skill, will reach his utmost devel- jpment of form, strength, beauty, and affectionate docility." In additional support of our hypothesis, that climate and food have their influence on the form and character of animals, and that these influences in England are less auspicious to high perfection of the Horse than the warmer and dryer climates of the United States, we may adduce the remarks of English writers of authority. The effect indeed of climate and soil on wool-bearing animals is asserted by all natural- ists. Bakewell, who bestowed particular attention on the subject, contends that the softness of wool depends chiefly on the soil on which the sheep are fed. Professo* Clins. whose ab e disquisition we have already freely quoted, says 4' the D! 32 THE HORSE. of the animal economy is such as that an animal will gradually accommodate itself til great vicissitudes in climate and alterations in food, and by degrees undsrgo g:ea changes in constitution. The size of animals is commonly adapted to the soil which they inhabit. Where produce, is nutritive and abundant, the animals are large, 1 aving grown proportionably to the quantity of food which for generations they have been accustomed to obtain." To these respectable authors it will be sufficient to add the observations &f Captain Thomas Brown, in his Biographical Sketches of the Horse, that " the degenerating effects of a British atmosphere and pasturage, can only be suc- cessfully combated, by the occasional introduction of Asiatic blood. A permanently excellent breed can never be expected in Ms climate ,•" except, we would add, as haa been well and truly said of Liberty itself, by eternal vigilance. On the soundness of these views, may not the opinion safely rest, that on this con- tinent the Horse ought to reach and retain powers at least equal to any he has ever attained in England ? And were truth to compel the admission, which is by ruo rneana certain, oi any deficiency or falling off, might it not be fairly ascribed to the want, in this country, of the vast means and the leisure, the science and the skill, which English Aristocracy can command and afford to bestow on the turf, and all the appoint- ments and accommodations, requisite for the pursuit and enjoyment of that and othei field sports ; all of which create wide and constant demand, at high prices, for honest and stout nags, that can go both the pace and the distance ] If money " makes the mare go," so will it the horse, and by its agency, what may not be achieved in a country where a nobleman finds amusement in spending, like the Duke of Richmond, at Goodwood, fifty thousand dollars on his dog kennel? If the superiority claimed by some for English over American horses, cannot be the fruit of climate, neither can it be ascribed to any want on our part of their best blood. Our importations go back more than a century. On this point we are glad again to borrow and adopt the views of thai accomplished amateur, Mr. B. O. Tayloe, of Washington, by whom the public has been well reminded that " at a very early period of its Colonial Government, fine horses were introduced into Virginia — encouragement was given by Legislative enactments, and speed was particularly attended to— Bull-Rock, a famed son of the Darby Arabian, and wholly of Eastern Hood, was imported as far back as 1730, the year that the Godolphin Arabian (Barb), was introduced into England ; and many other English horses and mares were imported, long before any Stud-Book ippeared in England." Before and soon after the Revolutionary War, and again, since the establishment of the American Turf Register, the importations into New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland. Virginia, and South Carolina, have embraced many of the most distinguished families that have adorned the English Turf; bringing streams pure and copious, from the great fountains of Matchem and Eclipse, with an imple infusion from the loins of Herod himself; in whose stock, above all, is united •' the two essential qualities of speed and botton*. ' To go more into detail in proof of our abundant resources, if well husbanded, for sustaining a stock of horses equal IP all desirable points, and for all manner of work, to that which any other country can exhibit, would here be out of place — else it would be easy to present a list not much short of three hundred imported horses, among the very best which in their day could be found in the " fast-anchored isle," beginning, as before stated, near half a century before the American Revolution. Let it suffice to name a few, such, for example, as Shark, at the close of the last century, and shortly thereafter those Derby winners, Saltram, (one of the best sons of the famed Eclipse,) Diomed, Spread-Eagle, and Sir Harry; the equally famed race-horses Gabriel, Buzzard, Eagle, and Chance ; and latterly the renowned winners of the Derby — Priam, St. Giles, and some others — and of the St. Leger, Rowton, Margrave, and Barefoot, that with their close competitors, also imported to thi« country, Sarpedon,Caetus, Trustee, and Emancipation; together with Glencoe, Rid- dleworth, and Leviathan; Chatt^a-Margaux, and perhaps some others, were race- Hordes of the very highest repute in their day, in England. Soon after the last revival of the turf in America, and before there was time to witnest its effaces on our existing stock, it was deoined expedient to import again, at very great tost, some of the most fashionable horses of the " old country," with ? view to the re- . as it v^as supposed, of our native stock, but it is questionable how far it wan THE HORSE. a needed, for, as very recently observed in the "Spirit of the Times," — "NotwitJ standing1 the immense chance they have had, (having generally had the choice of the finest mares,) but seven of them have a winner at four-mile heats last year, while thirteen of native stallions have winners that won thirty-two races." — True, the winner of the race, of races, Fashion, is by imported Trustee ; but how much of her stoutness may not have come down to her from her grand-dam, Old Reality, of Medley blood — a blood illustrated in so many fields in contests of four-mile heats'? Witness the extraordinary achievements of his g. g. g. son, (through Duroc, Amanda, and Grey Diomed. son of Medley) American Eclipse in 1823, three heats of four miles, in 23m. 50s., and his competitor Henry, tracing to Medley through his grand-dam by Bellair, son of Medley. Sir Hal, at Broad Rock, winning the four mile day froix Cup Bearer, in one heat, 7m. 40s. — Cup Bearer breaking down. Oscar, near Balti- more, in 1806, beating First Consul in 7m. 40s. — each winning horse, as well as Cup Bearer, partaking largely of the Medley blood, though no two were by the same norse. It is also wormy of remark as warranting the assumption that Fashion owes her vast powers as much to the old English imported Medley blood, Americanized, as to her recently imported sire, that two days after her immortal victory, her half- brother — grandson of Old Reality, and by Shark, a son of American Eclipse, in a second heat drove the unrivalled son of Timoleon to the winning post in 7m. 46s., running the next heat and ending a doubtful contest in 7m. 58^s. As already stated, the object in thus dwelling on the wonderful capabilities of th< bred horse, and of endeavouring to show that with proper inducements and precau tion to measure his foot and to gauge his bottom, and to record faithfully hi& genealogy and performances, there need not be, as there has not been any general decay — and in insisting that without a portion of his blood we can reckon on no general or permanent supply of good nags for saddle or harness, is to impress upon American husbandmen generally, the absolute necessity of keeping these ulterior but important objects always m view. Those who are opposed to all field sports, on account of the dissipation and vice with which some of them are too often accom- panied, might yet learn to tolerate what they cannot enjoy. The whole business of life is mixed with good and evil, and full of compromises. — Shall we forego the us« of gunpowder, because that " villanous compound" sometimes charges the pistol of the duellist ; or throw up altogether the use of steam, because human life is occasion- ally sacrificed by the careless use of it 1 But it is not only as a question of individual comfort, or of agricultural resource, that this subject is to be looked at. It is worthy, too, of the serious regard of the statesman, in the higher and more important aspect it presents in a military point of view, and as thus connected with our national defences. In cavalry, perhaps more than in any other weapon, our locality must always give us an advantage over any invading force. An enemy cannot bring cavalry with him. With something like a well arranged system in breeding our horses, this advantage may be turned to great account in time of war. With the forecast that distinguished his military adminis- tration, Napoleon had the sagacity to establish Haras, or studs, in the several departments of France, where thorough-bred stallions were placed at the service of the common farmer, on terms which barely paid the expense of their keep. But to come nearer home, while every one at all familiar with the incidents of our own Re- volution, knows how much was effected in the South, by Lee's famous " Legion ;' few, comparatively, may be aware to what that celebrated corps chiefly owed its efficiency — and yet it is undeniable that in a great measure the prevalence of blood in his horses made it at once the scourge and the terror of the enemy. Wonderful ii their endurance of hunger, thirst, and fatigue ; prompt to strike a blow where it wag east expected, and, when forced, as quick to retreat ; they may be said to have wel earned the description applied to the Parthian steed : — " Quot sine aqua Parlhus nullia currat equus, How many miles can run the Parthian horse, Nor quench his thirst in the fatiguing course ." U was not, however, generally known, until the Repository offered by the "Timr for the record of all extraordinary facts connected with these subi« . . . £J£J nr; 00 QO ^SN CQ 00 QO ?j? CC F"H nn nn QO ^^ F~* t ."-7. *5«fissg^sa5 ^^ rt ~ §S .11 TWO-MILE HEATS. FS ej ?3 .3 d -1 « JQ B o SK • • 2s @ ^* ».c ;lll^!|llli3?r. - *" ce ^ C .r C ? ^ T3 i 5f|llPi1lsadli|III&l 55325^555^ **re S.«15,«rfsj»i53 38 THREE-MILE HEATS. 1 ill I ij ill :3" -~ :o fi J|° bC.S •§•§ .o :n4 &*$ ( to EH ffi a H tf ffl H- w H O QQ 4s .«J^ :.8l'5 i!!] j !l :£ : : :« , i • * • • >^^ . *£ • • • • • • • —^ • • • • -^* • • • - QQ «5 -«2 C^-H • liimisi 111 Tt ^= «* 00 00 C5 t' .o 50 10 t- O t :3 : ••? I -up - ^-5 c^-S S 2 S^H i s 4C THE HORSE. the above tables hare been excluded all races made over courses nolm iously short of a mile in length. By adhering to this rule, very many excellent races a Norfolk have been omitted ; — as Andrew's, Betsey Ransom's, Polly Hopkins', and others; Mercury's race in 7m. 40s. — 7m. 42s., at New Orleans, is omitted for the same reason. Again, we have inserted in the tables only ihe winners of the different races t winners of a single heat are omitted. But it would be unjust not to note one or two winners of single heats. Bee's-wing, by imported Leviathan, 5 years old, carrying 97 pounds, in March 1840, won a first heat from Grey Medoc, in 7m. 38s. As she pulled up lame, she syas drawn. Kate Aubrey, by Eclipse, 4 years old, carrying 83 pounds, in March 1842, won a three-mile heat in 5m. 39s., but was distanced the next heat. The reader will note that the great races made at New Orleans have been run generally in March; according to their rule, their horses taking their ages from May, have run a year under their true age, and carried weight accordingly. In the above tables their proper age has been given, and attention is called to the subject again, for the purpose of pointing to Sarah Bladen's race, which she lost with Jim Bell — the first heat by a length and a half, and the second by but eighteen inches ; time, 7m 37s. — 7m. 40s. — The mare ran as aged, and carried 121 pounds — but two less than she would have to carry at the North. Again, the best time ever made at two and three miles, has been in four-mile races., Thus Boston and Charles Carter ran the first and third miles in 3m. 41s., and the first three miles of their great race in 5m. 36^s. ; Fashion and Boston ran the first two miles in 3m. 43s., and three miles in 5m. 37^s. ; Wagner and Grey Eagle, it is said, ran the last three miles of their best heat in 5m. 35s. Gallatin is said to have run the two middle miles of a four-mile heat in 3m. 43s., and Trifle the last two miles of a four-mile heat in the same time. Mingo and Post Boy are believed by the writer to have run a mile of a four-mile heat at Trenton, in 1m. 48s. ; the former and Mary Blunt ran their twelfth mile in 1m. 47s., and a third four-mile heat in 7m. 46s. The higher estimation placed upon their great performances at the longer distance, renders it superfluous to note further the rate of speed in the different miles. Finally, it will not have escaped the observation of attentive readers, that while the horse may appear by these tables, exhibiting as they do, his utmost capacity for a series of years, to have been brought, by careful attention to blood, and by great skill and nicety in training, up to the probable maximum of his powers ; it is yet as clear as it is encouraging to see, fhat by unremitting recourse to the same means, and by that alone, he may be kept up fully tu the standard of capacity which these records have established as the measure of his attainable speed and stoutness. If with an eye to the fact, that "the last" is " the first," and the fastest on the record, (Fashion and Boston at L. I.) the hope should spring up in the bosom of the sanguine, that the " end is no- yet," and that the thread may be drawn yet a little finer ; without wishing to repress an iota of exertion to make good that conclusion, it may be well to remember, that as before stated, according to the opinion of some whose judgments we are bound to respect, a few of our principal courses have been improved at the rate of more than a second to the mile ! Thus it may be doubted whether, if we could meet again in the club-room, or at the social board which they were wont to ornament and enliven, the Fathers of the American turf, — the Sharpes, the Ogles, the Taskers, the Tayloes, Hamptons, Ridgelys, Lloyds, Spriggs, Bowies, Ducketts, Duvalls, Seldens, &c., they would not remind us of these our advan- tages, and be prompt to match and freely back some of their favourite old nags against the best on these lists of more modern performers. To some of these ancestors of our present stock the tribute is due that their name be here recorded as well for their achievements as for having transmitted their powers to their descendants, viz. : Tasker's Selima, by the Godolphin Arabian, never beat; he dam of Galloway's Selim, the best Maryland horse of the last century ; Fitzhugh's Regulus, Semmes' Wildair, Goode's Brimmer, Tayloe's Virago, Bell Air. Grey Diomed, Black Maria. Leviathan, and Gallatin; Hoomes' Fairy, sister to Gallatin, Ogle'8 Oscar, Ridgely's Post Boy, Bond's First Consul, Willis's Maid of the Oaks, Edelin's Horetta, Bali's Flnri-zel. Sir Archy; these last nine were at the head of the turf early THE HORSE. 4; in the pieseut century. With these no competitor or rival deserves to be named, until the revival of the best days of the turf by the get of Sir A.rchy, as exhibited by the match of his son Henry with Eclipse. By every test of comparison Henry was no better race-horse than several of the get of Sir Archy, nor as good a one as Timo- leon, Virginian, Sir Charles, and Bertrand. In those days, Hoomes, Selden, Taylo ', ttidgely, and Bond were at the head of the turf. Though not strictly belonging to a work intended as this is, not for a particular class but for all owners of horses and for every day's reference and use, yet we have said so much of the race-horse, whose blood we consider it essential to preserve ic its purity and to be used as occasion may require, as every good house-keeper pre- serves and uses good yeast to leven the mass, that we may as well add the lengths of the principal race-courses in England, and the rules of the jockey club lately established for the Long Island race-course. These will occupy but little space and may prove acceptable to those ef our readers who take an interest in the amusements of the turf. Miles. Fur. Yards, The Beacon Course is 4 1 138 The Round Course is 3 4 178 Last three miles of Beacon Course 3 0 45 Ditch in 2 0 97 The last mile and a distance of Beacon Course ... 1 1 156 Ancaster mile 1 0 18 From the turn of the lands in 0 5 184 Clermont Course, from the Ditch to the Duke's Stand 1 5 217 Audley End Course, from the starting-post of theT.Y.C. to the end of the Beacon Course 1 6 0 Across the flat 1 2 24 Rowley mile 1 0 1 Ditch mile 0 7 178 Abingdon mile 0 7 211 Two middle miles of Beacon Course • . 1 7 125 Two-years-old Course (on the flat) 0 5 136 New ditto (part of the Banbury mile) 0 5 136 Yearling Course • .... 0 2 47 Banbury mile 0 7 248 "Previously to 1753 there were only two .meetings in the year at Newmarket ibi *he purpose of running horses, one in the Spring and another in October. At present there are seven. — The Craven, instituted in 1771, in compliment to the late Earl Craven, and commencing on Easter Monday ; the First Spring, on the Monday fort- night following, and being the original Spring Meeting; the Second Spring, a fortnight after that, and instituted in 1753; the July, commonly early in' that month, instituted also in 1753 ; the First October, on the first Monday in that month, being the original October meeting ; the Second October, on the Monday fortnight following — instituted in 1762; and the Third October, or Houghton, a fortnight after that, and instituted 1770. With the last-mentioned meeting, which, weather permitting, generally lasts a week, and at which there is a great deal of racing, the sports of the Turf close foi the year, with the exception of TarporJey, a very old huntrmeeting in Cheshire, now nedrly abandoned ; and a Worcester autumn meeting, chiefly for hunters and horses f the gentlemen and farmers within the hunt." — Nirnrod — The Turf, 152. ASCOT HEATH. The two-mile course is a circular one, of which the last half is called the old mile. Hie new mile is straight and up-hill all the way. The T.Y.C. is five furlongs and 36 yards. EPSOM. The old course, now seldom used except for the cup, is two miles of an irregulai circular form, the first mile up-hill. The new Derby course is exactly a mile and g tiaif and somewhat in the form of a horse-shoe : the first three-quarters of a mile WHI 12 THE HORSE. 9e considered as straight running, the bend in the course being very trifling, and th€ width very great ; the next quarter of a mile is in a gradual tun. and the last half- mile straight ; the first half-mile is on the ascent, the next third of a mile level, and the remainder is on the descent, till within the distance, where th«? giound again rises. The new T.Y.C. is six furlongs ; the old T.Y.C., or Woodcot course, is somewhai less than four. The Craven course is one mile and a quarter. DONCASTER Is a circular and nearly flat course of about one mile, seven furiongs, and seventy yards. The shorter courses are portions of this circle. LIVERPOOL. The new course, now used for both meetings, is flat, a mile and a half round, and with a straight run-in of nearly three quarters of a mile, and a very gradual rise. MANCHESTER Is one mile, rather oval, vith a hill, and a fine run-in. A DISTANCE is the length of two hundred and forty yards from the winning post. In the gallery of the winning post, and in a little gallery at the distance post, are placed two men holding crimsoi flags. As soon as the first horse has passed the winning post, the man drops his ^ag ; the other at the distance post drops his at the same moment, and the horse which has not then passed that post is said to be dis tanced, and cannot start again for the same plate or prize. A FEATHER-WEIGHT is the lightest weight that can be put on the back of a horse. A GIVE AND TAKE PLATE is where horses carry weight according to their height, Fourteen hands are taken as the standard height, and the horse must carry nine stone (the horseman's stone is fourteen pounds). Seven pounds are taken from the weight for every inch below fourteen hands, and seven pounds added for every inch above fourteen hands. A few pounds additional weight is so serious an evil, that it is said, seven pounds in a mile-race are equivalent to a distance. A POST MATCH is for horses of a certain age, and the parties possess the privilege of bringing any horse of that age to the post. A PRODUCE MATCH is that between the produce of certain mares in foal at the time of the match, and to be decided wjien they arrive at a certain age specified. Rules and regulations approved and adopted by the New York Jockey Club, on the 13th September, 1842; to continue in full force and effect until the close of the last Fall Meeting in the year 1844, subject to such alterations as may be made from time to time, according to the discretion of the Club. Rule 1st. — There shall be two regular meetings held by the New York Jockey Club at the Union Course, on Long Island, to be called and known as the Spring and Fall Meeting. The Spring Meeting shall commence on the second Tuesday of May, and the Fall Meeting shall commence on the first Tuesday of October, in each year. Mule 2d. — There shall be a President, four Vice Presidents, a Secretary and T%ea- surer, to be appointed annually by ballot. Rule 3d. — It shall be the duty of the President to preside at all meetings of the Club ; to act as presiding Judge at each day's race ; appoint his Assistant Judges or the evening preceding each day's race, report and publish the results of each day's race, and act as Judge in all Sweepstakes, with such other persons as the parties may appoint. Rule 4th. — It shall be the duty of the Vice Presidents to attend all meetings of the Club, and assist the President in the discharge of his duties. In the absence of the P resident, the first Vice President, and in his absence, the 2d, 3 1, or 4th Vice Presi- dent, shall act as President pro tern. THE HORSE. 43 Rult 5th. — it stall be the duty of the Secretary to attend at all meetings of the 'Jlub, also to attend the Judges of each day's race, assist them with his counsel, and furnish them with all the requisite information connected with each day's ra^e ; keep a book, in which he shall record the Members' namos, the Rules and Orders of the Club, and add to them any Resolutions or Amendments which may change the cha- racter of either ; also record the proceedings at each meeting of the Club, whether H special or a regular meeting ; he shall also record all the entries of horses, Matches, and Sweepstakes, in which shall be set forth the names of the respective owners, the colour, name, age, sex, and name of sire and dam of each horse ; record an account of each day's race, including the time of running each heat, and after the races are over for a meeting, report the same to the President of the Club for his official pulli- cation. He shall also put up, and keep up during every Meeting, at some conver iem place, at or near the Judges' Stand, a copy of the Rules and Regulations of the Ciul then in force. Rule 6th. — It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to collect all the money due the Club, whether from subscriptions of members, entries of horses, or from any other source, pay the same over from time to time upon the order of the President of the Club, and in case of his absence, upon the order of the acting Vice President • and within thirty days after the closing of every regular meeting, he shall furnish the President, or in his absence, the acting Vice President, a full statement of the receipts and disbursements of the funds of the Club, from the date of the last staterrenv up to the date of that which he then renders, showing the balance of money in hand, sub- ject to the order of the President, or acting Vice President, which statement shaJ be deposited with the Secretary of the Club, as one of the records of the Club, and so be entered by him. Rule 1th. — At each regular meeting there shall be appointed four Stewards, who shall serve for one meeting succeeding their appointment. They shall wear son e appropriate badge of distinction, to be determined upon by themselves. It sha'il bt» the duty of the Stewards to attend on the Course, to preserve order, clear the track, keep it clear, keep oif the crowd of persons from the horses coming to the stand after the close of each heat, and they may employ in their discretion, at the expense of the Club, a sufficient number of able-bodied men to assist them in the effectual dis- charge of their duties. Rule 8th. — There shall be three Judges in the starting stand, consisting of the President and two Assistant Judges, assisted by the Secretary, and in case of ..he absence of the President of the Club, then the first Vice President, and in his absence, the second Vice President. The Judges shall keep the stand clear of any intrusion during the pendency of a heat, see that the Riders are dressed in Jockey style, weigh the riders before starting in the race, and after each heat, instruct the riders as to their duty under the rules before starting in the race, and proclaim from the stand the time and result of each heat, and also the result of the race. Rule 9th. — There shall be two Distance Judges, and three Patrol Judgef , appointed by the Judges in the starting stand, who shall repair to the Judges' stand imme- diately after each heat, and report to the Judges the horses that are distanced, and foul riding, if there be any. Rule 1 Oth. — All the disputes shall be decided by the Judges of the day, from whose decision there shall be no appeal, unless at the discretion of the Judges, and no evi- dence of foul riding shall be received except from the Judges and Patrols. Rule llth. — When in the opinion of the majority of the Officers of the Club, any good cause may require the postponement of a race, they may postpone any Purse race, but in case of a postponement of a race, no new entries shall be received for that race. A postponement of a Purse race shall give no authority to postpone any Sweepstake or Match made or advertised to be run on that day ; and in the event of the Club postponing a regular Meeting, it shall give them no power to postpone any Matches or Sweepstakes made to be run at that Meeting. Rule 12th. — All Sweepstakes and Matches advertised to be run on the Course on an/ day of a regular Meeting of the Club, shall be under the cognizance and control of the Club, and no 3hange of entries once made shall be allowed after closing, unlesa Vy consent of all parties. Sweepstakes and Matches made to be ran -it a particmai 44 THE HORSE. Meeting, without the parties specifying the day, the Sev.xetary n ust give ten day& notice of what days they will be run during the meeting, in case he is informed of it in time. And no Sweepstake or Match shall be run on the Course during a regular meeting without being first reported to the Secretary, to bring it under tliij cognizance and control of the Club. Rule 13th. — The age of horses shall be computed from the first day of January next, preceding their being foaled; that is, a colt or filly foaled on any day in the year 1841, will be considered one year old on the first day of January, 1842. Rule 14th. — No person shall start or enter a horse for any purse offered by, or under the control of, the Club, other than a Member of the Club, and producing, if required, satisfactory evidence or proof of his horse's age; nor shall any Member etart a horse if his entrance money, subscription money, and all forfeits incurred on the Union Course, are not paid before starting. Nor shall any person start a horse, during a regular meeting of the Club, who is in arrears to any member of tlie Club for a forfeit incurred on the Union Course. Rule 15th. — All entries of horses for a purse shall be made in writing under seal addressed to the Secretary of the Club, and deposited in a box, kept for that purpose, at the usual place of Meeting of the Club, before five o'clock in the afternoon of the day of the race, for which the entry is made. Each entry shall contain the entrance money, and state the name, age, colour, sex, ard pedigree, of the horse entered, and describe the dress of the rider of such horse. After five o'clock of the afternoon of the day preceding a Purse Race, no other or additional entry shall be allowed to be made for that race, and no entry shall be received or recorded, that does not contain the entrance money. The entries so received, shall be drawn from the box by the Secretary, and declared at five o'clock of the afternoon of the day preceding the day of the race, in the presence of at least three Members of the Club, and the horses so entered shall be entitled to the track in the order in which their names are drawn ; in Sweepstakes and Matches, the Judges shall draw for the track at the stand. Rule 16th. — Any person desirous of becoming a member only for the purpose of entering a horse, may do so, he being approved by the Club, and paying double entrance. Rule 17 'th. — The distance to be run shall be Two-mile heats, Three-mile heats, and Four-mile heats, and a purse shall be put up to be run for during each regular meet- ing, for each of the named distances. Not more than five per cent, shall be charged as entrance upon any amount that may be put up for a purse. Rule ISth. — Every horse shall carry weight, according to age, as follows : — A horse Two years old, A leather. '* Three years old, 90 Pounds. " Four years old 104 " " Five years old, 114 '• «' Six years old, 121 " " Seven years old and upwards, 126 " A.n allowance of three pounds to mares, fillies, and geldings. The Judges shall see that each rider has his proper weight before he starts, and that each rider has within one pound, after each heat. Rule 19/A. — Catch weights are, where each person appoints a rider without weigh- ing. Feather weights signifies the same. A Post Stake is to name at the starting post. Handicap weights are weights according to the supposed ability of the horses. An Untried stallion, or mare, is one whose get or produce has never ran in public \ maiden horse or mare is one that never won. Rule 20/A. — No horse shall carry more than five pounds over his stipulated weight without the Judges being informed of it, which shall be publicly declared by them, whereupon all bets shall be void, except those made between the parties who enter the horses. Every rider shall declare to the Judges who weighs him, when and how his extra weights, if any, are carried. The member of the Club who enters the horse Rhall be responsible for putting up, and bringing out the proper weight. He shall b« bound to weigh the rider of his horse in the presence of the Judges before starting and if he refuses r\r neglects to do so, he shall be prevented from starting his horse. THE HORSE. 43 Rule 2ist. — When in running a race, a distance is In one mile, ... 45 yirds In two miles, ... 70 '„ In three miles, .90 „ In four miles, 120 „ Rule 22d. — In a Match Race of heats, there shall be a distance, bu none in a § ingle heat. Rule 23d.--The time between heats shall be For one mile heats, 20 ramutes. For two mile heats, 25 „ For three mile heats, 30 „ For four mile heats, 35 „ Rule 24:th. — Some signal shall be given from the starting stand, five minutes before the period of starting, after the lapse of which time, the Judges shall give the word start to such riders as are then ready, but should any horse prove restive in being brought up to the stand, or in starting, the Judges may delay the word a short interval, at their own discretion. Rule 25th. — Any horse winning a purse of this Club, shall not be allowed to start for any other purse during the same meeting. Rule 26th. — If a horse be entered without being properly identified, he shall not be allowed to start, but be liable to forfeit, or the whole, if play or pay, and all bets on a horse so disqualified, shall be declared void. Rule 27th. — Where more than one nomination has been made by the same indivi- dual, in any Sweepstake to be run on the Union Course, and it shall be made to appear to the satisfaction of the Club, that all interest in such nomination has been bona fide disposed of before the time of starting, and the horses have not been trained in the same stable, all may start although standing in the same name in the list of nominations. Rule 28th. — No conditional nomination or entry shall be received. Rule 29th. — Should any person who has entered a horse formally, declare to the Judges that his horse is drawn, he shall not be permitted to start his horse. Rule 30th. — Any person entering a horse younger than he really is shall forfeit his entrance money, and if the horse wins a heat or race, the heat or race shall be given to the next best horse if the objection be made to the age of the horse after the heat or race is run. The disqualification must be proved by the person making the objection. Rule 31s/. — If an entered horse die, or a subscriber entering him, die, before the race, no forfeit shall be required. Rule 32d. — No compromise or agreement between any two persons entering horses, or by their agents and grooms not to oppose each other upon a promised division of the purse or stake, or for any other purpose, shall be permitted or allowed, and no persons shall run their horses in conjunction, that is with a determination to oppose jointly any other horse that may run against them. In either case upon satisfactory evidence produced before the Judges, the purse or stake shall be awarded to the next best horse — and the persons so offending shall never again be permitted to enter a horse to run on the Union Course. Rule 33d. — When the tap of the drum is once given by the Starting Judge, there shall be no calling back, unless the signal flag shall be hoisted for that purpose, and when so hoisted it shall be no start. To remedy the inconvenience of false starts, there shall be a signal flag placed at a point which can be readily seen by the riders at from one to three hundred yards from the Judges' stand. When a start is given and recalled, a flag from the Judges' stand shall be displayed, and the person having in charge the signal flag shall hoist the same as a notice to pull up. It shall be the duty of the Starting Judge to give this rule in charge to the riders. Rule 3£th. — No two riders from the same stable shall be allowed to ride in the same race. No two horses trained in the same stable, or owned in whole or in part by the same person, shall be allowed to enter or start in the same race : both the entries shall be void and the entrance money forfeited to the Club. Rule 35th. — No ridfir shall be permitted to ride unless wel1 dressed ^ Joskey style 46 THE HORSE. To wit, Jockey cap, coloured jacket, pantaloons, and boots. Liveries to be recorded in the Secretary's Book, and not permitted to be assumed by others. Rule 36th. — Every rider after a heat is ended must repair to the Judges' stand, and i.ot dismount from his horse until so ordered by the Judges, and then themselves carry their saddles to the scales to be weighed, nor shall any groom or other person, approach or touch any horse until after his rider shall have dismounted and removed his saddle from the horse by order of the Judges. A rider dismounting without such permission, or wanting more than one pound of his proper weight, shall be declared distanced. Rule 37th. — The horse who has won a heat shall be entitled to the track in the next heat, and the foremost be entitled to any part of the track, he leaving sufficient space for a horse to pass him on the outside. But he shall not when locked by another horse leave the track he may be running in to press him to the inside or outside, and having selected his position in a straight stretch, he shall not leave it so as to press his adversary to either side, the doing of either of which shall be deemed foul riding. Should any rider cross, jostle or strike an adversary or horse, or run on his heels intentionally, or do anything else that may impede the progress of his adversary, he will be deemed distanced although he may come out ahead, and the race awarded to the next best horse. Any rider offending against this rule, shall never be permitted to ride over or attend any horse on this Course again. Rule 38th. — Every horse that shall fail to run outside of every pole, shall be deemed distanced, although he may come out ahead, and the race shall be awarded to the next best horse. Rule 39th. — If a rider fall from his horse, and another person of sufficient weight rides the horse in to the Judges' stand, he shall be considered as though the rider had not fallen — provided he returns to the place where the rider fell. Rule 40th. — A horse that does not win one heat out of three heats, shall not be allowed to start for the fourth heat, although he may have saved his distance, but shall be considered better than a horse that is distanced in the third heat. Rule 41s/. — A distanced horse in a dead heat shall not be allowed to start again in Ihe race. Rule 42d. — When a dead heat is made, all the horses not distanced in the dead heat, may start again, unless the dead heat be made by two horses, that, if either had been winner of the heat the race would have been decided ; in which case the two only must start to decide which shall be entitled to the purse or stake. Such horses as are prevented from starting by this Rule shall be considered drawn, and all bets made on them against each other shall be drawn, excepting those that are distanced. Rule 43d. — A horse receiving forfeit, or walking over, shall not be deemed a winner. Rule 44th. — A bet made after the heat is over, if the horse betted on does not start again, is no bet. Rule 45th. — A confirmed bet cannot be off without mutual consent. Rule 46th. — If either party be absent on the day of a race, and the money be no4 staked, the party present may declare the bet void in the presence of the Judges, oefore the race commences ; but if any person present offer to stake for an absentee, it is a confirmed bet. Rule 47th. — A bet made on a heat to come, is no bet, unless all the horses qualified to start shall run, and unless the bet be between such named horses as do start. Rule 48th. — The person who bets the odds may choose the horse or the field : when he has chosen his horse, the field is what starts against him, but there is no field unless one starts against him. Rule 49th. — If odds are bet without naming the horses before the race is over, it must be determined as the odds were at the time of naming it. Rule 50th. — Bets made in running, are not determined till the purse is won, if the heat is not specified at the time of betting. Rule 51s/. — Bets made on particular horses are void, if neither of them be the »vinner of the race, unless specified to the contrary. Rule 5%d. — Hoises that forfeit are beaten horses, where it is play or pay, and no' otherwise. THE HORSE. 47 Ilule 53d. — All bets, matches, and engagements are void on the decease of eithei party before determined. Rtle 54th. — Horses drawn before the purse is won are distanced. Rule 55th. — A bet made on a horse is void if the horse betted on does not start. Rule 56th. — When a bet is made on a heat, the horse that comes first to the ending post is best, provided no circumstance shall cause him to be deemed distanced. Rule 51th. — All bets are understood to relate to the purse or stake, if nothing is said to the contrary. Ruls 58th. — When a bet is made upon two horses against each other for the purse, if each win a heat, and neither are distanced, they are equal — if neither win a heat, and neither distanced, they are equal. But if one wins a heat, and the other does mot, the winner of the heat is best unless he shall be distanced, in which case the other, if he saves his distance, shall be considered best. If a horse wins a heat and is distanced, he shall be better than a horse that does not win a heat and is distanced; so too if one be distanced the second heat, he shall be better than one distanced the first heat. Rule 59th. — The words "absolutely," or "play or pay," are necessary to be used to make a bet play or pay. " Done" and " Done*' are also necessary to confirm a bet. If a bet be made, using the expression "play or pay," and the horse die, the bet shall stand. But if the person entering the horse, or making the engagement on him, dies, then the bet is void. Rule 60th. — All members, and such of their families as reside with them, shall pass the gates free ; and the members themselves shall have free admission to the members' stand. Rule 6lst. — New members can only be admitted on recommendation. Any person wishing to become a member, must be so for the unexpired term of the Club, and must be balloted for. Three black balls shall reject. A non-resident of New York introduced by a member, can have the privilege of the inclosed space and members' stand, by payingjfoe dollars for the meeting. Rule 62rf. — Ten members of the Club shall be deemed a quorum for the transac- tion of ordinary business and admission of members, but not less than twenty to alter a fundamental rule, unless public notice shall have been given ten days of such con- templated meeting. The President or Secretary may call a meeting, and the Presi- dent and Vice President failing to attend, a Chairman may be selected. Members of the Club privileged to invite their friends to the Jockey Club Dinners, by paying for the same. No ladies admitted to the Ladies' Pavilion unless introduced by a member. No citizen of the State of New York can be admitted to the privileges of the inclosed space, Members' Stand, or Ladies' Pavilion, unless he be a member. Rule 63d. — No person shall be permitted to pass into the inclosed space, on the Union Course, without showing his ticket at the gate, nor shall any person be per- mitted to remain within the inclosure, or Members' Stand, unless he wears a badge, that the officers on duty may be enabled to distinguish those privileged. Officers who shall permit the infraction of this rule shall forfeit all claim to compensation, and must be employed on this express condition. Rule 64th. — Membership of the New York Jockey Club, shall be for three years, commencing Spring 1842 — subscription Ten Dollars per annum, payable each Spring — subscription to be paid whether present or absent. Members joining at any time, whether by original signature, or on nomination, will be bound for the unexpired terrr of the Club from the period of joining. The following gentlemen comprised the Executive Officers of the New You Jwkey Club, at the period (Sept. 13th, 1842,) when the foregoing Ru'as aid Regu latao is were adopted : — J. PRESCOTT HALL, Esq., President. JOHN C. STEVENS, Esq., 1st Vice President. JOHN A. KING, Esq., 3d „ „ J. HAMILTON WILKES, Esq., 3d „ „ GERARD H. COSTER, Esq., 4th „ „ HENRY K TOLER, Esq., Secretary and Treasurer. 48 THE HORSE. Having no\» with some care and, as we trust, with accuracy noted how the stovi )f English horses has been modified from time to time, being made heavier or lighter, vUh more or less of bone and muscle ; according to the nature of their vehicles axl ra&iirf, the implements and modes of warfare in use, their national amusements awl other uses to which the horse was applied ; we come now to speak of him very briery •n one of his finest and most finished forms, and one in which, from influences P these performances on trotting-coui ses ! A number of these performances v>i I bf THE HORSE. 5^ iciecteo, enough to cfoyw that the excellence which is conceded to American tuttera, s not founded on a solitary achievement or very rare cases, nor to be ascribed to the possession of any distinct and peculiar breed of horses ; but is the natural and common fruit of that union of blood and bone, which forms proverbially the desideratum in a good hunter, with the superaddition of skilful training, much practice, and artful jockeying for the trotting course. Who can doubt that if Hiram Woodruff were to go to England, having the run of their hunting-stables, he might select nags enough which could soon be made under his training and consummate jockeyship, to go along with Edwin Forrest and Lady Suffolk, Ripton, Rattler, Confidence, and the Dutch- man 1 On this point the following may be aptly extracted from the highest authority — our Bell's Life in London — To wit: Porter's Spirit of the Times. " Nimrod, in ' admitting the superiority of our Trotting-Horses to the ' English,' jlaims that the English ' approach very near to the Americans,' even in this breed of cattle. Possibly the characteristic national vanity would not allow him to make a farther concession. But there is no comparison whatever, between the Trotting- Horses of the two countries. Mr. WHEELAN, who took Rattler to England last season, and doubly distanced with ease every horse that ventured to start against him, as the record shows, informs us that there are twenty or more roadsters in common use in this city, that could con pete successfully with the fastest trotters on the English Turf. They neither understand the art of training, driving or riding, there. For example : some few years since, Alexander was purchased by Messrs. C. & B. of thia city, for a friend or acquaintance, in England. Alexander was a well-known roadster here, and was purchased to order, at a low rate. The horse was sent out and trials made of him ; but so unsuccessful were they, that the English importers considered him an imposition. Thus the matter stood for a year or more. When Wheelan arrived in England, he recognised the horse, and learned the particulars of hi3 purchase and subsequent trials there. By his advice the horse was nominated in a Stake at Manchester (we believe) with four or five of the best trotters in England, he (Wheelan) engaging to train and ride him. When the horses came upon the ground, the odds were 4 and 5 to 1 against Alexander, who won by nearly a quarter of a mile ! Wheelan says he took the track at starting, and widened the gap at his ease — that near the finish, being surprised that no horse was anywhere near him, as his own had not yet made a stroke, he got frightened, thinking some one might out- brush him — that he put Alexander up to his work, and finally won by an immense way, no horse, literally, getting to the head of the quarter stretch, as he came out at the winning stand ! The importers of Alexander, at any rate, \vere so surprised and delighted at his performance, that they presented Wheelan with a magnificent gold timing- watch, and other valuable presents, and sent Messrs. C. & B. a superb service of plate, which may be seen at any time at their establishment in Maiden Lane." Here it is clearly shown that the comparative speed of American horses is to be attributed not to breed, but to management, on which we the rather insist, as it is to be desired that American agriculturists and all breeders and trainers of horses, should understand and practise: upon some fixed and rational principles, rather than rely for success on some imaginary strain of horses, of no certain origin or established blood. After all, we have accounts of performances in trotting, by English horses, that may be considered as extraordinary as those of our own, when allowance is made for the greater value placed, and the more attention and skill bestowed, upon trotters in this country than in that. The celebrated English trotter Archer, descended from old Shields, a remarkable strong horse and master of fifteen stone (two hundred and ten pounds), trotted his sixteen miles in a very severe frost in less than fifty-five minutes. In 1791, a brown mare, trotted in England on the Essex road, sixteen miles in fifty-eight minutes and some seconds, being then 18 years old — and while we are writing we learn from an official report that Lady Hampton on the 2d of May, 1842, in England, trotted seven- teen miles in 58m. 37s. in harness. She was driven by Br rke, of great English trotting celebrity. On the 13th of October, 1799, a trotting match was decided over Siinbury Common between Mr. Dixon's brown gelding and Mr. Bishop's grey , carrying twelve sfone (one hundred and sixty-eight pounds) eacJ . whish 52 THE HORSE. was iv on by the former in twenty-seven minutes and ten seconds. — A Mr. Stevens made a bet which was decided 5th October, 1796, that he would produce a pair of horses, his own property, that should trot in tandem from Windsor to Hamptoi Court, a distance of sixteen miles, within the hour ; notwithstanding the cross coun- try road, and greit number of turnings, they performed it with ease in fifty-seven minutes and thirteen seconds. Phenomena trotted nineteen miles in an hour. — These examples are adduced to show the fallacy of that impression which would lead the public to look to any but the true and rational sources of superiority — for mankind has ever been prone to the marvellous, preferring to look for all that does not lie on the surface, to some mysterious influence, unconnected with known and rational causes. The trotter, according to the distance prescribed as the measure of his capacity, needs the combination of form and blood — of bone and of muscle, which give distinction to the hunter ; and the reason, if it be asked, why the thorough-bred cannot be relied upon for a hard run over a rough country, is, that he rarely combines these requisites, and is moreover put to his work when too young ,- but does any one doubt that Sir Archy, or Timoleon, or Eclipse, or imported Tranby, or Leviathan would have made first-rate hunters or trotters, if, before they were put to hard work, their frames had been left to ripen, and their bones and joints and muscles to get firm and solid, and at the same time pliant and supple by gentle and moderately increasing axercise until five or six years old — for here it is to be noted, that as to the age at itf'iich the trotter should be put in training, and that at which he reaches his maximum of power, though there would seem to be some difference of opinion, all agree that the trotter is not in his prime until he is eight or nine years old. The Abdallahs, great-grandsons of old Messenger, trot much younger ; Hiram Woodruff, and there can be no better authority, would commence a horse's training for the trot at five or «ix years of age, giving him light work however, but going on increasing his work from year to year, and expecting increasing excellence up to nine or ten years, and with kind usage he might continue up to this mark for three or four years longer, and they often last to perform admirably until after twenty — for example, Columbus, Pau Pry, Topgallant, &c. The stoutest horses, of whatever kind or degree of blood, might be expected tt give way if put at three or four, as the race-horse is, into severe training under heavj weights, for trotting stakes or the chase ; but on the other hand, without blood to give him wind and courage, what would avail his " bag of bones," in a trial to trot his hundred miles in ten hours? Johnson, author of the Sportsman's Cyclopedia, justly esteemed high authority on such subjects, remarks that " thorough-bred horses, and particularly those of the best blood, are seldom possessed of sufficient bone to rendei tnem pre-eminently calculated for the chase; yet I am free to confess that the very best hunters that have fallen under my observation have been remarkably well and very highly bred, but yet not absolutely thorough-bred." The same remark it is not doubted might be made as generally applicable to our first-rate trotters, it long dis- tances. The case of Abdallah and Messenger have been instanced to show, that great trotters not thorough-bred, may and do beget trotters, and hence some would argue that a distinct race of horses may or does exist. But it is to be remembered that both Abdallah and Messenger are sons of Mambrino, son of old Messenger, and of Messenger mares, though not thorough-bred ; and nothing is better known by all who have been in the habit of attending to these subjects, than that the Messenger family is distinguished for making first-rate coach-horses — quick in light harness, and remarkable for endurance and long life. That Abdallah. therefore, himself deep in the Messenger blood, should be himself a trotter and a getter of trotters, only proves that like begets like, and that of a distinct breed, like the thorough-bred horse, cha- racterized by the possession of general properties belonging only to and constituting that breed, there may be particular families, distinguished for some peculiar qualities not possessed in the same degree by other families of the same breed. Thus we have the three classes of the English thorough-bred stock, to wit : the Herod, the Matchem, and the Eclipse, that have served as crosses for each other. In like manner, it may be sail of the improved short-horn cattle — their general characteristic is early •maturity and propensity to fat. ™Tithout being generally remarkable as deep milkers •Hough there are families or the short-horns esteemed for that quality; — a dasb THE HORSE. 53 ol the bi ^od of old Messenger imparts high form and action for the state «oach and ihe eye oi the connoisseur can detect the signs in a horse in whose veins flow eves one-eighth of his blood ; so the fact is generally known to old gentlemen in the South, and especially avouched by the Sporting and Agricultural Society in South Carolina, that the stock of old Janus (there called Genius,) was so remarkable as road and saddle horses, as to have gotten to be considered a distinct breed ; so the Topgal- lant stock made fine saddle-horses, excelling in the canter. The blood horse, too, is remarkable for longevity — the Messenger stock particularly so. If the truth could oe known, it is' probable it flowed in larger or smaller streams in each of the four thorough-breds which the late General Hampton, (sire of that paragon of sportsmen and gentlemen, Col. Wade Hampton,) drove in his coach all together for sixteen years. Here may be aptly introduced some extracts from a familiar letter received by the editor from Col. N. Goldsborough, of Talbot, Maryland, who has an eye for the fine points of a horse, as quick as a hawk's for a fish — one who has thought much and with effect on all matters that give dignity and attraction to rural life — himself of the pure old stock in fashion when it meant something to be called a " Maryland" or " Virginia gentleman." He, in confirmation of our hypothesis, says, speaking of Tom Thumb— " But whence came his lastingness, his powers of endurance, as well as speed 1 I have been in the habit of thinking, that no horse could long continue exertion, espe- cially at a rapid pace, without a good tincture of the blood. At about the same time there went to England a horse called Rattler, of great speed as a trotter — he was represented as the cross of a full-bred horse on the Canadian mare. What a magni- ficent picture " Whalebone" makes in his trotting action, and how different from the abcvemimeJ horses ! When a boy, I have seen Phil Hemsly mounted on Ids trotting mare, bred on the borders of Queen Anne's County. She was much in the style of the famous Phenomena Mare of England — about fourteen and a half hand? high.— He could keep up with a pack of hounds all day in a trot — and she could pass over the largest oak bodies lying in a v/ood, without breaking up. I was informed two years ago in Philadelphia by Mr. Allen, son-in-law of Badger of the Marshall House — that some of the best trotters then in New Jersey, were the offspring of Monmouth Eclipse — the Messenger blood you see ! I know of no other family of the pure blood horse which may be said emphatically to produce trotters — the exception confirms the rule. Col. Lloyd's Vingtun and old Topgallant got fine racking and cantering horses. Is there more than one out of twenty thorough breds, that makes really a racer? And are there not as many trotters at the North, and more, than there are racers at the South, &c., where the most systematic efforts have been persevered in for years, exclusively for the production of racers 1 I have often wondered where they of the North derived their horses — from what I have seen and heard, they have a peculiar family, different in appearance, in form strikingly from ours. They of the North have had some method in this matter — as well as the breeders of short-horns, Leicester sheep, &c. About the lakes they have a horse of great speed and power, as I am informed, called the ' Frencher.' The English officers bring over from the mother country, fine blooded stallions for troopers and parade. // is the cross of these and the Canadian mares, which produces the 4 Frencher,' — blood is indispensable. But what is the Canadian"? undevenit? They are descended from the horses of Normandy carried over by the French settlers. Napoleon's coach when captured was being drawn by four Norman horses, and I guess the Emperor was not fond of sitting behind slow cattle. When he Spaniards were in possession of the Low Countries, they carried with them their Andalusian horses — these were crossed on the Normans, which produced great improvement. When the Spaniards were ex- pelled, the breeding in-and-in from this stock must have produced a distinct family, as Bakewe*! produced with other races of quadrupeds. Climate necessarily produced a change in the Norman horse, when transferred to the rigour of Canadian winters- hence the thick coat of hair, &c. The Andalusian, you know, is of Arabian descent. So far as I have been able to learn, Vermont is indebted to Canada for her distin- guished race of roadsters, as well as the neighbouring Stales. They have one dis- tinct family, the ' Morgan,' descended from a little Canadian, famous too for running quarter ra?es. This family has been cherished for years, and is as dit»tiniec! a* 54 THE HORSE. among tr.pm as ok" Archy was in Virginia. I have some indistinct lecoJlection u have seen, years ago, an account of a horse among them got by, or out of a mare by. Cock of the Rock — Messenger blood again." It is now in proof that this Morgan breed is descended from a horse that was stolen from General de Lancey, importer of Wildair, and there is every reason to believe that though he may not have been thorough-bred, he was well steeped in the bast blood of the Anglo-American turf-horse. While it has been found impracticable to obtain any precise information as to th« pedigree of some of our very best trotters, in other cases where more is known, the) are found to be deep in the blood. — Awful, whose performances will be seen in the tab es annexed, is known to have been gotten by a thorough-bred " American boy." Lady Suffolk is by Engineer, but what Engineer not known. Abdallah, as before mentioned, is by Mambrino, and he again, a great trotter, by Messenger ; but Dutch- man, one of our best trotters, has no known pedigree, though we have some reason to think he was by Young Oscar, then at Carlisle. He was taken out of a clay-yard and was transferred to the trotting-turf from a Pennsylvania wagon-team. — Wood- ruff thinks blood does not give them length, or the power to go the long distances ; but in this it is believed he must be mistaken. These Canadian or Norman-French stallions, small and compact, which on well-formed large mares give such fine har- ness horses, and trotters, are, as before said, deeply imbued with the blood of the barb taken from Spain into Normandy. WTe have been told lately by an intelligent Englishman, that the infusion of blood into their coach-horses has enabled them to lengthen their stages, and in very observable proportion to the degree of blood. Finally, as where the blood of the trotter when known, is seen to flow in so many instances from a spring of pure blood, is it not fair to infer a similar origin in cases where the blood cannot be traced 1 especially as the universal experience of all times proves that in other paces, the cases have been extremely rare, in which a horse of impure blood has been known to keep up a great flight of speed ? A horse of mixed blood may be a great trotter at a long distance, because his speed at his best is greatly behind that of the best speed on the turf; but it would, according to all prin- ciples of reasoning, be unreasonable to expect great excellence even as a trotter, in horses altogether free from the blood which gives foot and wind to the Eastern courser. Though we may not be able to trace it, and though in solitary cases a horse without it, may possess great speed and lastingness in the trot, from excellent accidental conformation, we repeat that the possession of thfc two, warrants the pre- sumption of the third, however obscure the traces, or remote the origin ; — this is our theory ! But the action to be cultivated in the racer and the trotte- is of itself suffi- cient to explain why a racer should not succeed at once on the turf and on the trotting course. All reflecting and observant men will admit that " as there is no royal way to mathematics," so there is but one way for a horse to excell in his business ; and with rare exceptions there is but one in which any individual horse can excel — Whatever that business may be, to be perfect in it he should be educated and kept to it— and to it only. Jl trotting-horse should do nothing but trot. As what has been said may promote a disposition to form clubs in order to culti- vate more generally and certainly the powers of the trotting horse, with the view of practical utility in the business of life, it is deemed well to submit at this point, the Rules of the Trotting Club at New York. The rules which prevail elsewhere are essentially the same, or so little variant that the difference is not deemed worthy of notice, Rules and Regulations adopted by the New York Trotting Club for the Beacon ana Centreville Courses. — September 1st, 1841. 1. — All Matches or Sweepstakes which shall come, off over a Course, under the jurisdiction of this Club, will be governed by these Rules, unless the contrary in mutually agreed upon by the parties making such match or stake. 2. — All Purses, Matches, or Sweepstakes to which the Club or Proprietors contri* bute, they shall have the power to postpone, should the weather prove unfavourable on the day previously named for the trotting of the same. THE UORSE. 55 3. None jut Members shall be allowed to trot a horse for any limited Puise given by thio Association. 4. — Horses trained in the same stable or owned in part by the same person, shall not start lor a Purse ; and horses so entered shall forfeit their entrance. A horse starting alone shall receive but one-half the Purse. Horses deemed by the Judges not fair trotting horses, shall be ruled off previous to, or distanced at the termination of a heat. 5. — All entries shall be made under a seal, inclosing the entrance money, (ten per cent, on the Purse,) and addressed to the Secretary, at such time and place as may have been previously designated by advertisement. 6. — Every Trotting horse starting for Match, Purse, or Stake, shall carry 1451bs. — if in harness, the weight of the vehicle not to be considered. Pacing horses to be allowed 5lbs. ; Wagons to weigh 2501bs. 7. — A distance for mile heats, best three in five, shall be one hundred yards ; for one-mile heats, eighty yards, and for every additional mile an additional eighty yards. 8. — The time between heats shall be — for one mile, twenty minutes, and for every additional mile, an additional five minutes. 9. — There shall be chosen by the Proprietors of the Course, or Stewards, Three Judges, to preside over a race for Purses, and by them two additional Judges shall be appointed for the distance stand ; they may also, during, or previous to a race, appoint Inspectors at any part of the Course, whose report shall be received of any foul riding or driving. 10. — Should a difference of opinion exist between the Judges in the starting stand, on any question, a majority shall govern. 11. — The Judges shall order the horses saddled or harnessed, five minutes previous to the time appointed for starting, or at the expiration of the time allowed between heats. Any rider or driver causing undue detention, after being called up, by making false starts or otherwise, the Judges may give the word to start, without reference to the situation of the horse so offending, unless convinced such delay is unavoidable on the part of the rider or driver ; in which case not more than thirty minutes shall be consumed in attempts to start. 12. — The Pole shall be drawn for by the Judges. The horse winning a heat, shall, for the succeeding heat, be entitled to a choice of the track. On coming out on the last stretch, each horse shall retain the track first selected ; any horse deviating shall be distanced. 13. — In all cases of dispute, and not provided for by these Rules, the Judges for the day will decide finally. In case of a race or match being proved to their satisfaction to have been made or conducted improperly and dishonestly, on the part of the prin- cipals, they shall have the power to declare all bets void. They shall also have the power to mitigate the penalty of a rider or driver's disobeying these rules, by giving the next best horse a heat, instead of distancing the person so offending, should circumstances justify them in such mitigation. 14. — Riders and drivers shall not be permitted to start unless dressed in Jockey style. 15. — Riders and Drivers shall weigh in the presence of one or more Judges, pre* vious to starting ; and after a heat, are to come up to the starting stand, and not to dismount until so ordered by the Judges. Any rider or driver disobeying, shall, on weighing, be precluded from the benefit of the weight of his saddle and whip — ana if not full weight, shall be distanced. 16. — A rider or driver committing any act which the Judges may deem foul riding or driving, shall be distanced. 17. — Should any horse break from his trot or pace, and gain by such break, twice the distance so gained shall be taken from him on coming out. A horse breaking or the score shall not lose the heat by so doing. 18. — A horse must win two heats to be entitled to the Purse — unless he distance all other horses in one heat — A distanced horse in a dead heat shall not start again 19. — A horse not winning one heat in three, shall not start for a fourth heat, unless such horse shall haT« made a dead heat. When a dead heat is made between two borses, and if EITHER had won the heat, the race wculd have been decided, thev T^f ftO THE HORSE. ,niy shall start again. Such horses as are prevented fom starting by this R le, saal) «e considered DRAWN and not DISTANCED. 20. — If two horses each win a heat, and neither are distanced in the race, they are equal ; if neither win a heat, and neither distanced, they are equal ; but if one wins a heat, and the other does not, the winner of a heat is best, unless he shall be dis- tanced subsequently, in which case the other, if not distanced, shall be the best. A horse that wins a heat and is distanced, is better than one not making a heat and oeing distanced. A horse distanced the second heat, than one distanced the firs beat,&c. 21. — Horses drawn before the conclusion of a race, shall be considered distanced 22. — Horses that forfeit, are the beaten horses, when it is pay or play. 23.— All bets are understood to relate to the Purse, Match, or Stake, if nothing i said to the contrary. 24. — A confirmed bet cannot be let off without mutual consent. If either party be absent at the time of trotting, and the money be not staked, the party present may declare the bet void, in the presence of the Judges, unless some party will stake the money betted for the absentee. 25. — A bet made on a heat to come, is no bet, if ALL the horses qualified to start do not ; unless the bet be between such horses as do start. A bet made after the heat is over, is void, if the horse bet upon does not start. 26. — The person who bets the odds, has a right to choose the horse or the field. When he has chosen his horse, the field is what starts against him ; but there is nc field unless one starts with him. If odds are bet without naming the horses before the trot is over, it must be determined as the odds were at the time of making it. Bets made in trotting are not determined till the Purse is won, if the heat is not specified at the time of betting. Bets made between particular horses are void, if neither of them be winner, unless specified to the contrary. 27. — All bets made on horses precluded from starting, by (Rule No. 19,) being distanced in the race ; or on such horses against each other, shall be drawn. 28. — All engagements are void upon the decease of either party, before being de- termined. Under the preceding Rules, the following performances have been achieved, according to the official record — the New York Spirit of the Times. It may be proper, however, for the due appreciation of the performances included in these tables, to make some preliminary remarks upon weights carried by trotting horses, and on their comparative speed in harness and under the saddle, &c. The weight carried on the Northern courses, where a majority of our trotting takes place, is 145 pounds, without any distinction for age or sex ; and the same weight has to be carried by the driver, exclusive of the weights of his sulky or match-cart, as by the same jockey in the saddle. These match-carts are of the neatest construction, and weigh generally nearly ninety pounds, though they often weigh twenty pounds less, and there are one or two which weigh but fifty-three pounds ! ^ut the mere weight to be carried or drawn by a trotter, is much less regarded by the sportsman than in the case of the race-horse. On the Hunting Park Course, near Philadelphia, the weight was formerly 147 pounds in the saddle, and in harness catch-weights, but they have now adopted the New York scale. But in far the greater number of the cases below, unless the weight be expressly named, it may be presumed to be from 145 to 155 pounds. Hiram Woodruff weighs without his saddle 160 pounds. On the Beacon and Centrcville Courses, pacers are allowed five pounds, and wagons, in distinction from sulkeys or match-carts, must weigh 250 pounds. As a matter of course, from the difference of weights carried along by him, the trotter generally makes better time under the saddle than in harness, though there are some exceptions to this rule. Another consideration has great influence upon this difference in time. Under the saddle, the jockey can hug the pole of our oval- shapcd courses more closely than in harness, and thus he actually goes over less m-ound. And for an obvious reason the speed of a horse in going " round .he turns' l« more retarded in a sulkey than under the saddle. As before stated, no allowance M' weights is made for age, and in consequence no note is taken of the nge of trotter* u official reports of their performances. TROTTING TABLES. »7 TROTTING AT MILE HEATS- Name. Colour. Saddle or Haruess. Time. Course. -«te. hi e saddle 2 31i 2 33 Cpntreville L 1 • > . • Ma,y 1834 hi P Caddie 2 37 2 36 2 39 2 40 Trenton N J . Siirimr ifcQj 2 32 Fall 183fl b1'/' 235 232 235 July 1839 b 1'" saddle 0 36 2 35 2 33 2 33 2 40 Trenton N J Sept 1836 hi a 2 38 2 364 2 38 2 39 2 38 Do June \9f\S\ bl. g.. 235 237 236 Beacon Course N J June 184J u. g. . . 2 38 2 36 2 37 Centreville L I (Jet 1837 Brooklyn Maid ch. m. saddle.. 2.42-2.41— 2.40— 2.4 rIV»mnlf> . b. m.. err. m. saddle. . saddle. . 2.37i_ 2 37—2.40—2.42—2.44 2.39 2.38—2.39 2.40... Hunting Park, Pa — Do. Nov. 1833, Nov. 1834 3ally Miller Charlotte Temple . T Lady Suffolk Lady Suffolk Lady Suffolk Edwin Forrest. . .. Edwin Forrest.. .. D. D. Tompkins. . . b. m.. gr. m. ROT g. m.. g. m.. g. m.. bl. g. • bl.g.. ch.g.. saddle. . saddle. . TINC saddle., saddle 2.37i_ 2 37—2.40—2.42—2.44 2 39 2 38 2 39 2 40 Hunting Park, Pa — Do. E HEATS. Centreville LI.. Nov. 1833. Nov. 1834 Sept. 1840. July, 1641. May, 1842, May, 1840. Oct. 1838. Oct. 1837. May, 1842. May, 1842. April, 1839 Oct. 1839. May, 1841. Sept.. 18^0 May, 18*1. Oct. 1838. July, 1838. Oct. 1839. Sept. 1835 June, 18& Oct. 1838. Oct. 1839. Oct. 1831. May, 1842. Sept. 1842. Julv. 1842. } AT TWO-MIL 4 59 5 031 505 * Beacon Course, N. J. Centreville, L. I Hunting Park, Pa.. . Do. Centreville L I harness, saddle- • harness, saddle., harness, harness, saddle. . harness, harness, harness, harness, saddle., saddle., saddle., saddle. . harness, saddle. . harness, •addle., harness, harness, harness. 5 05 5 06 5 17 5 13 5 17 • 5 161 511 5 10 J 5 12J Beacon Course, N. J. Hunting Park, Pa — Beac on Course, N. J. Do. Centieville L I UI. g. - 5.07—5.15 516 509 Dutchman b. g... b 2 . 5.11 5 10 Confidence m, g.. b. g... gr. ? • - br. m. b. g... b. g... ch. g.. gr. m.. b. m. . h B 5. 1 6f- 5. 1 6i--5. 16-5. 18--5.25 5. 18i— .5.17— 5.26 5 18—5 20 Do.' Do Beacon Course, N. J. Do. Centreville, L. I Do Beacon Course, N. J. Do Centreville, L.I Do Hunting Park, Pa Beacon Course, N. J. Centreville, L. I vv . s igio Rattler Rattler Don Juan Modesty Greenwich Maid ... 5.17— 5.13* 517 5 14 5 25 5 19 5 21 • 5 28 5 21i Henry D. g... ch. g.. Ripton Americus Confidence o. g.. . br.g.. b. g... b. tr... 5 07 ' 5 15 5 17 ! • ..... 5 14 5 20 • 5144 5.27 5.37 But the most extraordinary performance is yet to be recorded. We should have omitted it, as being perhaps apochryphal, had it not been well avouched to us by a respectable looker-on, who may bi believed— as follows : D. Bryan's Lady Suffolk and Rifle— double-harness— Hunting Park— 31st May, 1842, two miles in 5.19!! TROTTING AT THREE-MILE HEATS. Dutchman Dutchman Dutchman Dutchman Lady Suffolk Columbus Aaron Burr Rattler Screwdriver D. D. Tompkins. .. . Lady Warrington.. Columbus Lady Victory Screwdriver Topgallant Sir Peter Sir Peter Whalebone Shakspeare Betsy Baker Cato Ripton Ripton b. g.. b. g.. jr. m. i. g.. ). g.. ch. g. ch. m. b. g. ch. m. ch. g. br. m. . bl. h. i br.gV. ° . 741 saddle., saddle., saddle., saddle. . 7.54|— 7.50-8.02— 8.24* .... 7.51—7.51..'. 7.401—7.56 802 805 harness, saddle &.021— 8.03— 8.08— 8.16 8 11 8 17 • saddle 8 02 8 10 "addle. . g 07 saddle 8 05 817 8 19 • saddle 7 58 8 07 8 H 8 18 8 38 . saddle 8 23 8 06 :8.17 8 32 8 19 8 17 8 13 8 18 saddle., saddle. . 8.16 8 16 . 8 02—8 18 ... 8 00 — 7.56$ harness. 8.03—8.04 . . , Beacon Course, N. J. Aug. 1839. Do. July, 1839. Do. Oct. 1838. Hunting Park, Pa.... May, 1840. Do May, 1841 Centreville, L. I • May, 1834. Beacon Course, N. J. June, 1841. Philadelphia, Pa Oct. 1838. Hunting Park, Pa ... About 182V. Do. May, 1838. Trenton, N. J Nov. 1836. Hunting Park, Pa.... Centreville, L. I June, 1834. June, 183J Hunting Park, Pa.... Centreville, L.I Oct. 1832. Oct. 1829 Do. Oct. 182? , Do. Oct. 1829 Centreville, L. I May, 1K>J Beacon Course, N. J. Aug. 1842 | Do. Oct.J842. TROTTING AT FOUR-MILE HEATS. Dutchman Lady Suffolk... LadySuflblk... Sir Peter Ellen Thompson g... - m.. . g. b. m saddle., saddle., saddle. . harness, saddle . 11.19-10.51 I Centreville, L. I .... 11.15—11.58 , Do. 11.22—11.34 Cambridge Mass 1 1.23—11.27 Hunting Park, Pa.. . . 11.55—11.33 | Beacon Course. N. J. May, 1836 June, 1F4H Nov. 1839 Oct. 1829 May 184* THE HORSE, BEST PACING IN AMERICA ON RECORD. Naive. Drover. ... Top Sawyer Oneida Chief. Volcano Billy Oneida Chief Oneida Chief. Oneida Chief. Bonny Boy Stranger Saddle or Harness. Distance. Time. Course. Date, ttarifllp 2 30 — 2 31 2 28 B P TV Ort 1KTO 2 31 rseac m course, xv. J. saddle " 2 34 2 33 231 Harlaem N Y saddle. * saddle.- saddle 1 do. 1 do. 2.39-2.31i-2.34i-2.38i ... 2.32 5.14 509£ Beacon Course, N. J. Do. Do June, 184} July, 1841. June 1838 7 50 8 04 Dr> Q 17 g 20^ ... Do 5 Q6 5 07i sadrilP. Q An. 5.10 5.16 .. Do. Oct. 1H2Q MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF EXTRAORDINARY PERFORM- ANCES OF AMERICAN TROTTERS. On the 21st of October, 1841, a match came off on the Centreville Course, L. I., for $5500, five-mile heats, between Jlmericus, a bay gelding, and Lady Suffolk, sc often named in the preceding tables. Americus won in two heats, and in the follow ing time, believed to be the best on record : FIRST HEAT. Time of first mile 2.54 " " second" 2.50 " " third " 2.46 " " fourth " 2.4 " " fifth " 2.44 Time of first heat . . . 13.58 SECOND HEAT. Time of first mile .2.51 " " second " 2.50 " " third " 2.46 " " fourth " 2.47 " " fifth " 2.44J Time of second heat 13. 58^ Topgallant, by Hambletonian, trotted in harness 12 miles in 38 minutes. — See Turf Register, vol. 1. p. 124. Ten miles have been repeatedly trotted in America within two or three seconds of thirty minutes. A roan mare called Yankee. Sal trotted, as has been stated without contradiction, in a match against time, on the Course at Providence, R. I., which was at the time heavy and deep, fifteen miles and a half in 48m., 43s. — a rate of speed so pro- digious under the circumstances, that we have often suspected there may have been an error as to the time. Lady Kate, a bay mare, 15 hands high, trotted on the Canton Course near Balti- more 16 miles in 56m. 13s., and the reporter adds "she could have done seventeen with ease." In October, 1831, Jerry performed 17 miles on the Centreville Course, L. I., in 58 minutes under the saddle. In September, 1839, Tom Thumb, an American horse, was driven in England 16| miles in 56m. 45s. We shall have more to say of this phenomenon, when we come to his performance of 100 miles. In 1836, the grey gelding Mount Holly was backed at $1000 to $500, to trot twenty miles witnin the hour. The attempt was made on the 10th of October, on the Hunt- ing Park Course, Pa., but failed. He performed 17 miles in 53m. 18s., without the least distress. He was miserably jockeyed for the first five miles, doing no one of them in less than five minutes. Pelham, a large bay gelding, in a match to go 16 miles within the hour, performed that distance without any training in 58m. 28s. He went in harness seven miles in 26m. 29b., ,vhen, the sulkey being badly constructed, he was taken out and saddled, and mounted by Wallace (riding 1601bs. without his saddle) and won his match. Paul Pry, a bay gelding, was backed to perform 17f miles within the hour, unde» the saddle. On the 9th of November, 1833, on the Union Course, L. I., he won th« match, performing 18 miles in 58m. 52s. Hiram Woodruff, weighing then 138lbs., ockeyed hin . Paul Pry was nine years old, bred on Lorg Island, and get bj Holly dam by Hambletonian. THE HORSE. 5^ In 1&31, Chanmll&T) a grey gelding, ridden by a small boy performed 32 miles on the Hunting Park Course, Pa., in 1 hour, 58m. 31s. The last mile, to sate a bet, was trotted in 3in. 7s. In October of the same year, George Woodruff drove Whalebont on tht same Course, the same distance in 1 hour, 58m. 5s. He commenced the mutch in a light sulkey, which broke down on the 14th mile, and was replaced by one much heavier. This Course is fifty feet more than a mile in the saddle track, and much more tnan that in the harness track. On the llth of September, 1839, Mr. McMann's bay mare, Empress, on the Beacon Course, in a match against time, $600 a side, performed in harness 33 miles in 1 hour, 58m. 55s. The American horse Rattler was ridden by Mr. Osbaldistone in England, in a match against Driver, 34 miles in 2 hours, 18m. 56s. — Mr. Osbaldistone rode 125 Ibs. ; Rattler was 15£ hands high. In July, 1835, Black Joke was driven in a match against time, on the Course at Providence, R. I., 50 miles in 3 hours, 57s. A gray roadster is reported to have performed the same distance on the Huntmg Park Course, Pa., in 3 hours, 40m. It was u private match. A grey mare, Mischief, by Mount Holly, out of a Messenger mare, 8 years old, in July, 1837, performed about 84 1 miles in 8 hours, 30m. in harness, on the road from Jersey City to Philadelphia. The owner would not allow a whip to be used. The day was excessively warm, and the mare lost her match (to perform 90 miles in 1C hours) through the stupidity of a groom who dashed a pail of water over her with a view of cooling her. Tom Thumb, before mentioned, performed on 2d February, 1829, on Sunbury Common, England, 100 miles in 10 hours, 7m. in harness. He was driven by William Haggerty (weighing over 140 Ibs.) in a match-cart weighing 108 Ibs. This performance, so extraordinary, demands more than a passing notice, and we accord- ngly abridge from an English paper the following description : Tom Thumb was brought from beyond the Missouri, and is reported to have been an Indian pony, caught wild and tamed. Others again, allowing him to have been thus domesticated, think him to have been not the full-bred wild horse of the Western prairies, but to have had some cross of higher and purer blood. But too little is known of his breeding, savinp* his western origin, to justify any satisfactory specu- lation. His height was 14^ hands, and his appearance, when standing still, rough and uncouth. From his birth, he had never been shorn of a hair. He was an animal of remarkable hardihood, a hearty feeder, and though accustomed to rough usage, was free from vice, playful and good-tempered. He was eleven years old when he per- formed his match, and had never had a day's illness. At full speed his action was particularly beautiful — he threw his fore-legs well out, and brought up his quarters in good style ; he trotted square, though rather wide behind, and low. He was driven without a bearing rein, which is going out of use in England, and simply with a snaffle-bit and martingale. He pulled extremely hard — his head being, in conse- quence, well up and close to his neck, and his mouth wide open. He did his work with great ease to himself, and at 1 1 miles the hour, seemed to be only playing, while horses accompanying laboured hard. The whole time allowed for refreshments during his great performance, amounted to but 37 minutes, including taking out and putting to the cart, taking off and putting on the harness, feeding, rubbing down and stalling. The day before and the day after the match, he walked full twenty miles. His jockey provided himself with a whip, but made no use of it in driving him ; a slight kick on the hind-quarters was quite suffi- cient to increase his speed when necessary. In Februaiy, 1828, a pair of horses trotted against time 100 miles on th" aiiaica turnpike, on Long- Island, and won in 11 hours, 54m. But in June, 1834, a pair of horses belonging to Mr. Theal, trotted that distance in harness on the Centreville Course, within 10 hours, and immediately after Mr. B — — offered to bet $5500 tha1; he would produce a pair of horses that could trot 110 miles in harnoas vrithin the sa ne time ! — The bet was taken, but afterwards abandoned bi HORSE. the backers of time, who paid forfeit. — Another gentleman offered to produce foi * wager a pair of horsss that should trot 100 miles in nine hours in harness, but na GL-.B would back time against the performance. Having thus gone through with these numerous details, let us dwell for a momen pon some of the most extraordinary performances noted in the tables. Probably tha most remarkable trotting performance on record is Dutchman's match against time. But we will first give the report of his match with Rattler, which we compile from the " Spirit of the Times." EXTRAORDINARY TROTTING MATCH. A TROTTING MATCH, for .$1000 a-side, Three mile heats, under the saddle, came ofl on Saturday,Oct. 6, 1838, at 4 o'clock, over the Beacon Course, opposite this city. The annals of the turf furnish no parallel to it; every foot of the ground was severely con- tested, and the time made is by far the best on record. Dutchman and Rattler were the contending horses; the first is a handsome bay gelding, of great size and substance, about 16 hands high ; he is what is termed " a meaty horse," and looks, when in fine condition, like an ordinary roadster in "good order." He was trained for the match and ridden by HIRAM WOODRUFF. Rattler ia a brown gelding, of about 15£ hands, and " a rum 'un to look at;" he was drawn very fine, though one of those that seldom carry an ounce of superfluous flesh ; we hear that his feed of late has seldom exceeded six quarts per day, while Dutchman's ha? been between twelve and sixteen. Rattler was trained and ridden by WILLIAM WHEELAN. ITis style of going- is superior to Dutchman's; he spreads himself well, and strikes out clear and even. Dutchman does not appear to have perfect command or' his hind legs : instead of throwing them forward, he raises them so high as to throw up his rump, and consequently falls short in his stride. The main dependence of his backers was based upon his game ; and a gentleman who "put on the pot" to a heavy amount on Rattler, offered 2 to 1 on Dutchman before the start, provided the heats were broken. The odds before the horses came upon the track were 5 to 4 on Dutchman ; after the riders were up, 5 to 3 was current, and at length 2 to 1. As they were ridden up and down in front of the stand previous to starting, both appeared to be in superb condition, and to have their action perfectly. The track was so hard and smooth that the naila in the shoes of the horses could be seen every step they made. A great many bets were made on time ; even bets were made that it would be better than any on record. To determine what the best time on record was, it was shown that in 1833, Columbus trotted a three mile heat, under the saddle, over the Hunting Park Course, Philadel- phia, in 7:57^, — but to prevent any dispute about the fractions of a second, 7:58 was declared to be the best time made. On the 10th of October, 1837, Daniel D. Tomp- kins, in a match, literally vs. the world, beat Rattler, over the Centreville Course, in 7:59 — 8:09, three mita heats, under the saddle. Both Dutchman and Rattler are owned by gentlemen of this city; the latter was ridden without a spur. The Race. — Rattler drew the track, but resigned it to Dutchman on the first quarter; he came in front on the backside, and at the half-mile post led by two lengths; he soon after broke up, when Dutchman headed him and led past the stand (2:42) round to the straight stretch on the backside, where the ground being descending, and more favourable to him, Rattler passed. Dutchman waited upon him, close up, tc near the three-quarter mile post, where Rattler shook him off, and led past the stand (2:38) by four lengths; keeping up his rate, he led down the backside and round th turn to the straight stretch in front, where Hiram caught Dutchman by the head, and laid in the spurs up to the gaffs; the brush home was tremendous, but Rattler won by nearly a length, trotting the 3d mile in 2:34^, and the heat in 7:54A. Second heat. — Dutchman broke at starting, and 2 to 1 was offered against him. Down the backside "the horses were lapped all the way ; on the ascending ground, within about ten rods of the half-mile post, Dutchman gained a little, ar.d came first to the stand (2:37). He drew out two lengths ahead round the 1st turn 3n the 2d mile, but Rattler gallantly challenged him down the backside and lapped him; at the half- Tiile post Dutchman was again clear, but by a desperate effort Rattler lapped hire when they got into stra.ight work in front, and thus they came to the stand ('2:33) On the backside Rattler, as usual, drew nit clear, but for an instant only; the spun THE HORSE. 61 were well laid into D., and the struggle was desperate ; Dutchman hung upon Rattler'* quarter, and gradually gained to the half-mile post, when they were locked as perfectly as if in double harness. The contest was almost too much for Rattler, who skipped several times, and was only prevented from breaking by Bill's holding him up. They came up the quarter stretch at an immense pace, but opposite the four mile distance stand, Rattler unfortunately broke up, when nearly a lengin ahead, and Dutchman won the heat by six or eight lengths. When Rattler skipped, Wheelan should have taken him in hand, but he was so much ahead, ard so near home, (within 180 T7ards,) that under the intense excitement of the moment, he neglected doing so ; had he done so, however, at the rate Dutchman was going he would probably have won by a few feet, for Rattler could not have made up any lee-way, caused by pulling him up ; nothing but his breaking lost him the heat. The instant Rattler broke, Hiram pulled up Dutchman, and he would have walked out had not the people in the stand called out to him to "come on." The last mile was performed in 2:40, and the heat in 7:50; had Dutchman kept up his stroke, the time of the heat would have been 7:48. Third heat. — Dutchman went off with a fine stride (2 to 1 offered on him) and led about half-way down the backside, when Rattler caught him; at the half mile post they were locked, and thus they carr> First mile, 2:34^— Second, 2:28— Third, 2:30— Time of the three miles, 7:32*. THE HORSE. 63 We will conclude the details of fast trotting with the performances of the extra ordinary animals in the current year. They are, it will be seen, the best on recort at the distance of two miles in harness. TROTTING ON THE BEACON COURSE. SATURDAY, May 7. — Purse $300, of which $50 to go to the second best horse in tbf race. Two-mile heats, in harness. Hiram Woodruff's br. g. Ripton. H. Woodruff I I D. Bryan's gr. m. Lady Suffolk 2 2 Wm. Whselan's b. g. Confidence 3 3 Time, 5:10^—5:12^. This was the great event. As they were driven up and down in front of the stand previous to starting, they all appeared to be in superb condition, and to have thei: action perfectly. Confidence had the call in betting. Ripton drew the track, Confi dence second, and the Lady outside. After two or three false starts they got off well together, but on making the first turn Confidence broke. Ripton drew out two lengths ahead around the first turn, the Lady close up. Confidence soon got into his work again, made up his lost ground, and taking the inside down the back stretch, he soon drew out in front. They all swung into the straight side well together, coming up the quarter stretch at an immense pace, Confidence passing the Judges' stand a little ahead, Ripton close upon his wheel, making the first mile in 2:34. As they swung around the turn, into the back stretch in the second mile, Ripton gallantly challenged him down the backside at a flight of speed, neck and neck ; at the half mile post Ripton drew out a length in front. Confidence subsequently fell off in his stride, but the Lady taking up the running the remaining part of the heat, made Rip- ton come home in 2:36£. Second Heat. — They all came up to the scratch for mischief. Confidence broke agair "m the turn, Ripton taking the lead for the first quarter, and then resigning it to tr.a Lady, who kept it, passing the Judges' stand about a length ahead, Ripton well up, and Confidence considerably in the rear. As they entered the back stretch, Hiram made play for the lead, and the Lady having broke, he soon took it, closely followed by the maro. On making the turn for the straight side home, Ripton made a skip, and lost about two lengths ; the mare came up and took the track on the inside, and got about a length ahead, but Hiram soon got Ripton into his work again, and caught the mare ..ear the draw gate, passed her, and won the heat in 5:12£ ! CENTREVILLE (L. I.) TROTTING COURSE. TUESDAY, May 10, 1842. — Purse $300. Two-mile heats, in hainess. D. Bryan's gr. m. Lady Suffolk Owner 1 1 H. Woodruff's br. g. Ripton 2 2 Time, 5:10—5:15. Wondeis will never cease — the grey mare has proved the better horse, ind no mis- take. No longer ago than last Saturday, Ripton popt it to the mare and Confidence over the Beacon Course in the quick time of 5:10| — 5:12^. On the present occasion Ripton was the favourite at 100 to 70. At the start tney ;vent off well together at the top of their rate, making play from the score ; on reach- ing the first turn Ripton broke, and the mare took the lead by several lengths, going finely. Hiram made several efforts to make up his loss, but all was of no avail, the mare kept snugly to her work, and led throughout the heat, making the quick time of 5:10. Second Heat. — They bjth cooled off well, and came up ripe for mischief. They gr>t off well together at a flight of speed ; Ripton broke, as u«"?\\, on the first turn, and lost several lengths, the mare taking the lead. Hiram got Riptoi> »migly to his work again , and caught the mare in the last quarter of the first mile. Wk r-nrnmg down tbf 64 THE HORSE. straight side at a tremendous flight of speed ; on making the turn Rip ton broke, and lost about fifty yards, and before the mare got out Hiram made up his lost ground, lapt the mare coming down the quarter stretch, but was unable to win the he-at, for Hiram had taken the kink out of his horse to make up the lost ground. Riptrm was very restless, and broke several times during each heat. SAME DAY. — Sweepstakes of $50 each. Mile heats, in harness. Henry Jones' gr. g. Grey Eagle H. Jones 1 1 Mi. Bennett's b. g. Game thicken 2 3 Time, 2:56 — 2:56. THURSDAY, May 12. — Purse $ . Mile heats, best 3 in 5, under the saddle. Hiram Woodruff's bl. g. Brandywine H. Woodruff 1 1 Win. Wheelan's gr. g. Fourth of July dist N. Carroll's gr. m. Hantz dist Mr. Carll's b. m. Betsey Baker dist Time, 2:36. Fourth of July was the favourite at 2 to 1 at the start. Brandywine took the lead and distanced the field the first heat. FRIDAY, May 13. — Match for $200, to which the proprietor will add a purse of $50. Two-mile heats, under the saddle. Wm. Wheelan's ch. m. Brooklyn Maid Owner 1 1 A.. Conklin's b. g. Homer 3 3 Time, 5.16—5:22. Brooklyn Maid won both heats with ease. SAME DAY. — Purse $— . Mile heats, best 3 in 5, in harness. C. Carll's Pocahontas 1 1 1 J. M. McMann's John Anderson 2 2 3 Time, 2:50^—2:49— 2:50$. It is not a little singular, that within three weeks after the last mentioned perform- ance, the same paper should have to report another trial between these horses, more extraordinary than either of the previous ones, and which restores to Ripton his su- prerracy. TROTTING ON THE HUNTING PARK COURSE. On Tuesday last a splendid trot came off over the Hunting Park Course, two-mile heats, between Ripton and Lady Suffolk, in which they made the best time on record at this distance, in harness. Hiram Woodruff on Ripton won the last heat by six iii .hes only ! Hiram Woodruff's br. g. Ripton , Owner 121 Da -id Bryan's gr. m. JLwer. This is one of the many applications of the principle of elasticity which will ^e discovered and admired in the construction of the animal frame. The ligament of the neck is inserted into the centre of the back part of the occipital j. .ne, and immediately below the vertex or crest of that bone ; and therefore the bone Is so thick at this \ art (see fig. e, p. 72). Many large and powerful muscles are necessary to turn the head in various direc- tions, as well as to assist in raising it when depressed. The occipital bone, as will be seen in the cut, presents a spine running down the centre, B, and a large roughened ce for the attachment of these muscles, C C. Lower down, and still at the back of the occi- pital bone, are two rounded protuberances D D, by which the head is connected with the atlas, or upper or first vertebra, or bone of the neck ; and these are called the condyloid, cup-shaped, processes of the occipital bone. All the motions of the head are partly, and many of them wholly, performed by this joint. Between them is a large hole, the foramen magnum, or great aperture, E, through which the continuation of the brain, termed the spinal cord or marrow, passes out of the skull. As an additional contrivance to support the enormous weight of the head, are two other pro- jections of the occipital bone, peculiar to animals vhose heads are set on in a slanting direction, and into which powerful muscles are nserted. They are called the coracoid, beak-like, processes or prolongations, F F, }f the occipital bone. Running forward, and forming outwardly a part of the base, an4 inwardly a portion of the floor of the skull, is what, from its wedge-like shape, is called the cuneiform process of the occipital bone (fig. 2, p. 72). It is thick, strong, and solid, and placed at the bottom of the skull, not only to be a proper foundation for, and to give additional strength to, the arch on either side, but speedily to stop all vibration and concussion. At the base of the skull, and anterior to or below the occipital, lies the sphenoid, wedge-like bone (fig. k, p. 72). Its body, likewise called the cuneiform or wedge- shaped process, is a continuation of the same process of the occipital, and, like it, is thick and solid, and for the same important purpose. This bone branches out into four irregular bodies or plates, two of which are called the wings, and two running to the palate, the legs. They could not be represented in the cut, and there is nothing important belonging to them, so far as this work is concerned. Internally (fig. &), the sphenoid forms a portion of the cavity of the skull. Of the ethmoid, sieve-like, bone, little can be seen outwardly. A small portion 18 found in the back part of the orbit, and in the cavity of the cranium ; but the most important part of it is that which is composed of a great number of thin plates, form- ing numerous cavities or cells (fig. /, p. 72), lined with the membrane of the nose, and entering into its cavity. The upper portion is called the cribriform or sieve-shaped plate, from its being perforated by a multitude of little holes, through which thp nerve connected with smelling passes and spreads over the nose. Altogethei tt 3se bones form a cavity of an irregular oval shape, but the tentpdum penetrating intc it, gives it the appearance of being divided into two (d, p. 72). The cavity of the skull may be said to be arched all round. The builder knows the strength which is connected with the form of an arch. If properly constructed * it »s equal tc a solid mass of masonry. TJ e arch of the horse's skull has not ro»cb rg THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. weight, to support, but it is exposea to many injuries from the brutality of those bj whom he should be p/otecfed, and from accidental causes. The roof of the skull is composed of two plates of bone : the outer one hard and tough, and the different parts dove-tailed together, so as rot to be easily fractured ; -he inner plate being elastic. By the union of these two substances of different con- struction, the vibration is damped or destroyed, so far as safety requires. On raising any part of the skull of the horse, the dense and strong membrane which is at once the lining of the cranium and the covering of the brain — the dura mater — presents itself. It is united to the membranes below by numerous little cords or prolongations of its substance, conveying blood and communicating strength to the parts beneath. Between this membrane, common to the cranium and the brain, and the proper investing tunic of that organ, is found that delicate gossamers' web, appropri- ately called the arachnoid — the spider's membrane — and which is seen in other ar.'mals, designed either to secrete the fluid which is interposed, for the purpose of obviating injurious concussion, or, perhaps, to prevent the brain from readily sympa- thising with any inflammatory action produced by injury of the skull. Beneath is the proper investing membrane of the brain — the pia mater — which not only covers the external surface of the brain, but penetrates into every depression, lines every ventricle, and clothes every irregularity and part and portion of the brain. We now arrive at the brain itself. The brain of the horse corresponds with the cavity in which it is placed (m, p. 72). It is a flattened oval. It is divided into two parts, one much larger than the other — the cerebrum or brain, and the cerebellum OT little brain (n, p. 72). In the human being the cerebrum is above the cerebellum, in the quadruped it is below ; and yet in both they retain the same relative situation. The cerebellum is nearer to the foramen through which the brain passes out of the skull (n, p. 72), and the continuation of the cerebrum passes under the cerebellum (^), p. 72), in order to arrive at this foramen. In the human head this foramen is at the base of the skull ; but in the quadruped, in whom the head is placed slanting, it is necessarily elevated. He who for the first time examines the brain of the horse will be struck with its comparative diminutive size. The human being is not, generally speaking, more than one-half or one-third of the size and weight of the horse ; yet the brain of the biped is twice as large and as heavy as that of the quadruped. If it had been the brain of the ox that had been here exposed, instead of that of the horse, it would not have been of half the bulk of that of the horse. If the dog had been the subject, it would have been very considerably larger, comparing the general bulk of each animal. This is singular. The human brain largest in comparative bulk ; then the brain of the dog, the horse, the ox. Thus would they be classed in the scale of intelligence. If the brain is more closely examined, it will be found that there is none of the roundness and the broadness of that in the human being ; it is comparatively tame and flat. There is some irregularity of surface, some small projections and depres- sions; but they, too, are comparatively diminutive and inexpressive. Were the brain of the beaver, of the hare, or the rabbit, or of almost any bird, substituted for it, .here would be no convolutions or irregularities at all. These irregularities are not so bold and so deep in the ox as in the horse, nor in the orse as in the dog. We do not know enough of the functions of any part of the urain to associate these convolutions with any particular powers of mind, or good 01 bad propensities, although some persons, who are wise above that which is written, have pretended-to do so. It would occupy too great a portion of this volume to ente. into these questions ; but there are some diseases to which the horse is subject, and a very useful operation — the division of some of the nerves for certain purposes, and which could not be understood without a previous slight account of this important Digan. When the brain is cut, it is found to be composed of two substances very unlike in appearance (m, p. 72) ; one, principally on the outside, grey, or ash-coloured, and therefore called the cortical (bark-'ike} from its situation, and cineritious (asheri) from its colour ; and the other, lying deeper in the brain, and from its pulpy nature called the medullary substance. Although placed in apposition with each other, and seem THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 79 mgly mingling, ihey never run into the same mass, or change by degrees into one another, but are essentially distinct in construction as well as in function. The medullary portion is connected with che nervous system. The nerves are pro- longations of it, and are concerned in tho discharge of all the offices of life. They give motion and energy to the limbs, the heart, the lungs, the stomach, and every part connected with life. They are the medium through which sensation is conveyed ; and they supply the mind with materials to think and work upon. The cineritious part has a different appearance, and is differently constituted. Some have supposed, and with much appearance of truth, that it is the residence of the mind — receiving the impressions that are conveyed to the brain by the sensitive nerves, and directing the operation and action of those which give motion to the limbs. In accordance with this, it happens that, where superior intelligence is found, the cineri- tious portion prevails, and where little beside brute strength and animal appetite exist, the medullary portion is enlarged. There is, comparing bulk with bulk, less of the medullary substance in the horse than in the ox, and in the dog than in the horse. The additional bulk of brain is composed of cineritious matter ; and how dif- ferent is the character of these animals ! — the sluggish, stupid ox, and the intelligent horse ; the silly sheep, and tfie intellectual, companionable dog ! In a work like this, it -would be somewhat out of place to enter deeply into any metaphysical speculation ; but the connexion between the cineritious part of the brain and the intellectual principle, and that between the medullary portion and the mere animal principle, do seem highly probable. The latter is the medium through which the impression is conveyed, or the motion is effected ; the former is the substance to which that impiession is referred — where it is received, registered, and compared, and by which the operation of the motor nerves is influenced and governed. The cortical substance is small in the quadruped ; for in their wild state brutes have no concern and no idea beyond their food and reproduction; and in their domesticated state they are destined to be the servants of man. The acuteness of their senses, and the preponderance of animal power, qualify them for this purpose ; but were propor- tionate intellectual capacity added to this — were they made conscious of their strength, they would burst their bonds, and man would, in his turn, be the victim and the slave. The cortical part is found in each in the proportion in which it would seem to be needed for our purposes, in order that intelligence should be added to animal power. Almost every mental faculty, and almost every virtue, too, may be traced in the brute. The difference is in degree, and not in kind. The one being improved by circum- stands, and the other contaminated, the quadruped is decidedly the superior. From the medullary substance — as already stated — proceed certain cords or pro- longations, termed nerves, by which the animal is enabled to receive impressions from surrounding objects, and to connect himself with them ; and also to possess many pleasurable or painful sensations. One of them is spread over the membrane of the nose, and gives the sense of smell ; another expands on the back of the eye, and the faculty of sight is gained ; and a third goes to the internal structure of the ear, and the animal is conscious of sound. Other nerves, proceeding to different parts, give the faculty of motion, while an equally important one bestows the power of feeling. One division of nerves, (h, p. 72) springing from a prolongation of the brain, and yet within the skull, wanders to different parts of the frame, for important purposes connected with respiration or breathing. The act of breathing is essential to life, and were it to cease, the animal would die. These are nerves of involuntary motion ; so that, whether he is awake or asleep, conscious of it or not, the lungs heave and life is supported. Lastly, from the spinal cord q — a farther prolongation of the brain, and running through a cavity in the bones of the neck, back, and loins, and extending tc the very tip of the tail — other nerves are given off at certain intervals. The cut at the top of the following page delineates a pair of them. The spinal cord a, is combined of six distinct columns or rods, running through its whole length — three on either side. The two upper columns — the portion of spinal marrow represented in our cut, is sup- posed to be placed with its inner or lower surface toward us — proceed from those tracks of the biain devoted to sensation. Numerous distinct fibres spring abruptlv from the column, and which collect together, and, passing through a little ganglion »r en.argement, d — an enlargement of a rierveus cord is called a ganglion — beoomp a THE SENSORIAL FUNCTIOIf. nerve of sensation. From the lower or inner side, — a prolongation of the track devoted to motion, — proceed other fibres, which also collect gradually together, and form a nervous cord, c, giving the power of motion. Beyond the ganglion the twa unite, and form a perfect spinal nerve, 6, possessing the power both of sensation and motion ; and the fibres of the two columns proceed to their destination, enveloped ia the same sheath, and apparently one nerve. Each portion, however, continues to be wrapped in its own membrane. They are united, yet distinct ; they constitute one nerve, yet neither their substance nor their office is confounded. Our cut, closely examined, will give at b some idea of the manner in which these distinct fibres are continued; — each covered by its own membrane, but all enveloped in a common envelope. All these nerves are organs of sensation and motion alone ; but there are others whose origin seems to be outside of and below the brain. These are the sympathetic, so called from their union and sympathy with all the others, and identified with life itself. They proceed from a small ganglion or enlargement in the upper part of the neck, or from a collection of little ganglia in the abdomen. They go to the heart, and it beats, and to the stomach, and it digests. They form a net-work round each blood- vessel, and the current flows on. They surround the very minutest vessels, and the frame is nourished and built up. They are destitute of sensation, and they are per- fectly beyond the control of the will. The reader, we trust, will now comprehend this wonderful, yet simple machinery, and be able, by and by, to refer to it the explanation of several diseases, and particu- larly of the operation to which we have referred. Two of the senses have their residence in the cavity of the cranium — those of hear- ing and sight. They who know anything of the horse, pay much attention to the size, setting on, and motion of the ear. Ears rather small than large — placed not too far apart — erect and quick in motion, indicate both breeding and spirit ; and if a horse is frequently in the habit of carrying one ear forward, and the other backward, and especially if he does so on a journey, he will generally possess both spirit and continuance. The stretching of the ears in contrary directions shows that he is attentive to everything that is taking place around him, and, while he is doing this, he cannot be much fatigued, or likely soon to become so. It has been remarked that few horses sleep without pointing one ear forward and the other backward, in order that they may receive notice of the approach of objects in every direction.* The ear of the horse is one of the most beautiful parts about him, and tyfew things is the temper more surely indicated than by its motion. The ear is more intelligible even than the eye, and a persDn accustomed to the horse, and an observer of him, can * " When horses or mules march in company at night, those in front direct their ears for «vards ; those in the rear direct them backward ; and those in the centre turn them laterally ui across ; the whole troop seeming thus to be actuated by one feeling, which watchei the genera* safety." — Arnorfs Elements of Physic, vol. i., p. 478. THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. gt uell by the expressive motion of that organ, almost all that he thinks or means. It is a common saying, that when a horse lays his ears flat back upon his neck, and keeps them so, he most assuredly is meditating mischief, and the stander-by should beware of his heels or his teeth. In play, the ears will be laid back, but not so decidedly, 01 so long. A quick change in their position, and more particularly the expression of the eye at the time, will distinguish between playfulness and vice. The external ear is formed by a cartilage of an oval or cone-like shape, flexible, yet firm, and terminating in a point. It has, directed towards the side, yet somewhat pointing forward, a large opening extending from the top to the bottom. The inten- tion of this is to collect the sound, and convey it to the interior part of the ear. The hearing of the horse is remarkably acute. A thousand vibrations of the air, too slight to make any impression on the human ear, are readily perceived by him. It is well known to every hunting-man, that the cry of the hounds will be recognised by the horse, and his ears will be erect, and he will be all spirit and impatience, a considerable time before the rider is conscious of the least sound. Need anything more be said to expose the absurdity of cropping ? This custom of cutting the ears of the horse originated, to its shame, in Great Britain, and for many years was a practice cruel to the animal, depriving him of much of his beauty ; and so obstinately pursued, that at length the deformity became in some hereditary, and a breed of horses born without ears was produced. Fortu- nately for this too-often abused animal, cropping is not now the fashion. Som» thoughtless or unfeeling young men endeavoured, a little while ago, again to intro duce it, but the voice of reason and humanity prevailed.* This cartilage, the conch or shell, is attached to tho head by ligaments, and sustained by muscles, on which its action depends. It rests upon another cartilage, round without, and irregular within, called the annular, ring-like, cartilage, and con« dieting to the interior of the ear ; and it is likewise supp )rted and moved by a third small cartilage, placed at the fore part of the base of the conch, and into which several muscles are inserted. The ear is covered by skin thinner than in most other ] tarts of the body, and alto- gether destitute of fat, in order that it may not be too bi, iky and heavy, and may be more easily moved. Under the skin lining the inside of the cartilage are numerous glands that secrete or throw out a scaly white greasy matter, which may be rubbed off with the finger and is destined to supple this part of the ear and to keep it soft and smooth. Below this are other glands which pour out a peculiar, sticky, bittei fluid — the wax — probably displeasing to insects, and therefore deterring them from crawling down the ear and annoying the animal, or by its stickiness arresting theii progress. The internal part of the conch is covered with long hair which stands across the passage in every direction. This likewise is to protect the ear from insects, that can with difficulty penetrate through this thick defence. The cold air is likewise pre- vented from reaching the interior of the ear, and the sound is moderated, not arrested — penetrating readily but not violently — and not striking injuriously on the mem- brane covering the drum of the ear. Can these purposes be accomplished, when it is the custom of so many carters and grooms to cut out the hair of the ear so cl Dsely and industriously as they do * The groom who singes it to the root with a c andle must either be very ignorant or very brutal. It can scarcely be accomplished ^ thout singeing the ear as well as the hair. Many a troublesome sore is occasioned by this ; and many a horse, that was perfectly quiet before, rendered difficult to handle or to halter, and even disposed to be otherwise vicious, from a recollection of the pain which he suffered during the absurd and barbarous operation. * Professor Grognier, in nis excellent work, " Precis d'un Cours d' Hygiene Veterinaire," speaking of this abominable custom, says, " And thus the English completely destroy or dis figure two organs which embellish the head of the most beautiful of all animals, and which, *.,y their various motions, indicate the thoughts that are passing through his mind— the passions which agitate him, and, especially, the designs which he may be meditating, and which it is »ften of great importance to learn, in order to guaid against the danger which may be a» 552 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION The soiled colled ad by the outer ear, passes through the lower or annular /ing shaped, cartilage, and through irregularities which, while they break and modify .t, Bonvey it on to another canal, partly cartilaginous and partly bony, conducting immediately to the internal mechanism of the ear. This canal or passage, is called the external auditory passage, and -it the base of it is placed, stretching acioss it, and closing it, a thick arid elastic meml rane, membrana tympani, called the membrane of the drum. This membrane is supplied with numerous fibres, from the fifth pair, 01 sensitive nerve of the head, for it is necessary that it should possess extreme sensi bility. Between this membrane and a smaller one almost opposite, leading to the still interior part of the ear, and on which the nerve of hearing is expanded, are four little bones, united to these membranes, and to each other. Their office is to convey, more perfectly than it could be done through the mere air of the cavity, the vibrations that have reached the membrana tympani. These bones are highly elastic ; and covered by a cartilaginous substance, elastic also in the greatest degree, by means of which the force of the vibration is much increased. It is conveyed to a strangely irregular cavity, filled with an aqueous fluid, and the substance or pulp of the portio mollts or soft portion of the seventh pair of nerves, the auditory nerve, expands on the membrane that lines the walls of this cavity. Sound is propagated far more intensely through water than through air; and there- fore it is that an aqueous fluid occupies those chambers of the ear on the walls of which the auditory nerve is expanded. By this contrivance, and by others, which we have not space now to narrate, the sense of hearing is fully equal to every possible want of the animal. The Eye is a most important organ, and comes next under consideration, as inclosed in the bones of the skull. The eye of the horse should be large, somewhat but not too prominent, and the eyelid fine and thin. If the eye is sunk in the head, and apparently little — for there is actually a very trifling difference in the size of the eye in animals of the same species and bulk, and that seeming difference arises from the lurger or smaller opening between the lids — and the lid is thick, and especially if there is any puckering towards the inner corner of the lids, that eye either is diseased, or has lately been subject to inflammation ; and, particularly, if one eye is smaller than the other, it has a', no great distance of time, been inflamed. The eye of the horse enables us with tolerable accuracy to guess at his temper. If much of the white is seen, the buyer should pause ere he completes his bargain ; because, although it may, yet very rarely, happen that the cornea or transparent part is unnaturally small, and therefore an unusual portion of the white of the eye is seen, experience has shown that this display of white is dangerous. The mischievous horse is slyly on the look out for opportunities to do mischief, and the frequent back- ward direction of the eye, when the white is most perceptible, is only to give surer effect to the blow which he is about to aim. A cursory description of the eye, and the uses of its different parts, must be given. The eyes are placed at the side of the head, but the direction of the conoid cavity which they occupy, and of the sheath by which they are surrounded within the orbit, gives them a prevailing direction forwards, so that the animal has a very extended field of vision. We must not assert that the eye of the horse commands a whole sphere of vision ; but it cannot be denied that his eyes are placed more forward than those of cattle, sheep, or swine. He requires an extensive field of vision to warn hin? of the approach of his enemies in his wild state, and a direction of the orbits con- siderably forward, in order to enable him to pursue with safety the headlong course to which we sometimes urge him. The eyo-ball is placed in the anterior and most capacious part of the orbit, nearei lo the f-ontal than the temporal side, with a degree of prominence varying with different individuals, and the will of the animal. It is protected by a bony socket '.lenea'h anil on the inside, but is partially exposed on the roof and on the outside. Il .8, however, covered and secured by thick and powerful muscles — by a mass of »dirrse matter w>>ich is distributed to various parts of the orbit, upon which the oyf r HE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 83 may be readily moved without friction, and by a sheath of considerable density ana firmness, and especially where it is most needed, on the external and supenoi portions. The adipose matter exists in a considerable quantity in the orbit cf the eye of the horse, and enables that organ readily to revolve by the slightest c-ontraction of the muscles. By the absorption of this fatty matter in sickness or old age, the eye is not only to a certain degree sunk in the orbit, but the roof of the orbit posterior to the frontal bone, being deprived of its support, is considerably depressed. Oar work shall not be disgraced by any farther reference to the rascally contrivance by which this indication of age is in some degree removed. In front the eye is supported and covered by the lids, which closing rapidly, pro- tect it from many an injury that threatens — supply it with that moisture which is necessary to preserve its transparency — in the momentary act of closing give a certain and sufficient respite to a delicate organ, which would otherwise be fatigued and worn out by the constant glare of day — defend it when the eye labours under inflam- mation from the stimulus of light, — and, gradually drooping, permit the animal to enjoy that repose which nature requires. Extending round both lids, and, it may be almost said, having neither origin nor insertion, is a muscle called the orbicularis, or circular muscle. Its office is to close the lids in the act of winking or otherwise, but only while the animal is awake. When he sleeps, this is effected by another and very ingenious mechanism. The natural state of the eyelids is that of being closed ; and they are kept open by the energy of the muscles whose office it is to raise the upper lid. As sleep steals upon the animal, these muscles cease to act, and the lids close by the inherent elasticity Df the membrane of which they are composed. The skin of the lid is, like that of the ear, exceedingly fine, in order to prevent unnecessary weight and pressure on such a part, and to give more easy and extensive motion. The lids close accurately when drawn over the eye, and this is effected by a little strip of cartilage at the edge of each of them, which may be easily felt with the finger, and preserves them in a hoop-like form, and adapts them closely to the eye and to each other. The lower cartilage, however, does not present, towards the inner corner of the eye, the whole of its flat surface to the upper, but it evidently slopes inward, and only the outer edge of the under lid touches the upper. By this means, a little gutter is formed, through which the superfluous moisture of the eye flows to the inner corner, where there is a canal to convey it away. By this con- trivance it neither accumulates in the eye, nor unpleasantly runs down the cheek. Along the edges of the lids are placed numerous little hollows, which can be plainly distinguished even in the living horse by slightly turning down the lid. These are the openings into numerous small cells containing a thick and unctuous fluid, by means of which the eyes are more accurately closed, and the edges of the lids defended from the acrimony of the tears. The horse has no eyebrows, and the eyelashes are very peculiarly arranged. The rows of hair are longest and most numerous on the upper lid, and especially towards the outer or temporal corner, because the light comes from above ; and, as the animal stands, particularly when he is grazing, and from the lateral situation of his eyes, the greater portion of the light, and the attacks of insects, and the rolling down of moisture, would chiefly be from the outside or temples. Towards the inner corner of the upper lid there is little or no eyelash, because there is no probable danger o* nuisance in that direction. Only a small quantity of light can enter from below, and therefore the lashes are thin and short ; but as, in the act of grazing, insects may more readily climb up and be troublesome to the eye, towards the inner angle, there the principal or only hair is found on the lower lia. These apparently trifling cir- cumstances will not be overlooked by the careful observer. They who are unacquainted with the absurdities of stable rr> inagement, or wnu have not carefully examined the abuses that may exist in theiT own establishments, can sc?,reely believe the foo_ish and cruel practices of some carters and grooms. When the groom is anxious that his horse should be as trim and neat all over as art ?an make him, the very eye-lashes are generally sacrificed. What has the poor iniioal suffered, when, travelling in the noon of day, the full blaze of the sun ha* tf4 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION fallen upon his eyes ; and how many accidents have probably lappened from hi* oeing dazzled by the light, which have been attributed to other causes ! If the horse has no eyebrow, there are several hairs or bristles scattered on the upper eyelid, and there is a projecting- fold of the lid which discharges nearly the same office. It is more conspicuous in old horses than in young ones. Some horse- men do not like to see it, and associate the idea of it with weakness or disease of the eye. This is perfectly erroneous. It is a provision of nature to accomplish a certah purpose, and has nothing to do either with health or disease. On the lower lid is a useful provision to warn the horse of the near approach of any object that might incommode or injure him, in the form of long projecting hail or bristles, which are plenteously embued with nervous influence, so that the slightes touch should put the animal on his guard. We would request our readers to touch very slightly the extremity of one of these hairs. They will be surprised to observe the sudden convulsive twitching of the lid, rendering the attack of the insect abso- lutely impossible. The grooms, however, who cut away the eye-lashes, do not spare these useful feelers. The eye is exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, and the process of evapora- "ion, destructive of its transparency, is continually going on. The eye of the horse, or the visible part of the eye, is, likewise, more prominent and larger than in the human being, and the animal is often subject to extreme annoyance from dust and insects, while he has no hands or other guard to defend himself from the torture which they occasion. What is the provision of nature against this 1 Under, and a little within, the outer corner of the upper lid, is an irregular body, the Iccrymal gland comparatively larger than in the human being, secreting an aqueous fluid, which, slowly issuing from the gland, or occasionally pressed out of it by the act of winking, flows over the eye, supplies it with moisture, and cleanses it from all impurities. Human ingenuity could not have selected a situation from which '•he fluid could be conveyed over the eye with more advantage for this purpose. When this fluid is secreted in an undue quan^'ty, and flows over the eye, it is called tears. An increased flow of tears is prefaced by anything that irritates the eye, and, therefore, a constant accompaniment and symptom of inflammation. A horse with any degree of weeping should be regarded with much suspicion. In the human being an unusual secretion of tears is often caused by bodily pain, and emo- tions of the mind ; and so it is occasionally in the horse. We have seen it repeatedly under acute pain or brutal usage. John Lawrence, speaking of the cruelty exercised by some dealers in what they call " firing" a horse before he is led out for sale, in order to rouse every spark of mettle, says, " more than fifty years have passed away, and I have before my eyes a poor mare stone blind, exquisitely shaped, and showing all the marks of high blood, whom I saw unmercifully cut with the whip a quarter of an hour before the sale, to bring her to the use of her stiffened limbs, while the tears were trickling down her cheeks" Having passed over the eye, the fluid is conveyed by the little canal tc which we have alluded, formed by the sloping of the under lid, towards the corner of the eye ; and there are two little orifices that conduct it to a small reservoir within, and at the uppar part of the lacrymal bone, (fig. z, p- 70). A little protuberance of a black or pied colour, called the caruncle, placed in the very corner of the eye, and to be seen without opening the lids, is situated between these orifices, and guides the fluid into them. From this reservoir the tears are conveyed by a long canal, the lacrymal duct^ partly bony, and partly membranous, to the lower part of the nose. A little within the nostril, and on the division between the nostrils, is seen the lower opening of this sanal ; the situation of which should be carefully observed, and its real use borne in mind, for not only horsemen, but even some careless veterinary surgeons, have mis- taken it for a glanderous ulcer, and have condemned a useful and valuable anima' It is found just before the skin of the muzzle terminates, and the more delicate mem orane of the nostril commences. The opening of the canal is placed thus low because the membrane of the nose is exceedingly delicate, and would be irritated and made sore by the frequent or constant running down of the tears. There is, however, something yet wanting. We have a provision f >r supplying the eve with requisite moisture, and for wash ng from off the transparent part of i' THE SEN SO RIAL FUNCTION. g* /nseots or dust that may annoy the animal. What becomes of these impurities when thus washed off1? Are they carried by the tears to the corner of the eye, and so pass down this duct, and irritate and obstruct it ; or do they accumulate at the inner angle jf the eye ? There is a beautiful contrivance for disposing of them as fast as they acccumulate. Concealed within the inner corner of the eye, or only the margin of it, black or pied, visible, is a triangular-shaped cartilage, the haw, with its broad part forwards. It is concave within, exactly to suit the globe of the eye ; it is convex without, accurately to adapt itself to the membrane lining the lid ; and the base of it .s reduced to a thin or almo* sharp edge. At the will of the animal this is suddenly protruded from its hiding-pla3e. It passes rapidly over the eye, and shovels up every nuisance mixed with the tears, and then, being speedily drawn back, the dust or insect is wiped away as the cartilage again passes under the corner of the eye. How is this managed 1 The cartilage has no muscle attached to it ; and the limbs and the different parts of the body,- when put into motion by the influence of the will, are moved invariably by muscles. The mechanism, however, is simple and effectual. There is a considerable mass of fatty matter at the back of the eye, in order that this organ may be easily moved ; and this fat is particularly accumulated about the innei corner of the eye, and beneath, and at the point of this cartilage. The eye of the horse has likewise very strong muscles attached to it, and one, peculiar to quadrupeds, of extraordinary power, by whose 'aid, if the animal has not hands to ward off a danger that threatens, he is at least enabled to draw the eye back almost out of the reach of that danger. Dust, or gravel, or insects, may have entered the eye, and annoy the horse. This muscle suddenly acts : the eye is forcibly drawn back, and presses upon the fatty matter. That may be displaced, but cannot be reduced into less compass. It is forced violently towards the inner corner of the eye, and it drives before it the haw ; and the haw, having likewise some fat about its point, and being placed between the eye and an exceedingly smooth and polished bone, and being pressed upon by the eye as it is violently drawn back, shoots out with the rapidity of lightning, and, guided by the eyelids, projects over the eye, and thus carries off the offending matter. In what way shall we draw the haw back again without muscular action "! Another principle is called into play, of which mention has already been made, and of which we shall have much to say, — elasticity. It is that principle by which a body yields to a certain force impressed upon it, and returns to its former state as soon as that force is removed. It is that by which the ligament of the neck (p. 75), while it sup- ports *he head, enables the horse to graze — by which the heart expands after closing on and propelling forward the blood in its ventricles and the artery contracts on the blood that has distended it, and many of the most important functions of life are influenced or governed. This muscle ceases to act, and the eye resumes its natural situation in the orbit. There is room for the fatty matter to return to its place, and it immediately returns by the elasticity of the membrane by which it is covered, and draws after it this cartilage with which it is connected, and whose return is as rapid as was the projection. The old farriers strangely misunderstood the nature and design of the haw, and many at the present day do not seem to be much better informed. When, from sympathy with other parts of the eye labouring under inflammation, and becoming itself inflamed and increased in bulk, and the neighbouring parts likewise thickened, it is either forced out of its place, or voluntarily protruded to defend the eye from the action of light and cannot return, they mistake it for some injurious excrescence or tumour, and proceed to cut it out. The " haw in the eye" is a disease well known to the majority of grooms, and this sad remedy for it is deemed the only cure. It is a barbarous practice, and if they were compelled to walk half a dozen miles in a thick dust, without being permitted to wipe or to cleanse the eye, they would feel th« tor- ture to whicli they doom this noble animal. A little patience having been exercised, and a few cooMng applications made to the eye while the inflammation lasted, and afterwards *ome mild astringent ones, and other proper means being employed, the tumour would have disappeared, the haw would have returned to its place, and th€ wou ' 1 have discharged the duties required of him without inconvenience ta 8 THE SENSORIAL FUN:'°TQN. himself, instead of the agony to which an unguarded and unprotecU 1 «ye must novt expose him. The loss of blood occasioned by the excision of the haw lu.iy frequently relieve the inflammation of the eye ; and the evident amendment which follows induces these mse men to believe that they have performed an excellent operation ; but the same loss of blood by scarification of the overloaded vessels of the conjunctiva would be equally beneficial, and the animal would not be deprived of an instrument of admi table use to him. The eye is of a globular figure, yet not a perfect globe. It is rather composed of parts of two globes ; the half of one of them smaller and transparent in front, and of the other larger and the coat of it opaque, behind. We shall most conveniently begin with the coats of the eye. A B a supposed object viewed by the animal, and an inverted image of which, a, b, is thrown on the retina at the back of the eye. :• c The points where the rays, having passed the cornea and lens, converge by the refractive power of the lens. The rays proceeding from the extremities of the object to the eye. The cornea, or horny and transparent part of the eye, covered by the conjunctiva, uniting different parts together. The crystalline (crystal or glassy) lens, behind the pupil, and in front of the vitreous humour. Muscles of the eye. The optic nerve, or nerve of sight. The sclerotica (hard firm coat) covering the whole of the eye except the portion occupied by the cornea, and being a seeming prolongation of the covering of the optic nerve. The choroides (receptacle or covering), or choroid coat, covered with a black secretion or paint. The iris or rainbow- coloured circular membrane under the cornea, in front of the eye, and on which the colour of the eye depends. The duplicature behind is the uvea. from being coloured like a grape. The opening in the centre is the pupil. The ciliary (hair-like) processes. The retina, or net-like expansion of the optic nerve, spread over the whole o: tlie cho- roides as far as the lens. p The vitreous (glass-like) humour filling the whole of the cavity of the eye behind the lens. q The aqueous (water-like) hu/nour filling the space between the cornea and the lens. The conjunctiva, f, is that membrane which lines the lids, and covers the fore part of the eye. It spreads over all that we caji see or feel of the eye, and even its trans- parent part. It is itself transparent, and transmits the colour of the parts beneath. it is very susceptible of inflammation, during which the lining of the lids will become intensely red, and the white of the eye will be first streaked with red vessels, and then covered with a complete mesh of them, and the cornea will become cloudy and opaque. It is the s,eat of various diseases, and, particularly, in it commences that sad inflammation of the horse's eye which bids denance to the veterinary surgeon't nkill and almost ir variably terminates in blindness. The examination of the conjunctiva, by turning down the lid, will enable us tc *orm an accurate judgment of the degree of inflammation which exists in the eye. Covering Ihe back part of the eye, and indeed four-fifths of the globe of it, is the it f kh i k n n o THE SENS )RIA^, FUNCTION. «7 Kltrotica. A- It is an exceedingly strong membrane, composed of fibres inte wea ing with each other, and almost defying the possibility of separation. An organ so delicate and so important as the eye requires secure protection. It is a highly elastic membrane. It is necessary that it should be so, v7hen it is considered that the eye is surrounded by several and very powerful muscles, which must temporarily, and even for the purposes of vision, alter its form. The elasticity of the sclerctica is usefully exhibited by its causing the globe of the eye to resume its former and natural shape, as soon as the action of the muscle ceases. The sclerotica has very few blood-vessels — is scarcely sensible — and its diseases, except when it participates in general disturbance or disorganisation, are rarely Drought under our notice. The cornea is, or we should wish it to be, the only visible part of the horse's eye, for the exhibition of much white around it is a sure symptom of wickedness. The cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by the sclerotica in the fore part of the eye, and, although closely united to the sclerotica, may be separated from it, and will drop out like a watch-glass. It is not round, but wider from side to side than from top to the bottom ; and the curve rather broader towards the inner than the outer corner of the eye, so that the near eye may be Irnown from the off one after it is taken from the head. The convexity or projection of the cornea is a point of considerable importance. The prominence of the eye certainly adds much to the beauty of the animal, but we shall see presently, when we consider the eye as the organ of sight, that by being too prominent the rays of light may be rendered too convergent, and the vision indis- tinct ; or, if the cornea is small and flat, the rays may not be convergent enough, and perfect vision destroyed. In either case the horse may unpleasantly start, or sud- denly and dangerously turn round. An eye neither too prominent nor too flat will be. nearest to perfection. It should be perfectly transparent. Any cloudiness or opacity is the consequence of disease. It is an exceedingly firm and dense membrane, and can scarcely be pierced by the sharpest instrument. The cornea is composed of many different plates, laid over one another ; and between each, at least in a state of health, is a fluid that is the cause of its transparency, and the evaporation of which, after death, produces the leaden or glazed appearance of the eye. When it appears to be opaque, it is not often, and never at first, that the cornea has undergone any change. There is nothing that deserves attention from the purchaser of a horse more than the perfect transparency of the cornea over the whole of its surface. The eye should be examined for this purpose, both in front, and with the face of the examiner close to the cheek of the horse, under and behind the eye. The latter method of looking through the cornea is the most satisfactory, so far as the transparency of that part of the eye is concerned. During this examination the horse should not be in the open air, but in the stable standing in the doorway and a little within the door. If any small, faint, whitish lines appear to cross the cornea, or spread over any part of it, they are assuredly the remains of previous inflammation ; or, although the centre and bulk of the cornea should be perfectly clear, yet if around the edge of it. where it unites with the sclerotica, there should be a 'narrow ring or circle of haziness, the conclusion is equally true, but the inflammation occurred at a more distant period. Whether however the inflammation has lately existed, or several weeks or months have elapsed since it was subdued, it is too likely to recur. There is one caution to be added. The cornea in its natural state is not only a Beautiful transparent structure, but it reflects, even in proportion to its transparency, many of the rays which fall upon it ; and if there is a white object immediately before the eye, as a light waistcoat, or much display of a white neckcloth, the reflection may puzzle an experienced observer, and has misled many a careless one. The coal should be buttoned up, and the white cravat carefully concealed. Within the sclerotica, and connected with it by innumerable minute fibies and vessels, is the chornid coat, I. It is a very delicate membrane, and extends over the whole of the internal part of the eye, from the optic nerve to the cornea. It secretes a dark-coloured substance or paint, by which it is covered ; the intention of w hicli, ik«» the inside of our telescopes and microscopes, is probably to absorl' ary \vand*»r- 88 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. ing rays of light which might dazzle and confuse. The black ^aint, pigmenlum mgrum, seems perfectly to discharge this function in the human sye. It is placed immediately under the retina or expansion of the optic nerve. The rays of light fall on the retina, and penetrating its delicate substance, are immediately absorbed or destroyed by the black covering of the choroides underneath. For the perfection of many of his best pleasures, and particularly of his intellectual powers, man wants the vivid impression which will be caused by the admission of the rays of light into a perfectly dark chamber ; and when the light of the sun begins to fail, his superior "intelligence has enabled him to discover various methods of substituting an artificial day, after the natural one has closed. Other animals, without this power of kindling another, although inferior light, have far more to do with the night than we have. Many of them sleep through the glare of day, and awake and are busy during the period of darkness. The ox occupies some hours of the night in grazing ; the sheep does so when not folded in his pen ; and the horse, worked during the day for oui convenience and profit, has often little more than the period of night allotted to him for nourishment and repose. Then it is necessary that, by some peculiar and adequate contrivance, these hours of comparative or total darkness to us should be partially yet sufficiently illuminated for them ; and therefore in the horse the dark brown or black coat of the choroides does not extend over the whole of the internal part of the eye, or rather it is not found on any part on which the rays proceeding from the objects could fall. It does not occupy the smallest portion of what may be called the field of vision ; but, in its place a bright variegated green is spread, and more over the upper part than the lower, because the animal's food, and the objects which it is of consequence for him to notice, are usually below the level of his head — thus, by suffering the impression to remain longer on the retina, or by some portion of light reflected from this variegated bed on which the retina reposes, or in some other inex- plicable but efficient way, enabling the animal, even in comparative darkness, tc possess the power of vision equal to his wants. The reader may see in the dusk, or even when duskiness is fast yielding to utter darkness, the beautiful sea-green reflection from the eye of the horse. It is that lucid variegated carpet of which we are now speaking. ' Who is unaware that in the fading glimmering of the evening, and even in the darker shades of night, his horse can see surrounding objects much better than his rider ; and who, resigning himself to the guidance of that sagacious arid faithful animal, has not been carried in safety to his journey's end, when he would otherwise have been utterly bewildered "? If the reader has not examined this beautiful pigment in the eye of the horse, he should take the earliest opportunity of doing so. He will have a beautiful illustration of the care which that Being who gave all things life has taken that each shall be fitted for his situation. The horse has not the intelligence of man, and may not want for any purpose of pleasure or improvement the vivid picture of surrounding objects which the retina of the human being presents. A thousand minute but exquisite beauties would be lost upon him. If, therefore, his sense of vision may not be sc strong during the day, it is made up to him by the increased power of vision in the night. Perfectly white and cream-coloured horses have a peculiar appearance of the eyes. The pupil is red instead of black. There is no black paint or brilliant carpet. It is the choroid coat ;tself which we see in them, and not its covering; and the red appearance is caused by the numerous blood-vessels which are found on every part of that coat. When we have to treat of other domestic animals, we shall see how th's carpet is varied in colour to suit the situation and necessity of each. In the ox it is of a dark green. He has not many enemies to fear, or much difficulty in searching for nourish- ment, and the colour of the eye is adapted to his food. In the cat and all his varieties, It is yellow. We have heard of the eyes of the lion appearing like two flaming torches in th 3 night. There are few of our readers who have not seen the same singular glan from the eyes of the domestic cat. In the wolf, and likewise in the dog, who, in his wild state, prowls chiefly at night, it is grey. In the poor unjustly- perseeu >d badger, who scarce! v dares to crawl forth at night, although sheltered b» THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION gfc the thickest darkness, it is white ; and the ferret, who is destii «d to hunt his prey through all its winding retreats, and in what would be to us absolute darkness, has no paint on the choroides. Tracing the choroides towards the fore part of the eye, we perceive that it is reflected from the side to the edge of the lens, n, and has the appearance of several plaits or folds. They are actually foldings of the membrane. It is not diminished in size, but it has less space to cover, and there must be duplicatures or plaits. They are usefully employed in the place in which we find them. They prevent the passage' of any rays of light on the outside of the lens, and which, proceeding forward in various directions, and uncondensed by the power of the lens, would render vision confused or imperfect. These folds of the choroides are called the ciliary processes. Within the cornea, and occupying the fore part of the eye, is the aqueous humour, p, so termed from its resemblance to pure water. It is that by which the cornea is preserved in its protuberant and rounded form. It extends to the crystalline lens ^, and therefore a portion of it, although a very small one, is behind the iris (m, p. 86). Floating in this fluid is a membrane, with an oblong aperture, called the 7m. It is that M'hich ogives colour to the eye. The human eye is said to be black, or hazel, or blue, according to the colour of this membrane or curtain ; and it is denominated the iris, or rainbow, from its beautiful, intermingling hues. The colour varies little in the horse, except that it always bears some analogy to that of the skin. We rarely see "t lighter than a hazel, or darker than a brown. Horses perfectly white, or cream- coloured, have the iris white and the pupil red. When horses of other colours, and ihat are usually pied, have a white iris and a black pupil, they are said to be wall- eyed. Vulgar opinion has decided that a wall-eyed horse is never subject to blind- ness, but this is altogether erroneous. There is no difference of structure that can produce this exemption ; but the wall-eyed horse, from this singular and unpleasant appearance, and his frequent want of breeding, may not be so much used and exposed to many of the usual causes of inflammation. The aperture in the iris is termed the pupil^ and through it light passes to the inner chamber of the eye. The pupil is oblong, and variable in size. It differs with the intensity or degree of light that falls npon the eye. In a dark stable the pupil is expanded to admit a great proportion of the light that falls upon the cornea ; but when the horse is brought towards the door of the stable and more light is thrown upon the eye, the pupil contracts in order to keep out that extra quantity which would be pain- ful to the animal, and injurious to vision. When opposed directly to the sun, the aperture will almost close. This alteration of form in the pupil is effected by the muscular fibres that enter into the composition of the iris. When these fibres are relaxed, the pupil must pro- portionably diminish. The motions of the iris are not at all under the control of the will, nor is the animal sensible of them. They are produced by sympathy with the state of the retina. When, however, a deficient portion of light reaches the retina, and vision is indistinct, we are conscious of an apparent effort to bring the object more ilearly into view, and the fibres then contract, and the aperture enlarges, and more light is admitted. This dilatation or contraction of the pupil gives a useful method of ascertaining the existence of blindness in one eye or in both. The cornea and crystalline lens remain perfectly transparent, but the retina is palsied, and is not affected by light ; and many persons have been deceived when blindness of this description has been confined to one eye, A horse blind in both eyes will usually have his ears in constant and rapid motion, directing them in quick succession to every quarter. He will likewise hang back in his halter in a peculiar way, and will lift his feet high as if he were stepping over some obstacle, when there is actually nothing to obstruct his passage, and there will be an evident uncertainty in the putting down of his feet. In blindness of one eye, little or nothing of this characteristic gait and manner can be perceived. Although a one-eyed horse may not be absolutely condemned for the common business of the carriage or the road, he is generally deteriorated as a hunter, for he cannot measure Jus distances, and will run into his leaps.* Many a sportsman, puzzled and angry *Mr W. Perm- all, however, in his excellent Lectures on the Veterinary Art, vol 111. p ft* M 90 THE SENSORiAL FUNCTION, at the sudden blundering of his horse, or injuied by one or more stunnmg fallo has found a very natural although unexpected explanation of it in the blindness ot one eye, and that peihaps produced through his own fault, by over-riding his willing and excellent servant, and causing a determination of blood to the eye, which proved fatal to the delicate texture of the retina. Even for the carriage or the road he is considera- bly deteriorated, for his field of observation must be materially lessened. Let the size of both pupils be carefully noticed before the horse is removed from the stable, and, as he is led to the door, observe whether they both contract, and equally fco, with the increase of light. If the horse should be first seen in the open air, let it be observed whether the pupils are precisely of the same size ; then let the hand be placed over each eye alternately and held there for a little while, and let it be observed whether the pupil dilates with the abstraction of light, and equally in each eye. Hanging from the upper edge of the pupil of the horse, are two or three round black substances, as large as millet seeds. When the horse is suddenly brought into an intense light, and the pupil is closed, they present a singular appearance, as they are pressed out from between the edges of the iris. An equal number, but much smaller, are attached to the edge of the lower portion of the iris. Their general use is probably to intercept rays of light which would be troublesome or injurious, and their principal function is accomplished during the act of grazing. They are larger on the upper edge of the iris, and are placed on the outer side of the pupil, evidently to discharge the same function which wTe have attributed to the eyelashes, viz., to obstruct the light in those directions in which it would come with greatest force, both from above and even from below, while, at the same time, the field of view is per- fectly open, so far as it regards the pasture on which the horse is grazing. In our cut, m gives a duplicature of the iris, or the back surface of it. This is called the urea, and it is covered with a thick coat of black mucus, to arrest the rays of light, and to prevent them from entering the eye in any other way than through the pupil. The colour of the iris is, in some unknown way, connected with this black paint behind. Wall-eyed horses, whose iris is white, have no uvea. We now arrive at a body on which all the important uses of the eye mainly depend, the crystalline /ens, g, so called from its resemblance to a piece of crystal, or trans- parent glass. It is of a yielding jelly-like consistence, thicker and firmer towards the centre, and convex on each side, but more convex on the inner than the outer side. It is enclosed in a delicate transparent bag or capsule, and is placed between the aqueous and the vitreous humours, and received into a hollow in the vitreous humour, with which it exactly coiresponds. It has, from its density and its double convexity, the chief concern in converging the rays of light which pass into the pupil. The lens is very apt to be affected from long or violent inflammation of the con- junctiva, and either its capsule becomes cloudy, and imperfectly transmits the light, ar the substance of the lens becomes opaque. The examination of the horse, with a view to detect this, must either be in the shade, or at a stable door, where the light shall fall on the animal from above and in front ; and in conducting this examination we would once more caution the intended purchaser against a superfluity of white about his neck. Holding the head of the animal a little up, and the light coming in the direction that has been described, the condition of the lens will at once be evident. The confirmed cataract, or the opaque lens of long standing, will exhibit a pearly appearance, that cannot be mistaken, and will frequently be attended with a change of form — a portion of the lens being forced forwards into the pupil. Although the disease may not have proceeded so far as this, yet if there is the slightest cloudiness of the lens, either generally, or in the form of a minute spot in the centre, and with or without lines radiating from that spot, the horse is to be condemned ; for, in ninety- nine cases out of a hundred, the disease will proceed, and cataract, or complete opacity of the lens, and absolute blindness, will be the result. 