— — mjmmmmmmmMmmmmmmgll*

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

BEQUEST OF

Alice R. Hilgard

Household and Farmers'
CYCLOPEDIA :

OR,

One Hundred Thousand
Facts for the People.

A Book for the Farmer, Mechanic, and "Working Men of all Trades and

Occupations, the Stock Raiser, the Household, and every Family

who wants to Save Money; a Book of Solid "Worth and

Practical Utility, containing a Remedy for every 111,

a Solution for every Difficulty, and a Method

for every Emergency.

By DANIEL R. SHAFER, AM.

Author of "Foundations of Success and Laws of Trade," "Sexual Pnilosophy," Etc*

ILLUSTRATED.

Sold Only by subscription.

Anchor Publishing Co., St. Louis, Mo.
Branch Offices : Philadelphia, Pa. ; Chicago, Ills. ; Atlanta, Ga. ;
Schuyler, Smith & Co., Odebolt, Ia. ; C. C. Wick, Ashland,
Ohio ; A. L. Bancroft & Co., San Francisco, Cal.

Entered according to Act of Congreea in the year 187S by

JAMES H. CHAMBERS,

In the Offloe of the Librarian of Coagrera at Washington, D. C.

12m h jjIa

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IFT

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SS

PREFACE.

For years such a book as the • Household and Farmers Cyclopaedia" has
"been needed by the public, and especially by the American Farmer, but up
to this time nothing has appeared to supply the want. A glance at the within
pages will satisfy any one of the great importance of such a demand, and the
only wonder is, that such a book as the "Cyclopaedia" has never before been
published, for its value cannot be estimated by dollars and cents.

The design was, and is, to produce a work of substantial and enduring value, and
•of universal application and use. To sum up, then, this book is offered as one con-
taining more that has been proven by long use to be of value, more that is necessary
for every Farmer and Mechanic to know, and more of promising novelty, than any
other that has ever been presented to the Farmers and Mechanics of America. It
is complete in every particular in which it is possible for such a book to be com-
plete; and, in addition to this, it is sufficiently suggestive in many other respects to
induce its readers to read more, to think more, to experiment more, and to become
more intelligent and more successful in the management of their business, as well as
really happier and wiser men and women.

In its editing and compiling great care has been taken to avoid all difficult, tech-
nical and scientific terms, and to make the language so simple, as to insure its value
as a useful and reliable work for every day reference.

To compile such a work as this, is an amount of labor that one not familiar with
such work would hardly believe, or even imagine. Thousands of works have been
examined, public libraries and private book-cases overhauled, and the writings of
noted writers, both in this cour.try and Europe, have been carefully compared, and
selections made from the best. Where selections of a reliable nature could not be
found, original articles by the most scientific men in the country were obtained, thus

M8G9158

/v PREFACE.

giving " Facts for the People " such character, prominence and reliability, as sure
to be all that is claimed for it.

This work is intended especially for the use of those practical working men and
and^women — the Farmer, Mechanic, Housewife, the rich and the poor — who are
willing to believe that, while they have learned much from experience, it is not im-
possible that others may have learned something, too — something that it may benefit
them to learn also, and who are liberal enough to see that all the truth and value of
a fact is not destroyed by its being printed.

The editor is under great obligations to Prof. C. V. Riley, State Entomologist
of Missouri, for permission to cull information on injurious Insects, from his valuable
reports; to Prof. Townsend Glover, Entomologist, and Hon. Fred. Watts,
Commissioner of the Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C; Hon. Horace
Capron, Ex-Commissioner of Agriculture ; Seth Green, the noted Fish Breeder;
Hon. Geo. Hussman, the well-known Grape Grower; Prof. John H. Tice, known
throughout the world as " Old Almanac," and hundreds of others, whose names will
be found on the pages of the book.

We leave the work to the judgment of a generous public, believing, if there is

merit in its pages, that the same will be appreciated.

D. R. SL

INDEX.

FACTS,

HORSE — Diseases of, and Remedies for 7-144

Care and Management of. 7-144

Training and Breaking — (Rarey's Plan Illustrated) 138-142

COLTS— Diseases of, and Remedies for 143-144

Care and Management of. 143-144

MULE — Diseases of, and Remedies for 143-144

Care and Management of. i 143-144

CATTLE — Diseases of, and Remedies for 145—196

Care and Management ot 145-196

CALVES— Diseases of, and Remedies for 145-196

Care and Management of. 145-196

SHEEP — Diseases of, and Remedies for 197-228

Care and Management of. 197-228

LAMBS— Diseases of, and Remedies for 197-228

Care and Management of. 197-228

SWINE — Diseases of, and Remedies for. 229-239

Care and Management of.... ,.. 229-239

DOMESTIC ANIMALS— Medicines for 240-251

POULTRY — Diseases of, and Remedies for 252-274

Care and Management of. 252-274

DOGS— Diseases of, and Remedies for 275-278

CURING AND STORING 279-306

PRESERVING 279-306

BEES — Care and Management of 207—317

Diseases and Enemies of, and the Remedies 3°7_3I7

ACCIDENTS and INJURIES of Everyday Life, and how to meet them. 318-332

HOME DOCTOR 333-349

HOUSEHOLD PESTS— How to Destroy Them 350-353

BUGS and other INJURIOUS INSECTS— How to Know Them.... 354-408

How to Destroy Them 354-408

MECHANICAL 409-455

vi INDEX.

PAGES.

LAW — Or Every Man his own Lawyer 556-487

FARM— How to Make it Pay 488-560

How to Raise Large Crops 488-560

Diseases and Enemies of Crops, and the Remedies 488-560

DAIRY — And its Management 488-560

How to Make it Pay 488-560

ORCHARDS—Care and Management of. 488-560

Diseases and Enemies of, and the Remedies , 488—560

FRUIT— Practical Hints on Raising 488-560

Diseases and Enemies of, and the Remedies 488-560

FRUIT, SMALL — How to Raise, and How to Make it Pay 488-560

Diseases and Enemies of, and the Remedies 488-560

GARDEN — Care and Management of. 488-560

Diseases and Enemies of, and the Remedies 488-560

HOUSEHOLD 561-575

DYEING 562-570

FISH CULTURE 572-575

MISCELLANEOUS AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE 56i-575

CONTENTS 577-608

When an article cannot be found by its proper alphabetical arrangement, under any
of the above sections, a reference to the very copious contents at the end of the work, will
lead to its discovery.

HOUSEHOLD AND FARMERS'

CYCLOPEDIA.

THE HORSE-KEEPERS' GUIDE.

HORSE, External Form, as Indicated
by Points. — By horsemen in general this
is considered under certain subdivisions,

which are called " points," and which are
severally represented by figures in the
following outline :

Fig. i. — Poihts of ths House.

HEAD.

FORE-QUAETEE,

I. Muzzle.

8, 8. Shoulder-blade.

3. Nostril.

9. Point of shoulder.

3. Forehead.

10. Bosom or breast.

4. Jaw.

5. Foil.

II, 11. True-arm.

12. Elbow.

KECK.

13. Forearm (arm).

6, 6. Crest

14. Knee.

7. Thropple or windpipe.

15. Cannon-bone.

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

16. Back sinew.

17. Fetlock or pastern-joint.

1 8. Coronet.

19. Hoof or foot.

20. Heel.

BODY OB. MIDDLBPIBCB.

31. Withers.
, . 32. Back.

33, 23. Ribs (forming together the

barrel or chest).

34, 24. The circumference of the

chest at this point, called the
girth.

25. The loins.

26. The croup.

27. The hip.

28. The flank.

The relative proportions of, and exact
shape desirable in each of these points,
vary considerably in the several breeds.
Thus, when speed and activity are essen-
tial, an oblique shoulder-blade is a sing
qua non; while for heavy harness it can
scarcely be too upright, enabling the
pressure of the collar to be more easily
borne, and allowing the animal to exert
his strength at right angles to its long
axis. Many men are good judges of
hunters and hacks, but are almost wholly
ignorant of the qualities desirable in a
coach or cart-horse. There are some
«lements, however, which are wanted in
any horse, such as big hocks and knees,
flat legs with large sinews, open jaws
and full nostrils. It will, therefore,
be necessary to describe the points
of each breed; but we shall here give
those which are always to be attended to
as being of importance in any kind,
whether used for racing or hunting, for
the road or for agricultural purposes.

Taking first the Head : — It should be
known that the volume of brain contain-
ed within it determines the courage and
other mental qualities of the individual.
Now as, coeieris paribus, size is power, so
without a wide forehead (which part
marks the seat of the brain), you cannot
expect a full development of those facul-
ties known as courage, tractability, good
temper, etc. The size of the muzzle is
partly regarded as an element of beauty,
and partly as a sign of high breeding.
Hence, in the cart-horse, a coarse jaw
and thick muzzle are not regarded. A
large and patent nostril cannot be dis-
pensed with in horses intended for fast
work, and should be desired even in the
cart-horse, for in drawing heavy loads on

29.
30.

3»-
32.

33.
34-

I

39-
40.

4»-

42.

43-
44.

The sheath.

The root of the dock or taiL

THB HIND-QUABTBB.
The hip-joint, round or whirl-bone.
The stifle-joint.
33. Lower thigh or gaslrin.
The quarters.
The hock.

The point of the hock.
The curb place.
The cannon-bone.
The back sinew.
Pastern or fetlock-joint.
Coronet.
Foot or hoof.
Heel.
Spavin-place.

a hot day, his breathing may be rendered
almost as laborious as that of the highly-
tasked race-horse or hunter. So also with
the jaw ; if there is not ample width be-
tween the two sides for the development
and play of the larynx and windpipe, the
wind is sure to be affected, and, in addi-
tion, the head cannot be nicely bent on
the neck. A defect in this last point is
the usual cause of that straight and in-
elegant setting on of the head which is so
common, and which the practiced horse-
man avoids, as alike unsightly and preju-
dicial to the wind and the mouth ; for a
horse which cannot give way to the press-
ure of the bit is sure to become dull in his
mouth, and therefore unpleasant to ride
or drive. The eye is to be examined with
a twofold purpose — firstly, as an index to
the temper, the nature of which is marked
by the expression of this organ; and
secondly, in reference to its present state
of soundness, and the probability of its
continuing healthy. A full and clear eye,
with soft, gazelle-like expression, is scarce-
ly ever associated with a bad temper, and
will most frequently continue sound, if the
management of the horse to which it be-
longs, is proper in itself. The ear should
be of medium size, not too small, nor too
large, nor should it be lopped, though
many good lop-eared horses have been
known, and some very superior breeds,
like that of the celebrated Melbourne, are
notorious for this defect.

The Neck should be of moderate length,
all beyond a certain dimension being waste,
and even a moderate-sized head at the
end of an extremely long lever being too
much for the muscles to support. It
should come out full and muscular, with
a sweep between the withers and the

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

bosom, and should gradually diminish till
it runs into the head, with an elegant
bend just behind the ear. A very narrow
throat suddenly bent at the upper part,
marked as the thropple, is apt to be con-
nected with roaring, and on that account
is objected to by horsemen.

In the Fore-quarter there are several
points to be attentively examined, and
among these, the shoulder is regarded as
of most consequence, when the horse
under consideration is intended for the
saddle. It is evident that unless there is
length of the blade, and also of the true
arm, there cannot be a full surface for the
attachment and play of the muscles, nor
can there be the same amount of spring
to take off the jar which follows each foot-
fall. The straighter the angle formed by
the long axis of each of these bones, the
less spring there will be. So, also, if the
angle is not sufficient, the muscles of the
shoulder-blade will not thrust forward the
true arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently
clothed with muscles (without being
loaded) to act on the fore-arm, commonly
known by the horseman as the arm.
Hence it is found that with an upright
shoulder not only is the stride in all the
paces short and the action stumpy, but
there is not that elastic movement which
enables the horse to carry his body along
rapidly and evenly, without rising alter-
nately behind and before, and thereby jar-
ring himself or his rider. On the other hand,
the upright shoulder, loaded with a thick
mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-
horse, and to a certain extent also in the
carriage-horse, in both of which the
pressure of the collar requires a steady
and comparatively motionless surface to
bear it. It follows, therefore, that horses
intended to have high, and at the same
time forward action, should have oblique
shoulders, for without them they will
almost to a certainty either have very
Clean and low action, or, if they do bend
their knees, they will put their feet down
again nearly on the same place as they
took them from, which peculiarity we so
often see displayed in the cart breed, or
those nearly allied to it. This is one of
the most important uses of the obliquity
of the shoulder-blade as it seems to us,
and one which has not been generally
admitted by writers on this branch of the
subject, though all are ready to admit

that in some way or other this formation
is essential to good action. Another rea-
son for the obliquity of the shoulder in
the riding-horse, is that without it the sad-
dle is not kept back in its proper place,
and the horseman's weight being thus
thrown too forward, the action of the
fore-quarter is impeded. Mere obliquity,
however, is not sufficient for this purpose,
for without a proper development of
muscle the blade itself will not keep the
saddle in its place. If, therefore, there is
a hollow just behind the top of the blade,
even if this is slanting enough, you must
expect the saddle to slip forward, and
should, in all doubtful cases, be careful to
put one on before concluding a purchase.
The point of the shoulder should be well
developed, but not showing any rough
protuberances, which are equally objec-
tionable with a fiat or ill-developed point.
The length of the true arm is mainly de-
pendent upon that of the blade; but
sometimes, when this is oblique enough,
the true arm is short and upright, and the
elbow stands under, or only a little be-
hind the shoulder point. This is a very
faulty conformation, and is seldom at-
tended with good action. The chief de-
fect in the elbow is seen when it turns
inwards and rubs so closely against the
ribs that the finger can hardly be insinu-
ated between them and it. Here the
elbow is said to be tied, or confined, and
the horse is very apt to turn his toes out;
while the opposite formation is indicated
by turned-in, or " pigeon" toes, and turned-
out elbows, frequently accompanying long-
standing rheumatism of the shoulders. It
does sometimes happen, however, that the
toes are turned in or out without affecting
the elbow, but this is an exception to the
rule. A long and muscular fore-arm is a
sure accompaniment of strong and sweep-
ing action, and should bexarefully prized;
in other respects there is little to be noted
here. Next comes the knee, which should
be broad, and when looked at from the
front should be much wider than the limb
above and below. It should taper off
backwards to a comparatively thin edge,
and should have a good development of
the pisiform bone, which projects back-
wards at its upper part. The leg, imme-
diately below the knee, should be as
large as any other part, and not " tied in "
there, which indicates a weakness of this

IO

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

part. A bending of the knee backwards
is called a " calf-knee," and is not objected
to in cart-horses, in which it is by no
means uncommon ; but it is very apt to
lead to strains of this joint in the race-
horse or hunter. A knee naturally bend-
ing somewhat forward is much preferred
by good judges, though, when it is the
-result of over-work, it is almost equally to
'be avoided with the calf-knee. Flat, and
at the same time large cannon-bones, with-
out gumminess, are of great importance,
and if attended with a full-sized suspen-
sory ligament, and with strong, clean, and
free back sinews, the leg is to be con-
sidered faultless. The fetlock joint should
be of good size and clean, whilst the
pasterns should form an angle with the
ground of between forty-five and sixty
degrees. Lastly, the foot should be well
formed, but the construction of this part
being hereafter more fully described, we
shall omit its consideration here.

In the Middlepiece the withers come
first under notice. It is usual to desire
them high and thin, but they are very
commonly too much developed, and if
the bony processes stand up like the edge
of a razor, without muscle on them, they
are to be regarded as objectionable rather
than otherwise. The inexperienced horse-
man is' apt to consider the existence of
high withers as a sure sign that the sad-
dle will be carried well back, but there
are some horses whose withers are the
greatest annoyance to the rider, for hav-
ing upright and short shoulder-blades, to-
gether with high withers, the saddle rides
forward upon the latter, and Chafes them
in spite of all the padding which can be
introduced. In looking at this point, we
believe the purchaser should almost en-
tirely disregard it, excepting to take care
that it is not too high for the formation
and position of the shoulder-blades. If
these are long, and therefore slanting, and
especially if in addition to a proper posi-
tion of the bones they are furnished with
plenty of muscle, the withers may be dis-
regarded, and the action may be expected
to be good, even if they are so low as to
show no rise between the neck and the
back.

The volume of the chest is the measure
not only of the capacity of the lungs, but
of that of the large organs of digestion.
Hence, unless there is a middlepiece of

proper size, the wind is seldom good, and
the stamina of the individual will scarcely
ever be sufficient to bear hard work. But
there is a limit to the development of this
part in those breeds which are required to
move with much velocity, where weight
is a great object; and if the body of the
race-horse or hunter was as heavy as that
of the dray-horse, the speed would be
greatly reduced, and the legs would give
way during the first severe gallop. So,
also, a wide chest interferes with the free
and rapid action of the shoulders and
arms as they glide on the ribs; and an
open bosom is almost always fatal to high
speed. In the race-horse and hunter,
therefore, capacity of chest must be ob-
tained by depth rather than width ; while
in the cart-horse, a wide chest and a
frame roomy in all directions is desired,
so as to give good wind, and, at the same
time, enable the animal to keep up his
flesh while working eight or nine hours
per day. For light, quick draught, a for-
mation intermediate between the two is
the proper one ; the large frame of the
cart-horse being too heavy for the legs to
bear at a fast pace, and leading to their
rapid destruction in trotting over our
modern hard roads. The capacity of the
lungs is marked by the size of the chest
at the girth ; but the stamina will depend
upon the depth of the back ribs, which
should be especially attended to.

A short Back, with plenty of ground
covered nevertheless, is the desideratum
of every practised horseman. Unless the
measurement from the shoulder-point to
the back of the quarters is somewhat great-
er than the height of the withers, the
action is confined, especially in the gal-
lop, for the hind legs cannot be brought
sufficiently forward on account of the in-
terference of the fore-quarter; and, in-
deed, from the want of play in the back,
they are generally too much crippled in
that respect. A horse " short above and
long below " is the perfection of shape in
this particular, but he is not very com-
monly met with. Where length below is
seen, there is generally too much space
between the last rib and the hip, while on
the other hand coupled with a short back
we too often see the legs all "jumped up
together," and the action short and
stumpy. Next to these points in the
middlepiece it is important to pay atten-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

IX

tion to the upper line of the back, which
should bend down a little behind the
withers, and then swell out very gently
to the junction with the loins, which can
hardly be too wide and muscular. The
inexperienced eye will often be deceived
by the hips, for if these are narrow the
muscles rise above them, and make the
loin and back look stronger than they
really are, the contrary being the case
where the hips are wide and ragged.
This latter formation; though not so ele-
gant as the level hip, is prized by the
man who wishes to be carried well to
hounds, and he will jump at a horse
which would be passed over with con-
tempt by the tyro as " a great raw-boned
brute." A slightly arched loin is essen-
tial to the power of carrying weight ; a
much arched, or " hog " back, is almost
sure to give uneasy action from its want
of elasticity.

In examining the Hindquarter, so
much depends upon the breed, and the
purposes to which the animal is to be
put, that only a few general remarks can
be given. Thus, for high speed, there
should be plenty of length in the two
bones which unite at the stifle-joint, with-
out which the stride must be more or less
limited in extent. The exact position of
the hip-joint not being easily detected,
the tyro has some difficulty in estimating
the length from it to the stifle-joint, but
he can readily measure the length from
the root of the tail, either with his eye or
with a tape, if he cannot depend upon
his organ of sight. In a flat outline this
will come to twenty-four inches in a horse
of fifteen hands three inches, but meas-
ured round the surface it will be two
inches more. Again, the lower thigh or
gaskin should be of about the same
length ; but if measured from the stifle to
the point of the hock it will be fully
twenty-eight inches in a well-made horse
of high breeding. These measurements,
however, will be much greater in proportion
than those of the cart-horse, who requires
strength before all things, and whose
stride is of no consequence whatever. In
him the length of the upper or true thigh
is generally as great as that of the thor-
oughbred, but the lower thigh is much
shorter, and the horse stands with a
much straighter hind leg, and conse-
quently with his hocks having a very

slight angle. Muscular quarters and gas-
kins are desirable in all breeds ; for with-
out strong propellers, no kind of work to
which the horse is put can be duly per-
formed. The judge of a horse generally
likes to look at the quarters behind, so
as to get a full view of their volume, and
unless they come close together, and leave
no hollow below in the anus, he suspects
that there is a want of constitution, and
rejects the animal on that account. But
not only are muscles of full size required,
but there must be strong joints to bear
the strain which these exert, and one of
the most important of all the points of
the horse is the hock. This should be
of good size, but clean and flat, without
any gumminess or thoroughpins, and with
a good clean point standing clear of the
rest of the joint ; the " curby place " and
the situation of spavin should be free
from enlargement; but to detect these
diseases a considerable amount of prac-
tice is required. Lastly, the hocks should
be well let down, which depends upon
the length of the thigh, and ensures a
short cannon bone. The pasterns and
feet should be formed in correspondence
with those of the fore extremity, to which
we have already alluded.

Such are the recognized points to be
desired in the horse ; but in spite of the
general opinion of good judges being in
favor of them, as we have described, no
one can predicate with certainty that a
horse possessing them all in perfection,
will have a corresponding degree of ac-
tion out of doors. No one who has
bought many horses will be content with
an inspection in the stable, even if the
light is as good as that of the open air,
for he well knows that there is often a
vast difference between the estimate of
the value of a horse which he forms in-
doors and out. Much of this depends
upon the temper of the individual, for if
he is dull and heavy, he will not " make a
good show," though still he may be capa-
ble of being sufficiently excited at times,
and many such horses are invaluable
racers. Independently, however-y of this
element, it will be sometimes found that
the frame which looks nearly perfectly
symmetrical while at rest, becomes awk-
ward and comparatively unsightly while
in motion ; and the horse which is ex-
pected to move well will often be sent.

12

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

back to his stall with "That will do,
thank you," after a single performance.

HORSE, Proportions of the Various
Points. — The proportions of the compo-
nent parts of the horse, as we have
already remarked, vary a good deal in
the different breeds. The following, how-

ever, may be taken as the most perfect;
but they refer especially to the racer,
hunter and hack, as well as to the lighter
and more blood-like harness horses, and
must not be strictly applied to the draught-
horse in any of his varieties :

Fig. 2.

Inches.

- 63

- 66

"Height at withers and croup, - -
length from shoulder-point to quarter,
From the lowest part of the chest to the

ground, --. 36

•From the elbow -point to the ground, - - 39
From the withers to the pole, just behind

the ears, in a straight line, - - - - 30
' The same measured along the crest, - - 32
Length of head, 22

Width across the forehead,

From the withers to the hip, - - - -
From the stifle to the point of the hock, in
the attitude shown in the plan, - -
From the root of tail to stifle-joint, - -
From the point of the hock to the ground,
Length of arm from the elbow to the pisi-
form-bone, ---•

From the pisiform-bone to the ground, -

Inches.

- 9#

- 22

28
26

22^

«9#
*9lA

Girth varies from 76 to 79.

Circumference of fore cannon-bone, 1%, 8, 8, 8, %%, and 9 inches.

Circumference of arm just below the elbow, 16^ to 18 inches.

This scale is drawn in inches, and, in
'the outline, the horse is supposed to be
fifteen hands three inches, or sixty-three
inches high. The measurements are the
average of those carefully taken from six
horses considered to be perfect of sym-
metry. Two of these were celebrated
stallions, two thoroughbred hunters, and
two chargers of great value.