801, says, " The loss of one eye does not enfeeble sight, because the other acquires greater energy, though it much contracts the field of vision. It is said to render the conception erring, and the case of misjudgment of distances is the one commonly brought forward to show this. All I can say on this point is, that the best hunter I ever possessed, a hor?e gifted with extra- ordinary powers for leaping, was a one-eyed 'aorse, and this animal carried mj through a hunting Reason without, to my recollection, making one single blrnder in leaping." THE SENSORIAL FItfCT ON. Q\ Cataiact i.i Lie human being may, to a very considerable extent, bt remedied. The »j aque tens may be extracted, or it may be forced into the vitreous humoura, and here existing as a foreign body, it will soon be absorbed and disappear. These operations are impossible in the horse ; for, in the first place, there is a muscle of ,/hich we have already spoken, and to be presently more particularly described, that is peculiar to quadrupeds, and of such power as generally to draw back the eye too far into its socket for th.? surgeon to be enabled to make his incision ; or could the incision be made, the action of this muscle would force out the greater part of the contents of the eye, and this organ would speedily waste away. If, however, the opaque lens could be withdrawn or depressed, and the mechanism of the eye were not otherwise injured, the operation would be totally useless, for we could not make the horse wear those convex glasses whose converging power might compensate for the loss of the lens. Behind the lens, and occupying four-fifths of the cavity of the eye, is the vitreous humour (glassy, or resembling glass). It seems, when first taken from the eye, to be of the consistence of a jelly, and of beautiful transparency ; but if it is punctured a 3uid escapes from it as limpid and as thin as water, and when this has been suffered completely to ooze out, a mass of membraneous bags or cells remains. The vitreous humour consists of a watery fluid contained in these cells ; but the fluid and the cells form a body of considerably greater density than the aqueous fluid in the front of the eye. Last of all, between the vitreous humour and the choroid coat, is the retina, o, 01 net- like membrane. It is an expansion of the substance, g, of the optic nerve. When that nerve has reached the back of the eye, and penetrated through the sclerotic and choroid coats, it first enlarges into a little white prominence, from which radiations or expansions of nervous matter proceed, which spread over the whole of the choroid coat, and form the third investment of the eye. The membrane by which this nervous pulp is supported, is so exceedingly thin and delicate, that it will tear with the slightest touch, and break even with its own weight. The membrane and the pulp are perfectly transparent in the living animal. The pupil appears to be black, because in the daytime it imperfectly reflects the colour of the choroid coat beneath. In the dusk it is greenish, because, the glare of day being removed, the actual green of the paint appears. On this expansion of nervous pulp, the rays of light from surrounding objects, con densed by the lens and the humours, fall, and, producing a certain image correspond- ing with these objects, the animal is conscious of their existence and presence. It may, however, so happen that from the too great or too little convexity of the eye or a portion of it, the place of most distinct vision may not be immediately on the retina, but a little before or behind it. In proportion as this is the case, the sight will be indistinct and imperfect ; nor shall we be able to offer any remedy for this defect of sight. There is a shying, often the result of cowardice or playfulness, or want of work, but at other times proving, beyond contradiction, a defect of sight even more dangerous than blindness. A blind horse will resign himself to the guidance of his rider or driver ; but against the misconception and starting of a shying horse there is no defence. That horses grow shy as they grow old, no one accustomed to them will deny ; and no intelligent person will be slow in attributing it to the right cause — a decay in the organ of vision, — a loss of convexity in the eye, lessening the con- vergency of the rays, and throwing the perfect image beyond, and not on, the retina. There is a striking difference in the convexity of the cornea in the colt and the old horse ; and both of them, probably, may shy from opposite causes — the one from a cornea too prominent, and the other from one too flat. In the usual examination ot the horse previously to purchase, sufficient attention is not always paid to the con- vexity of the cornea. The remedy for shying will be considered when we speak of the vices of horses. There is a provision yet wanting. The horse has a very extended field of view, but tnany persons arc not perhaps aware how little of it he can command at a time There is irot one of our readers who can make out a single line of our treatise without changing the direction of the eye. It is curious to follow the motion of the eyes of a rapid reader. Nature has given no less than seven muscles to the hr rse, in order v 92 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION . turn this little out important organ ; and, that they may act with sufficient jowerand quickness, no fewer than six nerves are directed to the muscles of the eye generally, or to particular ones — while the eye rests on a mass of fat, that it may le turned witii little exertion of power, and without friction. MUSCLES OF THE EYE. There are four straight muscles,, three of which, rf, e, and/, are repre- G, sented in our cut, rising from the back of the orbit, and inserted into the ball of the eye, opposite to, and at equal distances from each other. One, d, runs to the upper part of the eye, just behind the transparent and visible portion of it, and its office is clearly to raise the eye. When it contracts, the eye must be drawn upward. Another,/, is inserted ex- actly opposite, at the bottom of the eye ; and its office is as clearly to depress the eye, or enable the animal to look downwards. A third, e, is inserted at the outei corner, and by means of it the eye is turned outward, and, from the situation of the eye of the horse, considerably backward; and the fourth is inserted at the inner corner, turning the eye inward. They can thus rotate or turn the eye in any direction the animal wishes, and by the action of one, or the combined power of any two of them, the eye can be immediately and accurately directed to every point. These muscles, however, have another duty to discharge. They support the eye n its place. In the usual position of the head of the horse, they must be to a certain degree employed for this purpose ; but when he is grazing or feeding, the principal weight of the eye rests upon them. Another muscle is therefore added, peculiar to quadrupeds, called the retractor (drawer-back}, or the suspensorius (suspensory") muscle, (>•. It arises from the edge of the foramen through which the optic nerve enters the oroit — surrounds the nerve as it proceeds forward, and then, partially dividing into four portions, is attached to the back part of the eye. Its office is evidently to support the eye generally, or, when suddenly called into powerful action, and assisted by the straight muscles, it draws the eye back out of the reach of threatening danger, and in the act of drawing it back causes the haw to protrude, as an additional defence. The power of this muscle is very great. It renders some operations on the eye almost impossible. It is an admirable substitute for the want of hands, to defend the eye from many things that would injure it ; and, being partially separated into four divisions, it assists the straight muscles in turning the eye. These muscles discharge another and a most important office. If we examine near and distant objects through a telescope, we must alter the focus; t. e., we must increase or diminish the length of the tube. We must shorten it a little when we examine dis- tant objects, because the rays, coming to us from them in a less divergent direction, are sooner brought to a point by the power of the lens. Thus the straight and retractor muscles drawing back the eye, and forcing it upon the substance behind, and in a slight degree flattening it, bring the lens nearer to the retina, and adapt the eye to the observation of distant objects. Still, however, being constantly employed in supporting the weio-ht of the eye, these muscles may not be able to turn it so rapidly and so extensively as the wishes or wants of the animal require ; therefore two others are superadded which are used solely in turning the eye. They are called oblique muscles, because their course is obliquely across the eye. The upper one is most curiously const-noted, «, b. It comes from the back part of the orbit, and takes a direction upwards and towards the liner side, and there, just under the ridge of the orbit, it passes through a perfect me- chanical puaey, and, turning round, proceeds across the eye, and is inserted rathei beyond the middle of the eye, towards tru outer side. Thus the globe c f the eye i* evidently directed inward and upward Something more,, however, is accomplished by this singular mechanism. The eye is naturally deep in the orbit, tha* it may b* INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL, fee. 92 wore perfec ;ly defended ; but it may be necessary occasionally to oring t foiward, and enlarge the field of vision. The eye is actually protruded under the influence of fear. Not only are the lids opened more widely, but the eye is brought more forward. How is this accomplished] There are no muscles anterior to, or before the eye — there is no place for their insertion. The object is readily effected by this singular pulley, 6, c. By the power of this muscle — the trochlearis, or pulley-muscle — and the straight muscles at the same time not opposing it, or only regulating the direction of the eye, it is really brought somewhat forward. The lower oblique muscle rises just within the lacrymal bone («, p. 70), and, proceeding across the eye, is fixed iiato the part of the sclerotica opposite to the other oblique muscle, and it turns the eye in a contrary direction, assisting, however, the upper oblique in bringing the eye forward from its socket. CHAPTER III. INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL— THE BRAIN — THS EARS— AND THE EYES. WE have now arrived at a convenient resting-place in our somewhat dry but neces- sary description of the structure of the horse, and we willingly turn to more practical matter. We will consider the injuries and diseases of the parts we have surveyed. In entering, however, on this division of our work, we would premise, that it is impos- sible for us to give the farmer such an account of the nature and treatment of the dis- eases of horses as will enable him with safety to practise for himself, except in the commonest cases. The causes of most diseases are so obscure, their symptoms so variable, and their connexion with other maladies so complicated and mysterious, that a life devoted to professional study will alone qualify a man to become a judicious and successful practitioner on the diseases of the horse and other domestic animals. Our object will be to communicate sufficient instruction to the farmer to enable him to act with promptness and judgment when he cannot obtain professional assistance, to qualify him to form a satisfactory opinion of the skill of the veterinary surgeon whom he may employ, and, more especially, to divest him of those strange and absurd prejudices which in a variety of cases not only produce and prolong disease, but bring it to a fatal termination. FRACTURE. We have described the cavity of the skull of the horse as being so defended by the hardness of the parietal bones, and those bones so covered by a mass of muscle, and the occipital bone as so exceedingly thick (see page 92), that a FRACTURE of the skull is almost impossible. It can only occur from brutal violence, or when a horse falls in the act of rearing. When, however, fracture of the skull does occur, it is almost invariably fatal. A blow of sufficient violence to break these bones must likewise irreparably injure the delicate and important organ which they protect. The ridge, or outer and upper part of the orbit of the eye, is occasionally fractured. It happens from falling, or much oftener from violent blows. The slightest examina- tion will detect the loosened pieces ; but a professional man alone can render effectual assistance. Mr. Pritchard, in the second volume of the " Veterinarian," relates an interesting case of fracture of the orbit of the eye. " A chestnut mare," he says, ' received a blow which fractured the orbit from the superciliary foramen, in a line through the zygomatic processes of the temporal and malar bones to the outer angle of the eye The detached bone, together with the divided integument, hung over the eye so as tc intercept vision. On examining the place where the accident occurred, two portion? wf bone were found belonging to the orbital arch. After carefully inspecting tho Wound, and finding no pther detached portions, nor any spiculae which might ir itete 94 INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL, &c. or wound, the adjacent portions of the skin were carefully drawn together, aner by a silver wire, which closed the wound, and confined the detached portion of bona ji its proper place. A mash diet was ordered. " On the following day there was considerable inflammation. The eye was bathed with warm water, and a dose of physic administeied. On the third day the inflam- mation and swelling had still more increased. Blood was abstracted from the vein at the angle of the eye. The swelling and inflammation now speedily abated ; and on the fifteenth day the wound had quite healed." If a fracture of this kind is suspected, its existence or non-existence may be easily determined by introducing the thumb under, and keeping the fore-finger upon, the edge of the orbit. EXOSTOSIS. Bony enlargements of the orbital arch sometimes arise from natural predisposition or local injury. They should be attacked in the earliest stage, for they are too apt rapidly to increase. Some preparation of iodine, as described in the account of medi- cines, will be useful in this case. CARIES. Inflammation and enlargement of the injured bones, followed by abscess and the production of certain bony growths, are of occasional occurrence. A skilful practi- tioner can alone decide whether a cure should be attempted, or the sufferings of the animal terminated by death. COMPRESSION OFTHE BRAIN. Hydatids are often found within the cranial cavity, and lying upon or imbedded in the brain of oxen and sheep. Their existence is usually fatal to the animal. There is no well-authenticated account of the existence of an hydatid in the cranial cavity of the horse ; but cysts, containing a serous or viscid fluid, are occasionally observed. The following is the history of one : — A horse exhibited symptoms of vertigo, or stag- gers, which disappeared after copious bleeding and purgatives. About twelve months afterwards the same complaint was evident. He carried his head low and inclined to the right side. He staggered as he walked, and the motion of his limbs was marked by a peculiar convulsive action, confined to the fore extremities. He moved by a suc- cession of spasmodic boundings. He was completely deaf; and rapidly lost flesh, though he ate and drank voraciously. He remained in this state, to the shame of the owner and the practitioner, several months, and then he had a fresh attack of vertigo, and died suddenly. On examination of the brain, its membranes were found to be completely reddened ; and, between the two lobes of the brain, was a round cyst as large as a pullet's egg. The pressure of this was the manifest cause of the mischief. PRESSURE ON THE BRAIN. This may be produced by some fluid thrown out between the membranes, or occu- pying and distending the ventricles of the brain. In the full-grown horse it rarely occurs; but it is well known to breeders as an occasional disease of the foal, under Uie name of " water in the head." The head is either much enlarged, or strangely deformed, or both ; and the animal dies, either in the birth, or a few days after it. MEGRIMS. There is another kind of pressure on the brain, resulting from an unusual determi- nation or flow of blood to it. This organ requires a large supply of blood to enable it to discharge its important functions. Nature, in the horse more than in many other animals, has made some admirable provisions to cause this stream to flow into the brain with little velocity, and thereby to lessen the risk of suddenly overloading it 01 rupturing its vessels. The arteries pursue their course to the brain in a strangely winding and circuitous manner; and they enter the skull through bony apertures thai will admit of he enlargement of the vessels only to a very limited extent. From « iri\i;h was fractured in the violent efforts of the anima. do mischief. 9*- k02 RABIES, OR MADNESS. riolent, would bite a ad tear himself until his breast was shockingly mangled, and tht blood flowed from it in a stream. The most interesting and satisfactory symptom is the evident dread of water which exists in the decided majority of cases, and the impossibility of swallowing any con- siderable quantity. Professor Dupuy gives an account of this circumstance: — "A rabid horse was confined in one of the sick boxes. His food was given to him through an opening over the door, and a bucket was suspended from the door, and supplied with water by means of a copper tube. As soon as he heard the water falling into the pail, he fell into violent convulsions, seized the tube, and crushed it to pieces. When the water in his bucket was agitated, the convulsions were renewed. He would occasionally approach the bucket as if he wished to drink, and then, af'te? agitating the water for an instant, he would fall on his litter, uttering a hoarse cry ; but he would rise again almost immediately. These symptoms were dreadfully increased if water was thrown upon his head. He would then endeavour to seize it aa it fell, and bite with fury at everything within his reach, his whole frame being dread- fully convulsed." As the disease progresses, not only is the animal rapidly debilitated, but there is the peculiar staggering gait which is observable in the dog- -referrible to evident loss of power in the muscles of the lumbar region. I once saw a mare sitting on her haunches, and unable to rise ; yet using her fore feet with the utmost fury, and suffering no one to come within her reach. She, too, would sometimes plunge her muzzle into the offered pail ; and immediately withdraw it in evident terror, while every limb trembled. At other times the lowering of the pail would affright her, and she would fall on her side and struggle furiously. Although this symptom is not often observed in the dog, it is a satisfactory identification of the disease, when it is so frequently seen in the horse, and so invariably in the human being. The earliest and perhaps the most decisive symptom of the near approach of rabies in the horse, is a spasmodic movement of the upper lip, particularly of the angles of the lip. Close following on this, or contemporaneous with it, is the depressed and anxious countenance, and inquiring gaze, suddenly however lighted up and becoming fierce and menacing, from some unknown cause, or at the approach of a stranger. From time to time different parts of the frame — the eyes — the jaws — particular limbs — will be convulsed. The eye will occasionally wander after some imaginary object, and the horse will snap again and again at that which has no real existence. Then will come the irrepressible desire to bite the attendants or the animals within its reach. To this will succeed the demolition of the rack, the manger, and the whole furniture of the stable, accompanied by the peculiar dread of water which has been already described. Towards the close of the disease there is generally paralysis, usually confined tc the loins and the hinder extremities, or involving those organs which derive theii nervous influence from this portion of the spinal cord ; — hence the distressing tenes- mus which is occasionally seen. The disease rarely extends beyond the third day. After death, there is uniformly found inflammation at the back part of the mouth, and at the top of the windpipe, and likewise in the stomach, and on the membrane covering the lungs, and where the spinal marrow first issues from the brain. When the disease can be clearly connected with a previous bite, the sooner the animal is destroyed the better, for there is no cure. If the symptoms bear considerable resemblance to rabies, although no bite is suspected, the horse should at least be slung, and the medicine, if any is administered, given in the form of a drink, and with tho hand well protected ; for if it should be scratched in balling the horse, or the skin should have been previously broken, the saliva of the animal is capable of communicating the disease. Several farriers have lost their lives from being bitten or scratched in the act of administering medicine to a rabid horse. 1 1 is always dangerous to encourage any dogs about the stable, and especially if they become fond of the horses, and are in the habit of jumping up and licking them The corners of the mouth of the horse are often sore from the pressure of the bit; and a coach-dog in a gentleman's stable— -and it is likely to happen in every stable TETANUS OR LOCKED JAW. 103 and "witk every dog — becomes rabid and dies, the horse too frequently follows him at no great distance of time. If a horse is bitten by a dog under suspicious circumstances, he should be ce/efully examined, and every wound, and even the slightest scratch, well burned w th Ihe lunar caustic (nitrate of silver). The scab should be removed and the operation repeated on the third day. The hot iron does not answer so well, and other caustics are not so manageable. In the spring of 1827, four horses were bitten near Hyde Park, by a mad dog. To one of them the lunar caustic was twice severely applied- he lived. The red-hot iron was unsparingly used on the others, and they died. The caustic must reach every part of the wound. At the expiration of the fourth month, the horse may be considered to be safe. TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW. TETANUS is one of the most dreadful and fatal diseases to which the horse is sub- ject. It is called LOCKED JAW, because the muscles of the jaw are earliest affected, and the mouth is obstinately and immovably closed. It is a constant spasm of all the voluntary muscles, and particularly of those of the neck, the spine, and the head. It is generally slow and treacherous in its attack. The horse, for a day or two, does not appear to be quite well ; he does not feed as usual ; he partly chews his food, and drops it ; and he gulps his water. The owner at length finds that the motion of the jaws is considerably limited, and some saliva is drivelling from the mouth. If he tries he can only open the mouth a very little way, or the jaws are perfectly and rigidly closed ; and thus the only period at which the disease could have been suc- cessfully combated is lost. A cut of a horse labouring under this disease is here given, which the reader will do well to examine carefully. The first thing that strikes the observer is a protrusion of the muzzle, and stiffness of the neck,- ind, on passing the hand down it, the muscles will be found singularly promi- nent, distinct, hard, knotty, and unyielding. There is difficulty in bringing th€ head round, and still greater difficulty in b.end- ing it. The eye is drawn deep within the socket, and, in consequence of this, the fatty matter be- hind the eye is pressed forward ; the haw is also protruded, and there is an appearance of Strabismus, or squinting, in an outward direction. The ears are erect, pointed forward, and immovable ; if the horse is spoken to, or threatened to be struck, they change not their position. Considering the beautiful play of the ear of the horse when in health, and the kind of conversation which he maintains by the motion of it, there is not a more characteristic symptom of tetanus than this immobility of the ear. The nostril is expanded to the utmost, and there if? Kttle or no play of it, as in hurried or even natural breathing. The respiration is usually accelerated, yet not always so ; but it is uniformly laborious. The pulse gives little indication of the severity of the disease. It is sometimes scarcely affected. It will l>e rapidly accelerated when any one approaches the animal and offers to touch him, but it presently quiets down again almost to its natural standard. After a while, however, the heart begins to sympathise with the general excitation of the system and the pulse increases in frequency and force until the animal becomes debi itated, when it beats yet quicker and quicker, but diminishes in power, and gradually flutters and dies away t04 TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW. The countenance is eager, anxious, haggard, and tells plainly enough what tit* inimal suffers. The stiffness gradually extends to the back. If the horse is in a narrow stall, it in impossible to turn him ; and, even with room and scope enough, he turns altogethe» like a deal-board. The extremities begin to participate in the spasm — the hinder ones generally first. but never to the extent to which it exists in the neck and back. The horse stanc with his hind legs straddling apart in a singular way. The whole of the limb moveS) or rather is dragged on, together, and anxious care is taken that no joint shall be flexed more than can possibly be helped. The fore limbs have a singular app< ar ance ; they are as stiff as they can possibly be, but stretched forward and straddling They have not unaptly ba&n compared to the legs of a form. The abdominal muscles gradually become involved. They seem to contract with all the power they possess, and there is a degree of " hide-bound" appearance, and oi tucking up of the belly, which is seen under no other complaint. The tail becomes in constant motion from the alternate and violent action of the muscles that elevate and depress it. Constipation, and to an almost insurmountable degree, now appears. The abdo- minal muscles are so powerfully contracted, that no portion of the contents of the abdomen can pass on and be discharged. By degrees the spasm extends and becomes everywhere more violent. The motion of the whole frame is lost, and the horse stands fixed in the unnatural posture which he has assumed. The countenance becomes wilder and more haggard — its expression can never be effaced from the memory of him who cares about the feelings of a brute. The violent cramp of a single muscle, or set of muscles, makes the stoutest heart quail, and draws forth the most piteous cries — what, then, must it be for this torture to pervade the whole frame, and to continue, with little respite, from day to day, and from week to week ! When his attendant approaches and touches him, he scarcely moves ; but the despairing gaze, and the sudden acceleration of the pulse, indicate what he feels and fears. Tetanus then is evidently an affection of the nerves. A small fibre of some nerve has been injured, and the effect of that injury has spread to the origin of the nerve—- the brain then becomes affected — and universal diseased action follows. Tetanus is spasm of the whole frame — not merely of one set of muscles, but of their antagonists also. The fixidity of the animal is the effect of opposed and violent muscular con- traction. It belongs to the lower column of nerves only. The sensibility is unim- paired— perhaps it is heightened. The horse would eat if he could ; he tries to suck up some moisture from his mash ; and the avidity with which he lends himself to assist in the administering of a little gruel, shows that the feelings of hunger and thirst remain unimpaired. If the disease terminates fatally, it is usually from the sixth to the eighth day, when, if there has been no remission of the spasms, or only a slight one, the horse dies exhausted by hard work. The task extorted by the whip and spur of the most Drutal sportsman is not to be compared with it. About or a little before this time, there are occasionally evident remissions. The spasm does not quite subside, but its force is materially lessened. The jaw is noi sufficiently relaxed to enable the animal to eat or to drink, or for advantage to be taken of an opportunity for the administration of medicine, while the slightest dis- turbance or fright, recalls the spasmodic action with all its violence. If, however, the remission returns on the following day, and is a little lengthened, and particularly if mere is more relaxation of the lower jaw, there yet is hope. If the patient should recover, it will be very slowly, and he will be left sadly weak, and a mere walking skeleton. On post-mortem examination the muscular fibre will exhibit sufficient proof of the labour which has been exacted from it. The muscles will appear as if they had been maceratrd — their texture will be softened, and they will be torn with the greatest ease. The lungs will, in the majority of cases, be highly inflamed, for they have been labouring long ana pa nfully, to furnish arterial blood in sufficient quantity to a ;ppor <>KS great expenditv 3 of animal power. The stomach will contain patch'* TETANUS, OR LOCKEI JAW. ]0 •f inflammation, but the intestines, in most cases, wirl not exhioit much departure from the hue of health. The examination of the brain will be altogether unsatisfac- tory. There may be slight injection of some of the membranes, but, in the mainrity of cases, there will not be any morbid change worthy of record. Tetanus is usually the result of the injury of some nervous fibre, and the effect of that lesion propagated to the brain. The foot is the most frequent source or focus of tetanic injury. It has been pricked in shoeing, or wounded by something on the road. The horse becomes lame — the injury is carelessly treated, or not treated at all —the lameness, however, disappears, but the wound has not healed. There is an unhealthiness about it, and at the expiration of eight or ten days, tetanus appears. Some nervous fibre has been irritated or inflamed by the accident, slight as it was. Docking and nicking, especially when the stump was seared too severely in the former, or the bandage had not been loosened sufficiently early in the latter, used to be frequent causes of tetanus. It is frequently connected with castration, when the colt had not been properly prepared for the operation, or the searing-iron has been applied too severely, or the animal has been put to work too soon after the operation, or exposed to unusual cold. The records of veterinary proceedings contain accounts of tetanus following labour, brutally exacted beyond the animal's natural strength, in the draught of heavy loads. Horses that have been matched against time have too frequently died of tetanus a little while afterwards. Sudden exposure to cold after being heated by exercise has produced this dreadful state of nervous action, and especially if the horse has stood in a partial draught, or cold water has been dripping on the loins. The treatment of tetanus is simple, and would be oftener successful if carried to its full extent. The indication of cure is plain enough — the system must be tranquillized. The grand agent in accomplishing this is the copious abstraction of blood. There is not a more powerful sedative in cases of muscular spasm than venesection. A double purpose is effected. The determination of blood to the origins of the nerves, and by which they were enabled to secrete and to pour out this torrent of nervous influence. is lessened. The supply of blood to the muscular system is also diminished. The pabulum of the nervous and muscular system — the life of both of them — the capability of acting in the one, and of being acted upon by the other, is taken away. The pro- per course to be pursued, whether theory or experience be consulted, is, on the first access of tetanus, to bleed, and to bleed until the horse falters or falls. No attention should be paid to any specific quantity of blood to be abstracted, but the animal should bleed on until he drops, or the pulse evidently falters. Twenty pounds have been taken before the object of the practitioner was accomplished, but he never had occa- sion to repent of the course which he pursued. Inflammatory action like this must be subdued by the promptest and most efficient means ; and there is one uneaing guide — the pulse. While that remains firm, the bleeding should continue. The practi- tioner is attacking the disease, and not in the slightest degree hazarding the permanent strength of the patient. Next in order, and equal in importance, is physic. The profuse bleeding just recommended will generally relax the muscles of the jaw so far as to enable a dose •jf physic to be given. Eight or ten drachms of aloes should be administered. If the remission of the spasm is slight, there is another purgative — not so certain in its action, but move powerful when it does act — the farina of the Croton nut. There is little or no danger of exciting inflammation of the mucous membrane of the intestines by this prompt and energetic administration of purgative medicine, for there is too much determination of vital power towards the nervous system — too much irritation there — to leave cause for dreading the possibility of metastasis elsewhere. It would be desirable if a certain degree of inflammation could be excited, because to that extent the irritation of the nervous system might be allayed. There is another reason, and a very powerful one — time is rapidly passing. The tetanic action may extend tr the intestines, and the co-operation of the abdominal muscles in keeping up the pen staltie motion of the bowels, and expelling their contents, may be lost. Clysters will I e useful in assisting the action of the purgative. A solution oJ salts will constitute the safest and best injection. As to medicine, opium is 10H CRAMP. not only a valuable drug1, but. it is that on which alone Dependence can be placed In this disease. It will be borne m doses, from half a drachm to two drachms. Blisters are completely ov.t of the question in a disease the very essence of whicfc is nervous irritability. The application of sheep-skins warm from the animal, and applied along the whole course of th3 spine, may somewhat unload the congested vessels of the part, and diminish the sufferings of the animal. They should be renewed as soon as ti.e\ become offensive, and the patient should be covered from the poll to the tail with double or treble clothing. There is one kind of external application that has not been so much used, or so hip-hjy valued as it deserves, — gentle friction with the hand over the course of the spine, beginning with the slightest possible pressure and never increasing it much. The horse is a little frightened at first, but he soon gets reconciled to it, and when at the same time an opiate liniment is used, relief has been obtained to a very marked degree. One thing should not be forgotten, namely, that a horse with locked jaw is as hungry as when in health, and every possible contrivance should be adopted to furnish him with that nutriment which will support him under his torture, and possibly enable him to weather the storm. If a pail of good gruel is placed within his reach, how will he nuzzle in it, and contrive to drink some of it too ! If a thoroughly wet mash is placed before him in a pail, he will bury his nose in it, and manage to extract nc small portion of nutriment. By means of a small horn, or a bottle with a very narrow neck, it will often be possible to give him a small quantity of gruel ; but the flexible pipe that accompanies Head's patent pump will render this of easier accomplishment, for the nutriment may be administered without elevating the head of the horse, or inflicting on him the extreme torture which used to accompany the act of drenching. If the jaw is ever so closely clenched, the pipe maybe introduced between the tushes and the grinders, and carried tolerably far back into the mouth, and any quantity of gruel or medicine introduced into the stomach. It will also be good practice to let a small portion of food be in the manger. The horse will not at first be able to take up the slightest quantity, but he will attempt to do so. Small portions may be placed between his grinders, and they will presently drop from his mouth, scarcely or at all masticated : but some good will be done — there is the attempt to put the muscles of the jaw to their proper use. On the follow- ing day he will succeed a little better, and make some trifling advance towards break- ing the chain of spasmodic action. Experience will teach the careful groom the value ofthese minutiae of practice ; and the successful termination of many a case may be traced to the careful nursing of the patient. When the horse is getting decidedly better, and the weather will permit, there can be no better practice than to turn him out for a few hours in the middle of the day, His toddling about will reo-ain to him the use of his limbs ; the attempt to stoop in order to graze will dimmish the spasm in his neck ; the act of grazing will relax tha omscles of the jaws ; and he can have no better food than the fresh grass. CRAMP. This is a sudden, involuntary and painful spasm of a particular muscle or set of muscles. It differs from tetanus in its shorter duration, and in its occasionally attack ing the muscles of organic life. It may be termed a species of transitory tetanus,, affecting mostly the hind extremities. It is generally observed when the horse is first b rough" out of the stable, and especially if he has been hardly worked. One of the legs appeals stiff, inflexible, and is, to a slight degree, dragged after the animal. After he has proceeded a few steps, the stiffness nearly or quite disappears, or only a slight, degree of lameness remains during the greater part of the day. Cramp proceeds from tin accumulation of irritability in the muscles of the exten- sors, and is a sudden spasmodic action of them in order to balance the power whick their antagonists hal e gained over them during the night. If a certain degree of lameness remains, the attendant on the horse should endea voui to find out the muscle cl iefly affected, which he may easily do by a feeling of nardness, or an expression of pain, when he presses on the extensors of the hook STRINGHA^T. HH •oinewhat above that j rint. He should then g\ve plenty of ooc hand-rubbing, or a little more attention to the grooming generally, or a wider 01 moie comfortable stall, as the circumstances of the case may appear to reauire STRINGHALT. This is a sudden and spasmodic action of some of the muscles of the thigh wher the horse is first led from the stable. One or both legs are caught up at every step with great rapidity and violence, so that the fetlock sometimes touches the belly ; but after the horse has been out a little while, this usually goes off and the natural action of the animal returns. In a few cases it does not perfectly disappear after exercise, but the horse continues to be slightly lame. Stringhalt is not a perfectly involuntary action of a certain muscle, or a certain se« of muscles. The limb is flexed at the command of the will, but it acts to a greatei extent and with more violence than the will had prompted. There is an accumula- tion of excitability in the muscle, and the impulse which should have called it into natural and moderate action causes it to take on a spasmodic and, perhaps, a painful one. Many ingenious but contradictory theories have been advanced in order to account for this peculiarity of gait. What muscles are concerned1? Clearly those by which the thigh is brought under the belly, and the hock is flexed, and the pasterns are first flexed, and then extended. But by which of them is the effect principally produced 1 What muscle, or, more properly, what nerve is concerned 1 Instead of entering into any useless controversy on this point, a case shall be related, arid one of the most interesting there is on record : the author was personally cognisani of every particular. Guildford, first called Roundhead, and then Landlord, *vas foaled in 1826. He was got by Hampden out of a Sir Harry Dimsdale mare. In 1828, and being two years old, and the property of the Duke of Richmond, he won a 507. plate at Good wood. In 1829, and belonging to Lord W. Lennox, he won 55 guineas at Hampton. Being then transferred to Mr. Coleman, he won 50 guineas at Guildford ; and in the same year, having been purchased by Mr. Pearce, he won *>0 guineas at Basing- stoke. In the course of this year stringhalt began to appear in a slight degree, and it evi dently, although slowly, increased. There soon began to be a little difficulty in get- ting him off; but when he had once started, neither his speed r>or his stoutness ap- peared to be in the slightest degree impaired. He continued on the turf until 1836, and won for his different owners seventeen races, the produce of which, exclusive of bets, amounted to 1435/. The difficulty and loss of advantage in starting had now increased to a degree which rendered it prudent to withdraw him from the turf, and he came into the pos- session of Dockeray, who used him for the purpose of leading the young horses tha he had under training. This is well known to be hard work, and his rider was a man of some weight. In addition to this, he was generally hunted twice in the week. His first starting into a gallop had something singular about it. Jt was a horrible kind of convulsive action, and so violent that he frequently knocked off his shoes on the very day that they were put on : but when he got a little warmed, all this disap- peared. He gallopped beautifully, and was a very sure fencer. The sport, however, being over, and he returning to a slow pace, the stringhalt was as bad as ever. £ * length the old horse became artful, and it was with great difficulty that he could be made to lead. Sometimes he refused it altogether. In consequence of this he was sent to St. Martin's Lane, to be sold. The highest bidding for him was 37. 14s., and the hero of the turf and the field was doomed to the omnibus. There he was cruelly used, and this spasmodic convulsion of his hind legs sadly aggravated his torture. The skin was presently rubbed from his shoulders, his hips and haunchos were bruised in every part, and his stifles were continually and painfully coming in contact with the pole. In this situation he was seen by the veterinary surgeon to " The Sot iety for tf-e Pre« vention of Cruelty to Animals. " There is a fund at the disposal of that society fci the purchase of worn-out horses, who ire immediately released from fheii K?\s«rir ^ J08 STRINGHALT. ihe pole- axe oJ the knacker. The horse was bought for this purpose, wiothei and laudable motii e influencing the purchase, — the wish to ascertain what light the dis- section of an animal that had had stringhalt to such an aggravated extent, and £>r sci long a period, would cast on the nature of this disease. The author of this work saw him a little while before he w,as slaughtered.. He was still a noble-looking animal, and seemed to possess all his former strength and spirit unimpaired ; but he was sadly scarred all over, in consequence of his being put to a kind of work for which his spasmodic complaint so entirely incapacitated him. So aggravated a case of stringhalt had rarely been seen. Both hind legs were affected, and both in an equal degree; and the belly was forcibly struck by the pastern joints every time the hind feet were lifted. The belly and the pastern joint were both de- nuded of hair, in consequence of this constant battering. He was destroyed by the injection of prussic acid into the jugular vein, and the dissection of him was conducted by Professor Spooner, of the Royal Veterinary Col- lege. On taking off the skin, all the muscles presented their perfect healthy character. There was not the slightest enlargement or discolouration of the fasciae. The mus- cles of both extremities were dissected from their origins to their tendinous termina- tions, and thbir fibrous structure carefully examined. They were all beautifully de- veloped, presenting no inequality or irregularity of structure, nor aught that would warrant the suspicion that any one of them possessed an undue power or influence beyond the others. The only abnormal circumstance about them was that they were of a rather darker yellow in colour than is usually found. This referred to them gen- erally, and not to any particular muscle or sets of muscles. The lumbar, crural, and sciatic nerves were examined from the spot at which they emerge from the spinal cord to their ultimate distributions. The crural and lumbai nerves were perfectly healthy. The sciatic nerve, at the aperture through which it escapes Irom the spine, was darker in colour than is usual, being of a yellowish- brown hue. Its texture was softened, and its fibrillae somewhat loosely connected together. The nerve was of its usual size ; but on tracing it in its course through the muscles of the haunch, several spots of ecchymosis presented themselves, and were more particularly marked on that part of the nerve which is connected with the eacro-sciatic ligament. As the nerve approached the hock, it assumed its natural colour and tone ; and the fibres given off from it to the muscles situated inferior to the stifle-joint were of a perfectly healthy character. On dissecting out a portion of the nerve where it appeared to be in a diseased state, it was found that this ecchymosis was confined to the membranous investiture of the nerve, and that its substance, when pressed from its sheath, presented a perfectly natural character. The cavity of the cranium, and the whole extent of the spinal canal, were next laii open. The brain and the spinal marrow were deprived of their membranous cover ings, and both the thecae and their contents diligently examined. There was no lesior in any part of them, not even at the lumbar region. The articulations of every joint of the hind extremities, then underwent inspection and no disease could be detected in either of them. Professor Spooner was of opinion that this peculiar affection was not referrible to any diseased state of the brain or spinal cord, nor to any local affection of the mus- cles of the limbs, but simply to a morbid affection of the sciatic nerve. He had not dissected a single case of stringhalt in which he had not found disease of this nerve, which mainly contributes to supply the hind extremities with sensation and the powef of voluntary motion. Now comes a very important question. What connexion is there between string- halt and the supposed value or deterioration of the horse 1 Some experienced prac- titioners have maintained that it is a pledge of more than usual muscular power. It is ? common saying that " there never was a horse with springhalt that ;vas incapa- ble of doing the work required of him." Most certainly we continually meet with horses having stringh lit that pleasantly discharge all ordinary, and even ex'craordi- nary, service ; and aLho ugh stringhalt is excess or irregular distribution cf nervcus . it at least shoivs the existence of that p?wer, and the capability in the FALSY 109 cular system of being acted upon by it. IrregL ar distributions of ntal eneigy are not, however, things to be desired. They argue disease and derangement of the sys- tem, and a predisposition to greater derangement. They materially interfere with the speed of the horse. This was decidedly the case with regard to the poor fellow whose history has been related. Stringhalt is decided unsoundr.ess. It is an irregular supply of the nervous influ- ence, or a diseased state of the nervous or muscular system, or botn. It prevents us from suddenly and at once calling upon the horse for the full exercise of his speed and power, and therefore it is unsoundness ; but generally speaking, it so little inter- feres with the services of the animal, that although an unsoundness, it would not weigh & great deal against other manifest valuable qualities. CHOREA. This is a convulsive, involuntary twitching of some muscle or set of muscles. A few, and very few, cases of it in the horse are recorded. Professor Gohier relates one in which it attacked both fore legs, and especially the left, but the affection waa not constant. During five or six minutes the spasms were most violent, so that the horse was scarcely able to stand. The convulsions then became weaker, the inter- val between them increased, and at length they disappeared, leaving a slight but tem- porary lameness. All means of cure were fruitlessly tried, and the disease continued until the horse died of some other complaint. In another case it followed sudden suppression of the discharge of glanders and disappearance of the enlarged glands. This also was intermittent during the life of the animal. FITS, OR EPILEPSY. The stream of nervous influence is sometimes rapid, or the suspensions are consid erable. This is the theory of FITS, or EPILEPSY. Fortunately the horse is not often afflicted with this disease, although it is not unknown to the breeder. The attack is not sudden. The animal stops — trembles — looks vacantly around him, and ialls. Occasionally the convulsions that follow are slight; at other tiroes they are terrible. The head and fore part of the horse are most affected, and the contortions are very singular. In a few minutes the convulsions cease ; he gets up ; looks around him with a kind of stupid astonishment ; shakes his ears ; urines ; and eats or drinks as if nothing had happened. The only hope of cure consists in discovering the cause of the fits ; and an expe- rienced practitioner must be consulted, if the animal is valuable. Generally speaking, however, the cause is so difficult to discover, and the habit of having fits is so soon formed, and these fits will so frequently return, even at a great distance of time, thai he who values his own safety, or the lives of his family, will cease to use an epilep- tic horse. PALSY. The stream of nervous influence is sometimes stopped, and thence results palsy. The power of the muscle is unimpaired, but the nervous energy is deficient. In tl\t human being, general palsy sometimes occurs. The whole body — every organ of motion and of sense is paralysed. The records of our practice, however, do not afford us a single instance of this ; but of partial paralysis there are several cases, and most untractable ones they were. The cause of them may be altogether unknown. In the human being there is yet another distinction, Hemiplegia and Paraplegia. In the former the affection is confined to one side of the patient ; in the latter the poste- rior extremity on both sides is affected. Few cases of hemiplegia occur in the horse, and they are more manageable than those of paraplegia; but if the afcction is not removed, they usually degenerate into paraplegia before the death of tlu animal. Il would appear singular that this should be the most common form of palsy in the human being, and so rarely seen in the quadruped. There are some considerations, howerer, that will parlly account for this. Palsy in the horse usually proceeds from njury of the spinal coid; and that cord is more developed, and far larger than in thr numan being. It is more exposed to injury, and to injury that will affect not one *id« *n]y but tho whole of the cord, 10 HO RHEUMATISM. Palsy in the horse jeaerdlly attacks tlue hind extremities. The reason of this is plain. The fore limbs are attached to the trunk by a dense mass of highly elastic substance. This was placed between the shoulder-blade and the rits for the purpose of preventing that concussion, which would be annoying and even dangerous to the norse or his rider. Except in consequence of a fall, there is scarcely the possibility nf any serious injury to the anterior portion of the spine. The case is very different with regard to the hind limbs and their attacl .inent to the trunk ; they are necessa- rily liable to many a shock and sprain injurious to the spine and its contents. The loins and the back oftenest exhibit the lesions of palsy, because there are some of the most violent muscular efforts, and there is the greatest movement and the least support. It may consequently be taken as an axiom to guide the judgment of the practitioner that palsy in the horse almost invariably proceeds from disease or injury of the spine. On inquiry it is almost invariably found that the horse had lately fallen, or had been worked exceedingly hard, or that, covered with perspiration, he had been left exposed to cold and wet. It commences generally in one hind leg, or perhaps both are equally affected. The animal can scarcely walk — he walks on his fetlocks instead of his soles — he staggers at every motion. At length he falls. He is raised with difficulty, or he never rises again. The sensibility of the part seems for a while to be dreadfully increased ; but, in general, this gradually subsides — it sinks below the usual standard — it ceases altogether. If he is examined after death, there will usually, about the region of the loins, be inflammation of the membranes of the spinal cord, or of the cord itself. The medul- lary matter will be found of a yellow colour, or injected with spots of blood, or it will be softened, and have become semifluid. The treatment is simple enough. It should commence with bleeding, and, as has been already recommended in inflammatory cases, until the circulation is evidently affected — until the pulse begins to falter or the horse to reel. To this should follow a dose of physic — strong compared with the size of the animal. The loins should be covered with a mustard poultice frequently renewed. The patient should be warmly clothed, supplied plentifully with mashes, but without a grain of corn in them ; and frequent injections should be had recourse to. This will soon render it evident whether the patient will recover or die. If favourable symptoms appear, the horse must not be in the slightest degree neglected, nor the medical treatment suspended. There is no disease in which the animal is more liable to a relapse, or where a relapse would be so fatal. No misapprehension of the disease, or false humanity, should induce the attendant to give the smallest quantity of corn or of tonic medicine. Palsy in the horse is an inflammatory complaint, or the result of inflammation. If the heat and tenderness are abating, and the animal regains, to a slight degree, the use of his limbs, or if it is becoming a case of chronic palsy, an extensive and stimulating charge over the loins should be immediately applied. It will accomplish three purposes : there will be the principle of counter-irritation — a defence against the cold — and a useful support of the limbs. RHEUMATISM. It is only of late years that this has been admitted into the list of the diseases of the horse, although it is in truth a very common affection. It is frequent in old dorses that have been early abused, and among younger ones whose powers have been severely taxed. The lameness is frequently excessive, and the pain is evidently excruciating. The animal dares not to rest the slightest portion of its weight on th& limb, or even to touch the ground with his toe. He is heaving at the flanks, sweat- ing profusely, his countenance plainly indicative of ihe agony he feels ; but there ia at first no heat, or swelling, or tenderness. With proper treatment, the pain and the lameness gradually disappear; but in other instances the fasciae of the muscles become thickened — the ligaments are also thickened and rigid — the capsules of tf e joint are loaded with a glairy fluid, and the joint is evidently enlarged. This .s simply rbeuuatism; but if it is neglected, palsy soon associates itself with, or suc- ceeds to, the comiJs>;^*' and the loss of nervous power f lows the difficulty or paiu tf moving. NEUROTOMY. H, Every horseman will recollect cases in which the animal that sf.erted on the prc- seding day to be perfectly sound becomes decidedly .ame, and limps as though he uad lost thj use of his limbs ; yet there is no thickening of the tendons, nor any external inllammatury action to show the seat of the complaint. Mr. Cooper, of Coleshill, relates a case very applicable to the present subject. A farmer purchased A horse, to all appearance sound, and rode him home — a distance of ten miles. He was worked on the two following days, without showing the least lameness. On the third day it was with great difficulty that he managed to limp out of the stable. Mr. Cooper was sent for to examine him. The horse had clean legs and excellent feet. The owner would have him blistered all around. It was done. The horse was turned out to grass for two months, and came up perfectly sound. The weather soon afterwards became wet and cold, and the horse again was lame ; in fact, it presently appeared that the disease was entirely influenced by the changes of the atmosphere. "Thus," adds Mr. C., "in the summer a horse of this description will be mostly sound, while in the winter he will be generally lame." An account of acute rheumatism, by Mr. Thompson, of Beith, is too valuable to be omitted : — " I have had," says he, " fourteen cases of this disease. The muscles of the shoulders and arms were generally the parts affected. The cure was effected in a few days, and consisted of a good bleeding from the jugular, and a sharp purge. " One of these cases was uncommonly severe. The disease was in the back and loins. The horse brought forward his hind-legs under his flanks, reached his back, and drew up his flanks with a convulsive twitch accompanied by a piteous groan, almost every five minutes. The sympathetic fever was alarming, the pulse was 90, and there was obstinate constipation of the bowels. The horse literally roared aloud if any one attempted to shift him in the stall, and groaned excessively when lying. He was bled almost to fainting ; and three moderate doses of aloes were given in the course of two days. Injections were administered, and warm fomentations were frequently applied to the back and loins. On the third day the physic operated briskly, accompanied by considerable nausea and reduction of the pulse. From that time the animal gradually recovered. " These horses are well fed, and always in good condition ; but they are at times worked without mercy, which perhaps makes them so liable to these attacks." NEUROTOMY. To enable the horse to accomplish many of the tasks we exact from him, we have nailed on his feet an iron defence. Without the protection of the shoe, he would not only be unable to travel over our hard roads, but he would speedily become useless to us. While, however, the iron protects his feet from being battered and bruised, it is necessarily inflexible. It cramps and confines the hoof, and often, without great care, entails on our valuable servant bad disease and excessive torture. The division of the nerve, as a remedy for intense pain in any part of the frame, was systematically practised by human surgeons more than a century ago. ^ Mr. Moorecroft has the honour of introducing the operation of neurotomy in the veterinary school. He had long devoted his powerful energies to the discovery of the causes and the cure of lameness in jthe fore-foot of the horse. It was a subject worthy of him, for it involved the interest of the proprietor and the comfort of the slave. He found that, partly from the faulty construction of the shoe, and more from the premature and cruel exaction of labour, the horse was subject to a variety of diseases of the foot : all of them accompanied by a greater or less degree of pain — often of a very intense nature, and ceasing only with the life of the animal. He frequently met with a strangely formidable disease, in what was called "ccffin- joint lameness," but to which Mr. James Turner afterwards gave the very appropriate name of " navicular-joint disease." It was inflammation of the synovial membrane, either of the flexor tendon or navicular bone, or both, where the tendon plays over that bone; and it was accompanied by pain, abrasion, and gradual destruction of these parts. For a long time he was foiled in every attempt which he made to remove or ever to alleviate the disease. A v. length he turned his thoughts to the probability of sub 112 NEUROTOMY. duing the increased sensibility of the part, by diminishing the proportion of nervoia influence distributed on the foot. He laid bare one of the metacarpal nerves, and divided it with a pair of scissors. There was always an immediate and decided diminution of the lameness, and, sometimes, the horse rose perfectly c>ound. This nappy result, however, was not always permanent, for the lameness returned after tne lapse of a few weeks, or on much active exertion. He next cut out a small piece of the nerve. The freedom from lameness was of longer duration, but it eventually returned. He then tried a bolder experiment. He excised a portion of the nerves going both to the inner and outer metacarpals. We transcribe his own account of the result of the first case of complete neurotomy — excision of the nerve on both sides of the .leg- - that ever was performed. " The animal, on rising, trotted boldly and without lameness, but now and then stumbled with the foot operated on. The wounds healed in a few days, and the patient was put to grass. Some weeks afterwards a favourable account was received of her soundness ; but she was soon brought again to us, on account of a large sore on the bottom of the foot operated on, and extending from the point of the frog to the middle and back part of the pastern. The mare, in galloping over some broken glass bottles, had placed her foot upon a fragment of the bottom of one of them, and which had cut its way through the frog and tendon into the joint, and stuck fast in the joint for some seconds, while the animal continued its course apparently regardless of injury. The wound bled profusely, but the mare was not lame. Many days had elapsed before I saw her, and large masses of loose flesh were cut from the edges of the wound, without the animal showing the slightest sign of suffering pain. The processes usually attending sores went on, with the same appearances that took place in sores of parts not deprived of sensibility. Such extensive injury, however, had been done to the joint as rendered the preservation of free motion in it very impro- bable, even were the opening to close, which was a matter of doubt, and therefore she was destroyed. It appeared clearly from this, that by the destruction rl8 SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. parency — -even the iris changes its colour, and the pupil is exceedingly ..cntracleJ The veterinary surgeon has now an obstinate disease to combat, and one that will generally maintain its ground in spite of all his efforts. For three, or four, or five weeks, the inflammation will remain undiminished ; or if it appears to yield on one day, it will return with redoubled violence on the next. At length, and often uncon- nected with any of the means that have been used, the eye begins to bear the light, the redness of the membrane of the lid disappears, the cornea clears up, and the only vestige of disease which remains is a slight thickening of the lids and apparent un- easiness when exposed to a very strong light. If the owner imagines that he has got rid of the disease, he will be sadly disap- pointed, for, in the course of six weeks or two months, either the same eye under- goes a second and similar attack, or the other one becomes affected. All again seems to pass over, except that the eye is not so perfectly restored, and a slight, deeply-seated cloudiness begins to appear ; and after repeated attacks, and alterna- tions of disease from eye to eye, the affair terminates in opacity of the lens or its cap- sule, attended with perfect blindness either of one eye or both. This affection was formerly known by the name of moon-blindness, from its periodical return, and some supposed influence of the moon. That body, however, has not, and cannot have any- thing to do with it. What is the practitioner doing all this while ? He is an anxious and busy, but almost powerless spectator. He foments the eyes with warm water, or applies cold lotions with the extract of lead or opium, or poultices to which these drugs may be added ; he bleeds, not from the temporal artery, for that does not supply the orbit of the eye, but from the angular vein at the inner corner of the eye, or he scarifies the lining of the lid, or subtracts a considerable quantity of blood from the jugular vein. The scarifying of the conjunctiva, which may be easily accomplished with- out a twitch, by exposing the inside of the lids, and drawing a keen lancet slightly over them, is the most effectual of all ways to abate inflammation, for we are then immediately unloading the distended vessels. He places his setons in * as been considerable 120 SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. affected or almost lost, and yet the horse has been pronounced sound by very fail judges. The eye must be exposed to the light, and yet under the kind of shelter whic h has been already described, in order to discover the defect. The pupil of the horse is seldom black, like that of the human being, and its greyish hue conceals the recent or thin film that may be spreading over the lens. Confirmed cataract ii. the eye of the horse admits of no remedy, for two obvious reasons : the retractor muscle draws the eye back so powerfully and so deeply into the socket, that it would be almost impossible to perform any operation ; and, could an operation be performed, and the opaque lens removed, the sight would be so imperfect, from the rays of light not being sufficiently converged, that the horse would be worse to us than a blind one. The man who has undergone the operation of couching may put a new lens before his eye, in the form of a convex spects^le ; but we cannot adapt spectacles to the eye of the horse, or fix them there. Since the publication of the first edition of " The Horse," some controversy has taken place with regard to the occasional appearance and disappearance of cataract without any connexion with the common moon-blindness. Mr. Clay deposed in evi- dence, that cataracts might be formed in a fortnight or three weeks — that he had known many instances in which they had been completed in less time, and without any previous apparent disease of the eyes ; and that he had detected them when the owners had not the slightest suspicion of disease in the eye.* Mr. Cartwright adds, that he has known two sinul-r cases. The first was of a horse that had two cataracts in each eye — two of them of the size of a large pin's head, and the other two treble that size. There was no vestige of former inflamma- tion ; and the person who bred him said that he never had been subject to inflamma- tion of the eye. In December 1831, these cataracts were plain enough; but in the autumn of 1832, they had completely vanished. In November 1832, Mr. Cartwright saw a five-years old mare, and detected a cata- ract in the right eye, of the size of a coriander seed. He advised the owner to get rid of her, thinking that she would go blind ; but, being a useful animal, he kept her. In August 1833, Mr. Cartwright saw her again. The cataract had disappear**! and the eyes were perfect, t That excellent veterinarian, Mr. Percivall, had a somewhat similar case. A gen- tleman brought a horse one morning to the hospital, in consequence of its having fallen in his way to town, and grazed his eyebrow. On examining him carefully, the cornea was partially nebulous, and a cataract was plainly visible. Neither of these defects was sufficient to attract the notice of any unprofessional observer, and both were unconnected with the slight bruise produced by the fall. The owner was told that the corneal opacity might possibly be removed ; but as for the cataract, he might regard this as beyond the reach of medicine. He returned with his horse on the fifth day, saying that the physic had operated well, and that he thought the eye was as clear as ever. Mr. Percivall examined the eye, and could discover no relic either of the conical opacity or of the cataract. The opinion respecting cataract is therefore essentially modified. It is not necessa- rily the result of previous inflammation, although in the great majority of cases it is so, nor does it always lead to blindness. Still it is a serious thing at all times, and. although existing in the minutest degree, it is unsoundness, and very materially lessen* the value of the horse. " Were I asked," says Mr. Percivall, " how the practitioner could best distinguish a cataract of the above description from that which is of orcfinary occurrence, and known by us all to constitute the common termination of periodical ophthalmia, I should say that the unusually lucid and healthy aspect which every other part of the eye presents is our best diagnostic sign ; the slightest indication, however, or the slightest susn:cion of prior or present inflammation, being a reason for coming to a different conclusion. As to the period of time a cataract of this species, supposing it to be membranous,, would require for its formation, I should apprehend that its production •night be. as its disappearance often would seem to be, the work of a very short inler- •al, perhaps not mon than five or six days." As to tho cause and treatment of it Veterinarian, il. vii. D. 41. t Ve ;erinarian, vol. vii. p. 44. GUTTA SERENA — DISEASES OF THE EAR. 121 %K are at present completely in the dark. If it does not soon disappear, the hydriodate of potash administered internally might offer the best prospect of success. GUTTA SERENA. Another species of blindness, and of which mention was made when describing the cetina, is Gutta Serena, commonly called glass eye. The pupil is more than usually dilated : it is immovable, and bright, and glassy. This is palsy of the optic nerve, 01 its expansion, the retina ; and is usually produced by determination of blood to the head. We have described it as a consequence of staggers. So much pressure has been occasioned on the base of the brain, that the nerve has been injured, and its func- tion destroyed. The treatment of Gutta Serena is quite as difficult as that of cataract. We have heard of successful cases, but we never saw one ; nor should we be disposed to Incur much expense in endeavouring to accomplish impossibilities. Reasoning from the cause of the disease, we should bleed and physic, and administer the strychnine in doses, commencing at half a grain, and not exceeding two grains, morning and night — very carefully watching it. If we succeed, it must be by constitutional treat- """fltit. As to local treatment, the seat of disease is out of our reach. DISEASES OF THE EAR. Wounds of the ear are usually the consequence of careless or brutal treatment The twitch may be applied to it, when absolute necessity requires this degree 01 coercion ; but troublesome ulcers and bruises have been the consequence of the abuse of this species of punishment, and more especially has the farrier done irreparable mischief when he has brutally made use of his plyers. These bruises or wounds will generally — fortunately for the animal, and fortu- nately, perhaps, for the brute that inflicted the injury — speedily heal ; but occasionally sinuses and abscesses will result that bid defiance to the most skilful treatment. A simple laceration of the cartilage is easily remedied. The divided edges are brought into apposition, and the head is tied up closely for a few days, and all is well ; but, occasionally, ulceration of the integument and cellular substance, and caries of the cartilage, will take place — deep sinuses will be formed, and the wound will bid defi- ance to the most skilful treatment. The writer of this work had once a case of this kind under his care more than two months, and he was at length compelled to cut off the ear, the other ear following it, for the sake of uniformity of appearance. The lunar caustic, or the muriate of antimony, or the heated iron, must be early employed, or the labour of the practitioner will be in vain. It has been the misfortune of the same person to witness two cases in which the auditory passage was closed and the faculty of hearing destroyed, by blows on the ear violently inflicted. No punishment can be too severe for these brutes in human shape. Whenever there is considerable swelling about the root of the ear, and the fluctuation of a fluid within can be detected, it should be immediately opened with a lancet, and the purulent fluid liberated. The abscess usually begins to form about the middle of the conch, or rather nearer the base than the point. The incision should be of considerable length, or the opening will close again in four-and-twenty hours. The purulent matter having been evacu- ated, the incision should not be permitted to close until the parietes of the ulcer have adhered to each other, and the abscess is obliterated. The size and the carrying of the ear do not always please. The ears may be largei and more dependent than fashion requires them to be, and this is remedied by paring or clipping them to the requisite size. On either side of the projection of the occipital bone, and in a straight line forward and backward, a fold of the skin is pinched up and cut away. The divided edges on either side are then brought together, and con- fined by two or three stitches — they presently unite, and the owner has a better- looking horse, and soon foigets or cares not about the punishment which he has inflicted on him. The ears of other horses may be supposed to be too close to each other. Thi 3 fault is corrected by another piece of cruelty. Similar slips of skin are cut away 3n the outside of t) e base of 'he ear. and in the same direction. The edges of the f ountf 11 Q 122 THE ANATOMY AND DISfiASES Of are tl«en brought together, confined by sutures, and the ears are drawn 'wXthei apai* from each other, and have different directions given to them. A very s.ijht examina- tion of either of the horses will readily detect the imposition. DEAFNESS. Of the occasional existence of this in the horse, there is no doubt, The beautiful play of the ears has ceased, and the horse hears not the voice of his master, or the sound of the whip. Much of the apparent stupidity of a few horses is attributable to their imperfect hearing. It occasionally appears to follow the decline of various dis- eases, and especially of those that affect the head and the respiratory passages. It has been the consequence of brutal treatment closing the conduit of the ear, or rup- turing the tympanum; and it is certainly, as in other domesticated animals, the accompaniment of old age. In the present state of veterinary knowledge, it is an incurable complaint ; the only thing that can be done is not to punish the poor slave for his apparent stupidity, pro- duced perhaps by over-exertion in our service, or, at least, the natural attendant of the close of a life devoted to us. CHAPTER IV. THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. WE now proceed to a description of the face, or lower part of the head of the Horse. Fhe nasal bones, or bones of the nose (j j, p. 70, and a, p. 72), are connected with the frontal bones above, and with the lacrymal, i i, and the bones of the upper jaw, / /, on either side. They are united together by a plain suture, which is a continuation of the frontal, and they terminate in a point at the nostril (p, p. 70). They are rounded and arched above, because .they are exposed to occasional violence and injury, which the arch-form will enable them best to resist ; and at the base of the arch, where the main strength should be, they are overlapped by the upper jaw-bone, as the temporal bone overlaps the base of the parietal. These bones form a principal part of the face ; and the length, or shortness, and the character of the face, deptud upon them. Sometimes there is an appearance of two little arches, with a depression between them along the sutures. This is often found in the blood-horse with his com- paratively broad head and face. The single elevated arch is found in the long and narrow face of the heavy draught-horse. The nasal bones pursue their course down the face, in some horses in a straigh. line — in others, there is a slight prominence towards the upper part, while in a con- siderable number, a depression is observed a little lower down. Some persons have imagined that this deviation in the line of the face affords an indication of the temper of the animal, and there may be a little truth in this. The horse with a straight pro- file may be good or bad tempered, but not often either to any great excess. The one with the prominent Roman nose will generally be an easy, good-tempered kind of beast — hardy — ready enough to feed, not always, perhaps, so leady to work, but may be made to do his duty without any cruel urging, and having no extraordinary preten- sion to speed or blood. On the other hand, a depression across the centre of the nose generally indicates some breeding, especially if the head is small, but occasionally accompanied by a vicious, uncontrollable disposition. There is another way, however, in which the nasal bones do more certainly indicate the creed, viz., by their comparative length or shortness. There is no surer criterion of •» well-bred horse than a broad angular forehead, prominent features, and a short face ; nor of a horse with little breeding, than a narrow forehead, small features, and .engthened nose The comnarative development of the head and face indicates, with little enoij the preponderance of the animal or intellectual principle. Fracture of the nasal bones of the horse will sometimes occur from falling, n a kicV THE NOSE AND MOU1 1. Igg from the companion, or the brutality of the attendant It is generally "ollcwed by laceration of tlie lining membrane of the nostrils, and by haen orrhage. The haemor rhage may usually be arrested by the application of cold water externall/. In spon- taneous haemorrhage this does not often succeed until a considerable quantity of blood is lost. In cases of fracture of the nasal bones, the assistance of a veterinary surgeon is indispensable. He alone knows the precise anatomy of the parts, and will have recourse to the elevator or the trephine, as circumstances may require. The owner must not be too sanguine with regard to cases of this kind, for ozena,— ulceration attended by a peculiar and almost insufferable stench — is too often the con- sequence, or foundation may be laid, for the appearance, of glanders. Spontaneous bleeding from the nose must be carefully gfttended to. It may proceed from over-fulness of the capillaries of the membrane of the nose, or determination of blood to the head, or general plethora of the system. Those that are overfed and overfat are most liable to it, as troop-horses, brewers' horses, and horses kept for pleasure. It is not common in young horses, or in such as are out of condition, or worked hardly. It is always desirable to know whence the bleeding proceeds — if from the nostril alone, it will usually be confined to one side — if from the lungs, the discharge is from both nostrils, and generally mingled with mucus, or spume, — there is also a quickened respiration, and more or less cough. If it is apparently connected with some slight cause, a dose of physic and quietness for a day or two will be sufficient, and, if necessary, a slight solution of alum may be injected up the nostril. If the bleeding is apparently from the lungs, a more serious evacuation will be required. These bones form the roof of an important cavity (see a, p. 72). The sides are constituted above by the nasal bones, and, lower down, by the upper jaw-bones, (supe- rior maxillaries^ while plates from these latter bones project and compose the palate, which is both the floor of the nose and the roof of the mouth (/, p. 72). Above (near fig. 8), not visible in our cut, is a bone called the palatine, although it contributes very little to the formation of the palate. It is the termination of the palate, or the bordei of the opening where the cavities of the mouth and nose meet (fig. 8). The frontal sinuses, 6, and large vacuities in the upper jaw-bone, and in the aethmoid, /, and sphe noid bones, •£, communicate with and enlarge the cavity of the nose. This writy is divided into two parts by a cartilage called the Septum (see a, p. 7^;, It is of considerable thickness and strength, and divides the cavity of the nose into two eqiitJ parts. It is placed in the centre for the purpose of strength , ;.nd it is formed of cartilage, in order that, by its gradual yielding resistance, it may neutralize almost any force that may be applied to it. When we open the nostril, we see the membrane by which the cartilage, and the whole of the cavity of the nose, is lined, and by the colour of which, much more than by that of the lining of the eyelids, we judge of the degree of fever, and pai V;J4 THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF Ocularly of inflammation of the lungs, or any of the air-passages. The cut on th« precedir g page shows the ramifications of the blood-vessels, both arlerial and venous on Tie membrane of the nose. It beautifully accounts for the accurate connexion which we trace between the colour of the nasal membrane, and various diseases or states of the circulation. By the sore places or ulcerations discovered on this mem- brane, we likewise determine respecting the existence of glanders ; and the interposi- tion of the septum is a wise and benevolent provision to hinder the spread of the mischief, by cutting off all communication with the neighbouring parts, and also to preserve one nostril pervious, when the other is diseased or obstructed. The nasal cavity is, on either side, occupied by two bones, which, from their being rolled up somewhat in the form of a turban, are called the turbinated or turban-shaped bones, i s, p. 72 ; part of the cartilage is cut away in our cut in order to display them. They are as thin as gauze, and perforated, like gauze, with a thousand holes. Between them are left sufficient passages for the air. If they were unrolled, they would present a very considerable surface; and on every part of them is spread the substance or pulp of the olfactory, or first pair of nerves. These bones, lined with delicate membranes, and covered by the olfactory nerves, are the seat of smell ; and they are thus expanded, because the sense of smell in the horse must, to a very considerable degree, supply the place of the sense of touch and the lessons of experience in the human being. By this alone he is enabled to select, amongst the nutritive and poisonous herbage of the meadow, that which would support and not destroy him. The troops of wild horses are said to smell the approach of an enemy at a very considerable distance. In his domestic state, the horse does not examine the different food which is placed before him with his eye, but with his nose ; and if the smell displeases him, no coaxing will induce him to eat. He examines a stranger by the smell, and, by very intelligible signs, expresses the opinion which he forms of him by this inquisition. The horse will evidently recognise his favourite groom when he has nothing else to indicate his approach but the sense of smell. These cavities are likewise organs of voice. The sound re- vert erates through them, and increases in loudness, as through the windings of a French horn. The extension of the nostril at the lower part of these cavities is an important part of the face, and intimately connected with breeding, courage, and speed. The horse can breathe only through the nose. All the air which goes to and returns from the lungs must pass through the nostrils. In the common act of breathing, these are sufficiently large ; but when the animal is put on his speed, and the respiration is quickened, these passages must dilate, or he will be much distressed. The expanded nostril is a striking feature in the blood-horse, especially when he has been excited and not over-blown. The sporting man will not forget the sudden effect which is given to the countenance of the hunter, when his ears become erect, and his nostrils dilate as he first listens to the cry of the hounds, and snorts, and scents them afar off. The painful and spasmed stretching of this part, in the poor, over-driven post-horse, will show how necessary it is that the passage to the lungs should be free and open. The nostril should not only be large, but the membranous substance which covers the entrance into the nose should be thin and elastic, that it may more readily yield when the necessity of the animal requires a greater supply of air, and afterwards return to its natural dimensions. Therefore, nature, which adapts the animal to his situation and use, has given to the cart-horse, that is seldom blown, a confined nostril, and surrounded by much cellular substance, and a thick skin ; and to the horse of more breeding, whose use consists in his speed and his continuance, a wider nostril, and one much more flexible. The inhabitants of some countries were accustomed to slit the nostrils of theii horses, that they might be less distressed in the severe and long-continued exertion of their speed. The Icelanders do so to the present day. There is no necessity for this, for nature has made ample provision for all the ordinary and even extraordinary exertion we can require from the horse. Some very powerful muscles proceed from different parts of the face to Cie neighbour- hood of the nostrils, in order to draw them back and Dilate them. Four of these aie jri^en in the following cut, which is inserted to compl >ie OUT ^resent subject, and whicb THE NOSE AND MOUTH. j will b« rften referred to in the course of our work ; /, w, o, and j. , are muscles e ployed 'or this purpose. THE J CSCLES, NERVES. 1ND BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE HEAD AND UPPER PART OF THE NEC*. • The upper part of the ligament of the neck. i The levator humeri (elevator of the shoulder), arising from the tubercle of the occiput, th* mastoid (nipple-shaped) process of the temporal bone, and the transverse proccasei (cross projections) of the four first bones of the neck, and the ligament of the neck, ana going to the muscles of the shoulders, and the upper bone of the arm : to draw for- ward the shoulder and arm ; or turn the head and neck ; and, when the two levatore act, to depress the head. t The tendon common to the complexus major (larger complicated), and splenius (splint-like) i to the mastoid process of the temporal bone, to hold up the head, or, the muscles on one side alone acting, to turn it. if The sterno-maxillaris (belonging to the breast-bone) and upper jaw, from the cartilage in front of the chest to the angle of the lower jaw : to bend the head, or, if one only acts, to bend it on one side. e The stylo-maxillaris, from the styloid (pencil- shaped) or coracoid (beak-shaped) urocess of the occiput, to the angle of the jaw : to pull the jaw backward and open it. / The subscapulo hyoideus, from under the shoulder-blade, to the body of the o» hyoides (the bone at the root of the tongue formed like a Greek u, w) : to draw back that bone. g The masseter (chewing); a most powerful muscle, constituting the cheek of the horse:— from the upper jaw bone into the rough surface round the angle of the lower • in con- junction with the temporal muscle to close the mouth and chew the food. ft The orbicularis (circular) surrounding the eye and closing the lids. t The zygomaticus, from the zygomatic arch and masseter to the corner of the mouth, tc draw back the angle of the mouth. k The buccinator (trumpeter), from the inside of the mouth and cheeks, to the angle of the mouth, to draw it back. I The yasalis labii superioris (belonging to the nose and upper lip), from a depression at the junction of the superior maxillary and malar bones, to the angle of the nostril : to raise the lip, and dilate the nostrils. m Dilator naris lateralis (side dilator of the nostril), reversed to show the vessels and nerves which it covers, going from the covering of the nasal and frontal bones, to the angle of the mouth, and side of the nostril : to retract the upper lip and dilate the nostrils. * Dilator magnus (great dilator), assisting in the same office. e Depressor labii inferioris (puller down of tlie under lip), to the sides of the under Up : topuL it down. p Orbicularis oris (circular muscle of the mouth), surrounding the mouth : to close the lipi and dilate the nostrils, f The upper aortic n of the parotid gland (gland near the ear) reversed, to show the blood *«• sels and nerves beneath it. r The parotid duct piercing the cheek, to discharge the saliva into the raruth. NASAL POLYPUS. The maxillary gland (gland of the lower jaw) with its du.it. I The jugular (neck) vein, after the two branches have united. tt At this letter, the submaxillary artery, a branch of the jugular, and the parotid duct, pwj under and wiihin me angle of the lower jaw ; they come out again at to, and climb xiy the cheek to be distributed over the face. a The vein and artery, passing under the zygomatic arch. x A branch of the fifth pair, the sensitive nerve of the face, emerging from under the parotid gland. y The main branch of the portio dura (hard portion) of the seventh pair, the motor (moving) nerve of the face coming out from beneath the parotid gland, to spread over the face. c Branches of both nerves, with small blood-vessels. There are also four distinct cartilages attached to the nostrils, which, by their elasticity, bring back the nostrils to their former dimensions, as soon as the muscles cease to act. The bones of the nose (a a, p. 70, and p. 72) are also sharpened off to a point, to give wider range for the action of the muscles ; while the cartilages are so contrived, as not only to discharge the office we have mentioned, but to protect this projection of bone from injury. There are two circumstances, which, more than any others, will enable the veteri- nary surgeon, and the owner of a horse, accurately to judge of the character and degree of many diseases, and to which very few persons pay sufficient attention ; these are the pulse, of which we shall presently speak, and the colour of the mem- brane of the nose. It is the custom of most veterinary surgeons and horsemen to lift the upper eyelid, and to form their opinion by the colour which its lining presents. If it is very red, there is considerable fever ; — if it is of a pale pinkish hue, there is little danger. The nose, however, is more easily got at; — the surface presented to the view is more extensive ; — its sympathy with almost all the important organs is greater ; — and the changes produced by disease are more striking and more conclu- sive. Let tiie reader nrsi make himself well acquainted with the uniform pale pint appearance ot mat "onion of the membrane which covers the lower part of the car- tilaginous partition between the nostrils, when the horse is in health and quiet ; then the increased blush <*? rad. betokening some excitement of the system — the streaked appearance of inflammation commenced, and threatening to increase — the intense florid red, of acute inflammation — the pale ground with patches of vivid red, showing the half-subdued, but still existing fever — the uniform colour, although somewhat redder than natural, predicting a return to healthy circulation — the paleness approach- ing to white, marking the stage of debility, and sometimes intermingled with radia- tions of crimson, inducing the suspicion of lurking mischief; and the dark livid colour of approaching stagnation of the vital current. These, with all their shades of difference, will be the guides to his opinion and treatment, which every one, who has studied them, will highly appreciate. NASAL POLYPUS. By the polypus, is meant an excrescence or tumour, varying in size, structure, ana consistence, and attached by a pedicle to a mucous surface. The true polypus is attached to mucous membranes, and is usually found in the nostrils, the pharynx, the uterus, or the vagina. Tumours have been seen hanging loose in the veins and ven- tricles of the heart ; and in the larger blood-vessels there have been accumulations of the fibrine of the blood, with peduncular attachments. The nasal polypus usually adheres to some portion of the superior turbinated bone, or it has come from some of the sinuses connected with that cavity. It escaped, while small, through the valvular opening under the superior turbinated bone, into the cavity of the nose, and there attained its full growth. No better account, however, can be given of the cause of their appearance, than that of tumours in other parts of the body. They evidently have a constitutiona. origin: thsy are frequently hereditary, and the animal in which they have one* appeared, is subject to a return of them. By some means, probably the increasing weight of the tumour, and being in a dependent situation, the polypus is gradually detached from it« base, and forces with It the soft and easily distf nsible membrane of the nose. As it continues to desct nd, tW'« portion of membrane is farther elongated, and forms the fedicle or loot of tne JNASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE. -yt tomoir; — if that may be termed a root which is a mere duplicate of its investing membrane. The polypus, when it hangs free in the nasal cavity, is usually of a pyrifonn 01 year-like shape; and it varies in weight, from a few drachms to three or four pounds. How is the surgeon to proceed 1 Can he lay hold of the polypus by the finger, oi the forceps, or (for these tumours do not possess much sensibility) the tenaeulum . To ascertain this, he will cast the horse, and fix the head in a position to take the greatest advantage of the light. If he cannot fairly get at the tumour by any of these means, he will let it alone. It will continue to grow — the membrane consti- tuting the pedicle will be lengthened — and the polypus will at length descend, and be easily got at. Time and patience will effect wonders in this and many similar Supposing it to have grown, and the surgeon is endeavouring to extract it, he must not use any great force. It must not be torn out by the root. The tumour must be gently brought down, and a ligature passed round the pedicle, as high up as it can conveniently be placed. If the polypus can then be returned to the nose, the animal will suffer very little inconvenience ; and in a few days it will slough off, and tho pedicle will contract, and gradually disappear. If the polypus is so large that it cannot be well returned after it has been brought down, we must, notwithstanding, use the ligature, passing it round the pedicle suffi- ciently tightly to cut off the supply of blood to the tumour. We may then imme- diately excise it. Except the pedicle is exceedingly thick, there will be little or nc haemorrhage. Should some bleeding occur, it will probably soon stop, or may be •topped by the cautery, which should, however, be avoided if possible ; for our object is to produce as little irritation as may be in the membrane, and the actual cautery will be applied with considerable difficulty in the eavity of the nose. In very bad cases, when the tumour cannot be drawn out of the nose, it may be necessary to slit up the ala or side of the nostril. It will be better, however, not to cut through the false nostril ; for that consists of a duplicature of such thin integu- ment, that the stitches can hardly be retained in it, when the horse will be continually snorting at the least inconvenience. It will also be difficult to bring the edges of this thin membrane accurately together again ; or if this be effected, there is scarcely life enough in it for the parts readily to unite. The false nostril should be avoided, and the incision made along the lateral edge of the nasal bone, beginning at its apex oi point. The flap will then conveniently turn down, so as to expose the cavity beneath ; and there will be sufficient muscular substance to secure an almost certain union by the first intention. The nostril being opened, the pedicle will probably be displayed, and a ligature may be passed round it, as already recommended ; or if it is not actu ally in sight, it may probably gradually be brought within reach. NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE. There is a constant secretion of fluid to lubricate and moisten the membrane that lines the cavity of the nose, and which, under catarrh or cold, is increased in quantity, and altered in appearance and consistence. This will properly belong to the account of catarrh or cold ; but that which is immediately under consideration, is a continued and oftentimes profuse discharge of thickened mucus, when every symptom of calarrh and fever has passed away. If the horse is at grass, the discharge is almost as green as the food on which he lives ; — or if he is stabled, it is white, or straw-coloured , or brown, or even bloody, and sometimes purulent. It is either constantly runninsr, or snorted out in masses many times a day ; teazing the horse, and becoming a perfact nuisance in the stable, and to the rider. This has been known to continue several months, and eventually to destroy the horse. If the discharge is not offensive to the smell, nor mixed with purulent matter, it if plobaoly merely an increased and somewhat vitiated secretion from the cavities of the nose; and, all fever hating disappeared, will frequently yield to small doses of blue vitriol, given twice in the day. If fever or cough remains, the cough medicine mat will hereafter be described must be combined with the tonic. If the discharge is mingled with p-is, and verr offensive, the vegetable tonics, gentian and ginger, may ate added to the copper ; bi \ there is now reason to apprehend that the discharge wiy J2g OZENA. not be controlled, and will terminate in glanders. Turning into a salt marsh wil) occasionally effect a cure, when both the mineral and the vegetable tonics have tailed. OZENA. OZENA is uloeration of the membrane of the nose, not always or often visible, but recognised by the discharge of muco-purulent matter, and the peculiar foetor from which the disease derives its name. It resembles glanders, in being confined, in most instances, to one nostril, and the submaxillary gland on the same sicte being enlarged; but differs from it in the gland not being adherent, and the discharge, from its earliest stage, being purulent and stinking. There is sometimes a foetid discharge from the nostril, in consequence of inflamma- tion of the lungs, or produced by some of the sequelae of pheumonia ; distinguished, however, from ozena, by its usually flowing irregularly, being coughed up in great quantities, more decidedly purulent, and the gland or glands seldom affected. The discharge from ozena is constant, muco-purulent, and attended by enlargement of the glands. It is of immense consequence that we should be enabled to distinguish the one from the other ; for while ozena may, sometimes at least, be manageable, the other is too frequently the precursor of death. The cause of ozena cannot always be discovered. Chronic inflammation of the membrane may assume another and malignant character. In severe catarrh, the membrane may become abraded, and the abrasions may degenerate into foul and foetid ulcers. It is not an unfrequent consequence of epidemic catarrh. It has been pro- ductd by caustic applications to the lining membrane of the nose. It has followed haemorrhage, spontaneous, or the consequence of injury. In some cases, and those as obstinate as any, it cannot perhaps be traced to any probable cause, and the health of the animal has not appeared to be in the slightest degree affected. The membrane of the nose is highly sensitive and irritable, and an ulcer, in what- ever way forme J on it, does not readily heal. It often runs on to gangrene, and destroys not only the membrane, but the bone beneath, and even the. cartilaginous septum. This is rarely the case in glanders ; and the ravages of the chancrous ulcer* are usually confined to the membrane. The ulceration proceeds to a certain point- its progress is then arrested, usually by nature alone — the discharge gradually lessens — it loses its offensive character, and at length ceases. Local applications are seldom available in the treatment of this disease ; for we know not the situation of the ulcer ; and if we did, we probably could not get at it. Some have recommended setons. Where are they to be applied * If the seat of ulceration is unknown, the seton may only give useless pain. Several post-mortem examinations have shown that the frontal sinuses are a frequent seat of the disease. Yet what injection could we use ? An emollient one would be thrown away. A stimulating injection might convert ozena into glanders. Other examinations havo shown that the superior portion of the central meatus was diseased. What instru- ment can be contrived to reach that 1 Internal medicines are almost thrown away in this complaint : yet something, perhaps, may be done under the form of a local appli- cation. The discarded nose-bag (undervalued at least by too many practitioners) will afford the means of employing an emollient fomentation. The steam from a bran-mash, scalding hot, will probably reach every part of the nasal cavity, and so afford some chance of being beneficially applied to the ulcer. It will, at least, thoroughly cleanse the part. By means of the nose-bag and the warm mash, the chloride of lime may be introduced into the cavity; not only combining with the extricated gases, and removing the fcetor, but arresting the tendency to decomposition. Then there is a digestive — a gentle stimulus to abraded and ulcerated surfaces, rousing them to healthy action, and without too much irritating them — turpentine. This may be applied in the form of vapour, and, in the best of all ways, by using the fresh yellow deal shavings instead of bran. This digestive may be brouo-ht intc contact with every part of the Schneiderian membrane, and has been serviceable. There is another resource, and one that bids fairer to be successful than any othei with which we are acquainted — the spring grass. It is the finest alterathre, depur* GLANDERS. 129 ttve, and restorative, in our whole materia medica ; and if it is accessible in the forre of a salt marsh, there is no better chance of doing good GLANDERS. The most formidable of all the diseases to which the horse is subject, is GLANDERS It has been recognised from the time of Hippocrates, of Cos ; and few modern veteri- nary writers have given a more accurate or complete account of its symptoms, than is to be found in the works of the father of medicine. Three-and-twenty hundred years have rolled on since then, and veterinary practitioners are not yet agreed as to the tissue primarily affected, nor the actual nature of the disease : we only know that it is at the present day, what it was then, a loathsome and an incurable malady. We shall therefore, in treating of this disease, pursue our course slowly and mutiously. The earliest symptom of Glanders is an increased discharge from the nostril, small in quantity, constantly flowing, of an aqueous character, and a little mucus mingling with it. Connected with this is an error too general, and highly mischievous with regard to the character of this discharge in the earliest stage of the disease, when, if ever, a cure might be effected, and when, too, the mischief from contagion is most frequently produced. The discharge of glanders is not sticky when it may be first recognised, It is an aqueous or mucous, but small and constant discharge, and is thus distinguished from catarrh, or nasal gleet, or any other defluxion from the nostril. It should b< impressed on the mind of every horseman that this small and constant defluxion overlooked by the groom and by the owner, and too often by the veterinary surgeon. is a most suspicious circumstance. Mr. James Turner deserves much credit for having first or chiefly directed the atten tion of horsemen to this important but disregarded symptom. If a horse is in th« highest condition, yet has this small aqueous constant discharge, and especially from one nostril, no time should be lost in separating him from his companions. No harm will be done by this, although the defluxion should not ultimately betray lurking mis- chief of a worse character. Mr. Turner relates a case very much in point. A farmer asked his opinion respect- ing a mare in excellent condition, with a sleek coat, and in full work. He had had her seven or eight months, and during the whole of that time there had been a dis- charge from the right nostril, but in so slight a degree as scarcely to be deemed worthy of notice. He now wanted to sell her, but, like an honest man, he wished to know whether he might warrant her. Mr. Turner very properly gave it as his opinion, that the discharge having existed for so long a time, he would not be justified in sending her into the market. A farrier, however, whose ideas of glanders had always been connected with a sticky discharge and an adherent gland, bought her, and led her away. Three months passed on, when Mr. Turner, examining the post-horses ol a neigh- bouring inn, discovered that two of them were glandered, and two more farcied, while, standing next to the first that was attacked, and his partner in work, was his old acquaintance, the farmer's mare, with the same discharge from her nostril, and whr had, beyond question, been the cause of all the mischief. The peculiar viscidity and gluiness which is generally supposed to distinguish the discharge of glanders from all other mucous and prevalent secretions belongs to the c-econd stage of the disease, and, for many months before this, glanders may have existed in an insidious and highly contagious form. It must be acknowledged, how ever, that, in the majority of cases, some degree of stickiness does characterise th« discharge of glanders from a very early period. It is a singular circumstance, for which no satisfactory account has yet been given, that when one nostril alone is attacked, it is, in a great majority of cases, the near, 01 eft. M. Dupuy, the director of the veterinary school at Toulouse, gives a very sin- gular account of this. He says, that out of eighty cases of glanders that came under his no*.ice, only one was affected in the right nostril. The difference in the affected nostril does not exist to so great an extent in Great Britain ; but, in two horses Dut of tfiree, or inree out of four, the discharge is from the left nostril alone. We migh/ [30 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND VIOUTH. account for the left leg failing oftener than the right, for we mount and dismount o» the left side ; the horse generally leads with it, and there is more wear and tear of that limb : but we cannot satisfactorily account for this usual affection of the left no«*« tril. I; is true that the reins are held in the left hand, and there may be a little more beanng and pressure on the left side of the mouth ; but this applies only to saddle- horses, and even with them does not sufficiently explain the result. This discharge, in cases of infection, may continue, and in so slight a degree as to be scarcely perceptible, for many months, or even two or three years, unattended by any other disease, even ulceration of the nostril, and yet the horse being decidedly glandered from the beginning, and capable of propagating the malady. °In process of time, however, pus mingles with the discharge, and then another and a characteris- tic symptom appears. Some of this is absorbed, and the neighbouring glands become affected. If there is discharge from both nostrils, the glands within the under jaw will be on both sides enlarged. If the discharge is from one nostril only, the swelled gland will be found on that side alone. Glanders, however, will frequently exist at an early stage without these swelled glands, and some other diseases, as catarrh, will produce them. Then we must look out for some peculiarity about these glands, and we shall readily find it. The swelling may be at first somewhat large and diffused, but the surrounding enlargement soon goes off, and one or two small distinct glands remain ; and they are not in the centre of the channel, but adhere closely to the jaw on the affected side. The membrane of the nose should now be examined, and will materially guide our opinion. It will either be of a dark purplish hue, or almost of a leaden colour, or of any shade between the two ; or if there is some of the redness of inflammation, it wil» have a purple tinge : but there will never be the faint pink blush of health, or the Intense and vivid red of usual inflammation. Spots of ulceration wLl pr bably appear on the membrane covering the cartilage of the nose — riot mere sore places, or streaks of abrasion, and quite superficial, but small ulcers, usually approaching to a circular form, deep, and with the edges abrupt and prominent. When these appearances are observed, there can be no doubt about the mattei. Care should be taken, however, to ascertain that these ulcers do actually exist, for spots of mucus adhering to the mem- brane have been more than once taken for them. The finger should, if possible, be passed over the supposed ulcer, in order to determine whether it can be wiped away ; Mid it should be recollected, as was hinted when describing the duct that conveys the iears to the nose, that the orifice of that duct, just within the nostril, and on the inner side of it, has been mistaken for a chancrous ulcer. This orifice is on the continua- tion of the common skin of the muzzle which runs a little way up the nostril, while the ulcer of glanders is on the proper membrane of the nose above. The line of sepa- ration between the two is evident on the slightest inspection. When ulcers begin to appear on the membrane of the nose, the constitution of the horse is soon evidently affected. The patient loses flesh — his belly is tucked up — his coat unthrifty, and readily coming off — the appetite is impaired — the strength fails —cough, more or less urgent, may be heard — the discharge from the nose will increase in quantity ; it will be discoloured, bloody, offensive to the smell — the ulcers in the nose will become larger and more numerous, and the air-passages being obstructed, a grating, choking noise will be heard at every act of breathing. There is now a peculiar tenderness about the forehead. The membrane lining the frontal sinuses is inflamed and ulcerated, and the integument of the forehead becomes thickened and somewhat swelled. Farcy is now superadded to glanders, or glanders has degene- rated into farcy, and more of the absorbents are involved. At or before this time little tumours appear about the muscles, and face, and neck following the course of the veins and the absorbents, for they run side by side ; and these the tumours soon ulcerate. Tumours or buds, still pursuing the path of the absorbents, soon appear on the inside of the thighs. They are connected together bv a corded substance. This is the inflamed and enlarged lymphatic ; and ulceration quickly follows the appearance of these buds. The deeper-seated absorbents are next affected ; and one or both of the hind-legs swell to a great size, and become stiff, and hot. and tender. The loss of flesh and strength is more marked every clay. Tint raemhrane of the nose becomes of a dirty livid colour. The membrane of the GLANDERS. 131 is strangely pallid. Tae eye is infiltrated with a yellow fluid ; and the discharge from the nose becomes more profuse, and insufferably offensive. The anima. presents one mass of putrefaction, and at last dies exhausted. The enlargement of the submaxillary glands, as connected with this disease, may, perhaps, require a little farther consideration. A portion of the fluid secreted by the membrane of the nose, and altered in character by the peculiar inflammation there existing, is absorbed ; and, as it is conveyed along the lymphatics, in order to arrive it the place of its destination, it inflames them, and causes them to enlarge and sup- purate. There is, however, a peculiarity accompanying the inflammation which they take from the absorption of the virus of glanders. They are rarely large, except at first, or hot, or tender ; but they are characterised by a singular hardness, a proximity to the jaw-bone, and, frequently, actual adhesion to it. The adhesion is produced by the inflammatory action going forward in the gland, and the effusion of coagulable lymph. This hardness and adhesion accompanying discharge from the nostril, and being on the same side with the nostril whence the discharge proceeds, afford proof not to be controverted that the horse is glandered. Notwithstanding this, however, there are cases in which the glands are neither adherent nor much enlarged, and yet there is constant discharge from one or both nostrils. The veterinary surgeon would have little hesitation in pronouncing them to be cases of glanders. He will trust to the adhesion of the gland, but he will not be misled by its looseness, nor even by ita absence altogether. Glanders have often been confounded with strangles, and by those who ought to have known better. Strangles are peculiar to young horses. The early stage resembles common cold, with some degree of fever and sore throat — generally with distressing cough, or at least frequent wheezing ; and when the enlargement appears beneath the jaw, it is not a single small gland, but a swelling of the whole of the substance between the jaws, growing harder towards the centre, and, after a while, appearing to contain a fluid, and breaking. In strangles, the membrane of the nose will be intensely red, and the discharge from the nose profuse and purulent, or mixed with matter almost from the first. When the tumour has burst, the fever will abate, and the horse will speedily get well. Should the discharge from the nose continue, as it sometimes does, for a consider- able time after the horse has recovered from strangles, there is no cause for feat Simple strangles need never degenerate into glanders. Good keep, and small doses of topic medicine, will gradually perfect the cure. GVnders have been confounded with catarrh or cold; but the distinction between ther* is plain enough. Fever, and loss of appetite and sore throat, accompany cold— the 'juidding of the food and gulping of the water are sufficient indications of the ia*Vii of these ; the discharge from the nose is profuse, and perhaps purulent ; the gHfitte under the jaw, if swelled, are moveable, there is a thickening around them, a*>d they are tender and hot. With proper treatment the fever abates ; the cough disappears ; the swellings under the throat subside ; and the discharge from the nosa gradually ceases, or, if* it remains, it is usually very different from that which characterises glanders. In glanders, there is seldom cough of any consequence, and generally no cough at all. A running from the nose, small in quantity, and, from the smallness of its quantity, drying about the edges of the nostril, and presenting some appearance of stickiness, will, in a few cases, remain after severe catarrh, and especially after the influenza of spring ; and these have gradually assumed the character of glanders, and more par- ticularly when they have been accompanied by enlarged glands and ulceration in the nose. Here the aid of a judicious veterinary surgeon is indispensable; and he wil\ sometimes experience considerable difficulty in deciding the case. One circumstance will principally guide him. No disease will run on to glanders which has not, to a considerable and palpable degree, impaired and broken down the constitution ; and every disease that does this will run on to glanders. He will look then to the general state and condition of the horse, as well as to the situation of the glands, the nature of the discharge, and the character of the ulceration. If, after all, he is in doubt, an experiment may be resoited to, which wears indeed tli* appearance of cruelty, and which only the safety of a valuable animal, or of * 3JJ ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. whok team, can justify. He will inoculate an ass, or a horse already condemned to the hounds, with the matter discharged from the nose. If the horse is glaridered. the symptoms of glanders or farcy will appear in the inoculated animal in the course of a few days. The post mortem examination of the horse will remove every doubt as to ihc character of the disease. The nostril is generally more or less blanched, with spots or lines of inflammation of considerable intensity. Ulceration is almost invariably found, and of a chancrous character, on the septum, and also on the ethmoid and turbinated bones. The ulcers evidently follow the course of the absorbents, some- times almost confined to the track of the main vessel, or, if scattered over the membrane generally, thickest over the path of the lymphatic. The ethmoid and turbinated bones are often filled with pus, and sometimes eaten through and carious ; but, in the majority of cases, the ulceration is confined to the external membrano, although there may be pus within. In aggravated cases the disease extends through all the cells of the face and head. The path of the disease down the larynx and windpipe is easily traced, and the ulcers follow one line — that of the absorbents. In aggravated cases, this can generally be traced on to the lungs. It produces inflammation in these organs, characterised in some cases by congestion ; but in other cases, the congestion having gone on to hepatisation, in which the cellular texture of the lungs is obliterated. Most frequently, when the lungs are affected at all, tubercles are found — miliary tubercles — minute granulated spots on the surface, or in the substance of the lungs, and not accompanied by much inflammation. In a few cases there are larger tubercles, which soften and burst, and terminate in cavities of varying size. In some cases, and showing that glanders is not essentially or necessarily a disease of the lungs, there is no morbid affection whatever in those organs. The history thus given of the symptoms of glanders will clearly point out its nature. It is an affection of the membrane of the nose. Some say, and at their head is Professor Dupuy, that it is the production of tubercles, or minute tumours in the upper cells of the nose, which may long exist undetected, except by a scarcely per- ceptible running from the nostril, caused by the irritation which they occasion. These tubercles gradually become more numerous; they cluster together, suppurate and break, and small ulcerations are formed. The ulcers discharge a poisonous matter, which is absorbed and taken up by the neighbouring glands, and this, with greater or less rapidity, vitiates the constitution of the animal, and is capable of communicating the disease to others. Some content themselves with saying th«.. it is an inflamma- tion of the membrane of the nose, which may assume an acute or chronic form, or in a very short time, or exceedingly slowly, run on to ulceration. It is inflammation, whether specific or common, of the lining membrane of the nose — possibly for months, and even for years, confined to that membrane, and even to a portion of it — the health and the usefulness of the animal not being in the slightest degree impaired. Then, from some unknown cause, not a new but an intenser action is set up, the inflammation more speedily runs its course, and the membrane becomes ulcerated. The inflammation spreads on either side down the septum, and the ulcera- tion at length assumes that peculiar chancrous form which characterises inflammation of the absorbents. Even then, when the discharge becomes gluey, and sometimes after chancres have appeared, the horse is apparently well. There are hundreds of glandered horses about the country with not a sick one among them. For months 01 years this disease may do no injury to the general health. The inflammation is purely local, and is only recognised by the invariable accompaniment of inflammation and increased secretion. Its neighbours fall around, but the disease affects not the animal whence it came. At length a constitutional inflammation appears ; farcy is established in its most horrible form, and death speedily closes the scene. What, then, is the cause of this insidious dreadful disease 1 Although we may be in a manner powerless as to the removal of the malady, yet if we can trace its causa and manner of action, we may at least be able to do something in the way of preven- tion. M'lch has been accomplished in this way. Glanders does not ccmmit one- tenth pa r tf the ravages which it did thirty or forty years ago and, generally speak GLANDERS. 433 dig, It s now oiiiy found as a frequent and prevalent disease where neglect, and filth, and want of ventilation exist. Glanders may be either bred in the horse, or communicated by contagion. What we have farther to remark on this malady will be arranged under these two heads. Improper stable management we believe to be a far more frequent cause of glan- ders than contagion. The air which is necessary to respiration is changed and em- poisoned in its passage through the lungs, and a fresh supply is necessary for the support of life. That supply may be sufficient barely to support life, but not to pre- vent the vitiated air from again and again passing to the lungs, and producing irrita tion and disease. The membrane of the nose, possessed of extreme sensibility for the purposes of smell, is easily irritated by this poison, and close and ill-ventilated stablet oftenest witness the ravages of glanders. Professor Coleman relates a case which proves to demonstration the rapid and fatal agency of this cause. " In the expedition to Quiberon, the horses had not been long on board the transports before it became necessary to shut down the hatchways for a few hours ; the consequence of this was, that some of them were suffocated, and that all the rest were disembarked either glandered or farcied." In a close stable, the air is not only poisoned by being repeatedly breathed, but there are other and more powerful sources of mischief. The dung and the urine are snffered to remain fermenting, and giving out injurious gases. In many dark and ill-managed stables, a portion of the dung may be swept away, but the urine lies for days°at the bottom of the bed, the disgusting and putrefying nature of which is ill-concealed by a little fresh straw which the lazy horsekeeper scatters over the top. The stables of the gentleman are generally kept hot enough, and far too hot, although, in many of them, a more rational mode of treatment is beginning to be adopted ; but they are lofty and roomy, and the horses are not too much crowded together, and a most scrupulous regard is paid to cleanliness. Glanders seldom pre- vail there. The stables of the farmer are ill-managed and filthy enough, and the ordure and urine sometimes remain from week to week, until the horse lies on a per- fect dunghill. Glanders seldom prevail there ; for the same carelessness which per- mits the filth to accumulate leaves many a cranny for the wind to enter and sweep away the deleterious fumes from this badly-roofed and unceiled place. The stables of the horse-dealer are hot enough ; but a principle of strict cleanliness is enforced, for there must be nothing to offend the eye or the nose of the customer, and there glanders are seldom found ; but if the stables of many of our post-horses, and of those employed on our canals, are examined, almost too low for a tall horse to stand upright in them — too dark for the accumulation of filth to be perceived — too far from the eye of the master — ill-drained and ill-paved — and governed by a false principle of economy, which begrudges the labour of the man, and the cleanliness and comfort of the animal ; these will be the very hotbeds of the disease, and in many of these establishments it is an almost constant resident. Glanders may be produced by anything that injures, or for a length of time acts upon and weakens, the vital energy of this membrane. They have been known to follow a fracture of the bones of the nose. They have been the consequence of violent catarrh, and particularly the long-continued discharge from the nostrils, of which we have spoken. They have been produced by the injection of stimulating and acrid substances up the nostril. Everything that weakens the constitution gen- erally will lead to glanders. It is not only from bad stable management, but from the hardships which they endure, and the exhausted state of their constitution, that post and machine horses are so subject to glanders ; and there is scarcely an inflammatory disease to which the horse is subject that is not occasionally wound up and terminated by the appearance of glanders. Among the causes of glanders is want of regular exercise. The connexion, although not evident at first glance, is too certain. When a horse has been worked with peculiar severity, and is become out of spirits, and falls away in flesh, and refuses to eat, a little rest and a few mashes would make all right again ; but th« groom plies him with cordials, and adds fuel to fire, and aggravates the state of fever tbat has commenced. What is the necessary consequence of this 1 The weakest thn -vail, and either the lungs or the feet, or this membrane — that of the now 134 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. --the weakest of all, exposed day after day to the stimulating, debilitating infla that have been described, becomes the principal seat of inflammation that ten linates in glanders. It is in this way that glanders have so frequently been known to follow a hard day's chase. The seeds of the disease may have previously existed, but its progress will be hastened by the general and febrile action excited — the absurd measures arhich are adopted not being calculated to subdue the fever, but to increase the stim- dus. Every exciting cause of disease exerts its chief and its worst influence on this mem- brane. At the close of a severe campaign the horses are more than decimated by this pest. At the termination of the Peninsular war the ravages of this disease were dreadful. Every disease will predispose the membrane of the nose to take on the inflammation of glanders, and with many, as strangles, catarrh, bronchitis, and pneu- monia, there is a continuity of membrane, an association of function, and a thousand sympathies. There is not a disease which may not lay the foundation for glanders. Weeks, and months, and years, may intervene between the predisposing cause and the actual evil ; but at length the whole frame may become excited or debilitated in many a way, and then this debilitated portion of it is the first to yield to the attack. Atmospheric influence has somewhat to do with the prevalence of glanders. It is not so frequent in summer as in the winter, partly attributable, perhaps, to the different state of the stable in the summer months, neither the air so close or so foul, nor the alternations of temperature so great. There are some remarkable cases of the connexion of moistui e, or moist exhala- tions, that deserve record. When new stabling was built for the troops at Hythe, and inhabited before the walls were perfectly dry, many of the horses that had been removed from an open, dry, and healthy situation, became affected with glanders ; but, some time having passed over, the horses in these stables were as healthy as the others, and glanders ceased to appear. An innkeeper at Wakefield built some exten- sive stabling for his horses, and, inhabiting them too soon, lost a great proportion of his cattle from glanders. There are not now more healthy stables in the place. The immense range of stables under the Adelphi, in the Strand, where light never enters, and the supply of fresh air is not too abundant, were for a long time notoriously un- healthy, and many valuable horses were destroyed by glanders ; but now they are filled with the finest wagon and dray-horses that the metropolis or the country con- tains, and they are fully as healthy as in the majority of stables above-ground. There is one more cause to be slightly mentioned — hereditary predisposition. This has not been sufficiently estimated, with regard to the question now under considera- tion, as well as with respect to everything connected with the breeding of the horse. There is scarcely a disease that does not run in the stock. There is that in the struc- ture of various parts, or their disposition to be affected by certain influences, which perpetuates in the offspring the diseases of the sire ; and thus contraction, ophthalmia, roaring, are decidedly hereditary, and so is glanders. M. Dupuy relates some deci- sive caees. A mare, on dissection, exhibited every appearance of glanders ; her filly, who resembled her in form and in her vicious propensities, died glandered at six years old. A second and a third mare, and their foals, presented the same fatal proof that glanders are hereditary. Glanders are highly contagious. The farmer cannot be too deeply impressed with the certainty of this. Considering the degree to which this disease, even at the pre sent day, often prevails, the legislature would be justified in interfering, by some •evere enactments, as it has done in the case of the small-pox in the human subject. The early and marked symptom of glanders, is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar character; and if that, even before it becomes purulent, is rubbed on a wound, or on a mucous surface, as the nostrils, it will produce a similar disease. If the division between two horses were sufficiently high to prevent all smelling and snorting at each other, and contact of every kind, and they drank not out of the same pail, a sound horse might live for years, uninfected, by the side of a glandered one. The matter of glanders has been mixed up into a ball, and given to a healthy horse, effect. Some horses have eaten the hay left by those that -were glaiidered, GLANDERS. 135 *nd uo bad consequence has followed ; but others have been speedily infected. The glanderous matter must come in contact with a wound, or fall on some menu rane, thin and delicate, like that of the nose, and through which it may be absorbet . It is easy, then, accustomed as horses are to be crowded together, and to recognise each other by the smell — eating out of the same manger, and drinking from the same pail— • to imagine that the disease may be very readily communicated. One horse has passed another when he was in the act of snorting, and has become glandered. Some fillies have received the infection from the matter blown by the wind across a lane, when a glandered horse, in the opposite field, has claimed acquaintance by neighing or snort- ing. It is almost impossible for an infected horse to remain long in a stable with others without irreparable mischief. If some persons underrate the danger, it is because the disease may remain unre- cognised in the infected horse for some months, or even years, and therefore, when it appears, it is attributed to other causes, or to after inoculation. No glandered horse should be employed on any farm, nor should a glandered horse be permitted to work on any road, or even to pasture on any field. Mischief may be so easily and exten- sively effected, that the public interest demands that every infected animal should be summarily destroyed, or given over for experiment to a veterinary surgeon, or recog- nised veterinary establishment. There are a few instances of the spontaneous cure of chronic glanders. The dis- charge has existed for a considerable time. At length it has gradually diminished, and has ceased ; and this has occurred under every kind of treatment, and without any medical treatment : but in the majority of these supposed cases, the matter was only pent up for a while, and then, bursting from its confinement, it flowed again in double quantity : or, if glanders have not re-appeared, the horse, in eighteen or twenty- four months, has become farcied, or consumptive, and died. These supposed cures are few and far between, and are to be regarded with much suspicion. As for medicine, there is scarcely a drug to which a fair trial has not been given, and many of them have had a temporary reputation ; but they have passed away, one after the other, and are no longer heard of. The blue vitriol and the Spanish-fly have held out longest; and in a few cases, either nature or these medicines have done wonders, but in the majority of instances they have palpably failed. The diniodide of copper has lately acquired some reputation. It has been of great service in cases of farcy, but it is not to be depended upon in glanders. Where the life of a valuable horse is at stake, and the owner adopts every precau- tion to prevent infection, he may subject the horse to medical treatment; but every humane man will indignantly object to the slitting of the nostril, and the scraping of the cartilage, and searing of the gland, and firing of the frontal and nasal bones, and to those injections of mustard and capsicum, corrosive sublimate and vitriol, by which the horse has been tortured, and the practitioner disgraced. At the veterinary school, and by veterinary surgeons, it will be most desirable that every experiment should be tried to discover a remedy for this pest ; but, in ordinary instances, he is not faithful to his own interest, or that of his neighbours, who does not remove the possibility of danger in tKe most summary way. If, however, remedial measures are resorted to, a pure atmosphere is that which should first be tried. Glanders is the peculiar disease of the stabled horse, and the preparation for, or the foundation of a cure, must consist in the perfect TemovaJ of every exciting cause of the malady. The horse must breathe a cool and pure atmo- sphere, and he must be turned out, or placed in a situation equivalent to it. A salt marsh is, above all others, the situation for this experiment: but there is much caution required. No sound horse must be in the same pasture, or a neisTiOCtttr- ing one. The palings or the gates may receive a portion of tne matter, wmcn may harden upon them, and, many a month afterwards, be a source of mischief — nay, the virus may cling about the very herbage, and empoison it. Cattle and sheep should not brf trusted with a glandered horse ; for the experiments are not sufficiently numer- ous or decided as to the exemption of these animals from the contagion of glanders. Supposing that glanders have made their appearance in the stables of a fanner, is Ihere any danger after he has removed or destroyed the infected horse ? Certainly there is ; bu* not to the extent that is commonly supposed. There is no necessity «r 136 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. pulling down the racks and mangers, or even the stable itself, as some have don* The poison resides not in the breath of the animal, but in the nasal discharge, and that can only reach certain parts of the stable. If the mangers, and racks, and bales, and partitions, are first well scraped, and scouied with soap and water, and then thoroughly washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, (one pint of the chloride to a pailfull of water,) and the walls are lime-washed, and the head-gear burned, and the clothing baked or washed, and the pails newly painted, and the iron-work exposed to a red heat, all danger will cease. Little that is satisfactory can be said of the prevention of glanders. The first and most effectual mode of prevention will be to keep the stables cool and well ventilated, for the hot and poisoned air of low and confined stables is one of the most prevalent causes of glanders. Next to ventilation stands cleanliness ; for the foul air from the fermenting litter, and urine, and dung, must not only be highly injurious to health generally, but irritate and predispose to inflammation that delicate membrane which is the primary seat of the disease. If to this be added regular exercise, and occasional green meat during the summer, and carrots in the winter, we shall have stated all that can be done in the way of prevention. Glanders in the human being. — It cannot be too often repeated, that a pandered horse can rarely remain among sound ones without serious mischief ensuing ; and, worse than all, the man who attends on that horse is in danger. The cases are now becoming far too numerous in which the groom or the veterinary surgeon attending on glandered horses becomes infected, and in the majority of cases dies. It is, how- ever, somewhat more manageable in the human being than in the quadruped. Some cases of recovery from farcy and glanders stand on record with regard to the human being, but they are few and far between. FARCY. Farcy is intimately connected with glanders; they will run into each other, or their symptoms will mingle together, and before either arrives at its fatal termination its associate will almost invariably appear. An animal inocculated with the matter of farcy will often be afflicted with glanders, while the matter of glanders will fre- quently produce farcy. They are different types or stages of the same disease. There is, however, a very material difference in their symptoms and progress, and this most important one of all, that while glanders are generally incurable, farcy, in its early stage and mild form, may be successfully treated. While the capillary vessels of the arteries are everywhere employed in building up the frame, the absorbents are no less diligently at work in selecting and carrying away every useless or worn-out portion or part of it. There is no surface — there is no assignable spot on which thousands of these little mouths do not open. In the discharge of their duty, they not only remove that which is become useless, and often that which is healthy, but that which is poisonous and destructive. They open upon the surface of every glanderous chancre. They absorb a portion of the virus which is secreted by the ulcer, and as it passes along these little tubes, they suffer from its acrimonious quality ; hence the corded veins, as they are called by the farrier, or, more properly, the thickened and inflamed absorbents following the course of the veins. At certain distances in the course of the absorbents are loose duplicatures of the lining membrane, which are pressed against the side of the vessel and permit the fluid to pass in a direction towards the chest, but belly out and impede or arrest it,« progress from the chest. The virus at these places, and the additional inflammation there excited, is to a greater or less degree evident to the eye and to the feeling. They are usually first observed about the lips, the nose, the neck, and the thighs. They are very hard — even of a scirrhous hardness, more or less tender, and with perceptible heat about them. The poisonoi 5 matter being thus confined and pressing on the part, suppuration and ulceration ensue. The ulcers have the same character as the glanderous ones on the membrane of the nose. They are rounded, with an elevated edge and a pale 4urfae«. Tuey arr od, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth, worn down, and the mark becoming small and faint. At this period, likewise, the second pair of grinders will be shed. Previously to this may be the attempt of the dealer to give to his three-years-old an additional year, but the fraud will be detected by an examination similar to that which has been already described. At four years, the central nippers will be fully developed; the sharp edge somewhat worn off and the mark shorter, wider, and fainter. The next pair will be up, but they will be small, with the mark deep, and extending quite across them. The corner nippers will be larger than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, and flat, and the mark nearly effaced. The sixth grinder will risen to a level with the others, and the tushes will begin to appear. Now, more than at any other time, will the dealer be anxious to put an additional year upon the animal, for the difference between a four-years-old colt, and a five-years- old horse, in strength, utility, and value, is very great ; but, the want of wear in the other nippers — the small size of the corner ones — the little growth of the tush — the smallness of the second grinder — the low fore-hand — the legginess of tHe colt, and the thickness and little depth of the mouth, will, to the man of common experience among horses, at once detect the cheat. The tushes (see p. 142^ are four in number, two in each jaw, situated between the nippers and the grinders— much nearer to the former than the latter, and nearer in th* 148 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. tower jaw than in the upper, but this distance increasing in both jaws with the ag« of the animal. In shape it somewhat resembles a cone ; it protrudes about an inch from the gum, and has its extremity sharp-pointed and curved. At the age now undei eonsideration, the tushes are almost peculiar to the horse, and castration does nof appear to prevei.t or retard their development. All mares, however, have the germs of them in the chambers of the jaw, and they appear externally in the majority of ola mares. Their use is not evident. Perhaps in the wild state of the animal they are weapons of offence, and he is enabled by them more firmly to seize, and moro deeply wound his enemy. The breeder often attempts to hasten the appearance of the tush, and he cuts deeply through the gum to remove the opposition which that would afford. To a little exten he succeeds. He may possibly gain a few weeks, but not more. After all, there is much uncertainty as to the appearance of the tush, and it may vary from the fourth year to four years and six months. It belongs, in the upper jaw, both to the inferior and superior maxillary bones (see n. p. 70) ; for, while its fang is deeply imbedded n the inferior maxillary, the tooth penetrates the process of the superior maxillary at lie union of those bones. At four years and a half, or between that and five, the last important change takes place in the mouth of the horse. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent ones begin to appear. The central nippers are considerably worn, and the next pair are commencing to show marks of usage. The tush has now protruded, and is gene- rally a full half-inch in height ; externally it has a rounded prominence, with a groove on either side, and it is evidently hollowed within. The reader needs not to be told that after the rising of the corner nipper the animal changes its name — the colt becomes 8. horse, and flu filly a mare. At five years the horse's mouth is almost perfect. The corner nippers are quite up, with the long deep mark irregular on the inside ; and the other nippers bearing evident tokens of increasing wearing. The tush is much grown — the grooves have almost or quite disappeared, and the outer surface is regularly convex. It is still as concave within, and with the edge nearly as sharp as it was six months before. The sixth molar is quite up, and the third molar is wanting. This last circumstance, if the general appearance of the animal, and particularly his forehead and the wearing of the centre nippers, and the growth and shape of the tushes, are likewise carefully \ •<^2%Z/t' (\ $n Bended to, will prevent deception, if a late four \ ^^^^ ^ ;(/( years-old is attempted to be substituted for a five. The nippers may be brought up a few month* before their time, and the tushes a few weeks, but the grinder is with difficulty dis- placed. The three last grinders and the tushes are never shed. At six years the mark on the central nip- pers ia worn out. There will still be a differ- ence of colour in the centre of the tooth. The cement filling the hole, made by the dipping in of the enamel, will present a browner hue than the other part of the tooth, and it will be evidently surrounded by an edge of enamel, and there will even remain a little depression in the centre, and also a depression round the case of enamel : but the deep hole in the cen- tre of the teeth, with the blackened surfac* which it presents, and the elevated edge of enamel, will have disappeared. Persons not much accustomed to horses have been puzzled here. They expected to find a p*ain surface of a uniform colour, and knew n< ( what con- elusion to draw when there was both discolouration and irregularity. THE PROCESS OF TEETHING. 49 In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter ; and in the corner teetr the edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently worn. The tush has attained its full growth, being nearly or quite an inch in length ; convex out. ;vard, concave within; tending to a point, and the extremity somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up ; and all the grinders are level. The horse may now be said to have a perfect mouth. All the teeth are produced, "ully grown, and have hitherto sustained no material injury. During these important ehanges of the teeth, the animal has suffered less than could be supposed possible. «i children, the period of teething is fraught with danger. Dogs are subject to con- vulsions, and hundreds of them die, from the irritation caused by the cutting or shed- ding of their teeth ; but the horse appears to feel little inconvenience. The gums and palate are occasionally somewhat hot and swollen; but the slightest scarification will remove this. The teeth of the horse are more necessary to him than those of the other animals are to them. The child may be fed, and the dog will bolt his food ; but that of the horse must be well ground down, or the nutriment cannot be extracted from it. At seven years, the mark, in the way in which we have described it, is worn out in the four central nippers, and fast wearing away in the corner teeth; the tush also is beginning to be altered. It is rounded at the p^ )int ; rounded at the edges ; still round without ; and beginning to get round inside. At eight years old, the tush is rounder in every way ; the mark is gone from all the bottom nippers, and it may almost be said to be out of the mouth. There is nothing remaining in the bottom nippers that can afterwards clearly show the age of the horse, or justify the most experienced examiner in giving a positive opinion. Dishonest dealers have been said to resort to a method of prolonging the mark in ilie lower nippers. It is called bishoping, from the name of the scoundrel who invented it. The horse of eight or nine years old is thrown, and with an engraver's tool a hole is dug in the now almost plain surface of the corner teeth, and in shape and depth resem- bling the mark in a seven-years-old horse. The hole is then burned with a heated iron, and a permanent black stain is left. The next pair of nippers are sometimes lightly touched. An ignorant man would be very easily imposed on by this trick: but the irregular appearance of the cavity — the diffu- sion of the black stain around the tushes, the sharpened edges and concave inner surface of which can never be given again — the marks on the upper nippers, together with the general conformation of the horse, can never deceive the careful examiner. Horsemen, after the animal is eight years old, are accustomed to look to the nippers in the upper jaw, and some conclusion has been drawn from the appearances which they present. It cannot be doubted that the mark remains in them for some years after it has been obliterated from the nippers in the lower jaw ; because the hard sub- stance, or kind of cement, by which the pit, or funnel, in the centre of the tooth is occupied, does not reach so high, and there is a greater depth of tooth to be worn away, in order to come at it. To this, it may be added that the upper nippers are not BO much exposed to friction and wear as the under. The lower jaw alone is moved, anJ pressed forcibly upon the food : the upper jaw is without motion, and has nnly to r«sist that pressure. There are various opinior- as to the intervals between the disappearance of th« 13* 15^ ANATOMY AND DISEASES OP THE NOSE AND MOUIn. marks from the different cutting-teeth in the upper ;'aw. Some have averaged it ai two years, and others at one. The author is inclined to adopt the latter opinion, and then the age will be thus determined : at nine years, the mark will be worn out from the middle nippers — from the next pair at ten, and from all the upper nippers at eleven. During these periods, the tush is likewise undergoing a manifest change — it is blunter, shorter, and rounder. In what degree this takes place in the different periods, long and most favourable opportunities for observation can alone enable th€ horseman to decide. The tushes are exposed to but little wear and tear. The friction against them must be slight, proceeding only from the passage of the food over them, and from the motion of the tongue, or from the bit ; and their alteration of form, although generally as we have described it, is frequently uncertain. The tush will sometimes be blunt at eight ; at other times it will remain pointed at eighteen. The upper tush, although the latest in appearing, is soonest worn away. Are there any circumstances to guide our judgment after this ? There are those which will prepare us to guess at the age of the horse, or to approach within a few years of it, until he becomes very old ; but there are none which will enable us accu rately to determine the question, and the indications of age must now be taken from the shape of the upper surface of the nippers. At eight, they are all oval, the length of the oval running across from tooth to tooth ; but as the horse gets older, the teeth diminish in size — and this commencing in their width, and not in their thickness. They become a little apart from each other, and their surfaces are rounded. At nine, the centre nippers are evidently so ; at ten, the others begin to have the oval shortened. At eleven, the second pair of nippers are quite rounded; and at thirteen, the cornel ones have that appearance. At fourteen, the faces of the central nippers become somewhat triangular. At seventeen, they are all so. At nineteen, the angles begin to wear off, and the central teeth are again oval, but in a reversed direction, viz. from outward, inward ; and at twenty-one, they all wear this form. This is the opinion of some Continental veterinary surgeons, and Mr. Percivall first presented them to us in an English dress. It would be folly to expect perfect accuracy at this advanced age of the horse, when we are bound to confess that the rules which we have laid down for determining this matter at an earlier period, although they are recognised by horsemen generally, and referred to in courts of justice, will not guide us in every case. Stabled horses have the mark sooner worn out than those that are at grass ; and a crib-biter may deceive the best judge by one or two years. The age of the horse, likewise, being fonnerly calculated from the 1st of May, it was exceedingly difficult, or almost impossible, to determine whether the animal was a late foal of one year, or an early one of the next. At nine or ten, the bars of the mouth become less prominent, and their regular dimi- nution will designate increasing age. At eleven or twelve, the lower nippers change their original upright direction, and project forward or horizontally, and become of a yellow colour. They are yellow, because the teeth must grow, in order to answer to their wear and tear ; but the enamel which covered their surface when they were first produced cannot be repaired ; and that which wears this yellow colour in old age, is the part which in youth was in the socket, and therefore destitute of enamel , The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are deepening of the hollows over the eyes; grey hairs, and particularly over the eyes and about the muzzle ; thinness and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the withers ; sinking of the back ; lengthening of the quarters ; and the disappearance of windgalls, spa- vins, and tumours of every kind. Of the natural age of the horse, we should form a very erroneous estimate from the early period at which he is now worn out and destroyed. Mr. Elaine speaks of a gentleman who had three horses that died at the ages of thirty-five, thirty-seven, and thirty-nine. Mr. Cully mentions one that received a ball in his neck, at >he battle of Preston, in 1715, and which was extracted at his death, in 1758 ; and Mr. Perctval) gives an account of a barge-horse that died in his sixty-second year. There cannot be a severer satire on the English nation than this, that, from th« absurd practice of running our race-horses at two and three years old, and working jthers, in vanous ways, long before *heir limbs are knit or their strength DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 15* und crielly exacting from them, services far beyond their powers, iizir age doet» no* Average a sixth part of that of the last-mentioned hcrse. The scientific author of the 14 Animal Kingdom" declares, that " it may be safely asserted, that m( re horses are consumed in England, in every ten years, than in any other country in the world in ten times that period, except those which perish in war." This affair has, with the English, been too long considered as one of mere j1 vi., p. 22. THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 153 IMO second grimier, a needle was found lying longitudinally, and which had punetrated from the side to the inferior portion of the tongue. It was an inch and a quarter in length, and the neighbouring substance was in a state of gangrene. Vesicles will sometimes appear along the under side of the tongue, which will increase to a considerable size. The tongue itself will be much enlarged, the animal will be unable to swallow, and a great quantity of ropy saliva will drivel from the mouth. This disease often exists without the nature of it being suspected. If the mouth is opened, one large bladder, or a succession of bladders, of a purple hue, will be seen extending along the whole of the under side of the tongue. If they are lanced freely and deeply, from end to end, the swelling will very rapidly abate, and any little fever that remains may be subdued by cooling medicine. The cause of this disease is not clearly known. THE SALIVARY GLANDS. In order that the food may be pro] fe ly comminuted preparatory to digestion, it is necessary that it should be previously moistened. The food of the stabled horse, however, is dry, and his meal is generally concluded without any fluid being offered to him. Nature has made a provision for this. She has placed in the neighbournood of the mouth various glands to secrete, and that plentifully, a limpid fluid, somewhat saline to the taste. This fluid is conveyed from the glands into the mouth, by various ducts, in the act of chewing, and, being mixed with the food, renders it more easily ground, more easily passed afterwards into the stomach, and better fitted for diges- tion. The principal of these is the parotid gland (see cut p. 125). It is placed in the hollow which extends from the root of the ear to the angle of the lower jaw. A por- tion of it, y, is represented as turned up, to show the situation of the blood-vessels underneath. In almost every case of cold connected with sore throat, an enlargement of the parotid gland is evident to the feeling, and even to the eye. It is composed of numerous small glands connected together, and a minute tube proceeding from each, to carry away the secreted fluid. These tubes unite in one common duct. At the letter u, the parotid duct is seen to pass under the angle of the lower jaw, togethei with the submaxillary artery, and a branch of the jugular vein, and they come out again at w. At r, the duct is seen separated from the other vessels, climbing up the cheek, and piercing it to discharge its contents into the mouth, opposite to the second grinder. The quantity of fluid thus poured into the mouth from each of the parotid glands amounts to a pint and a half in an hour, during the action of mastication ; and, sometimes, when the duct has been accidentally opened, it has spirted out to the dis- tance of several feet. The parotid gland sympathises with every inflammatory affection of the upper part of the throat, and therefore it is found swollen, hot, and tender, in almost every catarrh or cold. The catarrh is to be treated in the usual way ; while a stimulating applica- tion, almost amounting to a blister, well rubbed, over the gland, will best subdue the inflammation of that body. In bad strangles, and, sometimes, in violent cold, this gland will be much enlarged and ulcerated, or an obstruction will take place in some part of the duct, and the accumulating fluid will burst the vessel, and a fistulous ulcer will be formed that will be very difficult to heal. A veterinary surgeon alone will be competent to the treat- ment of either case; and the principle by which he will be guided, will be to heal the abscess in the gland as speedily as he can, "and, probably, by the application of the heated iron : or, if the ulcer is in the duct, either to restore the passage through the duct, or to form a new one, or to cut off the flow of the saliva by the destruction of the gland. A second source of the saliva is from the submaxillary glands, or the glands under tfie jaw. One of tnem is represented at s, p. 125. The submaxillary glands occupy the space underneath and between the sides of the lower jaw, and consist of numer- ous 3ina\l bodies, each with its proper duct, uniting together, and forming on each gid<5 a common duct or vessel that pierces through the muscles at the root of the ongue, and opens in little projections, or heads, upon the frasnum, or bridle of the , nbout an inch and a half from the front teeth. When the horse hf s catarrt 154 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTF :>r ccld, these glands, like the parotid gland, enlarge. This is often to be observed after strangles, and several distinct kernels are to bt felt under the jaw. It haa already been stated that they may be distinguished from the swellings that accom- pany or indicate glanders, by their being larger, generally not so distinct, more in th« centre of the channel, or space between the jaws, and never adhering to the jaw- bones. The farriers call them VIVES, and often adopt cruel and absurd methods to disperse them, — as burning them with a lighted candle, or hot iron, or even cr.tting them out. They will, in the majority of instances, gradually disperse in proportion as the disease which produced them subsides ; or they will yield to slightly stimu- lating embrocations ; or, if they are obstinate in their continuance, they are of no fur- ther consequence, than as indicating that the horse has laboured under severe cold or strangles. During catarrh or inflammation of the mouth, the little projections marking the opening of these ducts on either side of the bridle of the tongue are apt to enlarge, and the mouth under the tongue is a little red, and hot and tender. The farriers call these swellings BARBS or PAPS ; and as soon as they discover them, mistaking the effect of disease for the cause of it, they set to work to cut them close off. The bleeding that follows this operation somewhat abates the local inflammation, and affords temporary relief; but the wounds will not speedily heal. The saliva continues to flow from the orifice of the duct, and, running into the irregularities of the wound, causes it to spead and deepen. Even when it heals, the mouth of the duct being fre- quently closed, and the saliva continuing to be secreted by the submaxillary gland, it accumulates in the duct until that vessel bursts, and abscesses are formed which eat deeply under the root of the tongue, and long torment the poor animal. When, after a great deal of trouble, they are closed, they are apt to break out again fo? months and years afterwards. All that is necessary with regard to these paps or barbs is to abate the inflamma- tion or cold that caused them to appear, and they will very soon and perfectly sub- side. He who talks of cutting them out is not fit to be trusted with a horse. A third source of saliva is from glands under the tongue — the sublingual glands^ which open by many little orifices under the tongue, resembling little folds of the skin of the mouth, hanging from the lower surface of this organ, or found on the bot- tom of the mouth. These likewise sometimes enlarge during catarrh or inflamma- tion of the mouth, and are called gigs, and bladders, and flaps in the mouth. They have the appearance of small pimples, and the farrier is too apt to cut them away, 01 burn them off. The better way is to let them alone — for in a few days they will gen- erally disappear. Should any ulceration remain, a little tincture of myrrh, or a solu- tion of alum, will readily heal them. Beside these three principal sources of saliva, there are small glands to be found on every part of the mouth, cheeks, and lips, which pour out a considerable quantity of fluid, to assist in moistening and preparing the food. STRANGLES. This is a disease principally incident to young horses — usually appearing betweec the fourth and fifth year, and oftener in the spring than in any other part of the year. It is preceded by cough, and can at first be scarcely distingushed from common cough, except that there is more discharge from the nostril, of a yellowish colour, mixed with pus, and generally without smell. There is likewise a considerable discharge of ropv fluid from the mouth, and greater swelling than usual under the throat. This swelling increases with uncertain rapidity, accompanied by some fever, and disincli- nation to eat, partly arising from the fever, but more from the pain which the animal feels in the act of mastication. There is considerable thirst, but after a gulp or two the horse ceases to drink, yet is evidently desirous of continuing his draught. In the attempt to swallow, and sometimes when not drinking, a convulsive cough comes on, which almost threatens to suffocate the animal — and thence, probably, the name of the disease.