The scale which we have given differs
in many particulars, though only slightly,
from that which is usually found in treat-
ises on the horse ; but we have preferred

trusting to nature herself rather than to
the observations of previous writers, which
may be consulted by the reader at any
time.

HORSE, Maturity.— The horse com-
pletes his dentition at five years old, when
he may be said to be mature. At eight
or nine years the lower teeth lose their
marks or black concavities, after which
there is no reliable evidence of age,
which can, however, be tolerably accu-
rately guessed at from the length of the
front teeth or nippers, and from the gen-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

*$

eral appearance of the horse, especially
rfbout the eyes, as will be hereafter
shown.

Mares are very commonly allowed to
breed in their third year, being put to
the horse at two years old. They often,
however, come " in season " as yearlings,
and many would then breed if allowed
to be covered. It is found by experience
that the foal robs the dam of some of the
nourishment which is destined by nature
to develop the maternal frame, and hence
the young mare is injured in size and
substance if she breeds before she has
come very near maturity.

HORSE, Age, Average. — The average
age of the horse, when allowed to live
without the risk of accidents and disease
which he incurs in his usual work, is
about twenty-five years. Instances of
greater longevity are recorded on good
authority, and there is reason to believe
that occasionally he has reached to thirty-
five or even forty years, but these are
rare exceptions, and there are few which
live beyond the twenty-eighth year, while
a large proportion die before the twenty-
fifth. Stallions are over-fed and under-
exercised in proportion, so that it is no
wonder they become diseased, and sel-
dom die from old age ; but brood-mares
are not so mismanaged, and it is found
that they become quite worn out soon
after their twentieth year; and even if
allowed to live they waste away and die
by degrees, generally somewhere between
their twenty-third and twenty-eighth year.

HORSE, Moulting Periodical. — The
horse sheds his coat once a year in all
countries, and in our climate a second
half-moult is performed in the autumn,
when the summer short coat is partially
shed. This second change consists, how-
ever, chiefly in a growth of the already
existing hairs, which become coarser and
longer, especially about the legs and un-
der-parts of the body. At the same time
the coat loses its gloss, and the color is
less rich, blacks becoming rusty brown,
and bays more yellow or sandy-colored
than before, The hair of the mane and
tail is constantly in a state of growth, and
is not shed periodically.

HORSE, Development Mental. — In
mental development the horse ranks be-
low the dog, but he is capable of a consid-
erable degree of education, though in coun-

tries where he is kept constantly confined
he does not appear to great advantage in
this respect. That he may be made to
understand what is said to him is clear
enough from the mode of managing farm
horses, which are all taught to obey the
voice. I have on one occasion seen a
circus horse walk, trot and gallop at the
word of command, and change his pace*
on the instant ; but this feat I have never
known performed by any other exhibitor,
nor do I think it would easily be imitated.
It requires a high order of intellect to
distinguish between the three paces and
change them on the instant, and if I had
not myself witnessed the performance on
two several occasions I should scarcely
have credited it. The brain of this ani-
mal does not require much rest by sleep,
and four or five hours in quiet are suffi-
cient to keep him in health if he is not
very hard worked. He readily sleeps
standing, and some individuals never lie
down ; but this habit of sleeping stand-
ing should not be encouraged, as it greatly
distresses the legs, and tends to produce
fever of the feet, or some other mischief
in the lower extremities.

HORSE, Stomach, Small.— One of the
greatest peculiarities in the structure of the
horse is the small size of his stomach, which
is also of a very simple nature. He is
likewise without a gall-bladder, showing
that the digestion must be continuous
and not interrupted by distinct intervals,
as in the ruminants and carnivora. Na-
ture has thus framed this animal, in order
that he may be at all times able to exert
his utmost speed, which he could not do
with the mass of provender in his stom-
ach which is carried by the cow or sheep.
The same provision is shown in the udder
of the mare, which is not larger than that
of the goat or sheep.

HORSES, Breeding Mares, best kind
of. — First: Size, symmetry, and sound-
ness are mostly to be regarded in the
mare — blood from the sire, beauty from
the dam, is the golden rule. Second:
She should have a roomy frame, hips
somewhat sloping, a little more than the
average length, wide-chested, deep in the
girth, quarters strong and well let down,
hocks wide apart, wide and deep in the
pelvis. Third: In temper she should be
gentle, courageous, free from all irritability
and viciousness. Fourth: Previous to

*4

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

putting her to the horse, she should be
brought into the most perfect state of
health, not over-fed, or loaded with fat,
or in a pampered state, but by judicious
exercise and an abundance of nutritious
food and grooming, she should be in the
very best condition. Fifth : During
gestation she should have generous and
nourishing, but not heating diet. For the
iirst three or four months she may be
■worked moderately, and even to within a
few weeks of her foaling she may do light
work with advantage to her system.

HORSES, Feeding, directions for. —
With regard to mere farm-horses, it is
usually the habit to feed them entirely on
hay or cut straw, with now and then a
mash, giving them little or no oats or corn.
It is certain, however, that this is a mis-
take. That the value of the work which
the horse can do, and of the horse him-
self, arising from his improved condition
and increased endurance, will be materi-
ally increased by the diminution of the
quantity of the cheaper and less nutritious
food given to him, and the addition of a
smaller or larger portion of the more nu-
tritive grain, which furnishes stamina and
strength in a degree greatly in excess of
its own increased value, may be assumed
as facts.

Slow- working horses do not, of course,
require so much nutriment of a high
quality, as those which are called on to
do quick work, and perform long dis-
tances ; but, as a rule, all animals which
have to do hard work, and much of it,
must necessarily be so kept as to have
hard flesh, and they cannot be so kept
unless they are fed on hard grain.

HORSES, how to Judge and Select-
Having found a horse whose exterior
conformation, size, and apparent strength
seem suitable to your purpose, we will
now proceed to give such information as
will enable the buyer, by careful examina-
tion, to recognize those defects, blemish-
es, symptoms, and appearances which
latent disease and injuries assume, and
thus prepare him to detect the multitudin-
ous impositions which have been resorted
to by the lower class of dealers, to dis-
guise indications of unsoundness.

Unless proper precaution is used in the
examination of horses for purchase, the
law will not protect a man for the conse-
quences of his own neglect; and it has

been held that a warrantry against appar-
ent defects is bad in law, the purchaser
being expected not only to possess ordi-
nary skill, but to exhibit ordinary cau-
tion.

A defective horse is dear at any price,
whilst the value of a good one is, as com-
pared with a bad one, as infinity to noth-
ing. In choosing a horse, let the buyer
be never so good a judge, and his inspec-
tion never so minute, he must take some
things on trust. A perfect knowledge can
only be obtained on trial, which should
always be taken, if possible, but which is
not always to be had. For instance,
some horses, when turned of six or seven
years old, are subject to a dry, chronic
cough, which comes on at uncertain
times, perhaps twice or thrice a day,
sometimes after feeding or drinking; or
changes of temperature may induce it, as
when he comes into or goes out of stable.
Occasionally a dose of physic, and in
some cases a little attention to his diet,
will prevent re-occurrence of his cough
two or three days, or even weeks, when
it will reappear.

With a respectable dealer, after using
your eyes and discretion, you had better
depend on the warrantry, and his charac-
ter, than by any unnecessary display of
suspicion, offensively question his honesty.
Nevertheless, as the trade is taken up by
needy gentlemen of good standing in so-
ciety, and broken-down black-legs of re-
spectable connections, who are ever ready
to give a warrantry not worth a dump, or
satisfaction if you are dissatisfied thereat ;
if you have reason to suspect the horse,
or his master, the directions here laid
down will be found useful. Always bear
in mind that the observation of one symp-
tom should induce the examiner to follow
up the inquiry into those other symptoms
which are characteristic of the suspected
disease, defect, or unsoundness.

The best time to view a horse is early
in the morning, in the stables, as then if
there is any stiffness in the joints, or tend-
ency to swelled legs, it will be most ap-
parent.

The horse should always be examined
from a state of rest. If there are any
symptoms of his having been previously
exercised, such as sweat about his with-
ers, or his legs have been recently wash-
ed, it is advisable he should be left in his

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

*5

stall till cool ; for there is more than one
species of lameness, which becomes less
apparent after exercise, and where there
is a tendency to swelled legs, a smart trot
and grooming will fine his legs and render
them clean.

This precautionary measure is more
especially to be taken when you suspect
your man ; for in horse-buying we have
to deal with gentry who are acquainted
with the science of imposition in all its
ramifications. A stable examination is
the best for observing indications of wind-
sucking, crib-biting, chronic cough, the
state of the respiration, and for discover-
ing vice.

For this purpose always have a horse
shown quietly ; when there is much noise
and bustle there is generally something
wrong, and when the animal is agitated,
slight lameness will escape the eye.

The first thing to be observed is that
when standing evenly the weight is thrown
equally on both feet. If there be any
complaint in the fore feet, one will prob-
ably be " pointed," that is, extended be-
fore the other, or he will frequently alter
the position of them, taking one up, and
setting the other down; or the hind legs
will be brought under the body to relieve
the fore feet of some portion of the weight.
Any of these symptoms will direct your
attention to the feet when you see him
out.

To judge of his respiration, it is neces-
sary to be acquainted with the indications
of health. Observe if the flank alternately
rises and falls with regularity. In health
the respiration of the horse is from four
to eight per minute, average six in the
day time ; during sleep it is seldom more
than four. If quicker than ordinary, it
betokens present fever ; other symptoms
will be developed, such as increased
pulse, heat of mouth and dullness, while
the delicate pink appearance which the
membrane covering the partition of the
nostrils assumes in health, will be in-
creased in color.

But if none of these symptoms of ill
health are present, and yet the horse
heaves at the flank more than ordinary,
if the weather be moderate, and the sta-
ble not oppressively hot, it is probable
such a horse is thick-winded.

When inspiration appears to be per-
formed readily and quickly as in health

by a single action, but expiration with
difficulty by an irregular and prolonged
movement, or double action, the respira-
tory muscles appearing as if interrupted
in the act of expelling the air, and then
the flank drops suddenly, it is a symptom
of broken wind. His cough should then
be tried. The cough of a broken- winded
horse is a peculiar Tow, hollow grunt, diffi-
cult to describe, but when once heard
easily recognized.

The cough can generally be elicited
by pinching the larynx or trachea, though
occasionally this fails, for some sound as
well as broken-winded horses cannot be
made to cough at all. In these cases,
when there is any irregularity in the
movement of the flank, which would lead
to the suspicion of broken wind, and
there is unusual hardness of the wind-
pipe, which does not give way on pinch-
ing, it may be taken as a symptom of
disorganization, in addition to the broken
wind.

If the hair is rubbed off in some, espe-
cially about the head, flanks and tail, or
he is observed rubbing himself against
the sides of the stall, there is danger of
his being mangy; and in this case his
coat will be found rough and staring.

The absence of the vice of kicking and
biting may be inferred from the manner
of the groom when entering the stall,
and by the quiet method with which he
unclothes and dusts him over and combs
out his mane and tail. If he be a biter,
his head will probably be tied short to
the neck, or the groom will seize hold of
him short by the halter or bridle, some-
times giving him a shake or looking
sternly at him. Desire to see his hind
and fore feet, and by the manner in which
he permits the groom to lift them, a guess
may be made as to his quietness to groom
his heels or shoe.