* * Old Gervase Markham gives the following description of this disease, and of the origin Us pame *; It is," says he, " a great and hard swelling between a harse's nether chaps •f Us STRANGLES. 15£ The tumour is under the jaw, and about the centre of the channel. Ii -oon fills the whole of the space, and is evidently one uniform body, and may thus be distinguished from glanders, or the enlarged glands of catarrh. In a few days it becomes more prominent and soft, and evidently contains a fluid. This lapidly increases ; the tumour bursts, and a great quantity of pus is discharged. As soon as the tumour has broken, the cough subsides, and the horse speedily mends, although some degree oi weakness may hang about him for a considerable time. Few horses, possibly none, escape its attack ; but, the disease having passed over, the animal is free from it foi the remainder of his life. Catarrh may precede, or may predispose to, the attack, and, undoubtedly, the state of the atmosphere has much to do with it, for both its prevalence and its severity are connected with certain seasons of the year and changes of the weather. There is no preventive for the disease, nor is there anything con- tagious about it. Many strange stories are told with regard to this ; but the explana- tion of the matter is, that when several horses in the same farm, or in the same neighbourhood, have had strangles at the same time, they have been exposed to the same powerful but unknown exciting cause. Messrs. Percivall and Castley have come the nearest to a satisfactory view of the nature of strangles. Mr. Castley* says, that " the period of strangles is often a much more trying and critical time for young horses than most people seem to be aware of, that when colts get well over this complaint, they generally begin to thrive and improve in a remarkable manner, or there is sometimes as great a change for the worse : in fact, it seems to effect some decided constitutional change in the animal.'1 Mr. Percivall adds, " the explanation of the case appears to me to be, that the animal is suffering more or less from what I would call strangle-fever, — a fever the disposition and tendency of which is to produce local tumour and abscess, and, most commonly in that situation, underneath the jaws, in which it has obtained the name of strangles." Professor Dick, of Edinburgh, adds that which is conclusive on the subject, that " although the disease commonly terminates by an abscess under the jaw, yet it may, and occasionally does, give rise to collections of matter on other parts of the surface." To this conclusion then we are warranted in coming, that strangles is a specific affection to which horses are naturally subject at some period of their lives, and the natural cure of which seems to be a suppurative process. From some cause, of the nature of which we are ignorant, this suppurative process usually takes place in the space between the branches of the maxillary bone, and occurring there it appears in the mildest form, and little danger attends. When the disease is ushered in by con- siderable febrile disturbance, and the suppuration takes place elsewhere, the horse too frequently sinks under the attack. The treatment of strangles is very simple. As the essence of the disease consists in the formation and suppuration of the specific tumour, the principal, or almost the sole attention of the practitioner, should be directed to the hastening of these pro- cesses : therefore, as soon as the tumour of strangles is decidedly apparent, the part should be actively blistered. Old practitioners used to recommend poultices, which, from the thickness of the horse's skin, must have very little effect, even if they could be confined on the part ; and from the difficulty and almost impossibility of this, and their getting cold and hard, they necessarily weakened the energies of nature, and delayed the ripening of the tumour. Fomentations are little more effectual. A blister will not only secure the completion of the process, but hasten it by many days, and save the patient much pain and exhaustion. It will produce another good effect — it will, previously to the opening of the tumour, abate the internal inflammation and soreness of the throat, and thus lessen the cough and wheezing. As soon as the swelling is soft on its summit, and evidently contains matter, it should be freely and deeply lanced. It is a bad, although frequent practice, to suffei the tumour to burst naturally, for a ragged ulcer is formed, very slow to heal, and upon the rootes of his tongue, and about his throat, which swelling, if it be not prevented, wit •top the horse's windpipe^ and so strangle or choke him- from which effect, and none athwr the name of this disease tooke its derivation." * Vet., iii., 406, and vi.. 607. .56 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. difficult of treatment. If the incision is deep and large 3nough, no second collection »f matter will be foimed : and that which is already there may be suffered to run out slowly, all pressure with the fingers being avoided. The part should be kept clean, and a little friar's balsam daily injected into the wound. The remainder of the treatment will depend on the symptoms. If there is much fever, and evident affection of the chest, and which should carefully be distinguished from the oppression and choking occasioned by the pressure of the tumour, it will be proper to bleed. In the majority of cases, however, bleeding will not only be unne« cessary, but injurious. It will delay the suppuration of the tumour, and increase the subsequent debility. A few cooling medicines, as nitre, emetic tartar, and perhaps digitalis, may be given, as the case requires. The appetite, or rather the ability to cat, will return with the opening of the abscess. Bran-mashes, or fresh-cut grass 01 lares, should b« liberally supplied, which will not only afford sufficient nourishment to recruit the strength of the animal, but keep the bowels gently open. If the weak- ness is not great, no farther medicine will be wanted, except a dose of mild physic in order to prevent the swellings or eruptions which sometimes succeed to strangles. In cases of debility, a small quantity of tonic medicine, as chamomile, gentian, o) ginger, may be administered.* THE PHARYNX. Proceeding to the back of the mouth, we find the PHARYNX (carrying or conveying ihe food towards the stomach). It commences at the root of the tongue (see 7, 8 and 9, p. 72) ; is separated from the mouth by the soft palate (7), which hangs down from the palatine bone at 8, and extends to the epiglottis or covering to the windpipe When the food has been sufficiently ground by the teeth, and mixed with the saliva, it is gathered together by the tongue, and by the action of the cheeks and tongue, and back part of the mouth, forced against the soft palate, which, giving way, and being raised upwards towards the entrance into the nostrils, prevents the food from proceed- ing that way. It passes to the pharynx, and the soft palate again falling down, pre- vents its return to the mouth, and also prevents, except in extreme cases, the act of vomiting in the horse. Whatever is returned from the stomach of the horse, passes through the nose, as the cut will make evident. The sides of the pharynx are lined with muscles which now begin powerfully to contract, and by that contraction the bolus is forced on until it reaches the gullet (10), which is the termination of the pharynx. Before, however, the food proceeds so far, it has to pass over the entrance into the windpipe (3), and should any portion of it enter that tube, much inconvenience and danger might result ; therefore, this opening is not only lined by muscles which close it at the pleasure of the animal, but is like- wise covered by a heart-like elastic cartilage, the epiglottis (2), with its back towards the pharynx, and its hollow towards the aperture. The epiglottis yields to the pres- sure of the bolus passing- over it, and lying flat over the opening into the windpipe, and prevents the possibility of anything entering into it. No sooner, however, hai* * Mr. Percivall gives the following description of some untoward cases : — " The sub- maxillary tumour is often knotted and divided on its first appearance, as if the glands received the primary attack. As it spreads, it becomes diffused in the cellular tissue included in ihe Bpace between the sides and branches of the lower jaw, involving all the subcutaneous parts contained in that interval indiscriminately in one uniform mass of tumefaction. While this general turgescence is going on, various parts in the immediate vicinity often take on the same kind of action. In particular, the salivary glands, the parotid, sublingual, the throat, the pharynx and larynx, the nose, the lining membrane, the nostrils, the sinuses, the mouth, the tongue, the cheeks, the lips — in fine, in some violent cases, the whole head appears to be involved in one general mass of tumefaction, while every vent is running over with discharge The pntient experiencing this violent form of disease is in a truly pitiable plight. While purulent matter is issuing in profusion from his swollen nostrils, and slaver foams out from between his tumefied lips, it is distressing to hear the noise that he makes in painful and laboured efforts to breathe. There is imminent Hanger of suffocation in such a case as this ; and even although some relief, so far as the breathing is concerned, may be obtained from th« operation of bronchotomy, yet, from tf.e pain and irritation he is suffering, added to the impOF libility of getting aliment into his stomach, he must speedily sink to rise no more." *~«erinarian, vol. vi, p. 611- POLL-EVIL ItH ir.e fuod passed over it, than it rises again by its ow^ elasticity, md leaves the uppe! part of the windpipe once more open for the purpose of breathing. The voice of ani mala is produced by the passage of air through this aperture, communicating certain vibrations to certain folds of the membrane covering the part, and these vibrations being afterwards modified in their passage through the cavities of ihe nose. In ordei to understand the diseases of these parts, the anatomy of the neck generally must be considered. CHAPTER V. THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND NEIGHBOURING PARTS. THE neck of the horse, and of every animal belonging to the class mammalia, except one species, is composed of seven bones called vertebrse, moveable or turning upon each other (see cut, p. 68). They are connected together by strong ligaments, and form so many distinct joints, in order to give sufficiently extensive motion to this mportant part of the body. The bone nearest to the skull is called the atlas (see cut, p. 68, and g, p. 72), because, in the human being, it supports the head. In the horse the head is suspended from it. It is a mere ring-shaped bone, with broad projections sideways ; but without the sharp and irregular processes which are found on all the others. The pack-wax, or ligament, by which the head is principally supported (jf, p. 72), and which is strongly connected with all the other bones, passes over this without touching it, by which means the head is much more easily and extensively moved. The junction of the atlas with the head is the seat of a very serious and troublesome ulcer, termed POLL-EVIL. From the horse rubbing and sometimes striking his poll against the lower edge of the manger, or hanging back in the stall and bruising the part with the halter — 01 from the frequent and painful stretching of the ligaments and muscles by unnecessary tight reining, and, occasionally, from a violent blow on the poll, carelessly or wan- tonly inflicted, inflammation ensues, and a swelling appears, hot, tender, and painful It used to be a disease of frequent occurrence, but it is now, from better treatment of the animal, of comparatively rare occurrence. It has just been stated, that the ligament of the neck passes over the atlas, or firsl bone, without being attached to it, and the seat of inflammation is between the liga- ment and the bone beneath ; and being thus deeply situated, it is serious in its nature ?ind difficult of treatment. The first thing to be attempted is to abate the inflammation by bleeding, physic, and the application of cold lotions to the part. In a very early period of the case a blister might have considerable effect. Strong purgatives should also be employed. By these means the tumour will sometimes be dispersed. This system, however, must not be pursued too far. If the swelling increases, and the heat and tenderness likewise increase, matter will form in the tumour ; and then our object should be to hasten its formation by warm fomentations, poultices, or stimulating embrocations. As soon as the matter is formed, which may be known by the softness of the tumour, and before it has time to spread around and eat into the neighbouring parts, it should be evacuated. Now comes the whole art of treating poll-evil ; the opening into the tumour must be so contrived that all the matter shall run out, and continue afterwards to run out as quickly as it is fi rmed, and not collect at the bottom of the ulcer, irritating and corroding it. This can be effected by a seton alone. The needle should enter at the top of the tumour, penetrate through its bottom, and be brought out at the side >f the neck, a little below the abscess. Without anything more than this, e tceot ! 58 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK. hequent fomentation with warm water, in order to keep the part clean, and to obviate inflammation, poll-evil in its early stage will frequently be cured. If the ulcer has deepened and spread, and threatens to eat into the ligaments of the joints of the neck, it may be necessary to stimulate its surface, and perhaps painfully so, ir order to bring it to a healthy state, and dispose it to fill up. In extreme cases, some highly stimulating application may be employed, but nothing resembling the scald ng mixture of the farriers of the olden time. This is abominable ! horrible ! ! All measures, however, will be ineffectual, unless the pus or matter is, by the use of setcns, perfectly evacuated. The application of these setons will require the skill and anatomical knowledge of the veterinary surgeon. In desperate cases, the wound may not be fairly exposed to the action of the caustic without the division of the liga- ment of the neck. This may be effected with perfect safety ; for although the liga- ment is carried on to the occipital bone, and some strength is gained by this prolon- gation of it. the main stress is on the second bone ; and the head will continue to be supported. The divided ligament, also, will soon unite again, and its former useful- ness will be restored wrhen the wound is healed. The second bone of the neck is the dentata, having a process like a tooth, by which it forms a joint with the first bone. In the formation of that joint, a portion of the spinal marrow, which runs through a canal in the centre of all these bones, is exposed or covered only by ligament ; and by the division of the marrow at this spot an animal is instantly and humanely destroyed. The operation is called pithing, from the name (the pith} giiren by butchers to the spinal marrow. The other neck, or rack bones, as they are denominated by the farrier, (B. p. 68,) are of a strangely irregular shape, yet bearing considerable resemblance to each other. They consist of a central bone, perforated for the passage of the spinal marrow with a ridge on the top for the attachment of the ligament of the neck, and four irregular plates or processes from the sides, for the attachment of muscles ; at the base of one of which, on either side, are holes for the passage of the large arteries and veins. At the upper end of each, is a round head or ball, and at the lower end, a cavity or cup, and the head of the one being received into the cup of the other, they are unittd together, forming so many joints. They are likewise united by ligaments from these processes, as well as the proper ligaments of the joints, and so securely, that no dis- location can take place between any of them, except the first and second, the conse- quence of which would be the immediate death of the animal. The last, or seventh bone, has the elevation on the back or top of it continued into a long and sharp prolongation (a spinous process}, and is the beginning of that ridge of bones denominated the withers (see cut, pp. 68 and 167) ; and as it is the base of the column of neck bones, and there must be a great pressure on it from the weight of the head and neck, it is curiously contrived to rest upon and unite with the two first ribs. THE MUSCLES AND PROPER FORM OF THE NECK. The bones of the neck serve as the frame-work to which numerous muscles con cerned in the motions of the head and neck are attached. The weight of the head and neck is supported by the ligament without muscular aid, and without fatigue to the animal ; but in order to raise the head higher, or to lower it, or to turn it in every direction, a complicated system of muscles is necessary. Those whose office it is to raise the head are most numerous and powerful, and are placed on the npper and side part of the neck. The cut in p. 125 contains a few of them. c marks a tendon common to two of the most important of them, the splenius, or gplint-like muscle, and the complexus major, or larger complicated muscle. The tplenius constitutes the principal bulk of the neck above, arising from the ligament of lhi> neck all the way down it, and going to the processes of all the bones of the neck, but the first, and tendons running from the upper part of it, to the first bone o/ tha neck, and to a process of the temporal bone of the head. Its action is sufficiently evident, namely, very powerfully to elevate the head and neck. The principal beautj of the neck depends on this muscle. It was admirably developed in the hoise of whose n?ck the annexed cut gives an accurate delineation. Tl the curve were quite resru" ?r from the poll to the withers, we should call it a MUSCLES AND PROPER FORM OF THE NECK. 159 perfect neck , It is rather a long neck, and we do not like it the less foi hat. In the carriage-horse, a neck that is not half concealed by the collar is indispensable, so far as appearance goes ; and it is only the horse with a neck of tolerable length that will bear to be reined up, so as to give this part the arched and beautiful appearance which fashion demands. Il is no detriment to the riding-horse, and there are few horses of extraordinary speed that have not the neck rather long. The race-horse at the top of his speed not only extends it as far as he can, that the air-passages may be as straight as he can make them, and that he may therefore be able to breathe more freely, but the weight of the head and neck, and the effect increasing with their distance from the trunk, add materially to the rapidity of the animal's motion. It has been said, that a horse with a long neck will bear heavy on the hand ; neither the length of the neck nor even the bulk of the head has any influence in causing this. They are both counterbalanced by the power of the ligament of the neck. The sit- ting on of the head is most of all connected with heavy bearing on the hand, and a short-necked horse will bear heavily, because, from the thickness of the lower part of the neck, consequent on its shortness, the head cannot be rightly placed, nor, gene- rally, the shoulder. Connected with the splenius muscle, and partly produced by it, are the thickness and muscularity of the neck, as it springs from the shoulders, in this cut; the height at which it comes out from them forming nearly a line with the withers ; and the manner in which it tapers as it approaches the head. The neck of a well-formed horse, however fine at the top, should be muscular at the bottom, or the horse will generally be weak and worthless. Necks devoid of this muscularity are called loose necks by horsemen, and are always considered a very serious objection to the animal. If the neck is thin and lean at the upper part, and is otherwise well shaped, the horse will usually carry himself well, and the head will be properly curved for beauty of appearance and ease of riding. When an instance to the contrary occurs, it is to be traced to very improper management, or to the space between the jaws being unna- turally small. The splenius muscle, although a main agent in raising the head and neck, may be too large, or covered with too much cellular substance or fat, thus giving an appear- ance of heaviness, or even clumsiness to the neck. This peculiarity of form consti- tutes the distinction between the perfect horse and the mare, and also the gelding, unless castrated at a very late period. This tendon, c, belongs also to another muscle, which makes up the principal bulk of the lower part of the neck, and is called the complexus major, or larger complicated muscle. It arises partly as low as the transverse processes of the four or five first bones of the back, and from the five lower bones of the neck ; and the fibres from these various sources uniting together, form a very large and powerful muscle, the largest and strongest in the neck. As it approaches the head, it lessens in bulk, and terminates partly with the splenius, in this tendon, but is principally inserted into the back part of the occipital bone, by the side of the ligament of the neck. In the cut, p. 125, almost its whole course can be distinctly traced. Its office is to raise the neck and elevate the head ; and being inserted into such a part of the occiput, it will more particularly protrude the nose, while it raises the head. Its action, however, may be too powerful ; it may be habitually so, and then it may produce deformity. The bacli of the head being pulled back, and the muzzle protruded, the horse cannot by possi- SLity carry his head well. He will become what is technicallv called a st 160 ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK. • — heavy in hand, boring upon the bit, and unsafe. To remedy this, recourse is had and in the majority rf cases without avail, to the martingale, against which the horse is continually fighting, and which is often a complete annoyance to the rider. Such * horse is almost useless for harness. Inseparable from this is another sad defect, so far as the beauty of the horse iv concerned ; — he becomes ewe-necked ,• *". e. he has a neck like a ewe — not arched above and straight below, until near to the head, but hollowed above and projecting below ; and the neck rising low out of the chest, even lower, sometimes, than the points of the shoulders. There can scarcely be anything more unsightly in a horse. His head can never be got fairly down ; and the bearing rein of harness must be to him a source of constant torture. In regarding, however, the length and the form of the neck, reference must be had to the purpose for which the horse is intended. In a hackney, few things can be more abominable than a neck so disproportioned— so long, that the hand of the rider gets tired in managing the head of the horse. In a race- horse, this lengthening of the neck is a decided advantage. Among the muscles employed in raising the head, are the complexus minores (smaller complicated), and the redi (straight), and the oblique muscles of the upper part of the neck, and belonging principally to the two first bones of the neck, and portions of which may be seen under the tendon of the splenius c, and between it and the ligament a. Among the muscles employed in lowering the head, some of which are given in the same cut, is the sterno-maxillaris, d, belonging to the breast-bone, and the upper jaw. It can likewise be traced, although not quite distinctly, in the cut, p. 159. It lies immediately under the skin. It arises from the cartilage projecting from, or con- stituting the front of the breast-bone (H, p. 68), and proceeds up the neck, of no op-eat bulk or strength. At about three-fourths of its length upward, it changes to a flat tendon, which is seen (rf, p. 125) to insinuate itself between the parotid and sub- maxillary glands, in order to be inserted into the angle of the lower jaw. It is used in bending the head towards the chest. Another muscle, the termination of which is seen, is the levutor humeri, raiser of the shoulder, b. This is a much larger muscle than the last, because it has more duty to perform. It rises from the back of the head and four first bones of the neck and the ligament of the neck, and is carried down to the shoulder, mixing itself partly with some of the muscles of the shoulder, and finally continued down to, and terminating on, the humerus (J, p. 68). Its office is double. If the horse is in action, and the head and neck are fixed points, the contraction of this muscle will draw forward the shoulder and arm ; if the horse is standing, and the shoulder and arm are fixed points, this muscle will depress the head and neck. The muscles of the neck are all in pairs. One of them is found on each side of the neck, and the office which has been attributed to them can only be accomplished when both act together ; but supposing that one alone of the elevating muscles should act, the head would be raised, but it would at the same time be turned towards that side. If one only of the depressor muscles were to act, the head would be bent downwards, but it would likewise be turned towards that side. Then it will be easily seen, that by this simple method of having the muscles in pairs, provision is made for every kind of motion, upwards, downwards, or on either side, for which the animal can possibly have occasion. Little more, of a practical nature, could be said of the muscles of the neck, although they are proper and interesting studies for the anato- niist. This is the proper place to speak of the mane ,- that long hair which covers the crest of the ne?k, and adds so much to the beauty of the animal. This, however, is not its only praise. In a wild state, the horse has many battles to fight, and his neck, deprived of the mane, would be a vulnerable part. The hair of the mane, the tail, and the legs, is not shed in the same manner as that on the body. It does not fail so regularly, nor so often; for if aJl were shed at once, the parts would be left for a long time defenceless. The mane is generally dressed so as to lie on the right side — some persons divide it equally on both sides. For ponies, it used to be cut off near the roots, only a few •tumps being left to stand perpendicularly. This was termed the hog-mane. Th« BLOODVESSELS AND VEINS OF Till NECK. 161 groom sometimes bestows a great deal of pains in getting the mane of his uorse into good and fashionable order. It is wetted, and plaited, and loaded with lead ; ana every hair that is a little too long is pulled out. The mane and tail of the heavy draught-horse are seldom thin ; but on the well-bred horse, the thin, well-arranged mane is very ornamental.* THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE NECK. Running down the under part of the neck, are the principal blood-vessels, going to and returning from the head, with the windpipe and gullet. Our cut could not give a view of the arteries that carry the blood from the heart to the head, because they are too deeply seated. The external arteries are the carotid, of which there are two. They ascend the neck on either side, close to the windpipe, until they have reached Ihe middle of the neck, where they somewhat diverge, and lie more deeply. They are covered by the sterno-maxillaris muscle, which has been just described, and are separated from the jugulars by a small portion of muscular substance. Having reached the larynx, they divide into two branches, the external and the internal ; the first goes to every part of the face, and the second to the brain. The vertebral arteries run through canals in the bones of the neck, supplying the neighbouring parts as they climb, and at length enter the skull at the large hole in the occipital bone, and ramify on and supply the brain. Few cases can happen, in which it would be either necessary or justinaoie to bleed from an artery. Even in mad-staggers, the bleeding is more practicable, safer, anc more effectual, from the jugular vein, than from the temporal or any other artery. Ilf an artery is opened in the direction in which it runs, there is sometimes very greal difficulty in stopping the bleeding ; it has even been necessary to tie the vessel, hi order to accomplish this purpose. If the artery is cut across, its coats are so elastic, that the two ends are often immediately drawn apart under the flesh at each side, an attachmeiu of the shoulder-blade to the chest calculated to prevent the possibility of any rude soncussion reaching the thorax.* * " Had," savs Mr. Percivall, "the entire rib been one solid piece of bone, a violent blow might have broken it to pieces. On the other hand, had the ribs been composed from end tu 168 THE CHEST, A* the shoulder is a muscle of immense strength, and tendinous elastic composition, ihe serratus major, spreading over the internal surface of the shoulder-blade and a portion of the chest. A spring of easier play could not have been attached to the carriage of any invalid. It is a carriage hung by springs between the scapulae, and a delightful one it is for easy travelling ; while there is combined with it, and the union is not a little difficult, strength enough to resist the jolting of the roughest road afll the most rapid pace. TiateraVly there is sufficient defence against all common injury by the expansion of the shoulder over the chest from between the first and second to the seventh rib ; and behind and below that there is the bony structure of the ribs, of no little strength ; and their arched form, although a flattened arch ; and the yielding motion at the base of each rib, resulting from its jointed connexion with the spine above and its cartila- ginous union with the sternum below. A still more important consideration with regard to the parietes of the thorax is the manner in which they can adapt themselves to the changing bulk of the contents of the cavity. The capacity of the chest is little affected by the external contraction and dilatation of the heart, for when its ventricles are collapsed its auricles are distended, and when its auricles are compressed its ventricles expand ; but with regard to the lungs it is a very different affair. In their state of collapse and expan- sion they vary in comparative bulk, one-sixth part or more, and, in either state, it is necessary for the proper discharge of the function of respiration that the parietes of the chest should be in contact with them. The ribs are eighteen in number on either side. Nine of them are perfect, and "•ommonly called the true, or, more properly, sternal ribs, extending from the spine to '.he sternum. The remaining nine are posterior and shorter, and are only indirectly connected with the sternum. The ribs are united to the corresponding vertebrae, or bones of the spine, so as to form perfect joints — or, rather, each rib forms two joints. The head of the rib is received between the vertebrae and bones of the spine, before and behind, so that it shall always present two articulating surfaces ; one opposed to the vertebra imme- diately before, and the other to that immediately behind, and both forming one joint. with a perfect capsular ligament, and admitting of a rotary motion. The head of the rib seems to be received into the cartilaginous ligamentous substance between the vertebras. Nothing could be more admirably devised for motion, so far as it is required, and for strength of union, that can scarcely be broken. Before the ribs reach the sternum, they terminate in a cartilaginous prolongation, or the lower part of the rib may be said to be cartilaginous. There is between the bony part and this cartilage, a joint with a true capsular ligament, and admitting of a certain degree of motion ; and where it unites with the sternum, there is a fourth joint, with a perfect and complete capsular ligament. The cartilages of the posterior ribs are united to the bony portion by a kind of joint. They are not, however, prolonged so far as the sternum ; but the extremity of one lies upon the body of that which is immediately before it, bound down upon it by a cellular substance approaching to the nature of ligament, yet each having some separate motion, and all of them connected indirectly with the sternum, by means of the last sternal rib. It is an admirable contrivance to preserve the requisite motion which must attend every act of breathing, every extension and contraction of the chest, with a degree of strength which scarcely any accident can break through. The sternum, or breast-bone, is more complicated than it at first appears to be. It constitutes the floor of the chest, and is a long flat spongy bone, fixed between the ribs on either side, articulating with these cartilages, and serving as a point of sup- port to them. It is composed of from seven to nine pieces, united together by car- tilage ; and whatever changes may take place in other parts of the frame, this cartilage .'B not converted to bone, even in extreme old age, although there *nay, possibly, be •ome spots of ossific matter found in it. end of cartilage only, the form of the arch could not have been sustained, but, sooner 01 later it must have bent inward, and so have encroached upon the cavity of the chest as to havf compressed the organs of respiration ana circulation to that degree that could not but have ended in suffocation and death of the animal. It was only the judicious and well-arranged combination of bone and gristle in the construction of the chest that could answer the end* an all' wise P»i /idenoe had in view." — Veterinarian, vo xv. p. 184. THE CHEST. 169 The point of the breast-bone may be occasionally injured by blows, or by the pres- sure of the collar. It has been, by brutal violence, completely broken off from the sternum ; but oftener, and that from some cruel usage, a kind of tumour has been formed on the point of it, which has occasionally ulcerated, and proved very difficult to heal. The front of the chest is a very important consideration in the structure of the horse. It should be prominent and broad, and full, and the sides of it well occupied. When the breast is narrow, the chest has generally the same appearance : the animal is flat- sided, the proper cavity of the chest is diminished, and the stamina of the horse are materially diminished, although, perhaps, his speed for short distances may not be affected. When the chest is narrow, and the fore legs are too close together, in addition to the want of bottom, they will interfere with each other, and there will be wounds on the fetlocks, and bruises below the knee. A chest too broad is not desirable, but a fleshy and a prominent one, , yet even this, perhaps, may require some explanation. When the fore legs appear to recede, and to shelter themselves under the body, there is a faulty position of the fore limbs, a bend, or standing over, an unnatural lengthiness about the fore parts of the breast, sadly disadvantageous in progression. There is also a posterior appendix to the sternum, which is also cartilaginous. It is called the ensifnrm cartilage, although it bears little resemblance to a sword. It is flat and flexible, yet strong, and serves as the commencement of the floor, or support of the abdomen. It also gives insertion to some of the abdominal muscles, and more conveniently than it could have been obtained from the body of the sternum. The Intercostal Muscles. — The borders of the ribs are anteriorly concave, thin and sharp — posteriorly rounded, and presenting underneath a longitudinal depression, or channel, in which run both blood-vessels and nerves. The space between them is occupied by muscular substance, firmly attached to the borders of the ribs. These muscles are singularly distributed ; their fibres cross each other in the form of an X. There is a manifest advantage in this. If the fibres ran straight across from rib to rib, they might act powerfully, but their action would be exceedingly limited. A short muscle can contract but a little way, and only a slight change of form or dimen- sion can be produced. By running diagonally from rib to rib, these muscles are double the length they could otherwise have been. It is a general rule, with regard to muscular action, that the power of the muscle depends on its bulk, and the extent of its action on its length. The ribs, while they protect the important viscera of the thorax from injury, are powerful agents in extending and contracting the chest in the alternate inspiration and expiration of air. In what proportion they discharge the labour of respiration, is a disputed question, and into the consideration of which we cannot enter, until something is known of the grand respiratory muscle — the diaphragm. Thus far, however, may be said, that they are not inactive in natural respiration, although they certainly act only a secondary part ; but in hurried respiration, and when the demand for arterialised blood is increased by violent exertion, they are valuable and powerful auxiliaries. This leads to a very important consideration, the most advantageous form of tnrs chest for the proper discharge of the natural or extraordinary functions of the thoracic viscera. The contents of the chest are the lungs and the heart: — the first, to render the blood nutrient and stimulating, and to give or restore to it that vitality which will enable it to support every part of the frame in the discharge of its function, and devoid of which, the complicated and beautiful machine is inert and dead ; and the second, to convey this purified arterialised blood to every part of the frame. In order to produce, and to convey to the various parts, a sufficient quantity oi blood, these organs must be large. If it amounts not to hypertrophy, the larger thi> heart and the larger the lungs, the more rapid the process cf nutrition, and the moro perfect the discharge of every animal function. Then it might be imagined that, as a circle is a figure which contains more than any other of equal girth and admeasurement, a circular form of the chest would bf most advantageous. Not exactly so; for the contents of the chest are alternately expanding and contracting. The circular chest could not expand, but every change of fora, woul d be a diminution of capacity. That form ^f chest which appr; xches nearest to a circle, wb;,le it admits of r^fficiei* 15 w 170 THE CHEST. expansion and contraction, is the best — certainly for some animals, and L all Lndei peculiar circumstances, and with reference to the discharge of certain functions. This was the grand principle on which Mr. Bakewell proceeded, and on which all our improvements in the breeding of cattle were founded. This principle holds good with regard to some breeds of horses. We value the heavy draught-horse not only on account of his simple muscular power, but the weight which, by means of that power, he is able to throw into the collar. A light horse may be preferable for light draught; but we must oppose weight to weight, when our loads are heavy. In the dray-horse, we prize thir circular chest, not onlj that he may be proportionably heavier before — to him no dis?dvantage — but that, bj means of the increased capacity of his chest, he may obtain the bulk and size which best fit him for our service. But he would not do for speed — he would not do foi ordinary quick exertion; and if he were pushed far beyond his pace, he would becom« broken-winded, or have inflamed lungs. Some of our saddle-horses and cobs have barrels round enough, and we value them Dn account of it, for they are always in condition, and they rarely tire. But when we look at them more carefully, there is just that departure from the circular form of which mention has been made — that happy medium between the circle and the ellipse, which retainj the capacity of the one and the expansibility of the other. Such a horse is invaluable for common purposes, but he is seldom a horse of speed. If he •'s permitted to go his own pace, and that not a slow one, he will work on for ever; but if he is too much hurried, he is soon distressed. The Broad Deep Chest. — Then for the usual purposes of the road, and more partic- jlarly for rapid progression, search is made for that form of the chest which shall unite, and to as great a degree as possible, considerable capacity in a quiescent state, and the power of increasing that capacity when the animal requires it. There must be the broad chest for the production of muscles and sinews, and the deep chest, to give the capacity or power of furnishing arterial blood equal to the most rapid ex- haustion of vitality. This form of the chest is consistent with lightness, or at least with all the light* ness that can be rationally required. The broad-chested horse, or he that, with mod- erate depth at the girth, swells and barrels out immediately behind the elbow, may have as light a forehead and as elevated a wither as the horse with the narrowest chest ; but the animal with the barrel approaching too near to rotundity is invariably heavy about the shoulders and low in the withers. It is to the mixture of the Ara- bian blood that we principally owe this peculiar and advantageous formation of the chest of the horse. The Arab is light ; some would say too much so before : but immediately behind the arms the barrel almost invariably swells out, and leaves plenty of room, and where it is most wanted for the play of the lungs, and at the same time where the weight does not press so exclusively on the fore-legs, and expose the feet to concussion and injury. Many horses with narrow chests, and a great deal of daylight under them, have plenty of spirit and willingness for work. They show themselves well off, and ex- hibit the address and gratify the vanity of their riders on the parade or in the park, but they have not the appetite nor the endurance that will carry them through three successive days' hard work. Five out of six of the animals that perish from inflamed lungs are narrow-chested, and it might be safely affirmed that the far greater part of those who are lost in the field after a hard day's run, have been horses whose training has been neglected, or who have no room for the lungs to expand. The most important of all points in the conformation of the horse is here elucidated. An elevated wither, or oblique shoulder, or powerful quarters, are great advantages ; but that which is most of all connected with the general health of the animal, and with combined fleetness or bottom, is a deep, and broad, and swelling chest, with sufficient lengthening of the sternum, o breast-bone, beneath. If a chest that cannot expand with the increasing expansion and labour of the lungs •s so serious a detriment to the horse, everything that interferes with the action of the intercostal muscles is carefully to be avoided. Tight girthing ranks among these, and foremost among them. The closeness with which the roller is buckled on in the stabJe must be a serious inconvenience to the horse; and the partially depriving theae muscles of their power of action, for so many hours in every day, must i THE SPINE AND BACK. 171 Qiein for labour when quicker and fuller respiration is required. At all events, a tight girth, though an almost necessary nuisance, is a very consideraole one, when all the exertion of which he is capable is required from the horse. Who has not perceived the address with which, by bellying out the chest, the old horse renders every attempt to girth him tight comparatively useless ; and when a horse is blown, what imme- diate relief has ungirthing him afforded, by permitting the intercostals to act with greater power ? A point of consequence regarding the capacity of the chest, is the length or short- ness of the carcase; or the extent of the ribs from the elbow backward. Some horses are what is called ribbed home ; there is but little space (see cuts pp. 68 and 167) between the last rib and the hip-bone. In others the distance is considerably greater, and is plainly evident by the falling in of the flank. The question then is, what service is required from the horse ] If he has to carry a heavy weight, and has much work to do, he should be ribbed home — the last rib and the hip-bone should not be far from each other. There is more capacity of chest and of belly — there is less distance between the points of support — and greater strength and endurance. A hackney (and we would almost say a hunter) can scarcely be too well ribbed home. If speed, however, is required, there must be room for the full action of the hinder limbs ; and this can only exist where there is sufficient space between the last rib and the hip-bone. The owner of the horse must make up his mind as to what he wants from him, and be satisfied if he obtains that; for, let him be assured that he cannot have everything, for this would require those differences of conformation that cannot possibly exist in the same animal. The thorax, or chest, is formed by the spine/, above (p. 167) the ribs e, on either side ; and the sternum, or breast-bone, c, beneath. THE SPINE AND BACK. The spine, or back, consists of a chain of bones from the poll to the extremity of the tail. It is made up of twenty-three bones from the neck to the haunch ; eigh- teen, called dorsal vertebrse, composing the back ; and five lumbar vertebrae, occupy- ing the loins. On this part of the animal the weight or burden is laid, and there are two things to be principally considered, easiness of carriage and strength. If the back were composed of unyielding materials — if it resembled a bar of wood or iron, much jarring or jolting, in the rapid motion of the animal, could not possibly be endured. In order to avoid this, as well as to assist in turning, the back is divided into numerous bones ; and between each pair of bones there is interposed a cartila- ginous substance, most highly elastic, that will yield and give way to every jar, not so much as to occasion insecurity between the bones, or to permit considerable motion between any one pair, but forming altogether an aggregate mass of such perfect elas- ticity, that the rider sits almost undisturbed, however high may be the action, or how- ever rapid the pace. Strength is as important as ease ; therefore these bones are united together with pe- culiar firmness. The round head of one is exactly fitted to the cup or cavity of that immediately before it ; and between them is placed the elastic ligamentous substance, which has been just described, so strong, that in endeavouring to separate the bones of the back, they will break before this substance will give way. In addition to this there are ligaments running along the broad under-surface of these bones — ligaments between each of the transverse processes, or side projections of the bones — ligaments between the spinous processes or upright projections, and also a continuation of the strong ligament of the neck running along the whole course of the back and loins, lengthening and contracting, as in the neck, with the motions of the animal, and forming^ a powerful bond of union between the bones. By these means the hunter will carry a heavy man without fatigue or strain through a long chase ; and those shocks and jars are avoided which would be annoying to tht« rider, and injurious and speedily fatal to the horse. Thesp provisions, however, although adequate to common or even severe exertion, will not protect the animal from the consequences of brutal usage ; and, therefore, if tho horse is mu^h overweighted, or violently exercised, or too suddenly pulled upon his haunches, these ligaments are strained. Inflammation follows. The ligaments Become changed to bone, and the joints of the back lose their springiness and ease of r72 THE CHEST. motion ; or rather, in point of fact, they cease to exist. On account of the too hard service required from them, and especially before they had g lined their full strength, there a/e few old horses who have not some of the bones of the back or loins anchy- losed — united together by bony matter and not by ligament. When this exists to any considerable extent, the horse is not pleasant to ride — he turns with difficulty in his stall — he is unwilling to lie down, and when down to rise again, and he has a singular straddling action. Such horses are said to be broken-backed or chinked in iht chine. Fracture of the bones of the back rarely occurs, on account of their being so strongly united by ligaments, and defended by muscular substance. If a fracture of these bones does happen, it is during the violent struggles after the horse has been cast for an operation. The length of the back is an important consideration. A long-backed horse will be easy in his paces, because the increased distance between the fore and hind legs, which are the supports of the spine, will afford greater room for the play of the joints of the hack. A long spring has much more play than a short one, and will better obviate concussion. A long-backed horse is likewise formed for speed, for there is room to bring his hinder legs more under him in the act of gallopping, and thus more powerfully propel or drive forward the body : but, on the other hand, a long-backed horse will be comparatively weak in the back, and easily overweighted. A long spring may be easily bent or broken. The weight of the rider, likewise, placed farther from the extremities, will act with mechanical disadvantage upon them, and be more likely to strain them. A short-backed horse may be a good hackney, and able to carry the heaviest weight, and possess great endurance ; but his paces will not be so easy, nor his speed so great, and he may be apt to overreach. The comparative advantage of a long or short carcase depends entirely on the u«*e for which the horse is intended. For general purposes the horse with a short carcase is very properly preferred. He will possess health and strength ; for horses of this make are proverbially hardy. He will have sufficient easiness of action not to fatigue the rider, and speed for every ordinary purpose. Length of back will always be desirable when there is more than usual substance generally, and particularly when the loins are wide, and the muscles of the loins large and swelling. The two requi« sites, strength and speed, will then probably be united. The back should be depressed a little immediately behind the withers ; and then continue in an almost straight line to the loins. This is the form most consistent with beauty and strength. Some horses have a very considerable hollow behind the withers. They are said to be saddle-backed. It seems as if a depression were pur- posely made for the saddle. Such horses are evidently easy goers, for this curve inward must necessarily increase the play of the joints of the back : but in the same proportion they are weak and liable to sprain. To the general appearance of the horse, this defect is not in -any great degree injurious ; for the hollow of the back is uniformly accompanied by a beautifully arched crest. A few horses have the curve outward. They are said to be roach-backed, from the supposed resemblance to the arched back of a roach. This is a very serious defect ; — altogether incompatible with beauty, and materially diminishing the usefulness of the animal. - It is almost impossible to prevent the saddle from being thrown on the shoulders, or the back from being galled ; — the elasticity of the spine is destroyed ; —the rump is badly set on ; — the hinder legs are too much under the anirial ; — he is continually overreaching, and his head is carried awkwardly low. THE LOINS. The loins are attentively examined by every good horseman. They can scarcely be too broad and muscular. The strength of the back, and especially, the strength of the hinder extremities, will depend materially on this. The breadth of the loins is regulated by the length of the transverse or side processes of that part. The bodies of the bones of the loins are likewise larger than those of the back ; and a more dove- tailed kind of union subsists between these bones than between those of the back Every provision is made for strength here. The union of the back and loins should be carefully observed, for there is sometimes a depression between them. A kind of line is drawn across, which shows impei Action in the construction of the spine, anrf W regarded as an indication of weakness THE WITHERS. — MUSCLES OF THE BACK. 171 THE WITHERS. The spinous or upright processes of the dorsal vertebrae, or bones of the back, above ne upper part of the shoulder, are as remarkable for their length as are the transverse n side processes of the bones of the loins. They are flattened and terminated by rough blunted extremities. The elevated ridge which they form is called the withers It will be seen in the cuts (pp. 68 and 167), that the spine of the first bone of the back has but little elevation, and is sharp and upright. The second is longer and inclined backward ; the third and fourth increases in length, and the fifth is the longest ; — they then gradually shorten until the twelfth or thirteenth, which becomes level with the bones of the loins. High withers have been always, in the mind of the judge of the horse, associated with good action, and generally with speed. The reason is plain enough : — they afford larger surface for the attachment of the muscles of the back ; and in proportion to the elevation of the withers, these muscles act with greater advantage. The rising of the fore parts of the horse, even in the trot, and more especially in the gallop, depends not merely on the action of the muscles of the legs and shoulders, but on those of the loins, inserted into the spinous processes of these bones of the back, and acting with greater power in proportion as these processes, constituting the withers, are lengthened. The arm of the lever to which the power is applied will be longer ; and in proportion to the length of this arm will be the ease and the height to which a weight is raised. Therefore good and high action will depend much on elevated withers. It is not difficult to understand how speed will likewise be promoted by the same conformation. The power of the horse is in his hinder quarters. In them lies the main spring of the frame, and the fore-quarters are chiefly elevated and thrown for- ward to receive the weight forced on them by the action of the hinder quarters. In proportion, however, as the fore-quarters are elevated, will they be thrown farther forward, or, in other worcls, will the stride of the horse be lengthened. Yet many racers have the forehand k v. The unrivalled Eclipse was a remarkable instance of this ; but the ample and finely proportioned quarters, and the muscularity of the thigh and fore-arm, rendered the aid to be derived from the withers perfectly unnecessary The heavy draught-horse does not require elevated withers. His utility depend? on the power of depressing his fore-quarters, and throwing their weight fully into the collar ; but for common work in the hackney, in the farmer's horse, and in the hunter, well-formed withers will be an essential advantage, as contributing to good and safe action, and likewise to speed. MUSCLES OF THE BACK. The most important muscles which belong to this part of the frame are principally those which extend from the continuation of the ligament of the neck, along the whole of the back and loins ; and likewise from the last cervical bone ; — the superficialis and transversalis costarum, or superficial and transverse muscles of the ribs, going from this ligament to the upper part of the ribs to elevate them, and to assist in the expan- sion of the chest ; also the large mass of muscle, the longlssimus dorsi, or longest mua- cle of the back, from the spinous and transverse processes of the vertebrae to the ribs, and by which all the motions of the spine, and back, and loins, to which allusion has been made, are principally produced ; by which the fore-quarters are raised upon the hind ones, or the hind upon the fore ones, according as either of them is the fixed point. This is the principal agent in rearing and kicking. The last muscle to be noticed is the spinalis dorsi, the spinal muscle of the back, from the spinous processes of some of the last bones of the back to those of the fore part; — thick and strong about the withers, and broadly attached to them; and more powerfully attached, and more strongly acting in proportion to the elevation of the vnthers ; and proceeding on to the three lowest bones of the neck, and therefore mainly concerned, as already described, in elevating the fore-quarters, and producing high and safe action, and contributing to speed. Before the roof of the chest is left,some accidents or diseases to which it is exposed *aat be mentioned. The first is of a ^ery serious nature. 15* 174 THE CHEST. FISTULOUS WITHERS. When the saddle has been suffered to press long upon the withers, a lumom will be formed, hot and exceedingly tender. It may sometimes be dispersed by the cool« ing- applications recommended in the treatment of poll-evil ; but if, in despite of these, the swelling should remain stationary, and especially if it should become larger and more tender, warm fomentations and poultices, and stimulating embrocations, should be diligently applied, in order to hasten the formation of pus. As soon as that can be fairly detected, a seton should be passed from the top to the bottom of the tumour, so that the whole of the matter may be evacuated, and continue to be discharged as it is afterwards formed ; or the knife may be freely used, in order to get at the bottom of every sinus. The knife has succeeded many a time when the seton has failed. The after treatment must be precisely that which was recommended for a similar dis- ease in the poll. In neglected fistulous withers the ulcer may be larger and deeper, and more destruc- tive than in poll-evil. It may burrow beneath the shoulder-blade, and the pus appeal at the point of the shoulder or the elbow ; or the bones of the withers may become carious. Very great improvement has taken place in the construction of saddles for common use and in the cavalry service. Certain rules have now been laid down from which the saddler should never deviate, and attending to which the animal is saved from much suffering, and the mechanic from deserved disgrace. The first rule in the fitting of the saddle is, that it should bear upon the back, and not on the spine or the withers, for these are parts that will not endure pressure. Next in universal application is the understanding that the saddle should have everywhere an equal bearing, neither tilting forward upon the points nor backward upon the seat. When the saddle is on, and the girths fastened, there should remain space sufficient between the withers and the pommel for the introduction of the hand underneath the latter. The points of the tree should clip or embrace the sides without pinching them, or so standing outward that the pressure is all downwards, and upon one place, instead of being in a direction inwards as well as downwards, so as to be distributed uniformly over every part of the point that touches the side. Horses that have low and thick withers are most likely to have them injured, in consequence of the continual riding forward of the saddle, and its consequent pressure upon them. Fleshy and fat shoul- Jers and sides are also subject to become hurt by the points of the trees either pinch- ing them from being too narrow in the arch, or from the bearing being directly down- ward upon them. Injury occasionally results from the interruption which a too forward saddle presents to the working or motion of the shoulder, and the consequent friction the soft parts sustain between the shoulder-blade inwardly, and the points of the saddle-tree outwardly.* WARBLES, SITFASTS, AND SADDLE GALLS. On other parts of the back, tumours and very troublesome ulcers may be produced by the same cause. Those resulting from the pressure of the saddle are called war» 6/ef, and, when they ulcerate, they frequently become sitfasfs. Warbles are small circular bruises, or extravasations of blood, where there has been an undue pressure of the saddle or harness. If a horse is subject to these tumours, the saddle should remain on him two or three hours after he has returned to the stable. It is only for a certain tine, however, that this w»ll perfectly succeed for by the frequent ".ppliration of the pressure the skin and the cellular substance are bruised or otherwise injured, and A permanent sore or tumour, of a very annoying description, takes place. The centre of the sore gradually loses its vitality. A separation takes place from the sur- rounding integument, and there is a circular piece of dried and hard skin remaining in the centre. This is curiously called a navel gall, because it is opposite to the navel. No effort must be made to tear or dissect it off, but stimulating poultices o» fomentations, or, if these fail, a mild blister, will cause a speedy separation; and th* Percivan a Hipponathology. vol. i.. o. 199- THE THYMUS GLAND. 175 wound will then readily heal by the use of turpentine dressings, mort, ci iess stimu- lating, according to circumstances. Saddle galls are tumours, and sometimes galls or sows, arising also from the pres- sure and chafing of the saddle. They differ little from the warble, ex< ept that there is very seldom the separation of the dead part in the centre, and the sore is larger and varying in its form. The application of cold water, or salt and water, will generally remove excoriations of this kind. With regard, however, to all these tumours and excoriations, the humane man will have the saddle eased and padded as soon as it begins to be of the least inconvenience to the horse. MUSCLES OF THE BREAST. There are some important muscles attached to the breast connected with that expansion of the chest which every horse should possess. In the cut, page 159, are seen a very important pair of muscles, the pectorales transversi, or pectoral muscles, forming two prominences in the front of the chest, and extending backward between the legs. They come from the fore and upper part of the breast-bone ; pass across the inward part of the arm, and* reach from the elbow almost down to the, knee. They confine the arm to the side in the rapid motion of the horse, and prevent him from being, what horsemen would call, and what is seen in a horse pushed beyond his natural power, " all abroad." Other muscles, pectorales magni et parvi, the great and little pectorals, rather above but behind these, go from the breast-bone to the arm, in order to draw back the point of the shoulder, and bring it upright. Another and smaller muscle goes from the breast-bone to the shoulder, to assist in the same office. A horse, therefore, thin and narrow in the breast, must be deficient in import- ant muscular power. Between the legs and along the breast-bone is the proper place in which to insert rowels, in cases of inflamed lungs. CHEST-FOUNDER. These muscles are occasionally the seat of a singular and somewhat mysterious disease. The old farriers used to call it anticor and chest-founder. The horse has considerable stiffness in moving, evidently not referable to the feet. There is tender- ness about the muscles of the breast, and, occasionally, swelling. We believe it to be nothing more than rheumatism, produced by suffering the horse to remain too long tied up, and exposed to the cold, or riding him against a very bleak wind. Some- times a considerable degree of fever accompanies this ; but bleeding, physic, a rowel in the chest, warm embrocations over the parts affected, warm stabling, and warm clothing, with occasional doses of antimonial powder, will soon subdue the complaint CHAPTER VII. THE CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. THE THYMUS GLAND. AT the entrance of the trachea into the thorax, and ere it has scarcely penetrated between the first ribs in the young subject, it comes in contact with an irregular glan- dular body, situated in the doubling of the anterior mediastinum. It is " the thymug gland," or, in vulgar language, the sweet-bread. In the early period of utero-gesta- tion, it is of very inconsiderable bulk, and confined mostly to the chest ; but, during the latter months, it strangely developes itself, — the superior cornua protrude out of the thorax and climb up the neck, between the carotids and the trachea. They are evi- dently connected with the thymus gland, and become parts and portions of the parotid glands. We are indebted to Sir Astley Cooper for the best account of the anatomical struc •n of every rib, the cavity is still more increased. * Percivall's Hiopopathology, vol. ii., No. 1, p. 152. THE PLEURA. i /9 By some other consentaneous influence, the spinal accessory neive likewise exerts its power, and the sterno-maxillaris muscle is stimulated by the anterior division of it. and the motion of the head and neck corresponds with and assists that of the chest- while the posterior division of the accessory nerve, by its anastamoses with the mDtos nerves of the levator humeri and tbe splenius, and many other of the muscles of the neck and the shoulder, and by its direct influence on the rhomboideus, associates almost every muscle of the neck, the shoulder, and the chest, in the expansion of the ihorax. These latter are muscles, which, in undisturbed respiration, the animal scarcely needs; but which are necessary to him when the respiration is much disturbed, and to obtain the aid of which he will, under pneumonia, obstinately stand until he falls exhausted or to die. The cavity of the chest is now enlarged. But this is a closed cavity, and between its contents and the parietes of the chest a vacuum would be formed ; or rather an inequality of atmospheric pressure is produced from the moment the chest begins to dilate. As the diaphragm recedes, there is nothing to counterbalance the pressure of the atmospheric air communicating with the lungs through the medium of the nose and mouth, and it is forced into the respiratory tubes already described, and the lung are expanded and still kept in contact with the receding walls of the chest. There i no sucking, no inhalent power in the act of inspiration; it is the simple enlargemen, of the clnst from the entrance and pressure of the air. From some cause, as inexplicable as that which produced the expansion of the chest, the respiratory nerves cease to act; and the diaphragm, by the inherent elasticity of its tendinous expansion and muscular fibres, returns to its natural form, once n ore projecting its convexity into the thorax. The abdominal muscles, also, which had been put on the stretch by the forcing of the viscera into the posterior part of the abdomen by means of the straightening of the diaphragm, contract, and accelerate the return of that muscle to its quiescent figure ; and the ribs, all armed with elastic cartilages, regain their former situation and figure. The muscles of the shoulder and the chest relax, a portion of the lungs are pressed on every side, and the air with which they were distended is again forced out. There is only one set of muscles actively employed in expiration, namely, the abdominal : the elasticity of the parts displaced in inspiration being almost sufficient to accomplish the purpose. The lungs, however, are not altogether passive. The bronchial tubes, so far as they can be traced, are lined with cartilage, divided and subdivided for the purpose of folding up when the lungs are compressed, but elastic enough to afford a yielding resistance against both unusual expansion and contraction. In their usual state the air-tubes are distended beyond their natural calibre ; for if the parietes of the thorax are perforated, and the pressure of the atmosphere rendered equal within and without them, the lungs immediately collapse. THE PLEURA. The walls of the chest are lined, and the lungs are covered by a smooth glistening membrane, the pleura. It is a serous membrane, so called from the nature of its exhalation, in distinction from the mucous secretion yielded by the membrane of the air-passages. The serous membrane generally invests the most important organs, and always those that are essentially connected with life ; while the mucous mem- brane lines the interior of the greater part of them. The pleura is the investing membrane of the lungs, and a mucous membrane the lining one of the bronchial tubes. Among the circumstances principally to be noticed, with regard to the pleura, is tiie polish of its external surface. The glistening appearance of the lungs, and of the inside of the chest, is to be attributed to the membrane by which they are covered, and by means of which the motion of the various organs is freer and less dangerous. Although the lungs, and the bony walls which contain them, are in constant approxi- mation with each other, both in expiration and inspiration, yet in the frequently hurried and violent motion of the animal, and, in fact, in every act of expiration and inspiration, of dilatation and contraction, much and injurious friction would ensue if the surfaces did not glide freely over each other by means of the peci liar polish of this membrane. Every serous membrane has innumerable exhalent vessels upon its surface, trorii which a considerable quantity of fluid is poured out. In life and during health h exists in the chest only as a I" nd of dew, ju&» sufficient to lubricate tbe surfaces 180 CUJSTElsrs OF THE CHEST. When the chest is opened soon after death, we recognize it in the steam that arise* and in a few drops of fluid, which, being condensed, are found at the lowest pan of the chest. The quantity, however, which is exhaled from all the serous membranes, must be very great. It is perhaps equal or superior to that which is yielded by the vessels on the surface of the body. If very little is found in ordinary cases, it is because me absorbents are as numerous and as active as the exhalents, and, during health, thai which is poured out by the one is taken up by the other ; but in circumstances of dis- ease, either when the exhalents are stimulated to undue action, or the power of the absorbents is diminished, the fluid rapidly and greatly accumulates. Thus we have hydrothorax or dropsy of the chest, as one of the consequences of inflammation of the chest ; and the same disturbed balance of action will produce similar effusion in othe/ cavities. The extensibility of membrane generally is nowhere more strikingly displayed than in the serous membranes, and particularly in that under consideration. How different the bulk of the lungs before the act of inspiration has commenced, and after it has been completed, and especially in the laborious respiration of disease or rapid exer- tion! In either state of the lungs the pleura is perfectly fitted to that which ii envelopes. The pleura, like other serous membranes, is possessed of very little sensibility. Few nerves from the sensitive column of the spinal chord reach it. Acute feeling would render these membranes generally, and this membrane in particular, unfit for the function they have to discharge. It has too much motion, even during sleep ; and far too forcible friction with the parietes of the thorax in morbid or hurried respiration, to render it convenient or useful for it to possess much sensation. Some of those anatomists whose experiments on the living animal do no credit to their humanity, have given most singular proof of the insensibility, not only of these serous mem- branes, but of the organs which they invest. Bichat frequently examined the spleen of dogs. He detached it from some of its adhesions, and left it protruding from th& wound in the abdomen, in order " to study the phenomena;" and he saw " them tear ing off* that organ, and eating it, and thus feeding upon their own substance." In some experiments, in which part of their intestines were left out, he observed them, as soon as they had the opportunity, tear to pieces their own viscera without any visible pain. Although it may be advantageous that these important organs shall be thus devoid of sensibility when in health, in order that we may be unconscious of their action and motion, and that they may be rendered perfectly independent of the will, yet it is equally needful that, by the feeling of pain, we should be warned of the existence of any dangerous disease : and thence it happens that this membrane, and also the organ which it invests, acquire under inflammation the highest degree of sensibility. The countenance of the horse labouring under pleurisy or pneumonia will sufficiently indi- cate a state of suffering ; and the spasmed bend of his neck, and his long and anxious %.nd intense gaze upon his side, tell us that that suffering is extreme. Nature, however, is wise and benevolent even here. It is not of every mormd affection, or morbid change, that the animal is conscious. If a mucous membrane is diseased, he is rendered painfully aware of that, for neither respiration nor digestion could be perfectly carried on while there was any considerable lesion of it; but, on the other hand, we find tubercles in the parenchyma of the lungs, or induration or hepatization of their substance, or extensive adhesions, of which there were few or no indications during life. The pleura adheres intimately to the ribs and to the substance of the lungs ; yet it is a very singular connexion. It is not a continuance of the same organisation ; it is not an interchange of vessels. The organ and its membrane, although so cJosely connected for a particular purpose, yet in very many cases, and where it would leas of all be suspected, have little or no sympathy with each other. Inflammation of the lungs will sometimes exist, and will run on to ulceration, while the pleura will be rery little affected : and, much oftene1-, the pleura will be the seat of inflammation and will be attended by increased exhvlation to such an extent as to suffocate the animal, and yet the lungs wiL exhibit little other morbid appearance tfian that of mere compression. The disease of a m cous membrane spreads to other parts— thaf THE LUNGS— THU, HE A a T. 181 »f a sei DUS one is generally isolated. It was to limit the progress of disease that thif Difference of structure between the organ and its membrane was contiived. The investing membrane of the lungs and that of the heart are in continual contact vith each other, but they are as distinct and unconnected, as if they were placed in lifferent parts of the frame. Is there no meaning in this 1 It is to preserve the perfect independence of organs equally important, yet altogether different in structure and function — to oppose an insuperable barrier to hurtful sym- pathy between them, and especially to cut off the communication of disease. Perhaps a little light begins to be thrown on a circumstance of which we have occasional painful experience. While we may administer physic, or mild aperients at least, in pleurisy, not only with little danger, but with manifest advantage, we way just as well give a dose of poison as a physic-ball to a horse labouring under pneumonia. The pleura is connected with the lungs, and with the lungs alone, and the organisation is so different, that there is very little sympathy between them. A physic-ball may, therefore, act as a counter-irritant, or as giving a new determination to the vital current, without the propagation of sympathetic irritation ; but the lungs or the bronchial tubes that ramify through them are continuous with the mucous mem- branes of the digestive as well as all the respiratory passages ; and on account of th« continuity and similarity of organisation, there is much sympathy between them. If there is irritation excited at the same time in two different portions of the same mem- brane, it is probable that, instead of being shared between them, the one will be trans- ferred to the other — will increase or double the other, and act with fearful and fatal violence. THE LUNGS. The lungs are the seat of a peculiar circulation. They convey through their com- paratively little bulk the blood, and other fluids scarcely transformed into blood, or soon separated from it, which traverse the whole of the frame. They consist of count- less ramifications of air-tubes and blood-vessels connected together by intervening cellular substance. They form two distinct bodies, the right somewhat larger than the left, and are divided from each other by the duplicature of the pleura, which has been already described — the mediastinum. Each lung has the same structure, and properties, and uses. Each of them is subdivided, the right lobe consisting of three lobes, and the left of two. The intention of these divisions is probably to adapt the substance of the lungs to the form of the cavity in which they are placed,, and to enable them more perfectly to occupy and fill the chest. If one of these lobes is cut into, it is found to consist of innumerable irregularly formed compartments, to which anatomists have given the name of lobules, or little lobes. They are distinct from each other, and impervious. On close examination, they can be subdivided almost without end. There is no communicatV n between them, or if perchance such communication exists, it constitutes the disease known by the name of broken wind. On the delicate membrane of which these cells are composed, innumerable minute blood-vessels ramify. They proceed from the heart, through the medium of the pul- monary artery — they follow all the subdivisions of the bronchial tubes — they ramify upon the membrane of these multitudinous lobules, and at length return to the heart, through the medium of the pulmonary veins, the character of the blood which they contain being essentially changed. The mechanism of this, and the effect produced must be briefly considered. THE HEART. The heart is placed between a doubling of the pleura — the mediastinum ; by means of which it is supported in its natural situation, and all dangerous iriction between these important organs is avoided. It is also surrounded by a membrane or bag of its own, called the pericardium, whose office is of a similar nature. By means of the heurt, the blood is circulated through the frame. It is composed of four cavities — two above, called auricles, from their supposed resemblance to the ear of a dog; and two below, termed ventricles, occupying the sub- stance of the heart. In point of fact, there are two hearts — the one on the left side nc? the V'ood through the frame, the other on the right side conveying it through 16 182 CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. the pulmonary system ; but, united in the manner in which they a:e, th, i juncti >n contributes to their mutual strength, and both circulations are carried on at the same time Th" first is the arterial circulation. No function can be discha-ged — life cannot exist, without the presence of arterial blood. The left ventricle that contains it con- tracts, and by the power of that contraction, aided by other means, which the limits of our work will not permit us to describe, the blood is driven through the whole arterial circulation — the capillary vessels and the veins — and returns again to the heart, but to the right ventricle. The other division of this viscus is likewise employed in circulating the blood thus conveyed to it, but is not the same fluid which was contained in the left ventricle. It has gradually lost its vital power. As it has passed along, it has changed from red to black, and from a vital to a poisonous fluid. Ere it can again convey the principle of nutrition, or give to each organ that impulse or stimulus which enables it to discharge its function, it must be materially changed. When the right ventricle contracts, and the blood is driven into the lungs, it passes over the gossamer membrane of which the lobules of the lungs have been described as consisting ; the lobules being filled with the air which has descended through the bronchial tubes in the act of inspiration. This delicate membrane permits some of the principles of the air to permeate it. The oxygen of the atmosphere attracts and combines with a portion of the superabundant carbon of this blood, and the expired air is poisoned with carbonic acid gas. Some of the constituents of the blood attract a portion of the oxygen of the air, and obtain their distinguishing character and pro- perties as arterial blood, and being thus revivified, it passes on over the membrane of the lobes, unites into small and then larger vessels, and at length pours its full stream of arterial blood into the left auricle, thence to ascend into the ventricle, and to be dif- fused over the frame. DISEASES OF THE HEART. It may be readily supposed that an organ so complicated is subject to disease. It is so to a fearful extent; and it sympathises with the maladies of every other part. Until lately, however, this subject has been shamefully neglected, and the writers on the veterinary art have seemed to be unaware of the importance of the organ, and the maladies to which it is exposed. The owner of the horse and the veterinary profes/- sion generally, are deeply indebted to Messrs. Percivall and Pritchard* for much valuable information on this subject. The writer of this work acknowledges his obligation to both of these gentlemen. To Dr. Hope also, and particularly to Laennec, we owe much. Mr. Percivall well says, "This class of diseases may be regarded as the least advanced of any in veterinary medicine — a circumstance not to be ascribed so much to their comparative rarity, as to their existing undiscovered, or rather being confounded during life with other disorders, and particularly with pulmonary affections." The best place to examine the beating of the heart is immediately behind the elbow, on the left side. The hand applied flat against the ribs will give the number of pulsations. The ear thus applied will enable the practitioner better to ascertain the character of the pulsation. The stethoscope affords an uncertain guide, for it can not be flatly and evenly applied. PERICARDITIS. — The bag, or outer investing membrane of the heart, is liable inflammation, in which the effused fluid becomes organized, and deposited in layers, increasing the thickness of the pericardium, and the difficulty of the expansion and contraction of the heart. The only symptoms on which dependence can be placed, are a quickened and irregular respiration ; a bounding action of the heart in an early stage of the disease; but that, as the fluid increases and becomes concrete, assuming a feeble and fluttering character. HYDROPS PER^CARDII is the term used to designate the presence of the fluid secreted in consequence of this inflammation, and varying from a pint to a gallon or more. In addition to the symptoms already described, there is an expression of alarm and anxiety in the countenance of the animal which no other malady produces. The horse generally sinks from other disease, or from constitutional irritation, befcre ths * See Pritchard's papers in the Veterinarian, vol. vi., and Percivall's Hippopatholcgy, »oJ &, Part I D1JEASES >F THE HEART. Ifeb earty of the pericardium is filled; or if he lingers on, most dreadful palpitations and throbbings accompany the advanced stage of the disease. It is seh om or never that this disease exists alone, but is combined with dropsy of the chest 01 abdomen. CARDITIS is the name given to inflammation of the muscular substance ot the heart. A well authenticated instance of inflammation of the substance of the heart does not stand on record. Some other organ proves to be the chief seat of mischief, even when the disturbance of the heart has been most apparent. INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING OF THE HEART. — Mr. Simpson relates, in the Vete- rinarian for 1834, a case in which there were symptoms of severe abdominal pain; the respiration was much disturbed, and the action of the heart took on an extraordi- nary character. Three or four beats succeeded to each other, so violently as to shake the whole frame, and to be visible at the distance of several yards, with intervals of quietude for five minutes or more. At length this violent beating became constant. On dissection both lungs were found to be inflamed, the serum in the pericardium increased in quantity, and the internal membrane of the heart violently inflamed, with spots of ecchymosis. This would seem to be a case of inflammation of the heart ; but in a considerable proportion of tbe cases of rabies, these spots of ecchymosis, and this general inflam- mation of the heart, are seen. HYPERTHROPHY is an augmentation or thickening of the substance of the heart; and although not dreamed of a few years ago, seems now to be a disease of no rare occurrence among horses. The heart has been known to acquire double its natural volume, or the auricle and ventricle on one side have been thus enlarged. Mr. Thomson of Bath relates, in The Veterinarian, a very singular case. A horse was brought with every appearance of acute rheumatism, and was bled and physicked. On the following day he was standing with his fore legs widely extended, the nos- trils dilated, the breathing quick and laborious, the eyes sunk in their orbits, the pupils dilated, his nose turned round almost to his elbow, sighing, and his counte- nance showing approaching dissolution. The pulse had a most irregular motion, and the undulation of the jugular veins was extending to the very roots of the ears. He died a few-hours afterwards. The lungs and pleura were much inflamed ; the pericardium was inflamed and dis* *ended by fluid ; the heart was of an enormous size and greatly inflamed ; both tlie auricles and ventricles were filled with coagulated blood ; the greater part of the chordae tendineae had given way ; the valves did not approximate to perform their function, and the heart altogether presented a large disorganized mass, weighing thir- ty-four pounds. The animal worked constantly on the farm, and had never been pu1 to quick or very laborious work. DILATATION is increased capacity of the cavities of the heart, and the parietes be- ing generally thinned. It is probable that this is a more frequent disease than is generally supposed ; and from the circulating power being lessened, or almost sus- pended, on account of the inability of the cavities to propel their contents, it is ac- companied by much and rapid emaciation. In the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London this is a disease considerably frequent, and almost uniformly fatal. It attacks the smaller animals, and particularly the quadrumana, and has been found in the deer and the zebra. It is characterised by slow emaciation, and a piteous expression of the countenance ; but the mischief is done when these symptoms ap- pear. OSSIFICATION OF THE HEART. — There are but too many instances of this both in the right and the left auricles of the heart, the aortic valves, the abdominal aorta, and also the bronchial and other glands. Mr. Percivall observes of one of these cases, that " the cavity could have been but a passive receptacle for the blood, and the current must have been continued without any or with hardly any fresh impulse." Of AIR IN THE HEART destroying the horse, there are some interesting accounts ; and also of rupture of the heart, and aneurism, or dilatation of the aorta, boh thoracic and abdominal, and even farther removed from the heart and in the iliac artery. The symptoms that would certainly indicate the existence of aneurism are jet unknown, except tenderness about the loins and gradual inability to work, are considered as such : but it is interesting to know of the existence of these lesions. Ere long the «etermary surgeon may possibly be able to guess at them, although ne will rarely 184 CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. have more power in averting the consequences of aneurism than the human surgeo* possesses with regard to his patient. This will be the proper place to describe a little more fully the circulation of th« Mood, and various circumstances connected with that most important process. THE ARTERIES. The vessels which carry the blood from the heart are called arteries (keeping air—- the ancients thought that they contained air). They are composed of three coats the outer or elastic is that by which they are enabled to yield to the gush of blood, and enlarge their dimensions as it is forced along them, and by which also they contract again as soon as the stream has passed ; the middle coat is a muscular one, by which this contraction is more powerfully performed, and the blood urged on in its course ; the inner or membranous coat is the mere lining of the tube. This yielding of the artery to the gush of Wood, forced into it by the contraction of the heart, constitutes THE PULSE. The pulse is a very useful assistant to the practitioner of human medicine, and much more so to the veterinary surgeon, whose patients cannot describe either th* seat or degree of ailment or pain. The number of pulsations in any artery will give the number of the beatings of the heart, and so express the irritation of that organ, and of the frame generally. In a state of health, the heart beats in a farmer's horse about thirty-six times a minute. In the smaller, and in the thorough-bred horse, the pulsations are forty or forty-two. This is said to be the standard pulse — the pulse of health. It varies singularly little in horses of the same size and breed, and where it beats naturally there can be little materially wrong. The most convenient place to feel the pulse, is at the lower jaw (p. 68) a little behind the spot where the sub- maxillary artery and vein, and the parotid duct, come from under the jaw. There the number of pulsations will be easily counted, and the character of the pulse, a matter of fully equal importance, will be clearly ascertained. Many horsemen put the hand to the side. They can certainly count the pulse there, but they can do no- thing more. We must be able to press the artery against some hard body, as the jaw-bone, in order to ascertain the manner in which the blood flows through it, and the quantity that flows. When the pulse reaches fifty or fifty -five, some degree of fever may be apprehended, and proper precaution should be taken. Seventy or seventy-five will indicate a dan- gerous state, and put the owner and the surgeon not a little on the alert. Few horses long survive a pulse of one hundred, for, by this excessive action, the energies of nature are speedily worn out. Some things, however, should be taken into account in forming our conclusion from the frequency of the pulse. Exercise, a warm stable, and fear, will wonderfully increase the number of pulsations. When a careless, brutal fellow goes up to a horse, and speaks hastily to him, and Handles him roughly, he adds ten beats per minute to the pulse, and wTill often be misled in the opinion he may form of the state of the animal. A judicious person will approach the patient gently, and pat and soothe him, and even then the circula- tion, probably, will be a little disturbed. He should take the additional precaution of noting the number and quality of the pulse, a second time, before he leaves the anima.. If a quick pulse indicate irritation and fever, a slow pulse will likewise characterise diseases of an opposite description. It accompanies the sleepy stage of staggers, and every malady connected with deficiency of nervous energy. The heart may not only be excited to more frequent, but also to more violent action. It may contract more powerfully upon the blood, which will be driven with greater rorce through the arteries, and the expansion of the vessels will be greater and more sudden. Then we have the hard pulse — the sure indicator of considerable fever, and calling for the immediate and free use of the lancet. Sometimes trie pulse may be hard and jerking, and yet small. The stream though forcible is not great. The heart is so irritable that it contracts before the ventricle «s properly filled. The practitioner knows that this indicates a dangerous state cf iisef se. It is an a nost invariaV e accompanimeni of inflammation of the bowe's. INFLAMMATION. 185 A weak pulse, when the arterial stream flows slowly, is caused by the feehie actior jrf the heart. It is the reverse of fever, and expressive of debility. The oppressed pulse is when the arteries seem to be fully distended with blood. There is obstruction somewhere, and the action of the heart can hardly force the stream along, or communicate pulsation to the current. It is the case in suddec inflammation of the lungs. They are overloaded and gorged with blood, which can- not find its way through their minute vessels. This accounts for the well-known fact of a copious bleeding increasing a pulse previously oppressed. A portion being removed from the distended and choked vessels, the remainder is able to flow on. There are many other varieties of the pulse, which it would be tedious here to par- ticularise ; it must, however, be observed, that during the act of bleeding, its state should be carefully observed. Many veterinary surgeons, and gentlemen too, are apt to order a certain quantity of blood to be taken away, but do not condescend to super- intend the operation. This is unpardonable in the surgeon and censurable in the owner of the horse. The animal is bled for some particular purpose. There is seine state of disease, indicated by a peculiar quality of the pulse, whieh we are endeavour- ing to alter. The most experienced practitioner cannot tell what quantity of blood must be abstracted in order to produce the desired effect. The change of the pulse can alone indicate when the object is accomplished ; therefore, the operator should have his finger on the artery during the act of bleeding, and, comparatively regardless of the quantity, continue to take blood, until, in inflammation of the lungs, the op- pressed pulse becomes fuller and more distinct, or the strong pulse of considerable fever is evidently softer, or the animal exhibits symptoms of faintness. The arteries divide as they proceed through the frame, and branch out into innu- merable minute tubes, termed capillaries (hair-like tubes), and they even become so small as to elude the sight. The slightest puncture cannot be inflicted without wound- ing some of them. In these little tubes, the nourishment of the body and the separation of all the vari- ous secretions is performed, and in consequence of this, the blood is changed. When these capillaries unite together, and begin to enlarge, it is found to be no longer arte- rial, or of a florid red colour, but venous, or of a blacker hue. Therefore the principal termination of the arteries is in veins. The point where the one ends, and the other commences, cannot be ascertained. It is when red arterial blood, having dis- charged its function by depositing the nutritious parts, is changed to venous or black blood. Branches from the ganglial or sympathetic nerves wind round these vessels, and endue them with energy to discharge their functions. When the nerves communicate too much energy, and these vessels consequently act with too much power, inflammo' tion is produced. If this disturbed action is confined to a small space or a single organ, it is said to be local, as inflammation of the eye, or of the lungs ; but when this inordinate action spreads from its original seat, and embraces the whole of the arterial system, fever is said to be present, and this usually increases in proportion aa the local disturbance is observable, and subsides with it INFLAMMATION. Local inflammation is characterised by redness, swelling, heat, and pain. The redness proceeds from the greater quantity of blood flowing through the part, occa- sioned by the increased action of the vessels. The swelling arises from the same cause, and from the deposit of fluid in the neighbouring substance. The natural heat of the body is produced by the gradual change which takes place in the blood, in passing from an arterial to a venous state. If more blood is driven through the capil- laries of an inflamed part, and in which this change is effected, more heat will neces sarily be produced there ; and the pain is easily accounted for by the distension and pressure which must be produced, and the participation of the nerves in the disturb Rnce of the surrounding parts. If inflammation consists of an increased flow of blood to and through the part, the ready way to abate it is to lessen the quantity of blood. If we take away the fuel, the fire will go out. All other means are comparatively unimportant, contrasted with bleeding. Blood is generally abstracted from the jugular vein, and 1 N U . dealers' habit of coughing the horse, i. e. pressing upon uie larynx to makfc him cough in order that they may judge of the state of his wind by the sound that is emitted, ha» produced inflammation about the larynx, which has terminated in roaring, or assisted jn producing it. That pain is given to the animal by the rough and violent way in which the object is sometimes attempted to be accomplished, is evident enough, and this must, in process of time, lead to mischief; but sufficient inflammation and sub« sequent ossification of the cartilages would scarcely be produced, to be a cause of roanng. The Disease of Draught-Horses generally. — There can be no doubt of the fact, that the majority of roarers are draught-horses, and horses of quick draught. They are not only subject to the usual predisposing causes of this obstruction, but there is some- thing superadded, — resulting from their habits or mode of work, — not indeed necessa- rily resulting, but that which the folly as well as cruelty of man has introduced — the system of tight-reining. To a certain extent, the curb-rein is necessary. Without it there would be scarcely any command over a wilful horse, and it would need a strong arm occasionally to guide even the most willing. Without the curb-rein the horse would carry himself low; he would go carelessly along; he would become a stum- bier ; and if he were disposed at any time to run away, the strongest arm would have little power to stop him ; but there is no necessity for the tight rein, and for the long and previous discipline to which the carriage-horse is subjected. There is no necessity that the lower jaw, whether the channel is wide or narrow, should be so forced on the neck, or that the larynx and the portion of the windpipe immediately beneath it should oe flattened, and bent, and twisted, and the respiratory passage not only obstructed, but in a manner closed. The mischief is usually done when the horse is young. It is effected in some'measure by the impatience of the animal, unused to control/and suffering pain. In the violent tossing of his head he bruises the larynx, and produces inflammation. The head of the riding-horse is gradually brought to its proper place by the hands of the breaker, who skilfully increases or relaxes the pressure, and humours and plays with the mouth ; but the poor carriage-horse is confined by a rein that never slackens, and his nose is bent in at the expense of the larynx and wind- pipe. The injury is materially increased if the head is not naturally well set on, or the neck is thick, or the jaws narrow. Connected with this is the common notion that crib-biting is a cause of roaring That is altogether erroneous. There is no possible connexion between the com plaints : but one of the methods that used to be resorted to in order to cure crib-biting might be a cause of roaring, namely, the strap so tightly buckled round the upper part of the neck as to compress, and distort, and paralyse the larynx. Facts have established the hereditary predisposition to roaring, beyond the possi- bility of doubt. In France it is notorious that three-fourths of the horses from Gotten tin are roarers, and some of them are roarers at six months old ; but about La Hague and Le Eocase, not a roarer is known. There is certainly a considerable difference in the soil of the two districts; the first is low and marshy, the latter elevated and dry : but tradition traces it to the introduction of some foreign horses into Cottentin, who bequeathed this infirmity to the^r progeny. In our own country, there is as decisive a proof. There was a valuable stallion in Norfolk, belonging to Major Wilson, of Didlington. He was a great favourite, and seemed to be getting some excellent stock ; but he was a roarer, and some of the breeders took alarm at this. They had occasionally too painful experience of the communication of the defects of the parent to his progeny ; and they feared that roar- ing might 'possibly be among these hereditary evils. Sir Charles Bunbury was requested to obtain Mr. Cline's opinion on the subject. Mr. Cline was a deservedly eminent human surgeon : he had exerted himself in the establishment of the Veteri- nary College: he was an examiner of veterinary pupils, and therefore it was supposed that he must be competent to give an opinion. He gave one, and at considerable^ length : — "The disorder in the horse," said he, "which constitutes a roarer, is caused by a membranous projection in a part of the windpipe, and is the consequence of that part having boen inflamed from a cold, and injudiciously treated. A roarer, therefore is not a diseased horse, for his lungs and every other part may be perfectly sound The existence of roaring in a stallion cannot be of any consequence. It cannot b« propagated any more than a broken bone, or any other accident." — A fair specinif ri BRONCHOCELE. 197 of the horse -knowledge of one of the best of the medical examiners c veterinary pupils. Sir Charles returned full of glee ; the good people of Norfolk and Suffolk were satisfied ; Major Wilson's horse was in high request: but in a few years a great part f the two counties was overrun with roarers, and many a breeder haff ruined Roaring is not, however, necessarily hereditary. Mr. Goodwin, whose name is great authority, states that Taurus, a celebrated racer that had become a roarer, had covered several mares, and their produce all turned out well, and had won several races. In no instance did his progeny exhibit this defect, notwithstanding that his own family were notorious for being roarers. Eclipse also is said to have been a roarer. What then is to be done with these animals 1 Abandon them to their fate I No, not so ; but there is no necessity rashly to undertake a hopeless affair. All possible knowledge must be obtained of the origin of the disease. Did it follow strangles, catarrh, bronchitis, or any affection of the respiratory passages 1 Is it of long stand- ing 1 Is it now accompanied by cough or any symptoms of general or local irrita- tion 1 Can any disorganization of these parts be detected 1 Any distortion of the larynx 1 Did it follow breaking-in to harness ? The answer to these questions will materially guide any future proceedings. If there is plain distortion of the larynx or trachea, or the disease can be associated, in point of time, with breaking-in to harness, >r the coachman or proprietor has been accustomed to rein the animal in too tightly or too cruelly, or the sire was a roarer, it is almost useless to have anything t: uo with the case. But if it is of rather recent date, and following closely on some dis- ease with which it can be clearly connected, careful examination of the patient may be commenced. Is there cough 1 Can any heat or tenderness be detected about the larynx or trachea 1 Is there in every part the same uniform rushing noise ; or, on some particular spot, can a more violent breathing, a wheezing or whistling, or a rattling and guggling, be detected 1 Is that wheezing or rattling either confined to one spot, or less sonorous as the ear recedes from that spot above or below ; or is it diffused over a considerable portion of the trachea 1 In these cases it would be fair to bleed, purge, and most certainly tc blister. The ear will guide to the part to which the blister should be applied. The physic having set, a course of fever medicine should be commenced. It should be considered as a case of chronic inflammation, and to be subdued by a continuance of moderate deple- tory measures. Probably blood should again be abstracted in less quantity ; a second dose of physic should be given, and, most certainly, the Wister should be repeated, or kept discharging by means of some stimulating unguent. The degree of success which attends these measures would determine She farther pursuit of them. If no relief is obtained after a fortnight or three weeks, perhaps the experimenter would ponder on another mode of treatment. He would again carefully explore the whole extent of the trachea, and if he could yet refer the rattling or wheezing to the same point at which he had before observed it, he would boldly propose tracheotomy, for he could certainly cut upon the seat of disease. If he found one of these organised bands, the removal of it would afford immediate relief; or if he found merely a thickened membrane, no harm would be done ; or the loss of blood might abate the local inflammation. No one would eagerly undertake a case of roaring ; but, having undertaken it, he should give the measures that he adopts a fair trial, remembering that, in every chronics case like this, the only hope of success depends on perseverance. BRONCHOCELE. Mr. Percivall is almost the only author who takes notice of enlargement of the thyroid glands — two oval bodies below the larynx, and attached to the trachea. The nse of them has never been satisfactorily explained. They sometimes grow to the uize of an egg, or 'arger, but are unattended by cough or fever, and are nothing more than an eye-sore. The iodine ointment has occasionally been applied with success, The blister or the seton may also be useful. EPIDEMIC CATARRH. Various names are given to this disease — influenza, distemper, catarrhal fever, and epidemic catarrh. Its usual history is as follows. In the spring of the year — a cold vet spring — and that succeeding to a mild wintej , l98 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. and especially among young horses, and those in high condition, or made up fojJt.ns»«iters an/1 horse-dealers dread its appearance. Ir a sick/tr season 200 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. stables are never f i«e from it ; and if, perchance, it does enter one of their largest, stables, almost every horse will be affected. Therefore also it is that grooms have M luuch dread of a distempered stable, and that the odds are so seriously affected if distemper has broken out in a racing establishment. Does this lead to the conclusion that epidemic catarrh is contagious ? Not neces* warily, but it excites strong suspicion of its being so ; and there are so many facts of the disease following the introduction of a distempered horse into an establishment, that this malady .must rank among those that are both contigious and epidemic. There are few well-informed grooms, or extensive owner? of horses, and living much among them, or veterinary surgeons of considerable practice, who entertain the least doubt about the matter. Then every necessary precaution should be adopted. The horse that exhibits symptoms of epidemic catarrh should be removed as soon as possible. The affected horses should be removed, and not the sound ones, for they, although apparently sound, may have the malady lurking about them, and may more widely propagate the disease. With regard to the treatment of epidemic catarrh, there may be, and is at times, considerable difficulty. It is a disease of the mucous membrane, and thus connected with much debility ; but it is also a disease of a febrile character, and the inflamma- tion is occasionally intense. The veterinary surgeon, therefore, must judge for himself. Is the disease in its earliest stage marked by evident inflammatory action ? Is there much redness of the membrane of the nose — much acceleration of the pulse —much heaving of the flanks 1 If so, blood must be abstracted. The orifice should be large that the blood may flow quickly, and the circulation be sooner affected ; and the medical attendant should be present at this first venesection, that he may close the orifice as soon as the pulse begins to falter. This attention to the first bleeding is indispensable. It is the carelessness with which it is performed — the ignorance of the object to be accomplished, and the effect actually produced, that destroys half the horses that are lost from this malady. The first falter of the pulse is the signal to suspend the bleeding. Every drop lost afterwards may be wanted. If there is no appearance of febrile action, or only a very slight one, small doses of aloes may be given, combined with the fever medicines recommended for catarrh. As soon as the faeces are pultaceous, or even before that, the aloes should be omitted and the fever medicine continued. It will rarely be prudent to continue the aloes beyond the third drachm. A stricter attention must be paid to diet than the veterinarian usually enforces, or the groom dreams of. No corn must be allowed, but mashes and thin gruel. The water should be entirely taken away, and a bucket of gruel suspended in the box. This is an excellent plan with regard to every sick horse that we do not wish to reduce too much ; and when he finds that the morning and evening pass over, and his water is not offered to him, he will readily take to the gruel, and drink as much of it as is good for him. Green meat should be early offered ; such as grass, tares (the 'atter especially), lucerne, and, above all, carrots. If these cannot be procured, a little hay may be wetted, and offered morsel after morsel by the hand. Should this »e refused, the hay may be damped with water slightly salted, and then the patient will generally seize it with avidity. Should the horse refuse to eat during the two 01 three first days, there is no occa- won to be in a hurry to drench with gruel ; it will make the mouth sore, and the throat sore, and tease and disgust: but if he should long continue obstinately to refuse his food, nutriment must be forced upon him. Good thick gruel must be horned down, or, wlat is better, given by means of Read's pump. The practitioner will often and anxiously have recourse to auscultation. He will listen for the mucous rattle, creeping down the windpipe, and entering the bronchial passages. If he cannot detect it below the larynx, he will apply a strong blister, reaching from ear to ear, and extending to the second or third ring of the trachea. If he can trace the rattle in the windpipe, he must follow it, — he must blister as fai as the disease has spread. This will often have an excellent effect, not only as a counter-irritant, but as rousing the languid powers of the constitution. A rowel of tolerable sixe between the fore-legs cannot do harm. It may act as a derivative, 01 it may take away a disposition to inflammation in the contiguous port'on of the chest. The inflammation which characterizes the early stage of this disease is at first con to the membrane of the mouth and the fauces. Can fomentations be allied EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 201 Ves, and to the very part, by means of a hot mash, not thrown ILJO the Liangwr ovei the head of the horse cannot be confined, but placed in that too-much-under- and discarded article of stable-furniture, the nose-bag. The vapour ol the »vater will, at every inspiration, pass over the inflamed surface. An the majority of cases relief will speedily be obtained, and that suppuration from the part so necessary to the permanent removal of the inflammation — a copious discharge of mucus or puru- lent matter from the nostrils — will be hastened. If the discharge does not appear so speedily as could bfi wished, a stimulant should be applied to the part. The vapour impregnated with turpentine arising from fresh yellow deal saw-dust, used instead of bran, will have very considerable effect in quickening and increasing the suppuration. It may even be resorted to almost from the beginning, if there is not evidently much irritability of membrane. A hood is a useful article of clothing in these cases. It increases the perspiration from the surface covering the inflamed part — a circumstance always of considerable moment. An equable warmth should be preserved, if possible, over the whole body. The hand-brush should be gently used every day, and harder and more effectual rubbing applied to the legs. The patient should, if possible, be placed in a loose box, in which he may toddle about, and take a little exercise, and out of which he should rarely, if at all, be taken. The. exercise of which the groom is so fond in these cases, and which must in the most peremptory terms be forbidden, has destroyed thousands of horses. The air should be fresh and uncontaminated, but never chilly ; for the object is to increase and not to repress cutaneous perspiration ; to produce, if possible, a determination of blood to the skin, and not to drive it to the part already too much overloaded. In order to accomplish this, the clothing should be rather warmer than usual. The case may proceed somewhat slowly, and not quite satisfactorily to the practi tioner or his employer. There is not much fever — there is little or no local inflam- mation; but there is great emaciation and debility, and total loss of appetite. The quantity of the sedative may then be lessened but not omitted altogether ; for the fire may not be extinguished, although for a little while concealed. There are no diseases so insidious and treacherous as these. Mild and vegetable tonics, such as gentian and ginger, may be given. Two days after this the sedative may be altogether omit- ted, and the tonic gradually increased. The feeding should now be sedulously attended to. Almost every kind of green meat that can be obtained should be given, particularly carrots nicely scraped and sliced. The food should be changed as often as the capricious appetite prompts ; and occasionally, if necessary, the patient should be forced with gruel as thick as it will run from the horn, but the gradual return of health should be well assured, before one morsel of corn is given.* A very few weeks ago, the author received from his friend, Mr. Percivall, the fol lowing account of a new and destructive epidemic among horses : — " From the close of the past year and the beginning of the present, up to the time I am writing, the influenza among horses has continued to prevail in the metropolis and different parts of the country with more or less fatality. In London it has assumed the form of laryngitis, associated in some instances with bronchitis ; in others — in all I believe where it has proved fatal-— with pleurisy. The parenchymatous structure of the lungs has not partaken of the disease, or but consecutively and slightly. The earliest and most characteristic symptom has been svre throat ; causing trouble some dry short cough, but rarely occasioning any difficulty of deglutition, and, in no instance that I have seen, severe or extensive enough to produce anything like dis- gorgement or return of the masticated matters through the nose, and yet the slightest pressure on the larynx has excited an act of coughing. But seldom has any glandular enlargement appeared. The symptom secondarily remarkable after the sore throat %nd cough has been a dispirited ness or dulness, for which most epidemics of the kind are remarkable. The animal, at the time of sickening, has hung his head under the manger, with hia eyes half shut, and his lower lip pendent, without evincing any * An interesting account of epidemic among horses will be found in the Association Pait a* " The Veterinarian," vols. xii. and xv. A work, by the author of this volume, is in prepare fion, fju the epi lemics that have prevailed among all our domesticated animals. 202 EPIDEMIC CATARRK. alaru. or even mucn notice, though a person entered his abode vt approached Lim and if in a box, his head is often found during his illness turned toward the door ci window. Fever, without any disturbance of the respiration, has always been present; ,ie pulse has been accelerated, though rather small and weak in its beat than indioa dve of strength ; the mouth has been hot, sometimes burning hot, afterwards moist, and perhaps saponaceous ; the skin and extremities in general have been warm. Now and then the prostration and appearance of debility have been such, and so rapid in their manifestation, that, shortly after being attacked, a horse has staggeringly walked iwenty yards only — the distance from his stable into an infirmary-box. The appetite, though impaired much, has seldom been altogether lost. Generally, if a little fresh hay has been offered, it has been taken and eaten ; but to mashes there has been com- monly great aversion. During the long continuance of the wind in the east, the sore throat and cough have been unattended by any flux from the nose ; but since the wind has shifted within this last fortnight or three weeks, discharges from the nostrils have appeared, profuse even in quantity, and purulent in their nature ; in fact, the disease has assumed a more catarrhal character — ergo, I might add, a more favourable one. " The disorder has exhibited every phase and degree of intensity, from the slightest perceivable dulness, which has passed off with simply a change in the diet, to' an insidious, unyielding, unsubduable pleurisy, ending in hydrothorax, in spite of every- thing that could be done, and most timely done. So long as the disease has confined itself to the throat, and that there has been along with that only dejection, prostration, and fever, there has existed no cause for alarm ; but when such symptoms have, after some days' continuance, not abated, and have, on the contrary, rather increased, and others have arisen which but too well have authorised suspicions that ' mischief was brewing in the chest,' then there became the strongest reasons for alarm for the safety of the patient. What is now to be done ? The practitioner durst not bleed a second time, at least not generally, for the patient's strength would net endure it, although he is certain a pleurisy is consuming his patient. He possesses no effectual means for topical blood-letting. Neither blisters nor rowels, nor plugs nor setons, will take any effect. Cathartic medicine he must not administer ; nauseants are uncertain and doubtful in their efficacy; sedatives, tonics, and stimulants and narcotics, appear counter-indicated, inflammation existing, and, when tried under such circumstances, have, I believe, never failed to do harm. "Dissatisfied with one and all of these remedies in the late influenza — though the losses I have experienced have, after all, not been so very comparatively great, being no more, since the beginning of the year, than three out of nearly forty cases — I repeat, having, as I thought, reason to be dissatisfied for losing even these three cases, considering that they came under my care at the earliest period of indisposition, I determined, in any similar cases that might occur, to have recourse to that medicine which, in all membranous inflammations in particular, is the physician's sheet-anchor, and which I had exhibited, and still continue to do, myself, in other disorders, though I had never given it a fair trial in epidemics having that tendency which I have described the present one uniformly to have indicated, viz., the destruction of life by an inflammation attacking membranous parts, of a nature over which, being forbidden to bleed, we appeared to possess little or no power. Could we have drawn blood from the sides or breast, by cupping or by leeches, in any tolerable quantity, we might have had some control over the internal disease; but barred from this, and without any remedy save a counter-irritant, which we could not make act, or an internal medicine, whose action became extremely dubious, if not positively hurtful, what was to be done ? I repeat, I made up my mind to experiment with the surgeon's remedy in the same disease, namely, mercury ; and that I have had reason to feel gratified at the result will, I think, appear from the following cases : — " Case I. — April 8. Every symptom of the prevailing epidemic : and considerably aggravated on the 10th, when the horse laboured under much prostration of strength, and staggered considerably in his gait. The following ball was then ordered to be given him twice a day : R Hydrarg. chlorid. 3i, farin. avenae 3ss. terebinth, vulg, q. s. ut fiat bol. One to be given morning and night. He soon began to improve4, and was returned to he stable on the 26th, convalescent. A second patient of the san.e character was cured in eighteen days, and a third in nineteen days." The •uthor of this work had the pleasure of witnessing these cases. Mr. Pemivall adds. " Lest it should be said, after the perusal of :hese three case* MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. 203 tt at they do not appear to have been of a dangerous character, or to b.ave required anything out of the ordinary line of treatment, I beg to observe, that at the periods at which 1 submitted them to the action of mercury, they so much resembled three others that had preceded them, and the disease had proved fatal, that, under a con- tinuance of treatment of any ordinary kind, I certainly should have entertained fears for their safety, " It must be remembered that they were cases in which blood-letting1, except at the commencement, was altogether forbidden ; and that, at the critical period when mer- cury was introduced, they had taken an unfavourable turn, and that nothing in the shape of remedy appeared available, save internal medicine and counter-irritation, and that the latter had not, and did not, show results betokening the welfare of the patients. Under these circumstances, the mercury was exhibited. That it entered the system, and must have had more or less influence on the disease, appears evident from its effect on the gums. That it proved the means of cure, I cannot, from so few cases, take upon myself to assert ; but I would recommend it in similar cases to the notice of practitioners." THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. Continental veterinarians describe a malignant variety or termination of this disease ; and the imperfect history of veterinary medicine in Britain is not without its records of it. So lately as the year 1815, an epidemic of a malignant character reigned among horses. Three out of five who were attacked died. It reappeared in 1823, but was not so fatal. It was said that the horses that died, were ultimately farcied: the truth was, that swellings and ulcerations, with foetid discharge, appeared in various parts, or almost all over them — the natural swellings of the complaint which has just been considered, but aggravated and malignant. Our recollection of the classic lore of our early years will furnish us with instances of the same pest in dis- tant times and countries. We have not forgotten the vivid description of Apollo darting his fiery arrows among the Greeks, and involving in one common destruction, the human being, the mule, the horse, the ox, and the dog. Lucretius, when describ* ing the plague at Athens, speaks of a malignant epidemic affecting almost every animal — Nor longer birds at noon, nor beasts at night Their native woods deserted ; with the pest Remote they languished, and full frequent died : But chief, the dog his generous strength resigned. In 1714, a malignant epidemic was imported from the Continent, and in the course of a few months destroyed 70,000 horses and cattle. It continued to visit other coun- tries, with but short intervals, for fifty years afterwards. Out of evil, however, came good. The Continental agriculturists were alarmed by this destruction of theii pro- perty. The different governments participated in the terror, and veterinary schools were established, in which the anatomy and diseases of these animals might be studied, and the cause and treatment of these periodical pests discovered. From the time that this branch of medical science began to receive the attention it deserved, these epidemics, if they have not quite ceased, have changed their character, and have become comparatively mild and manageable. As, however, they yet occur, and are far too fatal, we must endeavour to collect the symptoms, and point out the treat- ment of them. The malignant epidemic was almost uniformly ushered in by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, but soon involving other portions, and then ensued a diarrhoea, which no art could arrest. The fever, acute at first, lapidly passed over, and was succeeded by great prostration of strength. The 'nflam- ruation then spread to the cellular texture, and there was a peculiar disposition to the formation of phlegmonous tumours : sometimes there were pustular eruptions, but, oftener, deep-seated tumours rapidly proceeding to suppuration. Connected with this was a strong tendency to decomposition, and unless the animal was relieved by some cr'tical flux or evacuation, malignant typhus was established, and the horse speedily sunk. The most satisfactory account of one of these epidemics is given us by Professor Brugruone of Turin. It commenced with loss of appetite, staring !?iat, si wild *^ 18 206 PNEUMONIA — INFLAMMATION vF THE LUNGS. and forced from the inside of the tube. If the disease proceeds, the discharge become* oloody, and then, and sometimes earlier, it is foetid. The natural termination of this disease, if unchecked, is in pneumonia. Although ve cannot trace the air-tubes to their termination, the inflammation will penetrate Tito the lobuli, and affect the membranes of the air-cells or divisions which they con- tain. There is metastasis of inflammation oftener here than in pure pneumonia, and the disease is most frequently transferred to the feet. If, however, there is neithei pneumonia nor metastasis of inflammation, and the disease pursues its course, the animal dies from suffocation. If the air-passages are clogged, there can be no sup- ply of arterialized blood. Like every other inflammation of the respiratory passages, bronchitis is clearly epidemic. There is a disposition to inflammation in the respiratory apparatus gene- rally, but it depends on some unknown atmospheric influence whether this shall take on the form of catarrh, bronchitis, or pneumonia. It has not, however, been yet proved to be contagious. Here again the first step will be to bleed ; and here too will be the paramount necessity of the personal attendance of some well-informed person while the animal is bled. This is a disease of a mucous. — and an extended mucous surface ; and while our measures must be prompt, there is a tendency to debility which \v e should never forget. Although the horse may be distressed quite to the extent which Mr. Charles Percivall describes, yet he would not bear the loss of four pounds of blood without fainting. No determinate quantity of blood will therefore be taken, but the vein will not be closed until the pulse falters, and the animal staggers, and in a minute or two would fall. This may probably effect the desired object; if it does not, it i? possible that the practitioner may not have a second opportunity. The medical attendant should be cautious in the administration of purgatives, foi the reasons that nave again and again been stated ; but if the bowels are evidently constipated, small doses of aloes must be given with the febrifuge medicine, and their speedy action promoted by injections, so that a small quantity may suffice. A blister is always indicated in bronchitis. It can never do harm, and it not unfre- quently affords decided relief. It should extend over the brisket and sides, and up the trachea to the larynx. The food, if the horse is disposed to eat, should be mashes No corn should be offered, nor should the horse be coaxed to eat. PNEUMONIA — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. The intimate structure of the lungs has never been satisfactorily demonstrated They appear, however, to be composed of minute cells or pouches, into which the ail is at length conducted, and over the delicate membrane constituting the divisions of which myriads of minute blood-vessels are ramifying. The blood is not merely per- jneating them, but it is undergoing a vital change in them ; there is a constant decom- position of the air, or of the blood, or of both; and, during the excitement of exercise, that decomposition proceeds with fearful rapidity. Then it can readily be conceived .hat a membrane so delicate as this must be, in order that its interposition shall be no hindrance to the arterialisation of the blood ; so fragile also, and so loaded with blood-vessels, will be exceedingly subject to inflammation, and that of a most dan- gerous character. Inflammation of trie substance of the lungs is the not unfrequent consequence of all the diseases of the respiratory passages that have been treated on. Catarrh, influenza, bronchitis, if neglected or badly managed, or, sometimes in spite of the most skilful treatment, will spread along the mucous membrane, and at length involve the termination of the air-passages. At other times, there is pure pneumonia. This cpllular texture IP the primary seat of inflammation. It ip ofter.. so \\i the over-worked horse. After a long and hard day's hunt, it is very common for horses to be attacked by pure pneumonia A prodigiously increased quantity of blood is hurried through these small vessels, for the vast expenditure of arterial blood in rapid progression must be provided for. These minutest of the capillaries are distended and irritated, their contractile power is destroyed, inflammation is product d, mechanical injury is effected, the vessels are ruptured, blood is poured into the interstitial texture, and ii)tens»e inflammation and congestion, with all their train of falal consequences, ensue The following are the most frequent causes of pneumonia. A sudden transition f?om heat tr cold *, a cbangfe from a warm stable to a colder one ; a neglert of the usua PNEUMONIA — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 201 clothing ; a neglect even of some little comforts ; riding far and fast against a cold wind, especially in snowy weathei ; loitering about when unusual perspiration has been excited; loitering tediously by the side of a covert on a chilly blowing morning. It has not unfrequently happened that when horses have been turned out too early to grass, or without gradual preparation, pneumonia has supervened. Few are, undei any management, so subject to pneumonia as those who, in poor condition and with- out preparation, are turned into a salt-marsh. On the other hand, a sudden and considerable change from cold to heat may be followed by inflammation of the lungs. Many horses perish in the dealers' stables from this cause. The circulation is considerably quickened ; more blood, and that with more than natural rapidity, is driven through the lungs, previously disposed to take on inflammatory action. The sudden removal from a heated stable to the cold air, for the purpose of examination, has also much to do with the production of disease. Whether it is the consequence of previous disease of the respiratory passages, or that inflammation first appears in the cellular texture of the lungs, pneumonia is usually ushered in by a shivering fit. The horse is cold all over ; this, however, soon passes otf, and we have general warmth, or heat of the skin above the usual temperature, but accompanied by coldness of the extremities — intense deathy cold- ness. This is a perfectly diagnostic symptom. It will never deceive. It is an early symptom. It is found when there is little or no constitutional disturbance ; when the pulse is scarcely affected, and the flanks heave not at all, but the horse is merely supposed to be dull and off his feed. It is that by which the progress of the disease may be unhesitatingly marked, when many scarcely suspect its existence. The pulse is not always at first much increased in rapidity, and but rarely or never hard ; but it is obscure, oppressed. The heart is labouring to accomplish its object; the circulation through the lungs is impeded ; the vessels are engorged — they are often ruptured ; blood is extravasated into the air-cells ; it accumulates in the right side of the heart and in the larger vessels ; and in the venous circulation generally there is a mechanical obstruction which the heart has not power to overcome. Hence the obscure, oppressed pulse ; the ineffectual attempt to urge on the b' ^od ; and hence, too, the remarkable result of bleeding in inflammation of the lungt for the pulse becomes rounder, fuller, quicker. When blood is abstracted, a portion of the opposing force is removed, and the heart being enabled to accomplish its object, the pulse is developed. It is only, however, in the early insidious stage that the flanks are occasionally quiet. If the compressibility of the lungs is diminished by the thickening of the membrane, or the engorgement of the vessels, or the filling of the cells, it will be harder work to force the air out ; there must be a stronger effort, and that pressure which cannot be accomplished by one effort is attempted over and over again. The respiration is quickened — laborious ; the inspiration is lengthened ; the expiration is rapid ; and when, after all, the lungs cannot be compressed by the usual means, every muscle that can be brought to bear upon the part is called into action. Hence the horse will not lie down, for he can use the muscles of the spine and the shoulder with most advantage as he stands ; hence, too, the very peculiar stiffness of position — the disinclination to move. The horse with decided pneumonia can scarcely be Induced to move at all ; he cannot spare for a moment the assistance which he derives from certain muscles, and he will continue obstinately to stand until he falls exhausted or dying. How eagerly does the veterinarian ask when he goes into the stable — "Was he down last night]" And he concludes, that much progress has not been made towards amendment in the case when the answer is in 1he negative. When the patient, wearied out, lies down, it is only for a moment ; for if the inflammation is not suodued, he cannot dispense with the auxiliary muscles. He frequently, and with doleful expression, looks at his sides — at one side or at both, accordingly as ^ne or both are involved. There is not, however, the decidedly haggard countenance of bronchitis; and in bronchitis the horse rarely or never gazes at his flanks. His is a dread of suffocation more than a feeling of pain. The head is protruded, and the nostrils distended, and the mouth and the breath intensely hot. The nose is injected from tne earliest period ; and soon afterwards there is not merely injection, but the membrane is uniformly arc intensely red. The vanation in this intensity is anximiah PNEUMONIA. — INI LAMMATION OF THE LI NGS. marked by the observant practitioner; and he regards with fear and despair the livid or dirty brownish hue that gradually creeps on. The unfavourable symptoms are, increased coldness of the ears and feet, tf that bfl possible ; partial sweats, grinding of the teeth, evident weakness, staggering, the animal not lying down. The pulse becomes quicker, and weak and fluttering ; the membrane of the nose paler, but of a dirty hue ; the animal growing stupid, comatose. At length he falls, but he gets up immediately. For awhile he is up and down almost every minute, until he is no longer able to rise ; he struggles severely ; he piteously groans; the pulse becomes more rapid, fainter, and he dies of suffocation. The disease sometimes runs its course with strange rapidity. A horse has been destroyed by pure pneumonia in twelve hours. The vessels ramifying over the cells have yielded to the fearful impulse of the blood, and the lungs have presented t,i.e mass of congestion. The favourable symptoms are, the return of a little warmth to the extremities — the circulation beginning again to assume its natural character, and, next to this, the lying down quietly and without uneasiness ; showing us that he is beginning to dc without the auxiliary muscles. These are good symptoms, and they will rarely deceive. Congestion is a frequent termination of pneumonia. Not only are the vessels gorged — the congestion which accompanies common inflammation — but their parietes are necessarily so thin, in order that the change in the blood may take place although they are interposed, that they are easily ruptured, and the cells are filled with blood. This effused blood soon coagulates, and the lung, when cut into, presents a black, softened, pulpy kind of appearance, termed, by the farrier and the groom, rottenness, and being supposed by them to indicate an old disease. It proves only the violence of the disease, the rupture of many a vessel surcharged with blood ; and it also proves that the disease is of recent date, for in no great length of time, the serous portion of the blood becomes absorbed, the more solid one becomes organized, the cells are obliterated, and the lung is hepatized, or bears considerable resemblance to liver. In every case of pneumonia, early and anxious recourse should be had to ausculta^ tion. Here, again, is the advantage of being perfectly acquainted with the deep distant murmur presented by the healthy lung. This sound is most distinct in the young horse, and especially if he is a little out of condition. On such a horse the tyro should commence his study of the exploration of the chest. There he will make himself best acquainted with the respiratory murmur in its full state of development. He should next take an older and somewhat fatter horse ; he will there recognize the same sound, but fainter, more distant. In still older animals, there will sometimes be a little difficulty in detecting it at all. Repeated experiments of this kind will gradually teach the examiner what kind of healthy murmur he should expect from every ho"k'se that is presented to him, and thus he will be better enabled to appreciate the different sounds exhibited under disease. If pneumonia exists to any considerable degree, this murmur is soon changed for, or mingled with, a curious crepitating sound, which, having been once heard, cannot afterwards be mistaken. It is caused by the infiltration of blood into the air-cells. Its loudness and perfect character will characterize the intensity of the disease, and the portion of the chest at which it can be distinguished will indicate its extent. The whole lung, however, is not always affected, or there are only portions 01 patches of it in which the inflammation is so intense as to produce congestion and hepatization. Enough remains either unaffected, or yet pervious for the function of respiration to be performed, and the animal lingers on, or perhaps recovers. By care- ful examination with the ear, this also may be ascertained. Where the lung is im- pervious— where no air passes — no sound will be heard, not even the natural murmur. Around it the murmur will be heard, and loudly. It will be a kind of rushing sound ; for the same quantity of blood must be arterialized, and the air must pass more rapidly and forcibly through the remaining tubes. If there is considerable inflammation 01 tendency to congestion, the crepitating, crackling sound will be recognized, and in proportion to the intensity of the inflammation. The advantages to be derived from the study of auscultation are not overrated. It was strong language lately applied by an able critic to the use of auscultation, that " it converts the organ of hearing into an organ of vision, enabling the listener to observe, with the clearness of ocular demon- PNEUMONIA. — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 209 straturi, the ravages which disease occasionally commits in the very centre of th« rib-cased cavity of the body." A horse with any portion of the lungs hepatized cannot be sound. He cannot be capable of continued extra exertion. His imperfect and mutilated lung cannot supply the arterialized blood which long-continued and rapid progression requires, and that poition which is compelled to do the work of the whole lung must be exposed to injury and inflammation from many a cause that would otherwise be harmless. Another consequence of inflammation of the substance of the lungs is the formation of tubercles. A greater or smaller number of distinct cysts are formed — cells into which some fluid is poured in the progress of inflammation : these vary in size from a pin's point to a large egg. By degrees the fluid becomes concrete ; and so it con- tinues for a while — the consequence and the source of inflammation. It occupies ? space that should be employed in the function of respiration, and by its pressure il irritates the neighbouring parts, and exposes them to inflammation. By and by, however, another process, never sufficiently explained, commences. The tubercle begins to soften at its centre, — a process of suppuration is set up, and proceeds until the contents of the cyst become again fluid, but of a different charactei, for they now consist of pus. The pus increases; the cyst becomes more and mow distended ; it encroaches on the substance of the lungs ; it comes into contact witi. other tubercles, and the walls opposed to each other are absorbed by their mutuaj pressure ; they run together, and form one cyst, or regular excavation, and this some- times proceeds until a considerable portion of the lung is, as it were, hollowed out By and by, however, the vomica presses upon some bronchial passage ; the cyst givei way, and the purulent contents ire poured into the bronchiae, and got rid of by the act of coughing. At other times the quantity is too great to be thus disposed of, and the animal is suffocated. Occasionally it will break through the pleuritic covering of the lung, and pour its contents into the thorax. Abscesses may exist in the lungs undiscovered. — It is scarcely conceivable to what extent they sometimes exist in animals of slow work, without being detected by the usual means of examirvation. Mr. Hales says that he gave a physic-ball to a cart- mare with a bad foot, md she soon afterwards died suddenly. When inquiring as to the cause of death, he was told, and not very good-humouredly, that his physic had killed her. He asked if it had purged her violently ? " No !" it was replied, " it had not operated at all." She was opened, and the mystery was all unravelled. The thorax was deluged with pus, and there were then in the lungs several large abscesses, one of which contained at least a quart of pus. The mare had not shown a symptom of chest affection, and the gentleman to whom she belonged declared that he had believed her to be as sound as any horse he had in his possession. The resolution or gradual abatement of inflammation is the termination most to be desired in this state of disease, for then the engorgement of the vessels will gradually cease, and the thickening of the membrane and the interstitial deposit be taken up, and the effusion into the cells likewise absorbed, and the lungs will gradually resume their former cellular texture, yet not perfectly ; for there will be some induration, slight but general ; or some more perfect induration of certain parts; or the rupture of some of the air-cells ; or an irritability of membrane predisposing to renewed inflam- mation. The horse will not always be as useful as before ; there will be chronic cough, thick wind, broken wind; but these merit distinct consideration; and, for the present, we proceed to the treatment of pneumonia. There is inflammation of that organ through which all the blood in the frame passes — that organ most of all subject to congestion. Then nothing can be so important as to lessen the quantity of blood which the heart is endeavouring to force through the minute vessels of the lungs, distended, irritated, breaking. Immediate recourse must be had to the lancet, and the stream of blood must be suffered to flow on until the pulse falters, and the animal bears heavy upon the pail. This blood must be extracted as quickly as possible, and the lancet should be broad-shouldered, and the orifice large. This is the secret of treating inflammation of a vital organ. The disease :'s weakened or destroyed, without permanently impairing the strength of the patient, whereas, by small bleedings, and with a small stream, the strength of the patient in •apped, while the disease remains untouched. Next comes purging, if we dared ; for by having recourse to it some cause of excite- ment would be got rid of, the circulating fluid would be lessened, and a new defr»mi is* a» 210 PNEUMC NIA. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. nation of the vital current produced ; but experience teaches, that in pneumonia therm is so much sympathy with the abdominal viscera, — there is such a fatal tendency in the inflammation to spread over every mucous membrane, that purging is almost to a certainty followed by inflammation, and that inflammation bids defiance to every attempt to arrest it. It may be said with perfect confidence that, in the majority of cases a physic-ball would be a dose of poison to a horse labouring under pneumonia. May we not relax the bowels? Yes, if we can stop there. We may, after the inflammation has evidently a little subsided, venture upon, yet very cautiously, small doses of aloes in our fever medicine, and we may quicken their operation by frequent injections of warm soap and water; omitting the purgative, however, the moiient the faeces are becoming pultaceous. We must, however, be assured that the inflamma- tion is subsiding, and there must he considerable constipation, or the purgative had better be let alone. If we must not give physic, we must endeavour to find some other auxiliary to the bleeding, and we have it in the compound of digitalis, nitre, and emetic tartar, which has been so often recommended. The greatest care should be taken of the patient labouring under this complaint. His legs should be well hand-rubbed, in order to restore, if possible, the circulation to the extremities. Comfortable flannel rollers should encase the legs from the foot to the knee. He should be covered up warm. There cannot be a doubt about this. As for air, in warm weather he cannot have too much. In cold weather, his box must be airy, but not chilly. We want to determine the blood to the extremities and the skin, but not all the clothing in the world will keep our patient warm, if he is placed in a cold and uncomfortable situation. As for food, we think not of it. In nine cases out of ten he will not touch any- thing ; or if he is inclined to eat, we give him nothing but a bran-mash, or a little green meat, or a few carrots. We now look about us for some counter-irritant. We wish to excite "some power- ful action in another part of the frame, and which shall divert the current of blood from that which was first affected. We recognise it as a law of nature, and of which we here eagerly avail ourselves, that if we have a morbid action in some vital organ —an unusual determination of blood to it — we can abate, perhaps we can at once arrest, that morbid action by exciting a similar or a greater disturbance in some con- tiguous and not dangerous part. Therefore we blister the sides and the brisket, and produce all the irritation we can on the integument ; and in proportion as we do so, we abate, or stand a chance of abating, the inflammation within. We have recourse to a blister in preference to a seton ; and decidedly so, for our stimulus can be spread over a larger surface, — there is more chance of its being applied to the immediate neighbourhood of the original inflammation — and, most assuredly. from the extent of surface on which we can act, we can employ a quantity of stimulus beyond comparison greater than a seton would permit us to do. Rowels aie frequency excellent adjuvants to the blister, but should not be depended upon alone. In the latter stage of disease the blister will not act, because the powers of nature are exhausted. We must repeat it, — we must rouse the sinking energies of the frame, if we can, although the effort will generally be fruitless. The not rising of a blister, in the latter stage of the disease, may, too often, be regarded as the precursor of death, especially if it is accompanied by a livid or brown colour of the membrane of the nose. Pneumonia, like bronchitis, requires anxious watching. The first object is to sub- due the inflammation, and our measures must be prompt and decisive. If the mouth continues hot, and the extremities cold, and the nose red, we must bleed again and again, and that in rapid succession. The good which we can do must be done ai first, or not at all. When we have obtained a little returning warmth to the extremities, we must con- tinue to administer our sedative medicines without one grain of a carminative or a tonic ; and the return of the deathy-cold foot will be a signal for farther depletion. The commencement of the state of convalescence requires the same gr.arded prac- tice, as in bronchitis. As many horses are lost by impatience now, as by want of aecision at first. If we have subdued the disease, we should let well alone. We should guard against the return of the foe by the continued administration of our seda« rives in smaller quantities; but give no tonics unless debility is rapidly succeeding. When we have apparently wetthered the storm, we must still be cautious ; we must CHRONIC COUGH. 21. eonsider the na.um; and the seat of the disease, and the predisposition ti. returning inflammation. If the season will permit, two or three months' ran at gra&s should succeed to our medical treatment; but if this is impracticable, we must put cflf the period of active work as long as it can be delayed ; and even after that permit the horse to return as gradually as may be to his usual employment and food. Most frequent in occurrence among the consequences of inflammation of the lungs, is CHRONIC COUGH. It would occupy more space than can be devoted to this part of our subject, to treat of all the causes of obstinate cough. The irritability of so great a portion of the air- passages, occasioned by previous and violent inflammation of them, is the most fre- quent. It is sometimes connected with worms. There is much sympathy between the lungs and the intestines, and the one readily participates in the irritation produced in the other. That it is caused by glanders can be easily imagined, because that dis- ease is, in its early stage, seated in or near the principal air-passages, and little time passes before the lungs become affected. It is the necessary attendant of thick wind and broken wind, for these proceed from alterations of the structure of the lungs. Notwithstanding the clearness of the cause, the cure is not so evident. If a harsh hollow cough is accompanied by a staring coat, and the appearance of worms, — a few worm-balls may expel these parasites, and remove the irritation of the intestinal canal. If it proceeds from irritability of the air-passages, which will be discovered by the horse coughing after drinking, or when he first goes out of the stable in the morning, or by his occasionally snorting out thick mucus from the nose, medicines may be given, and sometimes with advantage, to diminish irritation generally. Small doses of digitalis, emetic tartar, and nitre, administered every night, frequently have a bene- ficial effect, especially when mixed with tar, which seems to have a powerful influence in allaying the irritation. These balls should, if necessary, be regularly given for a considerable time. They are sufficiently powerful to quiet slight excitement of this kind, but not to nauseate the horse, or interfere with his food or his work. A blister, extending from the root of one ear to that of the other, taking in the whole of the channel, and reaching six or eight inches down the windpipe, has been tried and often with good effect, on the supposition that the irritation may exist in the fauces or the larynx. The blister has sometimes been extended through the whole course «rf the windpipe, until it enters the chest. Feeding has much influence on this complaint. Too much dry meat, and espe- cially chaff, increase it. It is aggravated when the horse is suffered to eat his litter; ind it is often relieved when spring tares are given. Carrots afford decided relief. The seat of the disease, however, is so uncertain, and all our means and appliances so inefficacious, and the cough itself so little interfering, and sometimes interfering not At all with the health of the animal, that it is scarcely worth while to persevere in any mode of treatment that is not evidently attended with benefit. The principal consideration to induce us to meddle at all with chronic cough is the knowledge that horses afflicted with it are more liable than others to be affected by changes of tem- perature, and that inflammation of the lungs, or of the respiratory passages, often assumes in them a very alarming character ; to which, perhaps, may be added, that a horse with chronic cough cannot be warranted sound. When chronic cough chiefly occurs after eating, the seat of the disease is evidently in the substance of the lungs. The stomach distended with food presses upon the diaphragm, and the diaphragm upon the lungs ; and the lungs, already labouring ander some congestion, are less capable of transmitting the air. In the violent effort to discharge their function, irritation is produced ; and the act of coughing is the con- sequence of that irritation. The Veterinary Surgeon labours under great disadvantage in the treatment of his patients. He must not only subdue the malady, but he must remove all its conse« quences. He must leave his patient perfectly sound, or he has done comparatively nothing, Thi 5 is a task always difficult, and sometimes impossible to be accomplished. The two most frequent consequences of severe chest affections in the horse are recognised under the terms thick wind and broken wind. The breathing is hurried in both, and the horse is generally much distressed when put upon his speed; but it is simply ou* assistance, and, while describing emphysema of the lungi BROKEN-WIND. of the human being, give* us an explication of broken-wind, mure satisfactory tnat is to oe found in any of our veterinary writers. He attributes what he calls dry ca- tarrh " to the partial obstruction of the smaller bronchial tubes, by the swelling1 of their inner membrane. The muscles of inspiration are numerous and powerful, while 3xpiration is chiefly left to the elasticity of the parts : then it may happen that the »ir which, during inspiration, had overcome the resistance opposed to its entrance by the tumid state of the membrane, is unable to force its way through the same obsta- cle during expiration, and remains imprisoned in the cells, as it were, by a valve. The succeeding inspirations introduce a fresh supply of air, and gradually dilate the cells to a greater or less extent ; and if the obstruction is of some continuance, the dilated condition of the cells becomes permanent." Some circumstances attending this disease may now, probably, be accounted for. A troublesome cough, and sometimes of long continuance, is the foundation of the disease, or indicates that irritable state of the bronchial membrane with which broken- wind is almost necessarily associated. Horses that are greedy feeders, or devoui large quantities of slightly nutritious food, or are worked with a stomach distended by this food, are very subject to broken-wind. More depends upon the management of the food and exercise than is generally supposed. The post-horse, the coach-horse, and the racer, are comparatively seldom broken-winded. They are fed, at stated pe- riods, on nutritious food that lies in little compass, and their hours of feeding and of exertion are so arranged that they seldom work on a full stomach. The agricultural horse is too often fed on the very refuse of the farm, and his hours of feeding, and his hours of work, are frequently irregular ; and the carriage-horse, although fed on more nutritious food, is often summoned to work, by his capricious master, the mo- ment his meal is devoured. A rapid gallop on a full stomach has often produced broken-wind. When the exe> tion has been considerable and long-continued, we can easily conceive a rupture of the air-cells of the soundest lungs ; but we are inclined to believe, that, were the his- tory of these cases known, thnre would be found to have been a gradual preparation for this result. There would have been chronic cough, or more than usually disturbed respiration after exercise, and then it required little more to perfect the mischief Galloping after drinking has been censured as a cause of broken-wind, yet we canno. think that it is half so dangerous as galloping with a stomach distended by solid food. It is said that broken-winded horses are foul feeders, because they devour almost everything that comes in their way, arid thus impede the play of the lungs ; but there is so much sympathy between the respiratory and digestive systems, that one cannot be much deranged without the other evidently suffering. Flatulence, and a depraved appetite, may be the consequence as well as the cause of broken-wind ; and there is no pathological fact of more frequent occurrence than the co-existence of indigestion and flatulence with broken-wind. Flatulence seems so invariable a concomitant of oroken-wind, that the old farriers used to think the air found its way from the lungs to the abdomen in some inexplicable manlier; and hence their "holes to let out bro- ken-wind." They used literally to make a hole near to or above the fundament in order to give vent to the imprisoned wind. The sphincter muscle was generally divi- ded ; and although the trumping ceased, there was a constant, although silent, emis- sion of foetid gas, that made the remedy worse than the disease. The narrow-chested horse is more subject to broken-wind than the broader and deeper chested one, for there is not so much room for the lungs to expand when rapid progression requires the full discharge of their function. Is broken-wind hereditary T We believe so. It may be referred to hereditary con- formation— to a narrower chest, and more fragile membrane — and predisposition to take on those inflammatory diseases which end in broken-wind ; and the circular chest, which cannot enlarge its capacity when exertion requires it, must render both thick and broken-wind of more probable occurrence. Is there any cure for broken-wind 1 Ncne ! No medical skill can repair the bro- ken-down structure of the lungs. If, however, we cannot cure, we may in some degree palliate broken-wind ; and, first of all, we must attend carefully to the feeding. The food should lie in little com- pass— plenty of oats and little hay, but no chaff. Chaff is particularly objectionable, from the rapidity with which it is devoured, and the stomach distended. Water be jriven in moderate quantities, but tie horse should ^ot be suffereu *o drink PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. 