While the horse is in the act of being led
out of the stable to the light, closely ob-
serve his manner and action ; if the ears
move in quick changes of direction, as if
alarmed at every noise, and he hangs
back on the halter, raising his feet higher
than ordinary, and putting them down as
if fearful and uncertain of his step, it
leads us to suspect his eyes, though some-
times these symptoms will be observed
when the eyes are perfect, if the stable
has been a dark one.

i6

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

When the horse is shewn out, notice if
he stands firm on his feet, with his weight
thrown boldly on his back sinews and
pasterns. If there is any appearance of
shaking or tottering of the fore limbs, in-
dicative of grogginess, it will be endeav-
ored to be diguised by the groom con-
tinually pulling at the bit to make him
shift his legs and stand advantageously.
A lame horse is never permitted to stand
still a moment, and the groom, though
pretending to soothe, is in reality agitat-
ing him, while the shrewd and crafty sel-
ler will most probably endeavor to with-
draw your scrutiny from the defective
point by calling your attention to his
spirit or playfulness. If any of these
maneuvers are apparent, be upon your
guard. The groggy horse inclines a lit-
tle forward at the knee, or it is readily
bent by the least touch behind, he rests
his weight on his toes, and when stand-
ing undisturbed brings his hind legs un-
der him. Some young horses, before they
had been backed, have this deformity
from malformation of the knee ; but if, in
addition to this bending forward, there is
any tremulous motion of the limbs, it is
a decided proof of the existence of that
most destructive affection, Navicular dis-
ease. Whatever his age, he should be re-
jected. Never buy a tottering horse.

Another deception is effected by stand-
ing a horse up hill ; the shoulder is made
more sloping, and dealers, to give that
appearance, desire the near leg to stand
before the other.

Though the dealer is perfectly justified
in these little maneuvers to show off his
goods to the best advantage, more espe-
cially in so fancy an article as a horse,
which is no more than is done and al-
lowed by every tradesman, the prudent
purchaser will not please his eye at the
expense of his judgment, but see the
horse on level ground, and with his feet
placed even.

If one foot is more upright than the
other, that foot is diseased; the same
weight is not thrown on it, and the horse
never shams ; if it is of a different tem-
perature, active disease is going on ; if an
old standing complaint, the feet will be
found of different size, and possibly the
muscles of the arm and shoulder dimin-
ished in size.

Taking our position in front of the

horse, we examine his fore legs; that
they are in proper position ; that there is
no weakness in the pasterns, or enlarge-
ment of the fetlocks ; and that the feet
are of the same size, and stand square to<
the front.

We judge of the general state of the
animal's health by his breathing condi-
tion, the brightness of his eye, the color
of the membrane lining the lid, and that,
of the membrane lining the nostril, which
in health is of a pale pink. If it is a florid
red, there is excitement of the system ;
and if it is pale, approaching to white, it
is a sign of debility.

Each nostril should be alternately
closed by the hand to ascertain that the
air passages are not obstructed by poly-
pus, or enlargement of the turbinated
bones.

If there is any increased discharge from
the nostrils, you will probably be told it
proceeds from slight cold; in that case,
an accelerated pulse and affection of the
eyes are usually concomitants; neverthe-
less, as a precautionary measure, the
branches of the under jaw should be felt,
for enlargement of the glands ; if, although,
enlarged, they are moveable and tender,
it is probably nothing more than a catar-
rhal affection. And here it may be neces-
sary to observe that in deciding upon the:
disease with which the horse is afflicted,,
it is requisite to bear in mind the age of
the animal. In examining the head of a
young horse, should the space between
the branches be hot, tumid and tender,
the membrane of the nose intensely red,,
with profuse discharge from both nostrils,
and cough and fever present itself, we
maymore than suspect strangles. Where,
however, there is neither cough or fever,
but one nostril, and that the left, affected,
the discharge lighter in color, and almost
transparent, yet clammy and sticky, and
the gland on that side adherent to the
jaw bone, glanders is indicated. In this
case, should the lining membrane of the
nostril be found pale, or of a leaden color,
with small circular ulcers, having abrupt
and prominent edges, there can be no
second opinion on the subject.

But we caution the inexperienced ex-
aminer not to mistake the orifice of the
nasal duct, which is situated in the inner
side, just within the nostril on the con-
tinuation of the common skin of the muz-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

*7

zle, and which conveys the tears from the
eye into the nose, for an ulcer; and warn
him, in all suspicious cases, to be careful
he has no chaps or sore places on his
head or face; as this dreadful disease is

Fig. 3.— At One Year Old,

Fig. 5.— At Three Years Old.

Fig. 7.— At Five Years Old,

man, in case any of these symptoms make
their appearance after purchase.

His crest should feel hard and full,
and firmly and closely attached to his
neck ; if it be lax, he is out of condition.

Fig. 4.— At Two Years Old-

Fig. 6.— At Four Years Olev

Fig. 8.— At Six Years Old.

Fig. 9. — At Seven Years Old. Fig. 10. — At Eight Years Old.

AGE CF THE HORSE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH.

unquestionably communicable to the hu-
man being. As few persons will buy a
horse with any symptoms of actual dis-
ease, however slight, if they can help it,
the inquiry is better left to a professions1

His skin should feel kind, and look glossy,
and the muscles of the body feel hard and
spongy to the touch. In the old horse
the head grows lean and fine, and the
features more striking and blood-like, the.

i8

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

neck fine, withers short, and the back
sinks ; the lips exhibit a lean and shrivel-
led appearance, and the lower lip hangs
considerably below the upper. In youth
they are round and plump, and meet to-
gether, and the ridges of the roof of the
mouth will be found prominent. In age,
the middle of the nose will sometimes be
found indented by the long-continued
pressure of the nose-band of the head-
stall. In lifting his lip, if the incision
teeth shut close, even, and are perpen-
dicular, he is young. As he grows older
they project forward in a horizontal direc-
tion, and the upper and under edges do
not meet with evenness, the upper pro-
jecting over the under teeth. The longer
his teeth are, the gums being dry and
shrunk from them, the more advanced he
is in age.

This appearance of his teeth cannot be
altered by the arts of the dealer. In
youth the teeth are flattened at front and
rear, and long from side to side; at eight
years old they are oval ; as age advances
they become round, and in extreme old
age triangular, yellow and incrusted, and
the tusks become blunt.

If there are any marks of extraordinary
wear in the central teeth, there is reason
to suspect crib-biting, and in old cribbers,
the outer edge of the front teeth are worn
away, and little pieces are sometimes
broken off by the attrition against the
manger ; if such is the case, look to the
neck for marks of the "crib-biting strap."

Dishonest dealers attempt to disguise
age, by reproducing the mark in the cor-
ner teeth by means of a hot iron or caus-
tic. The fraud is easily detected by a
horseman, as it is usually over-done, and
the marks do not correspond with the
length, shape, and duration of the teeth,
and the " bishoped" horse is usually loth
to have his mouth meddled with.

Having attentively looked over the
horse as he stands, and discovered noth-
ing objectionable to the eye, it is prudent
to see him through his paces, before pro-
ceeding to ascertain, by careful examina-
tion, what defects, blemishes, etc., which
may have a tendency to produce un-
soundness, he is afflicted with; as the
action of a horse, when closely observed,
guides us to his defective points.

He should first be walked, and then
trotted, without any whip near him, slow-

ly down the ride, allowing the animal to
have the whole of the halter to himself;
his head will then be entirely uncon-
strained, and any irregularities in his
action are easily detected.

The action should be scrutinized most
attentively immediately he steps off, as
defects are then most visible, for not un-
frequently lameness disappears after a few
moments' exercise.

Should one of the fore feet be much
affected, it will be evident, by the up
and down motion of the head, and the
different degree of force with which he
puts his feet to the ground. Horses that
are lame before, drop their heads when
stepping on the sound leg, and raise it
when the weight is thrown on the lame
leg ; but when they are lame behind, the
action (though not perceptible) is re-
versed; they throw up their head a little
when the sound leg comes to the ground,
and depress it when the lame leg propels
the body, and the motion of the lame leg
is slow, while the sound one is jerked
quickly forward to sustain the weight.

When both fore feet are equally tender
(which is not uncommon in groggy horses)
it is more difficult to judge of his action ;
it is not uneven, and the limp is not per-
ceptible, but he steps short and feelingly,
with a general appearance of contraction.
Dishonest dealers, at fairs and auctions,
resort to a scheme by which groggy lame-
ness in one leg is disguised by making the
motion even. It is known in various
parts by the slang terms of diamonding,
beaning, balancing, or wedging.

It is performed by removing the shoe
of the sound foot, and paring out the sole
until it yields to the pressure of the thumb.
The shoe is then replaced, and a wedge
of wood, a pebble, or a bean is driven in
between the sole and shoe, until sufficient i
pain is produced to make the horse equal-
ly lame on both legs. Although the lame-
ness is less evident, yet a person accus-
tomed to the action of horses, will easily
detect it, and if the animal is allowed to
stand undisturbed, it will be evident some-
thing is wrong by his repeatedly shifting
his legs.

Another trick of these ruffians, resorted
to to conceal lameness, or to give an ap-
pearance of energy to the sluggard or
worn-out horse, is the torture of the lash,
termed firing. The poor animal, pre-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

19

viously to being shown, is so barbarously
flagellated, that under the influence of
terror of the further application of the
whip, his attention is withdrawn from the
disease, he feels not the lesser pain, but
trots off heedless of his lameness, or at
least showing it much less. Whenever
there is much punishment, or a threat of
it, while showing a horse, be sure there

IS SOMETHING TO CONCEAL.

In his trot, if the action is good, the
foot is boldly delivered with what may be
almost termed an allegro movement. Its
course is straightforward and downward,
not dishing to either side; the motion
should be from the elbow as well as the
knee; the hind legs gathered well under
the body, following with regularity and
precision ; the toes fairly raised from the
ground, and spread pretty accurately in
the impress of the fore feet; if they pass
beyond, they are likely to over-reach.
In the trot, he should go lightly with the
fore feet, but strike the ground energetic-
ally with the hind, taking a long, darting
stride, and shooting, as it were, the body
forward.

In trotting, the horse that throws his
legs confusedly about should be rejected,
for though most young and uneducated
horses have an ungraceful and disorderly
action, the sluggard is never precise and
uniform in his trot.

In criticising action, attention must be
paid to breed, but it should be sufficiently
high in a hack to clear all ordinary ir-
regularities on the ground; if it is very
high, look out for trace of having worn a
knee-cap. Be careful to observe that he
does not occasionally drop ; a casual giv-
ing way on either leg, in the trot, is a suf-
ficient hint to reject the animal; he will
certainly fail when put to work.

Though the best horses may stumble,
if, after tripping, he springs out as if he
feared the whip or spur, you may justly
suspect him to be an old offender, which
will induce you to look to his knees and
head. Observe that he goes clear in all
his paces, and that one leg does not in-
terfere with the other; horses that go
very near are more likely to cut when
tired.

• The carriage of the head and tail are
points to which the eye of a good judge
will be directed. If the tail goes to and
fro when in action, like the pendulum of

I a clock, it is a good sign of blood and
steadiness.

He should now be mounted, and the
trial be repeated on the stones or hard
road, or what is preferable, on a rough
and stony declivity; for there are many
cases of slight lameness which do not
show on soft ground, at a walking pace,
or when the horse is unburdened. If he
step away boldly, the toe in a direct line
with the body, the knee fairly bent, and
his foot up and planted firmly down
again on the ground, fearlessly and flat,
without any dropping of his head, you
may conclude him sound in action. His
hind legs, well lifted up and tucked well
under him, should follow his fore legs
with regularity ; and if in running him up
hill he goes without dragging his toe, you
may infer the same behind. In the gal-
lop, if he takes up his legs quick and
dashes in his haunches, not bringing his
hind legs after him, his action is good.
During this display of action, the exami-
nant will have an opportunity of judging
of the perfection of his wind ; if he does
not ride the animal himself, he should
stand close to the horse at the moment
he comes into the gallop.

The thick-winded horse breathes with
difficulty and is soon distressed. The
flanks heave much and rapidly ; there is
some little noise ; but the laborious heav-
ing of the flank is the principal indica-
tion. A horse unused to exercise, or if
fat, or exercised on a full stomach, will
show symptoms of thick wind; and it
has been observed of great feeders, who
never breathe freely until they have gone
a mile or two, or begin to sweat, that
they are able to do more work than others
that do not labor under the same diffi-
culty.

The wheezer, in addition to being thick-
winded, utters a sound like an asmathic
person when a little hurried. Wheezing
may frequently be heard while at rest in
the stable.

The piper or whistler utters a shriller
sound than the wheezer, but it is only
heard after exercise, and that of some
continuance; a short gallop up hill is
sometimes necessary to develop it, but
the whistler is soon distressed. " Never
buy a whistler; he cannot improve on
your hand, and he is almost sure to get
worse," said Sir Henry Peyton to Nun-

20

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

rod, an opinion to which we most cordially
subscribe ; .and the same advice may be
given of all these affections of the air
passages.

Roaring is not heard at rest. In the
majority it is only developed by exertion,
which quickens the breathing, and the
noise is increased in proportion as the
pace is accelerated, though in a few it is
audible as soon as put into the trot.
Knowing dealers, who wish to prevent
the noise from reaching the ears of an
experienced purchaser, when showing a
" Bull " of good action, start the horse
a considerable distance before putting
him to the gallop, and in returning slacken
the pace, so that the breathing becomes
tranquil before the horse reaches the ex-
aminer ; this is called " coming the long
trot." Many of these lesions are conse-
quences of inflamed lungs or diseased
alterations of the air passages, and most
of them are modifications of the same
disease. Sometimes they exist in so slight
a degree as to be discoverable only by
quick and long-continued exertion ; but,
when suspected, they should be tried by
a brushing gallop, though this is not al-
ways allowed.

The only other simple and practicable
plan to get at the state of the breathing
is the common way of making the horse
cough, which, if gross and accompanied
by a short groan, is conclusive, and the
characteristic grunt, when alarmed, is not
to be misunderstood. But the cough is
not always marked, and, therefore, not
infallible. If, therefore, there is any cause
for doubt and suspicion, it is better to
call in a professional man, more especi-
ally as the slighter affections are apt sud-
denly to terminate in the greater, without
much warning, in a very short time.

We now proceed to search for blem-
ishes and those indications of unsound-
ness, which are apparent to external ex-
amination, bearing in mind any symptoms
or suspicious appearances in his action,
that may lead us to suspect particular
parts, which should then be subjected to
the severest scrutiny.

Any scars about the head should direct
attention to the knees, or they may lead
one to suspect there may have been an
attack of megrims or staggers.

The neck should be searched to ascer-
tain that both jugular veins are perfect,

which is discovered by pressing on the
lower part of the neck, with sufficient
force to stop the return of blood from the
head ; if the vein be perfect, it will fill
and swell from that point upward toward
the head. The loss of one of them, if
recent, predisposes the horse to staggers
or apoplexy, and he cannot be turned out
to grass or straw yard without risk. The
withers should be examined for bruises
from the saddle, as he is unserviceable as
long as heat or swelling continues.

The slightest tendency to sore back
makes a horse unserviceable for many
months, and not unfrequently causes him
to rear and plunge on mounting.

The shoulders should be examined for
tumors. If there are any marks of setons
or blisters about the points, it is probable
he has been treated for shoulder lame-
ness, and the attention of the examinant
will be directed to the foot, which, ninety-
nine times out of a hundred, is the seat
of lameness before. If that is found
round and strong, with the heels high, we
may suspect navicular disease.

The chest and breast should also be
searched for marks of rowels, setons and
blisters, for the remains of them render
it probable that the horse has been under
treatment for inflamed lungs or chest af-
fections, and should in prudence direct the
purchaser to ascertain by a smart gallop
whether the mischief is of a permanent
nature, more especially if the horse is
narrow-chested.

The knees should be examined with
the utmost care — first, that they correspond
in shape; and secondly, to ascertain whe-
ther the skin has been broken by falls ;
but it does not follow that a mark or scar
indicates a stumbler, and an accidental
blemish should not induce us at once to
condemn a well-formed animal.

A broken knee may happen from a
variety of causes. The safest horse may
fall by an unavoidable accident, such as
a false step, from any thing giving way un-
der the foot, as a round stone, from fatigue
and over-exertion, or from a bad rider.
But a broken knee is a suspicious circum-
stance; it may be taken as an indication
of existing or recent unsoundness, and
the slightest mark, calls for the most care-
ful observation of every part of the horse,
of his make and action, and suggests the
narrowest scrutiny of the legs and feet ;

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

21

a tight shoe, a nail driven too close, or
from bad shoeing. The toe being left too
long open, causes a horse to trip, tender-
ness in the feet, contraction, groggy lame-
ness, corns and thrush; a scar on the
head above the eye (for a decided fall of
the horse leaves unequivocal signs there)
is a suspicious sign; when no trace of
local disease can be found to account for
them, the inquiry should be followed up
into the horse's constitution, for the stag-
gers or megrins may have occasioned the
accident.

When a scar on the knee is observed
in connection with low withers, a thick
and upright shoulder and pasterns, with
the legs inclined under the bone, he is
unwise who does not take the hint that
the faulty formation has not produced its
natural consequence. To discover the
integrity of the kr.se, is not so easy as
some suppose, a -^asionally the hair
grows so well over h . wound, as to leave
it hardly discernible; but on minute in-
spection, when there has been a scar, an
interception of the gloss is apparent, as if
the hair grew in an oblique direction ;
should this be observed on bending the
joint, the secret will be exposed.

The shank should be examined for
splint, strained or enlarged flexors, and
the marks of firing or blisters.

In inspecting the leg, the eye alone
should not be trusted, particularly in
hairy-legged horses; but after minutely
comparing the appearance of the two
limbs, the hand should be deliberately
passed down both shanks before and be-
hind ; any difference before, or behind,
points to a deviation from health.

In the sound flat limb, the tendon is
well denned, perfectly distinct, and has
a hard, tense feel that resembles the touch
of a cord tightly strung. If *he back
sinews feel thick, the flexor tendons and
their sheaths swelled and rounded, leav-
ing no distinctive marks as it were be-
tween the one and the other, but all
swelled into one mass with the bone,
great mischief has at some time happen-
ed; either some of the ligaments have
been ruptured, or there has been inflam-
mation, effusion, and adhesion of the va-
ginial bursse, or synovial sheaths of the
flexor tendons; or such relaxation has
taken place from strain and subsequent
inflammation as will always keep him

weak. When the injury is recent, it is
accompanied with more or less swelling,
heat and lameness; by time and treat-
ment the first are removed, but the swell-
ing remains, and the thickening of the
tendons shows the mischief that has been
done. Whenever there is manifest altera-
tion of structure here, and yet the animal
is apparently sound in action, the pur-
chaser should bear in mind that the
soundness is often the effect of rest, and
should the animal be again put to work
he will become lame. And bear in mind
in such case you cannot return him, for
no man in his senses would give a special
warrantry against it.

Splints, if large, are apparent by the
deviation of the outline of the leg; if
small, the hand discovers them.

Every excrescence on the cannon
bone, in horseman's language, is termed
a splint. The true splint is in fact a local
conversion into bone of a part of the tem-
porary cartilage, connecting together the
large and small metacarpal bones. The
inflammation is set up by concussion or
strain. Horses are lame from them while
there is inflammation in the cartilage.
But when the tumor is formed, the inflam-
mation has subsided, and the periostrum
has accommodated itself to the enlarge-
ment, the horse is no longer lame, nor
more likely to become lame from that
splint than one without ; the same causes
that produced the first, may produce
a second.

The splint, if so large as to interfere
with action, rendering the horse liable to
strike, is objectionable, or so near the
knee or ligaments as to interfere with
their freedom of action ; otherwise they
are of very little consequence beyond the
blemish destroying the line of beauty.
The worst splints are those not discern-
ible but by the lameness they produce.

Any marks of firing or blistering should
make the purchaser cautious, and en-
deavor to ascertain the cause of the treat-
ment; after blistering, the hair is some-
times a shade different in color, and stares
a little, is shorter and bristly, and wants
the natural gloss.

The fetlock joint, from being the prin-
cipal seat of motion below the kaee, and
from its complicated structure, is particu-
larly subject to injuries. The fetlock
should be subjected to the strictest ex-

22

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

amination for enlargements, which are
best ascertained by carefully comparing
them with each other, as any difference
in size is indicative of strained or even
ruptured ligaments, and consequently
permanent weakness of that important
part.

If the injury is recent, there probably
will be heat, and pain on pressure; and
any signs of blistering or other treatment,
though no enlargement or lameness is
apparent, should induce the buyer to view
the animal with the utmost suspicion.

If there are any sore or callous places
about the fetlocks or pasterns, he is a cut-
ter, and possibly the marks of the foot
may be visible. If there is no malforma-
tion to account for it, it may have been
done when fatigued, or it may have arisen
from improper shoeing ; his feet should
then be examined.

If an old offence, he may probably
have a peculiar shoe, rather thicker and
narrower in the web on the inside than
the outside, and nailed only on the out-
side of the foot, and round the toe ; or the
opposite shoe is found filed away or bevel-
ed off, with the hoof projecting a little
over the shoe. Where the feet, though
well formed, are placed closer than de-
sirable in narrow-chested horses, and
therefore apt to cut, particularly when
tired, we sometimes find a shoe is adopt-
ed thinner on the inside than the out-
side.

At other times various ingenious de-
vices, calculated rather to increase than
remedy the evil, have been resorted to,
such as putting on shoes narrower on the
inside, and set within the crust, and the
wall of the quarters reduced in thickness
by the rasp. If none of these schemes
have been resorted to, to obviate the de-
fect, the horn of the opposite foot will
sometimes be found polished by the attri-
tion, for it is not the shoe that cuts once
in a hundred times, but the hoof. In
horses that interfere, we generally find
the inside quarter lower than the outer,
or the toes turned outwards — the fault
being in the leg that receives the mischief
while sustaining the weight, not in the
foot that gives the blow. The tired horse
throws his legs about, and frequently cuts
himself; and it is the fault of most young,
uneducated horses, especially if they have

been backed or inconsiderately worked
too early.

If there are any symptoms of knuckling
or inclination of the fetlocks forward,,
serious injury -has happened.

The hair above and below the fetlock
joint should be carefully searched for the
scars left by the operation of neurotomy
(the division of the nerves that supply the
foot with sensation) ; pricking the fetlock
with a pin if you have reason to suspect
it has been destroyed. About the fetlocks
are frequently found little puffy tumors,
absurdly denominated wind-galls, from a
supposition of the farrier that they con-
tained wind.

Whenever parts move and press on
each other, and between tendons, par-
ticularly about the extremities, there are
placed little vesicles, or shut socks, techni-
cally termed bursas mucosae, containing
synovia, or joint-oil, a lubricating fluid to
prevent friction, in sufficient quantity for
all ordinary purposes of the animal. But
when the horse has been compelled to
undergo exertion beyond that which is
natural and beneficial, an increased supply
of synovia is secreted, which distends the
capsule : a repetition sets up chronic in-
flammation of the synovial membrane —
morbid secretion and visible enlargement
is the result. There are very few horses
that have done much work that are with-
out them.

Though rest and pressure will diminish
them, when once enlarged, labor will be
sure to reproduce them; they seldom
occasion any local disturbance, and are
of no consequence beyond the blemish,
unless they are very large, and in most
cases may be regarded as mere indica-
tions of hard work.