21ft jus much as he likes until the day's work is over. Green meat will always be ser riceable. Carrots are particularly useful. They are readily digested, and appear to have a peculiarly beneficial effect on the respiratory system. It is from the want of proper attention to the feeding- that many horses become broken-winded, even in the straw-yard. There is little nutriment in the provender which they find there ; and in order to obtain enough for the support of life, they are sompelled to keep the stomach constantly full, and pressing upon the lungs. It has been th»5 same when they have been turned out in coarse and innutritive pasturage The stomach was perpetually gorged,, and the habitual pressure on the lungs cramp ed and confined their action, and inevitably ruptured the cells when the horse gam boiled with his companions, or was wantonly driven about. Next in importance stands exercise. The pursive or broken-winded horse should not stand idle in the stable a single day. It is almost incredible how much may be done by attention to food and exercise. The broken-winded horse may thus be ren- dered comfortable to himself, and no great nuisance to his owner ; — but inattention to feeding, or one hard journey — the animal unprepared, and the stomach full — may bring on inflammation, congestion, and death. Occasional physic, or alterative medi- cine, will often give considerable relief. Thick-wind and broken-wind exist in various degrees, and many shades of differ- ence. Dealers and horsemen generally have characterised them by names that can boast no elegance, but are considerably expressive of the state of the animal. Our readers should not be ignorant of them. Some horses make a shrill noise when in quick action — they are said to be PIPERS. This is a species of Roaring. There is usually a ring of coagulated matter round the inside of the windpipe, by which the cavity is materially diminished, and the sound produced in quick breathing must evi- dently be shriller. Sometimes the piping is produced by a contraction of the small passages of the lungs. The WIIEEZER utters a sound not unlike that of an asthmatic person when a little hurried. This is a kind of thick wind, and is caused by the lodgment of some mucous fluid in the small passages of the lungs. It frequently accompanies bronchitis. Wheezing can be heard at all times, even when the horse is at rest in the stable ; roaring is confined to the increased breathing of considerable exertion. The WHISTLER utters a shriller sound than the wheezer, but only when in exer- cise, and that of some continuance. A sudden motion will not always produce it, It seems to be referable to some contraction in the windpipe or the larynx. The sound is a great nuisance to the rider, and the whistler very speedily becomes dis- tressed. A sharp gallop up-hill will speedily detect the ailment. When the obstruction seems to be principally in the nose, the horse loudly puff* and blows, and the nostrils are dilated to the utmost, while the flanks are compara- tively quiet. This animal is said to be a HIGH-BLOWER. With all his apparent dis- tress, he often possesses great speed and endurance. The sound is unpleasant, but the lungs may be perfectly sound. livery horse violently exercised on a full stomach, or when overloaded with fat, will grunt almost like a hog. The pressure of the stomach on the lungs, or that of the fat accumulated around the heart, will so much impede the breathing, that the act of forcible expiration will be accompanied with this kind of sound : but there are some horses who will at all times emit it, if suddenly touched with tbe whip or spur, They are called GRUNTERS, and should be avoided. There is some altered structure of the lungs, which prevents them from suddenly accommodating themselves to an unexpected demand for exertion. It is the consequence of previous disease, and is frequently followed by thick or broken wind, or roaring. PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. When describing the accompaniments and consequences of inflammation of tiit lungs in the horse, mention was made of this fatal complaint. It is usually connected with or the consequence of pneumonia or pleurisy, and especially in horses of a pecu- liar formation or temperament. If a narrow-chested, flat-sided horse is attacked by inflammation of the lungs, 01 severe catarrhal fever, experience tells us that we shall have n.ore difficulty in sub- duing the disease in him, than in one deeper in the girth or roundor in the chef* The lungs, deficient in bulk according to the diminished contents of the chest, have 216 PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. been ovei worked in supplying the quantity of arterial blood expended in th3 vaviciu purposes of life, and particularly that which has Hen required under unusual and violent exertion. Inflammation of the lungs has consequently ensued, and that inflammatory action has acquired an intense charactei, under circumstances by which another horse would be scarcely affected. When this disease has been properly treated, and apparently subdued, this horse sannot be quickly and summarily dismissed to his work. He is sadly emaciated — tie long continues so — his coat stares — his skin clings to his ribs — his belly is tucked up, notwithstanding that he may have plenty of mashes, and carrots, and green meat, and medicine — his former gaiety and spirit do not return, or if he is willing to work he is easily tired, sweating on the least exertion, and the sweat most profuse about the chest and sides — his appetite is not restored, or, perhaps, never aas been good, and the slightest exertion puts him completely off his feed. We observe him more attentively, and, even as he stands quiet in his stall, the flanks heave a little more laboriously than they should do, and that heaving is pain- fully quickened when sudden exertion is required. He coughs sorely, and discharges prom the nose a mucus tinged with blood, or a fluid decidedly purulent — the breath becomes offensive — the pulse is always above 40, and strangely increased by the dig}. test ex3rtion. \*S her* many of these symptoms are developed, the animal will exhibit considerable pain on being gently struck on some part of the chest ; the cough then becomes more freqaent and painful; the discharge from the nose more abundant and fetid, and the emaciation and consequent debility more rapid, until death closes the scene. The lesions that are presented after death are very uncertain. Generally there are tubercles ; sometimes very minute, at other times large in size. They are in different states of softening, and some of them have burst into the bronchial passages, and exhibit abscesses of enormous bulk. Other portions of the lungs are shrunk, flaccid, indurated or hepatized, and of a pale or red-brown colour; and there are occasional iidhesions between the lungs and the sides of the chest. Is this an hereditary disease 1 There is some difficulty in deciding the point. It tas been scarcely mooted among the horsemen. One thing only is known, that the 6ide has been flat, and the belly tucked up, and the animal has had much more ardour and willingness than physical strength. These conformations, and this disposition, we know to be hereditary, and thus far phthisis may be said to be so too. Low and damp situations, or a variable and ungenial climate, may render horses peculiarly susceptible of chest affections. All the absurd, or cruel, or accidental causes of pneumonia lay the foundation for phthisis ; and, particularly, those causes which tend to debilitate the frame generally, render the horse more liable to chest affections, and less able to ward off their fatal consequences. The most numerous instances of phthisis occur in those poor persecuted animals that are worn out before their time, and they are frequent enousrh among cavalry horses after the deprivations and fatigues of a long campaign. WThat is the medical treatment of confirmed phthisis 1 The practitioner must be guided by circumstances. If the horse is not very bad, and it is the spring of the year, a run at grass may be tried. It will generally seem to renovate the animal, bat the apparent amelioration is too often treacherous. It should always be tried, for it is the best foundation for other treatment. The summer, however, having set in, the medicinal effect of the grass ceases, and the flies tease and irritate the animal. The medical treatment, if any is tried, will depend on two simple and unerring guides, the pulse and the membrane of the nose. If the first is quick and hard, and the second streaked with red, venesection should be resorted to. Small bleedings of one or two quarts, omitted when the pulse is quieted and the nostril is pale, may he effected. Counter-irritants will rarely do harm. They should be applied in the form of blisters, extending over the sides, and thus brought as near as possible to th affected part. Sedative, medicines should be perseveringly administered : and here, as in acute inflammation, the chief dependence will be placed on digitalis. It should be given in small doses until a slightly intermittent pulse is produced, and that state D** the constitution should be maintained by a continued exhibition of the medicine, Nitre may be added as a diuretic, and puJvis antimonialis as a diaphoretic. Anv tonics here 1 Yes, the tonic effect of mild and nutritious food— green meat of uraosi every k'*nd, carrots particularly, mashes, and now and then a malt maab PLEURISY. 211 Nothing further than this T We may try, but very cautiously, those tonics which *timulat(! the digestive system, yet comparatively little affect the circulatory one Small doses of chamomile and gentian may be given, but carefully watched and omitted if the flanks should heave more, or the cough be aggravated. The treatment of phthisis is a most unsatisfactory subject of consideration as it regards the practice of the veterinarian. If, after the human being has been subjected to medical treatment for a long course of time and at very considerable expense, he so far recovers that life is rendered tolerably comfortable to him, he and his connexions are thankful and satisfied, and he will submit to many a privation in order to ward off the return of a disease, to which he is conscious there will ever be a strong predispo- sition : but the case is different with the horse ; and this, the scope and bound of the human practitioner's hope, is worthless to the veterinarian. His patient must not only live, but must be sound again. Every energy, every capability must be restored. Can we cause the tubercles of the lungs to be absorbed ] Can we disperse or dispel the hepatization ] Can we remodel the disorganised structure of the lungs 1 Our consideration, then, will be chiefly directed to the detection of the disease in its earliest state, and the allaying of the irritation which causes or accompanies the growth of the tubercles. This must be the scope and bound of the veterinarian's practice — always remembering that the owner should be forewarned of the general hopelessness of the case, and that the continuance of his efforts should be regulated by the wish of the proprietor and the value of the patient. PLEURISY. The investing membrane of the lungs, and of the thoracic cavity, namely, the pleura, now demands consideration. We are indebted to Mr. John Field, one of the noblest ornaments of the veterinary profession — but cut off in the prime of his days — for the greater part of our knowledge of this disease, and for the power of distinguishing between it and pneumonia, as readily and as surely as we do between pneumonia and bronchitis and epidemic catarrh. The prevailing causes of pleurisy are the same as those which produce pneumonia — exposure to wet and cold, sudden alterations of temperature, partial exposure to cold, riding against a keen wind, immersion as high as the chest in cold water, drink- ing cold water, and extra work of the respiratory machine. To these may be added, wounds penetrating in'o the thorax and lacerating the pleura, fracture of the ribs, 01 violent contusions on the side, the inflammation produced by which is propagated through the parietes of the chest. It is sometimes confined to one side, or to one of the pleura on either side, or even to patches on that pleura, whether pulmonary or costal. The inflammation of the lungs which occasionally accompanies rabies is characterised by a singular patchy appearance. That produced on the costal pleura, arising from violence or other causes, rarely reaches the pulmonary covering ; and that which is communicated to the tnnio of the lungs, by means of the intensity of the action within, does not often involve the costal pleura. In some cases, however, it affects both pleurae and both sides, and spreads rapidly from one to the other. The first symptom is rigor, followed by increased heat and partial sweats : to these succeed loss of appetite aad spirits, and a low and painful cough. The inspiration is a short, sudden effort, and broken off before it is fully accomplished, indicating the pain felt from the distention of the irritable, because inflamed, membrane. This symp- tom is exceedingly characteristic. In the human being it is well expressed by the term stitch, and an exceedingly painful feeling it is. The expiration is retarded aa much as possible, by the use of all the auxiliary muscles which the animal can press into the service; but it at length finishes abruptly in a kind of spasm. This pecu- liarity of breathing, once carefully observed, cannot be forgotten. The next character »« found in the tenderness of the sides wben the costal pleura is affected. This ten- dennss often exists to a degree scarcely credible. If the side is pressed upon, the horse will recede with a low painful grunt; he will tremble, and try to get out of the way before the hand touches him again. Then comes another indication, both of pain and the region of that pain, — the intercostal muscles, affected by the contiguous pleura, ancfin the.r turn affecting the panniculus carnosus, or subcutaneous musculai expansion without — there are twiichings of the skin on the side — corrugations — creeping over the integument. This is never seen in pneumonia. There i§ 19 2c 218 PLEURISY. nowever, as we may expect, the same disinclination to move, for every n otion ma* give intense pain. The pulse should be anxiously studied. It presents a decided difference of charactei from that of pneumonia. It is increased in rapidity, but instead of being oppressed and sometimes almost unappreciable, as in pneumonia, it is round, full, and strong. Even at the last, when the strength of the constitution begins to yield, the pulse ia wiry, although small. The extremities are never deathy cold ; they may be cool, they are oftener variable, and they sometimes present increased heat. The body is far more liable to variation of temperature ; and the cold and the hot fit more frequently succeed each other. The mouth is not so hot as in pneumonia, and the breath is rarely above its usual temperature. A difference of character in the two diseases is here particularly evident on the membrane of the nose. Neither the crimson nor the purple injection of pneumonia is seen on the lining of the nose, but a somewhat darker, dingier hue. Both the pneumonic and pleuritic horse will look at his flanks, thus pointing out the seat of disease and pain; but the horse with pneumonia will turn himself more slowly round, and long and steadfastly gaze at his side, while the action of the horse with pleurisy is more sudden, agitated, spasmodic. The countenance of the one is that of settled distress; the other brightens up occasionally. The pang is severe, but it is transient, and there are intervals of relief. While neither will lie down or wil- lingly move, and the pneumonic horse stands fixed as a statue, the pleuritic one shrinks, and crouches almost to falling. If he lies down, it is on the affected side when the disease is confined to one side only. The head of the horse with inflamma- tion of the substance of the lungs hangs heavily ; that of the other is protruded. We here derive most important assistance from Auscultation. In a case of pleurisy we have no crepitating, crackling sound, referable to the infiltration of the blood through the gossamer membrane of the air-cells ; we have not even a louder and distincter murmur. Perhaps there is no variation from the sound of health, or, if there is any difference, the murmur is fainter ; for the pleural membrane is thick ened, and its elasticity is impaired, and the sound is not so readily transmitted. There is sometimes a slight rubbing sound, and especially towards the superior region of the chest, as if there was friction between the thickened and indurated membranes. To this may be added the different character of the cough, sore and painful enough in both, but in pneumonia generally hard, and full, and frequent. In pleurisy it is not so frequent, but faint, suppressed, cut short, and rarely attended by discharge from the nose. These are sufficient guides in the early stage of the disease, when it is most of alJ of importance to distinguish the one from the other. If after a few days the breathing becomes a little more natural, the inspiration lengthened and regular, and the expiration, although still prolonged, is suffered to be completed — if the twitchings are less trident and less frequent — if the cough can be fully expressed — if the pulse softens, although it may not diminish in frequency, and if the animal begins to lie down, or walks about of his own accord, there is hope of recovery. But if the pulse quickens, and, although smaller, yet possesses the wiry character of inflammation — if the gaze at the flanks, previously by starts, becomes fixed as well as anxious, and the difficulty of breathing continues (the difficulty of accomplishing it, although the efforts are oftener repeated) — if patches of sweat break out, and the animal gets restless — paws — shifts his posture every minute — is unable longer to stand, yet hesitates whether he shall lie down — determines on it again and again, but fears, and at length drops, rather than lies gently down, a fatal termination is at hand. For some time before his death, the effusion and its extent will be evi dent enough. He not only walks unwillingly, but on the slightest exercise his pulse is strangely accelerated ; the feeling of suffocation comes over him, and he stops all of a sudden, and looks wildly about and trembles ; but he quickly recovers himself and proceeds. There is also, when the effusion is confirmed, oedema of some external part, and that occasionally to a very great extent. This is oftenest observed in the abdomen, the chest, and the point of the breast. The immediate cause of death is effusion in the chest, compressing the Hngs on every side, rendering expiration difficult and at length impossible, and dest" ving the animal by suffocation The very commencement of effusion may be detected by PLEURIS1, 21S euhation. There will be the cessation of the respiratory murrain at the sternum, and the increased grating — not the crepitating, crackling noise as when congestion is going on — not the feebler murmur as congestion advances ; but the absence of it, beginning from the bottom of the chsst. It is painfully interesting to watch the progress of the effusion — how the stillness creeps up, and the murmur gets louder above, and the grating sound louder too, until at length there is no longer room for the lungs to play, and suffocation ens les. The fluid contained in the chest varies in quantity as well as appearance and con sistence. Many gallons have been found in the two sacs, pale, or yellow, or bloody or often differing in the two sides of the thorax ; occasionally a thick adventitious coat covering the costal or the pulmonary pleura — rarely much adhesion, but the lunga purple-coloured, flaccid, compressed, not one-fourth of their usual size, immersed in the fluid, and rendered incapable of expanding by its pressure. Here, as in pneumonia, the bleeding should be prompt and copious. Next, and of ^reat importance, aperient medicine should be administered — that, the effect of which is so desirable, but which we do not dare to give when the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages is the seat of disease. Here we have to do with a serous mem- brane, and there is less sympathy with the mucous membranes of either cavity Small doses of aloes should be given with the usual fever medicine, and repeated morning and night until the dung becomes pultaceous, when it will always be pru- dent to stop. The sedative medicine is that which has been recommended in pneu- monia, and in the same doses. Next should follow a blister on the chests and sides. It is far preferable to setons, for it can be brought almost int ••» contact with the inflamed surface, and extended over the whole of that surface. An airy, bat a comfortable box, is likewise even more necessary than in pneumonia, and the practice of exposure, uncovered, to the cold, even more absurd and destructive. The blood, repelled from the skin by the contractile, depressing influence of the cold, would rush with fatal impetus to the neighbouring membrane, to which it was before dangerously detei* mined. Warm and comfortable clothing cannot be dispensed with in pleurisy. The sedative medicines, however, should be omitted much sooner than in pneumo- nia, and succeeded by diuretics. The common turpentine is as good as any, made into a ball with linseed meal, and given in doses of two or three drachms twice in the day. If the constitution is much impaired, tonics may be cautiously given, as soon as the violence of the disease is abated. The spirit of nitrous ether is a mild stimulant and a diuretic. Small quantities of gentian and ginger may be added, but the turpentine must not be omitted. By auscultation and other modes of examination, the existence of effusion in the chest is perhaps ascertained, and, possibly, it is increasing. Is there any mechanical way of getting rid of it 1 There is one to which recourse should be had as soon as it is evident that there is considerable fluid in the chest. The operation of Paracentesis, or tapping, should be performed ; it is a very simple one. The side-line may be had recourse to, or the twitch alone may be used. One of the horse's legs being held up, and, counting back from the sternum to between the seventh and eighth ribs, the sur- geon should pass a moderate-sized trochar into the chest immediately above the car- tilages. He will not have selected the most dependent situation, but as near it as he could with safety select ; for there would not have been room between the cartilages if the puncture had been lower; and these would have been injured in the forcing of the instrument between them, or, what is worse, there would have been great hazard of wounding the pericardium, for the apex of the heart rests on the sternum. Through this aperture, close to the cartilages, the far greater part of the fluid may be evacuated. The operator will now withdraw the stilette, and let the fluid run through the canula. He will not trouble himself afterwards about the wound ; it will heal readily enough; perhaps too quick, for, could it be kept open a few days, it might act as a very useful drain It. should be attempted early. Recourse should be had to the operation as soon as it is ascertained that there is considerable fluid in the chest, for the animal will at leasi be relieved for a while, and some time will have been given for repose to the overlaboured lungs, and for the system generally to be recruited. The fluid will be evacuated before the lungs are too much debilitated by laborious action against the pressure of the water, and a state of collapse brought on, from which they will be incapable of recovering. They only who have seen the collapsed and condensed ?tat« 220 PLEURISY. of tl.« ng that had been long compressed by the fluid, can conceive of the extern « which trfts is carried. It should be added — a fact important and alarming — that tb. records of vjterinary surgery contain very few cases of permanently successful per formance of the operation. This should not discourage the practitioner from attempt ing it, but should induce him to consider whether he may not perform it under happiei auspices, before the lungs and the serous membrane which lines the cavity have been too much disorganised, and the constitution itself sadly debilitated. There could not be any well-founded objection to an earlier resort to paracentesis, and he must be a bungler indeed who wounded any important part. It should be ascertained by auscultation whether there is fluid in both cavities. If there should be, and in considerable quantity, it will not be prudent to operate on both sides at once. If much fluid is discharged, there will be acceleration and diffi- culty of respiration to a very great degree. The practitioner must not be alarmed at this ; it will pass over, and on the next day he may attack the other side ; or open both at once, if there is but little fluid in either. Having resorted to this operation, a course of diuretics with tonics should be '•mmediately commenced, and the absorbents roused to action before the cavity fills again. There is in pleurisy a far greater tendency to relapse than in pneumonia. The flings do not perfectly recover from their state of collapse, nor the serous membrane from its long maceration in the effused fluid : o3dema, cough, disinclination to work, incapability of rapid progression, colicky pains — as the unobservant practitioner would call them — but in truth pleuritic stitches ; these are the frequent sequelae of pleurisy. This will afford another reason why the important operation of paracentesis should not be deferred too long. There is much greater disposition to metastasis than in pneumonia : indeed it is easy to imagine that the inflammation of a mere membrane may more readily and oftener shift than that of the substance of so large a viscus as the lungs. The inflam- mation shifting its first ground, attacks almost every part indiscriminately, and appears under a strangly puzzling variety of forms. Dropsy is the most frequent change. Effusion in the abdomen is substituted for that of the chest, or rather the exhafent or absorbent vessels of the abdomex, or both of them, soon sympathise in the de jility of those or' *zke thorax. THE STOMACH. 9*1 CHAPTER IX. THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS THE STOMACH. « The oesophagus or gullet, extending to the stomach. » The entrance of the gullet into the stomach. The circular layers of the muscles sjre veij thick and strong, and which, by their contractions, help to render it difficult for tfafl food to be returned or vomited. c The portion of the stomach which is covered by cuticle, or insensible skin. d d The margin, which separates the cuticular from the villous portion. e e The mucous, or villous (velvet) portion of the stomach, in which the food is principally digested. / The communication between the stomach and the first intestine. g The common orifice through which the bile and the secretion from the pancreas pass into the first intestine. The two pins mark the two tubes here united. 4 A smaller orifice, through which a portion of the secretion of the pancreas enters the intestines. THE oesophagus, as has already been stated, consists of a muscular membranous tube, extending from the posterior part of the mouth down the left side of the neck, pursuing1 its course through the chest, penetrating through the crura of the diaphragm, and reaching to and terminating in the stomach. It does not, however, enter straight into the stomach, and with a large open orifice ; but there is an admirable provision made to prevent the regurgitation of the food when the stomach is filled and the horse sud- denly called upon to perform unusually hard work. The oesophagus enters the stomach in a somewhat curved direction — it runs obliquely through the muscular and cuticular coats for some distance, and then its fibres arrange themselves around the opening into the stomach. Close observation has shown, that they form themselves into segments of circles, interlacing each other, and by their contraction plainly and forcibly closing the opening, so that the regurgitation of the food is almost im? possible. The following is a simpie but accurate delineation of the structure of the termina- tion of the resophaguu, and the manner in which it encircles the orifice of the stomacn We are indebted to Mr. Ferguson, of Dublin, for this interesting discovery, 222 THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. \ microscope of very feeble power will beautifully show this singular coriatr action It is not precisely either a sphincter muscle or a valve, but it is a strong and almost insuperable obstacle to the regurgitation of the food. The left side of the stomach is in contact with the diaphragm. It is piessed upon by every motion of the diaphragm, and hence the reason why the stomach ia so small compared with the size of the animal. It is indeed strangely small, in order that it might not press too hardly upon the diaphragm, or painfully interfere with the process of respiration, when the utmost energies of the horse are occasion- ally taxed immediately after he has been At the lower or pyloric orifice, the mus- iles are also increased in number and in size. These are arranged in the same manner, with sufficient power to resist the pressure of the diaphragm, and retain the contents of the stomach until they have undergone the digestive process. The situation of the stomach will at once explain the reason why a horse is so much distressed, and sometimes irreparably injured, if worked hard immediately after a full meal. The stomach must be displaced and driven back by every contraction of the diaphragm or act of inspiration ; and in proportion to the fulness of the stomach will be the weight to be overcome, and the labour of the diaphragm, and the exhaus- tion of the animal. If the stomach is much distended, it may be too weighty to be forced sufficiently far back to make room for the quantity of air which the animal in a state of exertion requires. Hence the frequency and labour of the breathing, and the quickness with which such a horse is blown, or possibly destroyed. Hence also the folly of giving too full a meal, or too much water, before the horse starts on a journey or for the chase ; and, in like manner, the absurdity and danger of that unpardonable custom of some grooms to gallop the horse after his drink, in order to warm it in his belly, and prevent gripes. The horse was destined to be the servant of man, and to be always at his call whether fasting or full : it would seem, therefore, that, to lessen much inconvenience or danger, a smaller stomach, in proportion to his size, is given to the horse than to almost any other animal. The bulk of the horse, and the services required of him, demand much nutriment, and that of such a nature as to occupy a very considerable space ; yet his stomach, compared with his bulk, is not half so large as that of the human being : therefore, although he, like every other animal, feels inconvenience from great exertion immediately after a full meal, he suffers not so much as other quadrupeds, for his stomach is small, and his food passes rapidly through it, and descends to a part of the intestines distant from the diaphragm, and where the exist- ence and pressure of the food cannot cause him any annoyance. The stomach has four coats. The outermost is the lining of the cavity of the belly, and the common covering of all the intestines — that by which they are confined in their respective situations, and from which a fluid is secreted that prevents all friction between them. This is called the peritoneum — that which stretches round the inside of the stomach, The second is the muscular coat, consisting of two layers of fibres, one running lengthways, and the other circularly, and by means of wrhich a constant gentle motion •s communicated to the stomach, mingling the food more intimately together, md pre- o&ring it for digestion, and by the pressure of which the food when properly prepared in urged on into the intestines. The third, or cuticular (skin-like") coat, c, covers but a portion of the inside of the stomach It is a continuation of the lining of the gullet. There are numerous glands on it, which secrete a mucous fluid ; and it is probably intended to be a reservoir in which a portion of the food is retained for a while, and softened and bettei prepared for the action of the other or true digestive portion of* the stomach. The cuticula? ftoat occupies nearly one-half of the inside of the stomach. The fourth coat is the mucous or villous (velvet) coat. e. where the work of dijrestio* THE STOMACH. 222 properly commences. The mouths of numerous little vessels open upon it, pouring nut a peculiar fluid, the gastric (stomach) juice, which mixes with the food already toftened, and converts it into a fluid called chyme. As this is formed, it passes out of the other orifice of the stomach, the pylorus (doorkeepers),/, and enters the first small intestine ; the harder and undissolved parts being turned back to undergo farther action. Every portion of the muscular coat has the power of successively contracting and relaxing, and thus, in the language of Dr. Bostock, " the successive contraction of each part of the stomach, by producing a series of folds and wrinkles, serves to agitate the alimentary mass, and, by bringing every part of it in its turn to the surface, to expose it to the influence of the gastric juice, while at the same time the whole of the contents are gradually propelled forwards, from the orifice which is connected with the oesophagus to that by which they are discharged." The cerebro-visceral nerve is the agent in producing these alternate contractions and relaxations. It is the motor nerve belonging to these parts. It has to keep the parietes of the stomach in contact with the food, and the food in contact with the gastric juice. It has to bring the different parts of the food in successive contact with the stomach, and to propel them through this portion of the alimentary canal in ordei that they may be discharged into the duodenum. A viscus thus situated and thus employed must occasionally be subject to inflam mation, and various other lesions. The symptoms, however, are obscure and fre- quently mistaken. They resemble those of colic more than anything else, and should be met by bleeding, oleaginous purges, mashes, tepid gruel, and the application of the stomach-pump : but when, in addition to the colicky pains, there appear indistinct- ness of the pulse — and a very characteristic symptom that is — pallidness of the mem- branes, coldness of the mouth, frequent lying down, and in such position that the weight of the horse may rest on the chest, frequently pointing with his muzzle at the seat of pain, and, especially, if these symptoms are accompanied or followed by vomit- ng, rupture of the stomach is plainly indicated. Considering the situation of the stomach, and the concussions and violence to which it is exposed from the diaphragm and from the viscera around it, this accident will not appear extraordinary. The horse does not necessarily die as soon as this accident occurs. In a case related by Mr. Rogers, the animal died in about four hours after the accident;* but in one that occurred in the practice of the author, three days elapsed between the probable rupture of the stomach, from a sudden and violent fall, and the death of the animal, and in which interval he several times ate a little food. The rupture was at the right extre- mity of the stomach, and there were several distinct layers of impacted food between it and the liver. The liver seemed to have acted as a kind of valve. The stomach was found still distended, the edges of the rupture httving the dull and sodden appearance of an old wound. There was comparatively little fluid in the abdominal cavity, and no disposition to vomit occurred during any period. f A case showing the insensibility of the stomach, wisely and kindly given, con- sidering the shocks and dangers to which this viscus is exposed, is recorded by Mr. Hayes. £ A drench was ordered for a horse. For want of a horn, the stable-keeper made use of a wine-bottle, without examining whether it was clean or foul. Shortly afterwards it was discovered that the bottle had contained three or four ounces of liquid blister. This was kept a profound secret until the death of the animal, and that did not happen until twelve days afterwards. The horse had eaten his provender in the same manner as usual, and had performed his usual work until about two hours before his death, when he lay down, rolled about, bruised himself sadly, and died. The food, consisting of hay, oats, and beans, was lodged and impacted between the folds of the intestines, and the whole abdominal viscera appeared as if they had been thus surrounded a considerable time before death. The stomach was ruptured in many directions, and almost decomp "«pd. Its coats were nearly destroyed, and hung like rags about the orifice through wriich the food was received, and that through which it naturally was expelled. This account proves how little we are to depend apon any apparent symptoms as indicating the real state of the stomach in the horse. Mr. Brown relates a case of polypus found in the stomach, and which had remained * The Farrier; and Naturalist, vol. ii., p. 9. * The Veterinary Medical Association 1836-7, p. 109 c The Vete-marian, vol.x. p 615 224 THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS. there unsuspected until it weighed nearly half-a-pound, it then became entangled i& the pyloric orifice, and prevented the passage of the food, and destroyed the horse.* BOTS. In the spring and early part of the summer, horses are much troubled by a grub 01 caterpillar, which crawls out of the anus, fastens itself under the tail, and seems to cause a great deal of itching or uneasiness. Grooms are sometimes alarmed at tke appearance of these insects. Their history is curious, and will dispel every feaj with regard to them. We are indebted to Mr. Bracy Clark for almost all we kno\» of the hot. CUT OF THE BOT. • and 6 The eggs of the gad-fly, adhering to the hair of the horse c The appearance of the bots on the stomach, firmly adhering by their hooked months. The marks or depressions are seen which are left on the coat of the stomach when the bots are detached from their hold. e serviceable either before or after a journey. PHYSICKING. 231 PHYSICKING. lliis w mid seem to be the proper place to speak of physicking orses — a mode of treatment necessary under various diseases, often useful for the augj , entation of health, and yet which has often injured the constitution and absolutely destroyed thousands of animals. When a horse comes from grass to hard meat, or from the cool, open air to a heated stable, a dose or even two doses of physic may be useful to prevent the tendency to inflammation which is the necessary consequence of so sudden ard great a change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or has surfeit, ot grease, or man^e, or that is out of condition from inactivity of the digestive organs, a dose of physic is often most serviceable ; but the reflecting man will enter his protest against the periodical physicking of all horses in the spring and the autumn, and more par- ticularly against that severe system which is thought to be necessary in order to train them for work, and also the absurd method of treating the animal when under the operation of physic. A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or three bran mashes given on that or the preceding day are far from sufficient when a horse is about to be physicked whether to promote his condition or in obedience to custom. Mashes should be given until the dung becomes softened. A less quantity of physic will then suffice, and it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be more readily diffused over them. Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been softened, will act much more effectually and much more safely than seven drachms, when the lower intestines, are obstructed by hardened faeces. On the day on which the physic is given, the horse should have walking exercise, or may be gently trotted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day ; but after the physic begins to work, he should not be moved from his stall. Exercise would then pro- duce gripes, irritation, and, possibly, dangerous inflammation. The common and absurd practice is to give the horse most exercise after the physic has begun to ope- rate A Httle hay may be put into the rack. As much mash should be given as the horse will eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as he will drink. If, however, he obstinately refuses to drink warm water, it is better that he should have it cold, than to continue without taking any fluid ; but in such case he should not be suffered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval of at least an hour be- tween each draught. When the purging has ceased, or the physic is set, a mash should be given once or twice every day until the next dose is taken, between which and the setting of the first there should be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the languoi and debility occasioned by the first dose, before he is harassed by a second. Eight or ten tolerably copious motions will be perfectly sufficient to answer every good purpose, although the groom or the carter may not be satisfied unless double the quantity are procured. The consequence of too strong purgation will be, that weak- ness will hang about the animal for several days or weeks, and inflammation will often ensue from the over-irritation of the intestinal canal. Long-continued custom has made ALOES the almost invariable purgative of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is no other at once so sure and so safe. The Bar- badoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary from four to seven drachms. The preposterous doses of nine, ten, or even twelve drachms, are now, happily for the horse, gener- ally abandoned. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to physic, but good sense will in due time introduce the solution of aloes, as acting more speedily, effectually, and safely. The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the CROTON. Tht, farina or meal of the nut is generally used ; but from its acrimony it should be given in the form of ball, with linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to half a drachm. It a3ts more speedily than the aloes, and without the nausea which they produce; but it causes more watery stools, and, consequently, more debility. LIXSEED-OIL is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a pound to a pound and a half. OLIVE-OIL is more uncertain, but safe ; but CASTOR-OIL, that mild aperient in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe. EPSOM-SALTS are inefrioacioas, •*cept ID the immense dose of a pound and a half and then they ars not always safe- 238 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. CALCULI, OR STONES, IN THE INTESTINES These are a cause of inflammation in the bowels of the horse, and more frequently of colic. They are generally found in the coecum or colon, varying considerably in shape according to the nucleus round which the sabulous or other earthy matter collects, or the form of the cell in which they have been lodged. They differ in size and weight, from a few grains to several pounds. From the horizontal position of the carcase of the horse, the calculus, when it begins to form, does not gravitate so much aa in the human being, and therefore calculous concretions remain and accumulate until their very size prevents their expulsion, and a fatal irritation is too frequently produced by their motion and weight. They are oftenest found in heavy draught, and in millers' horses. In some of these horses they have the appearance of grit-stone or crystallized gneiss. It is probable that they partly consist of these very minerals, combined with the bran which is continually floating about. An analysis of the Calculi favours this supposition. They are a source of continual irritation wherevei they are placed, and are a fruitful cause of colic. Spasms of the most fearful kind have been clearly traced to them.* Professor Morton, of the Royal Veterinary College, in his Essay on Calculous Concretions, — a work that is far too valuable to be withdrawn from the public view, —gives an interesting account of these substances in the intestinal canal of the horse. Little advance has been or can be made to procure their expulsion, or even to deter- mine their existence ; and even when they have passed into the rectum, although some have been expelled, others have been so firmly impacted as to resist all medi- cinal means of withdrawal, and a few have broken their way through the parietes of the rectum, and lodge'1 in the abdominal cavity. Mr. Percivall, in his " Elementary Lectures on the Veterinary Art," has recorded several fearful cases of this.f Other concretions are described under the title of oat-hair calculi. Their surface is t'lberculated and their forms irregular. They are usually without any distinct nuclei, and are principally composed of the hairy fibrous matter which enters into the com- position of the oat. The professor very properly adds, and it is a circumstance which deserves much consideration, that such oats as are husky, with a deficiency of farinaceous matter, are likely to give rise to these accumulations, whenever impaired digestion exists. It is also an undoubted fact, that a great proportion of horses affected with calculi are the property of millers, or brewers. A third species of con- cretion too frequently existing is the dung-ball, or mixed calculus. It is made up of coarse, indigestible, excrementitious matter, mixed with portions of the " oat-hair calculus," and many foreign substances, such as pieces of coal, gravel, &c., and the whole agglutinated together. They are commonly met with in horses that are vora cious feeders, and mingled with particles of coal and stone. INTROSTJSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES. The spasmodic action of the ileum being long continued, may be succeeded by an inverted one from the ccecum towards the stomach, more powerful than in the natural direction ; and the contracted portion of the intestine will be thus forced into anothei above it that retains its natural calibre. The irritation caused by this increases the inverted action, and an obstruction is formed which no power can overcome. Ever, the natural motion of the bowels will be sufficient to produce introsusception, when the contraction of a portion of the ileum is very great. There are no symptoms to indicate the presence of this, except, continued and increasing pain ; or, if there were, all our means of relief would here fail. Introsusception is not confined to any particular situation. A portion of the jejunum has been found invaginated within the duodenum, — and also within the ileum, and the ileum within the ccecum — and one portion of the colon within another, and within the rectum. The ileum and jejunum are occasionally invaginated in various places. More than a dozen distinct cases of introsusception have occurred in one animal, and sometimes unconnected with any appearance of inflammation ; but in other cases, 01 'n other parts of the intestinal canal of the same animal, there will be inflammation of the most intense character. In the majority of cases, perhaps it is an accidental • Veterinarian IX. 161 * Vol. II. p. 449. ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS. — WORMS. 239 consequence of pre-existing disease, and occasioned by some irregul?T action tf the muscular tunic, or some irritation of the mucous surface. A more formidable, but not so frequent disease is ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS. This is another and singular consequence of colic. Although the ileum is enveloped in the mesentery, and its motion to a considerable degree confined, yet under the spasm of colic, and during the violence with which the animal rolls and throws him- self about, portions of the intestine become so entangled as to be twisted into nooses and knots, drawn together with a degree of tightness scarcely credible. Nothing but the extreme and continued torture of the animal can lead us to suspect that this has taken place, and, could we ascertain its existence, there would be no cure. An interesting case occurred in the practice of Mr. Spooner of Southampton. A mare at grass was suddenly taken ill. She discovered symptoms of violent colic, for which anti-spasmodic and aperient medicines were promptly administered, and she was copiously bled. The most active treatment was had recourse to, but without avail, and she died in less than four-and-twenty hours without a momentary relief from pain. The small intestines were completely black from inflammation, and portions of them were knotted together in the singular way delineated in this cut. The parts are a little loosened in order better to show the entanglement of the intestines, but in the animal they were drawn into a tight knot, and completely intercepted all passage. The cause of this was probably some acrid principle in the grass, and many a horse is thus destroyed by the abominable and poisonous drinks of the farrier.* WORMS. V/oims of difleient kinds inhabit the intestines ; but, except when they exist IK great numbers, they are not so hurtful as is generally supposed, although the Veterinarian, VI. 12 240 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. groom or carter may trace to them, hidebound, and cough, and loss of appetite, anc gripes, and megrims, and a variety of other ailments. Of the origin, or mode of pro- pagation of these parasitical animals, \ve can say little; neither writers on medicine, nor even on natural history, have given us any satisfactory account of the matter. Tke long white worm (lumbricus feres} much resembles the common earth-worm, and, being from six to ten inches in length, inhabits the small intestines. It is a for- midable looking animal ; and if there are many of them, they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or the mucus of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their pre- sence. They are then, however, voided in large quantities. A dose of physic will sometimes bring away almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently given as a vermifuge. The seldomer this drug is administered to the horse the better. It is the principal ingredient, in some quack medicines, for the expulsion of worms in the human subject, and thence, perhaps, it came to be used for the horse ; but in him we believe it to be inert as a vermifuge, or only useful as quickening the operation of the aloes. When the horse can be spared, a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is concerned ; but a better medicine, and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse, is emetic tartar, with ginger, made into a ball with linseed meal and treacle, and given every morning, half an hour before the horse is fed. A smaller, darker-coloured worm, called the needle-worm, or ascaris, inhabits the large intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into the lectum, and immense quantities have been found in the coecum. These are a more serious nuisance than the former, for they cause a very troublesome irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annoys the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered by a small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering to the anus. Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms ; but when there ig much irritation about the tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have descended into the rectum, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy. The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse. HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. A portion of the intestine protrudes out of the cavity of the belly, either through some natural or artificial opening. In some cases it may be returned, but, from me impossibility of applying a truss or bandage, it soon escapes again. At other times, the opening is so narrow, that the gut, gradually distended by faeces, or thickened by inflammation, cannot be returned, and strangulated hernia is then said to exist. The seat of hernia is either in the scrotum of the perfect horse, or the groin of the gelding. The causes are violent struggling when under operations, over-exertion, kicks, or acci- dents. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable.* * The following case of operation for hernia will be acceptable to the owner of horses as well as to the veterinary surgeon. It occurred in the practice of Professor Simonds, of the Royal Veterinary Colllege. We borrow his account of it from " The Veterinarian." " The patient was an aged black cart-mare, that had been lent by the owner to a neighbour for a day or two. I cannot speak positively as to the cause of the injury which she received, but I believe that it resulted from her falling in the shafts of a cart laden with manure. She was brought to my infirmary on the next day, October 18, 1837. " The most extensive rupture I had ever seen presented itself on the left side. The sa« formed by the skin, which was not broken, nor even the hair rubbed off, extended as far for wards as the cartilages of the false ribs, and backwards to the udder. A perpendicular line •."irawn from the superior to the inferior part of the tumour measured more than twelve inches. It appeared, from its immense size and weight, as if by far the larger part of the colon had protruded. To my surprise, there was comparatively little constitutional disturbance. The pulse was 45, arv* full, with no other indication of fever, and no expression of pain on pressing the tumour. " She was bled until the pulse was considerably lowered. A cathartic was given, and Irw sac ordered to be kept constantly wet with cold water, and to be supported by a wide band «ge. She was placed on a restricted and mash diet. " On the next day, being honoured with a visit by Messrs. Morton, Spopner, and Youatt, I had the pleasure and advantage of submitting 'he case to their examination, and obtaining •heir opinion They urged me to attempt to return the protruding viscera, and secure them bv DISEASES 01 THE LIVER. 241 DISEASES OF THE LIVER. A» veterinary practice has improved, much light has been thrown on the diseases af the liver — not perhaps on the more advanced and fatal stages ; out giving us the promise that, in process of time, they may be detected at an earlier period, and in a more manageable state. a surgical operation ; and Mr. Spooner kindly offered to be present, and to give me his valu- able assistance. •' On the 24th, our patient was considered to have had sufficient preparatory treatment, and she was operated upon. We availed ourselves of the opportunity ot putting to the test that which some among us had doubted, and others had positively denied, but which had always bepn maintained by our talented chemical lecturer — the power of opium to lull the sensation of pain in the horse. We therefore gave her two ounces and a half of the tincture of opium, shortly before she was led from the box to the operating house, and the power of the drug was evident through the whole of the operation. " After a careful examination, externally, as well as per rectum, in order to ascertain the situation and probable size of the laceration of the muscles, an incision was carefully made through the integument into the sac, in a line with the inferior border of the cartilage of the false ribs, which incision was about seven inches in length. This, as we had hoped, proved to be directly upon the aperture in the muscular parietes of the abdomen. The intestine? were exposed ; and, after having sufficiently dilated the opening to permit the introduction of the hand, they were quickly returned, portion after portion, into their proper cavity, together with a part of the omentum, which we found somewhat annoying, it being frequently forcer back again through the laceration. "At times, it required the exertion of our united strength to prevent the escape of thu intestines, and which was only effected by placing our hands side by side, covering and pressing upon the opening. By these means we succeeded in keeping in the viscera, until we were satisfied that we had placed them all within their proper cavity. At about the cen- tral part of the aperture, we decidedly found the greatest pressure of the intestines to effec! an escape. ' ' A strong metallic suture of flexible wire was then passed through the edges of the lacera- tion, taking m the peritoneum and portions of the transversalis, rectus, and internal abdomi- nal muscles ; and other sutures, embracing the same parts, were placed at convenient dis- tances, so as nearly to close the aperture. Two sutures of smaller metallic wire, and three of stout silk cord, were then passed through the external abdominal muscles, and their apo- neuroses, which effectually shut up the opening into the abdomen. The integument was then brought together by the interrupted suture, taking care to bring out the ends of the other sutures, and which had been purposely left long, so that in case of supervening inflam- mation, or swelling, they might be readily examined. The whole operation occupied rather 'ess than an hour, our poor patient being occasionally refreshed with some warm gruel. " The hobbles were now quietly removed, and, after lying a few minutes, she got up, and was placed in a large loose box. A compress and a suspensory bandage, that could be tight- ened at pleasure, were applied to the wound. The pulse was now 84. She was ordered to be watched, and to have some tepid water placed within her reach, but on no account to be disturbed. " At 10, P. M., the pulse had sunk to 66. The respiration, which had been much accele- rated, was quieter. She was resting the leg on the side operated upon, but did not appear to be suffering any great pain. Some faeces had passed, and she had taken a small quantity oi bran mash. The parts were well fomented with tepid water, an oleaginous draught was administered, and likewise an enema. "25th. — The pulse is a little quickened ; the sac which had contained the protruded intes- tine was filled with a serous effusion. I made a dependent orifice in it, ana from three to four pints of fluid er-caped. This much relieved her, and she continued to go on favourably throughout the day. "26th. — Suppuration now began to be established, and the parts were dressed with the compound tincture of myrrh. " 30th. — She was enabled to take a little walking exercise ; and on this day some of the integumental sutures came away. " Nov. 4th. — The sloughing process being now set up, three of the smaller metallic sutures, that had been used to bring the edges of the laceretion together in the external abdominal mus- cles, came away. The parts were minutely examined, and we detected a sinus running towards the mammae, and filled with pus. With some little difficulty it was opened, and a tape passed through it, so as to allow the pus to escape as quickly as it was formed. The appetite was tolerably good, and the pulse ranged from 52 to 56. " 6th. — The patient was so far recovered that I ventured to turn her into one of the pad- docks for a few hours' exercise, taking care to avoid any exposure to cold, if the weather wa« ntorn?y. " 1 Ith. — An incident occurred which nearly brought our hitherto successful case to a frtal termination. 1 saw her safe about 1, P. M. ; but at two o'clock a messenger came in hvrte lo apprise me lhat she was in a pond at the bottom oi' the oaddock, and fixed in the m ;d 21 2F 242 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. If horses, destroyed on account of other complaints, are examined when they art Mot more than five years old, the liver is usually found in the most healthy state ; but when they arrive at eight or nine, or ten years, this viscus is frequently increased in size — it is less elastic undrr pressure — it has assumed more of a granulated or broken- down appearance — the blood does not so readily permeate its vessels, and, at length, in a greater or less quantity, it begins to exude, and is either confined under the peii- toneal covering, or oozes into the cavity of the belly. There is nothing, for awhile, to indicate the existence of this. The horse feeds well, is in apparent health, in good condition, and capable of constant work, notwithstanding so fatal a change is taking place in this important viscus ; but, at length, the peritoneal covering of the liver sud- denly gives way, and the contents of the abdomen are deluged with blood, or a sufrl- :;ent quantity of this fluid has gradually oozed out to interfere with the functions of the viscera. The symptoms of this sudden change are — pawing, shifting the posture, distension of the belly, curling of the upper lip, sighing frequently and deeply, the mouth and nostrils pale and blanched, the breathing quickened, restlessness, debility, fainting, and death. On opening the abdomen, the intestines are found to be deluged with dark venous b ood. The liver is either of a fawn, or light yellow, or brown colour — easily torn by the finger, and, in some cases, completely broken down. If the haemorrhage has been slight at the commencement, and fortunately arrested, yet a singular consequence will frequently result. The sight will gradually fail ; the pupil of one or both eyes will gradually dilate, the animal will have gutta serena, and become perfectly blind. This will almost assuredly take place on a return of the affection of the liver. Little can be done in a medical point of view. Astringent and styptic medicines may, however, be tried. Turpentine, alum, or sulphuric acid, will afford the only chance. The veterinary world is indebted to the late Mr. John Field for almost all that is known of this sad disease. JAUNDICE, Commonly called THE YELLOWS, is a more frequent, but more tractable disease. It is the introduction of bile into the general circulation. This is usually caused by There, indeed, I found her, at a considerable distance from the bank, and making the most violent efforts to release herself. With considerable difficulty, and after many unsuccessful attempts, we succeeded in dragging her ashore, so much exhausted as to be utterly incapable of rising. A gate was procured, and being well covered with straw, she was drawn home- ward by two horses ; I following, regretting what had occurred, and not a little blaming myself for having exposed her to this misfortune. "Having placed her in her box, our first object was her restoration and comfort. Men were set to work to rub her perfectly dry, and some warm gruel, with a little cordial medi- cine, was given. The state of the wound was next examined, and it was well cleaned with tepid water. It was very dark-coloured. The vitality of the young granulations was appa- rently destroyed, and it emitted, in some degree, perhaps from the mud which had been so long in contact with it, an offensive effluvium. It was well dressed with the spirit of nitroui ether, and properly bandaged — in order to prevent its receiving any further injury in her inef- fectual attempts to rise. " We soon, however, began to fear some ill consequence from the continuance of these efforts, and we determined to raise her with the slings, those useful appendages to every vete- rinary establishment. This was soon effected. We allowed very little bearing on the abdo- men, except when she was compelled, in order to ease her hind extremities, which were yet unable to support their share of the weight of the body. Frictions, stimulants, and bandages, were applied to the extremities. An enema was given, the wound again attended to, and some gruel placed within her reach. " At midnight she was standing at ease in what may not inappropriately be called her cradle. The legs were tolerably warm : the pulse 60, and full ; the enema had done its duty, and she was in a much more comfortable state than I had any right to expect. I ordered her a warm rnash and some gruel, for hope began once more to cheer me. " On the following and succeeding days she continued gradually to regain her strength, but sne required great care and attention, and it was not until the expiration of the fourth day that [ dared to remove her from the slings, and then only for a few hours during the day, carefully replacing her in them at night. Some slight sloughing took place from the wound ; but the principal effect of her immersion was a severe catarrh. She required occasional attendance o the wound ; and it was not until the 12th of January — more than twelve weeks after the operation — that the .ast of the metallic sutures came away. She soon afterwards levurned >o her usual work." THE KIDNEYS. 24A norae obstruct on in the ducts or tubes that convey the bile from the liver to the intes« tines. The horse, however, has but one duct, through which the bile usually flows as quickly as it is formed, and there is no gall-bladder in which it can become thick en/ad, or hardened into masses so firm as to be appropriately called gall-stones. Jaun- aice does, however, occasionally appear either from an increased flow or altered quality of the bile, or obstruction even in this simple tube. The yellowness of the eyes and mouth, and of the skin where it is not covered with hair, mark it sufficiently plainly. The dung is small and hard ; the urine highly coloured ; the horse languid, and the appetite impaired. If he is not soon relieved, he sometimes begins to express considerable uneasiness ; at other times he is dull, heavy, and stupid. A character- istic symptom is lameness of the right fore leg, resembling the pain in the right shoulder of the human being in hepatic affections. The principal causes are over- feeding or over -exertion in sultry weather, or too little work generally speaking, or inflammation or other disease of the liver itself. It is first necessary to inquire whether this affection of the liver is not the conse- quence of the sympathy of that organ with some other part, for, to a very considerable degree, it frequently accompanies inflammation of the bowels and the lungs. These diseases being subdued, jaundice will disappear. If there is no other apparent disease to any great extent, an endeavour to restore the natural passage of the bile by purga- tives may be tried, not consisting of large doses, lest there should be some undetected inflammation of the lungs or bowels, in either of which a strong purgative would be dangerous ; but, given in small quantities, repeated at short intervals, and until the bowels are freely opened. Bleeding should always be resorted to, regulated accord- ing to the apparent degree of inflammation, and the occasional stupor of the animal. Plenty of water slightly warmed, or thin gruel, should be given. The horse should be warmly clothed, and the stable well ventilated, but not cold. Carrots or green meat will be very beneficial. Should the purging, when once excited, prove violent, we need not be in any haste to stop it, unless inflammation is beginning to be con- nected with it, or the horse is very weak. The medicine recommended under diar- rhoea may then be exhibited. A few slight tonics should be given when the horse is recovering from an attack of jaundice. THE SPLEEN is sometimes very extraordinarily enlarged, and has been ruptured We are not aware of any means by which this may be discovered, except manual sxamination by means or the aid of the rectum. The state of the animal would clearly enough point out the treatment to be adopted. THE PANCREAS. We know not of any disease to which it is liable. The blood contains a great quantity of watery fluid unnecessary for the nutriment or repair of the frame. There likewise mingle with it matters that would be noxious if suffered to accumulate too much. THE KIDNEYS Are actively employed in separating this fluid, and likewise carrying off a substance which constitutes the peculiar ingredient in urine, called the urea, and consisting prin- cipally of that which would be poisonous to the animal. The kidneys are two large glandular bodies, placed under the loins, of the shape of a kidney-bean, of immense size. The right kidney is most forward, lying under the liver; the left is pushed more backward by the stomach and spleen. A large artery runs to each, carrying not less than a sixth part of the whole of the blood that circulates through the frame. This artery is divided into innumerable little branches most curiously complicated and coiled upon each other; and the blood, traversing these convolutions, has its watery parts, and others the retaining of which would be injurious, separated from it. The fluid thus separated varies materially both in quantity and composition, even during health. There is no animal in which it varies so much as in the horse, — there is no organ in that animal so much under our command as the kidney ; and no medi cines are so useful, or may be so injurious, as diuretics — such as nitre, and digitalis— not only on account of their febrifuge or sedative effects, but because of the power which they exert. They stimulate the kidneys to separate more aqueous fluid than they otherwise would do, and thus lessen the quantity of blood which the heart is labouring to circulate through the frame, and also that which is determined or drven to parts already overloaded. The main objects to be accomplished in these disease* is to reduce the force of the circulation-, and to calm the violence of excitement. Diu 244 DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. retics, by lessening the quantity of blood, are useful assistants in accomplishing u es€ purposes. The horse is subject tc effusions of fluid in particular parts. Swelled legs ure fa disease almost peculiar to him. The ox, the sheep, the dog, the ass, and even the mule, seldom have it, but it is for the removal of this deposit of fluid in the cellulai substance of the legs of the horse that we have recourse to diuretics. The legs of many horses cannot be rendered fine, or kept so, without the use of diuretics ; noi ?an grease — often connected with these swellings, producing them or caused by them — be otherwise subdued. It is on this account that diuretics are ranked among the most useful of veterinary medicines. In injudicious hands, however, these medicines are sadly abused. Among the absurdities of stable-management there is nothing so injurious as the frequent use of diuretics. Not only are the kidneys often over-excited, weakened, and disposed to disease, but the whole frame becomes debilitated ; for the absorbents have carried away a great part of that which was necessary to the health and condition of th( horse, in order to supply the deficiency of blood occasioned by the inordinate discharge of urine. There is likewise one important fact of which the groom or the horseman seldom thinks, viz. : — That, when he is removing these humours by the imprudent use of diuretics, he is only attacking a symptom or a consequence of disease, and no* the disease itself. The legs will fill again, and the grease will return. While the cause remains, the effect will be produced. In the administration of diuretics, one thing should be attended to, and the good effect of which the testimony of every intelligent man will confirm : the horse should have plenty to drink. Not only will inflammation be prevented, but the operation of the medicine will be much promoted. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. This is no uncommon disease in the horse, and is more unskilfully and fatally treated than almost any other. The early symptoms are those of fever generally, but the seat of the disease soon becomes evident. The horse looks anxiously round at his flanks ; stands with his hinder legs wide apart ; is unwilling to lie down ; strad- dles as he walks ; expresses pain in turning ; shrinks when the loins are pressed, and some degree of heat is felt there. The urine is voided in small quantities ; fre- quently it is high-coloured, and sometimes bloody. The attempt to urinate becomes more frequent, and the quantity voided smaller, until the animal strains painfully and violently, but the discharge is nearly or quite suppressed. The pulse is quick and hard ; full in the early stage of the disease, but rapidly becoming small, yet not losing its character of hardness. These symptoms clearly indicate an affection of the urinary organs ; but they do not distinguish inflammation of the kidney from that of the blad der. In order to effect this, the hand must be introduced into the rectum. If the bladder is felt full and hard under the rectum, there is inflammation of the neck 01 it; if it is empty, yet on the portion of the intestines immediately over it there is more than natural heat and tenderness, there is inflammation of the body of the bladder: and if the bladder is empty, and there is no increased heat or tenderness, there is inflammation of the kidney. Among the causes of diabetes are improper food, and particularly hay that has been mow-burnt, or oats that are musty. The farmer should look well to this. Oats that have been dried on a kiln acquire a diuretic property, and if horses are long fed on them, the continual excitement of this organ which they produce will degenerate into inflammation. Too powerful or too often repeated diuretics induce inflammation of the kidney, or a degree of irritation and weakness of that organ that disposes tc inflammation from causes that would otherwise have no injurious effect. If a horse is sprained in the loins by being urged on, far or fast, by a heavy rider, or compelled to take too wide a leap, or by being suddenly pulled up on his haunches, the inflam- mation of the muscles of the loins is often speedily transferred to the kidneys, with which they lie in contact. Exposure to cold is another frequent origin of this malady, especially if the horse is drenched with rain, or the wet drips upon his loins ; and, more particularly, if he was previously disposed to inflammation, or these organs had been previously weakened. For this reason, hackney-coach horses and others, exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, and often fed on unwholesome provender, have, 01 •hould have, their loins protected by leather or some other clothing. The grand cause DIABETES-BLOODY URINE— ALBUMINOUS URINE, &c. 245 MOV/ever, of nephritis, is the unnecessary quantity or undue strength of th« (Luretit medicines that are forced on the horse by the ignorant groom. This is an evil carriec to an infamous extent, and against which every horseman should sternly oppose himself. The treatment will only vary from that of inflammation of other parts by a consi- deration of the peculiarity of the organ affected. Bleeding must be promptly resorted to, and carried to its full extent. An active purge should next be administered ; and a counter-inflammation excited as nearly as possible to thj seat of disease. For this purpose the loins should be fomented with hot water, or covered with a mustard- poultice — the horse should be warmly clothed; but no cantharides or turpentine should be used, and, most of all, no diuretic be given internally. When the groom finds this difficulty or suppression of staling, he immediately has recourse to a diuretic ball to force on the urine ; and by thus needlessly irritating a part already too much excited, he adds fuel to fire, and frequently destroys the horse. The action of the purgative having begun a little to cease, white hellebore may be administered in small doses, with or without emetic tartar. The patient should be warmly clothed ; his legs well bandaged ; and plenty of water offered to him. The food should be care- fully examined, and anything that could have excited or that may prolong the irrita- tion carefully removed. DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING Is a comparatively rare disease. It is generally the consequence of undue irritation of the kidney by bad food or strong diuretics, and sometimes follows inflammation of that organ. It can seldom be traced in the horse to any disease of the digestive organs. The treatment is obscure, and the result often uncertain. It is evidently increased action of the kidneys, and therefore the most rational plan of treatment is to endeavour to abate that action. In order to effect this, the same course should be pursued in the early stage of diabetes as in actual inflammation; but the lowering system must not be carried to so great an extent. To bleeding, purging, and counter- irritation, medicines of an astringent quality should succeed, as catechu, the powdered leaf of the whortleberry (uva ursi), and opium. Very careful attention should be paid to the food. The hay and oats should be of the best quality. Green meat, and espe- cially carrots, will be very serviceable. BLOODY URINE— H./EMATURIA. The discharge of urine of this character is of occasional occurrence. Pure blood is sometimes discharged which immediately coagulates — at other times it is more 01 less mixed with the urine, and does not coagulate. The cause of its appearance and the source whence it proceeds cannot always be determined, but it is probably the result of some strain or blow. It may or may not be accompanied by inflammation. Should it be the result of strain or violence, or be evidently attended by inflamma- tion, soothing and depleting measures should be adopted. Perhaps counter-irritation on the loins might be useful. If there is no apparent inflammation, some gentle stimulus may be administered internally. ALBUMINOUS URINE. A peculiar mucous state of the urine of some horses has lately attracted attention. It has been associated with stretching out of the legs, stiffness, disinclination to move a degree of fever, and costiveness. Slight bleeding, mild physic, the application of gentle stimulants to the loins, quietness, and gentle opiates, have been of service. We are indebted to Mr. Percivall for what we do know of the disease. It is a subject worthy of the attention of the veterinary surgeon. THE BLADDER. The urine separated from the blood is discharged by the minute vessels, of whicu we have spoken, into some larger canals, which terminate in a cavity or reservoir in the body of each kidney, designated its pelvis. Thence it is conveyed by a duct called the ureter, to a larger reservoir, the bladder. It is constantly flowing from the kidney through the ureter; and were there not this provision for its detention, it would be incessantly and annoyingly dribbling from the animal. The bladder lies in, and vbei distended by urine nearly fills, the cavity of the grea' tones of the haunch, 21* DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. termed the pelvis. It has three coats, the outer one covering the greater part of il and being a portion of the peritoneum : the muscular, consisting of two layers of fibres, as in the stomach ; the external, running longitudinally, and the inner circularly, so that it may yield to the pressure of the urine as it enters, and contract again into an exceedingly small space as it runs out, and by that contraction assist in the expulsior. of the urine. The inner coat contains numerous little glands, which secrete a mucous fluid to defend the bladder from the acrimony of the urine. The bladder terminates in a small neck, round which is a strong muscle, keeping the passage closed, and retaining the urine until, at the will of the animal, or when the bladder contains a certain quantity of fluid, the muscular coat begins to contract, the diaphragm is ren- dered convex towards the intestines, and presses them on the bladder, and by these united powers the fluid is forced through the sphincter muscle at the neck of the blad- der, and escapes. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. There are two varieties of this disease, inflammation of the body of the bladder, and of its neck. The symptoms are nearly the same with those of inflammation of the kidney, except that there is rarely a total suppression of urine, and there is heat felt in the rectum over the situation of the bladder. The causes are the presence of some acrid or irritant matter in the urine, or of calculus or stone in the bladder. With reference to inflammation of the body of the bladder, mischief has occasionally been done by the introduction of cantharides or some other irritating matter, in order to hasten the period of horsing in the mare. The treatment in this case will be the same as in inflammation of the kidneys, except that it is of more consequence that the ani- mal should drink freely of water or thin gruel. In inflammation of the neck of the bladder there is the same frequent voiding of urine in small quantities, generally appearing in an advanced stage of the disease, and often ending in almost total suppression. There is also this circumstance, which can never be mistaken by him who will pay sufficient attention to the case, that the bladder is distended with urine, and can be distinctly felt under the rec- tum. It is spasm of the part, closing the neck of the bladder so powerfully that the contraction of the bladder and the pressure of the muscles are unable to force out the urine. Here the object to be attempted is sufficiently plain. This spasm must be relaxed, and the most likely means to effect it is to bleed largely, and even to fainting. This will sometimes succeed, and there will be at once an end to the disease. To the exhaustion and loss of muscular power occasioned by copious bleeding, should be added the nausea consequent on physic. Should not this speedily have effect, an- other mode of abating spasm must be tried — powdered opium, made into a ball 01 drink, should be given every two or three hours; while an active blister is applied externally. The evacuation of the bladder, both in the mare and the horse, should be effected through the medium of a veterinary surgeon. STONE IN THE BLADDER. The urine is a very compound fluid. In a state of health it contains several acids and alkalies variously combined, which, under disease, are increased both in number and quantity. It is very easy to conceive that some of these may be occasionally separated from the rest, and assume a solid form both in the pelvis of the kidney and in the bladder. This is known to be the case both in the human being and the brute. These calculi or stones are in the horse oftener found in the kidney than in the blad- der, contrary to the experience of the human surgeon. The explanation of this however is not difficult. In the human being the kidney is situated above the blad- der, and these concretions descend from it to the bladder by their weight. The belly of the horse is horizontal, and the force of gravity can in no way affect the passage of the calculus ; therefore it occasionally remains in the pelvis of the kidney, until it has increased so much in si/e as to fill it. We know- not of any symptoms that would satisfactorily indicate the presence of a stone in the kidney ; and if the dis* ease could be ascertained, we are unable to say what remedial measures could *»e •dopted STONE rN THE BLA }DER. 24*7 Tho symptoms of stone in the bladder much resemble those of spasmodic colic except that, on careful inquiry, it will be found that there has been much irregularity in the discharge of urine and occasional suppression of it. When fits of apparent colic frequently retuin, and are accompanied by any peculiarity in the appearance 01 the discharge of the urine, the horse should be carefully examined. For this pui- pose he must be thrown. If there is stone in the bladder, it will, while the horse lies on its back, press on the rectum, and may be distinctly felt if the hand is intro duced into the rectum. Several cases have lately occurred of successful extraction of the calculus ; but to effect this it will always be necessary to have recourse to the aid of a veterinary practitioner. Both the practitioner and the amateur will be gratified by the description of a cathe- ter, invented by Mr. Taylor, a veterinary surgeon of Nottingham, which may be in- troduced into the bladder without difficulty or pain, and the existence and situation of the calculus readily ascertained. It is made of polished round iron, three feet long, one and a half inch in circum- ference, and with eight joints at its farther extremity. The solid part between each joint, is one and a quarter inch in length, and one and a half in circumference, the moveable part being ten inches, and the solid part two feet two inches. The lattei has a slight curve commencing one foot from the handle, and continuing to the first joint of the moveable part, in order to give it facility in passing the urethra, where it is attached to the parietes of the abdomen. The joints are on the principle of a half joint, so that the moveable part would only act in a straight line, or curve in one direction. The joints are perfectly rounded and smooth when acting either in a straight line or a curve. It is represented both in its straight and curved state in the following cuts. Many horses occasionally void a considerable quantity of gravel, sometimes with- out inconvenience, and at others with evident spasm or pain. A diuretic might be useful in such case, as increasing the flow of urine, and possibly washing out the concretions before they become too numerous or bulky. The urine having passed the neck of the bladder, flows along the urethra, and is discharged. The sheath of the penis is sometimes considerably enlarged. When at the close of acute disease, there are swellings and effusions of fluid, under the chest and belly, this part seldom escapes. Diuretics, with a small portion of cordial medicine, will be beneficial, but in extreme cases slight scarifications may be neces- sary. The inside of the sheath is often the seat of disease. The mucous matter, naturally secreted there to defend the part from the acrimony of the urine, accumu- lates and becomes exceedingly offensive, and produces swelling, tenderness, and even excoriation, with considerable discharge. Fomentation with warm water, and the cleansing of the part with soap and water, aided perhaps by the administration of a diuretic ball, will speedily remcve every inconvenience. Carters are too apt to neg- lect cleanliness in this respect. 248 BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. CHAPTER XI. BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. THIS may be a proper period to recur to the subject of breeding, and peciliai\3 ,mpo:tant when there cannot be a doubt that our breed of horses has, within the last twenty years, undergone a material change. Our running-horses still maintain theii speed, although their endurance is, generally speaking, considerably diminished; oui draught and carriage horses are perhaps improved in value ; but our hunters and hackneys are not what they used to be. Our observations on this will be of a general nature, and very simple. The £ rst axiom we would lay down is, that "like will produce like," and that the progen) will inherit the general or mingled qualities of the parents. There is scarcely a disease by which either of the parents is affected that the foal does not often inherit, or at least occasionally show a predisposition to it. Even the consequences of ill usage or hard work will descend to the progeny. There has been proof upon proof, that blindness, roaring, 'thick wind, broken wind, spavins, curbs, ringbones, and founder, have been bequeathed to their offspring, both by the sire and the dam. It should likewise be recollected that although these blemishes may not appear in the immediate progeny, they frequently do in the next, or even more distant generation. Hence the necessity of some knowledge of the parentage both of the sire and the dam. Peculiarity of form and constitution will also be inherited. This is a most important but neglected consideration ; for, however desirable or even perfect may have been the conformation of the sire, every good point may be neutralized or lost by the defective structure of the mare. The essential points should be good in both parents, or some minor defect in either be met, and got rid of, by excellence in that particular point in the other. The unskilful or careless breeder too often so badly pairs the animals, that the good points of each are almost lost: the defects of both increased, and the produce is far inferior to both sire and dam. Mr. Baker, of Reigate, places this in a striking point of view. He speaks of his Dwn experience : " A foal had apparently clear and good eyes, but the first day had not passed, before it was evident that it was totally blind. It had gutta serena. 44 Inquiry was then made about the sire, for the mare had good eyes. His were, on the slightest inspection, evidently bad, and not one of his colts had escaped the direful effects of his imperfect vision. 44 A mare had been the subject of farcial enlargements, and not being capable of performing much work, a foal was produced from her. She survived ; but the foal soon after birth evinced symptoms of farcy, and died. " A mare was lame from navicular disease. A foal was bred from her that at five years could scarcely go across the country, and was sold for a few pounds. The mare was a rank jib in single harness ; the foal was as bad." It is useless to multiply these examples. They occur in the experience of every one, and yet they are strangely disregarded. The mare is sometimes put to the horse at too early an age ; or, what is of more frequent occurrence, the mare is incapacitated for work by old age. The owner is unwilling to destroy her, and he determines that she shall bear a foal, and thus remunerate him for her keep. What is the consequence? The foal exhibits an unkindliness of growth, — a corresponding weakness, — and there is scarcely an organ that possesses its natural and proper strength. Of late years, these principles have been much lost sight of in the breeding of horses for general use ; and the following is the explanation of it. There are nearly as good stallions as there used to be. Few but well-formed and valuable horses will be selected and used as stallions. They are always the very prime of the breed : but the mares are not what they used to be. Poverty has induced many of the breeders to part with the mares from which they used to raise their stock, and which were worth their weight in gold ; and the jade on which the farmer now rides to market, of which he uses in his farm, costs him but little money, and is only retained becaus« he cannot get much money for her. It has like vise become the fashion for gentlemen to r de mares, a.mosl as frequency »s jreMing1^ •wa^ ,,nas the better kind are taitei BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. from the breeding service, until old age or injury renders them worth little for it. An intelligent veterinary surgeon, Mr. Castley, has placed this in a very strong light.* It should be impressed on the minds of breeders, that peculiarity of form and con- stitution are inherited from both parents, — that the excellence of the mare is a point of quite as much importance as that of the horse, — and that, out of a sorry mare, let the horse be as perfect as he may, a good foal will rarely be produced. All this is recognised upon the turf, though poverty or carelessness have made the genera, breeder neglect or forget it. That the constitution and endurance of the horse are inherited, no sporting man ever doubted. The qualities of the sire or the dam descend from generation to genera- tion, and the excellences or defects of certain horses are often traced, and justly so, to some peculiarity in a far-distant ancestor. It may, perhaps, be justly affirmed, that there is more difficulty in selecting a good mare to breed from than a good horse, because she should possess somewhat opposite qualities. Her carcase should be long, in order to give room for the growth of the foetus ; and yet with his there should be compactness of form and shortness of leg. What can they expect whose practice it is to purchase worn-out, spavined, foundered mares, about whom they fancy there have been some good points, and send thera far into the country to breed from, and, with all their variety of shape, to be covert*! by the same horse ? In a lottery like this there may be now and then a prize, but there must be many blanks. If horse-breeders, possessed of good judgment, would pay th« same attention to breed and shape as Mr. Bakewell did with his sheep, they would probably attain their wishes in an equal degree, and greatly to their advantage, whether for the collar or the road, for racing or for hunting. As to the shape of the stallion, little satisfactory can be said. It must depend on that of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to be bred ; but if there is one point absolutely essential, it is "compactness" — as much goodness and strength as possible condensed into a little space. Next to compactness, the inclination of the shoulder will be regarded. A huge stallion, with upright shoulders, never got a capital hunter or hackney. From him the breeder can obtain nothing but a cart or dray horse, and that, perhaps, spoiled by the opposite form of the mare. On the other hand, an upright shoulder is desirable, if not absolutely necessary, when a mere slow draught-horse is required. On the subject of breeding in and in, that is, persevering in the same breed, and selecting the best on either side, much has been said. The system of crossing, requires more judgment and experience than breeders usually possess. The bad qualities of the cross are too soon engrafted on the original stock, and once engrafted there, are not, for many generations, eradicated. The good qualities of both are occa- sionally neutralized to a most mortifying degree. On the other hand, it is the fact, however some may deny it, that strict confinement to one breed, however valuable 01 * "Any one," says he, " who, during the last twenty or five -and -twenty years, has had frequent opportunities of visiting some of our great horse-fairs in the north of England must be struck with the sad falling-off there is everywhere to be remarked in the quality of the one- half and three-part bred horses, exhibited for sale. The farmers, when taxed with this, com- plain that breeding horses does not sufficiently repay them ; and yet we find large sums of money always given at fairs for any horses that are really good, but bad ones are not at any time likely to pay for rearing, and less now than ever, on account of the advanced rate of land, and the increased expense of production. The truth is, that farmers do not, now-a-daya. Dreed horses so generally good as they used to do, and this is owing to the inferior quality of the rnares which they now commonly employ in breeding. They have, to a great degree, been tempted to part with their best mares, and thus breed from the refuse. The stock con- sequently deteriorates, and they are disappointed. " The great demand for mares has also contributed to get the best material for breeding out of the farmer's hands. Thirty years ago few gentlemen would be seen riding a mare — it was unfashionable. There was, consequently, but little demand for her, and she was left for the most part in the farmers' hands, who were then to be seen riding to market, mounted on the Inest mares, and from among which they selected the best for the purpose of breeding. Like will produce like, and the stock would seldom disappoint them. " Then there is the demand for the foreign market. Within the last twenty years, a great number of our finest three-parts-bred mares have been exported to various portions of the Continent, and particularly to France and Germany. They never find their way back again. The money brought int.: our country by their export is a mere trifle-— a drop in the ocean-- while wr arr doing ourse ^ es incalculable mischief by allowing some of our best materials tc paps out «f e presentation of the foetus, or difficulty in producing it, it will be better to have recourse to a well-informed practitioner, than to injure the mother by the violent and injurious attempts that are often made to relieve her. The parturition being over, the mare should be turned into some well-sheltered pas- ture, with a hovel or shed to run into when she pleases ; and as, supposing that she has foaled in April,* the grass is scanty, she should have a couple of feeds of corn daily. The breeder may depend upon it, that nothing is gained by starving the mother and stinting the foal at this time. It is the most important period of the life of the horse ; and if, from false economy, his growth is arrested, his puny form and want of endurance will ever afterwards testify the error that has been committed. The corn should be given in a trough on the ground, that the foal may partake of it with the mother. When the new grass is plentiful, the quantity of corn may gradu- ally be diminished. The mare will usually be found again at heat at or before the expiration of a month from the time of foaling, when, if she is principally kept for breeding purposes, she may be put again to the horse. At the same time, also, if she is used^for agricultural purposes, she may go again to work. The foal is at first shut in the stable during the hours of work ; but as soon as it acquires sufficient strength to toddle after the mare, and especially when she is at slow work, it will be better for the foal and the dam that they should be together. The work will contribute to the health of the mother ; the foal will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive better, and will be hardy and tractable, and gradually familiarised with the objects among wThich it is afterwards to live. While the mother, however, is thus worked, she and the foal should be welj fed ; and two feeds of corn, at least, should be added to the greon food which 'hey get when turned out after their work, and at night. * By the present rules of the jockey-club, the age of turf- horses is reckoned from the 1st o< January ; but this has not by any common consent extended to the half-breds. The 1st o( May is nearest to the general time of foaling, and the age of the cavalry-horses is dated fron mat period. BREEDING, CASTRATION, &c. 251 In five or six months, according to the growth of the foal, it may oc weanet. It ihould then be housed for three weeks or a month, or turned into some distant rick yard. There can be no better place for the foal than the latter, as affording, and tha without trouble, both food and shelter. The mother should be put to harder work, and have drier meat. One or two urine-balls, or a physic-ball, will be useful, if the milk should be troublesome, or she should pine after her foal. There is no principle of greater importance than the liberal feeding of the foal dur- ing the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular. Bruised oats and bran should form a considerable part of his daily provender. The farmer may be assured that the money is well laid out which is expended on the liberal nourishment of the growing colt ; yet while he is well fed, he should not be rendered delicate by excess of care. A racing colt is often stabled ; but one that is destined to be a hunter, a hackney, or an agricultural horse, should have a square rick, under the leeward side of which he may shelter himself; or a hovel, into which he may run at night, and out of the rain. Too often, however, the foal, after weaning, is left to struggle on as he can, and becomes poor and dispirited. He is to be seen shrinking under a hedge, cold and almost shivering, his head hanging down, and rheum distilling from his eyes. If he is made to move, he listlessly drags his limbs along, evidently weak, and gene- rally in pain. He is a sad specimen of poverty and of misery. This is the first scene of cruelty to the horse of inferior breed, and destined for inferior purpose.* The process of breaking-in should commence from the very period of weaning. The foal should be daily handled, partially dressed, accustomed to the halter when led about, and even tied up. The tractability, and good temper, and value of the horse, depend a great deal more upon this than breeders are aware. Everything should be done, as much as possible, by the man who feeds the colt, and whose management of him should be always kind and gentle. There is no fault for which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as cruelty, or even harshness, towards the rising stock ; for the principle on which their after usefulness is founded, is early attachment to, and confidence in man. and obedience, implicit obedience, resulting principally from this. After the second winter the work of breaking-in may commence in good earnest. The colt may be bitted, and a bit selected that will not hurt his mouth, and much smaller than those in common use. With this he may be suffered to amuse himself, and to play, and to champ it for an hour, on a few successive days. Having become a little tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon him, concluding with the blind winkers ; and, a few days afterwards, he may go into the team. It would be better if there could be one horse before, and one behind him, beside the shaft horse. There should at first be the mere empty wagon. Nothing should be done to him, except that he should have an occasional pat or kind word. The other horses will keep him moving, and in his place ; and no great time will pass, sometimes not even the first day, before he will begin to pull with the rest. The load may then be gradually increased. The agricultural horse is sometimes wanted to ride as well as to draw. Let his first lesson be given when he is in the team. Let his feeder, if possible, be first put upon him. He will be too much hampered by his harness, and by the other horses, to make much resistance; and, in the majority of cases, will quietly and at once sub- mit. We need not to repeat, that no whip or spur should be used in giving the first lessons in riding. When he begins a little to understand his business, backing — the most difficult part of his work — may be taught him; first to back well without anything behind him, and then with a light cart, and afterwards with some serious load— always taking the greatest care not seriously to hurt his mouth. If the first lesson causes much sore- ness of the gums, the colt will not readily submit to a second. If he has been previ- ously rendered tractable by kind usage, time and patience will do everything that can oe wished. Some carters are in the habit of blinding the colt when teaching him to oack. This may be necessary with a restive and obstinate one, but should be used wJ.y as a last resort. The PO t having been thus partially broken-in, the necessity of implicit obedience * Youatt on Humanity to Animals, p 115 252 BREEMNG, CASTRATION, &c. must be taught him, and that not by severity, but by firmness ana steadiness. TV voice will go a great way, bat the whip or the spur is sometimes indispensable — no\ so severely applied as to excite the animal to resistance, but to convince him that we have the power to enforce submission. Few — it may almost be said, no horses, are naturally vicious. It is Ci ael usage which has first provoked resistance. That resist- ance has been followed by greater severity, and the stubbornness of the animal has increased Open warfare has ensued, in which the man has seldom gained advantage, and the horse has been frequently rendered unserviceable. Correction may, or must be used, to enforce implicit obedience after the education has proceeded to a certain extent, but the early lessons should be inculcated with kindness alone. Young colte are sometimes very perverse. Many days will occasionally pass before they will permit the bridle to be put on, or the saddle to be worn ; and one act of harshness will double or treble this time : patience and kindness, however, will always prevail. On some morning, when he is in a better humour than usual, the bridle may oe put on, and the saddle may be worn ; and, this compliance being followed by kindness and soothing on the part of the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain being suffered by the animal, all resistance will be at an end. The same principles will apply to the breaking-in of the horse for the road or thr •shase. The handling, and some portion of instruction, should commence from the time of weaning. The future tractability of the horse will much depend on this. At two years and a half, or three years, the regular process of breaking-in should com- mence. If it is delayed until the animal is four years old, his strength and obstinacy will be more difficult to overcome. The plan usually pursued by the breaker cannot perhaps be much improved, except that there should be much more kindness and patience, and far less harshness and cruelty, than these persons are accustomed to exhibit, and a great deal more attention to the form and natural action of the horse. A headstall is put on the colt, and a cavesson (or apparatus to confine and pinch the nose) affixed to it, with long reins. He is first accustomed to the rein, then led round a ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and taught his paces. Next to preserv- ing the temper and docility of the horse, there is nothing of so much importance as to teach him every pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and thoroughly. Each must constitute a separate and sometimes long-continued lesson, and that taught by a man who will never suffer his passion to get the better of his discretion. After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and the long rein put on, the colt should be quietly led about by the breaker — a steady boy following behind, by occasional threatening with the whip, but never by an actual blow, to keep him mov- ing. "When the animal follows readily and quietly, he may be taken to the rhig, and walked round, right and left, in a very small circle. Care should be taken to teach him this pace thoroughly, never suffering him to break into a trot. The boy with his whip may here again be necessary, but not a single blow should actually fall. Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he should be quickened to a trot, and kept steadily at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him on, and the cavesson restrain- ing him. These lessons should be short. The pace should be kept perfect, and dis- tinct in each; and docility and improvement rewarded with frequent caresses, and handfuls of corn. The length of the rein may now be gradually increased, and the pace quickened, and the time extended, until the animal becomes tractable in these his first lessons, towards the conclusion of which, crupper-straps, or something simi- lar, may be attached to the clothing. These, playing about the sides and flanks, accustom him to the flapping of the coat of the rider. The annoyance which they occasion will pass over in a day or two ; for when the animal finds that no harm comes to him, he will cease to regard them. Next comes the bitting. The bit should be large and smooth, and the reins buckled to a ring on either side of the pad. There are many curious and expensive machines for this purpose, but the simple rein will be quite sufficient. It should at first be siack, and then very gradually tightened. This will prepare for the more perfect manner in which the head will be afterwards got into its proper position, when the co(t is accustomed to the saddle. Occasionally the breaker should stand in f -ont of the colt, and take hold of each side rein near ij the mouth, and press upon it, and thus begin to teach him to stnp and to back on the pressure of the rein, rewarding crery act of docility, and not being too eager to punish occasional carelessness 01 way vrardness BREAKING-IN 25c Tlie colt may now be taken into the road or street to be gradually zu sustained to »he objects among which his services will be required. Here, from fear or playful- less, a considerable degree of starting and shying may be exhibited. As little no- tice as possible should be taken of it. The same or a similar object should be soon passed again, but at a greater distance. If the colt still shies, let the distance be far- ther increased, until he takes no notice of the object. Then he may be gradually brought nearer to it, and this will be usually effected without the slightest difficulty : whereas, had there been an attempt to force him close to it in the first instance, the remembrance of the contest would have been associated with every appearance of the object, and the habit of shying would have been established. Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have been shown, but will scarcely have been used ; the colt must now, however, be accustomed to thia necessary instrument of authority. Let the breaker walk by the side of the animal, and throw his right arm over his back, holding the reins in his left, occasionally quickening his pace, and at the moment of doing this, tapping the horse with the whip in his right hand, and at first very gently. The tap of the whip and the quick- ening of the pace will soon become associated in the mind of the animal. If neces- sary, these reminders may gradually fall a little heavier, and the feeling of pain be the monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. The lessons of reining in and stopping, and backing on the pressure of the bit, may continue to be practised at the same time. He may now be taught to bear the saddle. Some little caution will be necessary at the first putting of it on. The breaker should stand at the head of the colt, pat- ting him, and engaging his attention, while one assistant, on the off-side, gently places the saddle on the back of the animal ; and another, on the near-side, slowly tightens the girths. If he submits quietly to this, as he generally will when tho previous process of breaking-in has been properly conducted, the ceremony of mount- ing may be attempted on the following, or on the third day. The breaker will need two assistants in order to accomplish this. He will remain at the head of the colt, patting and making much of him. The rider will put his foot into the stirrup, and bear a little weight upon it, while the man on the off-side presses equally on the other stirrup-leather; and, according to the docility of the animal, he will gradually in- crease the weight, until he balances himself on the stirrup. If the colt is uneasy < r fearful, he should be spoken to kindly and patted, or a mouthful of corn be given t > him : but if he offers serious resistance, the lessons must terminate for that day. He may probably be in better humour on the morrow. When the rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he may gently throw his leg over, and quietly seat himself in the saddle. The breaker will then lead the animal round the ring, the rider sitting perfectly still. After a few minutes he will take the reins, and handle them as gently as possible, and guide the horse bj the pressure of them ; patting him frequently, and especially when he thinks of dismounting — and, after having dismounted, offering him a little corn or green meat. The use of the rein in checking him, and of the pressure of the leg and the touch of the heel in quickening his pace, will soon be taught, and his education will be nearly completed. The horse having thus far submitted himself to the breaker, these pattings and rewards must be gradually diminished, and implicit obedience mildly but firmly enforced. Severity will not often be necessary. In the great majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled for : but should the animal, in a moment of waywardness, dispute the command of the breaker, he must at once be taught that he is the slave of man, and that we have the power, by other means than those of kindness, to bend him to our will. The education of the horse should be that of the child. Pleasure is, as much as possible, associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or, if need be, coercion, must establish the habit of obedience. Tyranny and cruelty will, mo/e speedily in the horse than even in the child, provoke the wish to disobey ; and, on every practicable occasion, the resistance to command. The restive and vicious horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, made so by ill-usage, and not ly na- ture. None but tnose who will take the trouble to try the experiment are aware how ibsolute a command the due admixture of firmness and kindness will soon give ui wei any horse. 251 CASTRATIOW CASTRATION. The period at which this operation may be best performed depends much on tiy breed and form of the colt, and the purpose for which he is destined. For the com* mon agricultural horse the age of four or five months will be the most proper time, or, at least before he is weaned. Few horses are lost when cut at that age. Care, however, should be taken that the weather is not too hot, nor the flies too numerous. We enter our decided protest, however, against the recommendation of valuable but incautious agricultural writers, that "• colts should be cut in the months of June 01 July, when flies pester the horses, and cause them to be continually moving about and thereby prevent swelling." One moment's reflection will convince the reader that nothing can be more likely to produce inflammation, and consequent swelling and danger, than the torture of the flies hovering round and stinging the sore part. If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy draught, the farmer should not think of castrating him until he is at least a twelve-month old ; and, even then, the colt should be carefully examined. If he is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders, and low in the withers, he will materially improve by remaining uncut another six months ; but if his fore-quarters are fairly developed at the age of a twelve-month, the operation should not be delayed, lest he become heavy and gross before, and peihaps has begun too decidedly to have a will of his own. No specific age, then, can be fixed; but the castration should be performed rather late in the spring or early in the autumn, when the air is temperate, and particularly when the weather is dry. No preparation is necessary for the sucking colt, but it may be pru- dent to bleed and to physic one of more advanced age. In the majority of cases, no after-treatment will be necessary, except that the animal should be sheltered from intense heat, and more particularly from wet. In temperate weather he will do much better running in the field than nursed in a close and hot stable. The moderate exer- cise that he will take in grazing will be preferable to perfect inaction. A large and well-ventilated box, however, may be permitted. The manner in which the operation is performed will be properly left to the vete- rinary surgeon. The haste, carelessness, and brutality of the common gelder should no longer be permitted ; but the veterinary surgeon should be able and willing to discharge every portion of his duty. The old method of opening the scrotum on either side, and cutting off the testicles, and preventing haemorrhage by a temporary compression of the vessels while they are seared with a hot iron, must not, perhaps, be abandoned ; but there is no necessity for that extra pain, and that appearance, at least, of brutality, which occur when the spermatic cord (the blood-vessels and the nerve) is as tightly compressed between two pieces of wood as in a powerful vice, and left there until either the testicle drops off, or is removed on the following day by the operator. To the practice of some fanners, of twitching their colts at an early period, some- times even so early as a month, there is stronger objection. When the operation of twitching is performed, a small cord is drawn as tightly as possible round the bag, between the testicle and the belly. The circulation is thus stopped, and, in a few- days, the testicles and the bag drop off; but not until the animal has sadly suffered. £t is occasionally necessary to tighten the cord on the second or third day, and inflam- mation and death have frequently ensued. Another mode of castration has been lately introduced which bids fair to supersede every other: it is called the operation by Torsion. An incision is made into the scrotum as in the other modes of operation, and the vas deferens is exposed and divided. The artery is then seized by a pair of forceps contrived for the purpose, and twibted six or seven times round. It retracts as soon as the hold on it is quitted, ti« coils are not untwisted, and all bleeding has ceased. The testicle is removed, a»i! there is nr sloughing or danger. The most painful part of the operation — the applies don rf fiic fir ng- inn or the clams— is avoided, and the wound readily heals THE SHOULDER.— SPRAIN JF THE SHOULDER. 255 CHAPTER XII. THE FORE LEGS. WE am>e now a, those parts of the frame which are most essentially cumaicted writh the astion and \ralue of the horse, and oftenest, and most annoyingly, the subjects of disease. The extremities contain the whole apparatus of voluntary motion, with which the action, and speed, and strength of the horse are most concerned. We commence with the upper portion, of which the fore extremity, the shoulder is seen at G, p. 68. THE SHOULDER. The scapula or shoulder-blade, situated forward on the side of the chest, is a bone of a somewhat triangular shape, with its apex or narrowest point downward, and its broad and thin expansion upward. The point of the shoulder lies opposite to the first and second ribs ; the hinder expansion of the base reaches as far back as the seventh rib ; it therefore extends obliquely along the chest. It is divided, externally, into twc unequal portions by a ridge or spine running through almost the whole of its extent, and designed, as will be presently seen, for the attachment of important muscles. The broad or upper part having no muscles of any consequence attached to it, is terminated by cartilage. The shoulder-blade is united to the chest by muscle alone. There is one large muscle, with very remarkable tendinous fibres and of immense strength (the serratus major, greater saw-shaped muscle), attached to the chest, and to the extensive smooth internal surface of the shoulder-blade, and by which, assisted, or rather strengthened, by the muscles of the breast, the weight of the body is supported, and the shock of the widest leap, or the most rapid motion, sustained. Had there been a bony union between the shoulder and the body, the vital parts contained in the chest could not have endured the dreadful, shock which they would occasionally have experienced ; nor could any bone have long remained whole if exposed to such violence. The muscles within the shoulder-blade act as powerful and safe springs. They yield, as far as necessary, to the force impressed upon them. By their gradual yielding they destroy the violence of the shock, and then by their elastic power, immediately regain their former situation. SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER. These muscles are occasionally injured by some unexpected shock. Although in not more than one case in twenty is the farrier right when he talks of his shoulder- lameness, yet it cannot be denied, that the muscles of the shoulder are occasionally sprained. This is effected oftener by a slip or side-fall, than by fair, although violent exertion. It is of considerable importance to be able to distinguish this shoulder- lameness from injuries of other parts of the fore extremity. There is not much tenderness, or heat, or swelling. It is a sprain of muscles deeply seated, and where these symptoms of injury are not immediately evident. If, on standing before the horse, and looking at the size of the two shoulders, or rather their points, one should appear evidently larger than the other, this must not be considered as indicative of sprain of the muscles of the shoulder. It probably arises from bruise of the point of the shoulder, which a slight examination will determine. The symptoms, however, of shoulder-lameness can scarcely be mistaken ; and, whf n we relate them, the farmer will recollect that they very seldom occurred when the village smith pointed to the shoulder as the seat of disease, and punished the anim il to no purpose. In sprain of the shoulder the horse evidently suffers extreme pain virile moving, and, the muscle underneath being inflamed and tender, he will extend it as little as possible. He will drag his toe along the ground. It is in the lifting of the foot that the shoulder is principally moved. If the foot is lifted high, let the horse be ever so lame, the shoulder is little, if at all affected. In sprain of the iwck sinews, it is only when the horse is in motion that the injured parts are put it) most pain ; the pain is greatest here when the weight rests on the limb in shoulder- .ameness, and there is a peculiar quickness in catching up the limb the moment th* 456 THE FOR? LEGS. weight is thrown on it. This is particularly evident when the horse is ^oing down hill, and the injured limb bears an additional portion of the weight. In the stable too, when, in other cases, the horse points or projects one foot before the other, that foot is usually flat on the ground. In shoulder-lameness, the toe alone rests on the ground. The circumstance whicn most of all characterises this affection is, that when the foot is lifted and then brought considerably forward the horse will express very great pain, which he will not do if the lameness is in the foot or the leg. This point has been longer dwelt upon, in oider that the reader may be enabled to put to the test the many cases of shoulder-lameness, which exist only in the imagination of the groom or the farrier. In sprain of the internal muscles of the shoulder, few local measures can be adopted. The horse should be bled from the vein on the inside of the arm (the plate vein), because the blood is then abstracted more immediately from the inflamed part. A dose of physic should be given, and fomentations applied, and principally on the inside of the arm, close to the chest, and the horse should be kept as quiet as possible. The injury is too deeply seated for external stimulants to have very great effect, yet- a blister will properly be resorted to, if the lameness is not speedily removed. The swim- ming of the horse is an inhuman practice ; it tortures the animal, and increases the inflammation. The pegging of the shoulder (puncturing the skin, aud blowing into the cellular structure beneath until it is considerably puffed up) is another relic of ignorance and barbarity. SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. The lessening or breaking of the shock, from the weight being thrown violently on the fore legs, is effected in another way. It will be observed, that (see G and J, p. 68) the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder are not connected together in a straight line, but form a very considerable angle with each other. This will be more evident from the following cut, which represents the fore and hind extremities in the situations which they occupy in the horse. Fhb angular construction of the liinbd leminds us of the similar arrangemett of the springs of a carriage, and tho easft 01 motion, aad almost perfet t freedom from \ citing which are thereby obtained. SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. 257 It must not perhaps be said, that the form of the spring was borrowed frvan thin construction of the limbs of the horse, but the effect of the carriage-spring beautifully illustrates the connexion of the different bones in the extremities of this quadruped. The obliquity or slanting direction of the shoulder effects other very useful pui- poses. That the stride in the gallop, or the space passed over in the trot, may be extensive, it is necessary that the fore part of the animal should be considerably ele- vated. The shoulder, by means of the muscles which extend from it to the inferior part of the limb, is the grand agent in effecting this. Had the bones of the shoulder been placed more upright than we see them, they could not then have been of the length which they now are, — their connexion with the chest could not have been so secure, — and their movements upon each other would have been comparatively restricted. The slightest inspection of the preceding cut, or of that at page 68, will show that, just in proportion as the point of the shoulder is brought forward and ele- vated, will be the forward action and elevation of the limb, or the space passed over at every effort. The slanting shoulder accomplishes a most useful object. The muscles extending from the shoulder-blade to the lower bone of the shoulder are the powers by which motion is given to the whole of the limb. The extent and energy of that motion depend much on the force exerted or the strength of the muscle ; but there are cir- cumstances in the relative situations of the different bones which have far greatel influence. Let it be supposed that, by means of a lever, some one is endeavouring to raise '. certain weight. A is a lever, resting or turning on a pivot B ; C is the weight to be raised ; and D is the power, or the situation at which the power is applied. If the strength ii applied in a direction perpendicular to the lever, as represented by the line E, th« power which must be exerted can easily be calculated. A B In proportion as the distance of the power from the pivot or centre of motion exceeds that of the weight from the same place, so will be the advantage gained. The power here is twice as far from the centre as the weight is, and therefore advan vantage is gained in the proportion of two to one : or if the weight is equal to 200lbs., a force of lOOlbs. will balance it. If the direction in which the power is applied is altered, and it is in that of the line F, will lOOlbs. effect the purpose1? No; nothing like it. How, then, is the necessary power to be calculated ? The line of direction mast be prolonged, until another line, falling perpendicularly from the lever, and commencing at the centre of motion, will cut it ; and the length of that line will give the actual effect of the strength employed. Now, this new line is but half as long as the distance of the weight from the centre o*" motion, and therefore advantage is lost in the proportion of two to one ; or a strength equal to 4001bs. must be exerted to raise the 2001bs., and so on in proportion to the deviation from the right or perpen- dicular line. Let the shoulder of the horse be considered. The point of the shoulder — the shoulder joint — is the pivot or centre of motion; the leg attached to the bone of the arm is the weight; the shoulder-blade being more fixed is the part whence the power emanates ; and the muscles extending from the one to the other are the lines in which that power is exerted. These lines approach much more nearly to a perpendicular in the oblique than in the upright shoulder (see cut). In the upright one, the shouJ- tiei-blade ^nd the bone of the arm are almost in a straight line, and the real action and powei 3f the muscle are most strangely diminished. In this point of view the oblique shoulder is most important. It not only gives extensive action, but facility of action. The power of the muscles is more than doubled by being everted in a line approaching so much nearer to a perpendicular. 22* 2n 258 THE FORE LEGS. There is yec another advantage of the oblique shoulder. The point of the shouldei is projected forward ; and therefore the pillars which support the fore-part of the horse are likewise placed proportionably forward, and they have less weight to carry. They are exposed to less concussion, and especially concussion in rapid action. The horse is also much safer ; for having less weight situated before th 3 pillars cf «-;p- port, he is not so likely to have the centre of gravity thrown before and beyonc them by an accidental trip ; or, in other words, he is not so likely to fall ; and he rides more pleasantly, for there is far less weight bearing on the hand of the rider, and annoying and tiring him. It likewise unfortunately happens that nature, as it were to supply the deficiency of action and of power in an upright shoulder, has sccumulated on it more muscle, and therefore the upright shoulder is proverbially thick and cloddy ; and the muscles of the breast which were designed to strengthen the attachment of the shoulders to the chest, and to bind them together, must, when the point of the shoulder lies backward, and under the horse, be proportionably thickened and strengthened, and the horse is thus still more heavy before, more unpleasant, and more unsafe to ride. Then, ought every horse to have an oblique shoulder1? No! The question haa relation to those horses that are designed to ride pleasantly, or from which extensive and rapid action is required. In them it has been said that an oblique shoulder i« indispensable : but there are others which are seldom ridden ; whose pace is slow, and who have nothing to do but to throw as much weight as possible into the collar. To them an upright shoulder is an advantage, because its additional thickness gives them additional weight to throw into the collar, which the power of their hinder quar- teis is fully sufficient to accomplish ; and because the upright position of the shoulder gives that direction to the collar which enables the horse to act upon every part of it, and that inclination of the traces which will enable his weight or power to be most advantageously employed. An improved breed of our heavy draught-horses has of late years been attempted, and with much success. Sufficient uprightness of shoulder is retained for the purposes of draught, while a slight degree of obliquity has materially quickened the pace and improved the appearance. Above its junction with the humerus, or lower division of the limb, the shoulder- blade forms what is called the point of the shoulder. There is a round blunted pro- jection, best seen in the cut (p. 256). The neck of the shoulder-blade there forms a shallow cavity, into which the head of the next bone is received. The cavity is shallow because extensive motion is required, and because both of the bones being so moveable, and the motion of the one connected so much with thai of the other, dislocation was less likely to occur. A capsular ligament, or one extend- ing round the heads of both bones, confines them securely together. This joint is rarely or never dislocated ; and, should it suffer dislocation, the muscles of the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder are so strong, that the reduc- tion of it would be impossible. The point of the shoulder, however, projecting con- siderably, is much exposed to injury from accident or violence. Even turning in a narrow stall has inflicted a serious bruise. Fomentations of warm water will usually remove the tenderness and lameness, but should they fail, blood should be taken from Che plate vein, or, in -very obstinate cases, a blister should be resorted to. A description of the principal muscles of the shoulder-blade, their situation, attach- ments, and use, may not be uninteresting to the lover of the horse, and may guide his judgment as to the capability and proper form of that noble animal. CUT OF MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER. a and 6, in the following cut, represent a portion of the Trapezius muscle attached to the longer bones of the withers broadly and strongly and to the ligament and fasciae of the neck (a portion of which is seen at 6), narrowing below, terminating almost in a point, and inserted into a tubercle on the spine or ridge of the shoulder-blade. It occupies the space between the withers and the upper part of the shoulder-blade, and is large and strong in proportion to the height of the withers, and the slanting- of the ihoulder. Its use is evidently to elevate and support the scapula — to raise it, and likewise to draw it backward ; therefore, constituting one of the most important mus cles connected with the action of the horse, and illustrating the advantage of high withers and a slanting shoulde*- A portion of it is represented as turned hack, if MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER. 259 order to show other muscles beneath. A moment's inspection will convince th* loader that although a low forehan^ und thick shoulder are vory properly objected to, yet still some fulness and fleshiness are necessary, even about the with- ers ; otherwise, although there may be height of withers, and obliquity of shoulder, to give extensive action, there will not be sufficient musculai power to work the machine with either quickness or continuance. At c is a portion of the kvator humeri (the raiser of the shoulder), descending from the tubercle of the head (see cut, page 68), and from the base of the temporal bone, and attaching itself to the first four bones of the neck, and to the ligament of the neck; inserting itself into the covering of the muscles of the shoul- der, and those about the point of the shoulder, and at length terminating in a ridge on the body of the humerus, arising from the greater tubercle. It is a muscle of immense power and great utility, raising and drawing forward the shoulder and the arm, or, when these are fixed, turning the head and neck if one only acts, and depressing them if the muscles on both sides act at the same time. At d is a portion of the serratug magnus muscle, between the shoulder and side of the chest, and constituting the bulk of the lower part of the neck. It is deeply seated, arising from the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh bones of the neck anteriorly, and attached posteriorly to the eight first ribs. All its fibres tend towards and are inserted into the inner sur- face of the shoulder, and by means of them the shoulder is attached to the chest, and the immense weight ol the body supported. The use of this muscle in obviating concussion, has already been spoken of. When the horse is standing, this muscle occasionally discharges another important function. The shoulders and legs are then rendered fixed points by the weight of the body, and this muscle exerts all its power in dilating the cavity of the chest, and thus materially assists in the act of breathing. Therefore, as was stated when that disease was treated of, a horse labouring under inflammation of the lungs will obsti- nately stand night and day, in order that he may obtain the assistance of this muscle in respiration, which is become laborious and painful ; and for the same reason it is that we regard his lying down as one of the most favourable symptoms, because it shows us that the breathing is so much relieved as not to need the assistance of this muscle. At c is a small portion of the splenius muscle, which was spoker if when the necK sras described, p. 159. / represents a muscle sometimes described as a portion of the levaior numert, 01 alevator of the shoulder, arising from the nipple-shaped process or tubercle of the temporal bcne, running down the somewhat lateral "but fore part of the neck, inserted oito the upper and middle part of the lower borr of the shoulder *md thence co» 260 ] FORE LEGS. tinued down to the arm. Its office is to bend the head ; or, the head and necK being fixed, to elevate and bring forward the arm. It is in powerful action when the horse is running at his speed, with the head projected. At g is a portion of the sterno maxillaris, or muscle common to the fore part of the chest and the lower jaw, and described at p. 159. h designates the principal portion of this muscJe, extending from the shoulder to the humerus, and employed in drawing this bone towards the shoulder-blade, and bending the whole of the limb. Exceedingly powerful action is required from this muscle ; therefore it is very tendinous, and inserted in such a direction as to act with great mechanical advantage, and that advantage increased in proportion to the slanting position of the shoulder. The muscle ?', antea spinatus, is situated on the outer and anterior part of the shoulder, below and behind the muscle next mentioned; and its office is to extend the humerus on the scapula. It is also attached to the greater tubercle of the humerus, and to a bony ridge extending from' it to the capsular-ligament of the shoulder-joint. Its action is to assist in flexion of the humerus, and to give it a motion outwards. The muscle j\ postea spinatus, behind the spine or ridge, occupies that space of the shoulder, and is inserted into the outer and upper head of the bone. It draws this bone outward and upward. At k, is a muscle common to the breast and the shoulder-blade, and called the pec* toralis parvus. It arises from the breast-bone, and reaches to the covering of the shoulder-joint, and the muscles of the shoulder. Its action, in common with that of a larger muscle, seen at m, the great pectoral, is to draw the head of the shoulder back- ward, and also the lower part of the shoulder-blade, and to give the latter a more up- right position. At q, is the tendon of a very important muscle, the extensor longus of the arm, reaching from the upper angle and the posterior border of the shoulder-blade to the point of the elbow and the inside of the arm, and which will be presently described. At » and s, are. the three divisions of another muscle concerned in the same office, arising from the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder, and likewise attached to the point of the elbow by a very strong tendon. This cut represents the muscles on the inside of the shoulder and fore-arm, a is a very prominent one. It is called the pectoralis transversua (the muscle crossing the breast). It arises from the first four bones of the sternum, and runs across to the inner part of the arm ; it is also attached to the inferior part of the body of the humerus, and to the fascia covering the arm, and reaching a con- siderable way down the arm. The use of this muscle is obvious and important. It binds the arm to the side oi1 the horse; it keeps the legs straight before the horse when he is at speed, that the weight of the body may be received on them in a direction most easy and safe to the horse and to the rider, and most advantageous for the full play of all the muscles concerned in progression. Con- sidering the unevenness of surface over which a horse often passes, and the rapid turnings which are sometimes necessary, these muscles have enough to do ; and when the animal is pushed beyond his strength, and these muscles are wearied, and the fore-legs spread out, and the horse is " all abroad" the confused and unpleasant manner of going, and the sudden falling-off in speed, are well known to every rider. Mr. Percivall very properly observes, that this muscle has probably more to do u enablincr the arm to suDDort weight than to give i; enabling the arm to support weight motion. THE HUMERUS, OR LOWER BONE OF THE SHOULDER. Forming a joint with the shoulder-blade, at the point of the shoulder, is the humerw It is a short, strong bone, slanting backward in an opposite direction to the shoulder THE ARM 26) olade. At tne uppe* part it has a large round head, received into the shallow cavity of the shoulder-blade ; or, as Mr. Percivall has graphically described it, »' at is thi segment af a globe, smooth and polished, evidently for the purpose of playing like a spheiical hinge within the cup-like concavity occupying the place of the apex of the scapula. There are no two bones in the skeleton whose articular connexion is of a nature to admit more varied and extensive motion than exists between the scapula and the humerus. If we attempt to lift a horse's fore-leg, we cannot merely bring it for- ward and backward, but we can also, to a considerable extent, make it perform a sor* of rotatory motion, in consequence of the mobility existing in this joint, between the socket of the scapula and the head of the humerus."* It has several protuberances for the insertion of muscles, and is terminated below by two condyles, or heads, which in front receive the principal bone of the arm between them, as in a groove, thus add- ing to the security and strength of the joint, and limiting the action of this joint and of the limb below to mere bending and extension, without any side motion. Farther behind, these heads receive the elbow deep between them, in order to give more extensive action to the arm. In a well-formed horse, this bone can scarcely be too short, in order that the fore-legs may be as forward as possible, for reasons already stated, and because, when the lower bone of the shoulder is long, the shoulder must be too upright. Dislocation can scarcely occur in either of the attachments of the bone, and fracture of it is almost impossible. The lower bone of the shoulder and the shoulder-blade are by horsemen confounded together, and included under the appellation of the shoulder, and in compliance with general usage, we have described them as combining to form the shoulder. Among the muscles arising from the humerus, are two short and very strong ones, seen at r and s, p. 259, the first proceeding from the upper part of this bone to the elbow, and the second from the internal part, and likewise going to the elbow, and both of them being powerful agents in extending the leg. In front, at y, is one of the muscles of the humerus, the external one employed in bending the arm, arising from the inner and back part of the neck and body of the humerus, turning obliquely round that bone, and inserted into the inner and upper part of the bone of the arm. THE ARM. The arm extending from the elbow to the knee (see K and L, p. 68, and also cut, p. 259), consists, in the young horse, of two distinct bones. The long and front bone, called the radius, is nearly straight, receiving into its upper end the lower heads of the humerus ; and the lower end corresponding with the upper layer of the bones of the knee. The short and hinder bone is called the ulna. It has a very long and powerful projection, received between the heads of the humerus, and called the elbow ; it then stretches down, narrowing by degrees (see L, p. 68, and the cut, p. 259) to below the middle of the front bone, where it terminates in a point. The two bones are united together by cartilage and ligament; but these are by degrees absorbed and changed to bone, and before the horse becomes old the whole of the arm consists of one bone only. It will be perceived that, from the slanting direction of the humerus, the weight of the horse, and the violence of the concussion, will be shared between the radius and the ulna, and therefore less liable to injure either. The circumstance, also, of so much weight and jar being communicated to them, will account for the extensive and peculiarly strong union between these bones in the young horse ; the speedy inflam- mation of the uniting substance and absorption of it, and the substitution of bone, and complete bony union between the radius and ulna, in the old horse. The immense muscles that are attached to the point of the elbow likewise render it necessary that the union between these bones should be very strong. The arm is a most important part of the horse, as will be seen when we describe the muscles that belong to it. The muscles q, r, and s, proceeding from the shouldei- blade and the humerus, and inserted into the elbow, have been already spoken of. Fhey are the grand agents in extending the arm; and in proportion to the powei which they exert, will be the quickness and the length of the stride. The strength of the horse, so far as his fore-limbs are concerned, principally resides here. Thee * Veterinarian, vol. xv. p. 307. THE FORE LEGS. there will naturally be a large and muscular arm, and such a formation of the lim*- and particularly of the elbow, as will enable these muscles to act with most advantage The principle of the lever (referred to at p. 257) is here beautifully applicable, The elbow-joint is the centre of motion; the whole of the lower part of the leg is th« weight to be raised ; and the power by which it is to be raised in one act of progres- sion, the extending of the limb, is the muscles inserted into the elbow. In proportion as the weight is more distant than the power from the centre of motion, as it is in the construction of this limb, so will be the greater degree of energy requisite to be exerted Supposing that the weight, taking the knee to be the centre of it, is eighteen inches from the elbow-joint — that the limb weighs GOlbs., and that the elbow projects t\vo inches from the joint — then an energy equal to nine times the weight, or 540lbs., will be needed to move and extend the limb, because the weight is nine times farther from the centre of motion than the power is. If in another horse the point of the elbow projects three inches from the joint, the weight of the leg remaining the same, only six times the force, or 360lbs., will be required, making a difference in, or saving of, muscular action, equal to ISOlbs. in each extension of the arm. If a few pounds in the weight of the rider tell so much for or against the horse in a long race, this saving of power must make an almost incalculable difference ; and therefore, judges of the horse rightly attach so much importance to the depth of the elbow, or the projection of the point of the elbow from the joint. When describing the proper obliquity of the shoulder, it was stated that the power was exerted with most advantage in a line perpendicular to the arm of the lever, and that the slightest deviation from that line was manifestly disadvantageous. If the reader will examine the cut, he will perceive that muscles from the shoulder and the bone of the arm take a direction much nearer to a perpendicular line in the long than in the short elbow, and therefore act with proportionably greater advantage ; and if this advantage from the direction in which the power is applied to that which we gain from the increased length of the bone is considered, it will be plain that the addition of one-third to the length or projection of the elbow would be attended by a saving of one-half in the expenditure of muscular power. There is, however, a limit to this. In proportion as the elbow is lengthened, it must move over a greater space in order to give the requisite extension to the limb ; and consequently the muscles which act upon it must be lengthened, otherwise, although the action might be easy it would be confined. There must be harmony of proportion in the different parts of the limb, but a deep elbow, within a certain range, is always connected with increased power of action. The elbow is sometimes fractured. If the animal is placed in the hands of a skilful veterinarian, although the chances of cure are certainly against the horse, yet the owner needs not to despair. The treatment of fracture of the elbow-joint will be con- sidered in its proper place. Enlargements sometimes appear about the elbow, either the consequence of a violent blow, or from the calkins of the shoes injuring this part when the horse sleeps with his legs doubled under him. If a seton is passed through the tumour, it will some- times rapidly diminish, and even disappear; but if it is of considerable magnitude, the skin should be opened along the middle of the swelling, and the tumour dissected out. The elbow-joint is sometimes punctured, either accidentally, or through the brutality of the groom or carter. The swelling is often rapid and extensive, and fatal inflam- mation may ensue. Rest, and the closure of the wound, are the most important considerations. There are other muscles of the fore-arm employed in extending the limb. At x oage 259, is the principal one, called the extensor melacarpi. It is attached superiorly .o the outer and fore parts of the external condyle of the humerus, and also to the capsular ligament, and inferiorly to the antero-superior part of the great metacarpal bone. Its superior attachments are principally fleshy, with a few tendinous fibres interposed. These diminish towards the centre, but a little lower down is a tendon, round at its origin, but gradually growLio- flat and expanding in breadth towards its termination. Its office is to extend the leg. The next muscle in situation and importance is seen at to, and called the exfenso* pedis. It rises from the fore part of the external condyle of the humerus, and pursuet Its collar?, down the leg, and expanding after it has passed the fetlock, it serves tht THE ARM. 26* purpose of a capsular ligament, covering and adhering to the pastern joints Its office is to extend the foot and pasterns, and, at the same time, to assist in the extension of .he knee. At w, page 259, is the tendon of another extensor muscle, and at z a curious oblicme one, passing over the tendon of x, confining it in its situation, and likewise assisting in extending or straightening the leg. The muscles employed in bending the leg are both numerous and powerful. Two of the superficial ones are given in the cut, page 260. The first is at 2, page 259 ; it is also seen at 6, page 259. It is called the flexor medius metacarpi, because its office is to bend the leg. The other is seen at w, page 259. It is called the flexor metacarpi externus, and is also designed to flt^r the leg. The internal flexor is seen at e. Its office is also to bend the leg. A portion of one of the most powerful of the flexor muscles, and powerful indeed Ihey must be, is delineated at c, page 259. It is the flexor brachii. It rises from the extremity of the ridge of the shoulder-blade in the form of a large and round tendon, which runs between two prominences in the upper part of the front of the lower bone of the shoulder, and in as perfect a groove or pulley as art ever contrived. This groove is lined with smooth cartilage ; and between it and the tendon there is a secre- tion of oily fluid, so that the tendon may play freely in the pully without friction. Having escaped from this pully, and passed the head of the lower bone of the shoul- der, the cord swells out into a round fleshy body, still containing many tendinous fibres. Deeply seated, it contributes materially to the bulk of the front of the arm, and is inserted into the head and neck of the bone of the arm, and likewise into the capsular ligament of the elbow- joint. It is the muscle by which, almost alone, the whole of the leg below the arm is bent, and carried forward and upward. It acts at great disadvantage. It is inserted into the very head of the bone of the arm, and expanded even upon die joint. Then the power is applied almost close to the centre of motion, vrlnle the weight to be raised is far distant from it. The power is thirty times nearer the centre of motion than is the weight ; and, calculating as before, the weight of the arm and the rest of the limb at GOlbs., it must act with a force of thirty times sixty, or 18001bs. In addition to this, the lino of the direction of the force strangely deviates from a perpendicular. The direction of the muscle is nearly the same as that of the limb, and the mechanical disadvantage is almost incalculably great. If it is calculated at only ten times more, this muscle, and its feeble coadju- tors, act with a force often times 1800, or 18,0001bs. Why this almost incredible expenditure of muscular power * That the beauty of the limb might be preserved, and the joint be compact, if the tendon had been inserted half-way down the arm, the elbow-joint would have offered a very unsightly appearance. Beauty of form, however, is the Jeast result of this conformation. Extensive and rapid motion are among the excellences of the horse. He is valuable in proportion as he has them combined with stoutness ; and by this conformation of the limb could he alone obtain them. Therefore t.lhe tendon is at first unusually strong; it plays through the natural but perfect pulley of the bone of the arm without friction ; the body of the muscle is mixed with tendinous fibres, and the insertion into the fore-arm is very extensive, lest the application of such immense force should tear it from its adhesions. There is sufficient strength in the apparatus ; the power may be safely applied at this mechanical disadvantage; and it is applied close to the joint to give an extent and rapidity of motion which could not otherwise have been obtained, and without which the horse would have been comparatively useless. At the back of the arm are other flexor muscles of great power, to bend the lower portions of the limb. Two of them have been described belonging to the arm and the leg, and some very peculiar ones acting on the feet must not be emitted. Only a small portion of one of them can be seen in our cut, p. 259, at 1. The first is \heflexor pedis perforatus. It is deeply seated in the posterior part of the arm, where, with the perforans, it forms a thick fleshy mass, the tendons issu ing from which are adapted to the convexity and concavity of each other. As it descends along the bone of the arm, it becomes tendinous ; and, approaching the knee, it is bound down by arches or bands of ligament, that it may not start in sud- den and violent action. Proceeding from the knee, it widens, and partly wrapt rounl the tendon of the perforating muscle, and they run down together in or tacJ 464 THE FORE LEGS. yet not adhering; freely playing over each other, and a mucous fluid obviating at1 friction. Both of them are inclosed in a sheath of dense cellular substance, attached to them by numerous fib ils ; and they are likewise supported by various ligamentous expansions. Near the fetlock the tendon still further expands, and forms a complete ring round the tendon of the perforating muscle. This is seen at J, p. 113. The use of this will be best explained when the fetlock is treated of. The perforated tendon soon afterwards divides, and is inserted into the smaller and larger pastern bones, and serves to flex or bend the fetlock and joints, as it had previously assisted in the flexion of the knee. The flexor perforans muscle has nearly the same origin as the perforatus ; but it continues muscular farther down the arm than it, and lies before it. At the knee its tendon passes, like the perforatus, under strong ligamentary arches, which confine it in its situation. It then becomes round, and is partly enveloped in the perforatus, and at the fetlock is entirely surrounded by it. It emerges from the perforatus when that tendon divides, and continues its progress alone after the other has inserted itself into the pasterns, and, passing over the navicular bone, is broadly implanted into the posterior cavity of the foot. It is sufficiently plain that the arm should be large and muscular, otherwise it could not discharge all these duties. Horsemen differ on a variety of other points, but here they are agreed. A full and swelling fore-arm is the characteristic of every thorough- bred horse. Whatever other good points the animal may possess, if the arm is nar- row in front and near the shoulder, flat on the side, and altogether deficient in mus- cular appearance, that horse is radically defective. He can neither raise his knee for rapid action, nor throw his legs sufficiently forward. The arm should likewise be long. In proportion to the length of the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable; and in proportion also to the degree of contraction will be the extent of motion in the limb beneath. A racer, with a short arm, would be sadly deficient in stride ; a hunter, with the same defect, would not be able to double his legs well under him in the leap. There is, however, a medium in this, and the advantage of length in the arm will depend on the use to which the horse is applied. The lady's horse, the cavalry horse, every horse in which prancing action is esteemed a beauty, and in which utility is, to a certain degree, sacrificed to appearance, must not be too long in the arm. If he is long there, he will be proportionably short in the leg; and although this is an undoubted excellence, whether speed or continuance is regarded, the short leg will not give the grand and imposing action which fashion may require. In addition to this, a horse with short legs may not have quite so easy action as another whose length is in the shank rather than in the arm. THE KNEE. The Knee (M, p. 68, and cut, p. 256), answering to the human wrist, constitutes the joint or joints between the arm and the shank or leg; and is far more complicated t'.ian any joint that has been yet considered. Beside the lower heads of the bone of the arm, and the upper heads of the three bones of the leg, there are no less than six other bones interposed, arranged in two rows, three in each row, and the seventh placed behind. What was the intention of this complicated structure1? A joint between the elbow and the fetlock was absolutely necessary to the action of the horse. An inflexible pillar of that length could scarcely have been lifted from the ground, much less fai enough for rapid or safe motion. It was likewise necessary, that the interposing joint should be so constituted as to preserve this part of the limb in a straight direc- tion, and possess sufficient strength to resist all common work and accidents. Being in a straight direction, the shock or jar between the ends of the bones of the arm and the leg would be dreadful, and would speedily inflict irreparable injury. The heads of all bones are covered with elastic cartilage, in order to protect them from injury by concussion ; but this would be altogether insufficient here. Six distinct bones are therefore placed here, each covered above and below by a thick coating of cartilage, connected together by strong ligaments, but separated by interposed fluids and mem- oranes. The concussion is thus spread over the whole of them — shared by th* *hole of thrai ; and, by the peculiarity of their connexion, rendered harmless. ROKEN KNEES, 265 These six distinct bones, united to each other by numerous ai d powerful ligaments, will also afford a far stronger joint than the apposition of any two bones, howevei perfect and strong might be the capsular ligament, or by whatever other ligaments i< might be strengthened. In addition to the connexion between the individual bones, there is a perfect capsular ligament here, extending from the bone of the arm to those of the leg; and the result of the whole is, that the hardest work and the severest accidents produce little deformity, and no dislocation in the knee : nor do the shocks and jars of many a year cause inflammation or disease. It is an undeniable fact, that such is the perfect construction of this joint, and to so great a degree does it lessen concussion, that the injuries resulting from hard work are, almost without an exception, found below the knee, which seems to escape the injuries of the hock. There is a remarkable difference in the effects of work on the knee and the hock. The knee is subject to enormous concussion in its strict sense. The hock to a some- what different work. The knee altogether escapes bony enlargements and inflam- mations of the ligaments, like spavins ; and, what is more remarkable, it also escapes the damages to which the anterior fetlock is liable from precisely the same concussion as the knee. The seventh bone, the trapezium, so called from its quadrangular figure, is placed (see M, p. 68) behind the others, and does not bear the slightest portion of the weight. It, however, is exceedingly useful. Two of the flexor muscles, already described, proceed from the bone of the arm, and are inserted into it; and being thus thrown off the limb, have a less oblique direction given to them, and, therefore, according to the principle of the lever, act with considerably more power. It is also useful in another way. As the tendons of the various muscles descend the limbs, they are tied down, as we have describe'!, by strong ligamentous bands : this is particulaily the case in the neighbourhood of the joints. The use of it is evident. The exten- sor tendons, which lie principally on the front of the leg, are prevented from starting and strengthened and assisted in" their action ; but the flexor tendons which are at the back would be liable to friction, and their motion impeded, if they were bound down too tightly. This projecting bone prevents the annular or ring-like ligament from pressing too closely on the main flexor tendons of the foot ; and, while it leaves them room to play, leaves room likewise for a little bag filled with mucus to surround them, which mucus oozing slowly out, supplies the course of the tendons with a fluid that prevents much injurious friction. The knee should be broad. It should present a very considerable width, compared with the arm above, or the shank below. In proportion to the breadth of the knee is the space for the attachment of muscles, and for the accumulation of ligamentous expansions and bands. In proportion to the breadth of the knee there will be more strength ; and likewise the direction of some muscles will be less oblique, and the course of others will be more removed from the centre of motion, in either of which cases much power will be gained. BROKEN KNEES. The treatment of broken knees is a subject of considerable importance, for many horses are sadly blemished, and others are destroyed, by wounds in the knee-joint. The horse, when falling, naturally throws his knees forward ; they receive all his weight and are sometimes very extensively lacerated. The first thing to be done is, by very careful washing with warm waiter, to cleanse the wound from all gravel and dirt. It must then be ascertained whether the joint is penetrated. The grating of the probe on one of the bones of the knee, or the depth to which the probe enters the wound, wi.ll too plainly indicate that the joint has been opened. Should any doubt exist a linseed-meal poultice must be applied. This will at least act as a fomenta- tion to the wound, and will prevent or abate inflammation ; and when, twelve hours afterwards, it is taken off, the synovia or joint-oil, in the form of a glairy, yellowish, transparent fluid, will be seen, if the capsular ligament has been penetrated. Should doubt remain after the first poultice, a second ought to be applied. It having been ascertained that the interior of the joint is not injured, attention m ist be paid to the wound that is actually made. The horse should wear a cradle to present his getting at the wound. A stimulating application — the common black' oi of the farrbr is as good \s any — should be lightly applied every day until health* as 2 i 266 THE FORE LEGS. pus is produced on the wound, and then a little hiar's balsarr will probably effect a cure. Th<{ opening of the joint, however, being ascertained, the first and immediate care is to close the orifice ; for the fluid which separated and lubricated the bones of the knee being suffered to escape, they will be brought into contact with and will rub upon each other ; the delicate membrane with which they are covered will be highly inilamed ; the constitution will be speedily affected, and a degree of fever will ensue that will destroy the horse : while, in the mean time, of all the tortures that can be inflicted on the poor animal, none can equal that which accompanies inflammation of the membranes lining the joints. The manner of closing the orifice must be left to the judgment of the veterinary surgeon, who alone is capable of properly treating such a case. It may be effected by a compress enclosing the whole of the wound, and not to be removed for many days ; or it may be attempted by the old and generally successful method of apply- ing the hot iron over the wound, and particularly over the spot where the ligament appears to be lacerated. A poultice may then be placed on the part, and the case treated as a common wound. The surgeon will find no difficulty in determining whether the sharp edge of the common firing-iron should be used — as would be the sase if the laceration is considerable, or whether the budding-iron should be resorted to. After the use of the cautery, the application of a blister may, in some cases, be serviceable. Should the joint-oil continue to flow, the iron may be applied a second, or even a third time. By its application, so much swelling is produced on the imme- diate puncture, and in the neighbouring parts, as mechanically to close and plug up the orifice. If, however, the opening into the joint is extensive, and the joint-oil continues to flow, and the horse is evidently suffering much pain, humanity will dictate that he should be destroyed. The case is hopeless. A high degree of fever will ere long carry him off, or the inflammation will cause a deposit of matter in the cavity of *he joint that will produce incurable lameness. The pain caused by the iron is doubtless great; it is, however, necessaiy : but let no reader of " The Horse" permit the torturing experiments of the farrier to be tried, who will frequently inject stimulating fluids, and even oil of vitriol, into one of the most sensible and irritable cavities in the whole frame. A person well acquainted with the anatomy of the part will judge of the proba- bility of a favourable result, not merely by the extent, but by the situation of the wound. If it is low down, and opposite to the bottom row of the bones of the knee, a small opening into the joint will be easily closed. A larger one needs not to cause despair, because there is little motion between the lower row and the bones of the leg. If it is high up, there is more danger, because there is more motion. If it ia situated opposite to the union of the two rows, the result is most to be dreaded, be- cause between these is the principal motion of the joint, and that motion will not only disunite and irritate the external wound, but cause a dreadful friction between the bones brought into actual contact with each other, through the loss of the joint- oil. Among the various methods of treating opened knee-joint, where the lesion is very considerable, is one introduced by Mr. Turner, of Croydon, which must not be passed over in silence. The wound having been cleansed, a paste is prepared composed of wheaten flour and table-beer, which are stirred together and boiled for five minutes, or until they become of the consistence comrrunly used by paper-hangers. This is spread on the wound, and round the joint, dnd four inches above and below it. Pledgets of tow are passed over this and confined in their places by means of a stock- \ng, and over the whole is another layer, and another stocking or bandage. This ig rot removed until the joint has closed, and the synovia ceases to flow. On the second •ji third day the bandage will become dry and hard, and cause considerable pain. Il must not be meddled with before or behind, but four longitudinal incisions may be made through the bandages on each side, which will sufficiently liberate the joint ana remove the pain.