The pastern is the seat of a bony tu-
mor termed ring-bone. It is the result
of inflammation and partial conversion
into bone of that portion of the cartilages
of the foot which rise above and nearly
encircle the coronet, These cartilages,,
extending backward considerably beyond
the coffin bone, form the elastic frame of
the posterior parts of the foot; they here
take on the name of the lateral cartilages.
When once ossified, inflammation is set
up in this part; from its tendency to spread
around the pastern joint, it has taken its
name of ring-bone. When, however, the
ossification appears only at the quarters,

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

*S

it is termed ossification of the lateral carti-
lages, or side bones. It is discovered by
their prominency aud their rigidity, when
pressed between the finger and thumb.
Upon the integrity of these parts depend
the elasticity and consequent usefulness
of the foot. However trifling the appa-
rent alteration of structure, it is a serious
detraction from the efficiency of a hack ;
though on soft ground, at a slow pace,
the draught horse will work apparently
sound.

We now arrive at the foot, the founda-
tion of the horse, and too much attention
cannot be paid to it. If it is imperfect, all
other perfections are valueless. The best
way of judging whether there is any mal-
formation of the feet, either natural or the
result of disease, is to front the horse, and

PERPENDICULAR SECTION OF
FOOT AND PASTERN.

THE

FIG. II.

a Flexor tendon, which continues by b, nearly
down to g, where it is inserted in the coffin hone.

c Sessamoid bones.

d Ligament uniting sessamoid bone to large
pastern.

e Navicular or nut bone.

h Elastic matter or sensible frog.

/ Part of coffin bone where the flexor tendon is
inserted.

g Ligament uniting navicular bone to coffin
bone.

k Part to bleed in severe inflammation of foot.

m m The shank bone.

r Ligament extending from pasterns to knee.

j Tendon uniting pasterns to coffin bone.

n The large pastern.

c Small pastern or coronary bone.

t Coffin bone.

q Crust or wall.

/ Horny sole.

c Elastic matter or sensible sole.

compare the two feet together. Small
feet are objectionable, and so a very large
foot, that is disproportionate to his size,.
is to be avoided.

Its wall should be round, smooth, level,
and of a shining dark color ; full in front,
of a proper obliquity, and free from ribs
or seams, and perfectly cool. Its proper
obliquity ought to be at an angle of
forty-five degrees with the plane of the
shoe. If the angle is materially less, the
sole is flat, or perhaps convex; if the
angle exceeds it, the foot is contracted.

When the outward line or profile of the
hoof is irregular, it marks what is called a
" shelly foot." This is decidedly bad. If
there are any protuberances or rings
round it, they indicate that the feet have
been affected with fever to such a degree
as to produce an unequal growth of horn,
which frequently leaves some injurious-
consequences in the internal part of the
hoof, such as a deposition of lymph be-
tween the horny and cartilaginous pro-
cesses, which connect the foot and hoof
together. If there is any depression or
hollow, it betrays separation of the foot
from the hoof, and sinking of the coffin
bowl, and the sole will be found bulging..

No man should trust to a superficial!
judgment of the foot, for though he may
see the form and shape of the foot to be

SECTION OF THE FOOT OF THE
HORSE.

Fig. 12.

a The outside crust of the hoof.

e e Hollow surfaces on the inner part of the horny
frog.

b Coronary ring.

c Horny plates on the inner surface of the
crust.

g g The bars.

dd Continuation of horny lining.

/ External cleft of the frog.

h Rounded part of heel.

34

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

promising, yet there are other things to
be considered. It may be well formed,
yet thin and weak; and those feet ex-
ternally the most perfect, are sometimes
contracted internally, and are liable to
the insidious affection termed navicular,
or joint capsular disease. Contraction is
a serious defect ; it is apparent and gen-
eral, or occult (hidden) and partial.

When apparent externally, which is
very common among high-bred horses,
with light heads and necks, high in the
withers with sloping shoulders, and that
go near the ground, the foot presents
more an oblong than a circular shape;
the curved line towards the heels becom-
ing straight, .and the heels approaching
each other. The frog is hard, dry, and
compressed, the foot small, and the heels
upright. Altogether the foot more re-
sembles that of a mule than a horse.

But though a contracted foot it, often
an indication of past disease, and there
is a diminution of elasticity, it by no
means follows that it is an unsoundness,
or incapacitates a horse from work.
With care, such feet will work soundly
to the end of their lives ; for this change
in shape has been effected by gradual
and slow absorption and deposit ; so that
nature has had time to adapt the internal
parts and accommodate itself to the
change, for elongation of the foot has
taken place. When such feet feel hotter
than ordinary, distrust should be awak-
ened, more especially if there is a marked
difference between the temperature of one
and the other. If there is indisputable
pointing, then the horse is unsound.

Occult or partial contraction is not ob-
vious externally, but there is diminished
cavity of the horny box from increase of
the sole in^bickness. In this case we
usually find the foot of a circular figure
more upright than natural, and displaying
unusual appearance of compactness of
force and strength, the soles usually hard
and thick; and if you have a firm, un-
yielding sole in a circular foot, it is a rock
of danger and the forerunner of navicular
disease.

The inner quarter of the hoof must be
most minutely inspected for sand-crack;
and it is not always easy, without minute
scrutiny, to detect a sand-crack, where an
attempt has been made to conceal it. A

month's run in marshy ground will often
close it up, and low dealers, particularly
at fairs and markets, and others who gain
a livelihood by dealing in " screws," have
a knack of neatly covering the crack with
pitch, and the foot oiled, so as adroitly to
conceal the crack. Any oily appearance
about the hoof should excite suspicion,
and any fissure at all resembling sand-
crack should cause the horse to be per-
emptorily rejected. Cracks indicate a dry
and brittle hoof. The heels should be
examined for any cracks, or appearance
of heat and tenderness, as they are ex-
ceedingly troublesome to cure.

The frog, in its healthy state, must be
firm, yet pliable and elastic. If there is
any smell, or if on squeezing the frog
matter exudes, there is a thrush. By
many people thrushes are considered of
little importance ; but when it is consid-
ered that where there is purulent matter
there must have been inflammation ; and
that when a horse with a thrush steps on
a stone, he frequently drops with the pain
as if he was shot, to the peril of his rider
and the ruin of his knees, it must be ad-
mitted they are serious objections in a
saddle horse. If it can be ascertained
that they are not of long standing, or
that the horse has been placed in a situ-
ation so as to favor their approach, such
as confinement in a hot moist litter, they
are of no more consequence than so
much diminution in his price as will cover
the expense of keep and attendance while
healing; but when a thrush accompanies
a foot smaller than usual, the heels wind
in, and the frog rotten, let him go as he
will, he will not long remain sound.

The sole of the foot should be subject
to close examination; in its healthy and
natural state it is inclined to be concave,
but if in connection with high heels an
extraordinary concavity is present, it is a
sign of internal contraction; if the sole
is morbidly thick, and does not give way
during great exertion, the elasticity of the
foot must be diminished. If the sole is
less concave than natural, or approaching
to flat, the foot is weak.

If the foot appears to have been cut
unusually deep at the angles where the
shoe meets the inside heel, or if there is
any peculiarity of shoeing at that part,
the examiner may infer all is not right,
and that he has corns ; and if he waits

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

25

for the proof, send for the farrier to re-
move the shoe.

The stifle is very rarely diseased ; but
it should be examined for enlargement
or any marks of firing or blistering; and
the groin should not be overlooked for
rupture.

The hock is one of the most important
joints in the animal machine, and should
always undergo a most rigid examination
previous to purchase, as from its compli-
cated structure, and the work it has to per-
form, it is the seat of lameness behind in
nine cases out of ten.

When standing behind the horse, if one
of the hocks is diseased, the observer will
perceive the bone does not incline gradu-
ally, as in the sound limb, but there is an
abrupt prominence. Though to the un-
practiced eye this is not always percepti-
ble on comparing them, yet by passing
the hand down the inside of both hocks,
this abruptness will be felt. If there is
any tenderness or heat on pressure, or the
marks of recent cutting on the inside of
the fetlock, or unequal wear of the shoes,
especially at the toe, you may suspect
spavin. Sometimes both hocks present
an enlarged appearance, though there is
neither heat, pain nor lameness (for hock
lameness is frequently intermittent), such
hocks should always be looked upon with
suspicion; they are, in fact, unsound: for
though the animal may, with natural mal-
formation or exostial growth, the result
of disease, discharge his usual functions
through life without a return of lameness
in careful hands; yet the probability is
he will fail if called upon for any unusual
exertion, and that one day's extra work
will ruin him forever. In this case the
examinant must be guided by circum-
stances; if the horse has excellencies
which counterbalance the defect, the
price is correspondingly low, and if the
work required is but moderate, he may
be serviceable for many a year.

Certain forms of hock are more subject
to disease ; those approaching each other,
termed low hocks, are predisposed to
spavin and curb; those in which the
point of the hock inclines too much back-
ward, are liable to spavin ; and when the
hock is too upright, narrow and straight,
it is subject to thoroughpin. Capped
hock is a soft, fluctuating tumor on the
point of the hock ; it is an enlargement

of one of the mucous capstdes which sur-
round the tendons inserted into that part.
It is produced by blows, lying on rough
stones, or kicking in the harness or stable,
and is therefore frequently a sign of vice.

Curb is a longitudinal swelling at the
back of the hind leg, three or four inches
below the hock, seen best from the horse's
side; the enlargement is the result of a
sudden strain of the annular ligaments,
or inflammation of the sheaths of the
tendon. It is attended with a good deal
of lameness and swelling at first; but
when that has subsided, and if any titae
has elapsed without a recurrence of the
lameness, it is of no more consequence
than the unsightly blemish ; but it should
be remembered that curby hocks are lia-
ble to spavin.

Thoroughpin is situated above the
hock joint, between the flexors of the
hock and foot, projecting on each side ;
it is of the same nature as wind-galls,
being an enlarged mucous capsule, and
is indicative of severe work or over ex-
ertion.

Bog, or blood, or spavin, is a swelling
situated in front of the hock, towards the
middle of the joint ; it is also an enlarged
mucous capsule, but deeper seated, over
which one of the subcutaneous veins
passing, the blood in which becoming
obstructed in the return, increases the size
of the tumor.

The shanks should be scrutinized for
any symptoms of weakness, and the fet-
locks for marks of cutting ar*i wind-
galls.

The front of the hind feet should be
examined for fissure ; it is a most serious
defect, and generally produces lameness.
Notice the way in which he is' shod, as
it leads to the discovery of lameness and
defects in action ; though in dealers'
stables you will rarely see any peculiarity
in shoeing.

If the toe of the hind foot is found to
extend a little over the shoe, it is to pre-
vent "hammer and click" from being
audible. If the toes of the hind feet drag,
or we find the shoe squared off or worn,
we may suspect disease of the hocks ; and
if the inside of the shoe is beveled off, it
is the sign of a cutter.

He should now be backed, to ascertain
if he has received any injury of the spine.
If he backs with difficulty, his hind quar-

26

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

ters swaying from side to side, and when
compelled to retrograde suddenly he ap-
pears as if about to fall, he has received
some injury. Some horses cannot be
made to back, but when urged, rear on
their hind legs. His loins should be
searched for marks of setons, or blisters.
Among stable-men it is termed " chinked
in the chine," or rigged in the hock.

A singular symptom of diseased spine
sometimes shows itself where nothing had
been previously suspected; that is, of
sometimes dropping when turned sud-
denly in the trot, the hinder quarters ap-
pearing as if paralyzed; in one case, after
several ineffectual attempts to reproduce
it, it was developed by a man startling
him from a stable door as he trotted past
it up the ride.

There are many blemishes and defects
that render a hack unserviceable, which
are of little or no consequence in harness.
The greatest virtue in a gig horse is
steadiness, which can only be ascertained
by trial ; and do not trust to the steadi-
ness he evinces while the reins are in his
owner's hands. The author of that ad-
mirable little work, " The Adventures of
a Gentleman in search of a Horse," truly
says, " whoever buys a carriage horse
without first driving him himself, is a fit
subject for a commission of lunacy; it
is not enough to put him on the break,
he should be harnessed at once to the
carriage, and it is prudent to observe
how he bears the ceremony of harness-
ing, and what kind of start he makes.
Much may be predicted by his qualifica-
tions for draught, or at all events his fa-
miliarity with the collar, by the degree of
quiet with which he allows himself to be
put to.