* When the met has been much lacerated, although the wound may be healed, somt Ulemisn will remain. The extent of this blemish will depend on that of the original * A foil account of this interesting operation may be found in thp Veterinarian for 1829 THE LE ^. 267 wound, and more especially on the nature of vhe treatment that has been ad oner i>: .he Foot and Leg of the horse. THE FETLOCK — GROGGINESS — CUTTING. 275 almost touches the ground. This is generally mistaken for rupture of t. onsafenetB will be added to still greater defect in going. THE HAUNCH — 1 HE THI3H 27S CHAPTER XIII. THE HIND LEGS. THE HAUNCH. THE haunch (see O, p. 68, and the cut, p. 256,) is composed of three bones. The fiist is the ilium, principally concerned in the formation of the haunch. Its extended branches behind the flanks are prominent in every horse. When they are more than usually wide, the animal is said to be ragged-hipped. A branch runs up to the spine at the commencement of the sacral vertebrae (E), and here the haunch-bones are firmly united with the bones of the spine. The ischium, or hip-bone, is behind and below the ilium. Its tuberosities or prominences are seen under the tail (cut, p. 68). The pubis unites with the two former below and behind. From the loins to the setting-on of the tail a line should be carried on almost straight, or rounded only in a slight degree. Thus the haunch-bones will be most oblique, and will produce a corresponding obliquity, or slanting direction, in the thigh- bone— a direction in which, as stated when the fore legs were described, the muscles act with most advantage. This direction of the haunch is characteristic of the thorough-bred horse ; and by the degree in which it is found, we judge to a considera- ble extent of the breeding of the animal. If the bones at D and E, p. 68, take a somewhat arched form, as they do in the cart-horse, it is evident that the haunch- bone O would be more upright. The thigh-bone P would likewise be so. The stifle Q would not be so far under the body, and the power of the horse would be considera- bly impaired. The oblique direction of the haunch and thigh-bones, produced by the straightness of the line of the spine, does not, as is commonly supposed, afford increased surface for the attachment of muscles, but places the muscles in a direction to act with great advantage. It is in the advantageous direction, quite as mnch as in the bulk of the muscle, that the strength of the horse consists. It will be seen, from the different cuts, that the angles formed by the fore and hind extremities have different directions. One points forward, and the other backward. The action of the fore legs thus least interferes with the chest, and that of the hind legs with the belly. Width of haunch is a point of great consequence, for it evidently affords more room far the attachment of muscles ; and even though it should be so wide as to subject the horse to the charge of being ragged-hipped, and may somewhat offend the eye, it will not often be any detriment to action. If the loins are broad and the horse well ribbed home, the protuberances of the ilium can scarcely be too far apart. Many ?, ragged-hipped horse has possessed both fleetness and strength, while but few th.3 were narrow across the haunch could boast of the latter quality. The opening in the centre of these bones, which constitutes the passage throug.» which the young animal is expelled from the mother, is large in the mare, and in every quadruped, because there cannot, on account of the form of the animal, be any danger of abortion from the weight of the foetus pressing on the part. The only portion of these bones exposed to injury or fracture are the tuberosities or prominences of the haunch. A fall or blow may chip off or disunite a portion of them, and, if so, there are no means of forcibly bringing the disunited parts together again, and retaining them in their natural position. The power of nature, however, will gradually unite them, but that union will be attended by deformity and lameness. A charge, or very strong adhesive plaster, across the haunch may be useful, as helping, in some slight degree, to support the parts, and hold them together. THE THIGH. In the lower and fore part of the hip-bones is a deep cavity or .'.up for the reception of the head of the thigh-bone.* Although in the movement of the hind legs there * This, although the true thigh-bone, is so concealed by thick muscles that its situation and shape' are not visible to the eye. It is therefore frequently overlooked by horsemen, who call *be neit bone, extending from the stifle to the hock, the thigh. 280 THE HIND LEGS. cannc* be the concussion to which the fore legs are exposed (for th« weight of th« body s never thrown violently upon them), yet in the powerful action of these limbs there is much strain on the joints, and we shall, therefore, find that there are, in all of them, admirable provisions against injury. The head of the upper bone of the thigh is received into a deep cup (the acetabulum), by which it is surrounded on every side, and dislocation from which would seem almost impossible. But the bony cup may give way 1 Not so, provision is made against this. All three of the haunch-bones unite in the formation of this cup, and the sutures by which they are held together are of such a nature, that, generally speaking, no shock, or exertion, or accident, can dis- unite them. There is even something more in order to make the attachment doubly sure. In addition to the usual capsular and other ligaments, a singularly strong one rises from the base of the cup, and is inserted into the head of the thigh-bone, seeming as if it would render separation or dislocation altogether impossible. Such, however, is the strange power of the muscles of the hind lirnbs, that, with all these attach- ments, sprain of the ligaments of the thi^h, or the round bone, as horsemen call it, and even dislocation of it, are occasi nally foand. The thigh-bone is both the largest and strongest in the frame. It is short and thick, and exhibits the most singular prominences, and roughnesses, and hollows, for the insertion of the immense muscles that belong to it. Four prominences, in particu- lar, called by anatomists trochanters, two on the outside, one on the inside, and on near the head of the bone, afford attachment to several important muscles. The head of the bone is placed at right angles with its body, by which this important advantage is gained, that the motion of the thigh-joint is principally limited to the act of bending and extending, although it possesses some slight lateral, and even some rotatory action. The lower head of the thigh-bone is complicated in its form. It consists of two prominences, which are received into corresponding depressions in the next bone, and a hollow in front, in which the bone of the knee or stifle plays as over a perfec pulley. A short description of the muscles of the hinder extremities may not be uninterest- ing to the horseman. The next cut will contain a few of them. The muscles of the hinder extremity are more powerful than those of any other part of the frame ; therefore an extraordinary provision is made to confine them in their respective situations, and thus contribute to their security and strength. When the skin is stripped from any part, we do not at once arrive at the muscles, but they are thickly covered by a dense, strong, tendinous coat, intended to confine them to their places. This membrane, called the fascia, is of extraordinary strength in the hind quarter, and reaches over the whole of the haunch and thigh, and only ceases to be found at the hock where there are no muscles to be protected. If the power of the muscles is sufficient to dislocate or fracture the thigh-bone, they need the support and confinement of this tendinous coat. When this tendinous band is dissected off, another is found beneath, which is represented at a, in the cut at p. 281, raised and turned back, larger than the former, thicker and more muscular. It proceeds from the haunch-bones to the stifle, upon the fore and outer part of the haunch and thigh, and is intended to tighten and strengthen the other. Under the part of this flat and binding muscle, which is represented in our cut as raised from its natural situation, is a large round one, proceeding from the ilium, not /JUT from the cup which receives the upper bone of the thigh, and running straight town this bone, and thence its name rectus. It is inserted into the bone of the stifle. A.n inspection of the cut, p. 68, will show that it is so situated as to be enabled to exert its great power in the most advantageous way. It is a very prominent muscle, and possesses immense strength. It terminates in a tendon, which is short and very strong, and which is, before its insertion into the patella, united with the prolongation of the tendinous substance at g, in the cut, p. 282, and also with the tendon of the muscle at «, in that cut, and at c, in that on page 281, and which is properly called vastusi from its great bulk. Some have divided this into two muscles : the external ani internal. The external arising from the outer surface of the upper bone of the thigh ; the internal, from the inner surface ; and they are inserted into the upper pa~l of the bone of the stifle, both on the inner and outer side. These muscles act at considerable mechanic^ disadvantage. They form a very slight angle, not at all approaching to a right angle ; but they are muscles of immense siae, and occupy all fee *bre part of the thigh, fro'Ti tl ? stifle upwards. They are powerful extensors of THE THIGH. 281 the thigh, and of the hinder leg gene- rally ; for they are all inserted int* the bone of the knee, and that IB connected by strong tendons with the bone of the true ]eg. On the inside of the thigh are several other large fleshy muscles, which will be easily recognized on the thigh of the living horse. First is a long, narrow, prominent muscle, the sartorius, d, arising partly from the lumbar vertebrae, and extending down the thigh — assisting in bind- ing the leg, and turning it inward- giving it a rotatory motion, and also aiding in many of the natural actions of the horse. Next comes a broad, thin muscle, the gracilis, e, occupying the greater portion of the surface of the inner part of the thigh, and particularly the prominent part of it. It arises from the lower portion of the haunch-bone, and, in its passaga downward uniting with the last muscle, is inserted with it into the inner and upper part of the tibia. It acts with great mechanical disad- vantage, but its power is equal to the task. It bends the leg, and rotates it inward. Still, on the inside of the thigh, and forming the posterior edge of the thigh inwards, and contributing much to its bulk, is another import- ant muscle, the pectineus. Part of ,t acts with very great mechanical advantage, and powerfully flexes the thigh on the pelvis, and lifts and bends the leg. It is one of the most effectual of the extensor muscles. Considering the weight of limb which it has to raise and flex, it had need to possess great power. We now turn to some of the muscles that are evident to the eye on the outside ot the thigh. First is the glutaeus externus, situated in the middle of the external part _ of the haunch. It is of a triangular figure, attached to the antero-superior and to the inferior spines of the ilium, and is inserted into the smaller outer prominence of the upper bone of the thigh. Next is the great glutseus muscle, arising from the spinous and transverse processes" of several of the bones of the loins, and from the sacrum, and from the dif- ferent edges of the ilium, and inserted into the great protuberance of the upper bone of the thigh (page 68), behind and a little above the joint that unites the thigh to the haunch-bone. It is seen at c, in the cut on the following page. It constitutes the tipper and outer part of the haunch, and gives that fulness and roundness to it which good judges so much admire in the quarters of the horse. It is one of the main instruments in progression. When the thigh has been brought forward under the body by the muscles already described, the plain action of these glutaei muscles is to extend the haunch, and force or project the body onward. To effect this, they musi be very powerful, and therefore they are so large, and rise from such an extensive surface. They ought, also, to act at great mechanical advantage, and so, in one sense, they do. Springing from the loins and the ilium, and the sacrum, they act almost iiv a right, or perf tmdicular line ; in that line in which we ha*e seer that thf greatest povrcr is ga • »d 91* Si 882 LIE HIND > EG3. CUT OF THE MUSCLES OF THE OUTSIDE OF THE THIGH. There is another and smaller glutaeut muscle utader that which has been last described, arising likewise from the back of the ilium, inserted imc the same protuberance of the thigh-bone, and assisting in the same office. It is not visible in the cut. These muscles, as Mr. Percivall well explains it, are extensors either of the femoris upon the pelvis, or the pelvu and loins upon the hind quarter. When the limb has been carried in advance under the body by the muscles of the anterior femoral region, and the toe firmly set down upon the ground, the glutei, by extending the haunch, will carry the trunk forward ; thus becom- ing potent agents in progression, and the maximus being "the most powerful of them. In the acts both of rearing and kick- ing, these muscles are thrown into vio- lent and forcible contraction. In the former action, the limbs become the fixed points, and the trunk the weight moved, and vice versa in the latter.* There are also several other muscles proceeding from different parts of the haunch-bones, and inserted about the heads of the upper thigh-bone, and per- forming the same work ; but there are two muscles to which we must par- ticularly refer. The first occupies the outer part of the quarter behind, and is beautifully developed in the blood- horse ; it is found at e, above. It lises high up from the bones of the spine, from others at the root of the tail, from the protuberances of the ischium (vide cut, p. 68), and from other bones of the pelvis. It in fact consists of two muscles, but is usually described as one muscle with two heads, biceps femoris, the two-headed mus- cle of the thigh. It is situated on the postero-external side of the haunch and thigh, where, being superficial, it is well marked in the living animal. The two divisions of it have an opposite action. The anterior or superior one assists the vasti in extend- ing the thigh — the posterior one flexes it. They both, however, co-operate in abducting the limb, and also in rotating it forward, the hock, at the same time, turn- ing outwards. Those muscles alone have been selected which are particularly prominent in the thorough-bred horse, and are the source of his strength and speed. The following cut, containing one excellence above and many defects below, will not be unaccepta ble here : — The Os Femoris, or Thigh Bone (see P, page 68), is long and cylindrical, taking an oblique direction from above, downwards, and from behind, forwards. At its upper extremities, and projecting from the body, is a thick flattened neck, terminate ir.2" in a large smooth hemispherical head, adapted to a hollow, or acetabulum, in the superior point of the haunch. This bone is commonly called the Round Bone It has, in some rare instances, been dislocated and fractured. It is much'oftener sprained, but, not so frequently as the groom c ' farrier imagines. There is nothing peculiar in the lameness to detect injury of this part, except, that the horse will drag his leg after him. Injury »f thi * Percivall's Anatomy. P. 148. THE .STIFLE. OP THE HAUNCH AND HIND LEGS. round bone will be principally discovered by heat and tenderness in the situation of th« joint. A part so deeply situated is treated with difficulty. Fomentions should at first be used to abate the inflammation, and, after that, au active blister should be applied. Strains of this joint are not always immediately relieved, and the muscles of the limb in some cases waste considerably : it therefore may be neces- sary to repeat the blister, while absolute rest should accompany every stage of the treat- ment. It may even be requisite to fire the part, — or, as a last resort, a charge may be placed over the joint, and the horse turned out for two or three months. Proceeding from the body of the bone is a large irregular projection, rising from a kind of pyramidal eminence (see p. 68), and into which are implanted various poweiful mus- cles. THE STIFLE. The inferior extremity presents a pullev« like articulatory surface in front, over which plays the patella, and two condyles, rounded and smooth, presenting -inferiorly and posteri- orly, and which are received into slight de- pressions on the upper surface of the lowei bone ; while in front is a curious groove, ovei which plays a small irregular bone, the pa- tella, or stifle bone. The whole is commonly called the stifle joint. The patella (Q, p. 68) answers to the kneepan in the human subject. Some of the tendons of the strongest muscles of the upper bone of the thigh are inserted into it, and continued from it over the lower bone. This important joint is hereby much strengthened ; for the proper ligaments be- tween the upper and lower bones, and these additional tendons and ligaments from the patella, must form altogether a very pow- erful union. The patella likewise answers another and even more important purpose. The tendons of some strong muscles are inserted into it. When these muscles are not in action, the patella lies in the groove which nature has contrived for it ; but when they begin to contract, it starts from its partial hiding-place, becomes promi- nent from the joint, and alters the line of direction in which the muscles act. It increases the angle, and thus very materially increases the power of the muscles. The lower bone of the thigh is double. The larger portion, in front, extending from the stifle to the hock, is called the Tibia. The smaller bone, or fibula, behind (see R, p. 68), reaches not more than a third of the way down. It is united to the shank-bone, like the splint-bone, by a cartilaginous substance, which is soon changed into a bony one. Of the use of these little bones we cannot speak. The lower bone of the thigh forms an angle with the upper one, being the reversu of that which exists between the upper bone and the pelvis. The object of this is twofold, — to obviate concussion, and to give a direction to the muscles favourable to their powerful action; and in proportion to the acuteness of the angle, or the degree in which the stifle is brought under the horse, will these purposes be accomplished* There is much difference in this in different horses, and the construction of this part »f the frame is a matter worthy of more regard than is generally paid to it. Th\s pail; of the thigh should likewise be long. In proportion to the length of thi V84 THZ HIND LEGS. muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable; and also in proportion tc the contraction of the muscle is the extent of motion in the limb ; but it is still more necessary that this part of the thigh should have considerable muscle, in order thai strength may be added to such extent or compass of motion. Much endurance would not be expected from a horse with a thin arm. A horse with thin and lanky thighs will not possess the strength which considerable exertion would sometimes require. In the cuts p. 281 and 282, the principal muscles of this part of the thigh are deli- neated. They are usually somewhat prominent, and may readily be traced in the living animal : a very brief notice of them may not be uninteresting. The continuation from g, p. 282, is the tendinous expansion given to bind and strengthen these muscles. n is a very important muscle. It is the principal extensor muscle of the hind leg (extensor pedis, extensor of the foot). It commences by a small flat tendon, common to it, and the flexor metatarsi. Passing over the tibia it becomes fleshy : but a little above the hock it changes to a flat tendon, and pursues its course in front of the hock- in union with the tendon of the peroneeus. On the fetlock joint they disunite. It now begins to expand, and is finally inserted into the upper part of the coffin-bone, or bone of the foot, after having given various fibres to both the pasterns. The course of the corresponding tendon in the hind leg is given in the cut p. 282, fig. /. It helps to flex the hock joint, but is principally concerned in the extension of the .Toot, and also the pastern and fetlock joints. At m, p. 282, is another of the extensor muscles, called the perovaeus, from a name given to the fibula. It arises from the whole course of the fibula, and also becomes tendinous before it reaches the hock. About half-way down the shank it is found in the same sheath with the principal extensor muscle, and is inserted with it into the coffin-bone. Its office is to co-operate with the extensor pedis in raising the foot from the ground, and bringing it forward under the body. At o is the flexor pedis, one of the principal flexor muscles of the foot, arising from the upper part of the tibia. As it approaches the hock it is distinguished by its large round tendon, which is seen to enter into a groove at the back of the hock. Its tendon passes down the back of the leg like that of a similar muscle in the fore leg. It is the perforating flexor muscle of the hind leg, and assists in flexing the pastern and fetlock. k is a very slender muscle, arising from the head of the fibula, and proceeding ovei the external part of the thigh\ and, just above the hock, its tendon unites with that of the perforating muscle. j is a very powerful muscle, springing from the head of the upper bone of the thigh, and, midway down the lower bone of it, ending in a flat tendon, which is inserted into the point of the hock. Its use is to extend the hock. It is evidently most advantageously situated for powerful action ; for it acts almost at right angles, and its effect is increased in proportion to the projection of the point of the hock. We will now turn to the inner side. See cut, p. 281. m gives a portion of the muscle which has been just described. n is an inside view of the perforating flexor muscle of the foot. / is the peronaeus. o is the flexor perforatus muscle, having its origin from near the lower head of the upper btoe of the thigh — becoming tendinous as it passes down the thigh — ex- panding over and surrounding the point of the hock, and assisting in extending it. After this the tendon pursues its course down the posterior part of the leg, in a man- ner so much resemoling that of similar tendons in the fore leg, that it will be suffi cient to refer to a description of the perforated and perforating flexor tendons at page 280. At e is a continuation of the gracilis muscle, p. 281, over the stifle. At h is the extensor pedis, already described, p. 282, with its tendon. At i is a muscle used to bend the hock, the flexor metatarsi, or bender of the leg; arising from the external condyle of the os femoris, and inserted into the large and small metatarsal bones. It is a muscle of considerable power, although disadvanta- geously situated, both as to its direction .and its being inserted so near to the 'oint It flexes the hock, the joint turning somewhat inwards. At k is a short muscle extending from the upper to the lower thigh-bones (the *>pA , Ending the stifle and turning- the limb inward. THOROUGH-PIN — THE HOCK. 285 These cats represent the situation of some of the principal blood- essek and nervei *f the hind extremities. In the cut of the inside of the thigh, page 281, p represents the course of the prin- cipal artery ; at q are blood-vessels belonging to the groin ; at r is the large cutane- ous vein, or the vein immediately under the skin. The principal nerves on the fore part of the inside of the thigh pursue their course at £, in the direction of the subcu- taneous vein ; and those of the posterior part are seen at *, while at u are those im portant ligamentous bands at the bending of the hock which confine the tendons. In the cut of the outside of the thigh, page 282, p will give the course of the an- terior arteries and veins ; q that of the principal nerves, and coming into sight below ; and r the bands described in the former plate. Also, in the cut of the outside of the shoulder and arm, p. 259, the figures 1, 2, and 3, designate the places of the principal artery, nerve, and vein of the leg; 4 gives the subcutaneous vein running within the arm ; and 5 the subcutaneous vein of the side of the chest. In the cut of the inside of the arm, p. 260, the lines above represent, in the order from the front, the principal nerves, arteries, and veins of the shoulder and arm ; and, on the muscles, k represents the principal subcutaneous vein of the inside of the arm, and i the artery by which it is accompanied. The stifle joint is not often subject to sprain. The heat and tenderness will guide to the seat of injury. Occasionally, dislocation of the patella has occurred, and the horse drags the injured limb after him, or rests it on the fetlock ; the aid of a veteri- nary surgeon is here requisite. The muscles of the inside of the thigh have some- times been sprained. This may be detected by diffused heat, or heat on the inside of the thigh above the stifle. Rest, fomentations, bleeding, and physic, will be the proper means of cure. THOROUGH-PIN. Mention has been made of wind-galls and their treatment. A similar enlargement U found above the hock, between the tendons of the flexor of the foot and the exten- sor of the hock. As from its situation it must necessarily project on both sides of the hock, in the form of a round swelling, it is called a thorough-pin, a, p. 283. It is an indication of considerable work, but is rarely attended by lameness. The mode of treatment must resemble that for wind-galls. Although thorough-pin cannot, per haps, be pronounced to be unsoundness, it behoves the buyer to examine well a horse that is disfigured by it, and to ascertain whether undue work may not have injured him in other respects. THE HOCK. This is a most important joint, occasionally the evident, and much ofteiier the un- suspected seat of lameness, and the proper formation of which is essentially connect- ed with the value of the horse. It answers to the ancle in the human being. The inferior head of the tibia is formed into two deep grooves, with three sharpen- ed ridges, one separating the grooves, and the other two c nstituting the sides of them. It is seen at a in the following cut. It rests upon a singularly-shaped bone, by the astralgus, which has two circular risings or projections, and, with a depression between them, answering exactly to the irregularities of the tibia. These are re- ceived and mortised into each other. At the posterior part its convex surface is re- ceived into a concavity near the base of another bone, and with which it is united by very strong ligaments. This bone, c, is called the os calcis, or bone of the heel, and it projects upwards, flattened at its sides, and receives, strongly implanted into it, the tendons of powerful muscles. These bones rest on two others, the os cuboides, d (cube-formed), behind, and the larger cuneiform or wedge-shaped bone e, in front. The larger wedge-shaped bone is supported by two smaller ones, /, and thes« two smaller ones and the cuboides by the upper heads of the shank-bone #, and the splint- oones h. The cuboides is placed on the external splint-bone, and the cannon-bone, or principal bone of the leg; the small wedge-bone is principal ty evident on the inner nplint-bone, not seen in the cut; and the middle wedge-bone on the shank-bone only, e> These bones are all connected together by very strong ligaments, wnich prevent tislocation. but allow a slight degree of motion between them, and the surfaces whici ue opposer to each other are thickly covered by elastic cartilage. 3(j THE HIND LEGS. Considering the sit nation and action of this joint, the weight and stress thrown upon it .nust be exceedingly great CUT OF THE HOCK. and it is necessarily liable to much injury in rapid and powerful mo- tion. What are the provisions U prevent injury ? The grooved of pulley-like heads of the tibia and the astragalus, received deeply into one another, and confined by powerful ligaments, admitting a freely of hinge-like action ; but of no side motion, to which the joint would otherwise be exposed in rapid movement, or on an un- even surface. A slight inspection of the cut will show that the stress or wreight thrown by the tibia a on the astragalus 6, does not descend perpendicularly, but in a slanting direction. By this much concussion is avoided, or more readily diffused among the dif- ferent bones ; and, the joint con- sisting of six bones, each of them covered with elastic cartilage, and each admitting of a certain degree of motion, the diminished con- cussion is diffused among their, all, and thereby neutralised and rendered comparatively harmless. Each of these bones is covered not only by cartilage, but by a membrane secreting synovia; so that, in fact, these bones are formed into so many distinct joints, separated from each other, and thereby guarded from injury, yet united by various ligaments — possessing altogether sufficient motion, yet bound together so strongl)' as to defy dislocation. When, however, the work which this joint has to perform, and the thoughtlessness and cruelty with which that work is often exacted, are considered, it will not excite any surprise if this necessarily complicated mechanism is sometimes deranged. The hock, from its complicated structure and its work, is the principal seat of lameness behind. ENLARGEMENT OF THE HOCK. First, there is inflammation, or sprain of the hock-joint generally, arising from sud- den violent concussion, by some check at speed, or over-weight, and attended with enlargement of the whole joint, and great tenderness and lameness. This, however, like other diffused inflammations, is not so untractable as an intense one of a more circumscribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, or, perchance, firing, the limb recovers its action, and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work. The swelling, however, does not always subside. Enlargement, spread over the wtaolo of the hock-joint, remains. A horse with in enlarged hock must always be regarded with suspir ion. In truth, he is unsound. The parts, altered in structure, jwst be to a certain iegree weakened, "^he animal may discharge his usual worl BOG SPAVIN. 28? during a long period, without return of lameness; but if one of those emeiguncieg should occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disorganised and weakened part will fail. The purchase, therefore, of a horse with enlarged hock will depend on circumstances. If he has other excellences, he will not be uniformly rejected ; for he may be ridden or driven moderately for many a year without incon- venience, yet one extra hard day's work may lame him for ever. CURB. There are often injuries of particular parts of the hock-joint. Curb is an affection of this kind. It is an enlargement at the back of the hock, three or four inches below its point. It is represented at c?, p. 283, and is either a strain of the ring-like liga- ment which binds the tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the tendons ; oftener, however, of the ligament than of the sheath. Any sudden action of the limb of more than usual violence may produce it, and therefore horses are found to ' throw out curbs' after a hardly-contested race, an extraordinary leap, a severe gallop over heavy ground, or a sudden check in the gallop. Young horses are particularly liable to it, and horses that are cow-hocked (vide cut, p. 283), — whose hocks and legs resemble those of the cow, the hocks being turned inward, and the legs forming a considerable angle outwards. This is intelligible enough ; for in hocks so formed, the annular ligament must be continually on the stretch, in order to confine the tendon. Curbs are generally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first appearance, but the swelling is not always great. They are best detected by observing the leg sideway. The first object in attempting the cure is to abate inflammation, and this will be most readily accomplished by cold evaporating lotions frequently applied to the part. Equal portions of spirit of wine, water, and vinegar, will afford an excellent applica- tion. It will be almost impossible to keep a bandage on. If the heat and lameness are considerable, it will be prudent to give a dose of physic, and to bleed from the subcutaneous vein, whose course is represented at r, p. 281 ; and whether the injury •s of the annular ligament, or the sheath of the tendon, more active means will be necessary to perfect the cure. Either a liquid blister should be rubbed on the part, consisting of a vinous or turpentine tincture of cantharidee, and this daily applied until some considerable swelling takes place ; or, what is the preferable plan, the hair should be cut off, and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been subdued. The blister should be repeated until the swelling has disappeared, and the horse goes sound. In severe cases it may be necessary to fire ; but a fair trial, however, should be given to milder measures. If the iron is used, it should be applied in straight lines. There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-continued rest is more requi- site. It leaves the parts materially weakened and, if the horse is soon put to work again, the lameness will frequently return. > j horse that has had curbs, should be put even to ordinary work in less than a m.nth after the apparent cure; and, even then, he should very gradually resume his former habits. A horse with a curb, is manifestly unsound. A horse with the vestige of curb, should be regarded with much suspicion, or generally condemned as unsound. Curb is also an hereditary complaint; and therefore a horse that has once suffered from it, should always be regarded with suspicion, especially if either of the parents has exhibited it. BOG SPAVIN. The hock is plentifully supplied with reservoirs of mucus, to lubricate the different portions of this complicated joint. Some of these are found on the inside of the joint, which could not be represented in the cut, p. 286. From over-exertion of the joint, they become inflamed, and considerably enlarged. Thev are wind-galls of the hock. The subcutaneous vein passes over the inside of the hm_It, and over some of these enlarged mucous reservoirs, and is compressed between them and the external integu- ment— the course of the blood is partially arrested, and a portion of the vein below the impediment, and between it and the next valve, is distended, and causes the soft tumour or the inside of the hock, called Bog or Blood spavin. Tins is a very serious disease, attended with no great, but often pern inent lame aeso, and ;oo apt to return when the enlargement h°.s subsided under medical treat 288 THE HIND LEGS. ment It must be considered as decided unsoundness. In a horse fcr slow draught, it, i& scarcely worth while even to attack it. And in one destined to mere rapid acuon, the probability of a relapse should not be forgotter, when the chances of success and the exDenses of treatment are calculated. The cause of the disease — the enlarged mucous capsule — lies deep, and is with difficulty operated upon. Uniform pressure would sometimes cause the absorption of the fluid contained in cysts or bags like these, but in a joint of such extensive motion as the hock, it is difficult, or almost impossible, to confine the pressure on the precise spot at which it is required. Could it be made to bear on the enlarged bag, it would likewise press on the vein, and to a greater degree hinder the passage of the blood, and increase the dilatation below the obstruction. The old and absurd method of passing a ligature above and below the enlarged portion of the vein, and then dis- secting out the tumour, is not, in the advanced stage of veterinary science, practised by any surgeon who regards his reputation. The only method of relief which holds out any promise even of temporary success, is exciting considerable inflammation on the skin, and thus rousing the deeper-seated absorbents to carry away the fluid effused in the enlarged bag. For this purpose, blisters or firing may be tried : but in the majority of cases, the disease will bid defiance to all appliances, or will return and oaffle our hopes when we had seemed to be accomplishing our object. A horse with bog spavin will do for ordinary work. He may draw in a cart, or trot fairly in a lighter carriage, with little detriment to his utility; but he will never do for hard or rapid work. BONE SPAVIN. A still more formidable disease ranks under the name of Spavin, and is an affec- tion of the bones of the hock-joint. It has been stated that the bones of the leg, the shank-bone, g, p. 286, and the two small splint-bones behind, A, support the lower layer of the bones of the hock. The cube-bone, rf, rests principally on the shank- bone, and in a slight degree on the outer splint-bone. The middle wedge-bone /, rests entirely upon the shank-bone, and the smaller wedge-bone presses (not seen in the cut) in a very slight degree on the shank-bone, but principally, or almost entirely, on the inner splint-bone. Then the splint-bones sustain a very unequal degree of concussion and weight. Not only is the inner one placed more under the body, and nearer the centre of gravity, but it has almost the whole of the weight and concussion communicated to the smaller cuneiform bone carried on to it. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that, in the violent action of this joint in galloping, leaping, heavy draught, and especially in young horses, and before the limbs have become properly knit, the inner splint-bone, or its ligaments, or the substance which connects it with the shank-bone, should suffer material injury. The smith increases the tendency to this by his injudicious management of the feet. It is a common notion that cutting, ft d wounds in the feet — from one foot treading on the other — are prevented by putting n a shoe with a calkin on the outer heel — that is, the extremity of the heel being considerably raised from the ground. It is not unusual to see whole teams of horses with the outer heel of the hind foot considerably raised above the other. This unequal bearing, or distribution of the weight, cannot fail of being injurious. It places an unequal strain on the ligaments of the joints, and particularly of the hock-joint, and increases the tendency to spavin. The weight and concussion thus thrown on the inner splint-bone, produce inflam- mation of the cartilaginous substance that unites it to the shank-bone. In conse- quence of it, the cartilage is absorbed, and bone deposited ; the union between the splint-bone and the shank becomes bony, instead of cartilaginous; the degree of elastic action between them is destroyed, and there is formed a splint of the hind leg. This is uniformly on the inside of the hind leg, because the greatest weight and con- cussion are thrown on the inner splint-bones. As in the fore leg, the disposition to form bony matter having commenced, and the cause which produced it continuing tc act, bone continues to be deposited, and it generally appears in the form of a tumour, where the head of the splint-bone is united with the shank, and in front of that union. It is seen at c, p. 283. This is called BONE SPAVIN. Inflammation of the ligaments rf any of the small bones of the hock, proceeding to bony tumour, would equally class under the name of spavin ; but, commonly, the disease commences on the pre- cise spot that has been described. BONE SPAVIN. 286 While spavin i» /orming, there is always lameness, and that frequently :0 a ytry great degree: but when the membrane of the bone has accommodated itself to the tumour that extended it, the lameness subsides or disappears, or depends upon the degree in which the bony deposit interferes with the motion of the joint. It is well known to horsemen, that many a hunter, with spavin that would cause his rejection by a veterinary surgeon, stands his work without lameness. The explanation is this : there is no reason why an old bony tumour on the outside of any of the bones of tht hock, free from connexion with the next bone, and from any tendon, should be at al] injurious ; as, for instance, one immediately under e or/, p. 286 : but, from the com- plicated nature of the hock, it is difficult, if not impossible, to be quite sure of th6 place, or extent, from inspection, of the tumour ; and, besides, the disposition to throw out bone covered by the tumour, may continue and extend to the joint. The surgeon, therefore, cannot be perfectly safe in pronouncing a bone spavin to be of no conse- quence. Horses with exceedingly large spavins, are often seen that are only slightly lame, or that merely have a stiffness in their gait at first starting, but which gradually goes off after a little motion ; while others, with the bony tumour comparatively small, have the lameness so great as to destroy the usefulness of the horse. There is always this peculiarity in the lameness of spavin, that it abates, and sometimes dis- appears, on exercise ; and, therefore, a horse, with regard to which there is any sus- picion of this affection, should be examined when first in the morning it is taken frora the stable If the spavin continues to increase, the bony deposit first spreads over the lowe wedge-bones, /, page 286, for these are nearest to its original seat. They are capa ble of slight motion, and share in every action of the joint, but their principal de sign is to obviate concussion. The chief motion of the joint, and that compared with which the motion of the other bones is scarcely to be regarded, is confined to the tibia a, and the astragalus 6, and therefore stiffness rather than lameness may accompany spavin, even when it is beginning to affect the small bones of the joint, Hence, too, is the advantage of these bones having each its separate ligaments and membranes, and constituting so many distinct joints, since injury may happen to some of them, without the effect being propagated to the rest. When the bony de- posit continues to enlarge and takes in the second layer of bones — the larger wedge- bones e — and even spreads to the cuboid bones on the other side, the lameness may not be very great, because these are joints, or parts of the joint, in which the motion is small ; but when it extends to the union of the tibia a, and the astragalus b — when the joint, in which is the chief motion of the hock, is attacked — the lameness is indeed formidable, and the horse becomes nearly quite useless. Spavined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are equal to the greater part of the work of the farm, and therefore they should not be always rejected by the small farmer, as they may generally be procured at little price. These horses are not only capable of agricultural work, but they generally improve under it. The lameness in some degree abates, and even the bony tumour to a certain degree dimin- ishes. There is sufficient moderate motion and friction of the limb to rouse the ab- sorbents to action, and cause them to take up a portion of the bony matter thrown out, but not enough to renew or prolong inflammation. It cannot be said that the plough affords a cure for spavin, but the spavined horse often materially improves while working at it. For fast work, and for work that must be regularly performed, spavined horses aro not well calculated ; for this lameness behind produces great difficulty in rising, and the consciousness that he will not be able to rise without painful effort occasionally prevents the horse from lying down at all ; and the animal that cannot rest well can- not long travel far or fast. The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but far from being always effectual. The owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest, nor the dictates of hu- manity, if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimlet, or the pointed iron, or arse- nic, to be used; yet measures of considerable severity must be resorted to. Repeated blisters will usually cause either the absorption of the bony deposit, or the abatement or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments, or, as a last resource, the heated iron may be applied. The account of the diseases of the hock is not yet completed. It is well known •hat the horse ;s frequently subject to lameness behind, when no ostensible cause foi 25 2M THE HIND LEGS. it can be found, and there is no external heat or enla gement to indicate its sea* Farriers and gTooms pronounce these to be affections of the stifle, or round bone ; ori f the gait of the horse and peculiar stiffness of motion point out the hock as the nffected part, yet the joint may be of its natural size, and neither heat nor tenderness can be discovered. The groom has his own method of unravelling the mystery. He says that it is the beginning of spavin ; but months and yeers pass away, and the spavin does not appear, and the horse is at length destroyed as incurably lame. Horsemen are indebted to Mr. W. J. Goodwin, V. S. to Her Majesty, for the dis- covery of the seat of frequent lameness behind. The cut, p. 286, represents the two ayers of small bones within the hock — the larger wedge-like bone e, above; and the middle /, and the smaller one below, and it will be seen that almost the whole of the >veight of the horse, communicated by the tibia a, is thrown upon these bones. The cube-bone d does little more than support the point of the hock c. It is then easy to imagine that, in the concussion of hard work or rapid travelling, these bones, or the delicate and sensible membranes in which they are wrapped, may be severely injured. Repeated dissections of horses that have been incurably lame behind, without any- thing external, during life, to point out the place or cause of lameness, have shown that inflammation of the membranes lining these joints, and secreting the fluid that lubricates them, has taken place. Mr. Goodwin narrates a very interesting case in corroboration of this account of hock lameness. The author of this work had the honour of being present when the examination took place. " The patient was a harness horse of unusual perfection, both in shape and action, and was a great favourite with an illustrious personage. He suddenly became lame behind on the off-leg, but without the least accident or alteration of structure to account for it. He was turned out for a short time, and the lameness disappeared. He was then incautiously made to perform his usual work, until perfectly incapacitated for it by returning and aggravated lameness. Suspect- ing the seat of lameness to be in the hock, although the joint was perfectly unaltered in form, he was, three months after the commencement of the lameness, blistered and fired, and placed either in a loose place or paddock, as circumstances seemed to re- quire. Not the least amendment took place at the end of six months, even in his quiescent state, and, after twelve months from the time of his being given up for treatment, he was destroyed, his case being naturally considered a hopeless one. Ulceration of the synovial membrane was found, taking its origin between the two cuneiform bones. These bones had become carious, and the disease had gradually extended itself to other parts of the joint. Mr. Goodwin had no doubt that if the animal had been suffered to work on for any greater length of time, necrosis, or an- chylosis of every bone concerned in the hock, would have been the result."* — (Vet& rinarian, iii. 158.) Much more depends, than they who are not wrell accustomed to horses imagine, on the length of the os calcis, or projection of the hock. In proportion to the length of this bone will two purposes be effected. The line of direction will be more advanta- geous, for it will be nearer to a perpendicular, and the arm of the lever to which the power is applied will be lengthened, and thus mechanical advantage will be gained to an almost incredible extent. The slightest lengthening of the point of the hock will wonderfully tell in the course of a day's work, and therefore it is that the char- acter of the os calcis is of such immense importance. The point of the hock is sometimes swelled. A soft, fluctuating tumour appear* on \t. This is an enlargement of one of the mucous bags of which mention has been made, and that surrounds the insertion of the tendons into the point of the hock. It is termed, CAPPED HOCK. It 's seldom accompanied by lameness, and yet it is a somewhat serious business. fcr t is usually produced by blows and mostly by the injuries which the horse in- * These opinions of the seat and nature of obscure hock-lameness are now maintained b ihe majority of veterinary surgeons, although some of them differ a little with regard to the articulation that is generally affected, and the manner in which the depressions or excavations on th'i surface of these bones is effected. In the 10th volume of the ^Veterinarian," are •onio valuable observations on this subject by Professor Dio* and Messrs. Pritchard and MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS. — SWELLED LEGS. 29 i flicts upon himself in the act of kicking : therefore it is that a horse with a capped hock is very properly regarded with a suspicious eye. The whole of the hock ghoul d be carefully examined in order to discover whether there are other marks of violence, and the previous history of the animal should be carefully inquired into Does he ki. x in harness or in the stall, or has he been lying on a thin bed, or on no bed at all ; and inus may the hock have been bruised, and the swelling produced 1 It is exceedingly difficult to apply a bandage over a capped hock ; and puncturing the tumour, or passing a seton through it, would be a most injudicious practice. Blisters, or iodine, repeated as often as may be necessary, are the best means to be employed. Occasionally the tumour will spontaneously disappear; but at other times it will attain a large size, or assume a callous structure, that will bid defiance to all the means that can be employed. MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS. On the inside of the hock, or a little below it, as well as at the bend of the kne* (A, p. 277), there is occasionally a scurfy eruption, called mallenders in the fore leg, and sallenders in the hind leg. They seldom produce lameness ; but if no means are taken to get rid of them, a discharge proceeds from them which it is afterwards difficult to stop. They usually indicate bad stable management. A diuretic ball should be occasionally given, and an ointment of sugar-of-lead and tar, with treble the quantity of lard, rubbed over the part. Should this fail, a weak mercurial ointment may be used. Iodine has here also been useful. The line of direction of the legs beneath the hocks should not be disregarded. Th« leg should descend perpendicularly to the fetleck. The weight and stress will thus 6e equally diffused, not only over the whole of the hock, but also the pasterns and the foot. Some horses have their hocks closer than usual to each other. The legs take a divergent direction outward, and the toes also are turned outward. These horses are said to be Cat or Cow hocked. They are generally supposed to possess considerable speed. Perhaps they do so ; and it is thus accounted for. The cow- hocked horse has his legs not only turned more outward, but bent more under him, and this increases the distance between the point of the hock and the tendons of the perforating muscle : see 6, in the cut, page 283. It increases the s'^ace which ia usually occupied by thoroughpin, see a, in the same page. Then tl e point of the hock, moved by the action of the muscles, is enabled to describe a greater portion of a circle ; and in proportion to the increased space passed over by the point of the hock, will the space traversed by the limb be increased, and so the stride of the horse may be lengthened, and, thus far, his speed may be increased. But this advantage is more than counterbalanced by many evils. This increased contraction of the muscles is an expenditure of animal power ; and, as already stated, the weight and the con- cussion being so unequally distributed by this formation of the limbs, some part must be over-strained and over-worked, and injury must ensue. On this account it is that the cow-hocked horse is more subject than others to thoroughpin and spavin ; and ia so disposed to curbs, that these hocks are denominated by horsemen curby hocks. The mischief extends even farther than this. Such a horse is peculiarly liable to windgall, sprain of the fetlock, cutting, and knuckling. A slight inclination to this form in a strong powerful horse may not be very objec rionable, but a horse decidedly cow-hocked should never be selected SWELLED LEGS. Th3 fore legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in coarse horses, are somt> times subject to considerable enlargement. Occasionally, when the horse does nol seem to labour under any other disease, and sometimes from an apparent shifting of disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly swell to an enormous degree from the hock and almost from the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lame- ness. The pulse likewise becomes quick and hard, and the horse evidently labours under considerable fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and most violent in its degree, and therefore attended by he effusion of a considerable quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane, *t occurs ii, young horses, and in those which are over-fed and little exercised 292 THE HIND LEGS. Fomentation, diuretics, 01 purgatives, or, if there is much fever, a ZA derate ol ceding will often relieve the distension almost as suddenly as it appeared. The kind of swelled legs most frequently occurring and most troublesome is of f different nature, or rather it is most various in its kind and causes, and consequences and mode of treatment. Sometimes the legs are filled, but there is little lameness 01 inconvenience. At other times the limbs are strangely gorged, and with a great degree of stiffness and pain. Occasionally the horse is apparently well at night, but, on the following morning, one or both of the legs are tremendously swollen ; and on its being touched, the horse catches it up suddenly, and nearly falls as he doe-s so. Many horses, in seemingly perfect health, if suffered to remain several days without exercise, will have swelled legs. If the case is neglected, abscesses appear in various parts of the legs ; the heels are attacked by grease, and, if proper measures are not adopted, the horse has an enlarged leg for life. The cure, when the case has not been too long neglected, is sufficiently plain. Physic or diuretics, or both, must be had recourse to. Mild cases will generally yield to their influence ; but, if the animal has been neglected, the treatment must be decisive. If the horse is in high condition, these should be preceded or accompanied by bleeding ; but if there are any symptoms of debility, bleeding would only increase the want of tone in the vessels. Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables very speedily have swelled legs, because the difference of food and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the quantity of the circulating fluid, while the want of exercise takes away the means by which it might be got rid of. The remedy here is sufficiently plain. Swelled legs, however, may proceed from general debility. They may be the consequence of starvation, or disease that has considerably weakened the animal ; and these parts, being farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show the loss of power by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here the means of cure would be to increase the general strength, with which the extremities would sympathise. Mild diuretics and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated. Horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. The powers of the con- stitution are principally employed in providing a new coat for the animal, and the extremities have not their share of vital influence. Mingled cordials and diuretics are indicated here — the diuretic to lessen the quantity of the circulating fluid, and the cordial to invigorate the frame. Swelled legs are often teasing in horses that are in tolerable or good health : but where the work is somewhat irregular the cure consists in giving more equal exercise, walking the horse out daily when the usual work is not required, and using plenty of friction in the form of hand-rubbing. Bandages have a greater and more durable effect, for nothing tends more to support the capillary vessels, and rouse the action of the absorbents, than moderate pressure. Hay-bands will form a good bandage foi the agricultural horse, and their effect will probably be increased by previously dipping them in water. GREASE. The physic, or the diuretic ball, may occasionally be used, but very sparingly ; ana only when they are absolutely required. In the hands of the owner of the horse, 01 of the veterinary surgeon, they may be employed with benefit ; but in those of the carter or the groom they will do far more harm than good. The frequent and undue stimulus of the urinary organs by the diuretic ball, will be too often followed by speedy and incurable debility. If the swelling bids defiance to exercise and friction and bandage, the aid of the diuretic may be resorted to, but never until these have failed, unless there is an evident tendency to humour o~ grease. Swelled legs, although distinct from grease, is a e sease that is apt to degenerate into it. Grease is a specific inflammation of the skin t f the heels, sometimes of the fore-feet, but oftener of the hinder ones. It is not a contagious disease, as some have asserted, although when it once appears in a stable it frequently attacks almost every horse in it. Bad stable management is the true cause of it. Tnere is a pec iliarity about the skin of the heel of the horse. In its healthy sta«* there is a secretion of greasy matter from it, in order to prevent excoriation and chap- ping, and the skin is soft and pliable. Too often, however, irom bail management, the secretion of this greasy matter is stopped, and the skin of the heel becomes *ed< GREASE. 298 and dry, and scurfy. The joint still continuing to be extended and flexed, cracks of the skin begin to appear, and these, if neglected, rapidly extend, and the heel become* , a mass of soreness, ulceration, and fungus. The distance of the heel from the centre of circulation, and the position of the hino limbs, render the return of blood slow and difficult. There is also more variation of temperature here than in any other part of the frame. As the horse stands in the closed stable, the heat of this part is too cften increased by its being embedded in straw. When the stable door is open, the hee's are nearest to it, and receive first, and most powerfully, the cold current of air. When he is taken from his stable to work, the heels are frequently covered with mire and wet, and they are oftenest and most intensely chilled by the long and slow process of evaporation which is taking place from them. No one, then, can wonder at the frequency with which the heels are attacked by inflammation, and the difficulty there is in subduing it. Much error has prevailed, and it has led to considerable bad practice, from the notion of humours flying about the horse, and which, it is said, must have vent some- where, and attack the heels as the weakest part of the frame. Thence arise the physicking, and the long course of diuretics, which truly weaken the animal, and often do irreparable mischief. Grease is a local complaint. It is produced principally by causes that act locally, and it is most successfully treated by local applications. Diuretics and purgatives may be useful in abating inflammation ; but the grand object is to get rid of the inflam- matory action which exists in the skin of the heel, and to heal the wounds, and remedy the mischief which it has occasioned. The first appearance of grease is usually a dry and scurfy state of the skin of the heel, with redness, heat, and itchiness. The heel should be well but gently washed with soap and water, and as much of the scurf detached as is easily removable. An ointment, composed of one part plumb, diacet. and seven of adeps suillae, will usually supple, and cool, and heal the part. When cracks appear, the mode of treatment will depend on their extent and depth. If they are but slight, a lotion, composed plumbi sulph. 3ij. et aluminis 3iiij., dis- solved in a pint of water, will often speedily dry them up, and close them. There is sometimes considerable caprice in the application of this lotion, which has induced Professor Morton to have recourse to alumen et terebinthinus vulgaris one part each, and adeps suillae three parts, made into an ointment. If the cracks are deep, with an ichorous discharge and considerable lameness, it will be necessary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be generally effective, unless the discharge is thin and offensive, when an ounce of finely-powdered charcoal should be mixed with the linseed meal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft and mashed. The efficacy of a carrot-poultice is seldom sufficiently appreciated in cases like this. When the inflammation and pain have evidently subsided, and the sores discharge good matter, the calamine ointment may be applied with advantage ; and the cure will generally be quickened if a very diluted vitriolic or alum solution is applied. The best medicine will consist of mild aloetic balls ; gentle diuretics being given towards the close of the treatment. After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs will sometimes continue gorged and swelled. A flannel bandage, evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part, will be very serviceable ; or, should the season admit of it, a run at grass, particularly spring grass, should be allowed. A blister is inadmissible, from the danger of bringing back the inflammation of the skin, and the discharge from it; but the actual cautery, special care being taken not to penetrate the skin, may occasionally be resorted to. In some cases the cracks are not confined to the centre of the heels, but spread over them, and extend on the fetlock, and even up the leg, while the legs are exceedingly swelled, and there is a watery discharge from the cracks, and an apparent oozing through the skin at other places. The legs are exceedingly tender and sometimes hot, and there is an appearance which the farrier thinks very decisive as to the state of the disease, and which the better informed man should not overlook — the heeh smoke — the skin is so hot, that the watery fluid partly evaporates as it runs from the tracks or oozes through the skin. There vr.ll t ture of the base of the foot. a a The frog. b The sole. c c The bars. d d The crust. * Professor Stewart has the following observations: — "During two very wet winters 1 ftad opportunity of observing the results of trimming and no trimming, among upwards of 500 horses. More than 300 of these have been employed in coaching and posting, or work of a similar kind, and about 150 are cart-horses. Grease, an<} other skin diseases of the heela have been of most frequent occurrence where the horses are both trimmed and washed • they have been common ivhere the horses were trimmed but not washed, ard there have been very few cases where washing or trimming were forbidden or neglected."— Stable CEcinstny, uage l]f>. THE FOOT. The foot is composed of the horny box that covers the extremities of the horse, and the contents of that box. The hoof or box is composed of the crust or wall, the coro- nary ring and band, the bars, the horny laminae, the sole, and the horny frog. THE CRUST OR WALL OF THE HOOF. The, crust, or wall, is that portion which is seen when the foot is placed on tht ground, and reaches from the termination of the hair to the ground. It is deepest ID front, where it is called the toe, measuring there about three inches and a half in •lepth (see cut, p. 297), shallower at the sides, whiclp are denominated the quarters, ind of least extent behind, where it is seldom more than an inch and a half in height, and is termed the heel. The crust in the healthy foot presents a flat and narrow sur- face to the ground, ascending obliquely backwards, and possessing different degrees of obliquity in different horses. In a sound hoof the proper degree of obliquity is calculated at forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of a semicircle, at the front of the foot. When the obliquity is greater than this, it indicates undue flatness of the sole, and the crust is said to have " fallen in." If the obliquity is very much increased, the sole projects, and is said to be pumiced or convex. If the foot is more upright, or forms a greater angle than forty-five degrees, it indicates much contraction, and a sole too concave ; and this difference of obliquity is often so great, that the convexity or concavity of the sole may be affirmed without the trouble of raising the foot for the purpose of examination. It is of some importance to observe whether the depth of the crust appears rapidly or slowly to decrease from the front to the heel. If the decrease is little, and even at the heel the crust is high and deep, this indicates a foot liable to contraction, sand- crack, thrush, and inflammation. The pasterns are upright, the paces of that horse are not pleasant. On the other hand, if the crust rapidly diminishes in depth, and the heels are low, this is accompanied by too great slanting of the pastern, and dis- position to sprain in the back sinew. The foot, generally, is liable to be weak and flat, and bruised, and there is more tendency to the frequent, but obscure lameness, of which there will presently be occasion to treat — the navieular-joint disease. The crust is composed of numerous horny fibres, connected together by an elastic membranous substance, and extending from the coronet to the base of the hoof. It differs materially in its texture, its elasticity, its growth, and its occasional fragility according to the state in which it is kept, and the circumstances that are acting upon it. The exterior wall of the hoof should be smooth and level. Protuberances or rings round the crust indicate that the horse has had inflammation in the feet, and that to such a degree, as to produce an unequal growth of horn, and probably to leave some injurious consequences in the internal part of the foot. If there is a depression or hollow in front of the foot, it betrays a sinking of the coffin-bone, and a flat or pumiced sole. If there is a hollow at the quarters, it is the worst symptom of bad contraction The thickness of the crust, in the front of the foot, is rather more than half an inch it becomes gradually thinner towards the quarters and heels, but this often varies te a considerable extent. In some hoofs, it is not more than half the above thickness If however there is not, in the majority of horses, more than half an inch for nail-hold at the toe, and not so much at the quarters, it will not appear surprising that these horses are occasionally wounded in shoeing, and especially as some of them are very unmanageable while undergoing this process. While the crust becomes thinner towards both quarters, it is more so at the innei quarter than at the outer, because more weight is thrown upon it than upon the outer. It is more under the horse. It is under the inner splint-bone, on which so much more of the weight rests than on the outer ; and, being thinner, it is able to expand more. Its elasticity is called more into piay, and concussion and injury are avoided. When the expansion of the quarters is prevented by their being nailed to an unbending shoe, the inner quarter suffers most. Corns are oftenest found there; contraction begins there ; sand-crack is seated there. Nature meant that this should be the most yield- ing pan, in order to obviate concussion, because on it the weight is principally thrown, and therefore when its power of yielding is taken away it must be the first •o suffer. A ear* ful observer will likewise perce've that the inner quarter is higher than ihfl THE CORONARY RING. — THE BARS. 29? outer. While it is thin t > yield to the shock, its increased surface gives it sufficient strength. On account of its thinness, and the additional weight which it bears, th« inner bee1 wears away quicker than the outer ; a circumstance that should never be forgotten by the smith. His object is to give a plane and level bearing to the whole of the crust. To accomplish this, it will be often scarcely necessary to remove anything from the inner heel, for this has already been done by the wear of the foot. If he forgets this, as he too often seems to do, and cuts away with his knife or his buttress an equal portion all round, he leaves the inner and weaker quarter lower than the outer ; he throws an uneven bearing upon it ; and produces corns and sand-cracks and splints, which a little care and common sense might have avoided. THE CORONARY RING. The crust does not vary much in thickness (see a, page 295, and Z>, in the accom- panying cut), until near the top, at the coronet, or union of the horn of the foot with the skin of the pasterns, where (w, page 272), it rapidly gets thin. It is in a manner scooped and hollowed out. It likewise changes its colour and consistence, and seems almost like a con- tinuation of the skin, but easily separable from it by maceration or disease. This thin part is called the coronary ring, x, p. 272. It extends round the upper portion of the hoofs, and receives, within it, or covers, a thickened and bulbous prolongation of tha skin, called the coronary ligament (see 6, in the accompanying cut). This prolongation of the skin — it is nothing more — is thickly supplied with blood-vessels. It is almost a mesh of blood-vessels connected together by fibrous texture, and many of them are employed in secreting or forming the crust or wall of the foot. Nature has enabled the sensible laminae of the coffin-bone, c, which will be presently described, to secrete a certain quantity of horn, in order to afford an immediate defence for itself when the crust is wounded or taken away. Of this there is proof when in sand-crack or quittor it is necessary to remove a portion of the crust. A pellicle of horn, or of firm hard substance resembling it, soon covers the wound ; but the crust is principally formed from this coronary ligament. Hence it is, that in sand-crack, quittor, and other diseases in which strips of the crust are destroyed, it is so long in being renewed, or growing down. It must proceed from the coronary ligament, and so gradually creep down the foot with the natural growth or lengthen- ing of the horn, of which, as in the human nail, a supply is slowly given to answei to the wear and tear of the part. Below the coronary ligament is a thin strip of horny matter, which has been traced to the frog, and has been supposed by some to be connected with the support 01 action of that body, but which is evidently intended to add to the security of the pan on which it is found, and to bind together those various substances which are collected at the coronet. It resembles, more than anything else, the strip of skin that surrounds the root of the human nail, and which is placed there to strengthen the union of the nail with the substance from which it proceeds. THE BARS. At the back part of the foot the wall of the hoof, instead of continuing round and forming a circle, is suddenly bent in as in the small cut, in page 295, where d repre- sents the base of the crust, and e its inflection or bending at the heel. The bars are, in fact, a continuation of the crust, forming an acute angle, and meeting at a point at the toe of the frog — see a, b, and c, in the smaller cuts — and the inside of the bars, like the inside of the crust — see the first and larger cut — presents a continuance of the horny leaves, showing that it is a part of the same substance, and helping to discharge the same office. It needs only the slightest ' onsideration of the cut, or of the natural hoof, to sho\v the importance of the bars. The arch which these form on either side, between the frog and the quarters, is admirably contrived both to admit of, and to limit to its pro- per extent, the expansion of the foot. When the foot is placed on the ground, and th« weiarht of the animal ;s thrown on the .eaves of which ^rnention has just been made* 298 THE FOOT. these arches will shorten and widen, in order to admit of the expansion of the ters— the bow returning to its natural curve, and powerfully assisting the foot regaining its usual form. It can also be conceived that these bars must form a power- ful protection against the contraction, or u-iritig I'M, of the quarters. A moment's inspection of the cut (#, p. 295) will show that, if the bars are taken away, there will be nothing to resist the contraction or falling in of the quarters, when the foot is expx-sed to any disease, or bad management, that would induce it to contract. One moment's observation of them will also render evident the security which they afford to the frog (J ), and the effectual protection which they give to the lateral portions of - the foot. Then appears the necessity of passing lightly over them, and leaving prominent, when the toot is pared for shoeing, that which so many smiths cut perfectly away. They imagine that it gives a more open appearance to the foot of the horse. Horses shod for the purpose of sale, have usually the bars removed with this view ; and the smiths in the neighbourhood of the metropolis and large towns, shoeing for dealers, too often habitually pursue, with regard to all their customers, the injurious practice of removing the bars. The horny frog, deprived of its guard, will speedily contract, and become elevated and thrnshy ; and the whole of the heel, having lost the power of resilience or reaction which the curve between the bar c and the crust d gave it (vide p. 295, cut), will speedily fall in. THE HORNY LAMINJE. The inside of the crust is covered by thin homy leaves (c, p. 295), extending al round it, and reaching from the coronary ring to the toe. They are about 500 in num- ber, broadest at their" base, and terminating in the most delicate expansion of horn, They not a little resemble the inner surface of a mushroom. In front, they run in a direction from the coronet to the toe, and towards the quarters they are more slanting from behind forwards. They correspond, as will be presently shown, with similar cartilaginous and fleshy leaves on the surface of the coffin-bone, and form a beautiful elastwTbody, by which the whole weight of the horse is supported. THE SOLE Is under, and occupies the greater portion of the concave and elastic surface of the foot (see 6, p. 295), extending from the crust to the bars and frog. It is not so thick as the crust, because, notwithstanding its situation, it does not support so much weight as the crust ; and because it was intended to expand, in order to prevent con- cussion, when, by the descent of the bone of the foot, the weight was thrown upon it, It- is not so brittle as the crust, und it is more elastic than it. It is thickest at the toe (see f, p. 272), because the first and principal stress is thrown on that part. The coffin-bone, f, is driven forward and downward in that direction. It is likewise thicker where it unites with the crust than it is towards the centre, for a similar and evident reason, because there the weight is first and principally thrown. In a state of nature it is, to a certain degree, hollow. The reason of this is plain. It is intended to descend or yield with the weight of the horse, and by that gradual descent or yielding, most materially lessen the shock which would result from the sudden action of the weight of the animal in rapid and violent exercise; and this descent can only be given by a hollow sole. A flat sole, already pressing upon the ground, could not be brought lower ; nor could the functions of the frog be then dis- charged ; nor would the foot have so secure a hold. Then if the sole is naturally hollow, and hollow because it must descend, the smith should not interfere with thia important action. When the foot will bear it, he must pare out sufficient of the horn to preserve the proper concavity" ; also a small portion at the toe and near the crust, and cutting deeper towards the centre. He must put on a shoe which shall not prevent the descent of the sole, and which not only shall not press upon it, but shall leavt sufficient room between it and the sole to admit of this descent. If the sole is presse< upon by the coffin-bone during the lengthening of the elastic laminae, and the shot will not permit its descent, the sensible "part between the coffin-bone and the horn wil necessarily be bruised, and inflammation and lameness will ensue. It is from this cause, that if a stone insinuates itself between the shoe a^d the sole, it produces 8€ much lameness. Of the too great concavity of the sole, or the want of concavity IP -t, *e shall treat when we arrive at diseases of the foot. THE FROG, THE FROG. in the space between the bare, and accurately fil 1 1< > it, is the FROG. It is a trian jMil.ir portion of horn, projecting from the sole, almost on a level with the crust and rnviTiuir and defending a soft and elastic substance called the aeiuible frog. It i§ \\idi- ;ii the heels, and there extending beyond a portion of the crust; narrowing r.ipidly when it begins to be confined between the bars, and terminating in a point at somewhat more than half the distance from the heel to the toe. It consists of two rounded or projecting surfaces, with a fissure or cleft between them, reaching half- way down the frog, and the two portions again uniting to form the point or toe of the frog. The frog is firmly united to the sole, but it is perfectly distinct from it. It is of a different nature, being softer, and far more elastic ; and it is secreted from a different surface, for it is thrown out from the substance which it covers. It very much resembled a wedge, with the sharp point forwards ; and it is placed towards the back part of the foot. The foot is seldom put flush and flat upon the ground, but in a direction downwards, yet somewhat forwards ; then the frog evidently gives safety to the tread of the animal, for it occasionally ploughs itself into the ground, and pre- vents the horse from slipping. This is of considerable conseqnence, when some of the paces of the horse are recollected, in which his heels evidently come first to the ground, and in which the danger from slipping would be very great. Reference needs only be made to the gallop, as illustrative of this. The frog being placed at, and filling the hinder part of the foot, discharges a por- tion of the duty sustained by the crust; for it supports the weight of the animal. It assists, likewise, and that to a material degree, in the expansion of the foot. It U formed internally of two prominences on the sides (see a, p. 295), and a cleft in the centre, presenting two concavities with a sharp projection in the middle, and a gradu- ally rounded one on each side. It is also composed of a substance peculiarly flexible and elastic. What can be so well adapted for the expansion of the foot, when a por- tion of the weight of the body is thrown on it1? How easily will these irregular sur- face* yield and spread out, and how readily return again to their natural state ! In this view, therefore, the horny frog is a powerful agent, in opening the foot ; and the diminution of the substance of the frog, and its elevation above the ground, are both the cause and the consequence of contraction — the cause, as being able no longei powerfully to act in expanding the heels; and the consequence, as obeying a law of nature, by which that which no longer discharges its natural function is gradually removed. It is, however, the cover and defence of the internal and sensible frog, which will be presently treated of; enough, however, has been said to show the absurdity of the common practice of unsparingly cutting it away. In order to dis- charge, in any degree, some of the offices which we have assigned to it, and fully to discharge even one of them, it must come in occasional contact with the ground. In the unshod horse, it is constantly so : but the additional support given by the shoes, and more especially the hard roads over which the horse is now compelled to travel, render this complete exposure of the frog to the ground not only unnecessary, but injurious. Being of so much softer consistence than the rest of the foot, it would be «peedily worn away : occasional pressure, however, or contact with the ground, ii -mist have. The rough and detached parts should be cut off at each shoeing, and the substance of the frog itself, so as to bring it just above or within the level of the shoe. It will then, in the descent of the sole, when the weight of the horse is thrown upon it in the putting down of the foot, descend likewise, and pressing upon the ground, do ita duty; while it will be defended from the wear, and bruise, and injury that it would receive if it came upon the ground with the first and full shock of the weight. Thii will be the proper guide to the smith in shoeing, and to the proprietor in the direo tion which he gives. The latter should often look to this, for it is a point of very «/rt-;tt moment. A few smiths carry the notion of frog pressure to an absurd extent and leave the frog beyond the level of the sole, — a practice which is dangerous in the horse of slow draught, and destructive to the hackney or the hunter ; but the majority of them err in a contrary way, and, cutting off too much of the frog, lift ii above the ground, and destroy its principal use. It should be left jvtt above, or within 300 THE FOOT. THE COFFIN-BONE. The interior part of the foot must now be considered. The Irwer pastern, a sma_ portion of which (see if, cage 272) is contained in the horny box, has oeen already describea, p. 276. — Beneath it, and altogether inclosed in the hoof, is the coffin-bone, or proper bone of the foot, (see /, page 272, and d, fig. 1, page 276). It is fitted to, ind fills the fore part of the hoof, occupying about half of it. It is of a light and spongy structure (see d, fig. 1, page 276), and filled with numerous minute foramina. Through these pass the blood-vessels and nerves of the foot, which are necessarily numerous, considering the important and various secretions there carrying on, and the circulation through the foot which could not possibly be kept up if these ves- sels did not run through the substance of the bone. Considering the manner in which this bone is inclosed in the horny box, and yet the important surfaces around and below it that are to be nourished with blood, the circulation which is thus carried on within the very body of the bone is one of the most beautiful provisions of nature that is to be found in the whole frame. No inconvenience can arise from occasional or constant pressure, but the bone allows free passage to the blood, and protects it from every possible obstruction. The fore part of the coffin-bone is not only thus perforated, but it is curiously rough ened for the attachment of the numerous minute laminae about to be described. On its upper surface it presents a concavity for the head of the lower pastern, p. 276. In front, immediately above cf, is a striking prominence, into which is inserted the extensor tendon of the foot. At the back, e, p. 272, it is sloped for articulation with the navicular bone, and more underneath, is a depression for the reception of the per- forating flexor tendon, ?n, continued down the leg, passing over the navicular bone it n, and at length inserted into this bone. On either side, as seen p. 276, are projec- tions called the wings, or heels of the coffin-bone, and at the bottom it is hollowed to answer to the convexity of the internal part of the sole. That which deserves most attention in the coffin-bone is the production of the nu merous laminae round its front and sides. They are prolongations of the thick and elastic membrane covering it, and consist of cartilaginous, fleshy plates, proceeding from it, running down the coffin-bone, and corresponding with and received between the horny leaves that line the inside of the hoof-bone — each horny plate being re ceived between two sensitive plates, and vice versa. The«e larainse are exceedingly sensitive and vascular, and elastic, and, as first simply and beautifully explained b^ Mr. Percivall, their elasticity is not inherent in the lamine, but in the substance which connects these laminae with the coffin-bone, and which, while it contains highly elastic properties, affords a convenient bed for the numerous vessels that secrete the laminae. While the animal is at rest, the whole weight of the horse is supported by them, and not by the sole. This extraordinary fact has been put to the test of expe- riment. The sole, bars, and frog were removed from the foot of a horse, and yet as he stood, the coffin-bone did not protrude, or in the slightest degree descend ; but when the rapidity with which the foot descends is added to the weight of the horse, these little leaves, horny and fleshy, gradually lengthen, and suffer the bones to press npon the sole. The sole then descends, and in descending, expands ; and so, by an admirable mechanism, the violent shock which would be produced by the pressure of such a weight as that of the horse, and the velocity with which it descends, is lessened or destroyed, and the complicated apparatus of the foot remains uninjured. When the foot is again lifted, and the weight which pressed upon it is removed, the principle of elasticity is called into exercise, and by it the sole resumes its con- cavity, and the horny frog its folded state ; — the quarters return to their former situ- ation,— the leaves regain their former length, and everything is prepared for a repeti- tion of action. THE SENSIBLE SOLE. Between the coffin-bone and the horny sole is situated the sensible sole, p. 272. formed above of a substance of a ligamentous or tendinous nature, and below of a cuticular or skin-like substance, plentifully supplied with blood-vessels. It was plactd between the coffin-bone and the s heat is as injurious and therefore it is that so many horses, after having been riddex INFLAMMATION OF THE FOOT, OR ACUTE FO JNDER. 303 fei in frost and snow, and placed immediately in a hot stable, and littered up to the inees. are attacked by this complaint. The feet and tho lungs are the organs oftenest attacked, because they have previously suffered most by our mismanagement, and arfe most disposed to take on disease, and that which would cause slight inflammation of other parts, or trifling general derangement, will produce all its mischief on these organs ; therefore it is that horses, the crust or laminae of whose feet are warped 01 obliquely placed, are most subject to it. Sometimes there is a sudden change of inflammation from one organ to anothei. A horse may have laboured for several days under evident inflammation of the lungs ; all at once that will subside, and the disease will appear in the feet, or inflammation of the feet may follow similar affections in the bowels or the eyes. In cases of severe inflammation of the lungs, it may not be bad practice to remove the shoes and poultice the feet. To the attentive observer the symptoms are clearly marked, and yet there is no disease so often overlooked by the groom and the carter, and even by the veterinary surgeon. The disease may assume an acute or chronic form. The earliest symp- toms of fever in the feet are fidgetiness, frequent shifting of the fore-legs, but no pawing, much less any attempts to reach the belly with the hind-feet. The pulse is quickened, the flanks heaving, the nostrils red, and the horse, by his anxious coun- tenance, and possibly moaning, indicating great pain. Presently he looks about his litter, as if preparing to lie down, but he does not do so immediately ; he continues to shift his weight from foot to foot; he is afraid to draw his feet sufficiently under him for the purpose of lying down : but at length he drops. The circumstance of his lying down at an early period of the disease will sufficiently distinguish inflamma- tion of the feet from that of the lungs, in which the horse obstinately persists in standing until he drops from mere exhaustion. His quietness when down will dis- tinguish it from colic or inflammation of the bowels, in both of which the horse is up and down, and frequently rolling and kicking when down. When the grievance is in the feet, the horse experiences so much relief, from getting rid of the weight pain- fully distending the inflamed and highly sensible laminae, that he is glad to lie as long as he can. He will likewise, as clearly as in inflammation of the lungs or bowels, point out the seat of disease by looking at the part. His muzzle will often rest on the feet or the affected foot. He must be inattentive who is not aware of what all this indicates. If the feet are now examined, they will be found evidently hot. The patient will express pain if they are slightly rapped with a hammer, and the artery at the pastern will throb violently. No great time will now pass, if the disease is suffered to pur- sue its course, before he will be perfectly unable to rise ; or, if he is forced to get up, and one foot is lifted, he will stand with difficulty on the other, or perhaps drop at once from intensity of pain. The treatment will resemble that of other inflammations, with such differences as the situation of the disease may suggest. Bleeding is indispensable; and that to its fullest extent. If the disease is confined to the fore-feet, four quarts of blood should be taken as soon as possible from the toe of each at the situation pointed out, fig. z, p. 272, and in the manner already described ; care being taken to open the artery as well as the vein. The feet may likewise be put into warm water, to quicken the flow of the blood, and increase the quantity abstracted. Poultices of linseed meal, made very soft, should cover the whole of the foot and pastern, and be frequently renewed, which will promote evaporation from the neighbouring parts, and possibly through the pores of the hoof, and, by softening and rendering supple the hoof, will relieve its painful pressure on the swelled and tender parts beneath. More fully tc accomplish this last purpose, the shoe should be removed, the sole pared as thin as possible, and the crust, and particularly the quarters, well rasped. All this must be d3ne gently, and with a great deal of patience, for the poor animal can scarcely bear his feet to be meddled with. There used to be occasional doubt as to the adminis- tration of physic, from fear of metastasis of inflammation which has sometimes occurred, and been generally fatal. When, however, there is so much dangei of losing the patient from the original attack, we must run the risk of the other, Sedative and ccoling medicines should be diligently administered, consisting of digi- lalis, nitre, and emetic tartar. ti no amendment is observed three quarts of blood should be taken from each foo* 304 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. on the foil ^wing day. In extreme cases, a third bleeding of two quarts may be jua tifiable, and, instead of the poultice, cloths kept wet with water in which nitre has Deen dissolved immediately before, and in the proportion of an ounce of nitre to a pound of water, may be wrapped round the feet. About the third day a blister ma} be tried, taking in the whole of the pastern and the coronet ; but a cradle must pre- viously be put on the neck of the horse, and the feet must be covered after the blis- ter, or they will probably be sadly blemished. The horse should be kept on mash diet, unless green meat can be procured for him ; and even that should not be given too liberally, nor should he, in the slightest degree, be coaxed to eat. When he appears to be recovering, his getting on his feet should not be hurried. It should be left perfectly to his own discretion; nor should even walking exercise be permitted until he stands firm on his feet. When that is the case, and the season will permit, two months' run at grass will be very serviceable. It is not always, however, or often, that inflammation of the feet is thus easily subdued ; and, if it is subdued, it sometimes leaves after it s< ne fearful consequences. The loss of the hoof is not an unfrsquent one. About six or seven days from the first attack, a slight separation will begin to appear between the coronet and the hoof. This should be carefully attended to, for the' separated horn will never again unite with the parts beneath, but the disunion will extend, and the hoof will be lost. It is true that a new hoof will be formed, but it will be smaller in size and weaker than the first, and will rarely stand hard work. When this separation is observed, it will be a matter of calculation with the proprietor of the horse whether he will suffer the medical treatment to proceed. CHRONIC LAMINITIS. This is a species of founder, insidious in its attack, and destructive to the horse. It is a milder form of the preceding disease. There is lameness, but it is not so severe as in the former case. The horse stands as usual. The crust is wann, and that warmth is constant, but it is not often probably greater than in a state of health. The surest symptom is the action of the animal. It is diametrically opposite to that in the navicular disease. The horse throws as much of his weight as he can, on the posterior parts of his feet. The treatment should be similar to that recommended for the acute disease — blood- letting, cataplasms, fomentations, and blisters, and the last much sooner and much more frequently than in the former disease. PUMICED FEET. The sensible and horny little plates which were elongated and partially separated during the intensity of the inflammation of founder, will not always perfectly unite again, or will have lost much of their elasticity, and the coffin-bone, no longer fully supported by them, presses upon the sole, and the sole becomes flattened, or convex, from this unnatural weight, and the horse acquires a PUMICED FOOT. This will also happen when the animal is used too soon after an attack of inflammation of the feet, and before the laminae have regained sufficient strength to support the weight of the horse, or to contract again by their elastic power when they have yielded to the weight. When the coffin-bone is thus thrown on the sole, and renders it pumiced, the crust at the front of the hoof will "/a// fn," leaving a kind of hollow about the middle of it. Pumiced feet, especially in horses with large, wide feet, are frequently produced without this acute inflammation. Undue work, and especially much battering of the feet on the pavement, will extend and sprain these laminae so much, that they will not have the power to contract, and thus the coffin-bone will be thrown backward on the sole. A very important law of nature will unfortunately soon be active here. When pressure is applied to any part, the absorbents become busy in removing it; so, when the coffin-bone begins to press upon the sole, the sole becomes thin from the increased wear and tear to which it is subjected by contact with the ground, and also because these absorbents are rapidly taking it away. This is one of the diseases of the feet for which there is no cure. No skill is competent to effect a reunion between the separated fleshy and horny laminae, or to restore to them the strength and elasticity of which they have been deprived, or to take up that hard, horny substance which speedily fills the space between the cru» CONTRACTION. 305 and the receding coffin-bone. Some efforts have been made to jalliute the disease, but they have been only to a slight degree successful. If horses, on the first ap pearance of flat feet, were turned out in a dry place, or put into a box for two 01 three months, sufficient stress would not be thrown on the laminae to increase the evil, and time might be given for the growth of horn enough in the sole to support the coffin-bone ; yet it is much to be doubted whether these horses would ever be useful, even for ordinary purposes. The slowest work required of them would drive the coffin-bone on the sole, and the projection would gradually reappear, for no power and no length of time can again unite the separated leaves of the coffin-bone and the hoof. All that can be done in the way of palliation is by shoeing. Nothing must press on the projecting and pumiced part. If the projection is not considerable, a thick bar shoe is the best thing that can be applied ; but should the &ole have much descended, a shoe with a very wide web, bevelled off so as not to press on the part, nay be used. These means of relief, however, are only temporary, the disease wil] proceed ; and, at no great distance of time, the horse will be useless. The occasional removal of the shoe, and compelling the horse to stand for a while on the crust and laminae, has been resorted to. The bar shoe and the leathern sole, and occasional dressing with tar ointment have had their advocates, and it is suffi ciently plain that the pumiced foot should have plenty of cover. A somewhat similar affection, known by the name of a " Seedy Toe," is thus de- scribed by Mr. W. C. Spooner : — " It can scarcely be called a disease, but it is rathe; a natural defect, which may be considerably increased by labour and bad shoeing It arises from too great dryness of the horn, which renders it brittle, and causes its fibres to separate. There is a want of that tough, elastic material which connects the longitudinal fibres together, and produces that strong bond of union between them and the horny laminae and the sole. There is a hollow space within the foot, which sometimes extends upward and around, so as to admit a large probe. Neither the bone nor the laminae, however, are exposed, but are still protected by the internal por- tion of the crust. The only thing to be done is to anoint the foot occasionally, par« ticularly the affected part, with tar and grease. A blister may also be applied to ex- cite the developement of a new growth of horn, that which is become dry and brittle being occasionally cut away."* CONTRACTION. The cut, page 295, will give a fair idea of the young healthy foot, approaching nearly to a circle, and of which the quarters form the widest part, and the inner quar- ter (this is the near foot) rather wider than the outer. This shape is not long pre- served in many horses, but the foot increases in length, and narrows in the quarters, and particularly at the heel, and the frog is diminished in width, and the sole be- comes more concave, and the heels higher, and lameness, or at least a shortened and feeling action, ensues. It must be premised that there is a great deal more horror of contracted heels than there is occasion for. Many persons reject a horse at once if the quarters are wiring in ; but the fact is, that although this is an unnatural form of the hoof, it is slow of growth, and nature kindly makes that provision for the slowly altered form of the hoof which she does in similar cases — she accommodates the parts to the change of form. As the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, and particularly the coifin-bone, and especially the heels of that bone, diminish ; or, after all, it is more a change of form than of capacity. As the foot lengthens in proportion as it narrows, so does the cof- fin-bone, and it is as perfectly adjusted as before to the box in which it is placed, ts laminae are in as intimate and perfect union with those of the crust as before the hoof had begun to change. On this account it is that many horses, with very contracted feet, are perfectly sound, and no horse should be rejected merely be- cause he has contraction. He should undoubtedly be examined more carefully, and with considerable suspicion; but if he has good action, and is otherwise unexcep- tionable, there is no reason that the purchase should not be made. A horse with contracted feet, if he goes sound, is better than another with open but weak heels. The opinion is perfectly erroneous that contraction is the necessary consequence of shoeing. There can be no doubt that an inflexible iron ring being nailed to * Spooner on the Foot of the Horse. 96* 3u 30$ THE FOOT. the foot prevents, to a very considerable degree, the descent of the eole and ib* BXJ arision of the heels below ; and it is likewise probable, that when the expansion of the herls is prevented they often begin to contract. But here again nature, cu off from oi.e resource, finds others. If one of the jugular veins is lost, the blood pursues its course by other channels, and the horse does not appear to suffer in the slightest degree. Thus also if the expansion of the heels below is diminished, that of the cartilages above is made more use of. If the coffin-bone has not so much descent downward, it probably acquires one backward, and the functions of the foot are usefully if not perfectly performed. The plain proof of this is, that although there are many horses that are injured or ruined by bad shoeing, there are others, and they are a numerous class, who suffer not at all from good shoeing, and scarcely even from bad. Except it be from accident, how seldom is the farmer's horse lame ! and it might even be farther asked, how seldom is his foot much contracted ? Some gentlemen who are careful of their horses have driven them twenty years, and principally over the rough pavement of towns, without a day's lameness. Shoe- ing may be a necessary evil, but ft is not the evil which some speculative persons have supposed it to be ; and the undoubted fact is, that when the horse is put to real hard work, and when the injury produced by shoeing in destroying the expansibility of the foot would most of all show itself, the foot lasts a great deal longer than the leg ; nay, horsemen tell us that one pair of good feet is worth two pairs of legs. Having thus premised that contraction is not inevitably accompanied by lameness. and that shoeing, with all its evils, does not necessarily injure the foot, those cases of contraction, too numerous, which are the consequence of our stable management, and which do cripple and ruin the horse, may be considered. There is nothing in the appearance of the feet which would enable us to decide when contraction is or is not destructive to the usefulness of the animal ; his manner of going, and his capability for work, must be our guides. Lameness usually accompanies the beginning of con- traction ; it is the invariable attendant on rapid contraction, but it does not always exist when the wiring in is slow or of long standing. A very excellent writer, particularly when treating of the foot of the horse, Mr. Blaine, has given us a long and correct list of the causes of injurious contraction, and most of them are, fortunately, under the control of the owner of the animal. He places at the head of them, neglect of paring. The hoof is continually growing, the crust is lengthening, and the sole is thickening. This is a provision for the wear and tear of the foot in an unshod state ; but when it is protected by a shoe, and none of the horn can be worn away by coming in contact with the ground, and the growth of horn continues, the hoof grows high, and the sole gets thick, and, in consequence of this, the descent of the sole and the expansion of the heels are prevented, and con- traction is the result. The smith might lessen, if not prevent the evil, by carefully thinning the sole and lowering the heels at each shoeing ; but the first of these is a matter of considerable labour, and the second could not be done effectually without being accompanied by the first, and therefore they are both neglected. The prejudice of many owners of horses assists in increasing the evil ; they imagine that a great deal of mischief is done by cutting away the foot. Mischief may be the result of injudicious cutting, when the bars are destroyed and the frog is elevated from the ground ; but more evil results from the unyielding thickness of horn impairing the elastic and expansive principle of the foot. If gentlemen would accasionally stand by, and see that the sole is properly thinned, and the heels lowered, they would be limply repaid in the comfort and usefulness of the horse. Ill-judged economy is another source of this disease. If the shoes of one smith will, with ordinary work, last a little more than three weeks, while another contrives to make his last six weeks, he is supposed to be the better workman and the more honest man, and he gets the greater part of the custom. His shoe is suffered to *emain on during the whole time, to the manifest injury of the feet, and that injury is ncreased by the circumstances which we have mentioned, usually derives its origin from a different source, and from one that acts violently and suddenly. Inflammation of the little plates covering the coffin-bone is the most usual cause ; and a degree of inflammation not sufficiently intense to be characterised as acute founder, but quickly leading to sad results, may and does spring from causes almost unsuspected. There is one fact to which we have alluded, and that cannot be doubted, that contraction is exceedingly rare in the agricultural horse, but frequently occurs in the stable of the gentleman and the coach-proprietor. It is rare where the horse is seemingly neglected and badly shod ; and frequent where every care is taken of the animal, and the shoes are unexceptionable and skilfully applied. Something may depend upon the breed. Blood horses are particularly liable to contraction. Not only is the foot naturally small, but it is disposed to become narrower at the heels. On the other hand, the broad, flat foot of the cart-horse is subject to diseases enough, but contraction is sel- dom one of the number.* In horses of equal blood, not a little seems to depend upon the colour, and the dark chestnut is proverbially prone to contraction. Whatever is the cause of that rapid contraction or narrowing of the heels which ia accompanied by severe lameness, the symptoms may be easily distinguished. While standing in the stable the horse will point with, or place forward, the contracted foot, or, if both feet are affected, he will alternately place one before the other. When he is taken out of the stable, he will not, perhaps, exhibit the decided lameness which characterises sprain of the flexor tendon, or some diseases of the foot ; but his step will be peculiarly short and quick, and the feet will be placed gently and tenderly on the ground, or scarcely lifted from it in the walk or the trot. It would seem as if the slightest irregularity of surface would throw the animal down, and so it threatens to do, for he is constantly tripping and stumbling. If the fore-feet are carefully observed, one or both of them will be narrowed across the quarters and towards the heels. In a few cases the whole of the foot appears to be contracted and shrunk ; but in the majo- rity of instances, while the heels are narrower, the foot is longer. The contraction appears sometimes in both heels : at other times in the inner heel only ; or, if both are affected, the inner one is wired in the most, either from the coronet to the base of the foot, or only or principally at the coronet — oftener near the base of the foot — but in most cases the hollow being greatest about mid-way between the coronet and the hot torn of the foot. This irregularity of contraction, and uncertainty as to the place of it, prove that it is some internal disorganization, the seat of which varies with the portion of the attachment between the hoof and the foot that was principally strained or injured. In every recent case the contracted part will be hotter than the rest of -he foot, and the sole will, in the majority of cases, be unnaturally concave. Of the treatment of contraction attended with lameness little can be said that will DC satisfactory. Numberless have been the mechanical contrivances to oppose the progress of contraction, or to force back the foot to its original shape, and many of them have enjoyed considerable but short-lived reputation. A clip was placed at the inside of each heel, which, resting on the bars, was intended to afford an insur- mountable obstacle to the further wiring in of the foot, while the heels of the shoe were bevelled outward in order to give the foot a tendency to expand. The foot, however, continued to contract, until the clip was embedded in the horn, and worse lameness was produced. A shoe jointed at the toe, and with a screw adapted to the heels, was contrived, by which, when softened by poulticing, or immersion in warm water, the quarters were to be irresistibly widened. They were widened by the daily and cautious use of the screw until the foot seemed to assume its natural form, and the inventor besran to nxult in having discovered a cure for contraction : but, no sooner was the common * A valued correspondent suggests, that the difference between these two kinds of horses .iiay perhaps throw some light on the subject. The long-continued and heavy pressure on the frog in the cart-horse produces ossification of the cartilages, from which the blood-horse is free. In the quickness of the action of the blood-horse, the expansion of the frog is not sufficiently continued to produce this effect ; but the concussion is severe, and the frog and the shorter lamina towards the heel are the first to suffer, and contraction ensues. We do not find contraction in the hind feet, where there is little contraction, nor ossification, because the pressure is chiefly on the toe. Quick draught-horses have it both ways, but chiefly in COF ^action. The reader \fill form his own opinion on this subject. NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASb. 309 anoe again applied, and the horse had returned to his work, than the heel* began tc narrow, and the foot became as contracted as ever. Common sense would have foretold that such must have been the result of this expansive process ; for the heels could have been only thus forced asunder at the expense of partial or total separation from the interior portions of the foot with which they were in contact. The contracted heel can rarely or never permanently expand, for this plain reason, that although we may have power over the crust, we cannot renew the laminae, or estore the portion of the frog that has been absorbed. If the action of the horse is not materially impaired, it is better to let the contrac- tion alone, be it as great as it will. If the contraction has evidently produced consi- derable lameness, the owner of the horse will have to calculate between his value f cured, the expense of the cure, and the probability of failure. The medical treatment should alone be undertaken by a skilful veterinary surgeon, and it will principally consist in abating any inflammation that iuay exist, by local bleeding and physic, paring the sole to the utmost extent that it will bear; rasping the quarters as deeply as can be, without their being too much weakened, or the coronary ring (see 6, p. 272) injured ; rasping deeply likewise at the toe, and perhaps scoring at the toe. The horse is afterwards made to stand during the day in wet clay, placed in one of the stalls. He is at night moved into another stall, and his feet bound up thickly in wet cloths ; or he is turned out into wet pasturage, with tips, or, if possible, without them, and his feet are frequently pared out, and the quarters lightly rasped. In five or six months the horn will generally have grown down, when he may be taken up, and shod with shoes unattached by nails on the inner side of the foot, and put to gentle work. The foot will be found very considerably enlarged, and the owner will, perhaps, think that the cure is accomplished. The horse may, possibly, for a time stand very gentle work, and the inner side of the foot being left at liberty, its natural expansive process may be resumed : the internal part of the foot, however, has not been healthily filled up with the expansion of the crust. If that expansion has been effected forward on the quarters, the crust will no longer be in contact with the lengthened and narrowed heels of the coffin-bone. There will not be the natural adhesion and strength, and a very slight cause, or even the very habit of contraction, will, in spite of all care and the freedom of the inner quarter, in very many instances, cause the foot to wire in again as badly as before. THE NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASE. Many horses with well-formed and open feet become sadly and permanently lame, and veterinary surgeons have been puzzled to discover the cause. The farrier has had his convenient explanation " the shoulder ;" but the scientific practitioner may not have been able to discover an ostensible cause of lameness in the whole limb. There is no one accustomed to horses who does not recollect an instance of this. By reference to the cut, e, page 272, it will be seen that, behind and beneath the lower pastern-bone, and behind and above the heel of the coffin-bone, is a small bone called the navicular or shuttle bone. It is so placed as to strengthen the union between the lower pastern and the coffin-bone, and to enable the flexor tendon, which passes over it in order to be inserted into the bottom of the coffin-bone, to act with more advantage. It forms a kind of joint with that tendon. There is a great deal of weight thrown on the navicular-bone, and from the navicular-bone on the tendon ; and there is a great deal of motion or play between them in the bending and extension of the pasterns. It is very easy to conceive that, from sudden concussion, or from rapid and overstrained motion, and that, perhaps, after the animal has been sometime at rest, and the parts have not adapted themselves for motion, there may be too much play between the bone and the tendon — the delicate membrane which covers the bone, or the cartilage of the bone, may be bruised, and inflamed, and destroyed ; that all the painful effects of an inflamed and opened joint may ensue, and the horse be irreco- verably lame. Numerous dissections have shown that this joint, formed by the tendon and the bone, has been the frequent, and the almost invariable, seat of these obscure amenesses. The membrane covering the cartilage of the bone has been found »n an ulcerated state ; the cartilage has been ulcerated and eaten away ; the bone nas become carious or decayed, and bony adhesions have taken place between the navicular and the pastern and the coffin-bones, and this part of the foot has often become completely dia^rga^isoH and useless. Tl is V'nt is probab1 * the seat of lameness, not only in 31C DISEASES OF'IHEFOOT ivell-formed and perfect feet, but in those which become lame after contracts n feu ,n proportion as the inner frog is compressed by the contraction of the heels, ar. J la absorbed by that pressure, and the sole is become concave, and the horny frog, and the coffin-bone too, thereby elevated, there will be less room for the action of thi* joint, and more danger of the tendon and the delicate membrane of the navicular-bone being crushed between that bone and the horny frog. Stable management has little to do with the production of this disease, any farther than if a horse stands idle in the stable several days, and the structure of the foot, and all the apparatus connected with motion, become unused to exertion, and indisposed for it, and he is then suddenly and violently exercised, this membrane is very liable to be bruised and injured. This, amongst other evils, will be lessened by a loose box, in which a horse will always take some exercise.* The cure of navicular disease is difficult and uncertain. The first and all-important point is the removal of the inflammation in this very susceptible membrane. Local bleeding, poulticing, and physic will be our principal resources. If there is contrac- tion, this must, if possible", be removed by the means already pointed out. If there is no contraction, it will nevertheless be prudent to get rid of all surrounding pressure, and to unfetter, as much as possible, the inside heel of the coffin-bone, by paring the sole and rasping the quarters, and using the shoe without nails on the inner quarter, and applying cold poultices to the coronet and the whole of the foot. This is a case, however, which must be turned over to the veterinary surgeon, for he alone, from his knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, and the precise seat of the disease, is competent to treat it. If attacked on its earliest appearance, and before ulceration of the mem- brane of the joint has taken place, it may be radically cured : but ulceration of the membrane will be with difficulty healed, and caries of the bone will for ever remain. Blistering the coronet will often assist in promoting a cure by diverting the inflam« mation to another part, and it will materially quicken the growth of the horn. A seton passed through the frog by a skilful operator, and approaching as nearly as possible to the seat of disease, has been serviceable. In cases of old contraction, attended by a short and feeling step, neurotomy, or the excision of a portion of the nerve (for an explanation of the nature and effects of which see page 113), may be resorted to with decided advantage. Not only will the lameness be removed, but, by the foot being again brought fully and firmly upon the ground, the inner side of the shoe being unfettered by nails, a portion of the contrac- tion may be removed by the sole being allowed to descend and the foot to expand at each contact with the ground. Even when the navicular-joint is particularly suspected, if there is no apparent inflammation (and that would be readily detected by the heat of the foot), neurotomy may be practised with the hope of alleviating the sufferings of the animal, and tKua * To Mr. James Turner the veterinary profession is indebted for a knowledge of the seat and cause of this lameness. In the year 1816, he first alluded to it, and the truth and import- ance of his discovery is now universally allowed. According to Mr. Turner, 'contraction of the hoof is more or less apparent in the majority of horses that have been accustomed to be shod. This is often long before they have attained the highest value for work, and not unfrequently before they are five years old. This contraction is not, however, necessarily connected with lameness — a large proportion of horses, in the very midst of labour, are perfectly free from lameness. The next deviation from nature is the passive state to which the foot is submitted at least twenty-two or twenty-three hours out of the twenty-four, and sometimes for several consecutive days. Let this be compared with the few hours during which the feet of a horse at pasture are in a quiescent state, and there will be no cause of surprise in the change of form and position, and character, and the state of contraction — which takes place in the foot deprived of its natural pressure and motion. The first consequence of contraction is the gradual displacement of the navicular and coffin- oones. They ascend within the hoof. An unnatural arch is formed by the ascent of the frog, and the delicate synovial membrane lining the joint is crushed and bruised by the very material which nature has bestowed as a defence. This bruise of the synovial membrane lining the joint is the veritable source of this complaint, the actual cause of the whole not consisting in the wear and tear of the part, but having its origin in rest. It is engendered in the stab'e, bu« \ becomes permanently established by sudden violence out of it. General contraction of the foot of the horse may take place to a great extent with comparative impunity, but it :B a pa* 'dal contraction or pressure which is the root of the evil. — Turner on the Navicular Diseam vol. ii, p. 53. SAND- CRACK. 'Ul removing a portion of the lameness; but if the lameness is extnme, either with 01 without contraction, and especially if there is heat about the foot, the operation is dai* gerous. There i», probably, ulceration of the membrane — possibly, decay of the bone ; and the additional friction to which the parts would be subjected, by the freer action >f the horse, the sense of pain being removed, would cause that ulceration or decay to proceed more rapidly until the foot would be completely disorganised, or the tendon would be gradually worn through by rubbing against the roughened surface of the bone. SAND-CRACK. This, as its name imports, is a crack or division of the hoof from above downward, end into which sand and dirt are too apt to insinuate themselves. It is so called, because it most frequently occurs in sandy districts, the heat of the sand applied to the feet giving them a disposition to crack. It occurs both in the fore and the hind feet. In the fore feet it is usually found in the inner quarter (see g, page 278), bu< occasionally in the outer quarter, because there is the principal stress or effort towards expansion in the foot, and the inner quarter is weaker than the outer. In the hind feet the crack is almost invariably found in the front, because in the digging of the toe into the ground in the act of drawing, the principal stress is in front. This is a most serious defect. It indicates a brittleness of the crust, sometimes natural, but oftener the consequence of mismanagement or disease, which, in spite of every means adopted, will probably be the source of future annoyance. On a hoof that has once been thus divided, no dependence can be placed, unless, by great care, the natural suppleness of the horn has been restored and is retained. Sand-crack may happen in an instant, from a false step or over-exertion, and there- tore a horse, although he may spring a sand-crack within an hour after the purchase, cannot be returned on that account. It is always necessary to examine the inner quarter of the foot at the time of pur- chase ; for it has more than once occurred that, by low dealers, and particularly at fairs, a sand-crack has been neatly covered with pitch, and then, the whole of the hoof having been oiled, the injury was so adroitly concealed, that an incautious per- son might be easily deceived. The crack sometimes does not penetrate through the horn. It then causes no lame- ness; nevertheless, it must not be neglected. It shows that there is brittleness, which should induce the purchaser to pause ; and, if proper means are not taken, it will generally soon penetrate to the quick. It should be pared or rasped fairly out; and if the paring or rasping has been deep, the foot should be strengthened by a coat- ing of pitch, with coarse tape bound over it, and a second coating of pitch covering this. Every crack should be pared or rasped, to ascertain its depth. If it penetrates through the crust, even although no lameness exists, a firing-iron, red-hot, should be passed somewhat deeply above and below it, in order to prevent its lengthening — the edges should be thinned, to remove any painful or injurious pressure, and the foot should be bound up in the manner directed, care being taken that the shoe does not press upon the crust immediately under the sand-crack. If the crack has penetrated through the crust, and lameness has ensued, the case is more serious. It must be carefully examined, in order to ascertain that no dirt 01 sand has got into it; the edges must be more considerably thinned, and if any fungus is beginning to protrude through the crack, and is imprisoned there, it must be destroyed by the application of the butyr (chloride) of antimony. This is preferable to the cautery, because the edges of the horn will not be thickened or roughened, and thus become a source of after-irritation. The iron must then be run deeply across, above, and below the crack, as in the other case ; a pledget of dry tow being placed in the crack, in and over it, and the whole bound down as tightly as possible. On the third day the part should be examined, and the caustic again applied, if necessary : tiut if the crack te dry, and defended by a hard horny crust, the sooner the pitch plaste? IB put on the better. The most serious case is, when, from tread or neglect, the coronet is divided. The growth of horn proceeds from the coronary ligament, and unless this ligament is scund. the horn will grow down disunited. The method to be here adopted, is to run tiis Vack of the firing-iron over the coronet where it is divided. Some inflammation vrill ensue; and when the scab produced by the cautery peels off, as it will in a fev DISEASES OF THE FOOT. days, the division will be obliterated, and sound and united horn will /row down, When there is sufficient horn above the crack, a horizontal line should be drawn with a firing-iron between the sound horn and the crack. The connexion between the sound part and the crack will thus be prevented, and the new horn will gradually and safely descend, but the horse should not be used until sufficient horn has grown down fairly to isolate the crack. In this case, as in almost every one of sand-crack, the horse Bhould be kept as quiet as possible. It is not in the power of the surgeon to effect a perfect cure, if the owner will continue to use the animal. When the horn is divided at the coronet, it will be five or six months before it will grow fairly down, and not before that, should the animal be used even for ordinary work. When, however, the horn is grown an. inch from the coronet, the horse may be turned out — the foot being well defended by the pitch plaster, and that renewed as often as it becomes loose — a bar-shoe being worn, chambered so as not to press upon the hoof immediately undei the crack, and that shoe being taken off, the sole pared out, and any bulbous projec- tion of new horn being removed once in every three weeks. To remedy the undue brittleness of the hoof, there is no better application than that recommended in page 303, the sole being covered at the same time with the common cow-dung, or felt stopping. t TREAD AND OVER-REACH. Under these terms are comprised bruises and wounds of the coronet, inflicted by the other feet. A TREAD is said to have taken place, when the inside of the coronet of one hind foot is struck by the calkin of the shoe of the other, and a bruised or contused wound is inflicted. The coronary ring is highly vascular externally, and within it is cartila- ginous ; the blow, therefore, often produces much pain and hemorrhage, and contusion and destruction of the parts. The wound may appear to he simple, but it is often of a sadly complicated nature, and much time and care will need to be expended in repairing the mischief. Mr. Percivall very accurately states that " the wound has, m the first place, to cast off a slough, consisting of the bruised, separated, and deadened parts; then the chasm thereby exposed has to granulate; and finally, the sore has to cicatrize, and form new horn."* A tread, or wound of the coronet, must never be neglected, lest gravel should insinuate itself into the wound, and form deep ulcerations, called sinuses or pipes, and which constitute quittor. Although some mildly stimulating escharotic may be occa- sionally required, the caustic, too frequently used by farriers, should be carefully avoided, not only lest quittor should be formed, but lest the coronary ligament should be so injured as to be afterwards incapable of secreting perfect horn. When pro- perly treated, a tread is seldom productive of much injury. If the dirt is well washed out of it, and a pledget of tow, dipped in Friar's balsam, bound over the wound, it will, in the majority "of cases, speedily heal. Should the bruise be extensive, or the wound deep, a poultice may be applied for one or two daj'B, and then the Friar's bal- sam, or digestive ointment. Sometimes a soft tumour will form on the part, which will be quickly brought to suppuration by a poultice ; and when the matter has run out, the ulcer will heal by the application of the Friar's balsam, or a weak solution of blue vitriol. An OVER-REACH is a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore foot by the shoe of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by the toe, or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe. The preventive treatment is the bevelling, or rounding off, of the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes. The cure is, the cutting away of the loose parts, the application of Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt. There is a singular species of over-reaching, termed FORGING OR CLICKING. The horse, ir the act of trotting, strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the fore ones. This noise of the clicking is unpleasant, and the trick or habit is not altogether free from dange?. It is most frequent in young horses, and is attributable to too greai activity, or length of stride in the hind legs. The rider may dc something by keep- ing the head of the horse well up ; but the smith may effect more by making the hinC shoes of clicking horses short in the toe, and having the web broad. When thty ai€ Pei iva 1's Hippopathology, vol. i. p, 243. FALSE QUARTER - QUITTOK. >ng, they are apt to be torn off — when too narrow, the hind foot may bitnse the is >f the fore one, or may be locked fast between the branches of the fore shoe.* FALSE QUARTER. If he coronary ligament, by which the horn of the crust is secreted, is divided by me cut or bruise, or eaten through by any caustic, there will occasionally be a divi- sion tn the horn as it grows down, either in the form of a permanent sand-crack, OT one portion of the horn overlapping the other. It occasionally follows neglected sand-crack, or it may be the consequence of quittor. This is exteriorly an evident fissure in the horn, and extending from the coronet to the sole, but not always pene- trating to the laminee. It is a very serious defect, and exceedingly difficult to remedy; for occasionally, if the horse is over-weighted or hurried on his journey, the fissure will open and bleed, and very serious inconvenience and lameness may ensue. Grit and dirt may insinuate itself into the aperture, and penetrate to the sensible laminae. Inflammation will almost of necessity be produced ; and much mischief will be effected. While the energies of the animal are not severely taxed, he may not expe rience much inconvenience or pain ; but the slightest exertion will cause the fissu' a to expand, and painful lameness to follow. This is not only a very serious defect, but one exceedingly difficult to remedy. The coronary ligament must be restored to its perfect state, or at least to the dis- charge of its perfect function. Much danger would attend the application of the caustic in order to effect this. A blister is rarely sufficiently active : but the applica' tion, not too severely, of a heated flat or rounded iron to the coronet at the injured part affords the best chance of success — the edges of the horn on either side of the crack being thinned, the hoof supported — and the separated parts held together by a firm encasement of pitch, as described when speaking of the treatment of sand-crack. The coronet must be examined at least once in every fortnight, in order to ascertain whether the desired union has taken place ; and, as a palliative during the treatment of the case, or if the treatment should be unsuccessful, a bar-shoe may be used, and care taken that there Le no bearing at or immediately under the separation of the horn. This will be best effected, when the crust is thick and the quarters strong, by paring off a little of the bottom of the crust at the part, so that it will not touch the shoe ; but if the foot is weak, an indentation or 1 ollow should be made in the shoe. Strain or concussion on the immediate part will thus be avoided, and, in sudden or violent exertion, the crack will not be so likely V extend upward to the coronet, when whole and sound horn has begun to be formed there. j~ In some cases false quarter assumes a less serious character. The horn grows down whole, bat the ligament is unable to secrete that which is perfectly healthy, and, therefore, a narrow strip of horn of a different and lighter colour is produced. This is sometimes the best result that can be procured when the surgeon has been able to obliterate the absolute crack or separation. It is, however, to be regarded as a defect, not sufficient to condemn the horse, but indicating that he has had sand- crack, and that a disposition to sand-crack may possibly remain. There will also, in the generality of cases, be some degree of tenderness in that quarter, which may pro- duce slight lameness when unusual exertion is required from the horse, or the shoe is suffered long to press on the part. QUITTOR. This has been described as being the result of neglected or bad tread or over-reach ; but it may be the consequence of any wound in the foot, and in any part of the foot. ID the natural process of ulceration, matter is thrown out from the wound. It precedes the actual healing of the part. The matter which is secreted in wounds of the foot is usually pent up there, and, increasing in quantity, and urging its way in every direc- * Stewart's Stable (Economy, p. 393. t James Clark, whose works have not been valued as they deserve, expresses in a few woids^the real state of the case, and the course that should be pursued : — *' We rnay so far palliate the complaint as to render the horse something useful by using a shoe cf such a construction as will support the limb without resting or pressing too much wpon t'nrj weakened quajrter." A proper stopping should also cover the sole, on which some coarse tow maj be plac.nl, and a piece of leather over that; the whole being confined bv a broad web shoe. 21 2p 514 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. lion, it forces the little fleshy plates of the coffin-bone, from \ e ho ny *. nes of the crust, or the horny sole from the fleshy sole, or even eats deeply into the internal parts of the foot. These pipes or sinuses run in every direction, and constitute the essence of quittor. If it arises from a wound at the bottom of the foot, the purulent matter which is rapidly formed is pent up there, and the nail of the shoe or the stub remains in the wound, or the small aperture which was made is immediately closed again. This matter, however, continues to be secreted, and separates the horny sole from the fleshy one to a considerable extent, and at length forces its way upwards, and appears at the coronet, and usually at the quarter, and there slowly oozes out, while the aper- ture and the quantity discharged are so small that the inexperienced person would have no suspicion of the extent of the mischief within, and the difficulty of repairing it. The opening may scarcely admit a probe into it, yet over the greatei ^art of the quarter and the sole the horn may have separated from the foot, and the matter may have penetrated under the cartilages and ligaments, and into the coffin joint. Not only so, but two mischievous results may have been produced, — the pressure of the matter wherever it has gone has formed ulcerations that are indisposed to heal, and that require the application of strong and painful stimulants to induce them to heal ; and, worse than this, the horn, once separated from the sensible parts beneath, will never again unite with them. Quittor may occur in both the fore and the hind feet. It will be sufficiently plain that the aid of a skilful practitioner is here requisite, and also the full exercise of patience in the proprietor of the horse. It may be neces- sary to remove much of the horny sole, which will be speedily reproduced when the fleshy surface beneath can be brought to a healthy condition ; but if much of the horn at the quarters must be taken away, five or six months may probably elapse before it will be sufficiently grown down again to render the horse useful. Measures of considerable severity are indispensable. The application of some caustic will alone produce a healthy action on the ulcerated surfaces ; but on the ground of interest and of humanity we protest against that brutal practice, or at leasi the extent to which it is carried, and is pursued by many ignorant smiths, of coring out, or deeply destroying the healthy as well as the diseased parts — and parts which no process will again restore. The unhealthy surface must be removed ; but the car tiJ.ages and ligaments, and even portions of the bone, need not to be sacrificed. The experienced veterinary surgeon will alone be able to counsel the proprietor of the horse when, in cases of confirmed quittor, there is reasonable hope of permanent cure. A knowledge of the anatomy of the foot is necessary to enable him to decide what parts, indispensable to the action of the animal, may have been irreparably injured or destroyed, or to save these parts from the destructive effect of torturing saustics. When any portion of the bone can be felt by the probe, the chances of success are diminished, and the owner and the operator should pause. When the joints are exposed, the case is hopeless, although, in a great many instances, th« bones and the joints are exposed by the remedy and not by the disease. One hint may not be necessary to the practitioner, but it may guide the determination and hopes of the owner; if, when a probe is introduced into the fistulous orifice on the coronet, the direction of the sinuses or pipes is backward, there is much probability that a perfect cure may be effected ; but if the direction of the sinuses is forward, the cure is at best doubtful. In the first instance, there is neither bone nor joint to be injured ; in the other, the more important parts of the foot are in danger, and the prin- cipal action and concussion are found. Neglected bruises of the sole sometimes lay the foundation for quittor. When the foot is flat, it is very liable to be bruised if the horse is ridden fast over a rough and stony road ; or, a small stone, insinuating itself between the shoe and the sole, or confined by the curvature of the shoe, will frequently lame the horse. The heat anc tenderness of the part, the occasional redness of the horn, and the absence of punc ture, will clearly mark the bruise. The sole must then be thinned, and particularly over the bruised part, and, in neglected cases, it must be pared even to the quick, ir order to ascertain whether the inflammation has run on to suppuration. Bleeding ai the toe will be clearly indicated ; and poultices, and such other means as have either oeen described under "Inflammation of the Feet," or will be pointed out under the next head. The principal causes of bruises of the foot are leaving the sole too much ?«cponed by means of a narrow-webbed shoe, or the smith paring out the «?ole toe PRICK OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST. •loeely, or the pressure of the shoe on the sole, or the intro- uction of gravel or stones between the shoe and the sole. The author subjoins the mode of cure in this disease, as it has been practised bjr two veterinary surgeons. They are both excellent, and, so far as can well be the case, satisfactory. Mr. Percivall says : — " The ordinary mode of cure consists in the introduction of zaustic into the sinus ; and so long as the cartilage preserves its integrity — by which I mean, is free from caries — this is perhaps the most prompt and effectual mode of Eroceeding. The farrier's practice is to mix about half a drachm of corrosive sub- mate in powder with twice or thrice the quantity of flour, and make them into a paste with water. This he takes up by little at a time with the point of his probe, and works it about into the sinus until the paste appears rising in the orifice above After this is done he commonly has the horse walked about lor an hour or two, or even sent to slow work again, which produces a still more effectual solution of the caustic, at the same time that it tends greatly to its uniform and thorough diffusion into every recess and winding of the sinus. The consequence of this sharp caustic dressing is a general slough from the sinus. Every part of its interior surface is destroyed, and the dead particles become agglutinated, and cast off along with the discharges in the form of a dark, firm curdled mass, which the farrier calls the core ; and so it commonly proves, for granulations follow close behind it, and fill up the sinus."* The other mode of treatment is that of Mr. Newport, a surgeon of long standing : — " After the shoe has been removed, thin the sole until it will yield to the pressure of the thumb ; then cut the under parts of the wall in an oblique direction from the heel to the anterior part, immediately under the seat of complaint, and only as far as it extends, and rasp the side of the wall thin enough to give way to the pressure of the over-distended parts, and put on a bar shoe rather elevated from the frog. As- certain with a probe the direction of the sinuses, and introduce into them a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, by means of a small syringe. Place over this dressing the common cataplasm, or the turpentine ointment, and renew the application every twenty-four hours. I have frequently found three or four such applications complete a cure. I should recommend that when the probe is introduced, in order to ascer- tain the progress of cure, that it be gently and carefully used, otherwise it may break down the new-formed lymph. I have found the solution very valuable, where the synovial fluid has escaped, but not to be used if the inflammation of the parts is great."f PRICK OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST. This is the most frequent cause of quittor. It is evident that the sole is very liable to be wounded by nails, pieces of glass, or even sharp flints. Every part of the foot is subject to injuries of this description. The usual place at which these wounds are found is in the hollow between the bars and the frog, or in the frog itself. ID the fore feet the injury will be generally recognized on the inner quarter, and on thy hind feet near the toe. In fact these are the thinnest parts of the fore and hind feet. Much more frequently the laminae are wounded by the nail in shoeing ; or if the nail 'does not penetrate through the internal surface of the crust, it is driven so close to it that it presses upon the fleshy parts beneath, and causes irritation and inflammation, and at length ulceration. When a horse becomes suddenly lame, after the legs have been carefully examined, and no cause of lameness appears in them, the shoe should be taken off. In many cases the offending substance will be immediately detected, or the additional heat felt in some part of the foot will point out the seat of injury ; or, if the crust is rapped with the hammer all round, the flinching of the horse will discover it ; or pressure with the pincers will render it evident. When the shoe is removed for this examination the srr.ith should never be permit- led to wrench it off, but each nail should be drawn sepai?itely, and exai. ined as it in drawn, when some mois:ure appearing upon it will not .infrequently reveal the spot it which matter has been thrown out. Sudden lameness occurring within two or three days after the horsn has oeen shof which he will almost always be aware at the time of shoeing, from uie flinchinr ot the horse, or the dead sound, or the peculiar resistance that may be noticed in th« diiving of the nail. We would plead the cause of the honest portion of an humble class of men, who discharge this mechanical part of their business with a skill and good fortune scarcely credible ; but we resign those to the reproaches and the punish oient of the owner of the horse who too often, and with bad policy, deny that which accident, or possibly momentary carelessness, might have occasioned, and the neglect of which is fraught with danger, although the mischief resulting from it might attho time have been easily remedied. When the seat of mischief is ascertained, the sole should be thinned round it, ana at the nail-hole, or the puncture, it should be pared to, the quick. The escape of some matter will now probably tell the nature of the injury, and remove its conse quences. If it be puncture of the sole effected by some nail, or any similar body, picked up on the road, all that will be necessary is a little to enlarge the opening and then to place on it a pledget of tow dipped in Friar's balsam, and over that a little common stopping. If there is much heat and lameness, a poultice should b« applied. The part of the sole that is wounded and the depth of the wound should be taken into consideration. It will be seen, by reference to the cut in page 272, that a deep puncture towards the back part of the sole, and penetrating even into the sensible frog, may not be productive of serious consequence. There is no great motion in the part, and there are no tendons or bones in danger. A puncture near the toe may not be followed by much injury. There is little motion in that part of the foot, and the internal sole covering the coffin-bone will soon heal. A puncture, however, about the centre of the sole may wound the flexor tendon where it is inserted into the coffin-bone, or may even penetrate the joint which unites the navicular-bone with the coffin-bone, or pierce through the tendon into the joint which it forms with the navicular-bone, and a degree of inflammation may ensue, that, if neglected, may be fatal. Many horses have been lost by the smallest puncture of the sole in these dangerous points. All the anatomical skill of the veterinarian should be called into requisition, when he is examining the most trifling wound of the foot. If the foot has been wounded by the wrong direction of a nail in shoeing, and the sole is well-pared out over the part on the first appearance of lameness, little more will be necessary to be done. The opening should be somewhat enlarged, the Friar's balsam applied /and the' shoe tacked on, with or without a poultice, according to the degree of lameness or heat, and on the following day all will often be we'll. It may, however, be prudent to keep the foot stopped for a few days. If the accident has been neglected, and matter begins to be formed, and to be pent up, and to press on the neighbouring parts, and the horse evidently suffers extreme pain, and is sometimes scarcely able to put his foot to the ground, and much matter is poured out when the opening is enlarged, further precautions must be adopted. The fact must be recol- lected that the living and dead horn will never unite, and every portion of ihe horny sole that has separated from the fleshy sole above must be removed. The separation must be followed as far as it reaches. Much of the success of the treatment depends on this. No small strip or edge of separated horn must be suffered to press upon any part of the wound. The exposed fleshy sole must then be touched, but not too severely, with the butyr (chloride) of antimony, some soft and dry tow being spread on the part, the foot stopped, and a poultice placed over all if the inflammation seems to require it. On the following day a thin pellicle of horn will frequently be found over a part or the whole of the wound. This should be, yet very lightly, a^ain touched with the caustic ; but if there is an appearance of fungus sprouting from the exposed surface, the application of the butyr must be more severe, the tow being again placed over it, so as to afford considerable yet uniform pressure. Many days do not often elapse before the new horn covers the whole of the wound. In these exten- sive openings the Friar's balsam wiU not always be successful, but the cure must b« effected ly the judicious aid never-too-severe use of the caustic. Bleeding at tin toe, and physic, will be resorted to as useful aiunlaries when much inflammation arises CORNS. 3H In searching the foot in order to ascertain the existence of p f k, fchere is oftet something 7ery censurable in the carelessness with which the horn is cut away between the bottom of the crust and the sole, so as to leave little or no hold for the nails, although some months must elapse before the horn will grow down sufficiently far for the shoe to be securely fastened. When a free opening has been made below, and matter has not broken out at the soronet, it will rarely be necessary to remove any portion of the horn at the quarters, although we may be able to ascertain by the use of the probe that the separation of me crust extends for a considerable space above the sole. CORNS. In the angle between the bars (c, p. 297) and the quarters, the horn of the sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more spongy and softer than at any other part. The horse flinches when this portion of the horn is pressed upon, and occasional or permanent lameness is produced. This disease of the foot is termed CORNS : bearing this resemblance to the corn of the human being, that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause of lameness. When corns are neglected, so much inflammation is pro- duced in that part of the sensible sole, that suppuration follows, and to that, quitter succeeds, and the matter either undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the coronet. The pressure hereby produced manifests itself in various ways. When the foot becomes compacted, the part of the sole inclosed between the external crust that is wiring in, and the bars that are opposing that contraction (see cut, p. 297), is placed in a kind of vice, and becomes inflamed ; hence it is rare to see a contracted foot with- out corns. When the shoe is suffered to remain on too long, it becomes embedded in the heel of the foot : the external crust grows down on the outside of it, and the bear- ing is thrown on this angular portion of the sole. No part of the sole can bear con- tinued pressure, and inflammation and corns are the result. From the length of wear the shoe sometimes becomes loosened at the heels, and gravel insinuates itself between the shoe and the crust, and accumulates in this angle, and sometimes seriously wounds it. The bars are too frequently cut away, and then the heel of the shoe must be bevelled inward, in order to answer to this absurd and injurious shaping of the foot. By this slanting direction of the heel of the shoe inward, an unnatural disposition to contrac- tion is given, and the sole must suffer in two ways, — in being pressed upon by the shoe, and squeezed between the outer crust and the external portion of the bar. The shoe is often made unnecessarily narrow at the heels, by which this angle, seemingly less disposed to bear pressure than any other part of the foot, is exposed to accidental bruises. If, in the paring out of the foot, the smith should leave the bars prominent, he too frequently neglects to pare away the horn in the angle between the bars and the external crust; or if he cuts away the bars, he scarcely touches the horn at this point ; and thus, before the horse has been shod a fortnight, the shoe rests on this angle, and produces corns. The use of a shoe for the fore feet, thickened at the heels is, and especially in weak feet, a source of corns, from the undue bearing there is on die heels, and the concussion to which they are subject. The unshod colt rarely has corns. The heels have their natural power of expan- sion, and the sensible sole at this part can scarcely be imprisoned, while the projec- tion of the heel of the crust and the bar is a sufficient defence from external injury. Corns seem to be the almost inevitable consequence of shoeing, which, by limiting, or in a manner destroying, the expansibility of the foot, must, when the sole attempts to descend, or the coffin-bone has a backward and downward direction (see cut, p. 272), imprison and injure this portion of the sole. This evil consequence is increased when the shoe is badly formed, or kept on too long, or when the paring is omitted or injudiciously extended to the bars. By this unnatural pressure of the sole, blood is thrown out, and enters into the pores of the soft and diseased horn which is then secreted ; therefore the existence and the extent of the corn is judged of by the colour and softness of the horn at this place. Corns are most frequent and serious in horses with thin horn and flat soles, and low weak heels. They do not often occur in the outside heel. It is of a stronger con- utru^tion than the inside one. The method adopted by shoeing-smiths 10 ascertain the existence of corn by tie pain evinced when they pinch the bar anH crust witk 87* *18 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. their irons, is very fallacious. If the horn is naturally thin, the horse wil. shriiu under no great pressure although he has no corn, and occasionally the bars are s« strong as not to ^ive way under any pressure. The cure of old corns is difficult ; for as all shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here, the habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid of when once contracted ; recent corns, however, will yield to good shoeing. The first thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the crust and the i?ars. Two objects are answered by this : the extent of the disease will be ascertained, and one cause of it removed. A very small drawing-knife must be used for this pur- pose. The corn must be pared out to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood or matter underneath. If this is suspected, an opening must be made through the horn, the matter evacuated, the separated horn taken away, the course and extent of the sinuses explored, and the treatment recommended for quittor adopted. Should there be no collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony should be applied over the whole extent of ihe corn, after the horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn. In bad cases a bar-shoe may *e put on, so chambered, that there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be worn for one or two shoeings, but not constantly, for there are few frogs that vvould bear the constant pressure of the bar-shoe ; and the want of pressure on the leel, generally occasioned by their use, would produce a softened and bulbous state of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source of lameness. Mr. Turner is in the habit of using a shoe that promises to lessen to a very material degree the sufferings of the horse. The ground surface of the shoe is so bevelled off, that it does not come into contact with the ground, and thus much concussion is saved to the horse. A slight space, however, should be left between the heel of the foot, and that of the shoe ; and which cannot be better occupied than by the leather sole, preventing the insinuation of foreign bodies, and yet preserving the heel from con- cussion. In unusually troublesome cases of corns, recourse should be had to the bar-shoe. Mr. Spooner, of Southampton,, very properly states, that the corns occasionally fester, and the purulent matter which is secreted, having no dependent orifice, ascends, torturing the animal to a dreadful extent, and breaks out at the coronet. These cases are very troublesome. Sinuses are formed, and the evil may end in quittor. A large and free dependent orifice must then be made, and a poultice applied ; to which should succeed a solution of sulphate of zinc, with the application of the compound tai ointment. The cause of corn is a most important subject of inquiry, and which a careful examination of the foot and the shoe will easily discover. The cause being ascer- tained, the effect may, to a great extent, be afterwards removed. Turning out to grass, after the horn is a little grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the shoe fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be serviceable. A horse that has once had corns to any considerable extent should, at every shoeing, have the seat of corn well pared out, and the butyr of antimony applied. The seated shoe (hereafter to be described) should be used, with a web sufficiently thick to cover the place of corn, and extending as far back as it can be made to do without injury to the frog. Low weak heels should be rarely touched with the knife, or anything more be done to them than lightly to rasp them, in order to give them a level surface. The inner he«l should be particularly spared. Corns are seldom found in the hind feet, because the heels are stronger, and the feet are not exposed to so much concussion ; and when they are found there, they are rarely or never productive of lameness. There is nothing perhaps in which the improvement in the veterinary art has relieved the horse from so much suffering as shoeing. Where corns now exist of any consequence, they are a disgrace to the smith, the groom, and even to the owner. THRUSH. ^ This is a discharge of offensive matter from the cleft of the frog. It is inflamma- tion of the lower surface of the sensible frog, and during which pus is secreted toge- ther with, or instead of horn. When the frog is in its sound state, the deft sinks bu a little way into it; but when it becomes contracted or otherwise diseased, it extenJ irt lfngvhn and penetrates even to the sensible horn within, and through this unnatn THRUSH. 319 /ally deepened Assure the thrushy discharge proceeds. A plethoric state of the oodv may be a predisposing cause of thrush, but the immediate and grand cause is mois- ture. This should nev >r be forgotten, for it will lead a great way towards the proper treatment of the disease. If the feet are habitually covered with any moist applica- tion— his standing so much on his own dung is a fair example— thrush will inevitably appear. It is caused by anything that interferes with the healthy structure and action of the frog. We find it in the hinder feet oftener and worse than in the fore, because in our stable management the hinder feet are too much exposed to the pernicious effects of the dung and the urine, moistening, or as it were macerating, and at the same time irritating them. The distance of the hind feet from the centre of circulation would also, as in the case of grease, more expose them to accumulations of fluid and discharges of this kind. In the fore feet thrushes are usually connected with contrac- tion. We have stated that they are both the cause and the effect of contraction. The pressure on the frog from the wiring in of the heels will produce pain and inflamma- tion; and the inflammr tion, by the increased heat and suspended function of the paity will dispose to contraction. Horses of all ages, and in almost all situations, are sub- ject to thrush. The unshod colt is frequently thus diseased. Thrushes are not always accompanied by lameness. In a great many cases the appearance of the foot is scarcely, or not at all altered, and the disease can only be detected by close examination, or the peculiar smell of the discharge. The frog mav not appear to be rendered in the slightest degree tender by it, and therefore the horse may not be considered by many as unsound. Every disease, however, should be con- sidered as legal unsoundness, and especially a disease which, although not attended with present detriment, must not be neglected, for it will eventually injure and lame the horse. All other things being right, a horse should not be rejected because he has a slight thrush, for if the shape of the hoof is not altered, experience tePs us that the thrush is easily removed ; but if this is not soon done, the shape of the foot and the action of the horse will be altered, and manifest unsoundness will result. The progress of a neglected thrush, although sometimes slow, is sure. The frog oegins to contract in size — it becomes rough, ragged, brittle, tender — the discharge is more copious and more offensive — the horn gradually disappears — a mass of hardened mucus usurps its place— this easily peels off, and the sensible frog remains exposed —the horse cannot bear it to be touched — fungous granulations spring from :t — they spread around — the sole becomes under-run, and canker steals over the greater part of the foot. There are few errors more common or more dangerous than this, that the existence of thrush is a matter of little consequence, or even, as some suppose, a benefit to the horse — a discharge for superabundant humours — and that it should not be dried up too quickly, and in some cases not dried up at all. If a young colt, fat and full of blood, has a bad thrush, with much discharge, it will be prudent to accompany the attempt at cure by a dose of physic or a course of diuretics. A few diuretics may not be inju- rious when we are endeavouring to dry up thrush in older horses : but the disease can scarcely be attacked too soon, or subdued too rapidly, and especially when it steals on so insidiously, and has such fatal consequences in its train. If the heels once begin to contract through the baneful effect of thrush, it will, with difficulty, or not at all, be afterwards removed. There are many recipes to stop a running thrush. Almost every application of an astringent, but not of too caustic nature, will have the effect. The common J3gyptiacum (vinegar boiled with honey and verdigrease) is a good liniment ; but the most effectual and the safest — drying up the discharge speedily, but not suddenly —is a paste composed of blue vitriol, tar, and lard, in proportions according to the virulence of the canker. A pledget of tow, covered with it, should be introduced ;is deeply as possible, yet without force, into the cleft of the frog every night, and removed in the morning before the horse goes to work. Attention°should at the same time, as in other diseases of the foot, be paid to the apparent cause of the complaint, and that cause should be carefully obviated or removed. Before the application of the paste, the frog should be examined, and every loose part of the horn or hardened discharge removed ; and if much of the frog is then exposed, a larger and wider piece of tow, covered with the paste, may be placed over it, in addition to the pledget intro- iuced into thr cleft of the frog. It will be necessary to preserve the frog moist while •he cure s in progress, a^d this may be done by filling the feet with tow, covered by 320 DISEASES OF THE FOOT. common £ >ppmg, or using the felt pad, likewise covered with it. Turning oul would be prejudicial rather than of benefit to thrushy feet, except the dressing is con tinued, and the feet defended from moisture. CANKER Is a separation of the horn from the sensible part of the foot, and the sprouting of fungous matter instead of it, occupying a portion or even the whole of the sole and frog. It is the occasional consequence of bruise, puncture, corn, quitter, and thrush, and is exceedingly difficult to cure. It is more frequently the consequence of neglected thrush than of any other disease of the foot, or rather it is thrush involving the frog, the bars, and the sole, and making the foot in one mass of rank putre faction. It is oftenest found in, and is almost peculiar to, the heavy breed of cart horses, and partly resulting from constitutional predisposition. Horses with white legs and thick skins, and much hair upon their legs — the very character of many dray horses — are subject to canker, especially if they have had an attack of grease, or their heels are habitually thick and greasy. The disposition to canker is certainly hereditary. The dray horse has likewise this advantage, that in order to give him foot-hold ', it is some- times necessary to raise the heels of the hinder feet so high, that all pressure on the frog is taken away ; its functions are destroyed, and it is rendered liable to disease. Canker, however, arises mostly from the peculiar injury to which the feet of these horses are subject from the enormous shoes with which they are covered — the bulk of the nails with which these shoes are fastened to the foot, the strain of the foot in the violent, although short exertion of moving heavy weights ; but, most of all, neglect of the feet, and the filthiness of the stable in these establishments. Although canker is a disease most difficult to remove, it is easily prevented. Attention to the punctures to which these heavy horses, with their clubbed feet and brittle hoofs, are more than any others subject in shoeing, and to the bruises and treads on the coronet, to which, from their awkwardness and weight, they are so liable, and the greasy heels which a very slight degree of negligence will produce in them, and the stopping of the thrushes, which are so apt in them to run on to thft separation of the horn from the sensible frog, will most materially lessen the numbei of cankered feet. Where this disease often occurs, the owner of the team may be well assured that there is gross mismanagement either in himself or his horse-keeper, or the smith, or the surgeon, and it will rarely be a difficult matter to detect the pre- cise nature of that mismanagement. The cure of canker is the business of the veterinary surgeon, and a most pahiful and tedious business it is. The principles on which he proceeds are, first of all, to rerr jve the extraneous fungous growth ; and for this purpose he will need the aid of the knife and the caustic, or the cautery, for he should cut away every portion of horn which is in the slightest degree separated from the sensible parts beneath. He will have to discourage the growth of fresh fungus, and to bring the foot into that state in which it will again secrete healthy horn. Here he will remember that he has to do with the surface of the foot; that this is a disease of the surface only, and that there will be no necessity for those deeply-corroding and torturing caustics which penetrate to the very bone. A slight and daily application of the chloride of antimony, and that not where the new horn is forming, but on the surface which continues to be dis- eased, and accompanied by as firm but equal pressure as can be made — the careful avoidance of the slightest degree of moisture — the horse being exercised or worked m the mill, or wherever the foot will not be exposed to wet, and that exercise adopted as early as possible, and even from the neginning, if the malady is confined to the sole and frog — these means will succeed, if the disease is capable of cure. Humanity, perhaps, will dictate that, considering the long process of cure in a cankered foot, and the daily torture of the caustic, and the suffering which would otherwise result from so large or exposed a surface, the nerves of the leg should be divided, in order to take away the sense of pain ; but then, especial care must be taken that the horse is placed in such a situation, and exposed to such work, that, being insensible to pain, he may not injuriously batter and bruise the diseased parts. Medicine is not of much avail in the cure of canker. It is a mere local disease ; or the only cause of fear is, that so great a determination of blood to the extremities haying existed during the long progress of cure, it may in some degree continue, and OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES, &c. 321 produce injury in another form. Grease has occasionally followed canker. They have been known to alternate. It may, therefore, bt prudent, when the cure of a cankered foot is nearly effected, to subject the horse to a course of alteratives or diuretics. OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES Mention has been made of the side cartilages of the foot, occupying (see cut, page 276) a considerable portion of the external side and back part of the foot. They are designed to preserve the expansion of the upper part of the foot, and especially when that of the lower part is limited or destroyed by careless shoeing. These cartilages are subject to inflammation, and the result of that inflammation is, that the cartilages aie absorbed, and bone substituted in their stead. This ossification of the cartilages frequently accompanies ringbone, but it may exist without any affection of the pastern joint. It is oftenest found in horses of heavy draught. It arises not so much from concussion, as from sprain, for the pace of the horse is slow. The cause, indeed, is not well understood ; but of the effect, there are too numerous instances. Very few heavy draught-horses arrive at old age without this change of structure; and particu- larly if they are much employed in the paved streets. The change commences some- times at the anterior part of the cartilage, but much oftener at the posterior and inferioi part. " From the combined operation of great weight and high action, the feet, and particularly the heels, come with great force on the ground. The cartilages, being embedded in the heels of the feet, are, therefore, the parts that receive the greates degme of concussion, the consequence of which is, that subacute inflammation is se up, and the secreting vessels deposit ossific instead of cartilaginous matter, in thi room of that which is absorbed in the usual process of nature."* No evident inflammation of the foot, or great, or perhaps even perceptible lame- ness, accompanies this change ; a mere slight degree of stiffness may have been ob- served, which, in a horse of more rapid pace, would have been lameness. Even \vlien the change is completed, there is not in many cases anything more than a slight increase of stiffness, little or not at all interfering with the usefulness of the horse, When this altered structure appears in the lighter horse, the lameness is more deci- ded, and means should be taken to arrest the progress of the change. These are blisters or firing; but, after the parts have become bony, no operation will restore the cartilage. Some benefit, however, will be derived from the use of leather soles, Advantage has resulted from bar-shoes in conjunction with leather. Connected with ringbone the lameness may be very great. This has been spoker Df in page 277. WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT. This is more accurately a bad formation, than a disease ; often, indeed, the result of disease, but in many instances the natural construction of the foot. The term weak foot is familiar to every horseman, and the consequence is too severely felt by all who have to do with horses. In the slanting of the crust from the coronet to the toe, a less angle is almost invariably formed, amounting probably to not more than forty instead of forty-five degrees; and, after the horse has been worked for one 01 two years the line is not straight, but a little indented or hollow, midway between the coronet and the toe. This has been described as the accompaniment of pumiced feet, but it is often seen in weak feet, that, although they might become pumiced by severity of work, do not otherwise have the sole convex. The crust is not only less oblique than it ought to be, but it has not the smooth, even appearance of the good "oot. The surface is sometimes irregularly roughened, but it is much oftener rough- ned in circles or rings. The form of the crust likewise presents too much the appearance of a cone ; the bottom of the foot is unnaturally wide in proportion to the coronet; and the whole of the foot is generally, but not always, larger than it should be. When the foot h lifted, it will often present a round and circular appearance, with a fullness of frog, that would mislead the inexperienced, and indeed be considered as almost the perfection of structure ; but, being examined more closely, many glar ing defects will be seen. The sole is flat, and the smith finds that it will bear littl* vi no paring. The bars are small in size. They are not cut away by the smith, bol * W. C. Soooner on the Foot of the Horse, page 249. FRACTUREto. they oan be scarcely said to have any existence. The heels are io*v, so low that tn* very coronet seems almost to toucu the ground ; and the crust, if examined, appeal * scarcely thick enough to hold the nails. Horses with these feet can never stand much work. They will be subject to corns to bruises of the sole, to convexity of the sole, to punctures in nailing, to breaking *way of the crust, to inflammation of the foot, and to sprain and injury of the pastern, ind the fetlock, and the flexor tendon. These feet admit of little improvement. Shoeing as seldom as may be, and with a light yet wide concave web ; little or no paring at the time of shoeing, and as little violent work as possible, and especially on rough roads, may protract for a long pe- riod the evil day, but he who buys a horse with these feet will sooner or later havt cause to repent his bargain. CHAPTER XVI. FRACTURES. ACCIDENTS of this description are not of frequent occurrence, but when they do happen it is not always that the mischief can be repaired: occasionally, howevei, and much more frequently than is generally imagined, the life of a valuable animal might be saved if the owner, or the veterinary surgeon, would take a little trouble, and the patient is fairly tractable, and that, in the majority of cases, he will soon become. The number of valuable animals is far too great that are destroyed under a confused notion of the difficulties of controlling the patient, or the incurable char- acter of the accident. Messrs. Elaine and Percivall have given a valuable record of the usual cases and treatment of fracture which occur in the practice of the Eng- lish veterinary surgeon, and the splendid work of Hurtrel d'Arboval contains a re- cord of all that has been attempted or effected on the Continent. The author of this volume must confine himself to a rapid survey of that which they have described, adding a few cases that have been brought under his own observation, or communi- cated to him by others. With the exception of accidents that occur in casting the animal for certain opera- tions, and his struggles during the operation, the causes of FRACTURE are usually blows, kicks, or falls, and the lesion may be considered as simple, confined to one bone, and not protruding through the skin — or compound, the bone or bones protrud ing through the skin — or complicated, where the bone is broken or splintered in more than one direction. The duty of the veterinary surgeon resolves itself into the re- placing of the displaced bones in their natural position, the keeping of them in that position, the healing of the integument, and the taking of such measures as will pre- vent any untoward circumstances from' afterwards occurring. In the greater number of cases of fracture, it will be necessary to place the horst under considerable restraint, or even to suspend or sling him. The cut in the next page c mtains a view of the suspensory apparatus used by Mr. Percivall. A broad piece of sail-cloth, furnished with two breechings, and twc breast-girths, is placed under the animal's belly, and, by means of ropes and pulleys attached to a cross beam above, he is elevated or lowered as circumstances may re- quire. It will seldom be necessary to lift the patient quite oflf the ground, and the horse will be quietest, and most at his ease, when his feet are suffered just to touch it. The head is confined by two collar ropes, and the head-stall well padded. Many horses may plunge about and be difficult to manage at first, but generally speaking, h is not long ere they become perfectly passive. The use of the different buckles and straps which are attached to the sail-cloth will be evident on inspection. If the horse exhibits more than usual uneasiness, othei ropes may be a tached to the corners of the sail-cloth. This will afford considerable fftlie t- rhe patient, as well as add to the security of the bandages FRACTURES 32* In many cases the fracture, although a simple one, may he visihle on the slightest inspection ; in others, there may be merely a suspicion of its existence. Here will be exhibited the skill and the humanity of the educated surgeon, or the recklessness and brutality of the empiric. The former will carefully place his patient in the posi- tion at once the least j ainful to the sufferer, and the most commodious for himself, He will proceed with gentleness, patience, and management — no rough handling or motion of the parts, inflicting torture on the animal, and adding to the injury already received. It is interesting to observe how soon the horse comprehends all this, and submits to the necessary inspection ; and how complete and satisfactory the exami- nation terminates under the superintendence of the humane and cautious practitioner, while the brute in human shape fails in comprehending the real state of the case. Heat, swelling, tenderness, fearfulness of the slightest motion, crepitus, and espe- cially change of the natural position of the limh, are the most frequent indications of fracture. The probability of reunion of the parts depends upon the depth of the wound con- nected with the fracture — the contusion of the soft parts in the immediate neighbour- hood of it — the blood-vessels, arterial or venous, that have been wounded — the pro- pinquity of some large joint to which the inflammation may be communicated — dislocation of the extremities of the fractured joint — injuries of the periosteum — the existence of sinuses, caries, or necrosis, or the fracture being compound, or broken into numerous spiculae or splinters. In a horse that is full of flesh, the cure of fracture is difficult ; likewise in an old or worn-out horse — or when the part is inaccessible to the hand or to instruments — or when separation has taken place between the parts that were beginning to unite — or vrhere the surrounding tissues have been or are losing their vitality — or when the patient is already afflicted with any old or permanent disease. It may be useful briefly to review the various seats of fracture. FRACTURE OF THE SKULL. — The skull of the horse is so securely defended by the fielding resistance of the temporal muscle, that fracture rarely occurs except at the *»ccipital ridge; and should a depression of bone be there effected, it will produce complete coma, and bid defiance to all surgical skill. Fracture of the skull is gene- rally accompanied by stupidity, convulsive motions of the head or limbs, laborious breathing, and a staggering wall The eyesr are almost or quite closed, the head it «CJ4 FRACURES. rarried low, ai.d the lower lip hangs down. Blows on the cranium, which the bra »ality of man too often inflicts, as well as many accidents, are very serious matters-, and require considerable attention, for, although it may have been ascertained that the eranium is uninjured, there may be considerable concussion of the brain. It having been known that a horse had received a violent blow on the head, the strictest examination of the part should take place. An artillery horse broke loose from his groom, and, after galloping about, dashed into his own stall with such force as sadly to cut his face under the forelock. The farrier on duty sewed up the wound, proper dressings were applied, and in a little more than a fortnight the wound was healed and the horse dismissed, apparently well. Four days afterwards the patient moved stiffly ; the jaws could not be separated more than a couple of inches, and there was evident locked jaw. The horse was cast, and the place where the wound had beet was most carefully examined. On cutting to the bottom of it, a fracture was discovered, and a piece of bone three-fourths of an inch long was found on the centre of the parietal suture. This was removed — the wound was properly dressed, and a strong aloetic drink was given with great difficulty. The aloetic drink was repeated — the bowels became loosened — the tetanic symptoms diminished, and in less than three weeks the horse was perfectly cured.*1 This is a very interesting case. There was some carelessness in intrusting the treatment of the wound to the farrier : but the surgeon afterwards repaired the error us well as he could, and no one was better pleased than he was at the result. A violent blow being received on the forehead, the part should always be most carefully examined. Hurtrel D'Arboval relates three cases of fracture of the skull. One occurred in a mare that ran violently against a carriage. The skull was depressed, and a portion of bone was removed, but it was four months ere complete re-union of the edges was effected. Another horse received a violent kick on the forehead. The union of the depressed bones was effected after the external wound was healed, but there was always a depression, an inch in length. An aged mare met with the same accident. A depression here remained as large as a finger. FRACTURE OF THE ARCH OF THE ORBIT OF THE EYE. — A very interesting account of this, followed by perfect cure, is related at p. 136. FRACTURE OF THE NASAL BONES. — This will sometimes occur from falling, or be produced by a kick from another horse, or the brutality of the attendant or the rider We have seen a passionate man strike a horse about the head with a heavy hunting whip. The danger of punishment of this kind is obvious ; and so would be the pro priety of using the whip for another purpose. A fracture of this kind is generally accompanied by a laceration of the membrane of the nose, and considerable haemor rhage, which, however, may generally be arrested by the application of cold water The fractured portion of bone is usually depressed, and, the space for breathing being diminished, difficulty of respiration occurs. The author had a case of fracture of both nasal bones. He was enabled to elevate the depressed parts, but the inflammation and swelling were so great, that the animal was threatened with suffocation. The operation of tracheotomy was resorted to, and the animal did well. If there is fracture of the nasal bones, with depression, and only a little way from the central arch and the section between the nostrils, a slightly curved steel rod may be cautiously introduced into the passage, and the depressed portions carefully raised If this cannot be effected, the trephine must be applied a little above or below the fracture, and the elevator, or steel rod, be introduced through the aperture. If the fracture is in any other part of the bone, it will be impossible to reach it with the elevator, for the turbinated bones are in the way. The trephine must then be resorted to in the first instance. The wound, if there is any, must be covered, and a compress kept on it. A writer in a French journal, relates a case in which a horse was violently kicked, and there was a contused wound, with depression of bone. The trephine was applied, Fifteen splinters were extracted, and the case terminated well. It, nevertheless, too »ften happens that, in these injuries of the nasal membrane, the inflammation wL. obstinately continue, in despite of all that the surgeon can do, and the natural termina * Veterinarian, vol. vii., p. 142. FRACTURES. 323 fion of every injury of the membrane of the nose, and, in fact, of every chronic oi» ease of the frame, will appear — glanders. If, however, glanders do not appear, some portion of bone may remain depressed, or the membrane may be thickened by inflammation. The nasal passage will ther be obstructed, and a difficulty of breathing, resembling roaring, will ensue. THE SUPERIOR MAXILLARY, OR UPPER JAW-BONE, will occasionally be fractured. Mr Cartwright had a case in which it was fractured by a kick at the situation where it unites with the lachrymal and malar bones. He applied the trephine, and removed many small pieces of bone. The wound was then covered by adhesive plaster, and a a month the parts were healed. Mr. Clayworth speaks of a mare who, being ridden almost at speed, fell and frac- tured the upper jaw, three inches above the corner incisors. The front teeth and jaw were turned like a hook, completely within the lower ones. She was cast, a balling iron put into her mouth, and the surgeon, exerting considerable force, pulled the teeth outward into their former and proper situation. She was then tied up, so that she uould not rub her muzzle against anything, and was well fed with bean-meal, and inseed tea. Much inflammation ensued, but it gradually subsided, and, at the expira- tion of the sixth week, the mouth was quite healed, and scarcely a vestige of the frac- ture remained. A very extraordinary and almost incredible account of a fracture of the superior maxillary bone is given in the records of the Royal and Central Society of Agricul- ture in France. A horse was kicked by a companion. There was fracture of the upper part of the superior maxillary, and zygomatic bones, and the eye was almost forced out of the socket. Few men would have dared to undertake a fracture like this, but M. Revel shrank not from his duty. He removed several small splinters of bone — replaced the larger bones — returned the eye to its socket — confined the parts by means of sufficient sutures — slung the horse, and rendered it impossible for the animal to rub his head against anything. In six weeks, the cure was complete. THE MAXILLARY BONE, OR LOWER JAW, is more subject to fracture, and particularly in its branches between the tushes and the lower teeth, and at the symphysis between the two branches of the jaw. Its position, its length, and the small quantity of muscle thitt covers it, especially anteriorly, are among the causes of its fracture, and the same circumstances combine to render a reunion of the divided parts more easy to be accomplished. Mr. Elaine relates that, in a fracture of the lower jaw, he succeeded by making a strong leather frame that exactly encased the whole jaw. The author of this volume has effected the same object by similar means. M. H. Boulay attended a horse, fracture of whose lower maxillary had taken place at the neck of that bone, between the tushes and the corner incisor teeth. The whole of the interior part of the maxillary bone in which the incisor teeth were planted, was completely detached from the other portion of the bone, and the parts were merely held together by the membrane of the mouth. The horse was cast — the corner tooth on the left side extracted — the wound tho- roughly cleansed — the fractured bones brought into contact — some holes were drilled between the tushes and the second incisor teeth, above and below, through which some pieces of brass wire were passed, and thus the jaws were apparently fixed immovably together. The neck of the maxillary bone was surrounded by a suffi- cient compress of tow, and a ligature tied around it, with its bearing place on the tushes, and all motion thus prevented. The horse was naturally an untractable animal, and in his efforts to open his jaws, the wires yielded to his repeated struggles, and were to a certain degree separated. The bandage of tow was, however, tightened, and was sufficient to retain the fractured edges in apposition. The mouth now began to exhale an infectious and gangrenous odour ; the animal was dispirited, and would not take any food; gangrone was evidently approaching, and Mr. Boulay determined to amputate the inferior portion of the maxillary bone, the union of which seemed to be impossible. The sphacelated portion of the maxil- lary waa entirely removed ; every fragment of bone that had an oblique direction was •awn away, and the rough and uneven portions which the saw could not reach, were rasped off. Before night, the horse had recovered his natural spirits, and was searching for numethino- to eat. On the following day, a few oats were given to him, and he at* 28° 826 FRACTURES. them with so much appetite and ease, that no one looking at him w juld think that nt had been deprived of his lower incisor teeth. On the following day, some hay was given to him, which he ate without difficulty, and in a fortnight was dismissed, the wounds being nearly healed.* In the majority of these cases of simple fracture, a cure might be effected, or should, at least, be attempted, by means of well-adapted bandages around the muzzle, confined by straps. It will always be prudent to call in veterinary aid, and it is absolutely necessary in case of compound fracture of the lower jaw. FRACTURE OF THE SPINE. — This accident, fortunately for the horse, is not of frequent occurrence, but it has been uniformly fatal. It sometimes happens in the act of falling, as in leaping a wide ditch ; but it oftener occurs while -a horse is struggling during'a painful operation. It is generally sufficiently evident while the horse is on the ground. Either a snap is heard, indicative of the fracture, or the struggles of the hind-limbs suddenly and altogether cease. In a few cases, the animal has been able to get up and walk to his stable ; in others, the existence of the fracture has not been apparen for several hours: showing that the vertebrae, although fractured, may remain in-theii place for a certain period of time. The bone that is broken, is usually one of the pos- terior dorsal or anterior lumbar vertebrae. There is no satisfactory case on record of reunion of the fractured parts. In the human being, the depressed portion of the spinal arch, and of the fractured rertebrae, have been removed by a dextrous operation, and sensibility and the power of voluntary motion have, in cases few and far between, been restored ; but in the horse, this has rarely or never been effected. We should consider him a bold operator, but we should not very much dislike him, who made one trial, at least, how far sur- gical skill might be available here. Mr. W. C. Spooner relates an interesting case, and many such have probably oc- curred. A horse had been clipped about three weeks, and was afterwards galloped sharply on rough ground, and pulled up suddenly and repeatedly, for the purpose of sweating him. After that he did not go so well as before, and would not cantei readily, although he had previously been much used to that pace. Two days before he was destroyed, the groom was riding him at a slow pace, when he suddenly gave way behind and was carried home, and could not afterwards stand. He had, doubtless, fractured the spine slightly, when pulled up suddenly, but without dis- placing the bones.f M. Dupuy was consulted respecting a mare apparently palsied. She had an uncei tain and staggering walk, accompanied by evident pain. After various means of re- lief had in vain been tried during five-and-twenty days, she was destroyed. A frac- ture of the last dorsal vertebra was discovered. It had never been quite complete, and ossific union was beginning to take place. FRACTURE OF THE RIBS. — These fractures are not always easily recognised. Those that are covered by the scapula may exist for a long time without being detected, and those that are situated posteriorly are so thickly covered by muscles as to render the detection of the injury almost impossible. A man was trying to catch a mare in a field. She leaped at the gate, but failing to clear it, she fell on her back on the oppo- site side. She lay there a short time, and then got up, and trotted to the stable She was saddled, and her master, a heavy man, cantered her more than three miles. She then became unusually dull and sluggish, and was left on the road. She was Med ; and on the following morning an attempt was made to lead her home. She was not, however, able to travel more than a mile. On the following morning she was evi- dently in great pain, and a veterinary surgeon, discovering a slight depression of the spinous processes of the eleventh and twelfth dorsal vertebras and detecting a certain crepitus, ordered her to be destroyed. On post-mortem examination, the twelfth dorsal vertebra was found fractured, and the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth ribs on the near side were all fractured about two inches from their articulation with the verte- brae.}: Hur^rrel d Arboval says that " the two ribs behind the elbow are the most subject K> ftdcture, and the false ribs, from the yielding motion which they possess, are leas« »able." The ordinary causes of fracture are kicks and blows, or falls on the chest, an* * Rec. de Med Vet. Nov. 1838. t Veterinarian, vol. xi. p. 207. l Veterinarian, vol. iii. p. 681. FRA;TURES. fcsp« dally in leaping. The fractures are generally about their middle, and, in the trua ribs, commonly obliq le. They are occasionally broken into splinters, and if those splinters are directed inward, they may seriously wound the pleura or lungs. In ordei ;nost certainly to det3ct the situation and extent of these fractures, it may be neces- sary to trace the rib through its whole extent, and, should there be any irregularity, to p\ 3ss firmly upon it above and below in order to ascertain the nature and extent of the injury. If fracture is detected, it is not often that much essential good can be done. If there is little or no displacement, a broad roller should be tightly drawn round tl e chest, in order to prevent as much as possible the motion of the ribs in the act of breathing, and to throw the labour on the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles until the fractured parts are united. If the fractured parts protrude outwards, a firm com- press must be placed upon them. If they are depressed, it willi always be advisuble to place a firm bandage over the seat of fracture, although, perhaps, there m:-;.y be scarcely the possibility of elevating them to any considerable degree. Should much irritation be the consequence of the nature or direction of the fracture, proper means must be adopted to allay the constitutional disturbance that may be produced. Gen- eral or local bleedings will be most serviceable.* FRACTURE OF THE PELVIS. — This is not of frequent occurrence, on account of the thickness of the soft parts which surround the pelvis, and protect it from injury, but it is of a most serious character when it does take place, on account of the violence which must have been necessary to produce it. The usual cases are falls from a con- siderable height, or heavy blows on the pelvis. The injury may have reference to the internal or external portion of the pelvis. In the first case, the danger may not be discovered until irreparable mischief is produced. When it is chiefly external, the altered appearance of the hip speaks for itself. It is rarely in our power to afford any assistance in cases like this, except when there are fractured portions of the bone that may be partially or entirely removed, or the projecting spine of the ilium is only par- tially fractured. M. Levrat gives an interesting account of a case of fracture of the right side of the pelvis, near the acetabulum, in leaping a wide ditch when hunting. *' The lame- ness which it occasioned," says he, " was such that the toe of the foot was scarcely permitted to touch the ground while the motion was at all rapid. When the motion was slow, the foot was placed flat on the ground, but with great difficulty moved for- ward. On applying my right hand to the fractured part, which did not exhibit any heat, and seizing with rny left hand the point of the thigh, I felt a movement of the ischium, which easily enabled me to judge of the fracture and its seat, and to dis- cover that none of the fractured parts were displaced. I ordered her to be kept quiet for three weeks, and then permitted to wander about the stable. At the end of two months she was mounted and exercised at a foot pace, and in another month she was enabled to sustain the longest day's work without lameness. In the following yeai she. was placed in the stud of the Baron de Stael, where she produced some good foals.| The Annals of the school at Alfort contain the case of an old mare with fracture of the pelvis and of the left ischium, and in whom union of the bones was effected so promptly, that on the thirtieth day very little lameness remained, and she shortly returned to her usual work. She soon afterwards died from some other cause, and the state of the osseous parts was thoroughly examined. These cases, however, s and almost alone, and post-mortem examination discovers fractures of the ischium and the pelvis, and each bone divided into many pieces, so that it is impossible for the hind quarters of the animal to be supported — also fractures of the external angle of the ilium, which rarely is again consolidated, and roughness of the bony fragments, du'"? sufficient extension in order to effect the desired purpose : but the divided edges being brought into apposition are retained there by the force of the muscles above. Splints reaching from the foot to above the knee should then be applied. The horse should be racked up during a fortnight, after which, if the case is going on well, the animal may often be turned out. In cases of compound fracture the wounds should be carefully attended to : but Mr. Percivall says that he knows one or two old practitioners, who are in the habit of treating these cases in a very summary and generally successful manner. They employ such common support, with splints and tow and bandages, as the case seema to require, and then the animal with his leg bound up is turned out, if the season per- mits ; otherwise he is placed in a yard or box, where there is not much straw to incommode his movements. The animal will take care not to irrpose too much weight on his fractured limb; and, provided the parts are well secured, nature will generally perform the rest.§ * Veterinaiian, vol. hi. p. 394. * The Transactions of the Vet. Med. Association. Some other cases of the successful trea. nent of fractures are related in this work. t Veterinarian, "ol. iii. p. 69. 4 Percivall's Hippopatho v»x> *°1- i- P 253 FRACTURES. 33i FRACTURE OF THE SESAMOID BONES. — TheiB are but two instances of this or record fhe first is related by Mr. Fuller of March. He was galloping steadily and not rapidly a horse of his own, when the animal suddenly fell as if he had been shou He was b/oken down in both fore legs. The owner very humanely ordered him to be immediately destroyed. Both the perforans and perforatus tendons of the near fore Leg were completely ruptured, just where they pass over the sesamoid bone, which was fractured in a transverse direction. The sesamoid bone of the off leg was frac- tured in the same direction, but the tendons were entire.* The second case is one described by Mr. Harris of Preston. A strong coachlike animal was galloped rapidly. He had not gone more than a hundred yards before he iuddenly fell, and it was with great difficulty that he could be led home, a distance of about two miles. There was soon considerable swelling in the off fore leg — great pain on the animal's attempting to walk, and his fetlock nearly touched the ground. Some slight crepitus could be detected, but the exact seat of it could not be ascer- tained. Mr. Harris considered the case as hopeless, but the owner would have some means tried to save the animal. He was accordingly bled and physicked, and cold lotions and bandages were applied to the foot. Two days afterwards some bony spiculae began to protrude through the skin, and, the case being now perfectly hope- less, the animal was destroyed. The inner sesamoid bone was shivered to atoms.f FRACTURE OF THE UPPER PASTERN. — Thick and strong, and movable as this bone seems to be, it is occasionally fractured. This has been the consequence of a violent effort by the horse to save himself from falling, when he has stumbled, — it has hap- pened when he has been incautiously permitted to run down a steep descent — and has occurred when a horse has been travelling on the best road, and at no great pace. The existence of fracture in this bone is, generally speaking, easily detected. The injured foot is as lightly as possible permitted to come in contact with the ground. As little weight as may be is thrown on it, or, if the animal is compelled to use it, the fetlock is bent down nearly to the ground, and the toe is turned upward. If the foot is rotated, a crepitus is generally heard. This, however, is not always the case. M. Levrat was requested to examine r horse that had suddenly become lame. The near hind leg was retracted, and the foot was kept from touching the ground. He carefully examined the foot, and dis- covered that much pain was expressed when the pastern was handled. He suspected fracture of the bone, but he could not detect it. He bled the animal, ordered cooling applications to the part, and gave a dose of physic. Three days afterwards he again saw his patient, and readily detected a fracture, taking a direction obliquely across the pastern.^: The probability of success in the treatment of this fracture, depends on its being a simple or compound one. If it runs laterally across the bone, it may be readily and successfully treated — if it extends to the joints above and below, it will proba- bly terminate in anchylosis, and if the bone is shivered, as it too frequently is, into various parts, there would scarcely seem the possibility of a successful treatment of the case. The instances, however, are numerous in which the case terminates suc- cessfully. Hurtrel d'Arboval recommends that a bandage steeped in some adhesive matter should be applied from the coronet to the middle of the leg. On this some wet pasteboard is to be moulded, enveloped afterwards in a linen bandage. A small splint is now to be applied before and behind and on each side and the hollow places are filled with tow, in order te give them an equal bearing. If this does not appear to be sufficiently secure, other splints, thicker and broader, are placed over those ex- tending to the knee or the hock. The case related by M. Levrat was treated in this way. It will be comparatively seldom that it will be necessary to suspend the patient. The animal, under the treat- ment of M. Levrat, kept his foot in the air for nearly three weeks. At the end of that period he now and then tried to rest his toe on the iitter. Six weeks after the tccident, he began to throw some weight on the foot ; and a few days afterwards be was able to go to a pond, about fifty paces from his stable, and where, of his ow« iccord, he took a foot-bath for nearly an hour at a time. At the expiration of anoiho* * Veterinarian, vol. iii. p. 393. t Veterinarian, vol. v. p. 37A t Rec. de Mei. Vet., Nov. 1831. 332 FRACTURES. month he was mounted, and went very well at a walking-pace; he was, \owevei still lame when he was trotted. Another horse, treated by the same surgeon, was soon able to rest on the bad leg , in order to change his position — he was allowed three weeks after tha% and then commenced his former daily work — the drawing of a heavy cart. He limped a little «vhen he was trotted ; but did as much slow work as he was ever accustomed to do. FRACTURE OF THE LOWER PASTERN. — Although this bone is much shorter than the upper pastern, there are several instances of fracture of it. The fractures of this bone are commonly longitudinal, and often present a lesion of continuity extending from the larger pastern to the coffin-bone. It is frequently splintered, the splinters taking this longitudinal direction. Hurtrel d'Arboval relates three cases of this, and in one of them the bone was splintered into four pieces. In several instances, how- ever, this bone has been separated into eight or te» distinct pieces. "When the frac- tire of the bone is neither compound nor complicated, it may be perfectly reduced by proper bandaging, and, in fact, there have been cases, in which union has taken place with slight assistance from art beyond the application of a few bandages. M. Gazot relates a very satisfactory termination of fracture of this bone in a car- riage-horse. The animal fell, and was totally unable to rise again. He was placed on some hurdles, and drawn home. A veterinary surgeon being consulted, recognised fracture of the lower pastern in both feet, and advised that the animal should be de- stroyed. It was a favourite horse, between five and six years old, and the owner de- termined to give it a chance of recovery. M. Gazot was consulted. He plainly recognised a transverse fracture in the lower pastern of the right leg, and a longitudinal one in the left pastern. They were both of them simple fractures. The horse was manageable, and seemed to comprehend the whole affair. He was a favourite of the groom as well as the master, and it was determined to give him a chance of recovery. He had plenty of good litter under him, which was changed twice in the day. The first object that was attempt- ed to be accomplished was the healing of the excoriations that had taken place in drawing him home, and abating the inflammation that was appearing about the pasterns. At the termination of the first week all these were healed, the horse fed well, and was perfectly quiet, except that when he was tired of lying on one side he contrived to get on his knees and then to raise himself on his haunches, and, having voided his urine and his dung, he turned himself upon the other side, without the bandages round his pasterns being in the slightest degree interfered with. At the expiration of the second week, he seemed to wish to get up. The groom had orders to assist him, and a sling was passed under him. Some oats were placed in the marg^r, ard he seemed to enjoy the change for a little while. Soon after- wards he began to be uneasy, and a copious perspiration appeared on every part. He was immediately lowered, when, with evident delight, he stretched out his head and his legs, and lay almost without motion during several hours. On the follow- ing day he was again placed in the sling, and again lowered as soon as he appeared to be fatigued. At the expiration of a month from the time of the accident he could get up without assistance, and would continue standing two or three hours, when he would lay down again, but with a degree of precaution that was truly admirable. The bandages around the pasterns had been continued until this period, and had been kept wet with a spirituous embrocation. The horse was encouraged to walk a little, some corn be ing offered to him in a sieve. He was sadly lame, and the lameness was considera- bly greater in the left than in the right foot. A calculous enlargement could also b« felt in the direction of the fracture on each pastern; but it was greatest in the left fetlock, and there was reason to fear the existence of anchylosis, between the pastern bones of the left leg. That foot was surrounded with emollient cataplasms, and, two days afterw?r^«5 was pared out, and the cautery applied over both pasterns, the spirit- uous embrocation being continued. A fortnight aftoi wards the effect of the cautery was very satisfactory. The actior of the part was more free, and there was no longer any fear of anchylosis. Tt was however, deemed nrudent to apply the cautery over the right pastern. Walking ex w.lte was now recommended, and in the course of another month the lameness wa. ON SHOEING. 333 nucn diminished. It was most on the left side, which, howe vc. had re .tuned ite former degree of inclination. At the expiration of four months, the horse was sent to work. His master, how- ever, doubting the stability of the cure, sold him, for which he ought to have hud hi3 own legs broken, and he fell into bad hands. He was worked hardly, an^ half starved; nevertheless, the calculus continued to diminish, and the lameness alto- gether disappeared. He soon, however, passed into better hands. He was bought by a farmer at Chalons, in whose service he long remained, in good condition, and totally free from lameness. His last owner gave him the name of Old Broken Leg.* FRACTURE OF THE COFFIN-BONE. — This is an accident of very rare occurrence, and difficult to distinguish from other causes of lameness. The animal halts very con- siderably— the foot is hot and tender — the pain seems to be exceedingly great, and none of the ordinary causes of lameness are perceived. According to Hurtrel D'Ar boval, it is not so serious an accident as has been represented. The fractured portions cannot be displaced, and in a vascular bone like this, the union of the divided parts will be readily effected. Mr. Percivall very properly remarks, that, "buried as the coffin and navicular bones are within the hoof, and out of the way of all external injury as well as of mus- cular force, fracture of them cannot proceed from ordinary causes. It is, perhaps, thus produced : — in the healthy foot, in consequence of the elasticity of their connec- tions, these bones yield or spring under the impression they receive from the bones above, and thus are enabled to bear great weights, and sustain violent shocks without injury ; but, disease in the foot is often found to destroy this elasticity, by changing the cartilage into bone, which cannot receive the same weight and concussion without risk of fracture. Horses that have undergone the operation of neurotomy more fre- quently meet with this accident than others, because they batter their senseless feet with a force which, under similar circumstances, pain would forbid the others from doing."f FRACTURE OF THE NAVICULAR BONE has been sufficiently considered under the article " Navicular Joint Disease," p. 309. Mr. Mayer sums up his account of the treatment of fractures in a way that reflects much credit on him and the profession of which he is a member. " Let your reme dies," says he, " be governed by those principles of science, those dictates of humanity, and that sound discretion, which, while they raise the moral and intellectual supe> riority of man, distinguish the master of his profession from the bungling empiric.''^ CHAPTER XVII. ON SHOEING. THE period when the shoe began to be nailed to the foot of the horse is uncertain William the Norman introduced it into our country. We have seen, in the progress of our inquiry, that, while it affords to the foot of the horse that defence which seems now to be necessary against the destructive effects of our artificial and flinty roads, it has entailed on the animal some evils. It has limited or destroyed the beautiful expansibility of the lower part of the foot — it has led to contraction, although that contraction has not always been accompanied by lameness — in the most careful fixing of the best shoe, and in the careless manufac- ture and setting on of the bad one, irreparable injury has occasionally been done to the horse. We will first attend to the preparation of the foot for the shoe, for more than is generally imagined, of its comfort to the horse and its safety to the rider, depends OK this. If tne master would occasionally accompany the horse to the forge, more expense to fc \mself and punishment to the horse would be spared than, perhaps, he * Recueil de Med. Vet. 1834, p. 7. No apology is offered for the introduction of cases like Ihis. The cause of science and of humanity is equally served. * Perdv all's Hippopathology, vol. i., p. 272. t Vet. Trans, vol. i., p. £45. S34 ON SHOEING. would think possible, provided he will take the pains to understand the matter bin, self, otherwise he had better not interfere. The old shoe must be first taken off. We have something to observe even here The shoe was retained on the foot by the ends of the nails being twisted off, turned down, and clenched. These clenches should be first raised, which the smith seldom takes the trouble thoroughly to do ; but after looking carelessly round the crust and loosening one or two of the clenches, he takes hold first of one heel of the shoe, and then of the other, and by a violent wrench separates them from the foot : then, by means of a third wrench, applied to the middle of the shoe, he tears it off. By these means he must enlarge every nail-hole, and weaken the future and steady hold of the ihoe, and sometimes tear off portions of the crust, and otherwise injure the foot. The horse generally shows by his flinching that he suffers from the violence with which this preliminary operation too often is performed. The clenches should always be raised or filed off; and, where the foot is tender, or the horse is to be examined foi lameness, each nail should be partly punched out. According to the common system of procedure, many a stub is left in the crust, the source of future annoyance. The shoe having been removed, the smith proceeds to rasp the edges of the crust. Let not the stander-by object to the apparent violence which he uses, or fear that the foot will suffer. It is the only means that he has to detect whether any stubs remain in the nail-holes ; and it is the most convenient method of removing that portion of the crust into which dirt and gravel have insinuated themselves. Next comes the important process of paring out, with regard to wvich it is almost impossible to lay down any specific rules. This, however, is undoubted, that far more injury has been done by the neglect of paring, than by carrying it to too great an extent. The act of paring is a work of much more labour than the proprietor of the horse often imagines. The smith, except he is overlooked, will frequently give himself as little trouble about it as he can ;. and that portion of horn which, in the unshod foot, would be worn away by contact with the ground, is suffered to accumu- late month after month, until the elasticity of the sole is destroyed, and it can nc longer descend, and its other functions are impeded, and foundation is laid for corn, and contraction, and navicular disease, and inflammation. That portion of horn should be left on the foot, which will defend the internal parts from being bruised, &nd yet suffer the external sole to descend. How is this to be ascertained 1 The strong pressure of the thumb of the smith will be the best guide. The buttress, that most destructive of all instruments, being, except on very particular occasions, banished from every respectable forge, the smith sets to work with his drawing-knife, and removes the growth of horn, until the sole will yield, although in the slightest possible degree, to the strong pressure of his thumb. The proper thickness of horn will then remain. If the foot has been previously neglected, and the horn is become very hard, the owner must not object if tne smith resorts to some other means to soften it a little, and takes one of his flat irons, and having heated it, draws it over the sole, and keeps it, a little while, in contact with the foot. When the sole is really thick, this rude and apparently barbarous method can do no harm, but it should never be permitted with the sole that is regularly pared out. ' The quantity of horn to be removed, in order to leave the proper degree of thick- ness, will vary with different feet. From the strong foot, a great deal must be taken. From the concave foot, the horn may be removed until the sole will yield to a mode- rate pressure. From the flat foot, little needs be pared ; while the pumiced foot should be deprived of nothing but the ragged parts. The paring being nearly completed, the knife and the rasp of the smith must be a little watched, or he will reduce the crust to a level with the sole, and thus endangei the bruising of it by its pressure on the edge of the seating. The crust should be reduced to a perfect level all around, but left a little higher than the sole. The heels will require considerable attention. From the stress which is thrown on the inner heel, and from the weakness of the quarter there, the horn usually wears away considerably faster than it would on the outer one, and if an equal portion of horn were pared from it, it would be left lower than the outer heel. The smith ihould, therefore, accommodate his paring to the comparative wear of the heels, an<* b« exceedingly careful to leave them precisely level. f the reader will recollect M "iat has been «»id of the intention and action nf th* PUTTING ON THE SHOE. 335 oars, ho \\ill eadily perceive that the smith should be checked in his almost universal fondness for opening the heels, or, more truly, removing that which is the main impedi- ment to contraction. The portion of the heels between the inflexion of the bar and the frog should scarcely be touched — at least, the ragged and detached parts alone should be cut away. The foot may not look so fair and open, but it will last longer without contraction. The bar, likewise, should be left fully prominent, not only at its first inflexion, but as it runs down the side of the frog. The heel of the shoe is designed to rest partly on the heel of the foot and partly on the bar, for reasons that have been already stated. If the bar is weak, the growth of it should be encouraged ; and it should be scarcely touched when the horse is shod, unless it has attained a level with the crust. The reader will recollect the observation which has been already made, that the destruction of the bars not only leads to contraction, by removing the grand impediment to it, but by adding a still more powerful cause in the slanting direction which is given t'/ the bearing of the heels, when the bar does not contribute to the support of the weight. It will also be apparent, that the horn between the crust and the bar should be carefully pared out. Every horseman has observed the relief which is given to the animal lame with corns, when this angle is well thinned. This relief, however, is often but temporary ; for when the horn grows again, and the shoe presses upon it, the torture of the horse is renewed. The degree of paring to whici. the frog must be subjected, will depend on its promi- nence, an' on the shape of the foot. The principle has already been stated, that it must be left so far projecting and prominent, that it shall be just within and above the lower surface of the shoe; it will then descend with the sole sufficiently to discharge the functions that have been attributed to it. If it is lower, it will be bruised and injured ; if it is higher, it cannot come in contact with the ground, and thus be enabled to do its duty. The ragged parts must be removed, and especially those occasioned by thrush, but the degree of paring must depend entirely on the principle just stated. It appeals, then, that the office of the smith requires some skill and judgment, in order to be properly discharged ; and the proprietor of horses will find it his interest occasionally to visit the forge, and complain of the careless, or idle, or obstinate fellow, while he rewards, by some trifling gratuity, the expert and diligent workman. He should likewise remember that a great deal more depends on the paring out of the foot, than on the construction of the shoe ; that few shoes, except they press upon the sole, or are made outrageously bad, will lame the horse ; but that he may be very easily lamed from ignorant and improper paring out of the foot. THE PUTTING ON THE SHOE. The foot being thus prepared, the smith looks about for a shoe. He should select ^ne that as nearly as possible fits the foot, or may be easily altered to the foot. He %vill sometimes, and especially if he is an idle and reckless fellow, care little about this, for he can easily alter the foot to the shoe. The toe-knife is a very convenient instrument for him, and plenty of horn can be struck off with it, or removed by the rasp, in order to make the foot as small as the shoe ; while he cares little, although oy this destructive method the crust is materially thinned where it should receive the nail, and the danger of puncture, and of pressure upon the sole, is increased ; and a foot so artificially diminished in size, will soon grow over the shoe, to the hazard of considerable or permanent lameness. While the hoise is travelling, dirt and gravel are apt to insinuate themselves between the web of the foot and the sole. If the shoe were flat, they would be per- manently retained there, and would bruise the sole, and be productive of injury ; but when the shoeing borne fairly on the crust, is supported by the nails and clenches, which must •w injurious to the foot, and often chip and break it. Fhe web of this shoe is of the same thickness throughout, from the toe to the neel ; md it is sufficiently wide to guard the sole from bruises, and, as much so as th& frog will permit, to cover the seat of corn. On the foot side it is seated. The outer part of it is accurately flat, and of the width of the crust, and designed to support the crust, for by it the whole weight of the hoisa ?s sustained. Towards the heel this flattened part is wider and occupies the whole breadth of the web, in order to support the heel of the crust and its reflected part — the bar; thus, while it defends the horn included within this angle from injury, it gives that equal pressure from the bar and the crust, which is the best preventive against corns, and a powerful obstacle to contraction. It is fastened to the foot by nine nails — five on the outside, and four on the innei side of the shoe; those on the outside extending a little farther down towarcs the heel, because the outside heel is thicker and stronger, and there is more nail-hold; the last nail on the inner quarter being farther from the heel on account of the weak ness of that quarter. For feet not too large, and where moderate work only is re- quired from the horse, four nails on the outside, and three on the inside, will be suffi- cient ; and the last nail being far from the heels, will allow more expansion there. The inside part of the web is bevelled off, or rendered concave, that it may nof press upon the sole. Notwithstanding our iron fetter, the sole does, although to ? very inconsiderable extent, descend when the foot of the horse is put on the ground It is unable to bear constant or even occasional pressure, and if it came in contact with the shoe, the sensible sole between it and the coffin-bone would be bruised, and lameness would ensue. Many of our horses, from too early and undue work, have the naturaJ concave sole flattened, and the disposition to descend and the degree of descent are thereby increased. The concave shoe prevents, even in this case, the pos« *ibility of much injury, because the sole can never descend in the degree in which THE UNILATERAL SHOE. 33H the shoe is or may oe bevelled. A shoe bevelled still farther is necessary to piotect the projecting or pumiced foot. THE UNILATERAL, OR ONE SIDE NAILED SHOE. For a material improvement in the art of shoeing, we are indebted to Mr. Turiie* of Regent Street. What was the state of the foot of the horse a few years ago ] An unyielding iron hoof was attached to it by four nails in each quarter, and the conse- quence was, that in nine cases out of ten the foot underwent a very considerable alter ation in its form and in its usefulness. Before it had attained its full development — before the animal was five years old, there was, in a great many cases, an evident contraction of the hoof. There was an alteration in the manner of going. The step was shortened, the sole was hollowed, the frog was diseased, the general elasticity of the foot was destroyed — there was a disorganization of the whole horny cavity, and the value of the horse was materially diminished. What was the grand cause of this 1 It was the restraint of the shoe. The firm attachment of it to the foot by nails in each quarter, and the consequent strain to which the quarters and every part of the foot were exposed, produced a necessary tendency to contraction, from which sprang almost all the maladies to which the foot of the horse is subject. The unilateral shoe has this great advantage : it is identified with the grand prin- ciple of the expansibility of the horse's foot, and of removing or preventing the worst ailments to which the foot of the horse is liable. It can be truly stated of this shoe, that while it affords to the whole organ an iron defence equal to the common shoe, it permits, what the common shoe never did or can do, the perfect liberty of the foot. We are enabled to present our readers with the last improvement of the unilateral eboe. The above cut gives a view of the outer side of the off or right unilateral shoe. The respective situations of the five nails will be observed ; the distance of tiie last from the heel, and the proper situations at which they emerge from the crusi. The two clips will likewise be seen — one in the front of the foot, and the other on the side oetween the last and second nail. The second cut gives a view of the inner side of the unilateral shoe. The two nails near the toe are in the situation in which Mr. Turner directs that they should be placed, and behind them is no other attachment, between the shoe and the crust. The portion of the crust which is rasped off from the inner surface of the shoe is now, we belisve, not often removed from the side of the foot ; it has an unpleasant appearance, ana the rasping is somewhat unnecessary. The heel of this shoe exhibits the method which Mr. Timer has adopted, and with considerable success, for the cure of corns he cuts away a portion of the ground surface at the heel, and injurious compression wr concussion is rendered in a manner impossible. *40 ON SHOEING. There can be no doubt that this one-sided nailing has been exceedingly useful. 1; has, in many a case that threatened a serious termination, restored the elasticity of the foot, and enabled it to discharge its natural functions. It has also restored to the foot, even in bad cases, a great deal of its natural formation, and enabled the horse tc discharge his duty with more ease and pleasure to himself, and greater security to his rider. It is difficult to tell what was the character of " the old English shoe." It certainly was larger than there was any occasion for it to be, and nearly covered the lower sur- face of the foot. The nail-holes were also far more numerous than they are at present. The ground side was usually somewhat convex. " The effect of this," says Mr. W. C. Spooner, " was to place the foot in a kind of hollow dish, which effectually pre- vented its proper expansion, the crust resting on a mere ledge instead of a flat surface ; and, on the ground side, from the inner rim coming to the ground first, the weight was almost supported by the nails and clinches, which were placed, four or five on each side, at some distance from the toe, and approaching nearly to the heels."* It was an improvement to make the ground surface flat, and to take care that it did not press on the sole. At length, however, came the concave-seated shoe of Qsmer, which was advocated by Mr. Clark, of Edinburgh, improved bv Mr. Moorcroft, and ultimately became very generally and usefully adopted. THE HUNTING SHOE. The hunter's shoe is different from that commonly used, in form as well as in weight. It is not so much bevelled off as the common concave-seated shoe. Sufn cient space alone is left for the introduction of a picker between the shoe and the sole, otherwise, in going over heavy ground, the clay would insinuate itself, and by its tenacity loosen, and even tear off the shoe. The heels likewise are somewhat shorter, that they may not be torn off by the toe of the hind-feet when galloping fast, and the outer heel is frequently but injudiciously turned up to prevent slipping. If calkint are necessary both heels should have an equal bearing. THE BAR-SHOE. A. bar-shoe is often exceedingly useful. It is the continuation of the common shoe round the heels, and by means of it the pressure may be taken off from some tender part of the foot, and thrown on another which is better able to bear it, or more widely and equally diffused over the whole foot. It is principally resorttd to in cases of corn the seat of which it perfectly covers — in pumiced feet, the soles of which may be thui wevated above the ground and secured from pressure, — in sand-crack, when the pre» * A Trsatise on the Foot of the Horse, by Mr. W. C. Spooner, p. 113. TIPS. — EXPANDING SHOE. — FELT. 341 »are may be removed from the fissure, and thrown on either side of it, and in thrushes, when the frog is tender, or is become cankered, and requires to be frequently dressed, and the dressing can by this means alone be retained. In these cases the bar-shoe is an excellent contrivance, if worn only for one or two shoeings, or as long as the dis- ease requires it to be worn, but it must be left off as soon as it can be dispensed with If it is used for the protection of a diseased foot, however it may be chambered and laid off the frog, it will soon become flattened upon it ; or if the pressure of it is thrown on the frog, in order to relieve the sand-crack or the corn, that frog must be very strong and healthy which can long bear the great and continued pressure. More mischief is often produced in the frog tiian previously existed in the part that was relieved. It will be plain that in the uso of the bar-shoe for corn or sand-crack, the crust and the frog should be precisely on a level : the bar also should be the widest part of the shoe, in order to afford as extended bearing as possible on the frog, and therefore less likely to be injurious. Bar-shoes are evidently not safe in frosty weather. They are never safe when much speed is required from the horse, and they are apt to be wrenched off in a heavy, clayey country. TIPS. Tips are short shoes, reaching only half round the foot, and worn while the horse is at grass, in order to prevent the crust being torn by the occasional hardness of the ground, or the pawing of the animal. The quarters at the same time being free, the foot disposed to contract has a chance of expanding and regaining its natural shape THE EXPANDING SHOE. Our subject would not be complete if we did not describe the supposed expanding shoe, although it is now almost entirely out of use. It is either seated or concave like the common shoe, with a joint at the toe, by which the natural expansion of the foot is said to be permitted, and the injurious consequences of shoeing prevented. There is, however, this radical defect in the jointed shoe, that the nails occupy the same situation as in the common shoe, and prevent, as they do, the gradual expansion of the sides and quarters, and allow only of a hinge-like motion at the toe. It is a most imperfect accommodation of the expansion of the foot to the action of its internal parts, and even this accommodation is afforded in the slightest possible degree, if it is afforded at all. Either the nails fix the sides and quarters as in the common shoe, and then the joint at the toe is useless; or, if that joint merely opens like a hinge, the nail-holes near the toe can no longer correspond with those in the quarters, which are unequally expanding at every point. There will be more stress on the crust at these holes, which will not only enlarge them and destroy the fixed attachment of the shoe to the hoof, but often tear away portions of the crust. This shoe, in order to answer the intended purpose, should consist of many joints, running along the sides and quar- ters, which would make it too complicated and expensive and frail for general use. While the shoe is to be attached to the foot by nails, we must be content with tJ>" concave-seated or unilateral one, taking care to place the nail-holes as far from the »^eels, and particularly from the inner heel, as the state of the foot and the nature of the work will admit; and where the country is not too heavy nor the work too severe, omitting all but two on the inner side of the foot. FELT OR LEATHER SOLES. When the foot is bruised or inflamed, the concussion or shock produced by the haul contact of the elastic iron with the ground gives the animal much pain, and aggra- vates the injury or disease. A strip of felt or leather is, therefore, sometimes placed between the seating of the shoe and the crust, which, from its want of elasticity, deadens or materially lessens the vibration or shock, and the horse treads more freely and is evidently relieved. This is a good contrivance while the inflammation or ten- derness of the foot continues, but a very bad practice if constantly adopted. The nails cannot be driven so surely or securely when this substance i? interposeu between the shoe and the foot. The con raction and swelling of the felt or leather from the 29" 34S ON SHOEIN 3. effect of moisture or dryness will soon render the attachment of the shoe less fi.m-> there will be too much play upon the rails — the nail-holes will enlarge, and the crus« will be broken away. After wounds or extensive bruises of the sole, or where the sole is thin and fla and tender, it is sometimes covered with a piece of leather, fitted to the sole, and nailed on with the shoe. This may be allowed as a temporary defence of the foot ; but there is the same objection to its permanent use from the insecurity of fastening, and the strain on the crust, and the frequent chipping of it. There are also these additional inconveniences, that if the hollow between the sole and the leather is filled with stopping and tow, it is exceedingly difficult to introduce them so evenly and ac- curately as not to produce partial or injurious pressure \ few days' work will almost invariably so derange the padding, as to cause unequal pressure. The long contact of the sole with stopping of almost every kind will produce, not a healthy, elastic horn, but that of a scaly, spongy nature — and if the hollow is not thus filled, grave and dirt will insinuate themselves, and eat into and injure the foot. The general habit of stopping the feet requires some consideration. It is a very good or very bad practice, according to circumstances. When the sole is flat and thin it should be omitted, except on the evening before shoeing, and then the appli- cation of a little moisture may render the paring of the foot safer and more easy. If it were oftener used it would soften the foot, and not only increase the tendency to descent, but the occasional occurrence of lameness from pebbles or irregularities of the road. Professor Stewart gives a valuable account of the proper application of stopping. " Farm horses seldom require any stopping. Their feet receive sufficient moisture in the fields, or, if they do not get much, they do not need much. Cart-horses used in the town should be stopped once a week, or oftener during winter, and every se- cond night in the hot weeks of summer. Groggy horses, and all those with high heels, concave shoes, or hot and tender feet, or an exuberance of horn, require stop- ping almost every night. When neglected, especially in dry weather, the sole becomes hard and rigid, and the horse goes lame, or becomes lame if he were not so before."* One of two substances, or a mixture of both, is genera.iy used for stopping the feet — clay and cow-dung. The clay used alone is too hard, and dries too rapidly. Many horses have been lamed by it. If it is used in the stable, it should always be removed before the horse goes to work. It may, perhaps, be applied to the feet of heavy draught-horses, for it will work out before much mischief is done. Cow-dung is softer than the clay, and it has this good property, that it rarely 01 never becomes too hard or dry. For ordinary work, a mixture of equal parts of clay and cow-dung will be the best application ; either of them, however, must be applied with a great deal of caution, where there is any disposition to thrush. Tow used alone, or with a small quantity of tar, will often be serviceable. In the better kind of stables, a felt pad is frequently used. It was first introduced by Veterinary Surgeon-General Cherry. It keeps the foot cool and moist, and is very useful, when the sole has a tendency to become flat. For the concave sole, tow would be preferable. The shoe is sometimes displaced when the horse is going at an ordinary pace, and more frequently during hunting; and no person who is a sportsman needs to be told in what a vexatious predicament every one feels himself who happens to lose a shoe in the middle of a chase, or just as the hounds are getting clear away with their fox over the open country. Mr. Percivall has invented a sandal which occupies a very small space in the pocket, can be buckled on the foot in less than two minutes, and will serve as a perfect sub stitute for the lost one, on the road, or in the field ; or may be used for the race-hors« when travelling from one course to another; or may be truly serviceable in cases of diseased feet that may require at the same time exercise and daily dressing, Th« following is a short sketch of the horse sandal. Stewart's Stable (Economy, p. 127. THE SANDAL. Hinge -"::£zj*:::--"::: :;.Hmge .. Middle Bar" If/ %\ Middle Bar /// / % \ Side Bar '// / \\ _ Side Bar Heel Clip Heel Clip " Rings From an inspection of the above cut, it will be seen that the shoe, 01 iron part of the sandal, consists of three principal parts, to which the others are appendages \ which are, the tip, so called from its resemblance to the horse-shoe of that name ; the middle bar, the broad part proceeding backward from the tip ; and the side bars, 01 branches of the middle bar, extending to the heels of the hoof. The appendages are, the toe-clasp, the part projecting from the front of the tip, and which moves by a hinge upon the toe-clip, which toe-clasp is furnished with two iron loops. The heel-clips are two clips at the heels of the side bars, which correspond to the toe-clip; the latter embracing the toe of the crust, while the former embrace its heels. Through the heel-clips run the rings, which move and act like a hinge, and are double, for the pur- pose of admitting both the straps. In the plate, the right ring only is represented; the left being omitted, the better to show the heel-clip. The straps, which are com- posed of web, consist of a hoof-strap and a heel and coronet-strap. The hoof-strap is furnished with a buckle, whose office it is to bind the shoe to the noof ; for which purpose it is passed through the lower rings, and both loops of the ?hoe, and is made to encircle the hoof twice. The heel and coronet-strap is furnished with two pads and two sliding loops ; one, a movable pad, reposes on the heel, to defend that part from the pressure and friction of the strap ; the other, a pad attached to the strap near the buckle, affords a similar defence to the coronet, in front. The heel-strap runs through the upper rings, crosses the heel, and encircles the coronet ; and its office is to keep the heels of the shoe closely applied to the hoof, and to prevent them from sliding forward. In the application of the sandal, the foot is taken up with one hand, and the shoe slipped upon it with the other. With the same hand, the shoe is retained in its place, while the foot is gradually let down to rest on the grouna. As soon as this is done, the straps are drawn as tight as possible, and buckled. The following cu represents an accurate delineation of the sandal, when properly fastened on the foot. Horses occasionally fall from bad riding, or bad shoeing, or overreaching, or an awkward way of setting on the saddle. The head, the neck, the knees, the back, 01 thfe legs, will oftenest suffer. It is often difficult to get the animal on his legs again, especially if he is old, or exhausted, or injured by the fall. The principal object is, to support, the head, and to render it a fixed point from which the muscles may act in luppotting the body. M4 OPERATIONS. It the horse is in harness, it is seldom that he can rise untft he is treeu iroiii me shafts and traces. The first thing is to secure the head, and to keep it down, that he may not beat himself against the ground. Next, the parts of the harness connected with the carriage must be unbuckled — the carriage must then be backed a little way, go that he may have room to rise. If necessary, the traces mist be taken off ; and after the horse gets up, he must be steadied a little, until he collects himself. CHAPTER XVIII. OPERATIONS. THESE belong more to the veterinary surgeon than to the proprietor of the horse, but a short account of the manner of conducting the principal ones should not be omitted. It is frequently necessary to bind the human patient, and in no painful or dangerous operation should this be omitted. It is more necessary to bind the horse, who is not under the control of reason, and whose struggles may not only be injurious to himself, but dangerous to the operator. The trevis is a machine indispensable in every continental forge ; even the quietest horses are thera put into it to be shod. The side-line is a very simple and useful method of confining the horse, and placing him in sufficient subjection, for the operations of docking, nicking, and slight firing. The long line of the hobbles, or a common cart-rope, with a noose at the end, is fast- ened on the pastern of the hind-leg that is not to be operated on. The rope attached to it is then brought over the neck and round the withers, and there tied to the portion that comes from the leg. The leg may thus be drawn so far forward that, while the horse evidently cannot kick with that leg, he is disarmed of the other ; for he would not have sufficient support under him, if he attempted to raise it: neither can he easily ase his fore-legs ; or, if he attempts it, one of them may be lifted up, and then he becomes nearly powerless. If necessary, the aid of the twitch, or the barnacles, may De resorted to. For every minor operation, and even for many that are of more importance, this wode of restraint is sufficient, especially if the operator has active and determined assistants ; and we confess that we are 1 1 friends to the casting of horses, if it can i»ossibly bf preventei. When both leg \re included in the hobble, or rope — as in 3LEEDING. 34i» another way of using the side-line — the horse may appear to be more secure; but there is greater danger of his falling in his violent stiuggles during the operation. For castrating and severe firing, the animal must be thrown. The safety of the florse, and of the operator, will require the use of the improved hobbles, by which any leg may be released from confinement, and returned to it at pleasure ; and, when the operation is ended, the whole of the legs may be set at liberty at once, without danger. The method of putting the legs as closely together as possible before the pull — the necessity of the assistants all pulling together — and the power which one man standing at the head, and firmly holding the snaffle-bridle, and another at the haunch, pushing the horse when he is beginning to fall, have in bringing him on thr 5 roper side, and on ihe very spot on which he is intended to lie, need not to be escribed. It will generally be found most convenient to throw the patients on the off side, turning them over when it s required. This, however, is a method of securing the horse to which we repeat 'that we are not partial, and to which we should not resort, except necessity compelled ; for in the act of falling, and in the struggles after falling, many accidents have occurred, both to the horse and the surgeon.* Among the minor methods of restraint, but sufficient for many purposes, are the twitch and the barnacles. The former consists of a noose passed through a hole at the end of a strong stick, and in which the muzzle is inclosed. The stick being turned round, the muzzle is securely retained, while the horse suffers considerable pain from the pressure — sufficiently great, indeed, to render him comparatively inattentive to that which is produced by the operation ; at the same time he is afraid to struggle, for every motion increases the agony caused by the twitch, or the assistant has power tc increase it by giving an additional turn to the stick. The degree of pain produced by the application of the twitch should never be for- gotten or unnecessarily increased. In no case should it be resorted to when milder measures would have the desired effect. Grooms and horsekeepers are too much in the habit of having recourse to it when they have a somewhat troublesome horse to manage. The degree of useless torture which is thus inflicted in large establishments is dreadful ; and the temper of many a horse is too frequently completely spoiled. The barnacles are the handles of the pincers placed over and inclosing the muzzle, and which, being compressed by the assistant, give pain almost equal to that of the twitch. These may appear to be barbarous modes of enforcing submission, but they are absolutely indispensable. In a few instances the blindfolding of the horse terri fies him into sabmission ; but this is not to be depended upon. The twitch should bo resorted to when the least resistance is offered ; and when that, as it occasionally does, renders the horse more violent, recourse must be had to the side-line or the hobbles. In the painful examination of the fore-leg or foot while on the ground, the other foot should be held up by an assistant ; or, if his aid is required in an operation, the knee may be fully bent, and the pastern tied up to the arm. When the hind-leg is to be examined in the same way, the fore-leg on that side should be held or fastened up. BLEEDING. The operation of bleeding has been already described (p. 189), but we would remind our readers of the necessity, in every case of acute inflammation, of making a large orifice, and abstracting the blood as rapidly as possible, for the constitution will thus be the more speedily and beneficially affected ; and also of the propriety of nevei determining to take a precise quantity of blood, but of keeping the finger on the artery until the pulse begins to falter, or the strong beating of fever becomes softer, or the animal is faint, or the oppressed pulse of inflammation of the lungs is rounder and fuller. In cases of inflammation, and in the hands of a skilful practitioner, bleeding is the iheet-anchoi of the veterinarian ; yet few things are more to be reprobated than the indiscriminate bleeding of the groom or the farriet The change which takes place in the blood after it is drawn from the vein is dill ^ently noticed by many practitioners, and is certainly deserving of some attention, * The safest and best hobbles, are those invent ?d by Mi . Gloag, and improved by Mr. Dawa ae represented in the Veterinarian, vo' x. p. 108 and vot . xi. p. 163. The humb-screw (fig. 3 should, however, bo inverted. 2 346 OPERATIONS. The blood coagulates soon after it is taken from the vein. The coagulable part it composed of two substances : that which gives colour to the blood, and that in whbn the red particles float. These, by degrees, separate from each other, and the red pai- tides sink to the bottom. If the coagulation takes place slowly, the red particles have more time to sink through the fluid, and there appears on the top a thick, yel- lowish, adhesive substance, called the buffy coat. The slowness of the coagulation and the thickness of buffy coat are indicative of inflammation, and of the degree of inflammation. In a healthy state of the system, the coagulation is more rapid, the red particles have not time to fall through, and the buffy coat is thin. These appearances are worth observing ; but much more dependence is to be placed on the character and change of the pulse, and the symptoms generally. When the horse is exhausted and the system nearly broken up, the blood will sometimes not coagulate but be of one uniform black colour and loose texture. When the blood runs down the side of the vessel in which it is received, the coagulation will be very imperfect. When it is drawn in a full stream, it coagulates slowly, and when procured from a smaller orifice, the coagulation is more rapid. Every circumstance affecting the coagulation and appearance of the blood, the pulse, and the general symptoms, should be most atten- tively regarded. A great deal of mystery is associated with bleeding in the management of the racei and the hunter. The labour of the turf and the field having ceased, there is frequently some difficulty in preventing a plethoric state of the constitution — a tendency to inflammatory complaints. If the horse is rapidly accumulating flesh, it may be pru- dent to abstract blood, dependent in quantity on the age and constitution of the ani- mal. Attention to this may prevent many a horse from going wrong ; but the custom that once prevailed of bleeding every horse a fortnight or more after the racing or hunting season had passed, is decidedly objectionable. As preparatory to work, bleeding is far from being so much employed as it used to be. As a universal practice, when the horse is first taken from grass, it now scarcely exists. It would not always be objected to, if the horse was fat and full of flesh, but, otherwise, it is a custom more honoured in the breach than the observance. It cer- tainly produces very considerable effect. More rapidly than any species of diet — more rapidly than any sweating or purging; it reduces the condition of the horse, but, we have often thought, at the expense of those essentials to life and health that cannot be easily replaced. . BLISTERING. We have spoken of the effect of BLISTERS, when treating of the various diseases to which they are applicable. The principle on which they act is, that no two intense inflammations can exist in neighbouring parts, or perhaps in the system, at the same time. Hence we apply some stimulating acrimonious substance to the skin, in ordei to excite external inflammation, and thus lessen or remove that which exists in some deeper seated and, generally, not far distant part. Hence, also, we blister the sides in inflammation of the lungs — the abdomen in that of the bowels — the legs in that of the cellular substance surrounding the sheaths of the tendons, or the sheaths them- selves, and the coronet or the heel in inflammation of the navicular joint. Blisters have likewise the property of increasing the activity of the neighbouring vessels : thus we blister to bring the tumour of strangles more speedily to a head — to rouse the absorbents generally to more energetic action, and cause the disappearance of tumours, and even callous and bony substances. The judgment, of the practitioner will decide whether the desired effect will be best produced by a sudden and violent action, or by the continuance of one of a mildei character. Inflammation should be met by active blisters; old enlargements and swellings will be most certainly removed by milder stimulants — by the process which farriers call sweating down. There are few more active or effectual blisters than the Spanish fly, mixed with the proportions of lard and resin that will be hereafter stated. The best liquid or sweat ing blister is an in'fusion of the fly in spirit of turpentine, and that lowered with neat's foot oil, ajcording to the degree of activity required. In preparing the horse for blistering, the hair should be clipped or shaved as closely *s possible, and the ointment thoroughly rubbed in. Much fault is often found wit) FIRING. 34T 4he ointment if the blister Joes not rise, bu the failure is geneially to bo atti buted to the idleness of the operator. The head of the horse should be tied up during the first two days ; exce4 t mat when the sides are blistered, the body-clothes may be so contrived as to prevent th« animal from nibbling and blemishing the part, or blistering his muzzle. At the expi- ration of twenty-foul hours, a little olive or neat's foot oil should be applied over the blister, which will considerably lessen the pain and supple the part, and prevent cracka in the skin that may be difficult to heal. The oil should be applied morning and night, until the scabs peel off. When they begin to loosen, a lather of soap and watei applied with a sponge may hasten their removal, but no violence must be used. Every particle of litter should be carefully removed from the stall, for the sharp ends of the straw coming in contact with a part rendered so tender and irritable by the blister, will cause a very great annoyance to the animal. After the second day the horse may be suffered to lie down ; but the possibility of blemishing himself should be prevented by a cradle or wooden necklace, consisting of round strips of wood, strung together, reaching from the lower jaw to the chest, and preventing him from sufficiently turning or bending his head to get at the blistered part. A blister thus treated will rarely produce the slightest blemish. When the scabs are all removed, the blister may be repeated, if the case should appear to require it, or the horse may be turned out. In inflammations which threaten life, a blister can scarcely be too active or exten- sive. In inflammation of the lungs it should reach over the whole of the sides, and the greater part of the brisket, for, should a portion of the fly be absorbed, and produce strangury (inflammation, or spasmodic affection of the neck of the bladder,) even this new irritation may assist in subduing the first and more dangerous one. In blistering, however, for injuries or diseases of the legs or feet, some caution is necessary. When speaking of the treatment of sprain of the back sinews, p. 271, it was stated, that " a blister should never be used while any heat or tenderness remained about the part," for we should then add to the superficial inflammation, instead of abating the deeper- seated one, and enlargements of the limb and extensive ulcerations might follow, which would render the horse perfectly unserviceable. When there is a tendency to grease, a blister is a dangerous thing, and has often aggravated the disease. In winter, the inflammation of the skin produced by blistering is apt to degenerate into grease; therefore, if it should be necessary to blister the horse during that season, great care must be taken that he is not exposed to cold, and, particularly, that a current of cold air does not come upon the legs. The inhuman practice of blistering all round at the same time, and perhaps high on the legs, cannot be too strongly reprobated. Many a valuable horse has been lost through the excessive general irritation which this has produced, or its violent effect on the urinary organs ; and that has been particularly the case, when corrosive subli- mate has entered into the composition of the blister. If strangury should appear, the horse should be plentifully supplied with linseed tea, which is thus best prepared — a gallon of boiling water is thrown on half a pound of linseed ; the infusion suffered to stand until nearly cold, and the clean mucilaginous fluid then poured off. Three-quarters of a pound of Epsom salts should also be given, dissolved in a quart of water, and, after that, a ball every six hours, containing opium and camphor, with linseed meal and treacle. Half a pound or a pound of good mustard powder, made into a paste with boiling water, and applied hot, will often produce as good a blister as cantharides. It is a preferable one, when, as in inflammation of the kidneys, the effect of cantharides orj the urinary organs is feared. Hartshorn is not so effectual. Tincture of croton makes an active liquid blister, and so do some of the preparations of iodine. FIRING Whatever seeming cruelty may attend this operation, it is in many cases indis- pensable. The principle on which we have recourse to it is similar to that which justifies the use of a blister — by producing superficial inflammation we may be erabled to get rid of a deeper-seated one, or we may excite the absorbents to remove ar, •unnatural )ony or other tumour. It raises more intense external inflammation than we can prc duce by any other means. It may be truly said to be the most powertuj »gen*. that we have at our disposal. Humanity, however, will dictatf that on acooun 148 OPERAi IONS. of the inflammation wh ch it excites, and (lie pain it inflicts, it shouli onlj be had recourse to when milder means rarely succeed. The part which is to be submitted to I he operation should be shaved, or the hail cut from it as closely as possible with the trimming scissors. This is necessary iu order to bring the iron into immediate contact with the skin, and likewise to prevent the smoke that will arise from the burned hair obscuring the view of the operator The horse must then be thrown. This is absolutely necessary for the safety both of the operator and the animal. The side lino may be applied in a shorter time, and so many hands may not be wanted to cast the Imrse ; but no person can fire accurately, or with the certainty of not penetrating tlio skin, except the animal is effectually secured by the hobbles. Although accidents liave occurred in one act of casting, yet many more have resulted to the operator, the assistants, or the horse, in a protracted operation, when the side-line only has been used- The details of the operation belong to the veterinary surgeon. The grand points U be attended to are to have the edge of the iron round and smooth — the iron itself at, or rather below a red heat — to pass it more 01 less rapidly over the skin, and with slighter or greater pressure, according to the degree of heat — to burn into the skin until the line produced by the iron is of a brown colour, rather light than dark, and, oy all means, in common cases, to avoid peneh uting the skin. Leaving out of the juestion the additional cruelty of deep firing, when not absolutely required, we may depend on it that if the skin is burned through, inflammation, and ulceration, and sloughing will ensue, that will be with much difficulty combated — that will unavoida- bly leave unnecessary blemish, and that has destroyed many valuable horses. It may happen, nevertheless, that by a sudden plunge* of the animal the skin will be una- voidably cut through. The act of firing requires much skill and tact, and the practi- tioner cannot be always on his guard against the struggles of the tortured beast. It will, also, and not unfrequently, occur that the skin, partially divided, will separate in two or three days after the operation. This must not be attributed to any neglect or unskilfulness of the surgeon, and the ulceration thus produced will be slight and easily treated, compared with that caused by actually burning through the skin. A very considerable change has taken place in the breed of many of the varieties of the horse, and the labour exacted from him. As illustrations of this we refer to the altered character and pace of the modern hunter and the additional increase of speed required from the coach and the post horse ; the exertion being limited only by the degree to which every muscle and every nerve can be extended, while the calcu- lation between the utmost exaction of cruelty and the expenditure of vital power, is reduced to the merest fraction. The consequence of this is, that the horse is subjected to severer injuries than he used to be, and severer measures are and must be employed to remedy the evil. Hence the horrible applications of the actual cautery to the horse that have disgraced the present day. Lesions — gashes have been made on either side of the tendon of the leg, which it took no fewer than seven months to heal. Was there nothing short of this lengthened torture that could have been done to relieve the victim ? Could he not have been more lightly fired for the road or for the purposes of breeding ? Was there no pasture on which he had earned a right to graze 1 — or could he not have been destroyed 1 These sad lesions will occasionally come before the practitioner and the owner. It will be for the first, to advocate that, which, on a careful view of the case, mercy prompts ; and the latter, except there is a reasonable prospect of ultimate enjoyment, as well as usefulness, should never urge a continua- :ion of suffering. Supposing, however, that prospect to exist, the surgeon must discharge his duty. These gashes, after a while, begin to close, and then commences the beautiful process ^f granulation. Little portions of the integument form on the centre of the wound, and the sides of the wound creep closer together, and the skin steals over the surface, cntil the chasm is perfectly closed. In order to insure the continuance of this, a ridge of contracted integument as hard as any cartilage, but without its elasticity, runs from one end of the lesion t ) the other, tighter, and harder, and more effectual every week and month, and year, and lasting during the life of the animal. Therefore, the vete- rinary surgeon is no*, to be too severely censured, if, after due consideration, he it »nduced to undertake one rf these fearful operations : but let him do it as seldom at »e can, and only whi°n »v<>rv Circumstance promises a favourable result SETONS. 349 Some practitioners blister immediately after firing. As a general usage t is highly to be reprobated. It is wanton and useless cruelty. It may be required in bony tumours of considerable extent, and long standing, and interfering materially with the action of the neighbouring joint. Spavin accompanied by much lameness, and ring- bone spreading round the coronet and involving the side cartilages or the pastert oint, may justify it. The inflammation is rendered more intense, and of considera- bly longer duration. In old affections of the round bone it may be admitted, but nc excuse can be made for it in the slighter cases of sprain or weakness, or ataleness. On the day after the operation, it will be prudent gently to rub some neat's foot oil, or lard over the wtmnd. This will soften the skin, and render it less likely to sepa- rate or ulcerate. A bandage would add to the irritation of the part. Any cracks of the skin or ulceration that may ensue, must be treated with the calamine ointment It will be evident that there is an advantage derived from firing to which a blister can have no pretension. The skin, partially destroyed by the iron, is reinstated and healed, not merely by the formation of some new matter filling up the vacuity, but by the gradual drawing together and closing of the separated edges. The skin, there- fore, is lessened in surface. It is tightened over the part, and it acts as just described, as a salutary and permanent bandage. Of the effect of pressure in removing en- largements of every kind, as well as giving strength to the part to which it is ap- plied, we have repeatedly spoken ; and it is far from being the least valuable effect of the operation of firing, that, by contracting the skin, it affords a salutary, equable, and permanent pressure. It was on this principle, but the practice cannot be de< fended, that colts which were not very strong on the legs, used to be fired round the fetlock, and along the back sinew, or over the hock, in order to brace and strengthen the parts. It is on the same principle that a racer-or hunter, that has become stale and stiff, is sometimes fired and turned out. For whatever reason the horse is fired, he should, if possible, be turned out, or soiled in a loose box, for three or four months at least. The full effect intended to result from the external irri- tation is not soon produced, and the benefit derived from pressure proceeds still moie slowly. In the thickened and tender state of the skin, and the substance beneath, a return to hard work, for some weeks after firing, would be likely to excite new inflammation, and cause even worse mischief than that which before existed. Some weeks pass before the tumefied parts begin to contract, and they only, who have had experience in these cases, can imagine how long, with gentle voluntary exercise, the process of absorption is carried on. He who would expect that much good should accrue from the operation of firing, must be content to give up his horse for three or four months ; but if he will use him sooner, and a worse lameness should follow, let him blame his own impatience, and not the inefficiency of the means, or the want of skill in the surgeon. The firing in every case should be either in longitudinal or parallel lines. On the back sinews, the fetlock, and the coronet, this is peculiarly requisite, for thus only will the skin contract so as to form the greatest and most equable pressure. Some practitioners may pride themselves on the accuracy of their diamonds, lozenges and feathers, but plain straight lines, about half an inch from each other, will consti- tute the most advantageous mode of firing. The destroying of deeply-seated inflam- mation, by the exciting of violent inflammation on the skin, is as well obtained; and common sense will determine, that in no way can the pressure which results from the contraction of the skin be so advantageously employed — to which may be added, that it often leaves not the slightest blemish. SETONS Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instrument resembling a largo needle, either through abscesses, or the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between the skin and the muscular or other substances beneath. They are retained there by the ends being tied together, or by a knot at each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in the day, and occasionally wetted with spirit of turpentine, 5T some acrid fluid, in order to increase the inflammation which it produces, or thf discharge whu,h is intended to be established. In abscesses, such as occur in the withers or the poll, and when passod frcm the summit to the very bottom of the swelling, setons are highly useful, by discharging the purulent fluid and suffering any fresh quantitv of it that may be secreted to flow 30 350 OPERATIONS. out; and, by the degree of inflammation which they excite en the Ulterior o/ ihfc lumour, stimulating it to throw out healthy granulations which gradually occupy and fill the hollow. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for except some channel is made through which the matter may flow from the bottom of the wound, it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part, and the healing process will nevei be accomplished. On these accounts, a seton passed through the base of the ulcer in poll-evil and fistulous withers is of so much benefit. Setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the neighbourhood of an inflamed part, and thus diverting and carrying away a portion of the fluids which dis- tend or overload the vessels of that part : thus a seton is placed with considerable- advantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much inflamed. We confess, however that we prefer a rowel under the jaw. With this view, and to excite a new and different inflammation in the neighbour- hood of a part already inflamed, and especially so deeply seated and so difficult to be reached as the navicular joint, a seton has occasionally been used with manifest ben- efit, but we must peremptorily object to the indiscriminate use of the frog-seton foi almost every disease of the frog or the foot. In inflammations of extensive organs, setons afford only feehle aid. Their action is too circumscribed. In inflammation of the chest or the intestines, a rowel is pre- ferable to a seton ; and a blister is far better than either of them. On the principle of exciting the absorbents to action for the removal of tumours, aa spavin or splent, a blister is quicker in its action, and far more effectual than any se ton. Firing is still more useful. DOCKING. The shortening of the tail of the horse is an operation which fashion and the convenience of the rider require to be performed on most of these animals. The length of the dock, or stump, is a matter of mere caprice. To the (dose-cropped tail of the wagon-horse, however, we decidedly object, from its perfect ugliness, and because the animal is deprived of every defence against a thousand tortures. The supposition that the blood which would have gone to the nourishment of the tail, causes greater development and strength in the quarters, is too absurd to de- serve serious refutation. It is the rump of the animal being wholly uncovered, and Qjt partly hidden by the intervention of the tail, that gives a false appearance of in- creased bulk. The operation is simple. That joint is searched for which is the nearest to the desired length of tail. The hair is then turned up, and tied round with tape for an inch or two above this joint; and that which lies immediately upon the joint is cut off. The horse is fettered with the side-line, and then the veterinary surgeon with his docking-machine, or the farmer with his carving-knife and mallet, cuts through the tail at one stroke. Considerable bleeding ensues, and frightens the timid and the ignorant; but if the blood were suffered to flow on until it ceased of its own accord, the colt, and especially if he were very young, would rarely be seriously injured. As, however, the bleeding would occasionally continue for some hours, and a great quantity of blood might be lost, and the animal might be somewhat weakened, it is usual to stop the haemorrhage by the application of a red-hot iron to the stump. A large hole is made in the centre of the iron, that the bone may not be seared, which would exfoliate if it were burned with any severity, or drop off at the joint above, and thus shorten the dock. The iron rests on the muscular parts round the bone, and is brought into contact with the bleeding vessels, and very speedily stops the haemorrhage. Care should be taken that the iron is not too hot, — and that it is not held too long or too forcibly on the part, for many more horses would be destroyed by severe application of the cautery, than by the bleeding being left to its owrn course. Powdered resin sprinkled on the stump, or indeed any other application, is worse than useless. It causes unnecessary irritation, and sometimes extensive ulceration: but if the simple iron is moderately applied, the horse may go to work immediately after the operation, and no dressing will be afterwards required. If a slight bleeding xhould occur after the cautery, it is much better to let it alone than to run the risk of inflammation OT locked-jaw, by re-applying the iron with greater severity. Some fa/mers dock their colts a few days after they are dropped. This i? A con* NICKING. 35i wendable custom on the score of humanity. No colt was ever lost by it; and neithei die growth of the hair, nor the beauty of the tail, is in the least impaired. NICKING. This barbarous operation was once sanctioned by fashion, and the breeder and the dealer even now aro sometimes tempted to inflict the torture of it in order to obtain a ready sale for their colts. It is not, howevei, practised to the extent that it used to be, nor attended by so many circumstances of cruelty. We must here introduce a small portion of the anatomy of the horse, which we had reserved for this place. The eighteen dorsal vertebrae or bones of the back (see rf, p. 167), and the five lumbar vertebrae or bones of the loins (y, p. 167), have already been described. The continuation of the spine consists of the sacrum, composed of five bones (A, p. 167), which, although separate in the colt, are in the fall-grown horse united into one mass. The bones of the ilium, the upper and side portion of the haunch, articulate strongly with the sacrum, forming a bony union rather than a joint. The spinal marrow and the blood-vessels here generally begin to diminish, and numerous branches of nerves are given out, which, joined by some from the ver tebrae of the loins, form the nervous apparatus of the hind-legs. The bones of the tail (f, p. 167) are a continuation of those of the sacrum. They are fifteen in number, gradually diminishing in size, and losing altogether the charac- ter of the spinal vertebrae. Prolongations of the spinal marrow run through the whole of them, and likewise some arterial vessels, which are a continuation of those which supply the sacrum. Much attention is paid by persons who are acquainted with the true form of the horse to this continuation of the sacral and tail-bones. From the loins to the setting on of the tail the line should be nearly straight, or inclining only a slight degree downward. There is not a surer test of the breed of the horse than this straight line from the loins to the tail ; nor, ds was shown when the muscles of the quarters were described, is there any circumstance so much connected with the mechanical advantage with which these muscles act. The tail seems to be designed to perfect the beauty of the horse's form. There are three sets of muscles belonging to the tail — the erector coccygis, situated on the supe- rior and lateral part of it, and by the action of which (d, p. 282) the tail may be both elevated and drawn on one side — the depressor coccygis, on the inferior and lateral part of it, by the action of which the tail may be both lowered and drawn on one side — and the curvator coccygin, by the action of which the tail may be curved or flexed on either side. The depressor and lateral muscles are more powerful than the erector ones, and when the horse is undisturbed, the tail is bent down close on the buttocks ; but when he is excited, and particularly when he is at speed, the erector muscles are called into action, the tail is elevated, and there is an appearance of energy and spirit which adds materially to his beauty. To perpetuate this, the operation of nicking was contrived. The depressor muscles and part of the lateral ones are cut through, and the erector muscles, left without any antagonists, keep the tail in a position more or less erect, according to the whim of the operator or the depth to which the incisions have been carried. The operation is thus performed. The side-line is put on the horse, or some per- sons deem it more prudent to cast him, and that precaution we should be disposed to recommend. The hair at the end of the tail is securely tied together, for the purpose of afterwards attaching a weight to it. The operator then grasps the tail in his hand, and, lifting it up, feels for the centre of one of the bones — the prominences at the extremities will guide him — from two to four inches from the root of the tail, accord ing to the size of the horse. He then, with a sharp knife, divides the muscles deeply from the edge of the tail on one side to the centre, and, continuing the incision across the bone of the tail, he makes it as deep on the other side. One continued incision, steadily yet rapidly made, will accomplish all this. If it is a blood-horse that ia operated on, this will be sufficient. For a hunter, two incisions are usually made, the second being about two inches below the first, and likewise as nearly as possible in the centre of one of the bones. On a hackney, or cocktail, a th'rd incision is n^.ade; for fashion has decided that lii< 352 OPERATIONS. tail shall be still more elevated and curved. Two incisions only are made in the \EL ot a mare, and the second not very deep. When the second incision is made, some fibres of the muscles between the first ano second will project into the wound, and must be removed by a pair of curved scissors. The same must be done with the projecting portions from between the second and third incisions. The wounds should then be carefully examined, in order to ascer- tain that the muscles have been equally divided on each side, otherwise the tail will be carried awry. This being done, pledgets of tow must be introduced deeply into each incision, and confined, but not too tightly, by a bandage. A very profuse bleed- ing will alone justify any tightness of bandage, and the ill consequences tnat have resulted from nicking are mainly attributable to the unnecessary force that is used in confining these pledgets. Even if the bleeding, immediately after the operation, should have been very great, the roller must be loosened in two or three hours, other- wise swelling and inflammation, and even death, may possibly ensue. Twenty-four hours after the operation, the bandage must be quite removed ; and then, all that is necessary, so far as the healing of the incisions is concerned, is to keep them clean. If, however, the tail were suffered to hang down, the divided edges of the muscles would again come in contact with each other, and close ; the natural depression of the tail would remain ; and the animal would have been punished for no purpose. The wounds must remain open, and that can only be accomplished by forcibly keeping the tail curved back during two or three weeks. For this purpose a cord, one or two reel in length, is affixed to the end of the hair, which terminates in another divided eord, each division going over a pulley on either side of the back of the stall. A weight is hung at either extremity sufficient to keep the incisions properly open, and regulated by the degree in which this is wished to be accomplished. The animal will thus be retained in an uneasy position, although, after the first two r, three days, probably not one of acute pain. It is barbarous to increase this uneasiness or pain by affixing too great a weight to the cords ; for it should be remembered that the proper elevated curve is given to the tail, not by the weight keeping it in a certain position for a considerable time, but by the depth of the first incisions, and the degree in which the wounds are kept open. By every ounce of weight beyond that which is, necessary to keep the incisions apart, unnecessary suffering is inflicted. Some prac- titioners use only one pulley ; others do not use any, but put on a light girth, and tie a cord from the end of the tail to the girth, bending it over the back. The double pulley, however, is the least painful to the horse, and more perfectly secures the proper elevation and straight direction of the tail. The dock should not — for the first three or four days — be brought higher than the back. Dangerous irritation and inflammation would probably be produced. It may, after that, be gradually raised to an elevation of forty-five degrees. The horse should be taken out of the pulleys, and gently exercised once or twice every day ; but the pulleys cannot finally be dispensed with until a fortnight after the wounds have healed, because the process of contraction, or the approach of the divided parts, goes on for some time after the skin is perfect over the incisions, and the tail would thus sink below the desired elevation. If the tail has not been unnecessarily extended by enormous weights, no bad conse- quences will usually follow ; but if considerable inflammation should ensue, the tt.il must be taken from the pulley and diligently fomented with simple warm water, and a dose of physic given. Locked-jaw has in some rare instances followed, under which the horse generally perishes. The best means of cure in the early state of this disease is to amputate the tail at the joint above the highest incision. In order to prevent the hair from coming off, it should be unplaited and combed out every fourth on fifth day. RESTIVENESS 36* CHAPTER XIX. THE VICES AND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS OF THE HORSE. THE horse has many excellent qualities, bat he has likewise defects, and these t»ccasionally amounting to vices. Some of them may be attributed to natural temper, for the human being scarcely discovers more peculiarities of habit and disposition khan does the horse. The majority of them, however, as perhaps in the human being, are the consequences of a faulty education. Their early instructor has been ignorant and brutal, and they have become obstinate and vicious. RESTIVENESS. At the head of all the vices of the horse is RESTIVENESS, the most annoying and the most dangerous of all. It is the produce of bad temper and worse education ; and, like all other habits founded on nature and stamped by education, it is inveterate. Whether it appears in the form of kicking, or rearing, or plunging, or bolting, or in any way that threatens danger to the rider or the horse, it rarely admits of cure. A determined rider may to a certain extent subjugate the animal ; or the horse may hav< his favourites, or form his attachments, and with some particular person he may bo comparatively or perfectly manageable ; but others cannot long depend upon him, and even his master is not always sure of him. It is a rule, that admits of very few exceptions, that he neither displays his wisdom nor consults his safety, who attempts to conquer a restive horse. An excellent veterinary surgeon, and a man of great experience in horses, Mr. Castley, truly said, in "The Veterinarian," — "From whatever cause the vicious habits of horses may originate, whether from some mismanagement or from natural badness of temper, or from what is called in Yorkshire a mistech, whenever these animals acquire one of them, and it becomes in some degree confirmed, they very seldom, if ever, altogether forget it. In reference to driving it is so true, that it may be taken as a kind of aphorism, that if a horse kicks once in harness, no matter from what cause, he will be liable to kick ever afterwards. A good coach- man may drive him, it is true, and may make him go, but he cannot make him forget his vice ; and so it is in riding. You may conquer a restive horse — you may make him go quiet for months, nay, almost for years together ; but I affirm that, under other circumstances, and at some future opportunity, he will be sure to return to his old tricks." Mr. Castley gives two singular and conclusive instances of the truth of this doc- trine. " When a very young man," says he, " I remember purchasing a horse at a fair in the north of England, that was offered very cheap, on account of his being unmanageable. It was said that nobody could ride him. We found that the animal objected to have anything placed upon his back, and that, when made to move for- ward with nothing more than a saddle on, he instantly threw himself down on his side with great violence, and would then endeavour to roll upon his back. " There was at that time in Yorkshire, a famous colt-breaker, known by the name of JUMPER, who was almost as celebrated in that country for taming vicious horses into submission, as the famed WHISPERER was in Ireland. We put this animal into Jumper's hands, who took him away, and in about ten days brought him home again, certainly not looking worse in condition, but perfectly subdued, and almost as obedient as a dog ; for he would lie down at thift man's bidding, and only rise again at his command, and carry double or anything I took to riding him myself, and may say, that I was never better carried for six or eight months, during which time he did not show the least vice whatever. I then sold him to a Lincolnshire farmer, who said that he would give him a summer's run at grass, and show him as a very fine horsw at the great Horncastle fair. "Happening to meet this gentleman in the following year, 1 naturally enr.Mgh inquired after my old friend. 'Oh,' said he, 'that was a bad business — the horse aimed out a sad rebel. The firs time we attempted t .» mount him, after getting hin; 30* 2u 8ft4 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. «p from grass, he in an instant threw the man down with the greatest violence, pitch- •jig him several yards over his head ; and after that, he threw every one that attempted lo get on his back. If he could not throw his rider, he. would throw himself down- We could do nothing with him, and I was obliged at last to sell him to go in a stage- coach.' " In the next story, Jumper's counterpart and superior, the Irish Whisperer, is brought ^n the stage, and although he performed wonders, he could not radically curj a restive horse. »' At the Spring Meeting of 1804, Mr. Whalley's KING PIPPIN was brought on the Curragh of Kildare to run. He was a horse of the most extraordinary savage and vicious disposition. His particular propensity was that of flying at and worry- ing any person who came within his reach ; and if he had an opportunity, he would get his head round, seize his rider by the leg with his teeth, and drag him down frorr his back. For this reason, he was always ridden with what is called a sword; which is a strong flat stick, having one end attached to the cheek of the bridle, and the othe to the girth of the saddle, a contrivance to prevent a horse of this kind from getting at his rider. " King Pippin had long been difficult to manage, and dangerous to go near to ; bu- on the occasion in question, he could not be got out to run at all. Nobody could piu the bridle upon his head. It being Easter Monday, and consequently a great holiday, there was a large concourse of people assembled at the Curragh, consisting princi- pally of the neighbouring peasantry ; and one countryman, more fearless than the rest of the lookers-on, forgetting, or perhaps never dreaming that the better part of courage is discretion, volunteered his services to bridle the horse. No sooner had he committed himself in this operation, than King Pippin seized him somewhere about the shoulders and chest, and, says Mr. Watts (Mr. Castley's informant), * I know of nothing I can compare it to, so much as a dog shaking a rat.' Fortunately for the poor fellow, his body was very thickly covered with clothes, for on such occasions an Irishman of this class is fond of displaying his wardrobe ; and if he has three coats cl all in the world, he is sure to put them all on. "This circumstance, in all probability, saved the individual who had so gallantlj volunteered the forlorn hope. His 'person was so deeply enveloped in extra integu ments, that the horse never got fairly hold of his skin, and I understand that he escaped with but little injury, beside the sadly rent and totally ruined state of his holyday toggery. 44 The Whisperer was sent for, who, having arrived, was shut up with the horse al night, and in the morning he exhibited this hitherto ferocious animal, following him about the course like a dog — lying down at his command — suffering his mouth to be opened, and any person's hand to be introduced into it — in short, as quiet almost as a sheep. 44 He came out the same meeting, and won his race, and his docility continuec satisfactory for a considerable time ; but at the end of about three years his vice returned, and then he is said to have killed a man, for which he was destroyed." It may not be uninteresting, in this connexion, to give some account of this tamer of quadruped vice. However strange and magical his power may seem to be, there is no doubt of the truth of the account that is given of him. The Rev. Mr. Town- send, in his Statistical Survey of Cork, first introduced him to the notice of the public generally, although his fame had long spread over that part of Ireland. WTe, how- ever, give the following extract from Croker's Fairy Legends and Traditions of Ire- land, Part II, p. 200, for his performances seem the work of some elfin sprite, rathei than of a rude and ignorant horse-breaker. 44 He was an awkward, ignorant rustic of the lowest class, of the name of Sullivan, but better known by the appellation of the Whisperer. His occupation was horse- oreaking. The nickname he acquired from the vulgar notion of his being able to rommunicate to the animal what he wished by means of a whisper; and the singu« larity of his method seemed in some degree to justify the supposition. In his own neighbourhood, the notoriety of the fact made it seem less remarkable; but I doubt if any instance of similar subjugating talent is to be found on record. As far as the sphere of his control extended, the boast of veni, vidi, vici, was more justly claimed by Sullivan, than even by Csesar himself. 44 How his art was acquired, and in what it consisted, is likely to be for eve» uil nown, as he has lately (about 1810) left the world without divulging it. Hit ton RESTIVENESS. 35$ who fellows the same trade, possesses but a small portion of the art, having eithes never learned the true secret, or being incapable of putting it into practice. The wonder of his skill consisted in the celerity of the operation, which was performed in privacy, without any apparent means of coercion. Every description of horse, or even mule, whether previously broken or unhandled, whatever their peculiar habits or vices might have been, submitted without show of resistance to the magical influ- ence of his art, and in the short space of half an hour became gentle and tractable. This effect, though instantaneously produced, was generally durable. Though more submissive to him than to others, the animals seemed to have acquired a docility unknown before. " When sent for to tame a vicious beast, for which he was either paid according "*• the distance, or generally two or three guineas, he directed the stable, in which he and the object of the experiment were, to bf <*hut, with orders not to open the door until a signal was given. After a tete-a-tete of about half an hour, during which little or no bustle was heard, the signal was made, and, upon opening the door, the horse appeared lying down, and the man by his side, playing with him like a child with a puppy dog. From that time, he was found perfectly willing to submit to any disci- pline— however repugnant to his nature before. I once," continues Mr. Croker, " saw his skill tried on a horse, which could never before be brought to stand for a smith to shoe him. The day after Sullivan's half-hour's lecture, I went, not without some incredulity, to the smith's shop, with many other curious spectators, where we were eye-witnesses of the complete success of his art. This, too, had been a troop- horse, and it was supposed, not without reason, that after regimental discipline had failed, no other would be found availing. I observed that the animal appeared terrified whenever Sullivan either spoke to, or looked at him ; how that extraordinary ascend- ency could have been obtained, is difficult to conjecture. " In common cases this mysterious preparation was unnecessary. He seemed to possess an instinctive power of inspiring awe, the result, perhaps, of natural intre- pidity, in which, 1 believe, a great part of his art consisted; though the circumstance of the tete-d'tete shows that, on particular occasions, something more must have been added to it. A faculty like this would, in some hands, have made a fortune, and I understand that great offers were made to him, for the exercise of his art abroad. But hunting was his passion. He lived at home in the style most agreeable to his dispo- sition, and nothing could induce him to quit Duhallow and the fox-hounds." Mr. Castley witnessed the total failure of the younger Sullivan. He says, " we have in the regiment a remarkably nice horse, called Lancer, that has always been very difficult to shoe, but seven or eight years ago, when we first got him, he was downright vicious in that respect. When the regiment was stationed at Cork, the farrier-major sought out the present Sullivan, the son of the celebrated Whisperer, and brought him up to the barracks in order to try his hand upon Lancer, and make him more peaceable to shoe ; but I must say this person did not appear to possess any particular controlling power over the animal more than any other man. Lancer seemed to pay no attention whatever to his charm, and at last fairly beat him out of the forge. Time, however, and a long perseverance in kind and gentle treatment, have effected what force could not. The horse is now pretty reasonable to shoe."* * An account, bearing considerable resemblance to the feats of the English horse-tamer, has been lately laid before the public. Mr. Catlin has published an account, the veracity of which is unimpeached, o» his travels tmong the North American Indians. He thus describes the manner in which ihe Indian '.ames the wild horse. " He coils his lasso on his arm, and gallops fearlessly into the herd of wild horses. He soon gets it over the neck of one of the number, when he instantly dismounts, leaving his ownporse, and runs as fast as he can, letting the lasso pass out gradu ally and carefully through his hands, until the horse falls for want of breath, and lies helpless on the ground. The Indian advances slowly towards the horse's head, keeping the lasso tight npon his neck, until he fastens a pair of hobbles on the animal's two fore feet, and also looseni the lasso, giving the horse a chance to breathe, and passing a noose round the unoer jaw, by which he gets great power over the affrighted animal, that is rearing and plunging when it gets breath, and by which, as he advances, hand over hand, towards the horse's nose, he is able to hold it down, and prevent it from throwing itself over on its back. By this means lie gradu- ally advances, until he is able to place his nand on the animal's nose and over its eyes, and ally advances, until ne is able to place nis nand on the animals nose and over its eyes, tt length to oreathe into its nostrils, when it soon becomes docile and conquered so th las little list .o <\o than to remove the hobbles from its feet, and lead or ride it > the c that he camp 356 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. BACKING OR GIBBING. One of the first kinds of restiveness, taking them in alphabetical order, is backing or gibbing. These are so closely allied that we hardly know how to separate them. Some horses have the habit of backing at first starting, and that more from playful- ness than desire of mischief. A moderate application of the whip will usually be effectual. Others, even after starting, exhibit considerable obstinacy and vicious- ness. This is frequently the effect of bad breaking. Either the shoulder of the horse had been wrung when he was first put to the collar, or he had been foolishly accus tomed to be started in the break up-hill, and, therefore, all his work coming upon him at once, he gradually acquired this dangerous habit. A hasty and passionate breaker will often make a really good-tempered young horse an inveterate gibber. Every young horse is at first shy of the collar. If he is too quickly forced to throw his weight into it, he will possibly take a dislike to it, that will occasionally show itself in the form of gibbing as long as he lives. The judi- cious horse-breaker will resort to no severity, even if the colt should go out several times without even touching collar. The example of his companion will ultimately induce him to take to it voluntarily and effectually. A large and heavy stone should be put behind the wheel before starting, when the horse finding it more difficult to back than to go forward, will gradually forget this unpleasant trick. It will likewise be of advantage, as often as it can be managed, so to start that the horse shall have to back up-hill. The difficulty of accomplishing this will soon make him readily go forward. A little coaxing, or leading, or moderate flagellation, will assist in accomplishing the cure. When, however, a horse, thinking he has had enough of work, or has been impro- perly checked or corrected, or beginning to feel the painful pressure of the collar, swerves, and gibs, and backs, it is a more serious matter. Persuasion should first be The animal is so completely conquered, that it submits quietly ever after, and is led or rode away with very little difficulty." Mr. Ellis, B. A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, happened to read this account, and he felt a natural desire to ascertain how far this mode of HORSE-TAMING might be employed among British horses. He soon had the opportunity of putting the veracity of the story to the test. His brother-in-law had a filly, not yet a year old, that had been removed from hei dam three months before, and since that time had not been taken out of the stable. A great amateur in everything relating to horses was present, and at his request it was determined that the experiment of the efficacy of breathing into the nostrils should be immediately put to the test. The filly was brought, the amateur leading her by the halter. She was quite wild, and bolted, and dragged the amateur- a considerable distance. He had been using a short halter ; he changed it for a longer one, and was then able to lead the little scared thing to the front of the house. The experiment was tried under manifest disadvantage, for the filly was in the open air, several strangers were about her, and both the owner and the amateur were rather seeking amusement from the failure than knowledge from the success of their experi- ment. The filly was restive and frightened, and with great difficulty the amateur managed to cover her eyes. At length he succeeded, and blew into the nostrils. No particular effect seemed to follow. He then breathed into her nostrils, and the moment he did so, the filly, who had very much resisted having her eyes blindfolded, and had been very restive, stood perfectly still and trembled. From that time she became very tractable. Another gentleman also breathed into her nostrils, and she evidently enjoyed it, and kept putting up her nose to receive the breath. On the following morning she was led out again. She was perfectly tractable, and it seemed to be almost impossible to frighten her. A circumstance which, in a great measure corroborated the possibility of easily taming the most ferocious horses, occurred on the next day. A man, on a neighbouring farm, was attempting to break-in a very restive colt, who foiled him in every possible way. After seve- ral mariffiuvres the amateur succeeded in breathing into one of the nostrils, and from that moment all became easy. The horse was completely subdued. He suffered himself to bo led quietly away with a loose halter, and was perfectly at command. He was led through a field in which were four horses that had been his companions. They all surrounded him ; he took no notice of them, but quietly followed his new master. A surcingle was buckled on him, and then a saddle, and he was finally fitted with a bridle. The whole experimen* occupied about an hour, and not in a single instance did he rebel. On the next day, however, the breaker, a severe and obstinate fellow, took him in hand, arid, according to his usual custom, began to beat him most cruelly. The horse broke from nim, and became as unmanageable as ever. The spirit of the animal had been subdued bu* t»ot broken. BITING. SSI tried; and, aftej wards, reasonable coercion, but no cruelty: for the biutality whicn is often exercised in attempting to compel a gibbing horse to throw himself habitu- ally into the collar, never yet accomplished the purpose. The horse may, perhaps, be whipped into motion ; but if he has once begun to gib, he will have recourse to it again whenever any circumstance displeases or annoys him, and the habit will be sc rapidly and completely formed, that he will become insensible to all severity. It is useless and dangerous to contend with a horse determined to back, unless there is plenty of room, and, by tight reining, the driver can make him back in the precise direction he wishes, and especially up-hill. Such a horse should be immediately sold, or turned over to some other work. In a stage-coach as a wheeler, and particularly as the near-wheeler; or, in the middle of a team at agricultural work, he may be serviceable. It will be useless for him to attempt to gib there, for he will be dragged along by his companions whether he will or not ; and, finding the inutility of resistance, he will soon be induced to work as well as any horse in the team. The reformation will last while he is thus employed, but, like restiveness generally, it will be delusive when the horse returns to his former occupation. The disposition to annoy will very soon follow the power to do it. Some instances of complete reformation may have occurred, but they are rare. When a horse, not often accustomed to gib, betrays a reluctance to work, or a de- termination not to work, common sense and humanity will demand that some consid- eration should be taken before measures of severity are resorted to. The horse may be taxed beyond his power. He soon discovers whether this is the case, and by re- fusing to proceed, tells his driver that it is so. The utmost cruelty will not induce many horses to make the slightest effort, when they are conscious that their strength is inadequate to the task. Sometimes the withers are wrung, and the shoulders sadly galled, and the pain, which is intense on level ground and with fair draught, becomes insupportable when he tugs up a steep acclivity. These things should be examined into, and, if possible, rectified ; for, under such circumstances, cruelty may produce obstinacy and vice, but not willing obedience. They who are accustomed to horses know what seemingly trivial circumstances occasionally produce this vice. A horse, whose shoulders are raw, or have fre- quently been so, will not start with a cold collar. When the collar has acquired the warmth of the parts on which it presses, the animal will go without reluctance. Some determined gibbers have been reformed by constantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth round the shoulders, so that the coldness of the usual collar should never be felt ; and others have been cured of gibbing by keeping the collar on night and day, for the animal is not able to lie down completely at full length, which the tired horse is always glad to do. When a horse gibs, not at starting, but while doing his work, it has sometimes been useful to line the collar with cloth instead of leather; the perspiration is readily absorbed, the substance which presses on the shoulders is softer, and it may be far more accurately eased off at a tender place. BITING. This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, or a habit acquired from the foolish and teasing play of grooms and stable-boys. When a horse is tickled and pinched by thoughtless and mischievous youths, he will first pretend to bite his tor- mentors ; by degrees he will proceed farther, and actually bite them, and very soon after that, he will be the first to challenge to the combat, and, without provocation, seize some opportunity to gripe the incautious tormentor. At length, as the love of mischief is a propensity too easily acquired, this war, half playful and half in earnest, becomes habitual to him, and degenerates into absolute viciousness. It is not possible to enter the stall of some horses without danger. The ani- mal gives no warning of his intention ; he is seemingly quiet and harmless : bui if the incautious by-starider comes fairly within his reach, he darts upon him, and seldom fails to do some mischief. A stallion addicted to biting is a most formi dable creature. He lifts the intruder — he shakes him — he attacks him with his feet — he tramples upon him, and there are many instances in which he effects irre f every considerable ]ourney. The food should likewise be of such * CRIB-BITING. 3(11 that it cannot be rapidly bolted. Chaff should be plentifully mixed with the corn, and, in some cases, and especially in horses of slow work, it should with the corn, constitute the whole of the food. This will be treated on more at large unde: flie article " Feeding." In every case of this kind the teeth should be carefully examined. Some of tnem may be unduly lengthened, particularly the first of the grinders : or they may be ragged at the edges, and may abrade and wound the cheek. In the, first place the horse cannot properly masticate his food ; in the latter he will not ; for these animals, as too often happens in sore throat, would rather starve than put themselves to much pain. CRIB-BITING. This is a very unpleasant habit, and a considerable defect, although not so serious a one as some have represented. The horse lays hold of the manger with his teeth, violently extends his neck, and then, after some convulsive action of the throat, a slight grunting is heard, accompanied by a sucking or drawing in of air. It is not an effort at simple eructation, arising from indigestion. It is the inhalation of air. It is that which takes place with all kinds of diet, and when the stomach is empty as well as when it is full. The effects of crib-biting are plain enough. The teeth are injured and worn away, and that, in an old horse, to a very serious degree. A considerable quantity of corn is often lost, for the horse will frequently crib with his mouth full of it, and the greater part will fall over the edge of the manger. Much saliva escapes while the manger is thus forcibly held, the loss of which must be of serious detriment in impairing the digestion. The crib-biting horse is notoriously more subject to colic than other horses, and to a species difficult of treatment and frequently dangerous. Although many a crib-biter is stout and strong, and capable of all ordinary work, these horses do no4 generally carry so much flesh as others, and have not their endurance. On these accounts crib-biting has very properly been decided to be unsoundness. We must not look to the state of the disease at the time of purchase. The question is, does it exist at all ] A case was tried before Lord Tenterden, and thus decided : " a horse with crib-biting is unsound." It is one of those tricks which are exceedingly contagious. Every companion of a 3rib-biter in the same stables is likely to acquire the habit, and it is the most invete- rate of all habits. The edge of the manger will in vain be lined with iron, or with sheep-skin, or with sheep-skin covered with tar or aloes, or any other unpleasant sub- stance. In defiance of the annoyance which these may occasion, the horse will per- sist in the attack on his manger. A strap buckled tightly round the neck, by com- pressing the wind-pipe, is the best means of preventing the possibility of this trick; but the strap must be constantly worn, and its pressure is too apt to produce a wor»e affection, viz. an irritation in the windpipe, which terminates in roaring. Some have recommended turning out for five or six months ; but this has neve* succeeded except with a young horse, and then rarely. The old crib-biter will employ the gate for the same purpose as the edge of his manger, and we have often seen him galloping across a field for the mere object of having a gripe at a rail. Medicine wil. be altogether thrown away in this case. The only remedy is a muzzle, with bars across the bottom ; sufficiently wide to enable the animal to pick up his corn and to pull his hay, but not to grasp the edge of the manger. If this is worn for a considerable period, the horse may be tired of attempting that which he cannot accomplish, and for a while forget the habit, but, in a majority of cases, the desire of crib-biting will return with the power of gratifying it. The causes of crib-biting are various, and some of them beyond the control of the proprietor of the horse. It is often the result of imitation ; but it is more frequently the consequence of idleness. The high-fed and spirited horse must be in mischief if he is not usefully employed. Sometimes, but we believe not often, it is produced by partial starvation, whether in a bad straw-yard, or from unpalatable food. An occa- sional cause of crib-biting is the frequent custom of grooms, even when the weather is not severe, of dressing them in the stable. The horse either catches at thf edge af the manger, or at that of the partition on each side, ;f he has been turneJ. And tnu» ne forms the habit of laying hold of these substances on every occasion. 31 2v 362 VICES AND DEFECTS O I THE HORSE. WIND-SUCKING. This bears a close analogy to crib-biting1. It arises from the same causes the same purpose is accomplished ; and the same results follow. The horse stands with QIS neck bent ; his head drawn inward ; his lips alternately a little opened and then closed, and a noise is heard as if he were sucking. If we may judge from the same comparative want of condition and the flatulence which we have described under the last head, either some portion of wind enters the stomach, or there is an injurious loss of saliva! This diminishes the value of the horse almost as much as crib-biting ; it » as contagious, and it is as inveterate. The only remedies, and they will seldom avail, are tying the head up, except when the horse is feeding, or putting on a muzzle with sharp spikes towards the neck, and which will prick him whenever he attempts to rein his head in for the purpose of wind-sucking. CUTTING. Of this habit, mention has been made at page 275 ; and we would advise the owner if a cutting horse, without trying any previous experiments of raising or lowering the leels, to put on the cutting foot a shoe of even thickness from heel to toe, not project- ;ng in the slightest degree beyond the crust, and the crust itself being rasped a little at the quarters. The shoe should be fastened as usual, on the outside, but with only one nail on the inside, and that almost close to the toe. The principle on which this shoe acts, has been explained at page 339. NOT LYING DOWN. It not uncommonly happens that a horse will seldom or never lie down in the stable. He sometimes continues in apparent good health, and feeds and works well ; but generally his legs swell, or he becomes fatigued sooner than another horse. If it is impossible to let him loose in the saddle, or to put him into a spare box, we know not what is to be- done. No means, gentle or cruel, will force him to lie down. The secret is that he is tied up, and either has never dared to lie down through fear of the confinement of the halter, or he has been cast in the night, and severely injured. If he can be suffered to range the stable, or have a comfortable box, in which he may be loose, he will usually lie down the first night. Some few horses, however, will lie down in the stable, and not in a loose box. A fresh, well-made bed will generally tempt the tired horse to refresh himself with sleep. OVERREACH. This unpleasant noise, known also by the term " clicking," arises from the toe of the hind foot knocking against the shoe of the fore foot. In the trot, one fore leg and the opposite hind leg are first lifted from the ground and moved forward, the other fore leg and the opposite hind leg remaining fixed ; but, to keep the centre of gravity •yithin the base, and as the stride, or space passed over by these legs, is often greater than the distance between the fore and hind feet, it is necessary that the fore feet should be alternately moved out of the way for the hind ones to descend. Then, as occasionally happens with horses not perfectly broken, and that have not been taught their paces, and especially if they have high hinder quarters and low fore ones, if the fore feet are not raised in time, the hind feet will strike them. The fore foot will generally be caught when it has just begun to be raised, and the toe of the hind foot will meet the middle of the bottom of the fore foot. It is an unpleasant noise, and not altogether free from danger ; for it may so happen that a horse, the action of whose feet generally so much interferes with each other, may advance the hind foot a little more rapidly, or raise the fore one a little more slowly, so that the blow may fall on the heel of the shoe, and loosen or displace it; or the two shoes may be locked together, and the animal may be thrown: or the contusion may be received evei; higher, and on the tendons of the leg, and considerable swelling and lameness wil. follow. If the animal is young, the action of the horse may be materially improved ; other- wise nothing can be done, except to keep the toe of the hind foot as short and a* '•onnd as "t can safely be, and to bevel off and round the toe of the shoe, like thai PAWING— QUIDDING— ROLLING— SHYING. 