If the ostler runs alongside of him at
setting off, as is often the case, you may
be sure the horse is distrusted; if you
distrust it yourself, have nothing to do
with him.

The horse should now be returned to
the stable for the purpose of examining
his eyes, the most favorable position for
which is about half a foot within the sta-
ble door. There should be no back or
side lights, or the rays, falling between
the eyes of the examiner and the animal,
will prevent him seeing distinctly. The
head should be so placed that a mode-
rate light should fall on the eye of the

horse, and the quantity of light can be
easily regulated by bringing the horse's
head more or less forward, until it is
placed in the most favorable direction
for observation.

Though every horseman can detect
absolute blindness, yet the eye of the
horse is susceptible of so many diseases,
in which defective vision or partial blind-
ness exists in such a form, long before
the sight is lost, that it requires not only
more observation than most people imag-
ine, but a person unacquainted with its
anatomical structure, and the different
appearances it assumes, cannot perceive
it at all. There are certain forms of the
eye, and structural peculiarities, that
show a constitutional predisposition to
disease — thus, small sleepy eyes, of a
blueish grey color, or when they have a
flat, retracted, and sunken appearance,
or those of a longish, oval figure, are
predisposed to ophthalmia, or when the
eyes appear full, with a fleshy circle
around them, these are all symptoms of
badness of eye, and are the forerunners
of blindness, particularly in the heads of
coarse and fleshy horses, with heavy
countenances, who usually go blind with
cataracts at seven years old.

Slight thickenings of the lid or pucker-
ing towards the inner corner of the eye,
a difference in size, a cloudiness, or dull-
ness of the iris, are several indications of
disease, that a purchaser should beware
of.

In examining the eyes, both must have
an equal degree of light ; if any differ-
ence is apparent between them, one must
be diseased. The cornea, or transparent
part of the eye, should be perfectly clear.

Specks are best detected by standing
at the shoulder ; if one is evident, and it
can be clearly proved to be no more
than the effect of accident, no import-
ance need be placed on it. But it is im-
possible to ascertain this, and therefore
the safest course is to assume that natural
irritability and consequent inflammation
of the eye is the cause.

Specks on the transparent cornea are
generally the result of external injury;
there is seldom more than one; when
very small and near the circumference,,
they are of no consequence ; but if large,,
or near the centre, they interfere with
distinctness of vision, and make the horse

HORSE—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

27

shy. If opaque or milky lines are traced
on its surface, it bespeaks the remains of
former inflammation.

But it is necessary to observe that
horses, before they are six years old,
have not that transparency in their eyes
which they display afterwards, because,
while young and growing, the vessels of
the eye are full; therefore, before that
age, it is not the brilliancy of the eye that
denotes its goodness.

If there is an excess of tears, it denotes
debility, and should occasion a more
than ordinary scrutiny; in fact, all horses
with weeping, dull, cloudy eyes, should
be rejected as unsound.

It may be remarked, as a general rule,
that all diseases of the eye are incurable.
Have nothing to do with a horse when the
slightest trace of disease of the eye is visible.
As it is impossible, from a superficial ex-
amination, to distinguish between simple
ophthalmia and inflammation of the con-
junctiva, the cause of which has been a
blow, or the introduction of some irritat-
ing matter, such as a piece of dirt or hay-
seed, which is curable by simple means,
and the specific ophthalmia, as spontane-
ous affection, which ultimately terminates
in cataract and blindness.

Viewed in front, the depths of the eye
should be looked into; then sideways,
which will assist in ascertaining the clear-
ness and absence of specks on or within
its surface.

Floating in the aqueous humor (which
preserves the convexity of the cornea) is
the iris, a muscular membrane, whose di-
latation and contraction forms an oval
aperture, termed the pupil, which varies
in size according to the quantity of light
which falls upon the eye.

The iris varies very little in color in
the horse, though it bears some analogy
to the color of the skin. It is rarely
lighter than a hazel, or darker than a
brown; except in milk white, cream-col-
oied, or pied horses, when it is white,
and they are termed wall-eyed. If it is
of a pale variegated, cinnamon color, it is
good.

The pupil or aperture of the iris is
that horizontal, oblong, blueish opening
which admits the light to the posterior
chambers of the eye. It is important
that the oval shape of the pupil is per-
fect, for if any irregularity or unevenness

is perceived, it is a symptom that the or-
gan has received partial injury. In look-
ing into the depth of the eye, through
the pupil, in a strong light, it should ex-
hibit a lively blueishness ; in a moderate
light, it should be perfectly transparent;
if milky or turbid, it is the remains of
former inflammation, which will probably
recur.

In bringing the horse out of the stable
to the light, if the pupil is large, it is a
bad sign ; by alternately shading and ad-
mitting light, if it enlarges and lessens
under its stimulus, it is an infallible sign
the eye is good. But if the retina is un-
movable, the pupil larger than natural,
and of one invariable size when shaded
or exposed to intense light, though no
disorganization is apparent, the eye ap-
pearing bright, of a peculiar glossy as-
pect, and of a greenish color, the animal
is blind from the disease termed " glass-
eye " — a palsy of the optic nerve.

A decided cataract, or opacity of the
crystalline lens, or its capsule, is easily
detected ; but when very small, they may
escape observation. It appears as a
cloudy or pearly white substance within
the pupil towards the bottom of the eye.
If the pupil be round instead of a flat
oval, it is an indication of cataract ; when
there is the slightest deep-seated cloudi-
ness, the eye should be condemned ; but
if there is any white object before it, such
as a white hat, neckcloth, waistcoat, or
wall, the reflection on the cornea pro-
duces a mark, having so much the ap-
pearance of a cataract as to have misled
many an experienced observer. There-
fore, before deciding, hold the crown of
a black hat against the eye, and observe
at the same time if the mark disappears,
which it will, if it is only a reflection.

If your examination has proved satis-
factory, and you decide on purchasing,
before you part with your money, learn
something of the seller. For should
your bargain not turn out as you antici-
pate, upon further acquaintance, trial,
and second examination, you will know
what chance of remedy you have against
the vender.

The horse, if returned, must of course
be in the same condition in which he was
received, except so far as the disease for
which he is returned may have progress-
ed in the meantime.

38

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

It is advisable to inquire of the seller
how he has been accustomed to diet and
clothe the animal ; whether his feet were
stopped ; and the same treatment should
be pursued till his soundness is ascer-
tained.

Note the temperature of the stable ; if
his new habitation should be hotter, it is
probable you may induce an inflammatory
attack of the lungs.

Beware of putting a saddle on a new
horse that does not fit him; while the
■question of soundness is still doubtful, it
is far better to use the saddle he has been
.accustomed to.

If his back becomes galled while tryr
ing him, which is not an unusual occur-
rence, the dealer will object to take him
back, unless full compensation is made;
and reasonably so, for he is unfitted for
sale or for work till it is healed, which is
not to be effected in a day ; and it is also
a point for calculation, whether he may
not chance to fall sick, while standing in
high condition in stable; in which case
the dealer would be subjected to heavy
loss.

It is therefore not prudent to remove
his shoes, or in fact to do anything with
the animal which may cause doubt or
cavil, until you have finally decided upon
.keeping him.

HARE, BROOD, General Management
of the. — When it has been decided to
breed from a mare, if she is not already
thrown out of work, it will often be
necessary to cool her down, by turning
her out to grass and taking away her
corn, before she will become stinted.
Thorough-bred mares are not, as a rule,
allowed to take the horse while in work ;
but sometimes they are so constantly " in
use " that no other means will enable the
trainer to go on with his work of prepa-
ration. There is a wonderful difference
in this respect : some animals are rarely
M in use," once or twice a year being the
outside; while others are so every nine
days throughout the spring — the average
perhaps being in that state at about inter-
vals of two or three months, from the
time of shedding their coats till the be-
ginning of autumn. Again, some are not
upset in their work by this natural pro-
cess; while others refuse to feed, lose
condition, and cannot be depended on
for half their usual exertions. Either ex-

treme requires a change of feeding; for,
on the one hand, the cool temperament is
excited by the freedom of a run at grass,
and on the other, the warmer one, is bene-
fited by losing the heating qualities of
her corn. At all events, it is found, in
practice, that though the majority ot
maiden mares will become stinted while
at work, yet that a large number require
a run at grass before they will become in
foal. As we before remarked, thorough-
bred mares are generally entirely devoted
to the stud from the time they are put to
the horse ; but there are many others of
lower breeding which their owners desire
to work on for some months afterwards.
It is often apparent that the legs of a
hack or harness-mare are wearing out,
and her owner decides upon having a foal
from -her, but wishes to avoid the expense
of keep from the spring, when he puts
her to the horse, till the next January or
February, varying, of course, with the
time of foaling. All mares are the better
for slow work up to within two months of
foaling; but they should not be ridden or
driven so fast as to occasion exhaustion.
Cart-mares are generally used to within a
few days of their time, taking care to
keep them at light work and to avoid
straining them. With these precautions,
if the legs keep tolerably sound, a mare
may be made to earn her keep for nine
months out of the eleven, which are the
duration of her pregnancy.

The time of sending the mare to the
horse will vary with the purposes for
which her produce is intended. If for
racing, it is desired that she shall foal as
soon as possible after the first of January;
and as she carries her foal about eleven
months, the first time of her being " in
use " after the first of February is the pe-
riod chosen for her. All other horses
take their age from the first of May ; and
as this is the time when the young grass
begins to be forward enough for the use
of the mare, the breeder is not anxious
to get his half-bred foals dropped much
before that time. As, however, mares
are very uncertain animals, he will do
well to take advantage of the first oppor-
tunity after March, as by putting off the
visit to the horse, he may be disappointed
altogether, or the foal may be dropped so
late that winter sets in before it has ac-
quired strength to bear it. These re-

HORSE—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

marks apply to maiden mares only; those
which have dropped a foal are generally
put to the horse nine or ten days after-
wards, when almost every mare is in sea-
son. For this reason, valuable thorough-
bred mares are often sent to foal at the
place where the sire stands who is intend-
ed to be used next time. The traveling
to him so soon after foaling would be in-
jurious to both the dam and her foal, and
hence the precaution we have named is
adopted. The mare then remains to be
tried at intervals of nine days, and when
she is stinted the foal is strong enough to
bear any length of journey with impuni-
ty. Mares and their foals commonly
travel by road twenty miles, or even
more, for this purpose ; but they do not
often exceed that distance, and about fif-
teen miles a day is quite as much as a
nine days' old foal can compass without
injury, and that done very quietly, the
mare being led at a slow pace all the
way.
MARE, FOAL, Treatment When In.—
When the mare is in foal, if not in-
tended to be kept at work, she should be
turned out in good pasture ; but it should
not be so rich and succulent as to disa-
gree with her stomach, or make her un-
wieldy from fat. The former mistake is
a constant cause of miscarriage, the bow-
els becoming relaxed from the improper
nature of the food. On the other hand,
if it is not sufficiently good, the mare will
become thin, and will starve her foal in
its growth. Mares that have been corned
highly all their lives should have a feed
or two daily, after they are six months
gone, and especially if the autumnal
grasses are not rich and plentiful. Most
half-bred animals, however, do very well
till about Christmas ; after which hay and
corn, with a few carrots, should be liber-
ally given them, still allowing them to
pick up what grass they can find in their
paddocks. Excessive fat is a state of dis-
ease, and interferes with the due nutrition
of the fcztus, while it is very dangerous
at foaling-time, when it not only inter-
feres with the process, but also tends to
produce fever. Supposing the mare to be
at work, she should have some kind of
green food — lucerne being the best, and
vetches, perhaps, the worst for the pur-
pose, the latter being too heating, es-
pecially to the organs contained within

the pelvis. Any of the grasses or clo-
vers answer well; and, after they are:
done, carrots form an excellent succeda-
neum, given sliced in a bran mash every
night. By adopting these articles of
food the mare is kept free from inflamma-
tion, and yet the foal is well nourished,
which are the two essential points to be
considered.