363 which has been worn by a stumbler for a fortnight, and, perhaps, a little to L wer the heel of the fore foot. A blow received on the heel of the fore foot in this manner, has not unfrequently and especially if neglected, been followed by quittor.* The heel most frequently suffers in overreaching, although the pastern is sometimes injured, li usually, or almost always, occurs in fast paces on deep ground. The 'njury is inflicted by the edge of the inner part of the shoe. The remedy is the cut- ting away the edge of the shoe. An account of the most successful treatment of overreach has been given in page 312. PAWING. Some hot and irritable horses are restless even in the stable, and paw frequentl and violently. Their litter is destroyed, the floor of the stable broken up, the shoes worn out, the feet bruised, and the legs sometimes sprained. If this habit "does not exist to any great extent, yet the stable never looks well. Shackles are the only remedy, with a chain sufficiently long to enable the horse to shift his posture, or move in his stall ; but these must be taken off at night, otherwise the animal will seldom lie down. Except, however, the horse possesses peculiar value, it will be better to dispose of him at once, than to submit to the danger and inconvenience that he may occasion. QUIDDING. A horse will sometimes partly chew his hay, and suffer it to drop from his mouth If this does not proceed from irregular teeth, which it will be the business of the vete linary surgeon to rasp down, it will be found to be connected with sore-throat, and then the horse will exhibit some other symptom of indisposition, and particularly, the swallowing of water will be accompanied by a peculiar gulping effort. In this case, the disease (catarrh, with sore-throat) must be attacked, and the quidding will cease. ROLLING. This is a very pleasant and perfectly safe amusement for a horse at grass, but can not be indulged in the stable without the chance of his being dangerously entangled with the collar rein, and being cast. Yet, although the horse is cast, and bruised, and half-strangled, he will roll again on the following night, and continue to do so as long as he lives. The only remedy is not a very pleasant one to the horse, nor always quite safe ; yet it must be had recourse to, if the habit of rolling is inveterate. " The horse," says Mr. Castley, " should be tied with length enough of collar to lie down, but not to allow of his head resting on the ground ; because, in order to roll over, a horse is obliged to place his head quite down upon the ground." SHYING. We have briefly treated of the cause of this vice at page 91, and observed that while it is often the result of cowardice, or playfulness, or want of work, it is at * Mr. Simpson relates an interesting though unfortunate case of this interference, after the operation of neurotomy :— " An old but splendid horse had been sadly lame in the off fore- foot during some months. Many plans of treatment were adopted, without the desired effect ; and at length it was determined to have recourse to neurotomy. A portion of the metacarpal nerve was excised on both sides, just above the fetlock. Three weeks afterwards, the horse being quite free from lameness, he was put into harness, and driven about twelve miles. He appeared to go very well, but, on arriving at his journey's end, it was found that the off hind- foot was covered with blood, and the heels of the neurotomised foot were dreadfully bruised and cut, from repeated blows from he corresponding foot behind. In order to remedy this, the toe of the hind-foot was ordered o be shortened as much as possible. " Four days afterwards, he was driven again with the same contusions, but did not appear to feel the slightest pain, either when the blows were inflicted, or when he was examined again •ome days afterwards. " Thers was not the same activity in this foot that there had been before the operation, and it could n">t.get put of the way of the hind-foot, a circumstance that would hardly have beet expected, for it is the general belief that, although sensation is destroyed in the foot, the loco motive powers of he leg are unimpaired. This deserves future inquir/." — The Veterinarian rol. viii. p. 242. 364 VICES AND DEFECTS OF THE HORSE. othei times the consequence of a defect of sight. It has been remarked, and w< oelieve very truly, that shying is oftener a vice of half or quarter-bred horses, thac of those who have in them more of the genuine racing blood. In the treatment of shying, it is of great importance to distinguish between thai which is the consequence of defective sight, and what results from fear, or newness of objects, or mere affectation or skittishness. For the first, the nature of which we have explained at page 91, every allowance must be made, and care must be taken that the fear of correction is not associated with the imagined existence of some ter« •ifying object. The severe use of the whip and the spur cannot do good here, and are likely to aggravate the vice tenfold. A word half encouraging and half scolding, with a gentle pressure of the heel, or a slight touch of the spur, will tell the horse that there was nothing to fear, and will give him confidence in his rider on a future occasion. It should be remembered, however, that although a horse that shies from defective sight may be taught considerable reliance on his rider, he can nevei have the cause of the habit removed. We may artificially strengthen the human sight, but that of the horse must be left to itself. The shying from skittishness or affectation is quite a different affair, and must be conquered : but how ? Severity is altogether out of place. If he is forced into con- tact with the object by dint of correction, the dread of punishment will afterwards be associated with that object, and, on the next occasion, his startings will be more fre- quent and more dangerous. The way to cure him is to go on, turning as little as possible out of the road, giving a harsh word or two, and a gentle touch with the spur, and then taking no more notice of the matter. After a few times, whatever may have been the object which he chose to select as the pretended cause of affright, he will pass it a.most without notice. In page 253, under the head " breaking in," we described how the colt may be cured of the habit of shying from fear or newness of objects ; and, if he then is ac- customed as much as possible to the objects among which his services will be re- quired, he will not possess this annoying vice when he grows to maturer age. Mr. John Lawrence, in his last work on the Horse, says, "These animals gener- ally fix on some particular shying butt : for example, I recollect having, at different periods, three hacks, all very powerful ; the one made choice of a wind-mill for the object or butt, the other a tilted wagon, and the last a pig led in a string. It so hap- pened, however, that I rode the two former when amiss from a violent cold, and they then paid no more attention to either wind-mills or tilted wagons than to any other objects, convincing me that their shying when in health and spirits was pure affecta- tion ; an affectation, however, which may be speedily united with obstinacy and vice. Let it be treated with marked displeasure, mingled with gentle, but decided firmness, and the habit will be of short endurance."* It is now generally admitted by all riding-masters and colt-breakers, that a great deal more is to be effected by lenient than by harsh treatment. Rewards are found to operate more beneficially than punishments ; and therefore the most scientific and practised riding-masters adopt methods based upon the former. The writer of the present work remembers a very remarkable instance of the efficacy of this plan, 01 rather of its vast and decided superiority over violence of the worst description. A * " We will suppose a case— a very common one, an every-day one. -A man is riding a young horse upon the high-road in the country, and meets a stage-coach. What with the noise, the bustle, the imposing appearance altogether, and the slashing of the coachman's whip, the animal at its approach erects its head and crest, pricks his ears, looks affrighted, and no sooner tomes alongside of the machine than he suddenly starts out of the road. H« rider, annoyed by this, instantly commences a round of castigation with whip, spur, and curb, in which he persists until the horse, as well as himself, has lost his temper ; and then one whips, spurs, and pulls, and the other jumps, plunges, frets, and throws up his head, unCi] both, pretty well exhausted by the conflict, grow tranquil again and proceed on their journey, though not for some time afterwards in their former mutual confidence and satisfaction. Should they in their road, or even on a distant day, meet with another coach, what is the consequence ? The horse is not only more alarmed than before, but now, the moment he haa started, be.ng conscious of his fault and expecting chastisement, he jumps about in fearful agitation, making plunges to strike into a gallop, and attempting to run away. So that by .his correction, instead of render ng his horse tranquil during the passage of a coach, the ridei adds to the evil of shying that o subseqr rgottfn. What, of necessity, must be the consequence of this 1 Why ' if on* VENTILATION. 367 mought is bestowed on the new and dangerous charactei that the air is assuming, i4 will be tco evident that sore throat, and swelled legs, and bad eyes, and inflamed lungs, and mange, and g'ease, and glanders, will scarcely ever be long out of that stable. Let this be considered in another point of view. The horse stands twenty or two and-twenty hours in this unnatural vapour bath, and then he is suddenly stripped of all his clothing, he is led into the open air, and there he is kept a couple of hours 01 more in a temperature fifteen or twenty degrees below that 01' the stable. Putting the inhumanity of this out of the question, must not the animal thus unnaturally and absurdly treated be subjected to rheumatism, catarrh, and various other complaints 1 Does he not often stand, hour after hour, in the road or the street, while his owner is warming himself within, and this perhaps after every pore has been opened by a rushing gallop, and his susceptibility to the painful and the injurious influence of cold has been excited to the utmost? It is not so generally known, as it ought to be, that the return to a hot stable ia quite as dangerous as the change from a heated atmosphere to a cold and biting air. Many a horse that has travelled without harm over a bleak country, has been suddenly seized with inflammation and fever when he has, immediately at the end of his journey, been surrounded with heated and foul air. It is the sudden change of tem- perature, whether from heat to cold, or from cold to heat, that does the mischief, and yearly destroys thousands of horses. Mr. Clarke of Edinburgh was the first who advocated the use of well-ventilated stables. After him Professor Coleman established them in the quarters of the cavalry troops, and there cannot be a doubt that he saved the government many thousand pounds every year. His system of ventilation, however, like many other salutary innovations, was at first strongly resisted. Much evil was predicted ; but after a time, diseases that used to dismount whole troops, almost entirely disappeared from the army. The stable should be as large, compared with the number of horses that it is destined to contain, as circumstances will allow. A stable for six horses should not be less than forty feet in length, and thirteen or fourteen feet wide. If there is no loft above, the inside of the roof should always be plastered, in order to prevent direct currents of air and occasional droppings from broken tiles. The heated and foul air should escape, and cool and pure air be admitted, by elevation of the central tiles ; or by large tubes carried through the roof, with caps a little above them, to prevent the beating in of the rain ; or by gratings placed high up in the walls. These latter apertures should be as far above the horses as they can conveniently be placed, by which means all injurious draught will be prevented. If there is a loft above the stable, the ceiling should be plastered, in order to prevent the foul air from penetrating to the hay above, and injuring both its taste and its wholesomeness ; and no openings should be allowed above the racks, through which the hay may be thrown into them ; for they will permit the foul air to ascend to the provender, and also in the act of filling the rack, and while the horse is eagerly gazing upward for his food, a grass seed may fall into the eye, and produce considerable inflammation. At other times, when the careless groom has left open the trap-door, a stream of cold air beats down on the head of the horse. The stable with a loft over it should never be less than twelve feet high, and proper ventilation should be secured either by tubes carried through the loft to the roof, or by gratings close to the ceiling. These gratings or openings should be enlarged or con- tracted by means of a covering or shutter, so that during spring, summer, and autumn, the stable may possess nearly the same temperature with the open air, and in winter a temperature of not more than ten degrees above that of the external atmosphere. A hot stable has, in the mind of the groom, been long connected with a glossy coat. The latter, it is thought, cannot be obtained without the former. To this we should reply, that in winter a thin, glossy coat is not desiral le. Nature gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the cold weather approaches. The horse — the agricultural horse especially — acquires a thicker and a lengthened coat, in order to defend him from the surrounding cold. Man puts on an additional and <•» warmer covering, and his comfort is increased and his health preserved by it. He wno knows anything of the farmer's horse, or cares about his enjoyment^ will noi obie< t to a coat a little longer and a little mgrhened when the wintry wind blow* THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. eak. The coat, however, needs not to be so long as to be unsightly ; and warm nothing, even in a cool stable, will, with plenty of honest grooming, keep the hai] sufficiently smooth and glossy to satisfy the most fastidious. The overheated air of 4 close stable saves much of this grooming, and therefore the idle attendant unscru- pulously sacrifices the health and safety of the horse. When we have presently to treat of the hair and skin of the horse, this will be placed in a somewhat different ooint of view. If the stable is close, the air will not only be hot, but foul. The breathing of every animal contaminates it; and when, in the course of the night, with every aperture stopped, it passes again and again through the lungs, the blood cannot undergo its proper and healthy change ; digestion will not be so perfectly performed, and all the functions of life are injured. Let the owner of a valuable horse think of his passing twenty or twenty-two out of the twenty-four hours in this debilitating atmosphere ! Nature does wonders in enabling every animal to accommodate itself to the situation in which it is placed, and the horse that lives in the stable-oven suffers less from it than would scarcely be conceived possible; but he does not, and cannot, possess the power and the hardihood which he would acquire under other circumstances. The air of the improperly close and heated stable is still farther contaminated by the urine and dung, which rapidly ferment there, and give out stimulating and un- wholesome vapours. When a person first enters an ill-managed stable, and especially early in the morning, he is annoyed, not only by the heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling hartshorn ; and can he be surprised at the inflammation of the eyes, and the chronic cough, and the disease of the lungs, by which the animal, who has been all night shut up in this vitiated atmosphere, is often attacked ; or if glanders and farcy should occasionally break out in such stables 1 It has been ascer- tained by chemical experiment that the urine of the horse contains in it an exceedingly large quantity of hartshorn ; and not only so, but that, influenced by the heat of a crowded stable, and possibly by other decompositions that are going forward at the same time, this ammoniacal vapour begins to be rapidly given out almost immediately after the urine is voided. When disease begins to appear among the inhabitants of these ill-ventilated places, is it wonderful that it should rapidly spread among them, and that the plague-spot should be, as it were, placed on the door of such a stable 1 When distemper appears in spring or in autumn, it is in very many cases to be traced to such a pest-house. I* is peculiarly fatal there. The horses belonging to a small establishment^ and ration ally treated, have it comparatively seldom, or have it lightly ; but among the inmates of a crowded stable it is sure to display itself, and there it is most fatal. The experi- ence of every veterinary surgeon, and of every large proprietor of horses, will corro- borate this statement. Agriculturists should bring to their stables the common sense which directs them in the usual concerns of life, and should begin, when their plea- sures and their property are so much at stake, to assume that authority and to enforce that obedience, to the lack of which is to be attributed the greater part of bad stable- management and horse-disease. Of nothing are we more certain than that the majority of the maladies of the horse, and those of the worst and most fatal character, are directly or indirectly to be attributed to a deficient supply of air, cruel, exaction ot work, and insufficient or bad fare. Each 01 these evils is to be dreaded — each is, in a manner, watching for its prey; and when they are combined, more than half of the inmates of the stable are often swept away. Every stable should possess within itself a certain degree of ventilation. The cost of this would be trifling, and its saving in the preservation of valuable animals may be immense. The apertures need not be large, and the whole may be so contrived that no direct current of air shall fall on the horse. A gentleman's stable should never be without a thermometer. The temperature should seldom exceed 70° in the summer, or sink below 40° or 50° in the winter. LITTER. Having spoken of the vapour of hartshorn, which is so rapidly and so plentiful!? given out from the urine 01" a horse in a heated stable, we next take into consideratioc the subject of litter. The first caution is frequently to remove it. The eaily extrication of gas shows the rapid putrefaction of the urine; and the consequence of ' will be the rapid putrefaction of the litter that has been moistened by it LIGHT. 3(J9 Everything hastening to decomposition should be carefully removed where life and health are to be preserved. The litter that has been much wetted or at all softened by the* urine, and is beginning to decay, should be swept away every morning ; the greater part of the remainder may then be piled under the manger ; a little being left to prevent the painful and injurious pressure of the feet on the hard pavement during the day. The soiled and macerated portion of that which was left should oe removed at niorht. In the better kind of stables, however, the stalls should be completely emptied every morning. No heap of fermenting dnng should be suffered to remain during the .day in the corner or in any part of the stable. With regard to this, the directions of the master should be peremptory. The stable should be so contrived that the urine shall quickly run off, and the offensive and injurious vapour from the decomposing fluid and the litter will thus be materially lessened : if, however, the urine is carried away by means of a gutter run- ning along the stable, the floor of the stalls must slant towards that gutter, and the declivity must not be so great as to strain the back sinews, and become an occasional, although unsuspected, cause of lameness. Mr. R. Lawrence well observes, that, " if ;he reader will stand for a few minutes with his toes higher than his heels, the pain lie will feel in the calves of his legs will soon convince him of the truth of this remark. Hence, when a horse is not earing, he always endeavours to find his level, either by standing across the stall or else as far back as his halter will permit, so tha his hind-legs may meet the ascent of the other side of the channel." This inclination of the stall is also a frequent cause of contraction of the heels o» the foot, by throwing too great a proportion of the weight upon the toe and removing that pressure on the heels which tends most to keep them open. Care, therefore must be taken that the slanting of the floor of the stalls shall be no more than is siaf ficient to drain off the urine with tolerable rapidity. Stalls of this kind certamly drt best for mares ; but for horses we much prefer those with a grating in the centre, an«l a slight inclination of the floor on every side towards the middle. A short branch may communicate with a larger drain, by means of which the urine may be carried off to i reservoir outside the stable. Traps are now contrived, and may be procured at litt'e expense, by means of which neither any offensive smell nor current of ail can p«*ss through the grating. The farmer should not lose any of the urine. It is from the dung of the horse that he derives a principal and most valuable part of his manure. It is that which earliest takes on the process of putrefaction, and forms one of the strongest and most durable dressings. That which is most of all concerned with the rapidity and the perfection of the decomposition is the urine. Humanity and interest, as well as the appearance of the stable, should induce the proprietor of the horse to place a moderate quantity of litter under him during the day. The farmer who wants to convert every otherwise useless substance into ma- nure, will have additional reason for adopting this practice : especially as he does not confine himself to that to which in towns and in gentlemen's stables custom seems to have limited the bed of the horse. Pea and bean-haurn, and potato-tops, and heath, occupy in the stable of the farmer, during a part of the year, the place of wheaten and oaten straw. It should, however, be remembered, that these substances are disposed more easily to ferment and putrefy than straw, and therefore should be more carefully examined and oftener removed. It is the faulty custom of some farm- ers to let the bed accumulate until it reaches almost to the horse's belly, and the bot- om of it is a mass of dung. If there were not often many a hole and cranny through which the wind can enter and disperse the foul air, the health .of the animal would materially suffer. LIGHT. This neglected branch of stable-management is of far more consequence than is generally imagined ; and it is particularly neglected by those for whom these trea- tises are principally designed. The farmer's stable is frequently destitute of any glazed window, and has only a shutter, which is raised in warm weather, and closed when the weather becomes cold. When the horse is in the stable only during a few hours in the day, this is not of so much consequence, nor of so much, probably, witi to horses of slow work , but to carriage-horses and hackneys, so far, at lea*' 2w t«?0 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. Bs the eyes are concerned, a dark stable is little less injurious than a foul and heated :?ne. I'a ord<_. to illustrate this, reference may be made to the unpleasant feeling, and the utter impossibility of seeing distinctly, when a man suddenly emerges from a dark place into the full blaze of day. The sensation of mingled pain and giddiness is not soon forgotten ; and some minutes pass before the eye can accommodate itself to the increased light. If this were to happen every day, or several times in the day, the sight would be irreparably injured, or possibly blindness would ensue. Can we wonder, then, that the horse, taken from a dark stable into a glare of light, feeling, probably,. as we should do under similar circumstances, and unable for a considerable time to see anything around him distinctly, should become a starter, or that the fre- quently repeated violent effect of sudden light should induce inflammation of the eye so intense as to terminate in blindness 1 There is, indeed, no doubt that horses kept in dark stables are frequently notorious starters, and that abominable habit has been properly traced to this cause. Fanners know, and should profit by the knowledge, that the darkness of the stable is not unfrequently a cover for great uncleanliness. A glazed window, with leaden divisions between the small panes, would not cost much, and would admit a degree of light somewhat more approaching to that of day, and at the same time would ren- der the concealment of gross inattention and want of cleanliness impossible. If plenty of light is admitted, the walls of the stable, and especially that portion of them which is before the horse's head, must not be of too glaring a colour. The constant reflection from a white wall, and especially if the sun shines into the stable, will be as injurious to the eye as the sudden changes from darkness to light. The perpetual slight excess of stimulus will do as much mischief as the occasional but more violent one when the animal is taken from a kind of twilight to the blaze of day. The colour of the stable, therefore, should depend on the quantity of ligh'. "Where much can be admitted, the walls should be of a grey hue. Where dark- ness would otherwise prevail, frequent whitewashing may in some degree dissipate the gloom. For another reason, it will be evident that the stable should not possess too glaring a light: it is the resting-place of the horse. The work of the farmer's horse, indeed, is confined principally to the day. The hour of exertion having passed, the animal returns to his stable to feed and to repose, and the latter is as necessary as the former, in order to prepare him for renewed work. Something approaching to the dimness of twilight is requisite to induce the animal to compose himself to sleep. This half- light more particularly suits horses of heavy work, and who draw almost as much by the weight of carcass which they can throw into the collar, as by the degree of mus- cular energy of which they are capable. In the quietness of a dimly-lighted stable, they obtain repose, and accumulate flesh and fat. Dealers are perfectly aware of this. They have their darkened stables, in which the young horse, with little or no exercise, and fed upon mashes and ground corn, is made up for sale. The round and plump appearance, however, whirh may delude the unwary, soon vanishes with altered treatment, and the animal is found to be unfit for hard work, and predisposed to many an inflammatory disease. The circumstances, then, under which a stable somewhat darkened may be allowed, will be easily determined by the owner of the horse ; but, as a general rule, dark stables are unfriendly to cleanliness, and the frequent cause of the vice of starting, and of the most serious. diseases of the eyes. GROOMING. Of this, much neec not be said to the agriculturist, since custom, and apparently without ill effect, has allotted so little of the comb and brush to the farmer's horse. The animal that is worked all day, and turned out at night, requires little more to be done to him than to have the dirt brushed off his limbs. Regular grooming, by ren- dering his skin more sensible to the alteration of temperature, and the inclemency of rtie weather, would be prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned out, needs no grorcnmg: The dandriff, or scurf, which accumulates at the roots of the hair, is 4 pror'sion of nature to defend him from the wind and the cold. It us to the stabled horse, highly fed, and little or irregularly worked, that grooming is ol so much consequence. Good rubbing with the brush, or the currycomb, opens ihe ] *ores of the skin, circulates the blood to the extremities of the body, prodm es Fref ano healthy perspiration, and stand? in the room of exercise. No horse wiL EXERCISE. 371 earry a fine coat without eithei unnatural heat or dressing. They both effect the same purpose; they both increase the insensible perspiration , but the first does it at the expense of health and strength, while the second, at the same time that it produces a glow on the skin, and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies <. f the frame. It would be well for the proprietor of the horse if he were to insist — and to see that his orders are really obeyed — that the fine coat in which he and his groom so much delight, is produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated stable and thick clc thing, and most of all, not by stimulating or injurious spices. The horse should be regularly dressed every day, in addition to the grooming that is necessary after work. When the weather will permit the horse to be taken out, he should never be groomed in the stable, unless he is an animal of peculiar value, or placed for a time under pecu- liar circumstances. Without dwelling on the want of cleanliness, when the scurf and dust that are brushed from the horse lodge in his manger, and mingle with his food, experience teaches, that if the cold is not too great, the animal is braced and invigo- rated to a degree that cannot be attained in the stable, from being dressed in the open air. There is no necessity, however, for half the punishment which many a groom inflicts upon the horse in the act of dressing; and particularly on one whose skin is thin and sensible. The curry-comb should at all times be lightly applied. With many horses, its use may be almost dispensed with ; and even the brush needs not to be so hard, nor the points of the bristles so irregular, as they often are. A soft brush, with a little more weight of the hand, will be equally effectual, and a great deal more pleasant to the horse. A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, will be almost sufficient with horses that have a thin skin, and that have not been neglected. After all, it is no slight task to dress a horse as it ought to be done. It occupies no little time, and demands considerable patience, as well as dexterity. It will be readily ascertained whether a horse has been well dressed by rubbing him with one of the fingers. A greasy stain will detect the idleness of the groom When, however, the horse is changing his coat, both the curry-comb and the brush should be used as lightly as possible. Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to the horse's skin, and to the horse generally, needs only to observe the effects produced by well hand-rubbing the legs of a tired horse. While every enlargement subsides, and the painful stiffness disappears, and the legs attain their natural warmth, and become fine, the animal is evidently and rapidly reviving ; he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly lies down to rest EXERCISE. Our observations on this important branch of stable-management must have only a slight reference to the agricultural horse. His work is usually regular, and not exhausting. He is neither predisposed to disease by idleness, nor worn out by exces- sive exertion. He, like his master, has enough to do to keep him in health, and not enough to distress or injure him: on the contrary, the regularity of his work prolongs life to an extent rarely witnessed in the stable of the gentleman. Our remarks on exercise, then, must have a general bearing, or have principal reference to those per- sons who are in the middle stations of life, and who contrive to keep a horse for busi- ness or pleasure, but cannot afford to maintain a servant for the express purpose of looking after it. The first rule we would lay down is, that every horse should have daily exercise. The animal that, with the usual stable feeding, stands idle for three or four days, as is the case in many establishments, must suffer. He is predisposed to fever, or to grease, or, most of all, to diseases of the foot; and if, after three or foui days of inactivity, he is ridden far and fast, he is almost sure to have inflammation cf the lungs or of the feet. A gentleman or tradesman's horse suffers a great deal more from idleness than he does from work. A stable-fed horse should have two hours' exercise every day, if he .8 to be kept free from disease. Nothing of extraordinary or even of ordinary laboui ;an be effected on the road or in the field, without sufficient and regular exercise. It is this al^re which can give energy to the system, or develope the powers of any animal. How, then, is this exercise to be given? As much as possible by, or under th« superintendence of, the owner. The exercise given by the groom is rarely to w 372 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF TilE depended upon. It is inefficient or it is extreme, It is in many cases both irreg fiat and injurious. It is dependent upon the caprice of him who is performing a Uisk, and who will render that task subservient to his own pleasure or purpose. In training the hunter and the race-horse, regular exercise is the most important frf all considerations, however it may be forgotten in the usual management of the stable. The exercised horse will discharge his task, and sometimes a severe one, with ease and pleasure ; while the idle and neglected one will be fatigued ere half his labour ia accomplished, and, if he is pushed a little too far, dangerous inflammation will ensue* How often, nevertheless, does it happen, that the horse which has stood inactive ic the stable three or four days, is ridden or driven thirty or forty miles in the course of a single day ! This rest is often purposely given to prepare for extra-exertion ; — to lay in a stock of strength for the performance of the task required of him : and tnen the owner is surprised and dissatisfied if the animal is fairly knocked up, or possibly becomes seriously ill. Nothing is so common and so preposterous, as for a person to buy a horse from a dealer's stable, where he has been idly fattening for sale for many a day, and immediately to give him a long run after the hounds, and then to complain bitterly, and think that he has been imposed upon, if the animal is exhausted before the end of the chase, or is compelled to be led home suffering from violent inflamma- tion. Regular and gradually increasing exercise would have made the same horse appear a treasure to his owner. Exercise should be somewhat proportioned to the age of the horse. A young horse requires more than an old one. Nature has given to young animals of every kind a disposition to activity; but the exercise must not be violent. A great deal depends upon the manner in which it is given. To preserve the temper, and to promote health, it should be moderate, at least at the beginning and the termination. The rapid trot, or even the gallop, may be resorted to in the middle of the exercise, but the horse should be brought in cool. If the owner would seldom intrust his horse to boys, and would insist on the exercise being taken within sight, or in the neighbour- hood of his residence, many an accident and irreparable injury would be Avoided. It should be the owner's pleasure, and it is his interest, personally to attend to all these things. He manages every other part ef his concerns, and he may depend on it that he suffers when he neglects, or is in a manner excluded from, his stables. FOOD. The system of manger-feeding is becoming general among farmers. There are few horses that do not habitually waste a portion of their hay ; and by some the greatei part is pulled down and trampled under foot, in order first to cull the sweetest and best locks, and which could not be done while the hay was enclosed in the rack. A good feeder will afterwards pick up much of that which was thrown down ; but some of it must be soiled and rendered disgusting, and, in many cases, one-third of this division of their food is wasted. Some of the oats and beans are imperfectly chewed by all horses, and scarcely at all by hungry and greedy ones. The appearance of the dung will sufficiently evince this. The observation of this induced the adoption of manger-feeding, or of mixing a portion of chaff with the corn and beans. By this means the animal is compelled to chew his food ; he cannot, to any great degree, waste the straw or hay ; the chaff is too hard and too sharp to be swallowed without considerable mastication, and, while he is forced to grind that down, the oats and beans are ground with it, and yield mor« nourishment; the stomach is more slowly filled, and therefore acts better on its con- tents, and is not so likely to be overloaded ; and the increased quantity of saliva thrown out in the lengthened maceration of the food, softens it, and makes it more fii for digestion. Professor Stewart very properly remarks that " many horses swallow their com in great haste, and when much is eaten, that habit is exceedingly dangerous. The sto mach is filled — it is overloaded before it has time to make preparation for acting on its contents — the food ferments, and painful or dangerous colic ensues. By adding nhaff o his corn, tka horse must take more time to eat it, and time is given for th« eomroLeacement of digestion, before fermentation can occur. In this way chaff is very ooeful, especially after long fasts."* * Stewart's Stable (Economy, p. 225. FOOD. 87 J If, wnen considerable provender was wasted, the horse maintained his condition, and was able to do his work, it was evident that much might be saved to the farmer when he adopted a system by which the horse ate all that was set before him; and by degrees it was found out that, even food somewhat less nutritious, but a great deal cheaper, and which the horse either would not eat, or would not properly grind down in its natural state, might be added, while the animal would be in quite as good plight, and always ready for work. Chaff may be composed of equal quantities of clover or meadow hay, and wheaten, oaten, or barley straw, cut into pieces of a quarter or half an inch in length, and mingled well together ; the allowance of oats or beans is afterwards added, and mixed witlT the chaff. Many farmers very properly bruise the oats or beans. The whole oat is apt to slip out of the chaff and be lost ; but when it is bruised, and especially if the chaff is a little wetted, it will not readily separate ; or, should a portion of it escape the grinders, it will be partly prepared for digestion by the act of bruising. The prejudice against bruising the oats is, so far as the farmer's horse, and the wagon horse, and every ho^se of slow draught, are concerned, altogether unfounded. The quantity of straw in the chaff will always counteract any supposed purgative quality in the bruised oats. Horses of quicker draught, except they are naturally disposed to scour, will thrive better with bruised than with whole oats ; for a greater quantity of nutriment will be extracted from the food, and it will always be easy to apportion the quantity of straw or beans to the effect of the mixture on the bowels of the horse. The principal alteration that should be made in the horse of harder and more rapid work, such as the post-horse, and the stage-coach horse, is to increase the quantity of hay, and diminish that if straw. Two trusses of hay may be cut with one of straw. Some gentlemen, in defiance of the prejudice and opposition of the coachman or the groom, have introduced this mode of feeding into the stables of their carriage-horses and hackneys, and with manifest advantage. There has been no loss of condition OT power, and considerable saving of provender. This system is not, however, calculated for the hunter or the race-horse. Their food must lie in smaller bulk, in order that the action of the lungs may not be impeded by the distension of the stomach ; yet many hunters have gone well over the field who have been manger-fed, the proportion of corn, however, being materially increased. For the agricultural and cart horse, eight pounds of oats and two of beans should be added to every twenty pounds of chaff. Thirty-four or thirty-six pounds of the mixture will be sufficient for any moderate-sized horse, with fair, or even hard work. The dray and wagon horse may require forty pounds. Hay in the rack at night is, in this case, supposed to be omitted altogether. The rack, however, may remain, as occasionally useful for the sick horse, or to contain tares or other green meat. Horses are very fond of this provender. The majority of them, after having been accustomed to it, will leave the best oats given to them alone, for the sake of the mingled chaff and corn. We would, however, caution the farmer not to set apart toe much damaged hay for the manufacture of the chaff. The horse may be thus induced to eat that which he would otherwise refuse ; but if the nourishing property of the hay has been impaired, or it has acquired an injurious principle, the animal will either lose condition, or become diseased. Much more injury is done by eating damaged hay or musty oats than is generally imagined. There will be sufficient saving in the diminished cost of the provender by the introduction of the straw, and the improved condition of the horse, without poisoning him with the refuse of the farm. For old horses, and for those with defective teeth, chaff is peculiarly useful, and for them the grain should be broken down as well as the fodder. While the mixture of chaff with the corn prevents it from being too rapidly de- voured and a portion of it swallowed whole, and therefore the stomach is not too loade 1 with that on which, as containing the most nutriment, its chief digestive powe* •hould be exerted, yet, on the whole, a great deal of time is gained by this mode ot feeding, and more is left for rest. When a horse comes in wearied at the close of the day, it occupies, after he has eaten his corn, two or three hours to clear his rack On the system of manger-feeding, the chaff being already cut into small pieces, ana the beans and oats bruised, he is able fully to satisfy his appetite in an hour and a half. Two additional hours are therefore devoted to rest. This is a circumstance desorvincr of muck consideration even in the farmer's stable, ind of immense conse 32 874 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. quence to the postmaster, the stage-coach proprietor, and the owner of iveiy Iiarcl worked horse. Manger food will be the usual support of the farmer's horse during the winter, and while at constant or occasional hard work ; but from the middle of April to the enc of July, he may be fed with this mixture in the day and turned out at night, or h« may remain out during every rest-day. A team in constant employ should not, how- ever, be suffered to be out at night after the end of July. The farmer should take care that the pasture is thick and good ; and that the dis- tance from the yard is not too great, or the fields too large, otherwise a very consid- erable portion of time will be occupied in catching the horses in the morning. He will likewise have to take into consideration the sale he would have for his hay, and the necessity for sweet and untrodden pasture for his cattle. On the whole, however, turning out in this way, when circumstances will admit of it, will be found to be more beneficial for the horse, and cheaper than soiling in the yard.* The horse of the inferior farmer is sometimes fed on hay or grass alone, and the animal, although he rarely gets a feed of corn, maintains himself in tolerable condi- tion, and does the work that is required of him : but hay and grass alone, however good in quality, or in whatever quantity allowed, will not support a horse under hard work. Other substances containing a larger proportion of nutriment in a smaller compass, have been added. They shall be briefly enumerated, and an estimate form- ed of their comparative value. In almost every part of Great Britain, OATS have been selected as that portion of the food which is to afford the principal nourishment. They contain seven hundred and forty-three parts out of a thousand of nutritive matter. They should be about or somewhat less than a year old, heavy, dry, and sweet. New oats will weigh ten 07 fifteen per cent, more than old ones ; but the difference consists principally in watery matter, which is gradually evaporated. New oats are not so readily ground down by the teeth as old ones. They form a more glutinous mass, difficult to digest, and, when eaten in considerable quantities, are apt to occasion colic and even staggers. [f they are to be used before they are from three to five months old, they would be materially improved by a little kiln-drying. There is no fear for the horses from simple drying, if the corn was good when it was put into the kiln. The old oat forms, when chewed, a smooth and uniform mass, which readily dissolves in the sto- mach, and yields the nourishment which it contains. Perhaps some chemical change may have been slowly effected in the old oat, disposing it to be more readily assimi- lated. Oats should be plump, bright in colour, and free from unpleasant smell or taste. The musty smell of wetted or damaged corn is produced by a fungus which grows upon the seed, and which has an injurious effect on the urinary organs, and often on the intestines, producing profuse staling, inflammation of the kidneys, colic and inflammation of the bowels. This musty smell is removed by kiln-drying the oat ; but care is h<,ie requisite that too great a degree of heat is not employed. It should be sufficient to destroy the fun- * Professor Stewart thus sums up the comparative advantages of chaff and racked feed- Ulff •— "Where the stablemen are careful, waste of fodder is diminished, but not prevented, oy feeding from the manger. " Where the racks are good, careful stablemen may prevent nearly all waste of fodder with- out cutting it. " An accurate distribution of the fodder is not a very important object. " No horse seems to lise his corn the better for being mingled with chaff. " Among half-starved horses chaff-cutting promotes the consumption of damaged fodder. " Full-fed horses, rather than eat the mixture of sound with unsound, will reject the whole or eat less than their work demands. " Chaff is more easily eaten than hay. This is an advantage to old horses and others work- ing all day — a disadvantage when the horses stand long in the stable. " Chaff insures complete mastication and deliberate digestion of the corn. It is of COR wderable, and of most importance in this respect. All the fodder needs not to be mingled with the corn, one pound of chaff being sufficient to secure the mastication and slow ingestion of four pounds of corn. " The cost of cutting all the fodder, especially for heavy horses, is repaid only when hay w dear, and wasted in large quantities. " Among hard-working horses bad food should never be cut." — Stewart's Stable CEeotu nv, D. 225, FOOD. 375 gas without injuring the life of the seed. Many peisons, but withoi i jus/ cause, have considerable fear of the kiln-burnt oat. It is said to produce inflammation of the bladder, and of the eyes, and mangy affections of the skin. The fact is, that many of the kiln-dried oats that are given to horses were damaged before they were dried, and thus became unhealthy. A considerable improvement would be effected by cutting the unthreshed oat-straw into chaff, and the expense of threshing would be saved. Oat-straw is better than that of barley, but does not contain so much nu trirnent as that of wheat. When the horse is fed on hay and oats, the quantity of the oats must vary with hia size and the work to be performed. In winter, four feeds, or from ten to fourteen pounds of oats in the day, will be a fair allowance for a horse of fifteen hands one or two inches high, and that has moderate work. In summer, half the quantity, with green food, will be sufficient. Those who work on the farm have from ten to four- teen pounds, and the hunter from twelve to sixteen. There are no efficient and safe substitutes for good oats; but, on the contrary, we are much inclined to believe that they possess an invigorating property which is not found in other food. • Oatmeal will form a poultice more stimulating than one composed of linseed meal alone — or they may be mingled in different proportions, as circumstances require. In the form of gruel it constitutes one of the most important articles of diet for the sick horse — not, indeed, forced upon him, but a pail containing it being slung in his box, and of which he will soon begin to drink when water is denied. Few grooms make good gruel ; it is either not boiled long enough, or a sufficient quantity of oatmeal has not been used. The proportions should be, a pound of meal thrown into a gallon of water, and kept constantly stirred until it boils, and five minutes afterwards. White-water, made by stirring a pint of oatmeal in a pail of water, the chill being taken from it, is an excellent beverage for the thirsty and tired horse. BARLEY is a common food of the horse on various parts of the Continent, and, until the introduction of the oat, seems to have constituted almost his only food. It is more nutritious than oats, containing nine hundred and twenty parts of nutritive matter in every thousand. There seems, however, to be something necessary be- sides a great proportion of nutritive matter, in order to render any substance whole- some, strengthening, or fattening; therefore it is that, in many horses that are hardly worked, and, indeed, in horses generally, barley does not agree with them so well as oats. They are occasionally subject to inflammatory complaints, and particularly to surfeit and munge. When barley is given, the quantity should not exceed a peck daily. It should always be bruised, and the chaff should consist of equal quantises of hay and bar- ley-straw, and not cut too short. If the farmer has a quantity of spotted or unsale- able barley that he wishes thus to get rid of, he must very gradually accustom hi* horses to it, or he will probably produce serious illness among them. For horses that are recovering from illness, barley, in the form of malt, is often serviceable, as tempt- ing the appetite and recruiting the strength. It is best given in mashes — water, con- siderably below the boiling heat, being poured upon it, and the vessel or pail kept covered for half an hour. Grains fresh from the mash-tub, either alone, or mixed with oats or chaff, or both, may be occasionally given to horses of slow draught; the} would, however, afford very insufficient nourishment for horses of quicker or harder work. WHEAT is, in Great Britain, more rarely given than barley. It contains nine hun- dred and fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. When farmers have a damaged or un- marketable sample of wheat, they sometimes give it to their horses, and, being at Srst used in small quantities, they become accustomed to it, and thrive and work well : it must, however, always be bruised and given in chaff. Wheat contains a greater portion of gluten, or sticky, adhesive matter, than any other kind of grain. ft is difficult of digestion, and apt to cake and form obstructions in the bowels. This will oftener be the case if the horse is suffered to drink much water soon after feed- ;.ng upon wheat. Fermentation, colic, and death, are occasionally the consequence of eating any great quantity of wheat. A horse that is fed on wheat should have very little hay The proportion should not be more than one truss of hay to two of straw. Wheaten flour, boiled in water to the thickness of starch, is given with good effect injr, and especially if combined with chalk and opium. THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. BRAN, 01 the ground husk of the wheat, used to be frequently given to sick horse* r»n account of the supposed advantage derived from its relaxing- the bowels. There is no doubt that it does operate gently on the intestinal canal, and assists in quick- ening the passage of its contents, when it is occasionally given ; but it must not be a constant, or even frequent food. Mr. Ernes attended three mills at which many horses were kept, and there were always two or three cases of indigestion from the accumulation of bran or pollard in the large intestines. Bran may, however, be use- ful as an occasional aperient in the form of a mash, but never should become a regu- lar article of food. BEANS. — These form a striking illustration of the principle, that the nourishing 01 strengthening effects of the different articles of food depend more on some peculiar property which they possess, or some combination which they form, than on the ac- tual quantity of nutritive matter. Beans contain but five hundred and seventy parts of nutritive matter, yet they add materially to the vigour of the horse. There are many horses that will not stand hard work without beans being minglt d with their food, and these not horses whose tendency to purge it may be necessary to restrain by the astringency of the bean. There is no traveller who is not aware of the differ- ence in the spirit and continuance of his horse whether he allows or denies him beans on his journey. They afford not merely a temporary stimulus, but they may be daily used without losing their power, or producing exhaustion. They are indispensable to the hard-worked coach-horse. Washy horses could never get through their work without them ; and old horses would often sink under the task imposed upon them. They should not be given to the horses whole or split, but crushed. This will make a meterial difference in the quantity of nutriment that will be extracted. They are sometimes given to turf horses, but only as an occasional stimulant. Two pounds of beans may, with advantage, be mixed with the chaff of the agricultural horse, during the winter. In summer the quantity of beans should be lessened, or they should be altogether discontinued. Beans are generally given whole. This is very absurd ; for the young horse whose teeth are strong, seldom requires them ; while the old horse, to whom they are in a manner necessary, is scarcely able to masticate them, swallows many of them which he is unable to break, and drops much corn from his mouth in the ineffectual attempt to crush them. Beans should not be merely split, but crushed ; they will even then give sufficient employment to the grinders of tho animal. Some postmasters use chaff with beans instead of oats. With hardly- worked horses they may possibly be allowed; but, in general cases, beans, without oats, would be too binding and stimulating, and would produce costiveness, and pro- bably megrims or staggers. Beans should be at least a twelvemonth old before they are given to the horse, and they should be carefully preserved from damp and mouldiness, which at least disgust the horse if they do no other harm, and harbour an insect that destroys the inner part of the bean. The straw of the bean is nutritive and wholesome, and is usually given to the horses. Its nutritive properties are supposed to be little inferior to those of oats. The small and plump bean is generally the best. PEAS are occasionally given. They appear to be in a slight degree more nourish- ing than beans, and not so heating. They contain five hundred and seventy-four parts of nutritive matter. For horses of slow work they may be used ; but the Quantity of chaff should be increased, and a few oats added. They have not been Dund to answer with horses of quick draught. It is essential that they should be crushed ; otherwise, on account of their globular form, they are apt to escape from the teeth, and many are swallowed whole. Exposed to warmth and moisture in the stomach, they swell considerably, and may painfully and injuriously distend it. The peas that are given to horses should be sound, and at least a twelvemonth old. In some northern counties pea-meal is frequently used, not only as an excellent food for the horse, but as a remedy for diabetes. LINSEED is sometimes given to sick horses — raw, ground, and boiled. It is sup- posed to be useful in cases of catarrh.* * " Mr. Black, veterinary surgeon of the 14th Dragoons, says that sugar was tried as an article of food during the Peninsular War. Ten horses were selected, each of wkich got 8 Bounds r day at four rations. They took it very readily, and their coats became fine smooth FOOD. 377 Herbage green and dry, constitutes a principal part of the food ol the horee. There Are few thu.gs with regard to which the farmer is so careless as the mixture of grasses cm both his upland and meadow pasture. Hence we find, in the same field, the ray- grass, coming to perfection onlj in a loamy soil, not fit to cut until the middle or lat- ter part of July, and yielding little aftermath ; the meadow fox-tail, best cultivated ir a clayey soil, fit for the scythe in the beginning of June, and yielding a plentifu aftermath ; the glaucous fescue-grass, ready at the middle of June, and rapidly dete- riorating in value as its seeds ripen; and the fertile meadow-grass, increasing in value antil the end of July. These are circumstances the importance of which will, at no distant period, be recognised. In the mean time, Sinclair's account of the different grasses, or the condensation of the most important part of his work in Sir Humphry Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, or Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, are well deserving of the diligent perusal of the farmer. Hay is most in perfection when it is about a twelvemonth old. The horse perhaps would prefer it earlier, but it is neither so wholesome nor so nutritive, and often has a purgative quality. When it is about a year old, it retains or should retain some- what of its green colour, its agreeable smell and its pleasant taste. It has undergone the slow process of fermentation, by which the sugar which it contains is developed, and its nutritive quality is fully exercised. Old hay becomes dry and tasteless, and innutritive and unwholesome. After the grass is cut, and the hay stacked, a slight degree of fermentation takes place in it. This is necessary for the development of the saccharine principle ; but occasionally it proceeds too far and the hay becomes mowburnt, in which state it is injurious, or even poisonous. The horse soon shows the effect which it has upon him. He has diabetes to a considerable degree — he becomes hidebound — his strength is wasted — his thirst is excessive, and he is almost worthless. Where the system of manger-feeding is not adopted, or where hay is still allowed at night, and chaff and corn in the day, there is no error into which the farmer is so apt to fall as to give an undue quantity of hay, and that generally of the worst kind. If the manger system is good, there can be no necessity for hay, or only for a small quantity of it; but if the rack is overloaded, the greedy horse wil. be eating all night, instead of taking his rest— when the time for the morning feed arrives, his stomach will be already filled, and he will be less capable of work from the want of sleep, and from the long-continued distension of the stomach rendering it impossible for the food to be properly digested. It is a good practice to sprinkle the hay with water in which salt has been dis- solved. It is evidently more palatable to the animal, who will leave the best unsalted hay for that of an inferior quality that has been moistened with brine ; and there can be no doubt that the salt very materially assists the process of digestion. The pre- ferable way of salting the hay is to sprinkle it over the different layers as the rick is formed. From its attraction for water, it would combine with that excess of moisture which, in wet seasons, is the cause of too rapid and violent fermentation, and of the hay becoming mowburnt, or the rick catching fire, and it would become more incor- porated with the hay. The only objection to its being thus used is, that the coloul of the hay is not so bright; but this will be of little consequence for home consump- ' tion. Of the value of TARES, as forming a portion of the late spring and summer food of the stabled and agricultural horse, there can be no doubt. They are cut after the pods are formed, but a considerable time before the seeds are ripe. They supply a larger quantity of food for a limited time than almost any other forage-crop. The vicia saliva is the most profitable variety of the tare. It is very nutritive, and acts as a gentle aperient. When surfeit-lumps appear on the skin, and the horse begins to rub him self against the divisions of the stall, and the legs swell, and the heels threaten tc crack, a few tares, cut up with the chaff, or given instead of a portion of the hay, will afford considerable relief. Ten or twelve pounds may be allowed daily, and half thai and glossy. They got no corn, and only 7 pounds of hay, instead of the ordinary allowance whicn is 12 pounds. The sugar seemed to supply the place of the corn so well, that it woald have been p*obably given abroad ; but peace came, and the circumstance* that rendered ihe use of sugai for corn desirable ceased, and the horses returned to their usual diet. That xhe •ugar might not be appropriated to other purposes it was slightly scented witF assafcB'.ida which did net produce any apparen* effect upon them." 33* 2x 378 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT Of THI HORSE. weight of hay subtricted. It is an erroneous notion, that, g en ir moderate quanti ties,&they either roughen the coat or lessen the capability for Jiard \i ork. RYE GRASS affords a valuable article of food, but is inferior to the tare. It is no BO nutritive. It is apt to scour and, occasionally, and late in the spring, it ha^ ap peared to be injurious to the horse. CLOVER, for soiling the horse, is inferior to the tare and the rye grass, but neverthe- less, is useful when they cannot be obtained. Clover hay is, perhaps, preferable ti meadow hay for chaff. It will sometimes tempt the sick horse, and may be given with advantage to those of slow and heavy work ; but custom seems properly to have forbidden it to the hunter and the hackney. LUCERN, where it can be obtained, is preferable even to tares, and SAIN-FOIN is supe- rior to lucern. Although they contain but a small quantity of nutritive matter, it is easily digested, and perfectly assimilated. They speedily put both muscle and fat on the horse that is worn down by labour, and they are almost a specific for hide- bound. Some farmers have thought so highly of lucern as to substitute it for oats. This may he allowable for the agricultural horse of slow and not severe work, but he from whom speedier action is sometimes required, and the horse of all work, must have a propoition of hard meat within him. THE SWEDISH TURNIP is an article of food the value of which has not been suffi- ciently appreciated, and particularly for agricultural horses. Although it is far from containing the quantity of nutritive matter which has been supposed, that which it has seems to be capable of easy and complete digestion. It should be sliced with chopped straw, and without hay. It quickly fattens the horse, and produces a smooth glossy coat and a loose skin. It will be good practice to give it once in the day, and that at night when the work is done. CARROTS. — The virtues of this root are not sufficiently known, whether as contri- buting to the strength and endurance of the sound horse, or the rapid recovery of the sick one. To the healthy horse they should be given sliced in his chaff. Half a bushel will be a fair daily allowance. There is little provender of which the horse is fonder. The following account of the value of the carrot is not exaggerated. "This root is held in much esteem. There is none better, nor perhaps so good. When first given it is slightly diuretic and laxative ; but as the -horse becomes accustomed to it, these effects cease to be produced. They also improve the state of the skin. They form a good substitute for grass, and an excellent alterative for horses out of condi- tion. To sick and idle horses they render corn unnecessary They are beneficial in all chronic diseases connected with breathing, and have a marked inriuence upon chronic cough and broken wmd. They are serviceable in diseases of the skin, and in combination with oats they restore a worn horse much sooner than oats alone."* POTATOES have been given, and with advantage, in their raw state, sliced with the chaff; but, where it has been convenient to boil or steam them, the benefit has been far more evident Purging has then rarely ensued. Some have given boiled potatoes alone, and horses, instead of rejecting them, have soon preferred them even to the oat ; but it is better to mix them with the usual manger feed, in the proportion of one pound of potatoes to two and a half pounds of the other ingredients. The use of the potato must depend on its cheapness, and the facility for Doling it. Half a dozen horses would soon repay the expense of a steaming boiler in the saving of provender, without taking into the account their improved condition and capability for work.f A horse fed on potatoes should have his quantity of water materially curtailed. FURZE has sometimes been given during the winter months. There is considerable trouble attending the preparation of it, although its plentifulness and little value for other purposes would, on a large farm, well repay that trouble. The furze is cut down at abi-ut three or four years' growth ; the green branches of that and the pre- loding year are bruised in a mill, and then given to the horses in the state in which they come from the mill, or cut up with the chaff. Horses are very fond of it. If * Stewart's Stable (Economy, p 183. t Professor Low says that 15 Ibs. of potatoes yield as much nourishment as four pounds and a half of oats. Von Thayer asserts that three bushels are equal to 112 Ibs. of hay ; and Cur- «ven, wno trietl potatoes extensively in the feeding of horses, says that an acre goes as far ai •our acres of ha; . FOOD. 37i twenty pounds of the furze are given, five pounds of straw the, beans, and three pound's of the oats, may be withdrawn. It may not be uninteresting to conclude this catalogue of ttie different articles of horse-food with a list of the quantities of nutritive matter contained in each of them for although these quantities cannot be considered as expressing the actual value of each, because other circumstances besides the simple quantity of nutriment seem t«, influence their effect in supporting the strength and condition of the horse, yet many a useful hint may be derived when the farmer IOOKS ovei1 the proaace of his soil, and inquires what other grasses or vegetables might suit his land. The list is partly taken from Sir Humphry Davy's Agricultural Chemistry : — 1000 parts of wheat con- tain 955 parts of nutritive matter ; barley, 920 ; oats, 743 ; peas, 574 ; beans, 570 ; potatoes, 230; red beet, 148; parsneps, 99 ; carrots, 98. Of the grasses, 1000 parts of the meadow cat's-tail contain, at the time of seeding, 98 parts of nutritive matter; narrow-leaved meadow grass in seed, and sweet-scented soft grass in flower, 95; narrow-leaved and flat-stalked meadow grass in flower, fertile meadow grass in seed, and tall fescue in flower, 93; fertile meadow grass, meadow fescue, reed-like fescue, and creeping soft grass in flower, 78 ; sweet-scented soft grass in flower, and the aftermath, 77; florin, cut in the winter, 76; tall fescue, in the aftermath, and meadow soft grass in flower, 74 ; cabbage, 73 ; crested dog's-tail and brome, when flowering, 71 ; yellow oat, in flower, 66 ; Swedish turnips, 64 ; narrow-leaved meadow grass, creeping beet, round-headed cocksfoot, and spiked fescue, 59 ; roughish and Fertile meadow grass, flowering, 56 ; florin, in summer, 54 ; common turnips, 42 ; sain-foin, and broad-leaved and long-rooted clover, 39 ; white clover, 32 ; and lucern, 23. The times of feeding should be as equally divided as convenience will permit; and when it is likely that the horse will be kept longer than usual from home, the nose- bag should invariably be taken. The small stomach of the horse is emptied in a few hours ; and if he is suffered to remain hungry much beyond his accustomed time, he will afterwards devour his food so voraciously as to distend the stomach and endanger an attack of staggers. When this disease appears in the farmer's stable, he may attribute it to various causes; the true one, in the majority of instances, is irregularity in feeding. If the reader will turn back to page 97, he will be convinced that this deserves more serious attention than is generally given to it. Wben extra work is required from the animal, the system of management is often injudicious, for a double feed is put before him, and as soon as he has swallowed ft, he is started. It would be far better to give him a double feed on the previous eve- ning, which would be digested before he is wanted, and then he might set out in the morning after a very small portion of corn has been given to him, or perhaps only a little hay. One of the most successful methods of enabling a horse to get well through a long journey, is to give him only a little at a time while on the road, and at night to indulge him with a double feed of corn and a full allowance of beans. WATER. — This is a part of stable management little regarded by the farmer. He lets his horses loose morning and night, and they go to the nearest pond or brook and drink their fill,, and no harm results, for they obtain that kind of water which nature designed them to have, in a manner prepared for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures. The dif- ference between hard and soft water is known to every one. In hard water, soap will curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saccharine matter of the malt cannot be fully obtained in the process of brewing. There is nothing in which the different effect of hard and soft water is so evident, as in the stomach and digestive organs of the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh from the well, will assuredly make the coat of a horse unaccustomed to it stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct or experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this, for he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft, and he will leave the mos< transparent and pure water of the well for a river, although the stream may be tuibid and even for the muddiest pool.* He is injured, however, not so much by the hard- ness of the well-water as by its coldness — particularly by its coldness in summer, and when it is many degrees below the temperature of the atmosphere. The wate* * Some trainers have so much fear of hard or strange -.vater, that they carry with them tc the different courses the water that the animal has been accustomed to drink, am? that whick th*v know agrees with it. 380 THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. n the bi^ok and the pond being warmed by long exposure to the air, as well as having become soft, the horse drinks freely of it without danger. If the horse were watered three times a day, and especially in summer, he would often be saved from the sad torture of thirst, and from many a disease. Whoever has observed the eagerness with which the over-worked horse, hot and tired, plunges hia muzzle into the pail, and the difficulty of stopping him until he has drained the last drop, may form some idea of what he had previously suffered, and will not wonder ai the violent spasms, and inflammation, and sudden death, that often result. There is a prejudice in the minds of many persons against the horse being fully supplied with water. They think that it injures his wind, and disables him for quick and hard work. If he is galloped, as he too often is, immediately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured; but if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst at the intervals of rest, he would be happier and better. It is a fact unsuspected by those who have not carefully observed the horse, that if he has frequent access to water, he will not drink so much in the course of the day as another will do, who, to cool his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not when to stop. On a journey, a horse should be liberally supplied with water. When he is a little cooled, two or three quarts may be given to him, and after that, his feed. Before he has finished his corn, two or three quarts more may be offered. He will take no harm if this is repeated three or four times during a long and hot day. It is a judicious rule with travellers, that when a horse begins to refuse his food, he should be pushed no farther that day. It may, however, be worth while to try whether this does not proceed from thirst, as much as from exhaustion, for in many instances his appetite and his spirits will return soon after he has partaken of the refreshing draught. MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. — This is the only division of stable management that remains to be considered, and one sadly neglected by the carter and groom. The feet should be carefully examined every morning, for the shoes may be loose and the horse would have been stopped in the middle of his work; or the clenches may be raised, and endanger the wounding of his legs; or the shoe may begin to press upon the sole or the heel, and bruises of the sole, or corn, may be the result; ana, the horse having stood so long in the stable, every little increase of heat in the foot, or lameness, will be more readily detected, and serious disease may often be prevented. When the horse comes in at night, and after the harness has been taken off and stowed away, the heels should be we.* brushed out. Hand-rubbing will be prefer- able to washing, especially in the agricultural horse, whose heels, covered with long hair, can scarcely be dried again. If the dirt is suffered to accumulate in that long hair, the heels will become sore, and grease will follow ; and if the heels are washed, and particularly during the winter, grease will result from the coldness occasioned by the slow evaporation of the moisture. The feet should be stopped — even the feet of the farmer's horse, if he remains in the stable. Very little clay should be used in the stopping, for it will get hard and press upon the sole. Cowdung is the best stop- ping to preserve the feet cool and elastic ; but, before the stopping is applied, the picker should be run round the whole of the foot, between the shoe and the sole, in order to detect any stone that may have insinuated itself there, or a wound on any other part of the sole. For the hackney and hunter, stopping is indispensable. After several days' hard work it will afford very great relief to take the shoes off, having put plenty of litter under the horse, or to turn him, if possible, into a loose-box ; ana the shoes of every horse, whether h irdly worked or not, should be removed or changed »nc« in every three we3ke. THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 381 CHAPTER XXI. THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. THK skin of die horse resembles in construction that of other animals. It consists of three 1 lyers, materially differing in their structure and office. Externally is THE CUTICLE — the epidermis or scarf-skin — composed of innumerable thin, transparent scales, and extending over the whole animal. If the scarf-skin is examined by means of a microscope, the existence of scales like those of a fish, is readily detect- ed. In the action of a blister they are raised from the skin beneath in the form of pellucid bladders, and, in some diseases, as in mange, they are thrown off in hard, dry, white scales, numerous layers of which are placed one above another. In every part of the body the scarf-skin is permeated by innumerable pores, some of which permit the passage of the hair — through others the perspirable matter finda a passage — others are perforated by tubes through which various unctuous secre- tions make their escape, while, through a fourth variety, numerous fluids and gases are inhaled. It is destitute of nerves and blood-vessels, and its principal use seema to be to protect the cutis from injury, and to restrain and moderate its occasional mor bid sensibility. There is at all times a singular change taking place in this outer covering of tho animal. There is a constant alteration and renewal of every part of it, but it adheres to the true skin through the medium of the pores, and also numerous littl« eminences, or projections, which seem to be prolongations of the nerves of the skin. The cuticle is in itself insensible ; but one of its most important functions is to pro- tect and defend the parts beneath, which are so often exposed to the effects of a mor- bid sensibility. Beneath the cuticle is a thin, soft substance, through which the pores ami eminencea of the true skin pass. It is termed the rete mucosum, from its web-like structure, and its soft mucous consistence. Its office is to cover the minute vessels and nerves in their way from the cutis to the cuticle. It is also connected with the colour of the skin. In horses with white hair the rete mucosum is white ; it is brown in those 01 a brown colour — black in the black, and in patches of different colours with those the hue of whose integument varies. Like the cuticle it is reproduced after abrasion. or other injury. The cutis, or true skin, lies beneath the rete mucosum. It is decidedly of a fibrous texture, elastic, but with difficulty lacerated — exceedingly vascular, and highly sen- sitive. It is the substance which is converted into leather when removed from the body, and binds together the different parts of the frame. In some places it does this literally and clings so closely to the substance beneath that it scarcely admits of any motion : this is the case about the forehead and the back, while upon the face, the sides and flanks, it hangs in loosened folds. In the parts connected with progression it is folded into various duplicatures, that the action of the animal may admit of the least possible obstruction. The cutis is thinnest, and most elastic, on those parts that are least covered with hair, or where the hair is altogether deficient, as the lips, the muzzle, and the inside of the flanks. Whatever is the colour of the rete mucosum, the true skin is of a pale white ; in fact, the cutis has no connection with the colour of the hair. Of its general char- acter, Mr. Percivall gives a very accurate description : — " It appears to consist of a dense substratum of cellular tissue, with which are interwoven fibres of a liga- mentous nature, in such a manner that innumerable areolae, like the meshes of a net, are formed in it. These areolae open, through correspondent pores in the cuti- cle, upon the external surface, and are for the purpose of transmitting thither blood- vessels and absorbents, giving passage to the hair, and lodging the various secretory organs of the skin."* Over a great part of the frame lies a singular muscle peculiar tc quadrupeds, an<3 «oorp extensive and powerful in the thin-skinned and thin-haired animals, than in * PeroivalPs Anatomy of the Horse, p. 400. 882 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. those with thic/ter hides. It reaches from the poll over the whole of the carcase, anc down to the arm before, and the stifle behind. By its contraction the skin is pucker- ed in every direction ; and if it acts strongly and rapidly, the horse is not only ena- bled to shake off any insect or fly that may annoy him, but sometimes to displace a great part of his harness, and to render it difficult for the most expert rider to keep his seat. This muscle also assists the skin in bracing that part of the frame which it coders, and, perhaps, gives additional strength to the muscles beneath. It is called the panniculus carhosus, or fleshy panicle or covering. The skin answers the double purpose of protection and strength. Where it is necessary that the parts should be bound and knit together, it adheres so tightly tha<* we can scarcely raise it. Thus the bones of the knees and the pasterns and the ten ions of the legs, on which so much stress is frequently thrown, are securely tied down and kept in their places. It is in order to take additional advantage of this binding and strengthening power that we fire the legs of overworked horses, in whom the sinews have begun to start, and the ligaments of the joints to swell, or be dis- placed. The skin is tight along the muscles of the back and loins, and down the yet more powerful muscles of the quarters; but in other places it is loosely attached, that it may not interfere with the motions of the animal. About the bri&Ket, and within the arms and at the flanks, it hangs even in folds. Of its strength we have abundant proof, both in the living and dead animal. Its fibres are interlaced in a most curious and intricate manner, so as, when living, to be scarcely lacerable, and converted into leather after death. It is, while the animal is alive, one of the most elastic bodies with which we are acquainted. It not only perfectly adapts itself to the slow growth or decrease of the body, and appears equally to fit, whether the horse is in the plumpest condition 01 reduced to a skeleton ; but, when a portion of it is distended to an extraordinary de- gree, in the most powerful action of the muscles, it, in a moment, again contracts tc its usual dimensions. It is principally indebted for this elasticity to almost innumerable minute glands which pour nut an oily fluid that softens and supples it. When the horse is in health, and every organ discharges its proper functions, a certain quantity of this unctuous matter is spread over the surface of the skin, and is contained in all the pores that penetrate its substance ; and the skin becomes pliable, easily raised from the texture beneath, and presenting that peculiar yielding softness and elasticity which experi- ence has proved to be the best proofs of the condition, or, in other words, the general health of the animal. Then, too, from the oiliness and softness of the skin, the hair lies in its natural and proper direction, and is smooth and glossy. When the system is deranged, and especially the digestive system, and the vessels concerned in the nourishment of the animal feebly act, those of the skin evidently sympathize. This oily secretion is no more thrown out; the skin loses its pliancy ; it seems to cling to the. animal, and we have that peculiar appearance which we call hide-bound. This, however, requires attentive consideration. We observe a horse in the summer. We find him with. a thin, smooth, glossy coat, and his extremities clean and free almost from a single rough or misplaced hair. We meet with him again towards the winter, when the thermometer has fallen almost or quite to the freezing point, and we scarcely recognize him in his thick, rough, coarse, colourless coat, and his legs enveloped in long, shaggy hair. The health of the horse is, to a certain degree, deranged. He is dull, languid, easily fatigued. He will break into a sweat with the slightest exertion, and it is almost impossible tho- roughly to dry him. He may perhaps feed as well as usual, although that will not generally be the case, but he is not equal to the demands which we are compelled to make upon him. This process goes on for an uncertain time, depending on the constitution of the animal, until nature has effected a change, and then he once more rallies : but a great Hlteratlon has taken place in him — the hair has lost its soft and glossy character, and is become dry and staring. The skin ceases to secrete that peculiar unctuous mattei which kept it soft and flexible, and becomes dry and sraly ; and the exhalents on the surface, having become relaxed, are frequently pouring out a profuse perspiration, without any apparent adequate cause for it. 80 passes the approa< h to winte^, and the owner complains sadly of the appear »nce of his steed, and, a^ctrding to the old custom, gives him plenty of cordia HIDE-BOUND. 383 oalls,-- perhaps too many of ft.i?m, — on the whole not being unserviceable at thin r:niical period, yet not productive of a great deal of good. At length the animal rallies of nimself, and although not so strong and full of spirits as he ought to be, is hardier and moie lively than he was, and able to struggle with the cold of the coming winter.* What a desideratum in the management of the horse would be a course of treat- ment that would render all this unnecessary ! This desideratum has been found— a free escape of perspiration, a moist and softened state of the skin, an evident in- crease of health and capability of enduring fatigue, and working on shorter supply of food than he could before. This is said to be perfonned by the clipping and singe- ing systems. Mr. Thomas Turner, who was almost one of the earliest advocates of these sys- ems, states that during the months of October and November an inordinate growth )f hair is observed over the whole surface of the body, and in many horses as early as the beginning of September, and almost invariably prevails, more or less, in every horse that is not thorough-bred. The debilitating effects thereby induced are profuse perspiration on the least possible exertion — depression of the animal spirits, and tem- porary loss of appetite. The immediate removal of all the superfluous hair by close clipping, instantly proves so powerful a tonic to the animal, that he unhesitatingly affirms it to be inferior to none at present known in our pharmacopoeia. Mr. Turner adds.--" Now, signal as the success of clipping has been, I do entertain a hope, and am of opinion that, in the majority of instances, it may be superseded by singeing under certain modifications. "f We may not. perhaps, be able satisfactorily to explain the apparently magical effects of clipping and singeing on the general constitution, and particularly the wind of the horse, or the respiratory functions generally, but there is no doubt of their ex- istence. An increased tone is given to the system generally ; and probably, in some way not yet sufficiently developed, the increased current of the electric fluid may have much to do with it- Mr. Snewing gives an interesting account of the effect of clipping on two horsea in his establishment. He had a cob, with a fixed catarrh of several months' stand- ing. It did not interfere with the animal's general health, but was a source of con- siderable annoyance. At length the owner determined to sell him ; but first he had him clipped. After a few days his attention was drawn to the circumstance, that either the horse's cough must have left him, or, from repeatedly hearing it, he had ceased to regard it. He watched the animal, and, truly enough, he found that the rough had entirely disappeared. He rode him through the winter and the following summer, and there was no return of it. The other instance was in a mare which he had after this one was sold. In the months of August, September and October, 1841, she was continually the subject of intermittent cough. He had her clipped, and in a few days she ceased to cough, and has not been heard to cough from that time. HIDE-BOUND. This is not so much a diminution of the cellular or fatty substance between the skin and the muscles beneath, as it is an alteration in the skin itself. It is a hard- ness and unyieldingness of the skin from the want of the oily matter on its surface * Mr. E. Gabriel, V. S., on the Treatment of the Horse in Autumn. — Veterinarian, vol. xiii, 627. 1 Veterinarian, vol. xiv., 18. In justice, however, to an execllent sportsman, Nimrod, we must quote another opinion, and with that the subject shall be left to the consideration of our readers. " On the subject of clipping, I cannot agree with Mr. Gabriel as to the call for it, much less admit its almost universal adoption. I would clip road-coach horses, and a hunter that had been summered entirely at grass, despairing of condition on any other terms. It is a mere substitute for good grooming. As for its almost universal adoption, such is far from being the case. I did rot Bee three clipped horses last year (1840) ; at Melton, in the Quorn stables, not one, nor in Mr. Foljambe's. Singed ones I did see to a certain extent; but a hardy-riding Meltonian told me that he would have no more spirits of wine charged in his groom's book. ' A mere substitute,' said he, 'in my stable for the old-fashioned elbow-grease.' In my opinion the aorse is not yet foaled which cannot be got into perfect condition without this outrage on .ia rure." — The Veteriiwrian, voT. xiv., p. ?5. 384 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. and in its substance. It is the difference that is presented to the feeling 05 well «ix ried and supple leather, and that which has become dry and unyielding. The surface of the skin becoming dry and hard, the scales of the cuticle are n« .onger penetrated by the hair, but, separating themselves in every direction, give thai peculiar roughness to the coat which accompanies want of condition. It betokens impaired function o: the vessels everywhere, and particularly those of the stomach and bowels. Hide-bound is not so much a disease as a symptom of disease, and particularly of the digestive organ*-- and our remedies must be applied riot so much to the skin — although we have, in friction and in warmth, most valuable agents in pro- ducing a healthy condition of the integuments — as to the cause of the" hide-bound, and the state of the constitution generally. Every disease that can affect the general system may produce this derangement of the functions of the skin. Glanders, when become constitutional, is strongly indicated by the unthrifty appearance of the coat. Chronic cough, grease, farcy, and founder, are accompanied by hide bound ; and diet too sparing, and not adequate to the work exacted, is an unfailing source of it. If the cause is removed, the effect will cease. Should the cause be obscure, as it frequently is — should the horse wear an unthrifty coat, and his hide cling to his ribs, without any apparent disease, we shall generally be warranted in tracing it to sympathy with the actual, although not demonstrable, suspension of some important secretion or function, either of the alimentury canal or the respiratory functions. A few mashes, and a mild dose of physic, are first indi cated, and, simple as they appear to be, they often have a very beneficial effect. The regular action of the bowels being re-established, that of all the organs of the frame will speedily follow. If the horse cannot be spared for physic, alteratives may be administered. There is no better alterative for hide-bound and an unthrifty coat, than that which is in common use, levigated antimony, nitre, and sulphur. The peculiar effect of the antimony and sulphur, and electric influence on the skin, with that of the sulphur on the bowels, and of the nitre on the urinary organs, will be here advan tageously combined. Should the horse not feed well, and there is no indication of fever, a slight tonic may be added, as gentian, or ginger ; but in the majority of cases, attended by loss of condition, and an unthrifty coat, and hide-bound, tonics and aromatics should be carefully avoided. The cause of the impaired action of the vessels being removed, the powers of nature will generally be'suffioient, and had better be left to themselves. There are not any more dangerous medicines in common use in the stable, and especially in cases like these, than tonics and cordials. They often arouse to fatal action a ten- dency to fever that would otherwise have slept, or they produce a state of excitement near akin to fever, and apt to degenerate into it. By the stimulus of a cordial, the secretions may be suddenly roused, and among them, this unctuous secretion from the pores of the skin, so necessary to apparent condition ; but the effect soon passes over, and a repetition of the stimulus is necessary — the habit is soon formed — the dose must be gradually increased, and in the mean time the animal is kept in a state of dangerous excitement, by which the powers of nature must be eventually impaired. Friction may be employed with advantage in the removal of hide-bound. It has repeatedly been shown that this is one of the most efficacious instruments we can use, to call into exercise the suspended energies either of the absorbent or secreting vessels. Warmth may likewise be had recourse to — not warmth of stable, which has been shown to be so injurious, but warmth arising from exercise, and the salu tary, although inexplicable, influence of clipping and singeing. Before this can be fully considered, the hair by which the skin is covered must be described. The base of the bulb whence the hair proceeds being beneath the true skin, it f;a easy to perceive that the hair will grow again, although the cuticle may have been destroyed. A jrood blister, although it may remove the cuticle, and seemingly for a while the hair with it, leaves no lasting trace. Even firing, lightly and skilfully per- formed, and not penetrating through the skin, leaves not much "blemish ; but when, ic broken knees, the true skin is cut through, or destroyed, there will always remain a spot devoid of hair. The method of hastening and perfecting the re-production of tfon ba?r, nas been described in page 267. FORES OF iHE SKIN . — M OU LTI NG. 385 PORES OF THE SKIN. Besides the openings already mentioned, through which proceeds the unctuous fluid that supplies and softens the skin, there are others more numerous, by means of which i vast quantity of aqueous fluid escapes, and perspiration is carried on. As in the auman being, this actually exists in a state of health and quietness, although imper- ceptible ; but when the animal is excited by exercise, or labours under some stages of disease, it becomes visible, and appears in the form of drops. This process of perspiration is not, however, so far under the control of medicine as in the human being. We are not aware of any drugs that will certainly produce it. Warm clothing •eems occasionally to effect it, but this is more in appearance than reality. The insensible perspiration cannot escape through the mass of clothing, and assumes a visible form. This, perhaps, is the case when sheep-skins are applied over the back and loins in " locked jaw." They produce a good effect, acting as a warm poultice over the part, and so contributing to relax the muscular spasms. There are, how- ever, a few medicines, as antimony and sulphur, that have an evident and very con • siderable effect on the skin in opening its pores and exciting its vessels to action. Of the existence of absorbent vessels on the skin, or those which take up some fluid or substance, and convey it into the circulation, we have satisfactory proof. A horse is even more easily salivated than the human being. Salivation has been pro- duced by rubbing a splint with mercurial ointment, previous to blistering ; and a verj few drachms rubbed on the inside of the thighs, will probably produce a greater effect than the practitioner desires. From some parts of the skin, there are peculiar secretions, as that of grease in the heel, and mallenders in the knee. MOULTING. Twice in the year, the hair of the body of the horse is changed. The short, fine ooat of summer would afford little protection against the winter, and that of the wintei would be oppressive to the animal, if it appeared during the summer. The hair of the mane and tail remains. The bulbous root of the hair does not die, but the pulpy matter seems to be removed from the root of the hair, which, thus deprived of ita nourishment, perishes and drops off, and a new hair springs at its side from the same bulb. The hair which is produced in the autumn, is evidently different from that which grows in the spring ; it is coarser., thicker, and not so glossy as the other. As moulting is a process extending over the whole of the skin, and requiring a very con- siderable expenditure of vital power, the health of the animal is generally affected at these times. That energy, and nervous and vital influence, which should support the whole of the frame, is to a great degree determined to the skin, and the animal is lan- guid, and unequal to much hard work. He perspires greatly with the least unusual exertion, and if he is pressed beyond his strength, becomes seriously ill. The treatment which the groom in this case adopts, is most absurd and dangerous. The horse, from the deranged distribution of vital power, is disposed to fever, or he labours under a slight degree of fever, sufficiently indicated by the increased quick- ness of pulse, redness of nose, and heat of mouth. The lassitude and want of appe- tite which are the accompaniments of this febrile state, are mistaken for debility; and cordials of vari6us kinds, some of them exceedingly stimulating, are unsparingly administered. At length, with regard to the hunter, the racer, and even in the hack- Bey and the carriage horse, the scissors or the lamp are introduced, and a new method is established of guarding against this periodical debility, setting at defiance the occa- sional exposure to cold, and establishing a degree of health and strength previously unknown. Friction may be allowed, to assist the falling off of the old hair, and to loosen the cuticle for the appearance of the new hair, but it is somewhat more gently applied than it used to be. The curry-comb is in a great measure banished, and even the brush is not applied too hard or too long. The old hair is not forced off beiore the young hair is ready to take its place. Nature adapts the coat to the climate and to the season. The Sheltie has one as« long and thick as that of a bear; and, as the summer is short and cold in thos** northern islands, the coat is rough and shag-gy during the whole of the year. In the southern parts of OUT country, the short, and, light and glossy coat of summer gradi: 33 2v 36(5 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. ally yi< Ids to the close ant! heavy, and warm clothing of winter. In the deserts ol Arabia, where the winter is rarely cold, the coat remains short and glossy throughout the year. These are wise and kind provisions of nature, and excite our admiration. COLOUR. The colour of the hair admits of every variety, and each colour becomes in turn fashionable. Like that of the skin, it is influenced by, or depends on, the mucous mesh-work under the cuticle. There are comparatively few perfectly white horse« now remaining. The snow-white palfrey, with its round carcass anl barb head, originally from Spain, or perhaps from Barbary, and rarely exceeding the size ot a galloway, is nearly extinct. Some, however, yet remain in the possession of the Duke of Montrose. They are of good constitution, and pleasant in their paces. The majority of white horses aro those that have become so. Light-grey colts begin to grow white before they are five years old, especially if they have not much dark mix- ture about the joints. Grey horses are of different ' shades, from the lightest silver to a dark iron-grey. The silver-grey reminds the observer of the palfrey, improved by an admixture of Arab blood. He does not often exceed fourteen hands and a half in height, and is round carcassed — thin-legged — with oblique pasterns, calculated for a light carriage, or for a lady's riding — seldom subject to disease — but not very fleet, or capable of hard work. The iron-grey is usually a larger horse; higher in the withers, deeper and thinnes in the carcass, more angular in all his proportions, and in many cases a little too long in the legs. Some of these greys make good hackneys and hunters, and especially the Irish horses ; but they are principally used for the carriage. They have more endurance than the flatness of their chest would promise ; but their principal defect is their feet, which are liable to contraction, and yet that contraction not so often accom- panied by lameness as in many other horses. The dappled grey is generally a handsomer and a better horse. All the angular points of the iron-grey are filled up, and with that which not only adds to symmetry, but to use. Whether as a hackney, or, the larger variety, a carriage horse, there are few better, especially since his form has been so materially improved, and so much of his heaviness got rid of, by the free use of foreign blood. There are not, however, sc many dappled greys as there used to be, since the bays have been bred with so much care. The dappled grey, if dark at first, generally retains his colour to old age. Some of the greys approach to a nutmeg, or even bay colour. Many of these are handsome, and most of them are hardy. The roans, of every variety of colour and form, are composed of white mixed with bay, or red, or black. In some it seems to be a natural mixture of the colours; in others it appears as if one colour was powdered or sprinkled over another. They are pretty horses for ladies or light carriages, and many of them easy in their paces, but they do not usually display much blood, nor are they celebrated for endurance. If they should have white fore legs, with white hoofs, they are too often tender-footed, or become so with even a little hard work. The strawberry horse is a mixture of sorrel with white ; usually handsome and pleasant, but more celebrated for these qualities than for strength and endurance. The pied horse is one that has distinct spots or patches of different colours, but generally of white with some other colour. They are not liked as hackneys, on account of their peculiarity of colour, nor in teams of horses ; but they look well when tolerably matched in a phaeton or light carriage. Their value must depend on theii breed. Of themselves they have no peculiar character, except that a white leg and foot is as suspicious in them as it is in the roan. The dun, of the Galloway size, and with considerable blood, is often attached to the curricle or the phaeton. The larger variety is a true farmer's or miller's horse, with no great speed or extraordinary strength, yet a good-tempered, good-feeding, good-constitutioned, useful horse enough. Varieties of the dun, shaded with a darker colour, or dappled, and with some breeding, and not standing too high, are bemitiful animals, and much sought after for light carriages. The cream-colour, of Hanoverian extraction, with his white iris and red pupil, is appropriated to royal use. Attached to the state-carriage of the monarch, he is a superb animal. His bulky, yet perfectly-formed body, his swelling crest, and hi* SURFEIT. 387 proud and lofty action, as if conscious of his office, jualify him for the service that is exacted from him, but we have little experience how far h.e would suit other purposes. Of the chestnuts there are three varieties — the pale red or the sorrel, usually with §ome white, either on the face or the legs — generally lightly made, yet some of them bulky enough for the heaviest loads. Their colour is generally objectionable, and they are supposed to be somewhat deficient in endurance. The light chestnut, with less red and a little more bay or brown, is considered a preferable animal, especially if he has little or nc white about him ; yet even he, although pleasant to ride, is sometimes irritable, and generally weak. We must except one variety, the Suffolk punch ; a heavy horse, and adapted for slow work, but perfect of his kind — whom no labour can daunt, no fatigue overcome. This is a breed now, unfortunately, nearly extinct. The present variety, however crossed, is not equal to the old Suffolk. The dark chestnut is as different a horse from the hackney-like chestnut as can be well imagined ; round in the carcase ; powerful in the quarters, but rather fine in the legs ; possessed of great endurance, and with a constitution that rarely knows an ail- ment, except that the feet are small and disposed to contraction, and the horse is occa- gionally of a hot and unmanageable temper. Of the bays, there are many varieties, and they include the very best of our horses of every description. The bright yellow bay, although very beautiful, and especially if his mane and tail are black, is the least valuable — the lightness of his colour seems to give him some tenderness of constitution. The pure bay, with no white about him, and black from the knees and hocks to the feet, is the most desirable of all. He has generally a good constitution, and good feet ; and, if his conformation is not faulty, will turn out a valuable horse for almost every purpose. The bay-brown has not always so much show and action, but, generally, more strength and endurance, and usefulness. He has greater substance than the lighter bay, and more depth of leg; and, if he had the same degree of breeding, he would be aa handsome, and more valuable. When, however, we arrive at the browns, it is necessary to examine the degree of breeding. This colour is not so fashionable, and therefore these horses have been considerably neglected. There are many good ones, and those that are good are valuable ; others, probably, are only a half or a quarter bred, and therefore compara- tively coarse, yet useful for the saddle and for harness — for slow work, and, occasion- ally, for that which is more rapid. The black-brown is generally more neglected so far as its breed is concerned, and should be more carefully examined. It is valuable if it retains the goodness of con- stitution of the brown and bay-brown. Of the black, greater care has been taken. The heavy black of Lincolnshire and the midland counties is a noble animal, and would be almost beyond price if he could be rendered more active. The next in size constitute the majority of our wagon- horses, and perhaps our best; and, on a smaller breed, and to the improvement of which much attention has been devoted, many of our cavalry are mounted. A few black thorough-bred horses and black hunters are occasionally seen, but the improve- ment of horses of this colour has not been studied, except for the purposes that have been mentioned. Their peculiar high action, while not objectionable for draught, and desirable for the parade, would be unbearable in the roadster. Black horses have been said to be more subject to vice, disease, and blindness, than those of any other colour. This charge is not true to its full extent ; but there certainly are a great many worthless black horses in every part of the country. After all, there is an old saying, that a good horse cannot be of a bad colour; and that it is far more necessary to attend to the conformation and points of the animal than to his colour. The foregoing observations, however, although they admit of many exceptions, may be useful in guiding to the judicious purchase of the horse. SURFEIT. Large pimples or eruptions often appear suddenly on the skin of the hjrse, and •specially in the spring of the year. Occasionally they disappear as quickly as they same. Sometimes they seem to be attended with great itching, but. at other tunes', the annoyance is comparatively little. When these eruptions have remained a few 'ays. the cuticle frequently peels off, and a small scaly spot — rarely a sore — is lett 388 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. This ib called a surfeit, from its resemblance to some eruptions on t te skin of thi human being when indigestible or unwholesome food has been taken. The surfeit is, in some cases, confined to the neck; but it oftener spreads over the sides, back, loins, and quarters. The cause is enveloped in some obscurity. The disease most fre- quently appears when the skin is irritable during or after the process of moulting, OT when it sympathises with any disorder of the stomach. It has been known to follow the eating of poisonous he*bs or mowburnt hay, but, much oftener, it is to be tracec to exposure to cold when the skin was previously irritable and the horse heated by exercise. It has also been attributed to the immoderate drinking of cold water wher. the animal was hot. It is obstruction of some of the pores of the skin and swelling of the surrounding substance, either from primary affection of the skin, or a plethoric gtate of the system, or sympathy with the digestive organs. The state of the patient will sufficiently guide the surgeon as to the course he should pursue. If there is simple eruption, without any marked inflammatory action, alteratives should be resorted to, and particularly those recommended for hidebound n page 476. They should be given on several successive nights. The night is bet- ter than the morning, because the warmth of the stable will cause the antimony and sulphur to act more powerfully on the skin. The horse should be warmly clothed — half an hour's walking exercise should be given, an additional rug being thrown over him — such green meat as can be procured should be used in moderate quantities, and the chill should be taken from the water. Should the eruption continue or assume a more virulent character, bleeding and aloetic physic must be had recourse to, but neither should be carried to any extreme. The physic having set, the alteratives should again be had recourse to, and attention should be paid to the comfort and diet of the horse. If the eruption, after several of these alternate appearances and disappearances, should remain, and the cuticle and the hair begin extensively to peel off, a worse affection is to be feared, for surfeit is too apt to precede, or degenerate into, mange This disorder, therefore, must next be considered. MANGE Is a pimpled or vesicular eruption. After a while the vesicles break, or the cuticle and the hair fall off, and there is, as in obstinate surfeit, a bare spot covered with scurf— some fluid oozing from the skin beneath, and this changing to a scab, which likewise soon peels off, and leaves a wider spot. This process is attended by consi- derable itching and tenderness, and thickening of the skin, which soon becomes more or less folded, or puckered. The mange generally first appears on the neck at the root of the mane, and its existence may be suspected even before the blotches appear, and when there is only considerable itchiness of the part, by the ease with which the short hair at the root of the mane is plucked out. From the neck it spreads upward to the head, or downward to the withers and back, and occasionally extends over the whole carcass of the horse. One cause of it, although an unfrequent one, has been stated to be neglected 01 inveterate surfeit. Several instances are on record in which poverty of condition, and general neglect of cleanliness, preceded or produced the most violent mange. A remark of Mr. Elaine is very important: — "Among the truly healthy, so far as my experience goes, it never arises spontaneously, but it does readily from a spontaneous origin among the unhealthy." The most common cause is contagion. Amidst the whole list of diseases to which the horse is exposed, there is not one more highly contagious than mange. If it once gets into a stable, it spreads through it, for the •lightest contact seems to be sufficient for the communication of this noisome com- plaint. If the same brush or currycomb is used on all the horses, the propagation of mange is assured ; and horses feeding in the same pasture with a mangy one rarely escape, from the propensity they have to nibble one another. Mange in cattle has been pro- pagated to the horse, and from the horse »o cattle. There are also some well-authen- ticated instances of the same disease being communicated from the dog to the horse,, but not from the horse to the dog. Mango has been said to originate in want of cleanliness in the management of the itable. The comfort and the health of the horse demand the strictest cleanliness The eyes and the lungs fiequently suffer from the noxious fumes of the putrefying MANGE. 38C lung and uri.ie; but, in defiance of common prejudice, there is no authentic instance of mange being the result. It may, however, proceed from poierty. When the ani mal is half starved, and the functions of digestion and the power of the constitutes are weakened, the skin soon sympathises, and mange is occasionally produced instead of surfeit and hide-bound. Every farmer has proof enough of this being the case. If a horse is turned on a common where there is scarcely sufficient herbage to satisfy ms appetite, or if he is placed in one of those straw-yards that are under the manage- ment of mercenary and unfeeling men, and are the very abodes of misery, the an' mal comes up a skeleton, and he comes up mangy too. Poverty and starvation a fruitful sources of mange, but it does not appear that filth has much to do with t although poverty and filth generally go hand in hand. The propriety of bleeding in cases of mange depends on the condition of the pa- tient. If mange is the result of poverty, and the animal is much debilitated, bleed- ing will increase the evil, and will probably deprive the constitution of the power of rallying. Physic, however, is indispensable in every case. It is the first step in the progress towards cure. A mercurial ball will be preferable to a common aloetic one, as more certain and effectual in its operation, and the mercury probably having some influence in mitigating the disease. In this, however, mange in the horse resembles itch in the human being — medicine alone will never effect a cure. There must be some local application. There is this additional similarity — that which is most effec- tual in curing the itch in the human being must form the basis of every local appli- cation for the cure of mange in the horse. Sulphur is indispensable in every unguent for mange. It is the sheet-anchor of the veterinary surgeon. In an early and not very acute state of mange, equal portions of sulphur, turpentine, and train-oil, gently but well rubbed on the part, will be applied with advantage. Farriers are fond of the black sulphur, but that which consists of earthy matter, with the mere dregs of various substances, cannot be so effectual as the pure sublimed sulphur. A toler- ably stout brush, or even a currycomb, lightly applied, should be used, in order to remove the dandriff or scurf, wherever there is any appearance of mange. After that, the horse should be washed with strong soap and water as far as the disease has ex- tended ; and, when he has been thoroughly dried, the ointment should be well rubbed in with the naked hand, or with a piece of flannel. More good will be done by a little of the ointment being well rubbed in, than by a great deal being merely smeared over the part. The rubbing should be daily repeated. The sulphur seems to have a direct influence on the disease — the turpentine has an .ndirect one, by exciting some irritation on the skin of a different nature from that produced by the mange, and under the influence of which the irritation of mange will be diminished, and the disease more easily combated. During the application of the ointment, and as soon as the physic has set, an alterative ball or powder, similar to those recommended for the other affections of the skin, should be daily given. If, after some days have passed, no progress should appear to have been made, half a pound of sulphur should be well mixed with a pint of oil of tar, or, if that is not to be obtained, a pint of Barbadoes tar, and the affected parts rubbed, as before. On every fifth or sixth day the ointment should be washed off with warm soap and wa- ter. The progress towards cure will thus be ascertained, and the skin will be cleans- ed, and its pores opened for the more effectual application of the ointment. The horse should be well supplied with nourishing, but not stimulating food. As much green meat as he will eat should be given to him, or, what is far better, he should be turned out, if the weather is not too cold. It may be useful to add, that, after the horse has been once well dressed with either of these liniments, the dangei of contagion ceases. It is necessary, however, to be assured that every mangy place has been anointed. It will be prudent to give two or three dressings after the horse has been apparently cured, and to continue the alteratives for ten days or a fortnight. The cure being completed, the clothing of the horse should be well soaked in wa- ter, to which a fortieth part of the saturated solution of the chloride of lime has been added ; after which it should be washed with soap and water, and again washed and •oaked in a solution of the chloride of lime. Every part of the harness should un- dergo a similar purification. The currycomb may be scoured, but the brush should &e burned. The rack, and manger, and partitions, and every part of the stable which the horse could possibly have touched, should be well washed with a hair-broom— * pint of the Chloride of lime being added to three ga. ons of water. All the wood 83* 390 SOUNDNESS AND U N & D U ]S D N ESS. work should then be scoured with soap and water, after which a second washing with the chloride of lime will render all secure. Some farmers have p illed down the;: stables, when they have been thoroughly infected with mange. This is being v.nne cessarily cautious. The efficacy of the chloride of lime was not then known ; bu/ if that is carefully and sufficiently applied to every part of the stable and its furni *ure, there cannot afterwards be danger. Every case of itchiness of the skin should be regarded with suspicion. When a norse is seen to rub the root of his tail, or his head, or neck, against the manger, the parts should be carefully examined. Some of the hair may have been rubbed or torn off, but if the roots remain firmly adherent, and there is only redness and not scurfi- ness of the skin, it probably is not mange, but only inflammation of the skin, from too great fulness of blood. A little blood should be abstracted — a purgative admin- istered— and the alteratives given. The mange ointment cannot do harm, and may possibly prevent this heat of the skin from degenerating into mange, or arrest the progress of mange if it has commenced. If a scurfiness of skin should appear on any of the points that are pressed upon by the collar or harness, the veterinary sur- geon will do right to guard against danger by alterative medicine and the use of the ointment. WARTS. These are tumours of variable size, arising from the cuticle, and afterwards con- nected with the true skin by means of the vessels which supply the growth of the tumours. They are found on the eyelids, the muzzle, the ears, the belly, the neck, the penis, and the prepuce. There are some caustics available, but frequently they must be removed by an operation. If the root is very small, it may be snipped asun- der, close to the skin, with a pair of scissors, and touched with the lunar caustic. If the pedicle or stem is somewhat larger, a ligature of waxed silk should be passed firmly round it, and tightened every day. The source of nutriment being thus re- moved, the tumour will, in a short time, die and drop off. If the warts are large, or in considerable clusters, it will be necessary to cast the horse, in order to cut them off close to the skin : the root should then be seared with a red-hot iron. Unless these precautions are used, the warts will speedily sprout again. VERMIN. Both the biped and the quadruped are subject to the visitation of insects, that fasten on the skin, and are a constant nuisance from the itchiness which they occasion. If the horse, after being turned out for the winter, is taken up in the spring, long and rough in his coat, and poor in condition, and with evident hide-bound, he will almost invariably be afflicted with vermin. In our present imperfect acquaintance with natural history, it is difficult to account for the appearance of certain insects, and of those alone, on the integmnent of one animal, while others of an altogether different character are found on its neighbour Each one has a tormentor peculiar to itself. The vermin of the horse is destroyed by an infusion of tobacco, or a solution of corrosive sublimate, the latter requiring the greatest caution. The skin being once cleansed of them, an attention to cleanliness will prevent their reappearance. CHAPTER XXII. ON SOUNDNESS, AND THE PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES. THERE are few sources»of greater annoyance both to the purchaser and the sellei of the. horse than disputes with regard to" the soundness of the animal. Although, in describing the various parts of the horse, we have glanced at the connexion of cer- tain natural ^conformations, and some alterations of structure, and accidents, and dis- eases, with the question of soundness or unsoundness, it may not be uninteresting to those for whom our work is designed, if we now bring into one point of view th« substance of that wnich has been scattered over many pages. That horse is sound in whon there is no disease, and no alteration of stricture thai UNSOUN1 NESS. ^91 nnpaiis, or is likely to impair, his natural usefulness. The horse is unsound tha ' labours under disease, or has some alteration " structure which docs interfere, or is ikely to interfere, with his natural usefulness.* The term " natural usefulness" must oe borne in mind. One horse may possess great speed, but is soon knocked up; an- other will work all day, but cannot be got beyond a snail's pace : a third with a heavy forehand is liable to stumble, and is continually putting to hazard the neck of hii rider; another, with an irritable constitution and a loose, washy form, loses his appe- tite and begins to scour if a little extra work is exacted from him. The term un- soundness must not be applied to either of these ; it would be opening far too widely a door to disputation and endless wrangling. The buyer can discern, or ought to Know, whether the form of the horse is that which will render him likely to suit his purpose, and he should try him sufficiently to ascertain his natural strength, endur- a x;e, and manner of going. Unsoundness, we repeat, has reference only to disease, 01 to that alteration of structure which is connected with, or will produce disease, and lessen the usefulness of the animal. These principles will be best illustrated by a brief consideration of the usually sup- posed appearances or causes of unsound ness. BROKEN KNEES certainly do not constitute unsoundness, after the wounds are healed, unless they interfere with the action of the joint; for the horse may have fallen from mere accident, or through the fault of the rider, without the slightest damage more than the blemish. No person, however, would buy a horse with broken knees, until he had thoroughly tried him, and satisfied himself as to his form and action. CAPPED HOCKS may be produced by lying on an unevenly paved stable, with a scanty supply of litter, or by kicking generally, in neither of which cases would they constitute unsoundness, although in the latter they would be an indication of vice ; but, in the majority of instances, they are the consequence of sprain, or of latent injury of the hock, and accompanied by enlargement of it, and would constitute un- so-mdness. A special warranty should always be taken against capped hocks. CONTRACTION is a considerable deviation from the natural form of the foot, but not necessarily constituting unsoundness. It requires, however, a most careful examina- tion on the part of the purchaser or veterinary surgeon, in order to ascertain that there is no heat about the quarter, or ossification of the cartilage — that the frog, although diminished in size, is not diseased — that the horse does not step short and go as if the foot were tender, and that there is not the slightest trace of lameness. Unless these circumstances, or some of them, are detected, a horse must not be pronounced to be unsound because his feet are contracted ; for many horses with strangely con- tracted feet do not suffer at all in their action. A. special warranty, however, should be required where the feet are at all contracted. CORNS manifestly constitute unsoundness. The portion of the foot in which bad corns are situated will not bear the ordinary pressure of the shoe ; and accidental additional pressure from the growing down of the horn, or the introduction of dirt or gravel, will cause serious lameness. They render it necessary to wear a thick and heavy shoe, or a bar shoe, in order to protect the weakened and diseased part; and they are very seldom radically cured. There may be, however, and frequently is, a difference of opinion as to the actual existence or character of the corn. A veterinary surgeon may consider it so slight and insignificant as not apparently to injure the horse, and he pronounces the animal to be sound ; but he should be cautious, for there ar« corns of every shade and degree, from the slightest degree to the most serious evil 'They may be so slight and manageable as, though ranging under the class of morbid alteration of structure, yet not to diminish the natural usefu ness of the horse in any degree. Slight corns will disappear on the horse being shed with ordinary skill and care, even without any alteration in the shoe. * ' ince the publication of our first edition, this definition or rule as to soundness or unsound- nesr has received very high judicial sanction, Coates v. Stephens, 2 Moody and Robinson 157 . ScholefielG v. Rdbb, id. 210. We shall adhere to it as our test of soundness or unsound nee* througrijut this chapter, not forgetting what is said in the following extract from a noi« to one of these cases. " As it may now be considered as settled law, that the breach of warranty of soundness does not entitle the purchaser to return the hoise, but only to recovef .he difference of value of the horse with or without the particular unsoundness, the question af temporary maladies, producing no permanent deterioration of the animal, would, sener ally apeakinar. oily involve a right to damages merely nominal." 592 UNSOUNDNESS. COUGH. — This is a disease, and consequently unsoundness. However slight may be its degree, and of whatever short standing it may be, although it may sometimes scarcely seem to interfere with the usefulness of the horse, yet a change of stabling, or slight exposure to wet and cold, or the least over-exertion, may, at other times, cause it to degenerate into many dangerous complaints. A b«r<5e, therefore, should never be purchased with a cough upon him, without a special warranty ; or if — the cough not being observed — he is purchased under a general warranty, that warranty is thereby broken. It is not law, that a horse may be returned on breach of the war- ranty. The seller is not bound to take him back, unless he has contracted so to do , but he is liable in damages. Lord Ellenborough has completely decided this matter. " I have always held," said he, " that a warranty of soundness is broken, if the ani- mal, at the time of sale, had any infirmity upon him that rendered him less fit for present service. It is not necessary that the disorder should be permanent or incura- ble. While he has a cough, he is unsound, although that may either be temporary or prove mortal."* ROARING, WHEEZING, WHISTLING, HIGH-BLOWING, and GRUNTING, being the result of alteration of structure, or disease in some of the air-passages, and interfering with the perfect freedom of breathing, especially when the horse is put on his speed, with- out Joubt constitute unsoundness. There are decisions to the contrary, which are now universally admitted to be erroneous. BROKEN WIND is still more decidedly unsoundness. CRIB-BITING. — Although some learned judges have asserted that crib-biting is sim- ply a trick or bad habit, it must be regarded as unsoundness. This unnatural sucking in of the air must to a certain degree injure digestion. It must dispose to colic, and so interfere with the strength, and usefulness, and health of the horse. Some crib biters are good goers, but they probably would have possessed more endurance had they not acquired this habit; and it is a fact well established, that, as soon as a hors* becomes a crib-biter, he, in nine cases out of ten, loses condition. He is not to the 3xperienced eye the horse he was before. It may not lead on to strongly-marked dis- ease, or it may rarely do so to any considerable degree ; but a horse that is morbidlj deficient in condition must, to that extent, have his capability for extraordinary work diminished, and so be brought within our definition of unsoundness. In its very early stage it may be a mere trick — confirmed, it must have produced morbid deterioration. The wear of the front teeth, and the occasional breaking of them, make a horse old before his time, and sometimes render it difficult or almost impossible for him to graze, when the state of the animal or the convenience of the owner requires that he should be turned out. CURB constitutes unsoundness while it lasts, and perhaps while the swelling remains, although the inflammation may have subsided ; for a horse that has once thrown out a curb is, for a while at least, very liable to do so again, to get lame in the same place on the slightest extra exertion ; or, at all events, he would there firs' * In deciding on another case, the same judge said, " I have always held it that a cough is a breach of the warranty. On that understanding I have always acted, and think it quite clear." It was argued on the other hand that two-thirds of the horses in London had coughs, yet still the judge maintained that the cough was a breach of warranty. When it was farthc' argued that the norse had been hunted the day after the purchase, and the cough might have been increased by this, the reply was singular, but decisive. "There is no proof that he would have got well if he had not been hunted." This doctrine is confirmed by Parke, B., in the first case cited in p. 391. In p. 194, it is very properly stated that roaring is unsoundness, because it impairs the func tion of respiration. This was not always, however, the law of the bench. " Lord Ellenbo- rough," quoting from Sir James Mansfield, says, " It has been held by very high authority that roaring is not. necessarily unsoundness, and I entirely concur in that opinion. If the horse emits a loud noise, which is offensive to the ear, merely from a bad habit which he has con- tracted, or from any cause that does not interfere with his general health, or muscular powers, he is still to be considered a souud horse. On the other hand, if the roaring proceeds fronj any disease or organic infirmity, which renders him incapable of performing the usual funC' tions of a horse, then it does constitute unsoundness. The plaintiff has not done enough ir. showing that this horse was a roarer. To prove a breach of the warranty he must go on tc nhow that the roaring was symptomatic of disease." These extracts are taken from a singu »ar work, not al'vays correct, yet from which much amusement, and instruction too, may b* terned— " The Adventures of a Gent'ema i in Search of a Horse, by Caveat Emotor " UNSOUNDNESS. 393 fai. on extraordinary exertion. A horse, however, is not returnable, although he should spring a curb five minutes after the purchase ; for it is done in a moment, an hot iron, or to any acid, for the destruction of the part if a horse should have been bitten by a rabid dog; and it stands next to the butyr of antimony for the removal of fungus generally. It has not yet been administered internally to the horse. A.RSENICUM, ARSENIC. — This drug used to be employed as a tonic, in order to core out old ulcers; but it is now seldom employed, for there are better and safer tonics, and far better and safer caustics. The method of detecting the presence of arsenic in cases of poisoning has been described at page 227. BALLS. — The usual and the most convenient mode of administering veterinary med.cines is in the form of balls, compounded with oil, and not with honey or syrup, ->n arcount of their longer keeping soft and more easily dissolving in the stomach. Balls should never weigh more than an ounce and a half, otherwise they will be so large as not to pass without difficulty down the gullet. They should not be more jhan an inch in diameter and hree inches in length. The mode of delivering balli k no' difficult to acquire ; but the balling-iron, while it often wounds and permanently MEDICINE. 403 mjures the bars, occasions the lorse to struggle more than he otherwise would against the administration of the medicine. The horse should be backed in the stall ; — tne tongue should be drawn gently out with the left hand on the off side of the mouth, and there fixed, not by continuing to pull at it, but by pressing the fingers against th« side of the lower jaw. The ball, being now taken between the tips of the fingers of the right hand, is passed rapidly up the mouth, as near to the palate as possible, until it reaches the root of the tongue. It is then delivered with a slight jerk, and the hand being immediately withdrawn and the tongue liberated, the ball is forced through the pharynx into the oesophagus. Its passage should be watched down the left side of the throat ; and if the passage of it is not seen going down, a slight tap or blow under the chin will generally cause the horse to swallow it, or a few gulps of water will convey it into the stomach. Very few balls should be kept ready made, for they become so hard as to be incapable of passing down the gullet, or dissolving in the stomach, and the life of the horse may be endangered or lost. This is pecu- liarly liable to be the case if the ball is too large, or wrapped in thick paper. BARK, PERUVIAN. — A concentrated preparation of this is entitled the SULPHATE OF QUININE. The simple bark is now seldom used. If it has any good effect, it is in diabetes. The quinine, however, is strongly recommended by Professor Morton as singularly efficacious in the prostration of strength which is often the consequence of influenza. BASILICON is a valuable digestive ointment, composed of resin, bees'-wax, and olive-oil. If it is needed as a stimulant, a little turpentine and verdigris may be added. BELLADONNA EXTRACTUM, EXTRACT OF DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. — The inspissated juice is principally used as a narcotic and sedative, and indicated where there is un- due action of the nervous and vascular systems, as in tetanus, carditis, and nervous affections generally. Externally, it is beneficially applied to the eye. BLISTERS are applications to the skin which separate the cuticle in the form of vesi- cles containing a serous fluid. They excite increased action in the vessels of the skin, by means of which this fluid is thrown out. The part or neighbouring parts are somewhat relieved by the discharge, but more by the inflammation and pain that are produced, and lessen that previously existing in some contiguous part. On this principle we account for the decided relief often obtained by blisters in inflammation of the lungs, and their efficacy in abating deeply-seated disease, as that of the ten- dons, ligaments, or joints ; and also the necessity of previously removing, in these latter cases, the superficial inflammation caused by them, in order that one of a dif- ferent kind may be excited, ond to which the deeply-seated inflammation of the part will be more likely to yield. The blisters used in horse-practice are composed of cantharides or the oil of turpentine, to which some have added a tincture of the cro- ton-nut. For some important remarks on the composition, application and management of the blister, see page 346. BOLE ARMENIAN is an argillaceous earth combined with iron, and is supposed to possess some astringent property. The propriety of its being administered inwardly is doubtful ; for it may remain in the intestinal canal, and become the nucleus of a calculus. On account of its supposed astringency, it is employed externally to give consistence to ointments for grease. Even the bole Armenian has not escaped the nrocess of adulteration, and is largely mixed with inferior earths. The fraud may be mspected, but not satisfactorily detected, by the colour of the powder, whicr should ae a bright red. CALAMINE. — See ZINC. CALOMEL. — See MERCURY. CAMPHOR is the produce of one of the laurus species, a native of Japan, and too often imitated by passing a stream of chlorine through oil of turpentine. According to Professor Morton, it is a narcotic. It diminishes the frequency of the pulse, and a >ftens its tone. When long exhibited, it acts on the kidneys. Externally applied, ft is said to be a discutient and an anodyne for chronic sprains, bruises, and tumours. The camphor ball is a favourite one with the groom, and occasionally administered by the veterinary surgeon. Mr. W. C. Spooner uses it, mixed with opium, in cases tf locked-jaw, and in doses of from one to two drachms. IP the form of camphorated oil, it promotes the absorption of fluids thrown out beneatl? ,he skin, the remoia' of 104 MEDICINE. old callus, and the suppling of joints stiff from labour. Combined with oil of t'rpen tine i* is more effective, but in this combination it occasionally blemishes. CANTHARIDES are the basis of the most approved and useful veterinary blisters. The cantharis is a fly, the native of Italy and the south of France. It is destroyed by sulphur, dried and powdered, and mixed with palm oil and resin in the proportion directed at page 225. Its action is intense, and yet superficial ; it plentifully raises ihe cuticle, yet rarely injures the true skin, and therefore seldom blemishes. The application of other acrid substances is occasionally followed by deeply-seated ulcera- tions; but a blister composed of the Spanish fly alone, while it does its duty, leaves, after a few weeks have passed, scarcely a trace behind. The art of blistering consists in cutting, or rather shaving, the hair perfectly close ; then well rubbing in the ointment, for at least ten minutes ; and, afterwards, and what is of the greatest consequence of all, plastering a little more of the ointment lightly over the part, and leaving it. As soon as the vesicles have perfectly risen, which will be in twenty or twenty-four hours, the torture of the animal may be somewhat relieved by the application of olive or neat's-foot oil, or any emollient ointment. When too extensive a blister has been employed, or, from the intensity of the origi nal inflammation, the blister has not risen, (for no two intense inflammations can exis\ in neighbouring parts at the same time), strangury — great difficulty in passing urine, and even suppression of it — has occurred. The careful washing off of the blister, and the administration of plenty of warm water, with opium, and bleeding if the symp- toms run high, will generally remove this unpleasant effect. An infusion of two ounces of the flies in a pint of oil of turpentine, for several days, is occasionally used as a liquid blister ; and, when sufficiently lowered with common oil, it is called a sweating oil, for it maintains a certain degree of irritation and inflam- mation on the skin, yet not sufficient to blister, and thus gradually abates or removes some old or deep inflammation, or cause of lameness. Of late cantharides have come into more general use. They were recommended by Mr. Vines, in combination with vegetable bitters, as a stimulating tonic, in cases of debility. He next applied them for the cure of Glanders, and with considerable success. The Veterinary public is much indebted to Mr. Vines, for the steadiness with which he has followed up the employment of the Spanish fly. The dose is from five to eight grains given daily, but withheld for a day or two when diuresis super- venes. CAPSICI BACCJE, CAPSICUM BERRIES. — They are valuable as stimulants affecting the system generally, yet not too much accelerating the pulse. Their beneficial effect in cases of cold, has seldom been properly estimated. The dose is from a scruple to half a drachm. CARUI SEMINA, CARAWAY SEEDS. — These and Ginger alone or combined, are the best stimulants used in horse-practice. CASCARILLJE CORTEX, CASCARILLA BARK. — Tonic as well as aromatic. It must not, however, be used with the sulphates of iron or zinc. CASTOR OIL, OLEUM RICINI. — An expensive medicine. It must be given in large doses, and even then it is uncertain in its effects. Mild as is its operation in most animals, it sometimes gripes and even endangers the horse. CATECHU, JAPAN EARTH, yet, no earth, but extracted from the wood of one of the acacia trees, is a very useful astringent. It is given in super-purgation, in doses of one or two drachms, with opium, as a yet more powerful astringent ; chalk, to neu tralize any acid in the stomach or bowels ; and powdered gum, to sheath the over-irr tated mucous coat of the intestines. It is not often adulterated in our country, bb grossly so abroad — fine sand and aluminous earth being mixed with the extract. I is seldom given with any alkali, yet the prescription just recommended contains chalk : but, although the chalk, as an alkali, may weaken the astringency of the cate chu, it probably neutralizes some acid in the stomach or bowels, that would have diminished the power of the catechu to a greater degree. It must not be given ir conjunction with any metallic salt, for the tannin or gallic acid, on which its powei chiefly or entirely depends, has an affinity for all metals, and will unite with them, and form a gallate of them, possessing little astringent energy. Common ink is the cnion of th«s tannin principle with iron. A tinctu e of catechu is sometimes made by macerating three ounces of the pcwdei In a quart c>5 spirit for a fortnight. It is an excellent application for wounds ; and MEDICINE. 404 witn ihrj aloes, constitutes all that we want of a balsamic nature for the purpose of nastening the healing process of wounds. CAUSTICS are substances that burn or destroy the parts to which they are applied. First among them stands the red-hot iron, or actual cautery, and then pure alkalies, potash, and soda, and the sulphuric and nitrous acids. Milder caustics are found in the sulphate of copper, red precipitate, burnt alum, and verdigris. They are princi- pally used to destroy fungous excrescences, or stimulate indolent tumours, or remove portions of cellular substance, or muscle infected by any poison. GRETA PREPARATA, CHALK, is principally used in combination with catechu and opium in cases of super-purgation. All adventitious matters are removed by washing, and the prepared or levigated chalk remains in the form of an impalpable powder. It is usually administered in doses of two or three ounces. It is externally applied over dcers that discharge a thin and ichorous matter. CHAMOMILE, ANTHEMIS. — The powder of the flower is a useful vegetable tonic, and the mildest in our list. It is given in doses of one or two drachms, and is exhibited in the early stage of convalescence in order to ascertain whether the febrile stage of the disease is passed, and to prepare the way for a more powerful tonic, the gentian. If no acceleration of pulse, or heat of mouth, or indication of return of fever, accom- panies the cautious use of the chamomile, the gentian, with carbonate of iron, may be safely ventured upon ; but if the gentian had been first used, and a little too soon, there might have been considerable, and perhaps dangerous return of fever. CHARCOAL is occasionally used as an antiseptic, being made into a poultice with linseed meal, and applied to foul and offensive ulcers, and to cracked heels. It re moves the foetid and unwholesome smell that occasionally proceeds from them. CHARGES are thick, adhesive plasters spread over parts that have been strained or weakened, and, being applied to the skin, adhere for a considerable time. The fol- lowing mixture makes a good charge — Burgundy or common pitch, five ounces ; tar, six ounces ; yellow wax, one ounce, melted together, and when they are becoming cool, half a drachm of powdered cantharides well stirred in. This must be partially melted afresh when applied, and spread on the part with a large spatula, as hot as can be done without giving the animal too much pain. Flocks of tow should be scattered over it while it is warm, and thus a thick and adhesive covering will be formed that cannot be separated from the skin for many months. It is used for old sprains of the loins, and also strains of the back sinews. The charge acts in three ways — by the slight stimulant power which it possesses it gradually removes all deep-seated inflammation — -by its stimulus and its pressure it promotes the absorption of any callus or thickening beneath ; and, acting as a constant bandage, it gives tone and strength to the part. CLYSTERS. — These are useful and too often neglected means of hastening the evac- uation of the bowels when the disease requires their speedy action. The old ox- bladder and wooden pipe may still be employed, and a considerable quantity of fluid thrown into the intestine; but the patent stomach and clyster pump of Mr. Reid is far preferable, as enabling the practitioner to inject a greater quantity of fluid, and in a less time. Two ounces of soft or yellow soap, dissolved in a gallon of warm water, will form a useful aperient clyster. " It will detach or dissolve many irritating substances that may have adhered to the mucous coat of the bowels. For a more active aperient, half a pound of Epsom salts, or even of common salt, may be dissolved in the same quantity of water. A stronger injection, but not to be used if much purgative medi- cine has been previously given, may be composed of an ounce of Barbadoes aloes, dissolved in two or three quarts of warm water. If nothing else can be procured, warm water may be employed ; it will act as a fomentation to the inflamed and irri- table surface of the bowels, and will have no inconsiderable effect even as an ape- rient. In ca«es of over-purging or inflammation of the bowels, the injection must be of a soothing nature. It may consist of gruel alone, or, if the purging is considerable ani difficult t%stop, the gruel must be thicker, and four ounces of prepared or pow« de-^d chalk weL mixed with or suspended in it, with two scruples or a drachm of powdered opium. No oil should enter into the composition of a clyster, except that linseed oil maj »3 used for the emulsion of the ascarides, or needle- worm? . 406 MEDICINE. In epidemic catarrh, when the horse sometimes obstinately refuses to eat or 1o drhiK his strength may be supported by nourishing clysters ; but they should consist pf thick gruel only, and not more than a quart should be administered at once. A greatei quantity would be ejected soon after the pipe is withdrawn. Strong broths, and more particularly ale and wine, are dangerous ingredients. They may rapidly aggiavate the fever, and should never be administered, except under the superintendence, or by the direction, of a veterinary surgeon. The principal art of administering a clyster consists in not frightening the horse The pipe, well oiled, should be very gently introduced, and the fluid not too hastily thrown into the intestine ; its heat being as nearly as possible that of the intestine or about 96° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. COLLYRIA, LOTIONS FOR THE EYES. — These have been sufficiently described whe; inflammation of the eyes was treated of. COPAIBA, BALSAM OF CAPIVI. — The resin is obtained from a tree growing in Soutn America and the West India Islands. It is expensive, much adulterated, and seldom used ; for its properties differ but little from those of common diuretics. COPPER. — There are two combinations of this metal used in veterinary practice the verdigris or subacetate, and the blue vitriol or sulphate. Verdigris or Subacetate of Copper is the common rust of that metal produced by subjecting it to the action of acetic acid. It is given internally by some practitioners, in doses of two or three drachms daily, as a tonic, and particularly for the cure of farcy. It is, however, an uncertain and dangerous medicine. The corrosive subli- mate, with vegetable tonics, as recommended at page 138, is preferable. Verdigris is, however, usefully applied externally as a mild caustic. Either alone, in the form of fine powder, or mixed with an equal quantity of the sugar (superacetate) of lead, it eats down proud flesh, or stimulates old ulcers to healthy action. When boiled with honey and vinegar, it constitutes the farriers' Egyptiacum, certainly of benefit in cankered or ulcerated mouth, and no bad application for thrushes ; but yielding, as it regards both, to better remedies, that are mentioned under the proper heads. Some practitioners use alum and oil of vitriol in making their Egyptiacum, forgetting the strange decomposition which is produced. Slue Vitriol or Sulphate of Copper is the union of sulphuric acid and copper. It is a favourite tonic with many practitioners, and has been vaunted as a specific for glan- ders ; while others, and we think properly, have no very good opinion of it in either respect. As a cure for glanders, its reputation has nearly passed away. As a tonic, when the horse is slowly recovering from severe illness, it. is dangerous, and ita internal use should be confined to cases of long-continued discharge from the nostril, when catarrh or fever has ceased. It may then be given with benefit in doses of from one to two drachms twice in the day, and always combined with gentian and ginger. It is principally valuable as an external application, dissolved in water in the proportion of two drachms to a pint, and acting as a gentle stimulant. If an ounce is dissolved in the same quantity of water, it becomes a mild caustic. In the former proportion, it rouses old ulcers to a healthy action, and disposes even recent wounds to heal more quickly than they otherwise would do ; and in the latter it re- moves fungous granulations or proud flesh. The blue vitriol is sometimes reduced to powder and sprinkled upon the wound for this purpose : it is also a good application for canker in the foot. CORDIALS are useful or injurious according to the judgment with which they are given. When a horse comes home thoroughly exhausted, and refuses his food, A cordial may be beneficial. It may rouse the stomach and the system generally, and may prevent cold and fever ; but it is poison to the animal when administered after the cold is actually caught and fever begins to appear. More to be reprobated is the practice of giving frequent cordials, that by their stimulus on the stomach, (the skin sympathising so much with that viscus,) a fine coat may be produced. The artificial excitement of the cordial soon becomes as necessary to enable the horse to do even common work, as is the excitement of the dram to sustain the animal spirits of the drunkard. In order to recall the appetite of the horse slowly recovering from illness, a cordial may «ometimes be allowed; or to old horses that have been worked hard aiid used tp (nese excitements when young ; or to draught horses, that have exhibited slight symptoms of staggers when their labour has been unusually protracted and the»r sto- MEDICINE. 407 iiachs left too long empty; or mixed with diuretic medic c.e, * fin*, hie legs of the over-worked and debilitated animal ; but in no other cast should they obtain A plaoe in the stable, or be used at the discretion of the carter or the groom, CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. — See MERCURY. CREASOTE has very lately been introduced into veterinary practice, and is much valued on account of its antiseptic properties. It is obtained by the destructive dis- tillation of various substances, as pyroligneous acid, tar, wood, smoke, &c. Pure creasote is colourless and transparent ; its odour is that of smoked meat, and its tasto is caustic and burning. It coagulates the albumen of the blood, and hence has been lately employed in stopping haemorrhages. It acts very powerfully on the general system, and quickly destroys small animals. Professor Morton gives a very inte- resting and faithful account of it. It is, according to him, both a stimulant and a tonic.3 In an undiluted state it acts as a caustic. When diluted it is a general ex- citant and an antiseptic. In the form of a lotion, a liniment, or an ointment, it has been useful in farcy and glanders, also in foot-rot, canker, and thrush, — mange, caries, excessive suppuration, and the repression of fungous granulations. As a caustic it acts as a powerful stimulant, and it is an antiseptic. CROTON TIGLII SEMINA, CROTON SEEDS. — The croton-nut has not been long intro- duced into veterinary practice, although it has been used from time immemorial by the inhabitants of India as a powerful purgative. An oil has been extracted from it, and used by the surgeon ; the meal is adopted by the veterinarian. It is given in doses from a scruple to half a drachm, and, from its acrid nature, in the form of a bail, with an ounce of linseed meal. When it does operate the effect is generally observed in six or eight hours, the stools being profuse and watery, and the patient frequently griped. On account of its speedy operation, it may be given in locked-jaw and stag- gers : and also in dropsy of the chest or belly, from the watery and profuse stools which it produces ; but it is often uncertain in its operation, and its griping, and the debility which it occasions, are serious objections to it as common physic. When placed on the tongue of the horse in quantities varying from twenty to forty drops, it produces purging, but the membrane of the mouth frequently becomes violently inflamed. This likewise happens, b'lt not to so great a degree, when it is given in the form of a drink, or in a mash. DEMULCENTS are substances that have the power of diminishing the effect of acri- monious or stimulating substances. The first, by some oily or mucilaginous sub- stance, sheaths the sensible parts. The other dilutes the stimulus, and diminishes its power. It will rarely be difficult to determine which effect should be produced, and the means by waich it is to be effected. DIAPHORETICS are medicines that increase the sensible and insensible perspiration of the animal. As it regards the horse, they are neither many nor powerful. Anti- mony in its various forms, and sulphur, have some effect in opening the pores of the skin, and exciting its vessels to action, and especially when assisted by warmth of stable or clothing, and therefore is useful in those diseases in which it is desirable that some portion of the blood should be diverted from the overloaded, and inflamed, and vital organs of the chest, to the skin or the extremities. The only diaphoretics, however, on which much confidence can be placed, and especially to prey,3 ace condi- tion, are warm clothing and good grooming. DIGESTIVES are applications to recent or old wounds, as mild stimii.ants, in order to produce a healthy appearance and action in them, and to cause them more speedily to heal. A weak solution of blue vitriol is an excellent digestive; so is the tincture of aloes, and the tincture of myrrh. The best digestive ointment is one composed of three parts of calamine ointment (Turner's cerate) and one of common turpentine. DIGITALIS. — The leaves of the common foxglove, gathered about the flowering rime^ dried carefully in a dark place, and powdered, and kept in a close black bottle, form one of the most valuable medicines in veterinary practice. It is a direct and powerful sedative, diminishing the frequency of the 'mlse, and the general irritability of the system, and acting also as a mild diuretic it is therefore useful in every inflamma- tory and febrile complaint, and particularly in inflammation of the chest. It is usually given in combination with e«ietic tartar and nitre. The average dose is one drachm of digitalis one and a half of emetic tartar, and three of nitre, repeated twice or thrice tn the day. Digitalis sepms to have an immediate effect on the heart, lessening: the nurtber of 408 MEDICINE. 'Is pulsations; but effecting this in a singular manner — not by causing the heart \t> beat more slowly, but producing certain intermissions or pauses in its action. When these become marked — when at every sixth or seventh beat, the pulsations are sus- pended while two or three can be slowly counted, this is precisely the effect that is intended to be produced, and, however ill the horse may appear to be, or however alarming this intermittent pulse may seem to the standers-by, from that moment the animal will frequently begin to amend. The dose must then be diminished one-half, and, in a few days, it may be omitted altogether: but the emetic tartar and the nitre should be continued during some days after the practitioner has deemed it prudent to try the effect of mild vegetable tonics. There is no danger in the intermittent pulse thus produced ; but there is much when the digitalis fails to produce any effect on the circulation. The disease is then too powerful to be arrested by medicine. Digitalis requires watching ; but the only con- sequence to be apprehended from an over-dose is, that the patient may be reduced a little too low, and his convalescence retarded for a day or two. In the form of infusion or tincture, digitalis is very useful in inflammation of the eyes. It is almost equal in its sedative influence to opium, and it may with great advantage be alternated with it, when opium begins to lose its power. The infusion is made by pouring a quart of boiling water on an ounce of the powder. When it is become cold, a portion of the liquid may be introduced into the eye. One or two drops of the tincture may be introduced with good effect. This may be obtained by macerating three ounces of the digitalis in a quart of spirit. The infusion has been serviceable in mange ; but there are better applications. DIURETICS constitute a useful but much abused class of medicines. They stimu- late the kidneys to secrete more than the usual quantity of urine, or to separate a greater than ordinary proportion of the watery parts of the blood. The deficiency o water in the blood, thus occasioned, must be speedily supplied or the healthy circula- tion cannot be carried on, and it is generally supplied by the absorbents taking up the watery fluid in some part of the frame, and carrying it into the circulation. Hence the evident use of diuretics in dropsical affections, in swelled legs, and also in inflam- mation and fever, by lessening the quantity of the circulating fluid, and, consequently, that which is sent to the inflamed parts. All this is effected by the kidneys being stimulated to increased action ; but if this stimulus is too often or too violently applied, the energy of the- kidney may be im- paired, or inflammation may be produced. That inflammation may be of an acute character, and destroy the patient ; or, although not intense in its nature, it may by frequent repetition assume a chronic form, and more slowly, but as surely, do irre- parable mischief. Hence the necessity of attention to that portion of the food which may have a diuretic power. Mow-burnt hay and foxy oats are the unsuspected causes of many a disease in the horse, at first obscure, but ultimately referable to injury or inflammation of the urinary organs. Hence, too, the impropriety of suffering medi- 3ines of a diuretic nature to be at the command of the ignorant carter or groom. In swelled legs, cracks, grease, or accumulation of fluid in any part, and in those super- ficial eruptions and inflammations which are said to be produced by humours floating in the blood, diuretics are evidently beneficial ; but they should be as mild as possible, and not oftener given or continued longer than the case requires. For some cautions as to the administration of diuretics, and a list of the safest and best, the reader is referred to page 245. The expensive Castile soap, and camphor, so often resorted to, are not needed, for the common liquid turpentine is quite sufficient in all ordinary cases, and nitre and digitalis may be added if fever is suspected. DRINKS. — Many practitioners and horse-proprietors have a great objection to the administration of medicines in the form of drinks. A drink is not so portable j\s a ball, it is more troublesome to give, and a portion of it is usually wasted. If the drink contains any acid substance, it is apt to excoriatf the mouth, or to irritate the throat already sore from disease, or the unpleasant taste of the drug may unnecessa- •ily nauseate the horse. There are some medicines, however, which must be given ;n the form of drink, as in colic; and the time, perhaps, is not distant when purga tives will be thus administered, as more speedy, and safer in their operation. In ..ases of much debility and entire loss of appetite, all medicine should be given in Boiution, for the stomach may not have sufficient power to dissolve the paper in which ihe ball i« « sipped or the substance of the ball. MEDICINE. 40£ In ox's horn, the larger end being cut slantingly, is the us lal and best instrument ft administering drinks. The noose of a halter is introduced into the mouth, and (K fl, by means of a stable-fork, the head is elevated by an assistant considerably hit her than for the delivery of a ball. The surgeon stands on a pail or stable-basket on the off-side of the norse, and draws out the tongue with the left hand; he then, with the right hand, ntroduces the horn gently into the mouth, and over the tongue, and by a dexterous turn of the horn empties the whole of the drink — not more than about six ounces — into the back part of the mouth. The horn is now quickly with- drawn, and the tongue loosened, and the greater portion of the fluid will be swallow- ed. A portion of it, however, will often be obstinately held in the mouth for a long time, and the head must be kept up until the whole is got rid of, which a quick, but not violent slap on the muzzle will generally compel the horse to do. The art of giving a drink consists in not putting too much into the horn at once ; introducing the horn far enough into the mouth, and quickly turning and withdrawing it, without bruising or wounding the mouth, the tongue being loosened at the same moment. A bottle is a disgraceful and dangerous instrument to use, except it be a flat pint bottle, with a long and thick neck. FERRUM, IRON. — Of this metal there are two preparations adopted by veterinarians. The rust, or Carbonate, is a mild and useful tonic in doses of from two to four drachms. The Sulphate (green vitriol or COPPERAS) is more powerful. It should never be given in the early stages of recovery, and always with caution. The dose should be the same as that of the carbonate. The sulphate has lately been recommended for the cure of that deceitful stage or form of glanders, in which there is nothing to charac- terise the disease but a very slight discharge from the nostrils. It is to be dissolved in the common drink of the horse. It is worth a trial, but too sanguine expectations must not be encouraged of the power of any drug over this intractable malady. Tlr iron should be given in combination with gentian and ginger, but never with any alkali or nitre, or soap, or catechu, or astringent vegetable. FEVER. — For the nature and treatment of the fever, both pure and symptomatic, reference may be made to page 187. Forge-water used to be a favourite tonic with farriers, and also a lotion for cankei and ulcers in the mouth. It owes its power, if there be any, to the iron with which it is impregnated. FOMENTATIONS open the .pores of the skin and promote perspiration in the part, and so abate the local swelling, and relieve pain and lessen inflammation. They are often used, and with more benefit when the inflammation is somewhat deeply seated, than when it is superficial. The effect depends upon the warmth of the water, and not on any herb that may have been boiled in it. They are best applied by means of flannel, frequently dipped in the hot water, or on which the water is poured, and the heat should be as great as the hand will bear. The benefit that might be derived from them is much impaired by the absurd method in which the fomentations are con- ducted. They are rarely continued long enough, and when they are removed, the part is left wet and uncovered, and the coldness of evaporation succeeds to the heat of fomentation. The perspiration is thus suddenly checked ; the animal suffers con- siderable pain, and more harm is done by the extreme change of temperature than if the fomentation had not been attempted. GENTIAN stands at the head of the vegetable tonics, and is a stomachic as well as a tonic. It is equally useful in chronic debility, and in that which is consequent on severe and protracted illness. It is- generally united with chamomile, ginger, and, when the patient will bear it, carbonate of iron. Four drachms of gentian, two of* chamomile, one of carbonate of iron, and one of ginger, will make an excellent tonic ball. An infusion of gentian is one of the best applications to putrid ulcers. GINGER is as valuable as a cordial, as gentian is as a tonic. It is the basis of the Cordial ball, and it is indispensable in the tonic ball. Although it is difficult to pow der, the veterinary practitioner should always purchase it in its solid form. If the root is large, heavy, and not worm-eaten, the black ginger is as good as the white, am ccfnsiderably cheaper. The powder is adulterated with bean-meal and the sav dus"i of boxwood, and rendered warm and pungent by means of capsicum. HELLEBORES ALBUS, WHITE HELLEBORE. — This is a drastic cathartic, and should be used with grej.i; caution. It is a powerful nauseant, and lowers both the force arcc frequency of the pulso, rnd is therefor* given with good effer t in various aH 3 B 410 MEDICINE. tions, and particularly that of the lungs. In the hospiti .»f the veterinary surgeon. ot in the stable of the gentleman who will superintend ths giving and the operatic* of every medicine, it may be usrd with safety; but with him who has to trust to others, and who does not see the horse more than once in twelve or twenty-four hours, it is a dangerous drug. If it is pushed a little too far, trembling and giddiness, and purging follow, and the horse is sometimes lost. The hanging of the head, and the frothing of the mouth, and, more particularly, the sinking of the pulse, will give warning of danger; but the medical attendant may not have the opportunity of ob- serving this, and when he does observe it, it may be too late. Its dost varies from a scruple to half a drachm. In doses of a drachm it could not be given with safety; and yet, such is the different effect of medicines given in different doses, that in the quantity of an ounce it is said to be a diuretic and a tonic, and exhibited with advan- tage in chronic and obstinate grease. HELLEBORUS NIGER, BLACK HELLEBORE. — This is used mostly as a local applica- tion, and as such it is a very powerful stimulant. Mr. E. Stanley, of Banbury, fre- quently resorts to it in fistulous affections of the poll and withers, and with consider- able success. The abscess having formed, and exit being given to the imprisoned fluid, it is allowed to discharge itself, for two or three days, being dressed with an ordinary digestive ointment. When the pus assumes a laudable character, he intro- duces a few portions of the fibrous part of the root, passing them down to the bottom of the sinus, and letting them remain for a fortnight or more ; in the mean time, merely keeping the surrounding parts clean. On examination, it will be found that the healing process has commenced. Professor Morton adds, that an ointment, formed of the powder of either the black or white Hellebore, in the proportion of one part of the powder to eight of lard, will be found exceedingly active for the dressing of rowels and setons.* HEMLOCK is used by some practitioners, instead of digitalis or hellebore, in affec- tions of the chest, whether acute or chronic ; but it is inferior to both. The dose of the powder of the dried leaves is about a drachm. HYDRARGYRUM. — This metal is found native in many countries in the form of mi nute globules. It also occurs in masses, and in different varieties of crystallization. It has the singular property of being liquid in the natural temperature of our earth. It freezes, or assumes a singular species of crystallization, at 39° below 0 of Fall., and at 660° above 0 of Fah. it boils, and rapidly evaporates. In its metallic state it appears to have no action on the animal system, but its compounds are mostly pow- erful excitants, and some of them are active caustics. The Common Mercurial Ointment may be used for ring-worm, and that species of acarus which seems to be the source, or the precursor of, mange. The compound mercurial ointment is also useful in the destruction of the same insect. For most eruptions connected with or simulating mange, the author of this work has been ac- customed to apply the following ointment with considerable success : — Sublimed sulphur 1 pound. Common turpentine 4 oz. Mercurial ointment 2 oz. Linseed oil 1 pint. The Mercurial Ointment is prepared by rubbing quicksilver with lard, in the propor- tion of one part of mercury to three of lard, until no globules appear. The practi- tioner should, if possible, prepare it himself, for he can seldom get it pure or of the proper strength from the druggist. It is employed with considerable advantage ID preparing splents, spavins, or other bony or callous tumours, for blistering or firing. One or two drachms, according to the nature and size of the swelling, may be daily well rubbed in: but it should be watched, for it sometimes salivates the horse very ppeedily. The tumours more readily disperse, at the application of a stronger stim- ulant, when they have been thus prepared. Mercurial ointment in a weaker state in sometimes necessary for the cure of mallenders and sallenders ; and in very obstinate cases of mange, one-eighth part of mercurial ointment may be added to the ointment tecommended at page 384. Calomel, the submuriate or protochloride of mercury, may be given, combined will * Morton's Manual of Pharmacy, p. 17* MEDICINE. 4il iloes, in mange, surfeit, or worms. It is also useful in some case s of chronic cough, in farcy, and in jaundice. Alone it has little purgative effect on the horse, but if assists the action of other aperients. It is given in doses from a scruple to a drachm. As soon as the gums become red, or the animal begins to quid or drop his hay. it must be discontinued. Calomel has lately gained much repute in arresting the pro- gress of epidemic catarrh in the horse. Mr. Percivall has succeeded in this attempt to a very considerable extent. In fact, the influence of calomel in veterinary practice Beerns to have been far too much undervalued.* Corrosive Sublimate, the oxymuriate or bichloride of mercury, combined with chlo- rine in a double proportion, is a useful tonic in farcy. It should be given in doses of ten grains daily, and gradually increased to a scruple, until the horse is purged or the mouth becomes sore, when it may be omitted for a few days, and resumed Some have recommended it as a diuretic, but it is too dangerous a medicine for this purpose. It is used externally in solution ; in substance in quittor, as a stimu- lant to foul ulcers ; and in the proportion of five grains to an ounce of rectified spirit in obstinate mange, or to destroy vermin on the skin. It is, however, too uncertain and too dangerous a medicine for the horse-proprietor to venture on its use. JEthinp's Mineral, the black sulphuret of mercury, is not often used in horse-prac- tice, but it is a good alterative for obstinate surfeit or foulness of the skin, in doses of three drachms daily. Four drachms of cream of tartar may be advantageously added to each dose. INFUSIONS. — The active matter of some vegetable substances is partly or entirely extracted by water. Dried vegetables yield their properties more readily and per- fectly than when in their green state. Boiling water is poured on the substance to be infused, and which should have been previously pounded or powdered, and the vessel then covered and placed near a fire. In five or six hours the transparent part may be poured off, and is ready for use. In a few days, however, all infusions be- come thick, and lose their virtue, from the decomposition of the vegetable matter. The infusion of chamomile is advantageously used instead of water in compound- ing a mild tonic drench. The infusion of catechu is useful in astringent mixtures ; that of linseed is used instead of common water in catarrh and cold ; and the infu- sion of tobacco in some injections. IODINE. — This substance has not been long introduced into veterinary practice. The first object which it seemed to accomplish, was the reduction of the enlarged glands that frequently remain after catarrh, but it soon appeared that it could reduce almost every species of tumour. Much concerned in the first introduction of iodine into veterinary practice, the writer of the present work bears willing testimony to the zeal and success of others, in establishing the claims of this most valuable medi- cine. Professor Morton has devoted much time and labour to the different combina* tions of iodine, and they are described at length in his useful " Manual of Pharma- cy." He gives the formulae of the composition of a liniment, an ointment, and a tincture of iodine, adapted to different species and stages of disease. He next de- scribes the preparation of the iodide of potassium — the combination of iodine and potash, — and then the improvement on that under the name of the diniodide of copper — the union of two parts of the iodide of potassium with four of the sulphate of copper. The action of this compound is an admirable tonic and a stimulant to the absorb ent system, if combined with vegetable tonics, and. occasionally, small doses of cantharides. Professor Spooner and Mr. Daws applied this compound, and with marked success, to the alleviation of farcy, nasal gleet, and glanders. It is pleas- ing to witness these triumphs over disease, a little while ago so unexpected, and now so assured. JUNIPER, OIL OF. — This essential oil is retained because it has some diuretic pro- perty, as well as being a pleasant aromatic. It frequently enters into the composite - cf the diuretic ball. LEAD, PLUMBUM. — The Carbonate of Lead has a deleterious effect on the biped and the quadruped in the neighbourhood of lead works. They are subject to violent grip- ing pains, ind to constipation that can with great difficulty, or not at all, be over;ome. Something of the same kind is occasionally observed in the cider counties, and th* * Veterinarian, vol. xvi., ov ;., new series, pp. 325, 441, and £ 24. 412 MEDICINE. "painter's col c" is a chcumstance of too frequent occurrence — the occasional drat1 ful pains, and the ravenous appetite extending to everything that comes in the wat of the animal. Active purgatives followed by cerium are the most effectual remedies The Jlcetate of Lead, Plumbi Acetas. — Sugar cf lead is seldom given externally to the horse, but is used as a collyrium for inflammation of the eyes. The Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, or Goulard's Extract, or, as it used to be termed at the Veterinary College, the Jlyua Vegeto, is a better collyrium, and advantageously ased in external and superficial inflammation, and particularly the inflammation that -ernains after the application of a blister. LIME was formerly sprinkled over cankered feet and greasy heels, but there are less gainful caustics, and more effectual absorbents of moisture. Lime-water is rarely used, but the Chloride of Lime is exceedingly valuable. Diluted with twenty times its quantity of water, it helps to form the poultice applied to every part from which there is the slightest offensive discharge. The fetid smell of fistulous withers, poll- evil, canker, and ill-conditioned wounds, is immediately removed, and the ulcers are more disposed to heal. When mangy horses are dismissed as cured, a washing with the diluted chloride will remove any infection that may lurk about them, or which they may carry from the place in which they have been confined. One pint of the chloride mixed with three gallons of water, and brushed over the walls and mangei and rack of the foulest stable, will completely remove all infection. Professor Mor- ton, very properly, says that the common practice of merely whitewashing the walla serves only to cover the infectious matter, and perhaps to preserve it for an indefinite length of time, so that when the lime scales off, disease may be again engendered by the exposed virus. The horse furniture worn by a glandered or mangy animal will be effectually purified by the chloride. Internally administered, it seems to have little or no power. LINIMENTS are oily applications of the consistence of a thick fluid, and designed either to soothe an inflamed surface, or, by gently stimulating the skin, to remove deeper-seated pain or inflammation. As an emollient liniment, one composed of half an ounce of extract of lead and four ounces of olive oil will be useful. For sprains, old swellings, or rheumatism, two ounces of hartshorn, the same quantity of cam- phorated spirit, an ounce of oil of turpentine, and half an ounce of laudanum, may be mixed together ; or or an ounce of camphor may be dissolved in four ounces of sweet oil, to which an ounce of oil of turpentine may be afterwards added. A little powdered cantharides, or tincture of cantharides, or mustard powder, will render either of these more powerful, or convert it into a liquid blister. LINSEED. — An infusion of linseed is often used instead of water, for the drink of the horse with sore-throat or catarrh, or disease of the urinary organs or of the bowels. A pail containing it should be slung in the stable or loose box. Thin gruel, however, TJS preferable ; it is as bland and soothing, and it is more nutritious. Linseed meal forms the best poultice for almost every purpose. MAGNESIA. — The sulphate of magnesia, or EPSOM SALTS, should be used only in promoting the purgative effect of clysters, or, in repeated doses of six or eight ounces, gently to open the bowels at the commencement of fever. Some doubt, however, attends the latter practice ; for the dose must occasionally be thrice repeated before it will act, and then, although safer than aloes, it may produce too much irri- tation in the intestinal canal, especially if the fever is the precursor of inflammation of the lungs. MASHES constitute a very important part of horse-provender, whether in sickness or health. A mash given occasionally to a horse that is otherwise fed on dry meat prevents him from becoming dangerously costive. To the over-worked and tiied horse, nothing is so refreshing as a warm mash with his usual allowance of corn in it The art of getting a horse into apparent condition for sale, or giving him a round and plump appearance, consists principally in the frequent repetition of mashes, and from their easiness of digestion and the mild nutriment which they afford, as well as their laxative effect, they form the principal diet of the sick horse. They are made by pairing boiling water on bran, and stirring it well, and then covering it over until it is sufficiently cool for the horse to eat. If in the heat of Hummer a cold mash is preferred, it should, nevertheless, be made with hot water and the-a suffered to remain until it is cold. This is not dways sufficiently attended V> by the groom, who is not aware lhat the efficacy of the mash depends principally MEDICINE 413 on the change which is effected in the bran and the other ingrjdisnts by the boiling water rendering them more easy of digestion, as well as more aperient. If the horse refuses the mash, a few oats may be sprinkled over it, in order to tempt him to ea« it, but if it is previously designed that corn should be given in the mash, it should be scalded with the bran, in order to soften it and render it more digestible. Bran mashes are very useful preparatives for physic, and they are necessary during the operation of the physic. They very soon become sour, and the manger of the horse, of whose diet they form a principal part, should be daily and carefully cleaned out. When horses are weakly and much reduced, malt mashes will often be very pala- table to them and very nutritive : but the water that is poured on a malt mash should be considerably below the boiling heat, otherwise the malt will be set, or clogged .ogether. If the owner was aware of the value of a malt mash, it would be oftener given when the horse is rapidly getting weaker from protracted disease, or when he is beginning to recover from a disease by which he has been much reduced. The only exception to their use is in cases of chest affection, in which they must not be given too early. In grease, and in mange accompanied by much emaciation, malt mashes will be peculiarly useful, especially if they constitute a principal portion of the food. MUSTARD, SINAPIS. — This will be found occasionally useful, i£ in inflammation of the chest or bowels, it is well rubbed on the chest or the abdomen. The external swelling and irritation which it excites may, to a greater or less degree, abate the inflammation within. MYRRH may be used in the form of tincture, or it may be united to the tincture of aloes as a stimulating and digestive application \o wounds. Diluted with an equal quantity of water, it is a good application for canker in the mouth, but as an internal medicine it seems to be inert, although some practitioners advocate its use, combined with opium, in cases of chronic cough. NITROUS ^ETHER, SPIRIT OF, is a very useful medicine in the advanced stages of fever, for while it, to a certain degree, rouses the exhausted powers of the animal, anei may be denominated a stimulant, it never brings back the dangerous febrile action which was subsiding. It is given in doses of three or four drachms. OLIVE OIL is an emollient and demulcent. Its laxative effect is very inconsider able and uncertain in the horse. OPIUM. — However underrated by some, there is not a more valuable drug on oui list. It does not often act as a narcotic except in considerable doses ; but it is a pow- erful antispasmodic, sedative, and astringent. As an antispasmodic, it enters into the cholic drink, and it is the sheet-anchor of the veterinarian in the treatment of teta nus or locked-jaw. As a sedative it relaxes that universal spasm of the musculai system which is the characteristic of tetanus ; and, perhaps, it is only as a sedative that it has such admirable effect as an astringent, for when the irritation around the mouths of the vessels of the intestines and kidneys is allayed by the opium, the undue purging and profuse staling will necessarily be arrested. Opium should, however, be given with caution. It is its secondary effect that is sedative, and, if given in cases of fever, its primary effect in increasing the excita- tion of the frame may be very considerable and highly injurious. In the early and acute stage of fever, it would be bad practice to give it in the smallest quantity ; but when the fever has passed, or is passing, there is nothing which so rapidly subdues the irritability that accompanies extreme weakness. It becomes an excellent tonie, because it is a sedative. If the blue or green vitriol, or cantharides, have been pushed too far, opium, soonei than any other drug, quiets the disorder they have occasioned. It is given in doses of one or two drachms, in the form of ball. Other medicines are usually combined with it, according to the circumstances of the case. Externally, it is useful in ophthalmia. In the form of decoction of the poppy-head, it may constitute the basis of an anodyne poultice ; but it must not be given in unior with any alkali, with the exception of chalk, in over-purging ; nor with the supera cetate of lead, by which its powers are materially impaired ; nor with sulphate of zi»c, or copper, or :~on. From its high price it is much adulterated, and it is not always met with in a state of purity. The best tests are its smell, its taste, its toughness and pliancy, its fawp w brown cJ our, and its weight, for it is the heaviest of all the vegetable extract* 35* 414 MEDICINE. except gum arabic; yet its weight is often fraudulently increased by stones and bin of lead dexterously concealed in it. The English opium is almost as good as the Turkish, and frequently sold for it; but is distinguishable by its blackness and soft- ness. PAJJM OIL, when genuine, is the very best substance that can be used for making masses and balls. It has a pleasant smell, and it never becomes rancid. PITCH is used to give adhesiveness and firmness to charges and plasters. The r.ommon pitch is quite as good as the more expensive Burgundy pitch. The bee* plaster for sandcrack consists of one pound of pitch and an ounce of yellow bees- wax melted together. PHYSIC. — The cases which require physic, the composition of the most effectual and safest physic-ball, and the mode of treatment under physic, have been already iescribed. POTASH. — Two compounds of potash are used in veterinary practice. The Nitrate of Potash (Nitre) is a valuable cooling medicine and a mild diuretic, and, therefore, it should enter into the composition of every fever-ball. Its dose is from two to four drachms. Grooms often dissolve it in the water. There are two objections to this : either the horse is nauseated and will not drink so much waler as he ought; or the Bait taste of the water causes considerable thirst, and disinclination to solid food. Nitre, whilst dissolving, materially lowers the temperature of water, and furnishes a very cold and useful lotion for sprain of the back sinews, and other local inflamma- tions. The lotion should be used as soon as the salt is dissolved, for it quickly be- comes as warm as the surrounding air. The Bitartrate of Potash (Cream of Tartar} is a mild diuretic, and, combined with ^Ethiop's mineral, is used as an alterative in obstinate mange or grease. The objection, however, to its use in such an animal as the horse, is the little power wh'ich it seems to exercise. POULTICES. — Few horsemen are aware of the value of these simple applications in abating inflammation, relieving pain, cleansing wounds, and disposing them to heal. They are applications of the best kind continued much longer than a simple fomenta- tion can be. In all inflammations of the foot they are very beneficial, by softening the horn hardened by the heat of the foot and contracted and pressing on the internal Hid highly sensible parts. The moisture and warmth are the useful qualities of the poultice; and that poultice is the best for general purposes in which moisture and warmth are longest retained. Perspiratioa is most abundantly promoted in the part, the pores are opened, swellings are relieved, and discharges of a healthy nature pro- cured from wounds. Linseed meal forms the best general poultice, because it longest retains the mois- ture. Bran, although frequently used for poultices, is objectionable, because it so soon becomes dry. To abate considerable iuflammation, and especially in a wounded part, Goulard may be added, or the linseed meal may be made into a paste with a decoction of poppy-heads. To promote a healthy discharge from an old or foul ulcer ; or separation of the dead from the living parts, in the process of what is called coring out ; or to hasten the ripening of a tumour that must be opened ; or to cleanse it when it is opened, — two ounces of common turpentine may be added to a pound of linseed meal : but nothing can be so absurd, or is so injurious, as the addition of turpentine to a poultice that is designed to be an emollient. The drawing poultices and stop- pings of farriers are often highly injurious, instead of abating inflammation. If the ulcer smells offensively, two ounces of powdered charcoal may be added to the linseed meal, or the poultice may be made of water, to which a solution of the chloride of lime has been added in the proportion of half an ounce to a pound. As an emollient poultice for grease and cracked heels, and especially if accompanied by much unpleasant smell, there is nothing preferable to a poultice of mashed carrots vith charcoal. For old grease some slight stimulant must be added, as a Jttle yeast or the grounds of table-beer. There are two errors in the application of a poultice and particularly as it regards the legs. It is often put on too tight, by means of whk-fi the return of the blood fron. the foot is prevented, and the disease is increased instead of lessened ; or it is too hot and unnecessary pain is given, and the inflammation aggravated. POWDERS. — Some horses are very difficult to ball or drench, and the violent strug Gfle that would accompany the attempt to conquer them may heighten the fever 31 mflarnrrVion. To such horses powders mus4 be given in mashes. Emetic tartar aru7 MEDICI1NE. 415 digitalis may be generally used in cases of inflammation or fever; or emetic tarta: for worms ; or calomel or even the farina of the cioton nut for physic : but powders are too often an excuse for the laziness or awkwardness of the carter or groom. The norse frequently refuses them, especially if his appetite has otherwise begun to fail ; the powder and the mash are wasted, and the animal is unnecessarily nauseated. Al! medicine should be given in the form of ball or drink. RAKING. — This consists in introducing the hand into the rectum of the horse, and drawing out any harden ?d dung that may be there. It may be necessary in costhe- ness or fever, if a clyster pipe cannot be obtained ; but an injection will better effect the purpose, and with less inconvenience to the animal. The introduction of the hand into the rectum is, however, useful to ascertain the existence of stone in the bladder, or the degree of distension of the bladder in suppression of urine, for the bladder will be easily felt below the intestine, and, at the same time by the heat of the intestine, the degree of inflammation in it or in the bladder may be detected. RESIN. — The yellow resin is that which remains after the distillation of oil of tur- pentine. It is used externally to give consistence to ointments, and to render them slightly stimulant. Internally it is a useful diuretic, and is given in doses of five or six drachms made into a ball with soft soap. The common liquid turpentine is, how- ever, preferable. ROWELS. — The manner of rowelling has been already described. As exciting inflammation on the surface, and so lessening that which had previously existed in a neighbouring but deeper-seated part, they are decidedly inferior to blisters, for they do not act so quickly or so extensively ; therefore they should not be used in acute inflammation of the lungs oi bowels, or any vital part. When the inflammation, however, although not intense, has long continued, rowels will be serviceable by pro- ducing an irritation and discharge that can be better kept up than by a blister. As promoting a permanent, although not very considerable discharge, and some inflam- mation, rowels in the thighs are useful in swelled legs and obstinate grease. If fluid is thrown out under the skin in any other part, the rowel acts as a permanent drain. When sprain of the joint or the muscles of the shoulders is suspected, a rowel in the chest will be serviceable. The wound caused by a rowel will readily heal, and with little blemish, unless the useless leather of the farrier has been inserted. SECALE CORNUTUM, the Ergot of Rye. — This is well known to be an excitant in assisting parturition in cattle, sheep, and dogs. It has been used with success in thf. mare by Mr. Richardson, of Lincoln. It should only be applied in difficult cases, and the dose should be two drachms, combined with some carminative, and given every hour. SEDATIVES are medicines that subdue irritation, repress spasmodic action, or deaden pain. We will not inquire whether they act first as stimulants : if they do, their effect is exceedingly transient, and is quickly followed by depression and diminished action. Digitalis, hellebore, opium, turpentine, are medicines of this kind. Their effect in different diseases or stages of disease, and the circumstances which indicate the use of any one of them in preference to the rest, are considered under their respec- tive titles. SODA. — The Carbonate of Soda is a useful antacid, and probably a diuretic, but. it is not much used in veterinary practice. The Chloride of Soda is not so efficacious for the removal of unpleasant smells and all infection as the chloride of lime; but it is exceedingly useful in changing malignant and corroding and destructive sores into the state of simple ulcers, and, in ulcers that are not malignant, it much hastens the cure. Poll evil and fistulous withers are much benefited by it, and all farcy ulcers. It is used in the proportion of one part of the solution to twenty-four of water. SODII CHLORIDUM, Common Salt, is very extensively employed in veterinary prac- tice. It forms an efficacious aperient clyster, and a solution of it has been given as an aperient drink. SprinkVed over the hay, or in a mash, it is very palatable to sick Worses ; and in that languor and disinclination to food which remain after severe illness, *ew things will sc soon recall the appetite as a drink composed of six or eight ounces of salt in solution. To horses in health it is more useful than is generally imagined, us promoting the digestion of the food, and, consequently, condition. Externally ap plied, there are few better otions for inflamed eyes than a solution of half a drachm of salt in four ounces of w iter. In the p %oportion of an ounce of salt to the same juantry of water, i is a gi od embroca'ioi for sore shoulders and backs; and if it 416 MEDICINE. does not always disperse warbles and tumours, it takes away much of the tendeineta of the skin. SODM SULPHAS. — Sulphate of Soda. — Glauber's Salt. — This medicine is seldom used in the treatment of the horse. It appears to have some diuretic property. SOAP is supposed to possess a diuretic quality, and therefore enters into the compo- sition of some diuretic masses. See RESIN. By many practitioners it is made an ingredient in the physic-ball, but uselessly or even injuriously so ; for if the aloes are finely powdered and mixed with palm oil, they will dissolve readily enough in th« nowels without the aid of the soap, while the action of the soap on the kidneys will unpair the purgative effect of the aloes. STARCH may be substituted with advantage for gruel in obstinate cases of purging, ooth as a clyster, and to support the strength of the animal. STOPPINGS constitute an important, but too often neglected part of stable manage- ment. If £ horse is irregularly or seldom worked, his feet are deprived of moisture; they become hard and unyielding and brittle, and disposed to corn and contraction find founder. The very dung of a neglected and filthy stable would be preferable to habitual standing on the cleanest litter without stopping. In wounds, and bruises, and corns, moisture is even more necessary, in order to supple the horn, and relieve its pressure on the tender parts beneath. As a common stopping, nothing is better than cowr-dung with a fourth part of clay well beaten into it, and confined with splents from the binding or larger twigs of the broom. In cases of wounds a little tar may be added ; but tar, as a common stopping, is too stimulating and drying. Paas made of thick felt have lately been contrived, which are fitted to the sole, and, swelling on being wetted, are sufficiently confined by the shoe. Having been well saturated with water, they will continue moist during the night. They are very useful in gentlemen's stables ; but the cow-dung and clay are sufficient for the farmer. STRYCHNIA. — This drug has frequently been employed with decided advantage in cases of paralysis in the dog; and lately, and with decided advantage, it has been administered to the horse. The dose is from one to three grains, given twice in the day. SULPHUR is the basia of the most effectual applications for matige. It is an excel- lent alterative, combined usually with antimony and nitre, and particularly for mange, surfeit, grease, hidebound, or want of condition ; and it is a useful ingredient in the cough and fever ball. When given alone, it seems to have little effect, except as a laxative in doses of six or eight ounces ; but there are much better aperients. The black sulphur consists principally of the dross after the pure sulphur has been sepa- rated. TAR melted with an equal quantity of grease forms the usual stopping of the farrier, It is a warm, or slightly stimulant, and therefore useful, dressing for bruised or wounded feet ; but its principal virtue seems to consist in preventing the penetration of dirt and water to the wounded part. As a common stopping it has been considered objection- able. From its warm and drying properties it is the usual and proper basis for thrush ointments ; and from its adhesiveness, and slightly stimulating power, it often forma an ingredient in applications for mange. Some practitioners give it, and advantageously, with the usual cough medicine, and in doses of two or three drachms for chronic cough. The common tar is as effectual as the Barbadoes for every veterinary purpose. Th«3 oil, or spirit (rectified oil) of tar is sometimes used alone for the cure of mange, but it is not to be depended upon. The spirit of tar, mixed with double the quantity offish oil, is, from its peculiar penetrating property, one of the best applications for hard and brittle feet. It should be well rubbed with a brush, every night, both on the crust and sole. TINCTURES. — The medicinal properties of many substances are extracted by spirit of wine, but in such small quantities as to be scarcely available for internal use i* veterinary practice. So much aloes or opium must be given in order to produce effect on the horse, that the quantity of spirit necessary to dissolve it would be injurious OT might be fatal. As applications to wounds or inflamed surfaces, the tinctures of aloes, digitalis, myrrh, and opium, are highly useful. TOBACCO, in the hands of the skilful veterinarian, may be advantageously employed in cases of extreme costiveness, or dangerous cholic ; but should never be permitted to be used as an external application for the cure of mange, or an internal medicine tr promote a fine coat. MEDICINE. 41- TONICS are valuable medicines when judiciously employed ; but, like cordials, they have been fatally abused. Many a horse recovering from severe disease has beec destroyed by their too early, or too free use. The veterinaiy surgeon occasionally administers them injuriously, in his anxiety to gratify the impatience of his employer. The mild vegetable tonics, chamomile, gentian, and ginger, and, perhaps, the carbonate of iron, may sometimes be given with benefit, and may hasten the perfect recovery of the patient ; but there are few principles more truly founded on reason and experience, than, that disease once removed, the powers of nature are sufficient to re-establish nealth. Against the more powerful mineral tonics, except for the particular purposes that have been pointed out under the proper heads, the horse proprietor and the vete- rinarian should be on his guard. TURPENTINE. — The common liquid turpentine has been described as ono of the best diuretics, in doses of half an ounce, and made into a ball with linseed meal and pow- dered ginger. It is added to the calamine or any other mild ooitment in order to render it stimulating and digestive, and, from its adhesiveness and slight stimulating power it is an ingredient in mange ointments. The oil of turpentine is an excellent antispas- modic. For the removal of cholic it stands unrivalled. Forming a tincture with cantharides, it is the basis of the sweating blister for old strains and swellings. As a blister it is far inferior to the common ointment. As a stimulant frequently applied it must be sufficiently lowered, or it may blemish. WAX. — The yellow wax is used in charges and some plasters to render them less brittle. ZINC. — The impure carbonate of zinc, under the name of Calamine Powder, is used •n the preparation of a valuable healing ointment, called Turner's Cerate. Five parts of lard and one of resin are melted together, and when these begin to get cool, two parts of the calamine, reduced to an impalpable powder, are stirred in. If the wound is not healthy, a small quantity of common turpentine may be added. This salve justly deserves the name which it has gained, "The Healing Ointment." The calamine is sometimes sprinkled with advantage on cracked heels and superficial sores. The sulphate of zinc, White Vitriol, in the proportion of three grains to an ounce of water, is an excellent application in ophthalmia, when the inflammatory stage is passing over ; and quittor is most successfully treated by a saturated solution of white vitriol being injected into the sinuses. A solution of white vitriol of less strength forms a wash for grease that is occasionally useful, when the alum or blue vitriol does not appear to succeed. ZINGIBERIS RADIX. — Ginger Root. — This is an admirable stimulant and carminative. ft is useful in loss of appetite and flatulent cholic, while it rouses the intestinal canal to its proper action. The cordial mass resorted to by the best surgeons consists of equal parts of ginger and gentian beaten into a mass with treacle. THE ASS AND THE MULE, BY J. S. SKINNER. • He would Have made them mules: wno have then provender Only for bearing burdens; and sore blows For sinking under them." AGAINST these humble animals there seems with many, to be a prejudice, more cruel ti oot more inveterate, than that which prompts every son of Adam, whether he meet him on the high-way or the bye-way, to " bruise the serpent's head !" Can it be that these abiding antipathies to both, are perpetuated by the force of scriptural injunctions against the life of the one and the procreation of the other ? " Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind," suith the Scriptures : now, though this command may be admitted as binding npon the Jews not to breed mules, does it follow that a Christian is forbidden the kind treat- ment and judicious use of them? The same chapter and verse which denounces this experiment upon the procreative faculties of God's creatures, also warns the husbandman not to " sow mingled seed" — but what farmer, whether Jew or Gentile, refuses to reap a good crop of mixed clover and timothy? and besides, did not King David, a man after God's own neart, indicate his care for his son, and intend it as a compliment for both him and the mule, when he gave the order, " take with you the servants of your Lord, and cause Solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring him down to Gihon ?" Let me then invoke the liberality of my readers to cast aside all prejudice against this useful and too often abused hybrid, and impartially to hear me " for my cause." To all, and there are many, who entertain a scornful contempt for the whole asinine family, might be commended Sterne's pathetic story of " The Dead Ass," for a touching picture of faithful service, and of mutual friendship in the humblest walks of life — " Shame on the world ! said I to myself. Did we love each other as this poor soul loved his Ass — 't would be something." America, as to its Agriculture, may be likened to a gallant ship, moored in a beautiful harbour, whose owners have no means to buy her cargo or hire sailors to man and send her to sea. The mildew blights her sails, and worms eat out her bottom. So it is with our .ands ; with millions on millions of acres, the growth of our population and national wealth .s lamentably retarded for want of force to put them in good and profitable tillage. There is no country where labour, and all labour-saving animals and contrivances, are so much a desideratum as in ours ! fcjence the necessity and the usefulness of every discussion which shall teach the land-holder how and in what form — with what animal or implement, he can with the least outlay, command the greatest amount of productive power applicable to agriculture. That power, in a word, whether animate or inanimate, which will work the longest and the cheapest and with most effect. Among animals, is it not in the mule tLu* we find this power or machine ? This, reader, IF the subject of our inquiry : and fin>l it seems proper to look into its natural history ana qualities, to see whether there be in fact any ground of preference between one and another, or whether a mule is a mule ! all being alike, as too many seem to suppose ; and finally to inquire and explain in what the differ ence of quality, imparting difference of value, consists- -nich, reader, is the object of this dissertation. Agriculturists, even those who have enjoyed opportunities of becoming more familiar jvith the qualities and uses of this animal, seem to reason, as already hinted, or rather to conclude without reason, that all mules are alike ; with the name and the sight of all is alike associated the idea of jumping and kicking and all sorts of devilment incarnate ! Hence has arisen the difficulty, the limited employment and the slowness in realising the improve* ments of which this animal is susceptible, like others, even the proud " lo d of the creation," ^y attention to breed and to education ! We must be allowed to premise that we have not taken the subject in hand in any vain belief that we can add anything new to what has been written upor heir natural history, " 420 THE ASS AND THE MULE. out rathet with the hope of making some impression on the public mind; and inducing it higher appreciation of these animals, by presenting at one view the opinions, some of them hitherto unpublished, and believed to be very striking', of gentlemen who have enjoyed rare opportunities to judge of the different races of the Ass, and of the temper, habits and capa- bilities of the Mule. True, the Editor professes to be himself not altogether without expe- rience on some of these points ; having often, when a boy, been mounted on the back of one, and sent, on Saturday (always on Saturday) in spite of all pouting and sulking, to th« weaver, the shoemaker, the tailor, or the country store. On these mournful occasions, the eense of hardship at being disappointed of some well-concerted scheme of rural sport, found vent, it may be easily imagined, in acts of spitefulness (not always unretaliated) towards the innocent mule — the poor beast being beaten and the rider sometimes thrown over his head! until now, that though near forty years have passed away since the close of this war of puerile injustice and mulish resentment, it may yet be questioned whether it be exactly fair, that one of the parties should assume to be the limner of the other ! We will en- deavour, however, in weighing the subject, to hold the scales with even hand ; and hers, lest it be elsewhere omitted, let one acknowledgment be made, and noted by the advocates of the more sightly and favoured horse, — that though the mule may, as already suggested, be the cause of falls in others, no man ever yet saw a mule fall down ! but we must not anticipate. As already stated, the first inquiry would seem to be as to the progenitors of the mule, to decide how far, on these, depend the qualities and value of the progeny. This point being discussed, the subject leads us to consider the question of rearing and breaking — his age, strength and gene/al usefulness compared with other animals. On all these points we shall rely as before admitted on the views of intelligent writers, and of gentlemen of close obser- vation and of the highest respectability with whom we have recently corresponded. Before proceeding however to quote authorities on these points, there is one proposition or conclusion which reading and inquiry have led us to adopt, and which may as well be here expressed, without stopping to trouble the reader with all the particular grounds of it. It is that the best mules are produced by the union of the Jack with the mare, rather than from cohabita- tion between the Stallion and the Jennet. Independently of any particular facts, and of the few instances in which the Stallion is known to have been so employed, (that alone warrant- ing the inference against its eligibility) we should form the conclusion here announced, that the better produce would be, generally from the smaller sire and the larger dam ; on the clear principles of breeding laid down by Professor Cline of London, in his essay on breeding domestic animals, which is elsewhere referred to and quoted in our introduction to the work on the Horse. In the annals of American agriculture at least, the essay on the mule, which may be regarded as the most elaborate and of the highest authority, is one written by S. W. POMEROT Esq., a gentleman who, whether farming, as then, near the " Literary Emporium," or a* now, more profitablj employed, as we learn and hope, in heaving coal on the banks of the Ohio ; brings light to every circle in which he moves. Of an essay so meritorious, we may be justified in telling the history; and the more so as by so doing we shall give to the positions it maintains more weight with the reader than would ary dictum of ours. The writer of this, then the Editor of the old American Farmer, being himself bred on a "plantation" where mules were bred and in constant use, and anxious to have the minds of his numerous patrons disabused and enlightened as to the true qualities and value of this, as compared with other and more favoured animals for the usual purposes of husbandry, with- out difficulty persuaded the late venerable CHARLES CARROLL of Carrollton to offer a premium for the best essay on that subject The competitors were numerous, but the award of the plate, with its appropriate devices and inscriptions, was unanimously and without hesitation, to S. W. POMEROY, then of Brighton Massachusetts. It is to that essay we shall now have free recourse ; and first as to THE DIFFERENT RACES OF JACKS. It seems tc be a wall-established fact, that different races of the Ass exist with properties UB distinctly marked as those which characterise the various species of camel. According to the learned Doctor Harris, author of the " Natural History of the Bible," four different races of asses are recognised in the original Hebrew Scriptures : viz. Para, Chamor, Aton+ tnd Orud. We find, says the author of the prize essay referred to, that at a very early period of sacreu history, the common domestic ass, Chamor, was employed in all the menial labours of a patriarchal family, while a nobler and more estimable animal (Aton) was destined to carry the patriarchs, the well-born, and those on whom marks of distinction were to be conferred. They constituted an important item in a schedule of pastoral wealth of those times David, we are told, had an officer of high dignity appointed expressly to superintend his stu^ of h\gh-bred asses ! Atonoth. THE ASS AND THE MUvE. 421 The difference between the different races, for which all writers of research and the moat observant travellers and agriculturists contend, may be plainly traced in the portraits drawn by G. W. PARK CUSTIS, ESQ., of Arlington, of the two Jacks, the ROYAL GIFT, and the Kwoir. OF MALTA, presented to GENERAL WASHINGTON about the year 1787 — of these Mr. Custi* says, " The Gift, with a jennet, was a present from the king of Spain, and said to have been selected from the royal stud. The Knight I believe was from the Marquis de Lafayette, and shipped from Marseilles. "The GIFT was a huge and ill-shaped Jack, near sixteen hands high, very large head, clumsy limbs, and to all appearance little calculated for active service ; he was of a grey colour, probably not young when imported, and died at Mount Vernon but little valued for his mules, which were unwieldy and dull. " The KNIGHT was of a moderate size, clean limbed, great activity, the fire and ferocity of a tiger, a dark brown, nearly a black colour, white belly and muzzle, could be managed only by one groom, and that always at considerable personal risk. He lived to a great old age, and was so infirm towards the last as to require lifting. He died on my estate, in New Kent, in the state of Virginia, in the year 1802 or '3. His mules were all active, spirited, and serviceable, and from stout mares attained considerable size. The Knight of Malta, here mentioned by Mr. Custis, is believed unquestionably to have been " the first Maltese Jack ever brought to the United States." The second one, says Mr. Pomeroy, came in the Frigate Constitution on her return, as he thinks, from the Mediter- ranean, and was sold, it is believed, in the District of Columbia. Since that time a number have been introduced by officers of the Navy, and in merchant-ships. The learned Professor Wilson, in an article in the Encyclopedia Brittanica, on the natural history of quadrupeds and whales, says of the Ass : " The races of eastern origin are much more beautiful, with glossy skins, carrying their heads loftily, and moving their limbs in a very graceful manner. They accordingly fetch a very high price." There is no one within the range of our acquaintance whose dealings and whose experi- ence on these subjects, equal those of GENERAL JAMES SHELBY of Kentucky. Owning and residing upon a magnificent estate of " blue grass land," its resources have been in a good measure dedicated to rearing mules and cattle of improved breeds. The writer had the pleasure to make him a visit in 1839 ; and while partaking festively and intellectually of th« hospitalities of his mansion, to learn much of the mule trade, in its various branches. It was like going to New Bedford to be instructed in all the art and mystery of the whaling business ! The general's residence is eight miles from Lexington ; and it may be taken as a proof of no mean powers of performance in light harness, that we were taken to his house in his own carriage by a pair of his mules, then in common family use in that way, within the hour, and without a touch of the whip. On the point under consideration, the different breeds of Jacks, General Shelby's opinion is positive, and should carry with it all the weight that habit of close observation and large experience can impart. He maintains, without question, that the Ass belongs to a family, possessing as many varieties as that of the horse ; the size, form, and general appearance in the one being as dissimilar, in different races, as in the other. By judiciously crossing, says he, the different varieties of horses, other varieties have been obtained, better adapted to the particular purposes of the breeder — so likewise may the Jack be improved. This last sug- gestion is in strict accordance with the fact stated by Mr. Custis, who, in his letter to Mr. Pome- roy, after exemplifying the remarkable difference of properties which distinguished the Royal Gift and the Knight of Malta, says that General Washington bred a favourite Jack called COMPOUND from the cross of Spanish and Maltese, putting the Knight of Malta sent out by General Lafayette to the large jennet sent out by the king of Spain along with the Royal Gift. The Jack produced by this cross, Mr. Custis says " was a very superior animal, very 'ong bodied, well set, with all the qualities of the Knight and the weight of the Spanish oreed — he was sire of some of the finest mules at Mount Vernon, and died from accident. In full support of these views and descriptions of difference of breed in Jacks, we have yet in reserve an authority on which we place the highest confidence and value. It is that of J. N. HAMBLETON, Esq., of the United States Navy — whose professional duties carry him to different quarters of the world, and who, moreover, carries with him on his travels very rare advantages and habits, such as, be it said, en passant, it behoves all our young officers to acquire and to practise — he has been studious to gain the command of languages, which he takes with him, as so many keys, to unlock and examine the stores that contain whatever is curious or useful, wherever he goes. With these advantages he combines an inquisitive disposition and the faculty of clear discrimination. What fruitful sources, these, of int*»* Actual enjoyment ! what sure guarantees of extraordinary information and usefulness : Mr. Hambleton, on the question of different breeds of Asses, states, as the result of inq'irrj *nd personal observation during years of service and travel along the shores of the Mediter- ranean, that " The Maltese Ass is without doubt the best — he has greater activity \nd en- iaraace than 11 MI coarse Jack of Spain a«d France ; and in his fine limbs and deer-like form. 36 422 THE ASS AND THE MULE. nas immense power — the other breeds are often clumsy anc sluggish. — It is th' against Conestoga. In Minorca the farmers were extremely anxious to breed from Jacks which our officers of the navy had brought from Malta, and confessed their superiority. — There are two hinds at Malta, the black and the grey. The former is always most esteemed. I paid for Peter Simple two hundred and fifty Spanish dollars, and he cost me five hundred here. It was considered a high price, but he was known to be the best Jack of his age in Ihe Island. His sire was carried to England for Admiral Rowley." The Jack here spoken of, Peter Simple, is one of, if not the finest we have ever seen. Mr. II. adds in a familiar letter in answer to one addressed to him on the subjects of this memoir gen- erally, some interesting facts which we take the liberty to transcribe in the unstudied lan- guage (and the better for that) in which they are written by one friend to another. As to the well-known indifference, not to say antipathy, evinced by some Jacks to cohabit with a mare, she being of a "diverse kind," he says, "I have heard that it was common for jacks kO refuse mares in Spain, and hence the risk of buying them untried. They do not like to Bell their breeders, and ask high prices for them. In Majorca I have heard of some th?t were held as high as $1000. I sent in two from Gibraltar which came from Ronda, in An dalusia : one was a grey, and the other milk-white with a sorrel belly. I was told that he, the white, was of an excellent strain, originally from Barbary. He was short-legged, very broad over the back, and compactly made ; and took on fat like a pig. He was not clumsy, and was thejinest ambler I ever saw. Unfortunately he was very slack, and on that account of little value. His colts are good, but have not the spirit of those of Ptter Simple. Some of the latter from good mares can compare with the Kentucky mules in size." We shall now bind all that has been asserted in support of the fact that Jacks are of dif- ferent races and tempers, and that the Maltese, among those within our reach and with which we are familiar, is the best, by the following quotation from a friendly letter, written, to use his own expressive phrase, currente calamo, "just as if we were sitting under a tree along shore," from Col. N. Goldborough of Maryland, whose attention to all such matters is known to be as critical as his judgment in them is allowed to be sound and superior. Of Asses and Mules, says the Col., " I know but little of the natural history of the former, but have an experience of some thirty years of the hatter. The Maltese Jack in the pro duction of mules holds the same rank with the Arabian as to horses. I have never seen a dull mule got by the Jack I purchased of you, even from notoriously sluggish mares. I have often wondered that the mule had so much spirit, when the usual qualities attributed to the ass are taken into consideration. I have bred the same mare at different periods to the ass, and to the blood-horse — the horse of fine spirit too, and the progeny of the ass has pos- sessed as much spirit, and in one instance far more than that of the horse." It would be superfluous to multiply authorities or opinions in proof or in description of different races of Jacks, possessing distinct qualities as to conformation and temper: than those already quoted, none can be higher or more conclusive. It was, however, deemed necessary to say thus much, because if, as we expect to show, the mule be highly worthy of more genera! regard, as an animal whose employment is attended with great economy, is it not essential that those who may be led to breed or purchase, should understand that their value, no less than that of the horse, is affected ^y and depends in a great measure upon breed ? and tha* if this fact be not kept constantly in mind, both animals are liable to deterioration, leading in time, as with respect to the mule it has already done, to disparagement and rejection Having indicated, by the opinion of the most competent judges, how much the progeny de- pends for its value on the quality of the sire, it will be seen in the sequel that the influence of the mare is no less than that of the Jack — we have heard large mule traders contend that it was greater and more obvious. It is doubtless the greater prevalence of blood in the Ken- tucky mares, for example, which stamps the mules of that state with a blood-like look and air of superiority, which so plainly distinguish them from the coarser mules of Ohio — where racing, until very lately, has been considered almost an " abomination in the sight of the Lord." We proceed now to view the mule as he i.«, in a practical point of view — that is in respect ®f the cost and mode of roaring him — his capacities and uses : to this end we shall lake leave to publish, without stopping to separate and systematise the facts they contain, and the Vguments they advance, some portions of letters from the friends already spoken of, as well IB further quotations from respectable writers who have given their attention to this subject, than which, it is not easy to think of one more interesting to the American husbandman. The great nurseries of the mule, for the supply of Maryland and the yet greater demand for the Southern plantations, have for years past been Kentucky, and more recently Ohic Befoie the commencement of this century, the breeding of the mule for sale in our own eonntry, and for the plantations in the West Indies, had been confined to New-England ; of its history there — the sort of jack employed, and kind of mule then and there pn duced, the following account is given in the prize essay already spoken of, and which we commend to the reader for proof at once of the eagerness and the accuracy of the writer's inquiries into the qualities of the mule. THE ASS AND THE MULL 423 In Sir George Staunton's account of Lord Macartney's embassy to China, we are tcld cnat mules are valued in that economical empire at a much higher prire than horses. In oui own country, prior to the war of the revolution, a few Jacks of an ordinary kind were ira ported — a small number of mules bred ; and all exported to the West Indies. I have refer ence to New-England, as I am not aware that any attention was paid to the system in the Middle or Southern States, though it is not improbable that some valuable mules may have oeen raised by the farmers and planters for their own use. When peace took place, the price of mules in the West Indies excited attention to the breeding of them, which was principaliy confined to Connecticut; and several cargoes of the small race of Jacks were imported from ».ne Cape de Verd Islands, and St. Michael's, one of the Azores. It should be observed that the exportation of jacks from Spain, or any of her colonies, was strictly prohibited, and con- tinued to he until after the Peninsular war. There might have been, however, a few smug- gled from the Spanish part of Hispaniola into Cape Fran§ois, and from thence introduced but they were vastly inferior to the Spanish Jacks. From this miserable stock a system of breeding rnules commenced, the best calculated to deteriorate any race of animals that has been, or could be devised, since their creation. The purchaser of a Jack, w :ea about to commence mule dealer, made little inquiry concerning him but of his capacity to propagate a mule. He placed him in a district where there was the greatest number of mares of quali- ties so inferior that their colts would not compensate their owners for the expense of putting them to a horse, and contracted to purchase their mules at four months old. Those are kept in herds, with precarious shelter in winter, having ample opportunities afforded them to mature and transfer that propensity for kicking, which seems at first merely playful, into an habitual means of defence, to be exercised when the biped or any other race of animals approach them. In this kicking seminary they remain two years, and are then driven to market. At subsequent periods, a few Jacks of higher grades were procured, from which a small number of good-sized mules were bred, and a few of them broke. The breed of Jacks has somewhat improved, and mule dealers are now located in most of the New-England states and some parts of New- York. But the system as above detailed, with few exceptions, has continued ; and it is from such a race of Jacks, and such a system of breeding and ma- nagement, that the mules have been produced, wi.*h which the farmers and planters of Mary land and Virginia, and the Southern States, have been supplied from New-England , and such have furnished a criterion for a great portion of our countrymen to form an estimate of the value and properties of this degraded animal. On the share of the mare, in affecting the value of the mule, Mr.Custis says emphatically, •wat General Washington bred mules from "his best coach mares; and found the value of the mule to bear a just proportion to the value of tkr. dam. Four mules sold at the sale of his effects for upwards of $800, and two more pair at upwards of $400 each pair. One pair of these mules was nearly sixteen hands high." — NovV, although it be not here affirmed that these " best coach mares" were Hood mares, the fact may be very safely assumed that they were deep in the blood, when we consider that the General himself was of the " race-horse region," — a member and officer of the jockey club at Alexandria — sometimes acting as judge of the race — fond of the turf and of the chase ; in which, according to one, of all men living, most familiar with his habits, he was " always superbly mounted, in true sporting costume, of blue coat, scarlet vest, buckskin breeches, top-boots, velvet cap and whip with long thong, he took the field at day dawn, with his huntsman WILL LEE, his friends and neighbours ; and none rode more gallantly in the chase, nor with voice more cheerly awak- ened echo in the woodland, than he who was afterwards destined, by voice and example, to cheer his countrymen in their glorious struggle for independence and empire." — Thus mounted on his famous hunter Blue-skin, says the author of his yet unpublished memoirs, Washington was always " in at the death, and yielding to no man the honour of the brush." BeL.g himself breeder and runner of thorough-bred stock, and well acquainted with the good effect of a generous sprinkling of blood, as well for the road as for the battle-field, it may be fairly inferred that these "best coach mares" had a heavy dash of it, from which were bred mules that commanded $200 each, and were nearly sixteen hands high, "active and spirited.' It is well remembered as the opinion of the late FREDERICK SKINNER, (blessed be his me- mory,) father of the writer of this memoir, who sent his jennets several years from Calverl County, to the Jacks at Mount Vernon, and who was withal a connoisseur in all such cases, — it was his often-expressed conviction that the activity, endurance, and value of mules was greatly enhanced when bred from mares deep in the blood. But we cannot dismiss our re- spected and cautious author of the prize essay, without availing yet more largely of the result of his careful researches and reflections, founded on personal experience, and so we proceed to transcribe his remarks on the several points of breeding and rearing — economy of keep — steadiness to labour — docility of temper — exemption from disease — and longevity of the animal. The impressions received, says he, when on a visit to the West Indies in my youth, by observ injjf ii the mgar plantations, the severe labour performed by mules in cane mills induced ma 424 T.^E ASS AND THE MULE. when 1 commenced farming, to purchase the first well-broke mule I could light on , and notwithstanding he was so small as to require a vehicle and harness constructed purposely for him, his services were found so valuable, and the economy of using those animals so evident, that I was stimulated to great exertions for procuring several others of larger size,1 in this I succeeded, after great difficulty, to such an extent, as to have had more labour performed by them on farm and road for thirty years past, than any person, I presume, in New England ; and every day's experience has served to fortify my conviction of the supe- rior utility of the mule over the horse, for all the purposes for which I have proposed him aa a candidate. And it should be considered that those I have used were of an ordinary breed, vastly inferior to such as may be easily produced in our country, by attention to the intro duction of a suitable race of Jacks, and a proper system of breeding and management. The question occurs, how is this to be effected ? I will premise, that there exists a strong analogy between three varieties of the horse, and those of the domestic ass, considered the most valuable. We have the Arabian, the hunter, and the stout cart-horse. There is the heavy Spanish Jack, with long slouching ears, which Mr. Custis has described, that answers to the cart-horse ; another Spanish breed called the Andalvsian, with ears shorter and erect, of tolerable size, plenty of bone, active, more spirited, and answering to the hunter. Then comes the Arabian Jack, with ears always erect, of a delicate form, fine limbs, and full of fire and spirit. Judicious crosses from these varieties, will be requisite to produce such kind of mules as may be wanted for general purposes. From the small Jack of African origin, with a list down his back and shoulders, are bred a small race of mules, by far the most nardy of any. With attention to selection In breeding the Jacks, with, perhaps, a dash of some cross of the foregoing description, a stock of mules may be produced, preferable to all others for the light lands and cotton culture of the middle and southern states. To procure any number of Arabian Jacks from their native country, is hardly practicable at the present time. Egypt has been celebrated by Sonnini and other travellers, for superb Jacks of the Arabian breed, which probably has been often improved by those introduced b f the pilgrims from Mecca. I apprehend no great difficulty in obtaining them from that cjuntry. There is, however, no question but the Maltese Jacks are of the Arabian race, more or less degenerated. The most of those brought to this country that I have seen, were selected on account of their size, and had been used to the draught. I should recommend the selection of those that are esteemed most suitable for the saddle, as likely to possess greater purity of blood. A Jack of this kind was, a number of years since, imported from Gibraltar, that had been selected by a British officer at Malta ; and very much resembled the Knight of Malta, described by Mr. Custis. I found, upon a careful examination, that he differed but little from the description I had heard and read of the true Arabian race ; indeed I could discover some prominent points and marks, that agreed with those found, by Profes- sor Pallas, to belong to the Hemionus or wild mule of Mongalia. From this Jack I have bred a stock, out of a large Spanish Jennet of the Andalusian breed, that corresponds very minutely with Mr. Custis's description of Compound, bred by General Washington, and also a mule that now, not three years old, stands fifteen hands, and has other points of great promise. *##*#*#*** My attention has been but lately directed to breeding mules ; and those intended only for my own use. The system adopted is to halter them at four months, and have the males emasculated before six months old ; which has great influence on their future conduct, and is attended with much less hazard and trouble, than if delayed until they are one or two years old, as is the general practice. If they are treated gently, and fed occasionally out of the hand, with corn, potatoes, &c., they soon become attached ; and when they find that to every man's hand is not against them," will have no propensity to direct their heels against him, and soon forget they have the power. In winter they should be tied up in separate stalls, and often rubbed down. By such treatment there is not more danger of having a Ticious mule than a vicious horse — and I am decidedly of opinion, that a high-spirited mule BO managed, and well broke, will not jeopard the lives or limbs of men, women, or children by any means so much as a high-spirited horse, however well he may have been trained. The longevity of the mule has become so proverbial, that a purchaser seldom inquiies his age. Pliny gives an account of one, taken from Grecian history, that was eighty years old ; and though past labour, followed others that were carrying materials to build the temple of Minerva at Athens, and seemed to wish to assist them ; which so pleased the people, that tney ordered he should have free egress to the grain market. Dr. Rees mentions two that were seventy years old in England. I saw, myself, in the West Indies, a mule perform his task in a cane mill, that his owner assured me was forty years old. I now own a mare mule twenty-Jive years old, that I have had in constant work twenty-one years, and can discover no diminution in her powers ; she has within a year past often taken upwards of a ton orei,rht in a ^agon to Bosto'i, a distance of more than five miles. A gentleman in my teighbourhnod has owned a very large mule about fourteen years, that cannot be Jess tha» THE ASS AND THE MULE. 425 wenty-eight ye^rs old. He informed me a few days since, that he cojld not perceive the east failure in him, and would not exchange him for any farm horse in the country. Aim I am just informed, from a source entitled to perfect confidence, that a highly respectable gentleman and eminent agriculturist, near Centreville, on the eastern shore of Maryland* owns a mule that is thirty-Jive years old, as capable of labour as at any former period. * * * * ** * *** * From what has been stated respecting the longevity of the mule, I think it may be fair'y assumed, that he does not deteriorate more rapidly after twenty years of age than the horse after ten, allowing the same extent of work and similar treatment to each. The contrast in the mule's freedorp from malady or disease, compared with the horse, is not less striking. Arthur Young, during his tour in Ireland, was informed that a gentleman had lost several fine mules, by feeding them on wheat straw cut. And I have been informed that a mule- dealer, in the western part of New-York, attributed the loss of a number of young mules, in a severe winter, when his hay was exhausted, to feeding them exclusively on cut straw and Indian-corn meal. In no other instance have I ever heard or known of a mule being attacked with any disorder or complaint, except two or three cases of inflammation of the intestines, caused by gross neglect in permitting them to remain exposed to cold and wet, when in a high state of perspiration after severe labour, and drinking to excess of cold water. From his light frame and more cautious movements, the mule is less subject to casualties than the horse. Indeed it is not improbable that a farmer may work the same team of mulea above twenty years, and never be presented with a. farrier* 8 bill, or find it necessary to exer- cise the art himself. Sir John Sinclair, in his " Reports on the Agriculture of Scotland," remarks that " if the whole period of a horse's labour be fifteen years, the first six may be equal in value to the remaining nine ; therefore a horse of ten years old, after working six years, may be worth half his original value." He estimates the annual decline of a horse to be equal to fifty pel cent, on his price every six years, and supposes one out of twenty-five that are regularly employed in agriculture, to die every year : for insurance against diseases and accidents He considers five acres of land, of medium quality, necessary for the maintenance of each horse, and the annual expense, including harness, shoeing, farriery, insurance and decline in value, allowing him to cost $200, to exceed that sum about Jive per cent., which is the only difference between the estimate of this illustrious and accurate agriculturist, and that of a respectable committee of the Farmers'1 Society of Barwell district, South Carolina, who in a report published in the Carleston Courier, of the 23d of February last (1825,) state, that" the an- nual expense of keeping a horse is equal to his value." The same committee also state, that, *' at four years old a horse will seldom sell for more than the expense of rearing him." That uthe superiority of the mule over the horse, had long been appreciated by some of their most judicious planters ; that two mules could be raised at less expense than one horse ; that a mule is fit for service at an earlier age, if of sufficient size ; will perform as much labour; and if attended to when first put to work, his gait and habits may be formed to suit the taste of the owner." This report may be considered a most valuable document, emanating, as it does, from enlightened practical farmers and planters, in a section of our country where we may suppose a horse can be maintained cheaper than in Maryland, or any state farther north. I am convinced that the small breed of mules will consume less, in proportion to the labour they are capable of performing, than the larger race; but I shall confine the comparison to the latter — those that stand from fourteen and a half to rising of fifteen hands, and equal tc any labour that a horse is usually put to. From repeated experiments, in the course of two winters, I found that three mules of this description, that were constantly at work, consumed about the same quantity of hay, and only one-fourth the provender that was given to two middling-sized coach hones, moderately worked. And from many years' attentive observa- tion, I am led to believe that a large sized mule will not require more than from three-Jiftht to two-thirds the food, to keep him in good order, that will be necessary for a horse performing the same extent of labour. Although a mule will work and endure on such mean and hard fare, that a horse would soon give out upon, he has an equal relish for that which is good; ind it is strict economy to indulge him, for no animal will pay better for extra keep by extra toork. But if by hard fare, or hard work, he is reduced to a skeleton, two or three weeks, rest and good keeping will put him in flesh and high condition for labour. I have witnessed general such examples with subjects twenty years old ; so much cannot be said of a horse at half that age. The expense of shoeing a mule, the year round, does not amount to more than tne-third that of a horse, his hoofs being harder, more horny, and so slow in their growth, that the si oes require no removal, and hold on till worn out ; and the wear, from the lightneat of the animal, is much less. In answer to the charge generally prevalent against the mule, that he is "vicious, ttubbon and slow" I can assert, that out of about twenty that have been employed on mv estate at Different periods during a course of thirty years, and those picked up, chiefly on account of 36* 3o 426 THEASSANDTHFMULE. their size and spirit, wherever they could be found, ont only had any vi ious p.opensitiea and those might have been subdued by proper management when young. 1 have always found then truer pullers and quicker travellers, with a load, than horses. Their vision and rearing is much more accurate. I have used them in my family carriage, in a gig, and under the saddle ; and have never known one to start or run from any object or noise ; a fault in the horse that continually causes the maiming and death of numbers of humwi beings. The mule is more steady in his draught, and less likely to waste his strength than the horse; hence more suitable to work with oxen; and as he walks faster, will habituate them to a quicker gait. But for none of the purposes of agriculture does his superior.' ty appear more conspicuous than ploughing among crops ; his feet being smaller, arid follow each other so much more in a line, that he seldom treads down the ridges or crops. The facility of instructing him to obey implicitly the voice of his driver or the ploughman, is as- tonishing. The best ploughed tillage land I ever saw, I have had performed by two mulei tandem without lines or driver. There is one plausible objection often urged against the mule, that " on deep^soils and deep roads, his feet being so much smaller than those of the horse, sink farther in :" but it should be considered that he can extricate them with as much greater facility. Few can be ignorant of the capacity of the mule to endure labour in a temperature of heat that would be destructive to the horse, who have any knowledge of the preference for him, merely on that account, in the West Indies, and in the Southern States. It is full time to bring our comparison to a close ; which I shall do by assuming the posi- tion, that the farmer, who substitutes mules for horses, will have this portion of his animal labour performed, with the expense of one spire of grass, instead of two ; which may be equal, so far, to making " two spires grow where one grew before." For although a large- sized mule will consume somewhat more than half the food necessary for a horse, as has been observed, yet if we take into the account the saving in the expense of shoeing, farriery, and insurance against diseases and accidents, we may safely affirm, that a clear saving of one-half can be fully substantiated. But, in addition to this, the mule, farmer may calculate, with tolerable certainty, upon the continuation of his capital for thirty years ; whereas the horse farmer, at the expiration of fifteen years, must look to his crops, to his acres, or a Bank, for the renewal of his— or, perhaps, what is worse, he must commence horse-jockey at !ta ea*ly period. ******* * * * I cannot resist the impulse to exhibit the mule in one other point of view. For the move, ment of machinery, the employment of this animal, when judiciously selected, has met with a most decided preference, in comparison with the horse, independent of the economy of using him. And if we consider the rapid and probably progressive increase of labour-saving ma- chines, in every department where they can be made subservient to the requirements of so- ciety, it is evident there will be a corresponding demand for animal power, as well as for that, more potent, derived from the elements ; and although the latter may vastly predominate, yet should the horse be employed, and his increase for other purposes continue, as it now does, in the ratio of population, the number, at no very distant period, may become as alarming in our own, as it is at present in our mother country. And notwithstanding we may feel secure from the extent of our territory, and extreme diversity of soil and climate, but, above all, from being in possession of Indian-corn, — the GOLDEN FLEECE, found by our " Pilgrim Fa- thers," when they first landed on these shores ; yet such peculiar advantages may not insure us against the visitations of one of the most distressing calamities that a feeling community can possibly be subjected to." The reader cannot fail to be struck with the strong corroborative proof which is brought in support of the views of this well-informed writer, after a lapse of seventeen years, in the testimony which follows, from no less instructive and intelligent observers. On the pre- ceding points generally, we now present the answers, of recent date, unstudied in style, 'but deliberate as to facts ; received in reply to, and corresponding in order with interrogatories propounded in desultory form to gentlemen whose names we have already taken the freedom to introduce to the reader — beginning with the letter from General Shelby, whose testimony embraces the practical knowledge derived from many years of opportunity to view the subject well in all its aspects. " As to mules" says the General, their qualities may be greatly varied from the same Jack, whether the diminutive donkey of three feet, or the Jack of Spain of sixteen hands, by reason of the great variety of mares bred to him. The Maltese Jack of fourteen hands, I consider entitled to the same rank and dignity in his race that is accorded to tW Arabian Horse in his. A cross between him and the Spanish Jack of sixteen hands will be found to combine all the essential properties of size, form and action, and to facilitate the breeding of mules possessing those requisites — I med only add that, in all respects whether in breeding, rearing, breaking, using and in selecting — the subject of the mulf should be considered as in the same light precisely as that of the horse- therefore the ground* •^ pr*pffcrence betveen cne Jack and another; in other words, their good and bad points reaul1 THE ASS ANL THE MULE. troia .he combination of sufficient size, form and action, and not from any one of those quali ties. — The same as to mules. Jacks have sold in Kentucky as high as $5000. Their value at this time (April, 1842) is nominal — sixteen hands is the largest size — fifteen is quite common — mules of seventeen hands are sometimes to be met with. The quality of the mule is improved by the blood of the mare. It is quite common to work mares while going to the Jack, while in foal, and while suckling. Mules should be weaned at about five months old — we feed our mules on grain, corn, oats, or rye, the latter in the form of chop, from season to season until sold. J mean during the winter, our blue-grass being all-sufficient during the rest of the year. It \» necessary, however, to grain feed them on the grass through the summer they are fattened fbr market — we sell the majority of our stock the fall after they are two — mostly to the cotton planters — a few of late to the Pennsylvania iron works, and a few to Cuba: the remainder we sell at a year older. The present prices at a given age are as variant as that of horses cattle, or any thing else whose value depends upon its quality, and the demands and mone- tary condition of the country — sales were effected last fall at from $35 to $125. I have known mules sell at weaning-time for $150, and when grown as high as $300. They should b* broke at the age you would break a horse ; and, according to my observation, by the same system. They eat as much as horses, and reward a liberal allowance as well, though he may, when unavoidable, be able to withstand privation better. I have known mules to trave" ten" miles within the hour in light harness. I drove a pair from Lexington to the Blue Lick in six hours, stopping one hour by the way — the distance is forty miles. What may be th« precise difference in " the age of the rnule as compared with the horse, under the same treat ment, on a plantation," I cannot say ; the advantage, however, would be on the side of the former — I know of no particular inconvenience in using them in a carriage. The mule trade in Kentucky is of about forty years' standing. For the first twenty years the number increased gradually, to about eight hundred ; during th'e next fifteen or sixteen years, it went up to four or five thousand; since when, it has gone back to where it was twenty years ago. Our farmers who breed mules, prefer to sell them when they put their mares to the Jack, or at weaning time. The price rose gradually from twenty to fifty dollars for colts. My last lot cost me in 1838 fifty dollars, aad the season of my Jack given in. The mares were selected, and the colts bargained for in the season of 1837. When the price went down with everything else a few years back, they discontinued, in a great degree, the breeding of them ; so that our present prices result from a greatly insufficient supply for the ordinary demand. I soid my stock of three year olds, (seventy-three head) last fall at 170. I was anxious to retain two or three pair (not the largest) at $250 a pair, but the purchaser objected — but he was equally anxious to select for me some twenty head (and not the least) at thirty-five dollars. I declined taking them. The number of mules annually exported from Kentucky, may be set down at the whole number raised — as the small number broke to service in this state, are sure, at last, to find their way to a foreign market — at a rough guess, I would fix the nett average value, in market, of our mulesv at about $70. The reason why mules have been raised in such numbers in Kentucky more than in other states, is the better adaptation of our soil and climate to the production of grain and grass than any other state, and for which we can obtain a market only in the form of live stock. The " cost of raising a rnule to be three years old, when corn is twenty-five cents per bushel," charging from the usual time of weaning, 25th of September, may be computed at about thirty dollars, including a fair equivalent for grazing and salting. I have not known of a case of a female mule breeding — I wish you would tell me on what testimony the Norfolk case rests [it shall be done] I am a sceptic. — Our Jacks are doing but little this season. — They stand at about five dollars to mares, and from that to fifty dollars for Jennies. — The proportion of foals from a Jack and a horse, does not vary materially, in a given number of mares." So much for the views and opinions of one who has, perhaps, bought and sold a greatei lumber of mules than any individual in the United States. We now present, in like man. aer, without leave of the writer, in so many words, and without any studied formality of Jiction, a letter from Mr. Hambleton, which the reader will agree needs no higher polish of the pen, or greater amplification, to give it interest and value. "I am now, March 5th, 1842, raising three mules, and their ration is four ears of corn diiy, each, and straw a discretion. This from the 1st of October, to the 30th of April, when they will go to grass, would be about one and a quarter barrels each of corn, allowing seven hundred ears to the barrel. At $3 per barrel, one and aquarter barrels are $3.75 the first year second '-ear add one third, $5 ; the third year add one third, $6. 62 =$14.37, the cost for corn at three years old. As our farmers never sell straw, and consider it a favour for any animal io work it up into manure, the expense of that is not counted. When two years old, the ration should be augmented one-third — you may smile at my statistics, but I can assure you these colts >/ % half an hour's leisure, I proceed to copy the articles :— THE ASS AND THE MUiE. From the Farmer's Register, Vol. 2, page c A BREEDING MULE. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register Spring Hill, Nansemond County (Va,,) May 3d, 1834. A circumstance has occurred on my plantation, which seems to be against the genera principles of nature. On the 23d of April, 1834, a female mule of mine had a colt, neve; suspected by me, until I saw its birth. I had worked her hard all last year, upon the farm, and on the rail-road, through the winter, hauling marl, and all the month of March, hauling logs from a distance of two miles, six loads a-day, and thirty logs each load, making twenty, four miles each day. She was at work all April, hauling out manure, until the 23d. On that day I had gone, a little before night, from the labours of the day, owing to one of my family being sick ; and about 5 o'clock in the evening, the boy that drove the mule, came running to the house, saying that Jenny (for that was her name) had a colt. I went out, and in a few minutes thereafter, the thing (for I know not what to call it,) was delivered, and is doing well. I never suspected the mother's being with foal, because I thought it con. trary to nature, though I had for four or six weeks observed that her belly was enlarged, and so much so, that the cart had to be altered, as it rubbed her. She showed no other signs — BO I did not suspect it She has little or no bag, though I believe she gives a plenty of suck, as her child is now getting fat. At first it was very poor. Now you will ask what is the father of it ? I cannot say — but believe, a colt of mine, now three years old. He ran out on Sundays, with the mules, and the black boy tells me that there was cause for such an effect. So it is, the mule has a colt, and it is exactly like the young stallion. If this is a matter of curiosity, you may give publicity to it, under my name. Hundreds can prove the fact, and several can testify that they were present at the birth. JOHN THOMPSON KILBY. P S. The mother certainly is a mule, for she was foaled mine, and is now ten years old. From the Farmer's Register, Vol. 2, page 389. DEATH OF THE MULE'S COLT. To the Editor of the Farmer's Register. Nansemond, 22d October, 1834. As the birth of the phenomenon, my mule-colt, was recorded in your Register, so I will with your permission, record his death, that the learned may speculate upon it. He was born, as I informed you, and as will be seen in your Register of May or June, 1834, on the 23d of April, 1834; and died on the 20th of October, 1834, at night. The particulars are as follows : on Friday evening late, I was informed that the mule-colt was sick : upon examin- ing him, I thought he had the staggers. He was freely bled, and put in a lot, and went to eating fodder ; it was now dark, and I determined that in the morning I would commence blistering, purging, and the use of injections, which I have never known to fail if taken in time. But in the morning he had the lockjaw, and so nothing could be done effectually for him, and he died on the Monday night following. He was weaned, and running in a good pasture with a horse-colt, also just weaned, which is doing well. Now was it the staggers, or what disease? Or was ever a colt delivered of a mule known to live ? I should have been much pleased to raise it, and to have known if it could continue its species. JOHN T. KILBY. From the Farmer's Register, Vol. 2, page 440. ANOTHER COLT FROM A MULE. To the Editor of the Farmer's Register. Spring Hill, Nansemond County, Va., 17th September, 1835. Permit me to record in your Register, the birth of a second mule colt of mine, on the 13tr. •f August, 1835. The same mule brought a fine female colt, jet black, save a star in its forehead, and one foot white. It partakes, as did the other, more of the horse than of the mule, and is a much finer colt It can be seen in my pasture by any and every one. JOHN T. KII.BT- THE ASS AND THE MULE. 433 From the Farmer's Register, Vol. 4, page 357. DEATH OF THE SECOND MULE'S COLT. To the Editor of the Farmer's Register. Spring Hill, Nansemond County, (Va.,) Aug. 26, 183& Dear Sir ; — Permit me to record, in your Register, the death of my second colt, the issca of a mare mule, by a horse. The colt was born in August, 1835, and died on this day, hav- ing been sick two or three days. Having lost one, I was desirous of raising this. It was in fine order — the mother doing nothing, upon a good pasture. It is true, the mother nor the colt had not been housed until the night before it was taken sick. I had another colt running in the same pasture, treated in the same way, and is as yet doing well. Everything was done for the mule's colt that could be done, but it suffered much and died at last. A passage could not be gotten through it, and when dead, I had it opened and all that could be discovered, was, that everything that had been given it was then in its stomach and had never passed on to the bowels. It was blistered on its forehead — the blister drew well, but in vain : and a question arises with me — can an offspring delivered of the body of a mongrel be raised ? That question I should like to hear solved by those better informed upon that subject than I am. If it should be thought to be possible to raise one, I will then try tlie mare mule with a Jack, as suggested by A. B. C. (in No. 4, vol. 4,) whose opinion I should like to have upon this subject. JOHN T. KILBY. There, sir — you have the whole history of the breeding mule, so far as published to my knowledge. It seems to me, you ought to write to Mr. Kilby to furnish the subsequent nistory of this mule, and the success that may have attended any subsequent attempt to breed and raise the foal. I would enclose the letter to Mr. Ruffin, who knows K.'s post-office, and w?Jl forward it to him." We should have have done so, but that we have understood that Mr. Kilby has since deceased. There are, we may observe, a few other such cases recorded " in the books," but in aU they seem to have come into the world as unwelcome and ononstrous exceptions to u genera! decree ; aiid then to have soon perished, as if Providence would stamp with early decay, a'l fruits of a passion so universal and intense, whenever it is gratified in violation of its edict*, and in a v;a v that would engender infinite disorder and confusion. THE E»D 37 3. INDEX. AARON BURR, performance jf, 57 ; height of, 65. Acetabulum, description of the, 280. Acini, description of, 231. Acetic acid, its properties, 398. Adeps, properties of, 399. JSthiop's mineral, an alterative, 411. ^Ethusa cynapium, poisonous, 226. Age, natural, of the horse, 150 ; of the horse as indicated by the teeth, 145 ; other indi- cations of, 150. Air, a supply of pure, necessary for the health of the horse, 366. Alcohol, its medicinal properties, 399. Aloes, Barbadoes, far preferable to Cape, 399 ; description of the different kinds of, 400 ; principal adulterations of, 401 ; tincture of, its composition and use, ib. Alteratives, the best, 401 ; nature and effect of, ib. Alum, the use of, in restraining purging, 401 ; solution of, a good wash for grease, ib. ; burnt, a stimulant and caustic for wounds, ib. American Turf Register, 24 ; Sir Archy in- debted to for his fame, 25 ; established by Mr. Skinner in 1829, 24 ; value of horses before its establishment, 25. Americus, performance of, 57, 58. American Trotter, 49 ; miscellaneous exam- ples of, 58 ; pedigrees of, 54. America, best races in, 35; best pacing in, 58. American turf, opinions of B. O. Tayloe, 23, 24, 32. Ammonia, given in flatulent colic, 401 ; va- pour of, plentifully extricated from dung and urine, most injurious to the eyes and lungs, ib. Anchylosis of bones, what, 1 72. Andrewetta, race won by, 38. Animal poisons, an account of, 225. Animals, zoological divisions of, 67 Anise-seed, its properties, 401. Anodyne, opium the only one to De depended on, 402. Antea-spinatus muscle, description of the, 260. Antimonial powder, a good febrifuge, 402. Antimony, Wack sulphuret of, method of de- tecting its adulterations, 402; used as an alterative, ik. ; tartarized, used as a nau- seant, diaphoretic and worm medicine, ib. Antispasmodics, nature of, 402. Apoplexy, nature and treatment of, 95. Aqueous fluid, an, why placed in the laby- rinth of the ear, 81 , humour of the eye, description of the, 89 Arabian, Lindsay's, 34; P^-oy, 24; Darley, 21 : Godolphin, 21 ; Ass, 4*4. Arbaces, race won by, 38. Arched form of the skull, advantage oft 77. Ariel, race won by, 36. Arietta, race won by, 37 Arm, description of the, 261 ; action of, ex p?«ined on the principle of the lever, 257 2H2 ; extensor muscles of the, 261, 262 flexor muscles of the, 263; full and swell- ing, advantage of, ib. : should be musculaf and long, 261 ; fracture of the, 328. Arsenic, medical use of, 402 ; treatment under poison by, 227. Arteries, description of the, 161 ; of the arm, 261 ; of the face, 124 ; neck, 161 ; shoulder 255. Ascaris, account of the, 240. Ascot course, length of the, 41. Ass, history of, 419 ; account of two presented to Gen. Washington, 421 ; opinion of him by Prof. Wilson, ib.; ditto by Gen. Shelby, 421, 426 ; ditto by J. N. Hambleton, Esq., 421, 427 ; ditto by Col. N. Goldsborcugh, 422, 428 ; the Arabian, 424 , -»rice of, 427 j cruel prejudice against, 419 ; mentioned in scripture, ib. ; different races of, 420. Astor, race won by, 38. Astragalus, account of the, 285. Atlas, anatomy of the, 157. Auscultation, the importance of, 193. Awful, performance of, 57 ; height of, 65. BACK, general description of the, 171 ; propel form of the, ib. ; long and short, compara. tive advantages of, 172; anatomy of the, 171 ; muscles of the, 173. Backing, of the colt, 356 ; a bad habit of the horse, usual origin of it, ib. Back-sinews, sprain of the, 269 ; thickening of the, constituting unsoundness, 395. Balie Peyton, race won by, 38. Balls, the manner of giving, 402 ; the manner of making, ib. Barbary horse, description of, 21. Barbs or paps, treatment of, 154. Bark, Peruvian, the properties of it, 403. Barley, considered as food for the horse, 375 Barnacles, use of the, as a m jde of restraint, 345. Bar-shoe, description and use of. 341. Bars, description and office of the, 29*" ; propef paring of, for shoeing, 299 ; folly of cutting them away, 298; removal of, i causa of contraction, ib. ; corntt, ib. Basilicon ointment, 403. Bay horses, description of, 387. Bay Malton, perfrr ounces of, 30. Beach horses, 26. Beacon course, Ic'i^th of, 41. 435. 436 INDEX. Beans, good for hardly worked horses, and that have a tendency to purge, 376, 379 ; should always be crushed, 376. Bearing -rein, the use and abuse of, 140. Bees- wing, race won by, 37. Beet, the nutritive matter in, 379. Belladonna, extract of, 403. Bendigo, race won by, 36. Bertrand, race won by, 38. Bethune, race won by, 36. Betsy Baker, performance of, 57 ; height of, 65. Biceps femoris, account of the, 282. Bile, account of the, 230, 231. Billy, performance of, 58. Bishoping the teeth, description of, 149. Biting, a bad habit, and how usually acquired, 357. Bit, the, often too sharp, 140 ; sometimes got into the mouth, 358. Bitting of the colt, 252. Black horses, description and character of, 387. Black Joke, performance of, 59. Black Maria, races won by, 36, 37, 38. Blacknose, races won by, 37. Bladder, description of the, 245 ; inflamma- tion of, symptoms and treatment, 246 ; neck of, ib. ; stone in the, ib. Bleeding, bept place for general, 189, 345 ; directions for, 161, 189; from veins rather than arteries, 161 ; finger should be on the pulse during, ib. ; importance of, in inflam- mation, ib. ; at the toe described, 190 ; com- parison between the fleam and lancet, 189. Blindness, usual method of discovering, 89 ; discovered by the pupil not dilating or con- tracting, ib. ; of one eye, ib. Blistering all round at once, barbarity and danger of, 347, 404 ; after firing, absurdity and cruelty of, 346, 361. Blisters, best composition of, 346 ; the differ- ent kinds and uses of, 76. ; best mode of applying, ib. ; caution with regard to their application, ib. ; the principle of their ac- tion, 403 ; use of, in inflammation, 346 ; comparison between them and rowels and setons, 350. Blood, change in after bleeding, 190 ; changes in during respiration, 179 ; coagulation of, 189; horses, very subject to contraction, 308; spavin, nature and treatment of, 188. Bloody urine, 245. Blue Dick, races won by, 38. Bog spavin, nature and treatment of, 1 89, 287, 288. Bole- Armenian, medical use of, 403. Bones, strength does not depend on the size of, 28. Bone-spavin, nature and treatment of, 288. Bonny Boy, performance of, 58. Bonnets-o* Blue, race won by, 36. Boston, race won by, 39. Bots in the stomach, natural history of, 224; not usually injurious, ib. Bowels, inflammation of the, 235. Brain, description of the, 78 ; its cortical arid cineritious composition, ib , the office of each, 78, 79 ; compression of the, 76, 94 pressure on the, ib. : inflammation of the, 98 Bran, as food for the horse, 376. Breaking in should commence in the second winter, 251 ; description of its various stages, ib. ; necessity of gentleness and pa- tience in, 251, 252 ; of the farmer's horse, 251 ; of the hunter or hackney $6. Breast, muscles of the, 175. Breathing, the mechanism of, 179. Breeding, qualities of the mare of as much importance as those of Jie horse, 248; the peculiarity of form and constitution mhe rited, ib. ; in-and-in, observations on, 26, 249 Breeds, good effects of crossing them, 29 bad effects of ditto, ib. Broken down, what, 270. Broken knees, treatment of, 391 ; methed of judging of the danger of, ib. ; when healed not unsoundness, but the form and action of the horse should be carefully examined, ib Broken wind, nature and treatment of, 213 influenced much, and often caused by the manner of feeding, 215; how distinguished from thick wind, ib. Brooklyn Maid, performance of, 57. Bronchial tubes, description of the, 166. Bronchitis, nature and treatment of, 205. Bronchocele, account of, 197. Bronchotomv, the operation of, 165. Brood mare, description of the, 248 ; should not be too old, ib. ; treatment of, after co- vering, 250 ; after foaJng, ib. Brown horses, description of, 387. Brown, Capt. Thomas, opinions of with re- gard to climate, 32. Bryony, dangerous, 226. Buckeye, race won by, 37. Buccinator muscle, description of the, 125. Bull, the, Thompson's description of the, 54. CABBAGE, the nutritive matter in, 379. Caecum, description of the, 229. Cadmus, race won by, 37. Calamine powder, account of, 417. Calculi in the intestines, 238. Calkins, advantages and disadvantages of 336 ; should be placed on both heels, ib. Camden, race won by, 37. Camphor, the medical use of, 403. Canker of the foot, nature and treatment ofj 320. Cannon, or shank-bone, description of the, 267 Cantharides, form the best blister, 225, 404 , given for the cure of glanders, 225, 404 Capillary vessels, the, 185. Capivi, balsam of, 406. Capped hock, nature and treatment o£ 278 description of, 278, 290 ; although not al ways unsoundness there should be a special warranty against it, 391. Capsicum Berries, their stimulating effect 404. Carbon of the blood got rid of in resoiratior 206. INDEX. 43* i/arbonate of i/on, a mild tonic, 409. Oarraways, a good aromatic, 404. Carrots, excellent effects of in disease, 378 ; the nutritive matter in, 379. Cartilages of the foot, description and action of the, 300 ; ossification of the, 321, 394 ; a cause of unsoundness, 394. Caruncula lacrymalis, the, 117. Cascarilla Bark, a tonic and aromatic, 404. Cassandra, race won by, 36. Castley, Mr., on restiveness in the horse, 353. Castor-oil, not a purgative for the horse, 404. Castration, method of, 254 ; proper period for, ib. ; the operation by torsion, ib. Cataract in the eye, nature of, 90 ; cannot be operated on in the horse, ib. ; method of examination for, ib. ; the occasional appear- ance and disappearance of, 120. Catarrh, description and treatment of, 192 ; distinguished from glanders, 193 ; distin- guished from inflammation of the lungs, 192; epidemic, 197. Catarrhal fever, nature and treatment of, 192. Catechu, a good astringent, method of giving, and adulterations of, 404. Catheter, description of one, 247. Cato, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. Caustic, an account of the best, 405. Cawl, description of the, 231. Centreville Trotting course, 63. Cerebellum, description of the, 78. Cerebrum, description of the, 78. Chalk, its medicinal use in the horse, 4u5. Chaff, attention should be paid to the good- ness of the ingredients, 373 ; best composi- tion of, ib. ; when given to the hard-worked horse, much time is saved for repose, ib. ; quantity of necessary for different kinds of horses, ib. Chamomile, a mild tonic, 405 Chancellor, performances of, 59. Channel of the jaws, what, 144. Charcoal, useful in a poultice, and as an anti- septic, 405. Charges, composition and use of, 405. Charlotte Temple, performances of, 57; height of, 65. Chest, anatomy of the, 167 ; proper form of the, 168, 169 ; cut of the, 167 ; the import- ance of depth of, 167; narrow and rounded, comparison between, 169 ; the broad chest, 170 ; founder, description of, 175. C'lestnut horses, varieties of, 387. Chinked in the chine, what, 172. Chloride of lime, an excellent disinfectant, 412 ; of soda, useful in unhealthy ulcers, 415. Chorea, 109. Choroid coat of the eye, description and use of the, 87. Chyle, the formation of, 229. Ciliary processes of the eye, description of •'a, 89. Oineritous matter of the brain, nature and function of the 79. 37* Clara Howard, races won by, 37, 38 Clicking, cause and remedy of, 362. Clipping, recommendation of, 383. Clips, when necessary, 337. Clover, considered as an article of food, 376 379. Clysters, the composition and great usefulnesa of, 405 ; directions as to the administration of, ib. Coat, fine, persons much too solicitous to pro cure it, 371. Cocktail horse, mode of docking, 351. Coffin-bone, description of the, 300 ; the la- mellse, or leaves of, ib. ; fracture of, 383. Coffin-joint, sprain of, 277. Cold, common, description and treatment of, 192. Colic, flatulent, account of, 234 ; spasmodic, description and treatment of, 232. Colocynth, is poisonous, 226. Colon, description of the, 229, 230. Colour, remarks on, 386. Colt, early treatment of the, 251 ; mules, death of, 454, 455. Columbus, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. Complexus major, description of the, 159 ; minor, description of the, 160. Concave-seated shoe, the, described and re- commended, 337. Confidence, performances of, 57 ; height, 65. Conium maculatum, poisonous, 226. Conjunctiva, description of the, 87 ; appear- ance of, how far a test of inflammation, ib. Consumption, account of, 215. Contraction of the foot, nature of, 305, 391; the peculiarity of the lameness produced by, 308 ; how far connected with the navi- cular disease, 307 ; is not the necessary consequence of shoeing, ib. ; produced by neglect of paring, 306 ; wearing the shoes too long, 305 ; want of natural moisture, 306 ; the removal of the bars, ib. ; not so much produced by litter as imagined, 307 ; the cause rather than the consequence of thrush, 305; best mode of treating, 308, 309 ; rarely permanently cured, 309 ; does not necessarily imply unsoundness, 391 ; al- though not necessarily unsoundness, should have a special warranty against it, ib. ; blood horses very subject to, 308. Convexity of the eye, the proper, not suffi. ciently attended to, 87. Copaiba, account of the resin, 40€. Copper, the combinations of, used in veteri- nary practice, 406. Corded veins, what, 136, Cordials, the use and abuse of, in the horse, 406. Cornea, description of the, 87 ; mode of exa- mining the, ib. ; its prominence or flatness, ib. ; should be perfectly transparent, ib. Corns, the nature and treatment of, 317 ; pro- duced by cuttii g away the bars, ib. ; no! paring out the foot between the crust and bars, ib. ; pressure, ib. ; very difficult tc cure, 318; constitute unsoundness. 391. 438 INDEX. Coronary ligament, description of the, 297 ; the crust principally produced from, ib. ; ring, description of the, to. Coronet, description of the, ib. Corrosive sublimate, treatment under poi- son by, 227 ; a good tonic for farcy 227, 411. Cortical substance of the brain, description and fraction of, 78. Cough, the nature and treatment of, 209, 210 ; constitutes unsoundness, 392; the occasional difficulty with regard to this, 395. Cow hocks, description of, 291. Cradle, a safe restraint upon the horse when blistered, 347. Cramp, the nature and treatment of, 106. Cream-coloured horses, account of, 386 ; pecu- liarity in their eyes, 88. Cream of tartar, a mild diuretic, 414. Creasote, its use in veterinary practice, 407. Creath, races won by, 36, 37. Crib-biting, description of, 361 ; causes and cure, ib. ; injurious to the horse, ib. ; con- stitutes unsoundness, 361, 392. Cricoid cartilage of the windpipe, the, 163. Cropping of the ear, absurdity of, 81. Crossing the breeds, good effect of, 29 ; bad effects of ditto, ib. ' Croton, the farina of, used as physic, 407. Crust of the foot, description of the, 295 ; com- position of the, 296 ; consisting within of numerous horny plates, 298 ; proper degree of it, banting, 296; proper thickness of the, to. ; brittleness of, remedy for, 298 ; the cause of sandcrack, 311. Crystalline lens, description of the, 90. Cub, race won by, 37. Cuboid bones, description of the, 285. Cuneiform bones, description of the, 77, 285. Curbs, nature and treatment of, 287 ; consti- tute unsoundness, 392. Cuticle, description of the, 381. Cutis, or true skin, account of the, t'6. Cutting, cause and cure of, 275, 276, 362; constitutes unsoundness, 393 ; away the toot, unfounded prejudice against, 306. UANDRIFF, the nature of, 381. Darley Arabian, 21. Deafness, 122. Depressor labii inferiom muscle, description of the, 125. Diabetes, the nature and treatment of, 245. Diaphoretics, their nature and effects, 407. Diaphragm, description of the, 176; rupture of, 177 ; its connexion with respiration, 178. Digestion, the process of it described, 222. Digestives, their nature and use, 407. Digitalis, highly recommended in colds and all inflammatory complaints, 407. Dilator magnus lateralis muscle, description of the, 285 ; naris lateralis muscle, descrip- -ion of the, to. Distance, 42. Diuretic medicines, the use and abuse of, 408. Docking, method of performing, 350. Dogs, danger of encouraging them about the stable, 100. Doncaster course, the length of, 42. Don Juan, performances of, 57. Dosoris, race won by, 37. Drinks, how to administer, 408 , comparison between them and balls, i6. Dropsy of the chest, 219 ; of the heart, 183. Drcver, performance of, 58. Drum of the ear, description and 'ase of the, 81. Duane, race won by, 39. Dun horse, account of the, 386. Duodenum, description of the, 229 ; diseasea of the, ib. j Dura mater, description of the, 78. Dutchman, performances of, 57, 60, 61, 62; height of, 65. Dutchess, performances of, 57. D. D. Tompkins, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. Duvall, Judge G., services rendered to the turf by, 25. EAR, description of the external parts, 81 ; in- ternal parts, ib. ; bones of the, description and use of, 81, 82; labyrinth of the, 81; indicative of the temper, ib. ; clipping and singeing, cruelty of, ib. ; treatment of wounds or bruises of, 121 ; cruel operations on the, ib. Earl of Margrave, race won by, 37. Eclipse, his performances, 30, 39, 41 ; was a high-blower. Edwin Forrest, performances cf, 57; heigut of, 65. Elasticity of the ligament of the neck 77. Elaterium, poisonous, 226. Elbow, (he proper form and inclination ofj 264 ; capped, 261 ; fracture of, 328 ; punc- tured, 262. Ellen Thompson, performances of, 57. Emetic tartar, used as a nauseant, diaphoretic, and worm medicine, 402. Empress, performance of, 59. Enamel of the teeth, account of the, 145. English Eclipse, 24. English steeple-chase, description of, 50. English aristocracy, advantages of, 32. English trotters, examples of, 51. Ensiform cartilage, the, 169. Entanglement of the intestines, description of, 239. Enteritis, account of, 235. Epidemic catarrh, nature and treatment of 197 ; malignant, nature and treatment of 203. Epiglottis, description of the, 163. Epilepsy, nature and treatment of, 109 Epsom salts, used as a purgative, 412. Epsom course, the length ofj 41. Ergot of rye, the action of, 415. i Elhmoid bone, description of tho, 77- j Euphorbium, the abominable use of it, 226 ' Eutaw, race won by, 39. (toe-neck, unsightlmess and inconvenience of, 160 Exchanges of horses stand on the same ground as sales, 397. Exercise, directions for, 371 ; the necessity of regular, ib. ; want of, producing grease, 294 ; more injury done by the want of it than by the hardest work, 372. Expansion shoe, description and use of the, 341 Extensor pedis muscle, description of the, 284. Eye, description of the, 82 ; cut of the, 86 ; fracture of the orbit of the, 93; healthy appearance of the, 85 ; diseases of the, 116 ; inflammation of, common, 117; ditto, spe- cific, ib. ; ditto, causes, 118; ditto, medical treatment of, 118, 119; ditto, untractable nature of, 119, 120; ditto, consequences of, 119 ; ditto, marks of recent, 393 ; ditto, constitutes unsoundness, ib. ; ditto, heredi- tary, 119 ; method and importance of exa- mining it, 87, 90; indicative of the temper, 82 ; the pit above, indicative of the age, 71 ; muscles of the, 92. Eyebrows, substitute for, 83. Eyelashes, description of, 83 ; folly of singe- ing them, 84. Eyelid, description of, 83, 84. Eyelids, diseases of the, 116. Exostosis on the orbit of the eye, 94. FACE, description of the, 122; cut of the mus- cles, nerves, and blood-vessels of, 125. Falling in of the foot, what, 304. False quarter, nature and treatment of, 313. Fanny Wyatt, race won by, 39. Farcy, a disease of the absorbents of the skin, 136, 137; connected with glanders, 136; both generated and infectious, 138; symp- toms of, 137; treatment of, 138; buds, what, 137 ; the effect of cantharides in, 138, 13S ; diniodide of copper, 138. Fashion, performance of, 39 ; the winner of the race of races, 33. Feather-weight, a, 42. Feeding, high, connected with grease, 294; regular periods of, necessity of attending to, 379; manner of, has much influence on broken wind, 214. Feet, the general management of, 380 ; atten- tion to, and stopping at night, recommend- ed, ib. Felt soles, description and use of, 341. Femur, fracture of the, 329. Fetlock, description of the, 275. Fever, idiopathic or pure, 187; symptoms of, ib. ; symptomatic, 188. Fibula, description of the, 283. Filly by Imp. Trustee, race won by, 37. Firing, the principle on which resorted to, 347 ; mode of applying, ib. ; should not penetrate the skin, 349 ; absurdity and cruelty of blistering after, ib. ; horse should not be used for some months after, ib. I'istula lacrymalis, 84; in the poll, 157. 430 Fits, symptoms, causes, and treatment of 109. Fleam and lancet, comparison between them. 189. Flexor of the arm, description of the, 263 metatarsi muscle, description of the, 284 pedis perforatus, the perforated muscle, de scription of the, 203, 284 ; pedis perforans the perforating muscle, description of the, 264, 269, 284. Flirtilla, race won by, 38. Flying Childers, the ne plus ultra of success reached in his days, 29. Foal, earl} treatment of, 251 ; early handling of, important, ib. ; importance of liberal feeding of, ib. ; time for weaning, ib. Fomentations, theory and use of, 409. Food of the horse, observations on, 372 ; a list of the usual articles of, 374 ; should be ap- portioned to the work, 373. Foot, description of the, 295 ; diseases of the, 302 ; canker, 320 ; corns, 317 ; contraction^ 305; false quarter, 313; founder, acute, 302 ; chronic laminitis, 304 ; inflammation, ib. ; navicular joint disease, 309 ; overreach, 312; prick, 315; pumiced, 304; quittor, 313; sandcrack, 311; thrush, 318; tread, 312 ; weakness, 321 ; wounds, 315 Forceps, arterial, the use of, 190. Forehead, the different form of, in the ox and horse, 78. Fone-legs, description of, 255; diseases of them, 267 ; proper position of them, 278, Forge-water occasionally used, 409. Form, on the improvement of, 28. Founder, acute, symptoms, causes, and treat- ment of, 302; chronic, nature and treat- ment of, 304. Foxglove, strongly recommended in colds, and all fevers, 407, 408. Fracture of the skull, treatment of, 93 ; gene, ral observations on fractures, 322 ; of the skull, 323; orbit of the eye, 324; nasal bones, ib.; superior maxillary or upper jaw- bone, 325; inferior ditto, ib.; spine, 326; ribs, ib. ; pelvis, 327; tail, 328; limbs, ib.; shoulder, ib. ; arm, ib. ; elbow, ib. ; femur, 329 ; patella, ib. ; tibia, ib. ; hock, 330 ; leg, ib. ; sessamoid bones, 331; pastern, ib, ; lower pastern, 332 ; coffin bone, 333 ; navi- cular bone, ib. Frog, horny, description of the, 299 ; sensible, description of the, 299, 301 ; ditto, action and use of the, 299 ; pressure, question of the, ib.; proper paring of, for shoeing, ib. diseases of the, ib. Frontal bones, description of the, 70; sinuses, description of the, 73 ; ditto, perforated to detect glanders, ib. Furze, considered as an article of food, ^78. GALLATIN, race won by, 37. Gall, account of the, 231 ; bladder, the horae has none, ib. Gall-stones, 243. Gazan, race won by. 37, 140 1JSDEX. Gentian, the best tonic for the horse, 409. George Martin, races won by, 36, 38. Gibbing, a bad habit, cause of, and means of lessening, 356. Gigs, formation of, 154. Ginger, an excellent aromatic and tonic, 409, 417. Give and take plate, 42. Glanders, nature of, 129, 131 ; symptoms, 74, 129, 134; slow progress of, 129, 131 ; ap- pearances of the nose in, 74, 129, 131 ; de- tected by injecting the frontal sinuses, 73 ; how distinguished from catarrh, 131 ; ditto from strangles, ib. ; connected with farcy, 130, 132; treatment of, 135; causes, 133; both generated and contagious, 133, 134, 429 ; oflenest produced by improper stable management, 133; mode of communica- tion, 134 ; prevention of, 135 ; account of its speedy appearance, 132, 133. Glands, enlarged, it depends on many circum- stances whether they constitute unsound- ness, 393. Glass-eye, nature and treatment of, 121. Glauber's salt, its effect, 416. Gluteei muscles, description of the, 281, 282. Godolphin Arabian, Sir Archy regarded as the, of America, 25. Goulard's extract, the use of it much over- valued, 412. Gracilis muscle, description of the, 281, 284. Grains, occasionally used for horses of slow work, 375. Grapes on the heels, treatment of, 294. Grasses, neglect of the farmer as to the pro- per mixture of, 377. Grease, nature and treatment of, 292 ; cause of, ib. ; farmer's horse not so subject to it as others, 294 ; generally a mere local com- plaint, 293. Greenwich Maid, performances of, 57; height, 65. Grey Eagle, race won by, 37. Grey Medoc, race won by, 39. Grey horses, account of the different shades of, 386. Grinders, construction of the, 145. Grinding, of the food, accomplished by the mechanism of the joint of the lower jaw, 146 ; swallowing without, 360. Grogginess, account of, 275. brooming, as important as exercise to the horse, 370 ; opens the pores of the skin, and gives a fine coat, 371 ; directions for, ib. Grunter, the, description of, 215 ; is unsound, 392. GuK^t, description of the, 221 ; foreign bodies in, 223. Gum-arabic, for what purposes used, 398. tiutta ^erena, nature and treatment of, 121. HABITS, vicious or dangerous, 353. Hffimaturia, 245. rfair, account of the, 381 ; question o?cutting it from the heels, 295. Haras, established b^ Napoleon, 33. Haunch, description of the, 279 ; wide, ad- vantage of, ib. ; injuries of the, ib. ; joint, singular strength of it, ib. ; also of the thigh bones, advantage of the oblique direction of, ib. Haw, curious mechanism of the, 85 ; diseases of, 117; absurdity and cruelty of destroy ing it, 85, 86. Hay, considered as food, 373 ; mow burnt, in jurious, 377 ; old preferable to new, ib. Head, anatomy of the, 70; the numerou* bones composing it, the reason of this, 70, 71 ; section of the, 72 ; beautiful provision for its support, 76. Healing ointment, account of the, 417. Hearing of the horse, the very acute, 81. Heart, description of the, 181 ; its action de scribed, 182 ; inflammation of the, 183 dropsy of the, ib. Heels, question of cutting the hair from them^ 295 ; low, disadvantage of, 322 ; proper par- ing of, for shoeing, 334; washing of the, producing grease, 294. Height of trotting horses, 64. Hellebore, white, used in inflammation of the lungs and fevers, 409 ; black, its use, ib. Hemlock, given in inflammation of the chest, 410. Henry, match won by, 57 ; height, 65. Hepatic duct, the, 231. Hernia, the nature and treatment of, 240. Hide-bound, the nature and treatment of, 383. High-blower, a description of the, 195,315 ; ia unsound, 392. Hind legs, description of the, 279, Hip-joint, the great strength of the, 280. Hips, ragged, what, 279. Hobbles, description of the best, 344. Hock, the advantage of its numerous separate bones and ligaments, 290 ; capped, 278, 291 ; cow, ib. ; description of the, 285 ; en. largement of the, nature of and how affect- ing soundness, 286, 393 ; inflammation of the small bones of, a frequent cause of lameness, 286, 287 ; the principal seat of lameness behind, 286 ; lameness of it, with- out apparent cause, 290 ; fracture of, 330. Hogs' lard, properties of, 399. Hoof, cut of the, 295 ; description of the, 296. Horn of the crust, secreted principally by the coronary ligament, 298 ; once separated from the sensible part within, will never again unite with it, ib. Hornet, sting of the, 225. Horse, the first allusion to him, 17; in England and America, 17; English, 20; Barb, 21; the different colours of the different breeds, 386 ; his fossil remains found in every part of the world, 17, 31 ; the general manage- ment of, 366 ; sublime account ofj by Job, 18 ; first mention of race-horse in English annals, 21 ; Arabian race, 27, 28 height of trotting, 64 ; price of, in Solomon's time, 18 ; sagacity of, ib. ; can see almost in dark- ness, 88 ; English, improved under William the Conqueror, 2) 22 • zoological descrip INDEX. 14] tion of, 67, numerous in Britain at the in- vasion of the Romans, 20. Horse, Flanders, introduced by King John, 22 ; Lombardy, imported by Edward II., tb ; Spanish, imported by Edward III., ib. ; Flemish, characteristics of, ib. ; Darby Ara- bian, 24 revolution in the system of breed- ing brought about by the invention of gun- powder, 22 ; first classification for war, the Surf, the chase, the road, and the coach, ib. ; value of before the establishment of the Turf Register, 25 ; Beach, anecdotes of, 26; thrives best within or near the torrid zone, 31 ; influence of climate and food on the form and character of, 31 ; value of since the establishment of the Turf Register, 32 ; ancestors of the present stock of American, 40 ; good blood in, important in a military point of view, 33 ; prevalence of blood of, hi Lee's Legion, 33; American trotting, 49 ; superiority of the American trotting over the English, 49, 51 ; speed of, 50, 51. Houri, (Imp.), race won by, 36. Humerus, description of the, 260. Hunter, the, general account of, 48 ; proper degree of blood in, ib. ; form of, ib. ; spirit of, ib. ; English, ib.; shoe, description of the, 340. Hunting Park course, 64. Hydrocyanic acid, poisoning by it, 226 ; its occasional good service, 399. Hydrothorax, symptoms and treatment of, 219. ILEUM, description of the, 229. Inflammation, nature of, 185; treatment of, 186 ; hot or cold applications to, guide in the choice of, ib. ; importance of bleeding in, 185, 345; when proper to physic in, 186; of the bowels, 235; ditto, distinction between it and colic, 233 ; brain, 98 ; eye, 117; foot, 302 ; kidneys, 244 ; larynx, 193 ; lungs, 206; stomach, 223; trachea, 194; veins, 161. Influenza, nature and treatment of, 197. Infusions, manner of making them, 411. Insanity, 115. Intercostal muscles, description of the, 169. Intestines, description of the, 228. Introsusception of the intestines, treatment of, 238. Invertebrated animals, what, 67. Iodine, usefulness of, in reducing enlarged glands, 411. Iris, description of the, 89. Iron, the carbonate of, a mild and useful tonic, 409 ; sulphate of, a stronger tonic, ib. ; ditto, recommended for the cure of glanders, ib. tchiness of the skin should always be re- garded with suspicion, 390. JACKS. See the Ass, James's powder, 402. Jaundice, symptoms and treatment of, 243, 244. Jaw, the lower, admirable mechanism of, 142 ; upper, description of, 141 SF Jejum m, description of the, 229. Jerry, performance of, 58. Jim Bell, races won by, 36, 39. Jockeys, superiority of American, 51, 65. Jockey Club, rules and regulations of, 42 John Barcombe, race won by, 39. John Causin, race won by, 36. John R. Grymes, race won by, 37. Jointed shoe, the description and use of, 341 Jugular vein, anatomy of the, 190. Jumper, the horse-breaker, anecdotes of nil power over animals, 353. Juniper, oil of, use of, 411. KATE KEARNEY, her dam sold for 13 pounds tobacco currency, 24 ; her fame established by Col. J. M. Selden, ib. Kicking, a bad and inveterate habit, 358. Kidneys, description of the, 243 ; inflamma- tion of, symptoms and treatment of, 244. King Pippin, anecdotes of him as illustrating the inveterateness of vicious habits, 354, Knee, an anatomical description of the, 264 ; tied in below, 269 ; broken, treatment ol 265, 391. Knowledge of the horse, how acquired, 69. LABYRINTH of the ear, description and use of the, 81. Lachrymal duct, description of the, 84 ; gland, description and use of the, ib. Lady Clifden, race won by, 39. Lady Suffolk, performances of, 57, 63, 64; height of, 65. Lady Victory, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. Lady Warrington, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. Lady Kate, performances of, 58. Lamella3 or laminae, horny, account of the, 298 ; fleshy, account of the, ib. ; weight of the horse, supported by the, ib. Lameness, shoulder, method of ascertaining, 255 ; from whatever cause, unsoundness, 393. Lampas, nature and treatment oi 142 ; cruelty of burning the bars for, ib. Lamina? of the foot. See Lamella). Lancet and fleam, comparison between them, 189. Laryngitis, chronic and acute, 193. Larynx, description of the, 163 ; inflammation of the, 193. Laudanum, the use of in veterinary practice, 413. Lead, the compounds of, used in veterinary practice, 411, 412; extract of, its power much overvalued, 412; sugar of, use of, ib.' white, use of, ib. Leather soles, description and use of, 341. I, g, cut of the, 112; description of the, 267 I fracture of the, 332. I Legs, fore, the situation of. 255 ; hind, anata mioal description of the, 16. swelled, 291. I Levator humeri muscle, description of th« 160, 259. 442 INDEX. Lever muscular action explained on the principle of it, 257. Ligament of the neck, description and elasti- city of the, 76. Light, the degree tf, in the stable, 369. Limbs, fracture of the, 328. Lime, the chloride of, exceedingly useful for bad smelling wounds, &c., 412 ; the chlo- ride of, valuable in cleansing stables from infection, Ib. Lindsay's Arabian, 34. Liniments, the composition and use of, ib. Linseed, an infusion of, used in catarrh, 376, 412 ; meal forms the best poultice, 412, 414. Lips, anatomy and uses of the, 139 ; lips the hands of the horse, ib. Litter, the, cannot be too frequently removed, 368 ; proper substances for, 369 ; contrac- tion not so much produced by it as some imagine, 307. Liver, the anatomy and use of it, 230 ; diseases of the, 241. Liverpool, account of the course at, 42. Locked jaw, symptoms, cause, and treatment of, 103. Locomotive, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. Loins, description of the, 172. Longissimus dorsi muscle, description of the, 173. Lucern, considered as an article of food, 378. Lumbrrcus teres, the, 240. Lunar caustic, a very excellent application, 402. Lungs, description of the, 181 ; symptoms of inflammation of the, 206 ; causes of, ib. ; how distinguished from catarrh and dis- temper, 207, 208 ; treatment of, 208, 209 ; importance of early bleeding in, 209 ; blis- ters preferable to rowels or setons in, 210 ; consequences of, 210, 212, 215. MADNESS, the symptoms and treatment of, 100. Magnesia, the sulphate of, 412. Mallenders, the situation of, 278 ; the nature and treatment of, 291. Mammalia, the, an important class of animals, 67. Manchester, account of the course at, 42. Mane, description and use of the, 160. Mange, description and treatment of, 388 ; causes of, 388, 389 ; ointment, recipes for, ib. ; highly infectious, 389 ; method of purifying the stable after, ib. Manger-feeding, the advantage of, 373. Mare, put to the horse too early, 248, 250 ; deterioration in, 249 ; her proper form, ib. ; breeding in-and-in, ib. ; time of being at heat 250 ; lime of going with foal, ib. ; best time for covering, ib. ; management of, v^hen with foal, ib. ; management of, after foaling, 250. Maria Duke, race won by, 36. Mark of the teeth, what, l4f Marsk, 1 is performances, 30. Mashes, importance of their use, 412; tar method of making them, t'6. \Iasseter muscle, description of the, 125, 144 Master Henry, race won by, 38. Matchem, his performances, 30. Maxillary bones, anatomy of the, 141 , frac- tures of, 325. Meadow grasses, the quantity of nutritivt matter in, 379. Medicines, a list of the most useful, 398. Medullary substance of the brain, its nature and function, 72, 78, 79. Megrims, cause, 94 ; symptoms, 95 ; treat* ment, ib. ; apt to return, ib. Melt, description of the, 231. Mercurial ointment, the use of, in veterinary practice, 410. Mercury, its use in epidemic catarrh, 201. Mesentery, description of the, 229. Metacarpals, description of the, 267. Midriff, description of the, 176. Minstrel, race won by, 36. Mischief, performance of, 59. Miss Foote, races won by, 39. Mount Holly, performance of, 58. Modesty, performance of, 57 ; height of, 65. Moisture, want of, a cause of contraction, 307. Moon-blindness, the nature of, 1 1 7. Moulting, the process of, 385 ; the horse usually languid at the time of, ib. ; no sti- mulant or spices should be given, ib. ; mode of treatment under, ib. Mounting the colt, 253. Mouth of the horse, description of the bones of, 141 ; should be always felt lightly in riding, ib. ; importance of its sensibility, ib. Mowburnt hay injurious, 377. Mule, the, 419; as he is, 422; value of, in China, 423; value of the breed of Gen. Washington, ib. ; more valuable when bred from blooded mares, ib. j longevity of, 424 ; Pliny's account of a, ib. ; does not deterio- rate more rapidly after twenty years of age than the horse after ten, 425 ; health of, ib. economy in food, &c., ib. ; is more steady in his draught than the horse, 426; trade in Kentucky, 427 ; his obstinacy, 429 ; bad habits, 429, 430 ; number of in the United States, 430 ; a breeding, 432 ; birth of two colts, ib.; death of ditto, 432, 433. Muriatic acid, its properties, 399 Muscles of the back, description of the, 173 breast, ditto, 175 ; eye, ditto.. 92 ; face, ditto 125; neck, ditto, 158; ribs, ditto, 169, shoulder-blade, 255; lower bone of the shoulder, t'6.; the advantageous direction of, more important than their bulk, 25d- 257, 258 ; should be large, 28. Muscular action, the principle of 261. Mustard, the use of, 413. Myrrh, the use of, for canker and wound* 413. INDEX. 443 NASALIS labii supeiioris muscle, description of the, 125. Nasal bones, fracture of, 324; description of, 72. gleet, 127. polypus, 126. Navicular bone, description of the, 301 ; the action and use of it, ib. Navicular joint, disease, nature and treatment .->f the, 309 ; how far connected with con- traction, 310 ; the cure very uncertain, ib. ; fracture of, 333. Week, anatomy and muscles of the, 158, 159 ; description of the arteries of the, 161 ; de- scription of the veins of the, ib. ; bones of the, 158 ; proper conformation of the, ib. ; comparison between long and short, 159 ; loose, what, ib. Nerves, the, construction and theory of, 70 ; spinal, the compound nature of, 79 ; of the | face, 125. Neurotorny, or nerve operation, object and effect of it, 111 ; manner of performing it, 112; cases in which it should or should not be performed, 113, a vestige of the per- formance of it, constitutes unsoundness, 394. Nicking, the method of performing, 351 ; use- less cruelty often resorted to, 352. Nimrod, his objection to clipping, 383; ad- mits the superiority of American trotters, 49, 51. Nitre, a valuable cooling medicine, and mild diuretic, 414. Nitric acid, for what employed, 399. Nitrous ether, spirit of, a mild stimulant and diuretic, 413. Norman Leslie, match won by, 57 ; height of, 65. Nose, description of the bones of the, 122, 123 ; spontaneous bleeding from, ib. , the importance of its lining membrane, 123, 191 ; the nose of the horse slit to increase his wind, 124. Nosebag, importance of the, 379. Nostrils, description of the, 122 ; peculiar in- flammation of the membrane of the, 74 ; the membrane of, important in ascertaining disease, 126, 191 ; importance of an ex- panded one, 124 ; slit by some nations to increase the wind of the horse, ib. Nutriment, the quantity of, contained in the different articles of food, 379. ATS, the usual food of the horse, 374, 379 ; should be old, heavy, dry, and sweet, 374, 375; kiln-dried, injurious to the horse, 375 ; proper quantity of, for a horse, ib. Datmeal, excellent for gruel, and sometimes used as a poultice, 375. Occipital bone, description of the, 74. (Enanthe fistulosa, poisonous, 226. (Esophagus, description of the, 221. Olfactory nerves, the importance of them, 124. Olive oil, an emollient, 413. Ouiega, races won by, 38, 39. Omentum, description of the, 231. Oneida Chief, performance of, 58. Opacity of the eye, the nature and treatment of, 118. Operations, description of the most important. 344. Ophthalmia, 117. Opium, its great value in veteiinary practice 412 ; adulterations of it, t&. Orbicularis muscle of the eye, description oi it, 92. Orbit of the eye, fracture of, 93. Os femoris, account of, 282. Ossification of the cartillages, cause and treat ment of, 321. Over-reach, the nature and treatment of, 312, 362 ; often producing sandcrack or quittor 363. Ozena, account of, 128. PACHYDERMATA, an order of animals, 68. Pack- wax, description of the, 76, 157. Palate, description of the, 163. Palm-oil, the best substance for making up balls, 414. Palsy, the causes and treatment of, 109. Pancreas, description of the, 243. Paps or barbs, 154. Parietal bones, description of the, 74. Paring out of the foot for shoeing, direction! for, 334 ; neglect of, a cause of contraction, 306. Parotid gland, description of the, and its dis- eases, 125, 153. Parsnips, the nutritive matter in, 379 Passenger, race won by, 37. Pastern, upper, fracture of, 331 ; lower, frac- ture of, 332 ; description of the, 272, 276 ; bones of the, ib. ; cut of the, 272 ; proper obliquity of the, 274. Patella or stifle bone, description of the, 283 fracture of, 329. Paul Pry, performance of, 58. Pawing, remedy for, 363. Payment of the smallest sum completes the purchase of a horse, 396. Peacemaker, race won by, 37. Peas, somtimes used as food, but should b« crushed, 376, 379. Pectineus muscle, the, 281. Pectorales muscles, description of the, 175,260 Pedigrees of American trotters, 54. Pelham, performance of, 58. Pelvis, fracture of the, 327. Pericardium, description of the, 181. Peronseus muscle, description of the, 284. Perspiration, insensible, no medicines wiB certainly increase it, 385. Pharynx, anatomy of the, 157. Phrenitis, 98. Phthisis pulmonalis, description of, 215 Physic balls, method of compounding th« best, 401 ; should never be given in inflam mation of the lungs, 181. Physicking, rules for, 237. Pia mater, description of the, 78 INDEX. Pied h;>rset account of the, 386. Pigmentum nigrum, account of the, 88. Piper, description of the, 215. Pit of the eye, the, indicative of the age, 71. Pitch, its use for charges and plasters, 414. Pithing, a humane method of destroying ani- mals, 158. Pleura, description of the, 179. Pleurisy, the nature and treatment of, 181. 217. Pneumonia, the nature and treatment of, 206. Poisons, account of the most frequent, 226, 227 ; tests of the different ones, 227. Poll-evil, the cause and treatment of, 157; importance of the free escape of the mat- ter, ib. Popliteus muscle, description of the, 284. Porter's Spirit of the Times, opinion of, 51. Postea spinatus muscle, description of the, 260. Post Boy, race won by, 37. Post Match, 42. Potash, the compound of, 414. Potatoes, considered as an article of food, 378, 379. Poultices, their various compositions, manner of acting, and great use, 414. Powders, comparison between them and balls, 415. Pressure, race won by, 37. Pressure on the brain, effect of, 94. Prick, in the foot, treatment of, 315 ; injuri- ous method of removing the horn in search- ing for, 317. Prussic acid, treatment of poisoning by, 226. Puffing the glims, a trick of fraudulent horse- dealers, 71. Pulse, the natural standard of the, 184 ; vari- eties of the, ib. ; importance of attention to the, 185 ; the most convenient place to feel it, ib. ; the finger on the pulse during the bleeding, ib. Pumiced feet, description and treatment of, 304; do not admit of cure, ib. ; constitute unsoundness, 394. Pupil of the eye, description of the, 89 ; the mode of discovering blindness in it, ib. Purchase, to complete the, there must be a memorandum, or payment of some sum, however small, 396. Purging, violent, treatment of, 235. QUARTERS of the horse, description of the, 281 ; importance of their muscularity and depth, ib. ; foot, description of, 297 ; the inner, crust thinner and weaker at, 298 ; folly of lowering the crust, ib. Quidding the food, cause of, 363; unsound- ness while it lasts, 394. ^einme, the sulphate of, 403. Quittor the nature and treatment of, 313; the treatment often long and difficult, exercis- ing the patience both of the practitioner and owner, 314. 315; is unsoundness, 394. RVBIES, symptoms of, 100 Race-courses, different lengths of, 41. Races, among the Arabs, 27 ; best in Anieric* on record, 35 ; at mile heats, 36 ; at two mile heats, 37 ; at three mile heats, 38 ; at four mile heats, 39 ; miscellaneous exam pies of, 40 ; prejudices against, 33. Racers may beget trotters, 52, 53. Racks, no openings should be allowed above them, 367. Radius, description of the, 261. Ragged-hipped, what, 279 ; no impediment tu action, ib. Raking, the operation of, 415. Rattler, matches won by, 57, 59 ; height of, 65* Reality, race won by, 37. Rearing, a dangerous and inveterate hubit, 359. Recti muscles, of the neck, description ofj 158; of the thigh, 280. Rectum, description of the, 229, 230. Red Bill, races won by, 36, 38. Reins, description of the proper, 140. Resin, its use in veterinary practice, 415. Respiration, description of the mechanism and effect of, 179. Respiratory nerves, the, 79. Restiveness, a bad habit, and never cured, 353 ; anecdotes in proof of its inveterate. ness, 353, 354. Retina, description of the, 91. Retractor muscle of the eye, description of h%92. Rheumatism, 110. Rifle, performance of, 57. Ribbed-home, advantage of being, 171. Ribs, anatomy of the, 168, 169. Richard of York, race won by, 37. Ringbone, the nature and treatment of, 277 278 ; constitutes unsoundness, 394. Ripple, race won by, 38. Riptcn, matches won by, 57, 63, 64; heigh* of, 65. Roach-backed, what, 172. Roan horses, account of, 386. Roaring, the nature of, 194, 215 ; curious his. tory of, 195 ; constitutes unsoundness, 392; from tight reining, 196; from buckling in crib-biting, ib. ; treatment of, 197. Robin Hood, race won by, 36. Rocker, race won by, 37. Rolling, danger of, and remedy for, 363. Roman nose in the horse, what, 122. Round-bone, the, can scarcely be dislocated, 282. Round course, length of, 41. Rowels, manner of inserting, and their opera- tion, 415 ; comparison between them, blis- ters, and setons, 350. Rules and regulations of the New York Jockey Club, 42. Rules and regulations of the New York Trotting Club, 54. Running away, method of restraining, 359. Rupture, treatment of, 240 ; of the suspensory ligament, 193. Rye-grass, considered as an article of food 378. INDEX. 14s PADDLES, the proper construction of, 174; points of, ib. Saddle-backed, what, 172; galls, treatment of, 175. Saddling of the colt, 253. Sailor Boy, race won by, 36. Sainfoin used as an article of food, 378 Sal ammoniac, the medical use of, 401 Saliva, its nature and use, 153. Salivary glands, description of the, ib. Sallenders, nature and treatment of, 291. Sally Shannon, race won by, 37. Sally Miller, match won by, 57 ; height of, 65. Sally Walker, race won by, 38. Salt", use of in veterinary practice, 415 ; value of, mingled in the food of animals, 377. Sandal, Mr. Percivall's, 343. Sandcrack, the situation of, 278 ; the nature and treatment of, 311; most dangerous when proceeding from tread, 312 ; liable to return, unless the brittleness of the hoof is remedied, 313; constitutes unsounaness, 394. Sarah Bladen, race won by, 38. Sarah Washington, race won by, 38. Sartorius muscle, description of the, 281. Savin, dangerous, 226. Scapula, description of the, 255. Sclerotica, description of the, 87. Scouring, general treatment of, 234. Screwdriver, performances of, 57 ; height of, 65. Secale eornutum, the effect of, 415. Sedatives, a list of them, and their mode of action, 415. Serratus major muscle, description of the, 168, 255, 259. Sessamoid bones, admirable use of in obviating concussion, 273 ; fracture of, 331. Setons, mode of introducing, 349 ; cases in which they are indicated, ib. ; comparison between them and rowels and blisters 350. Shakspeare, performance of, 57 ; height of, 65. Shank-bone, the, 267. Shark, his performances, 30, 36. Shoe, the concave-seaied, cut of, 338; de- scribed and recommended, 337 ; the man- ner in which the old one should be taken off, 334 ; the putting on of the shoe, 335 ; it should be fitted to the foot, and not the %ot to the shoe, ib. ; description of the linder, 337; the unilateral, or one side nailed shoe, 339 ; the bar shoe, 340 ; the tip, 341 ; the hunting, 340 ; the jointed, or expansion, 341. Shoeing, not necessarily productive of con- traction, 307 ; preparation of the foot for, 333 the principles of, 334. Shoulder, anatomical description of the, 255 ; slanting direction of the, advantageous, 256, 257 ; when it should be oblique, and when upright, 258 ; sprain of the, 255 ; Shoulder-blade, muscles or the, 2i>5 , whj united to the chest by muscle alone ib. lower bone of the, description of, 260 ; mus- cles of the, 262, 263. Shying, the probable cause of, 91, 363 ; treat- ment of, 364 ; on coming out of the stable, description oi\ ib. Side-line, description of the, 344. Sight, the acute sense of, in the horse, 80. Silver, the nitrate of, an excellent caustic 402. Singeing, recommendation of, 383. Sinuses in the foot, necessity of following them as far as they reach, 319 ; frontal, of the head, 72. Sir Archy, indebted for his fame to American Turf Register, 25 ; regarded as the Godol- phin Arabian of America, ib. ' Sir Lovel, race won by, 37. Sir Peter, match won by, 57 ; height of, 65. Sir William, race won by, 37. Sitfasts, treatment of, 174. Skeleton of the horse, description of the, 68 69. Skin, anatomical description of the, 381 function and uses of it, 381, 382 ; pores oi it, 385; when the animal is in health, is soft and elastic, 382. Skull, anatomical description of the, 70 ; arch. ed form of the roof, 77 ; fracture of the, 93 323. Slipping the collar, remedy for, 365, 366. Smell, the sense and seat of, 124 ; very acute in the horse, ib. Snewing, Mr., his advocacy of clipping, 383 Soap, its use in veterinary practice, 416. Soda, chloride of, its use in ulcers, 415 ; sut* phate of, ib. Sole, the horny, description of, 298 ; descent of, ib. ; proper form of, ib. ; management of, in shoeing, ib. ; the sensible, 299; fell or leather, their use, 341. Sore-throat, symptoms and treatment of, 193 Sorrow, (imp.), race won by, 37. Soundness, consists in their being no disease or alteration of structure that does or is likely to impair the usefulness of the horse, 390, 391 ; considered with reference to the principal causes of unsoundness, 391. Spasmodic colic, nature and treatment of. 232. Spavin, blood, the nature and treatment of, 1 88 ; is unsoundness, 394 ; bog, cause, na. ture and treatment of, 188, 189, 287 ; bone, 288; why not always accompanied by lameness, 289 ; is unsoundness, 394. Spavined horses, the kind of work they are capable of, 289. Speedy-cut, account of, 269. Sphenoid bone, description of the, 77. Spinalis dorsi muscle, description of the, 173 Spine, description of the, 167; fracture of 326. Spirit cf the Times, remarks of> 30. lameness, method of ascertaining, ib.; frac- j Spleen, description of the, 231, 243. ture of the. 326 I Splenius muscle, description of the, 158. 38 446 INDEX. Splint, nature and treatment of, 268, 278 ; when constituting unsoundness, 395 ; bones, description of the, 268. Sprain of the back sinews, treatment of, 269, 278; sometimes requires firing, 271; any remaining thickening constitutes unsound- ness, 395 ; sprain of the shoulder, 255. fitables, dark, an occasional cause of inflam- mation of the eye, 119; hot and foul, a frequent one of inflammation of the eye, ib.; ditto, lungs, 367 ; ditto, glanders, 133, 134 ; should be large, compared with the number of horses, 367 ; the management of, too much neglected by the owner of the horse, ib. ; the ceiling of, should be plaster- ed, if there is a loft above, ib. ; should be so contrived that the urine will run off, 369 ; the stalls should not have too much decli- vity, ib. ; should be sufficiently light, yet without any glaring colour, 369, 370. Staggers, stomach, symptoms, cause, and treatment of, 95, 96, 379 ; generally fatal, 96; producing blindness, 98; sometimes epidemic, ib. ; mad, symptoms and treat- ment, ib. Staling, profuse, cause and treatment of, 245. Stallion, description of the proper, for breed- ing, 248 ; size and form of, prescribed by Henry VIII., 22 ; contests between, 26. Starch, useful in superpurgation, 416. Stargazer, the, 159. Sternum, or breast-bone, description of the, 168,260. Stifle, description of the, 283 ; accidents and diseases of the, 285. Stomach, description of the, 221, 222; very small in the horse, 222 ; inflammation of the, 223 ; pump recommended in apoplexy, 97. Stone in the bladder, symptoms and treatment of, 246 ; kidney, ib. Stoppings, the best composition of, and their great use, 416. Stranger, performance of, 38. Strangles, symptoms and treatment of, 154 ; distinguished from glanders, 131 ; the im- portance of blistering early in, 155. Strangury, produced by blistering, 347 ; treat- ment of, ib. Strawberry horse, account of the, 386. Stringhalt, nature of, 107; is decidedly un- soundness, 109, 395. Structure of the horse, importance of a know- ledge of, 69. Strychnia, account of, 416. Stud-book, English, reliance to be placed on, 23. Stureshly, race won by, 37. Stylo-maxillaris muscle, description of the, 125. Sublingual gland, description of the, 154. Submaxillary glands, description of the, 153 ; artery, description of the, 126. Sub-«capulo hyoideus muscle, description of the, 125. 'ugar of lead, use of, 41S Sullivan, the Irish whisperer, anecdotes of hit power over the horse, 354; the younger did not inherit the power of his father, an- ecdote of this, 355. Sulphate of copper, use of in veterinary prac- tice, 406 ; iron, 409 ; magnesia, 412 ; zinc, 417. Sulphur, an excellent alterative and ingre- dient in all applications for mange, 416. Surfeit, description and treatment of, 387 ; im- portance of bleeding in, 388. Suspensory ligament, beautiful mechanism of the, 275; rupture of the, 276; suspen- sory muscle of the eye, description cf the, 92. Swallowing without grinding, 360. Swelled legs, cause and treatment of, 291 , most frequently connected with debility, 292. Sweetbread, description of the, 231. Sympathetic nerves, description of the, 80. TAIL, anatomy of the, 167; fracture of th«e, 328; docking, 350 ; nicking, 351. Tar, its use in veterinary practice, 416. Tares, a nutritive and healthy food, 377. Tartar, cream of, 413. Tayloe, B. O., his views of the American turf, 23, 24, 32. Tears, the secretion and nature of the, 84 ; how conveyed to the nose, ib. ; sometime* shed by the horse from pain and grief, ib. Teeth, description of the, as connected with age, 144; at birth, ib.; 2 months, ib.; 12 months, 145; 18 months, 146; the front sometimes pushed out, that the next pair may sooner appear, and the horse seem tc be older than he is, 147 ; 3 years, 146 ; 3£ years, 147 ; 4 years, ib. ; 4£ years, 148 ; 5 years, ib. ; 6 years, ib. ; 7 years, 149 ; 8 years, ib. ; change of the, 146 ; enamel of the, 145 ; irregular, inconvenience and danger of, 151 ; mark of the, 145 ; frauds practised with regard to the, 147 ; diseases of the, 151. Temper denoted by the eye, 82 ; by the ear, 80. Temperature, sudden change of, injurious in its effect, 367. Temporal bones, description of the, 74. Tendons of the leg, 267. Tetanus, symptoms, causes and treatment of 103. Thick wind, nature and treatment of, 212 214, 215; often found in round-chestec horses, 213. Thigh and haunch bones, description of, 279 5 form of, 280 ; should be long and muscula- ib. j description of the muscles of the insidy of the upper bone of, ib. ; do. of the outside, ib. ; mechanical calculation of their pow«r 281. Thompson's description of the bull, 54. Thorough-pin, the nature and treatment of? 285 ; is not unsoundness, 395. Thrush, nature and treatment of, 318; the INDEX. 44-7 consequence, rather than the cause of con- traction, 319 ; its serious nature and conse- quences not sufficiently considered, ib. ; constitutes unsoundness, 395. Thymus gland, the, 175. Thyroid cartilage of the windpipe, description of the, 163. Tibia, account of the, 283, 285 ; fracture of, 329. Tied in below the knee, nature and disadvan- tage of, 269. Tirnoleon, race won by, 36. Tinctures, account of the best, 417. Tips, description and use of, 341. Tobacco, when used, 417. Toe, bleeding at the, described, 190. Tom Thumb, his performances, 58, 59. Tongue, anatomy of the, 152 ; diseases of, ib. ; bladders along the under part of, 153. Tonics, an account of the' best, 417 ; their use and danger in veterinary practice, ih. Topgallant, performance of, 57, 58 j height of, 65. Top Sawyer, performance of, 58. Torsion, the mode of castration by, 254 ; for- ceps, description of, ib. Trachea, or windpipe, description of, 164; inflammation of, 194. Tracheotomy, 165 ; operation of, ib. Trapezius muscle, description of the, 258. Trapezium bone, description of the, 265. TreaH, nature and treatment of, 312; often producing sandcrack or quittor, ib. Treasurer, races won by, 37, 38. Trenton, race won by, 37. Tripping, an annoying and inveterate habit, 366. Trochanter of the thigh, description of the, 280. Trochlearis muscle, the, 93. Trotter, American, 49. Trotters, American, 49 ; superiority over Eng- lish, 49, 51 ; speed of, 50, 51 ; speed of \merican attributed to management rather iban to breed, 51 ; should not be put in training too young, 52. Trotting, American horses excel English, 49; great number of clubs in America, 50, ex- traordinary match, 60; height of horses, 64, 65. Trotting on the Beacon course, 63; tables, 57 ; horses should do nothing but trot, 54. Turbinated bones, description of the, 124. Turner, Mr. T., on clipping, 383. Turnips, considered as an article of food, 379. Turpentine, the best diuretic, 243 ; a useful ingredient in many ointments, 417. Tushes, description of the, 198, 199. Twitch, description of the, 345. ULCERS in the mouth, treatment of, 151, 152. Ulna, description of the, 261. Unguiculata, a tribe of animals, 67 Ungulata, a tribe of animals, 68. Unilateral -shoe, 339. Unsoundness, contraction does not always cause it, 307 ; oeing discovered, the anima. should be tendered, 397 ; ditto, but the ten- der or return not legally necessary, ib. ; th€ horse may be icturned and action brought for depreciation in value, but this not ad visable, ib. ; medical means may be adopted to cure the horse, they are, however, bettei declined, lest in an unfortunate issue of the case they should be misrepresented, 396. Unsteadiness whilst mounting, remedy for 359. Urine, albuminous, 245 ; bloody, ib VASTOS muscle, description of the, 280. Veins, description of the, 188 ; of the arm, description, &c., 285; of the neck, ditto, 161 ; of the face, ditto, 125 ; of the shoulder, ditto, 252 ; inflammation of the, treatment of, 161. Velocity, race won by, 37. Vena portarum, the, 231. Verdigris, an uncertain medicine, when given internally, 406 ; a mild caustic, ib. Vermin, account of, 390. Vertebrae, the dorsal and lumbar, 167. Vertebrated animals, what, 67. Vices of horses, account of the, 353. Vicious to clean, a bad habit that should be conquered, 359 ; to shoe, a bad habit that may also be conquered, 360. Vinegar, its use in veterinary practice, 398. Vines, Mr., his use of the Spanish fly in glan. ders, 404. Viper, account of the bite of, 225. Vision, theory of, 88. Vitreous humour of the eye, account of the. 91. Vitriol, blue, use of, in veterinary practiof, 406. Volcano, performance of, 58. WAGNER, races won by, 39. Wall-eyed horses, what, 89; whether they become blind, ib. Warbles, treatment of, 174. Warranty, the form of a, 395 ; breach of, how established, ib. ; no price will imply it, 396; when there is none, the action must be brought on the ground of fraud, ib. Warts, method of getting rid of, 390. Washington, match won by, 57 ; height ofj 65. Washing of the heels, productive of grease, 295. Washy horses, description and treatment ofj 236. Wasps, treatment of the sting of, 225. Water-dropwort, poisonous, 226; hemlock, poisonous, ib. ; parsley, poisonous, ib. Water, generally given too sparingly, 379 management of on a journey, 380; the dif- ference in effect, between hard and soft, 379 ; spring, principally injurious on ac count of its coldness, ib. ; stomach of th« horse, the, 230. Water farcy, nature and treatment of, 138. 448 INDEX. Wax used in charges and plasters, 417. Weakness of the foot, what, 321. Weaving indicating an irritable temper, and no cure for it, 366. Whalebone, performance of, 57, 59; height of, 65. Wheat, considered as food for the horse, 375, 379 ; inconvenience and danger of it, 375. Wheezer, description of the, 215; is unsound, 392. Whisperer, the anecdotes of his power over the horse, 354. Whistler, description of the, 215; is unsound, 392. White lead, use of, 411 ; vitriol, its use in ve- terinary practice, 417. Wind, broken, nature and treatment of, 213 ; galls, description and treatment of, 271, 278 ; ditto, unsoundness when they cause lameness, or are likely to do so, 395 ; thick, suture and treatment of, 212. Windpipe, description of the, 164; should b* prominent and loose, 165. Wind-sucking, nature of, and remedy for, 362. Withers, description of the, 158, 173 ; high, advantage of, ib. ; fistulous, treatment of, 174. Worms, different kinds, arid treatment o£ 239. Wounds in the feet, treatment of, 315. YANKEE SAL, performance of, 58. Yeliows, symptoms and treatment of the, 242 Yew, the leaves of, poisonous, 226. ZINC, its use in medicine, 417. Zoological classification of the horse, 67. Zygomatic arch, reason of the strong con- struction of the, 75. Zygomaticus muscle, description of the.