Excitement of every kind is a fertile
source of " slipping " the foal, and every-
thing which is at all likely to have that
effect should be carefully avoided. The
smell of blood is said to have a very pre-
judicial influence in this way ; and there
is no doubt that one mare miscarrying
will in some mode affect others in prox-
imity to her. Possibly the same cause
may act on all, but it seems to be gener-
ally concluded that the act is really con-
tagious, either from what is called sym-
pathy, or in some other as inexplicable
way. If a mare has " slipped " a foal in
a previous pregnancy, double care should
be taken, as she will be far more likely to
do so again than another which has hith-
erto escaped the accident. It occurs
most frequently about the fourth or fifth
month, therefore extra care should be
taken at that time. The suspected indi-
vidual should be kept quiet by herself;
but it is better to allow her the run of a
small retired paddock than to confine her
to her hovel, where, for want of exer-
cise, she will become restless and anx-
ious. Purging physic should not be
given, unless it is absolutely necessary ->
and if the bowels are so confined as to
require some stimulus of this kind, and
bran mashes and other changes in the
food fail to produce any effect, choice
should be made of the mildest aperient
which is likely to answer the purpose.

MARE, FOALING, Treatment After.—
In a healthy state the mare very soon re-
covers the efforts which she has made in
bringing forth the foal; and, in fine
weather, she may be allowed to enter
her paddock on the second day after-
wards, which is generally soon enough to-
suit the strength of the foal, though oc-
casionally the young animal is very ac-
tive within six hours after it comes into
the world. For a couple of months, or
perhaps less in some cases, the mare and
foal are better kept in a paddock by
themselves; but in a large stud this is

3°

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

difficult when the foals come very quickly ;
and then several mares of quiet tempera-
ment are put together, still keeping sepa-
rate those which are shy or vicious.
Until the mare can get plenty of grass
she should have carrots, bran mashes,
and a feed or two of oats, which at first
are better given in the shape of gruel —
the water with which this is made having
the chill taken off. Rye grass is culti-
vated and cut for the mares daily by
those who have early foals ; but, though
it is better than hay, it is not equal to
good upland clover grass. Lucerne is
excellent, but it cannot be grown so ear-
ly as rye. We have already described
(see Mare, the time of sending to horse,)
the proper time for again putting the
mare to the horse, so that we need not
enter into that subject here. During the
remainder of the time of suckling no
special treatment is required, except to
see that the mare is well fed and pro-
tected from the weather. At weaning-
time she sometimes requires a dose or
two of cooling medicine, but generally
she is so nearly dry, that no interference
is required.

MARE, FOAL, Early Treatment of
the. — If the young animal is well
formed and healthy, it will require no at-
tention beyond that which we have spec-
ified as necessary for the dam. There
are, however, several accidents to which
it is liable ; such as rupture either at the
navel or flank, inversion of the feet, etc.,
all of which will be treated of in their
proper places. About the time of the
mare being " in use " the foal is generally
purged a good deal, and a warm drench
will often be required. At the end of a
month, or sometimes earlier, the foal
will eat bruised oats; and highly
bred young stock are generally allowed,
from this time, first a single quartern, and
then by degrees two quarterns of oats.
Half-breds, and even cart-horses, would
be the better for this stimulus to devel-
opment; but if it is begun it should be
continued; and, unless the foal shows
such promise that it is expected to turn
out extraordinarily well, the extra ex-
pense will not be reimbursed. The half
peck of oats cannot be put down as cost-
ing less than twenty dollars a year; and
thus, at five years of age, the colt will have
cost one hundred dollars more than if he

had been fed on hay or grass alone.
Now, between a race-horse reared on
corn and another confined to hay and
grass, the difference in value would be a
thousand per cent., and in first-class
hunters, though not so great as this, it
would be very considerable. But among
inferior horses, on the average, would
scarcely reach the sum we have named as
the prime cost of the oats; and, there-
fore, in the depth of winter a quartern or
half a peck is generally given with a lit-
tle bran ; yet, when there is good grass,
this is neither necessary nor is it econom-
ical. Shelter from the weather should,
however, be afforded to colts of all classes
during the winter season; and unless
they have this they soon grow out ot
form and lose flesh, however well they may
be fed. It is now fully recognized that
warmth and protection from the rain en-
courage the growth of all our domestic
animals, but in none are they more influ-
ential than in the one which we are now
discussing. A colt neglected in its first
winter never recovers its proper shape,
nor does it grow into the size or strength
of body and limbs which naturally ap-
pertain to its breed. Independently,
therefore, of the cruelty in exposing the
young animal to a climate for which it is
not fitted, the plan does not pay ; and on
the latter account, if not on the former,
even the most heartless, who consider
their own interests, will make suitable
provision for protecting their young horse
stock from the inclemency of our winter
climate.

The foal should be handled from the
very first week of its existence ; but there
is no occasion to use it roughly in ac-
customing it to the pressure of the hand
on all parts of its body and limbs. If
this process is very gradually com-
menced, no resistance will at any time be
offered, and the foal will allow its feet to
be picked up, and its head and ears to be
rubbed, without taking offense. Grooms
are sometimes in the habit of showing off
their powers in this way, by taking the
foal up in their arms ; but this can do no
good, and may possibly lead to injury of
the walls of the abdomen. About the
fourth or fifth month, and before wean-
ing is commenced, a light head collar
should be put on; and after the foal is
accustomed to its pressure, by repeatedly

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

3r

handling the part on successive days, a
leading-rein should be buckled on, and
the young thing enticed to follow the
groom without any absolute coercion.
At the same time it must be made to feel
that resistance is useless ; and if it begins
to pull, it must on no account be allowed
to get away, the groom yielding as long
as the foal pulls straight back, but coerc-
ing it gently with a side strain. A care-
fully handled foal will rarely give any
trouble in this way; but there is an aston-
ishing variation in the power which dif-
ferent men have over the animal creation.
Some will gain control without using
the slighest violence, while others will be
always fighting with their charge, and
after all, will not be able to do nearly as
much with them as their more quiet and
clever rivals. The latter class should
never be allowed to have anything to do
with young horses ; and though there
may be occasional exceptions which re-
quire severe measures, yet if once a man
is found resorting to violence with a foal
which he has had the management of
from the first, he should, in our opinion,
be removed from his post; or, at all
events, he should be carefully watched,
and a repetition of the offense ought to
be considered as a notice to quit. Long
before the coming among us of Mr.
Rarey, this was recognized amongst the
most extensive breeders of horses in this
country; and though cruelty was not
unknown among them, any more than it
is now, it was fully recognized as not
only an unnecessary but an unsatisfactory
means of mastering the horse.

MARE, FOAL, Weaning and After
Treatment of the. — The usual age for
weaning the foal is about the end of
the sixth month, that time being
selected because the dam is generally
about "half gone" with her next foal
and cannot bear the double drain upon
her system. Nor does the foal benefit
much by the milk after this age, the
teeth and stomach being quite strong
enough to crop and digest the succulent
grasses that are to be had from August
to October, those being the months dur-
ing which the several breeds attain the
middle of their first year. If the autumn
is a dry one, and grass is scanty, a few
steamed turnips or carrots may be mixed
with bran and given to the foal night and

morning; but, as a rule, unless it is to be
highly forced into its growth for the pur-
pose of early using, it will require only
the grass which it can pick up when it is
turned out. Three or four foals are gen-
erally placed together in the same pad-
dock for company, and in this way they
miss their dams far less than if confined
by themselves. Care should be taken
that nothing is left within their reach
which can do injury, every fence and
gate being carefully examined to see that
no projecting bolt, nail, or rail is likely to
lay hold of their bodies or limbs as they
gallop about in their play. Foals of all
ages are mischievous animals, and the
better fed they are the more inclined they
seem to lay hold of anything which at-
tracts their notice.

Besides the shelter of a hovel, which
we have already insisted on, the foal re-
quires throughout its first winter, good
feeding proportioned to its breeding and
the purposes for which it is intended.
Racing colts are allowed three or four
feeds of bruised oats with steamed car-
rots or turnips, and sometimes steamed
hay ; but the general plan is to give as
much as they will eat of the best upland
hay, in its natural state, after they have
finished their allowance of corn. Young
stock intended to be sold as hunters and
first-class carriage horses are always al-
lowed half a peck of bruised oats, and a
few carrots and turnips will not be
thrown away upon them. Hacks, and
inferior young stock of all kinds, get
through the winter upon hay and barley-
straw, part being sometimes cut into
chaff, and mixed with a quartern of bran,
daily, and if they are very low in flesh,
a few oats being added. During severe
frosts the straw-yard is the best place for
the foal, on account of the hardness of
the ground in the fields, and here he will
easily keep himself warm and dry, and
he can be attended to according to his
wants. Let the breeder, however, con-
stantly bear in mind that a check given
to the growth in the first winter is never
afterwards entirely recovered, and that if
the colt which has experienced it turns
out well he would have been still better
without it.

COLTS, BREAKING, How to.— Colts,
generally, are not taken in hand early
enough for breaking, and become wild

3*

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

and unmanageable when breaking be-
comes necessary. Then they have to be
reduced to obedience by violent and
barbarous usage, by which they are often
permanently injured, besides acquiring
evil and mischievous habits. Breaking
should begin so early and proceed so
gradually that the horse will grow up in
those habits of obedience and docility
which give him really his highest value.
The colt should be made docile and fear-
less by familiar handling and petting.
No such thing as a whip should ever be
allowed to touch the very young foals.
But man, however, should always appear
among his stock as master. Colts, and
sometimes horses, are spoiled by being
petted and played with by children and
others, who, half afraid of them, do not
maintain the proper attitude toward
them. The feed for colts must not be
heavy ; during the first year they should
depend upon the mare and what grass
and fodder they pick up on the pasture,
with one or two quarts of oats a day,
after weaning and during the winter.
Plenty of fresh air is an important re-
quisite for horses, whether young or old.
After the colt is accustomed to being
led about by the halter, it is time to be-
gin his education as a trotter. He can
be led on a trot around the yard, never
being led too fast or too long. It should
be made a game or play, and the colt
should enjoy it, being always encouraged
to trot and never allowed to break or
run. After the first year the feed may
be increased to four or five quarts of oats
a day, decreasing it during the months
of good pasturage and increasing it in
winter. A suitable bitting apparatus may
now be put on, the reins substituted for
the halter. The colt should be exercised
on the road and made familiar with pass-
ing vehicles and the common sights and
noises. When two years and a half old,
the colt may be safely broken to go un-
der the saddle. Before attempting to
use him in that way, he may be accus-
tomed to the saddle, and by occasionally
placing a child on his back, while stand-
ing beside him, there will be no trouble
in using him in that way at the proper
time. Too much weight in the saddle is
apt to affect the symmetry of the line of
the back and otherwise injure a young
horse, and a rider of light weight should

always be selected. After being accus-
tomed to the road, under the saddle, the
colt may be harnessed and driven with a
well-broken horse. And after being thus
accustomed to harness, the colt may be
hitched to a sulky, but, as soon as it is
safe, should be changed to a skeleton
wagon. This is preferred to a sulky, as.
the weight of the sulky and driver presses
too much on the back and loins. This is
the time of the principal danger by over-
driving. The young horse is going nice-
ly to the skeleton wagon, and every time-
he shows a fine gait and burst of speed,
the driver is anxious to keep it up, or
make him do it again. These evidences
of capacity and promise should make the
driver doubly cautious; and the young
horse be allowed to make only short
spurts of speed, and those for a short
distance, and very few at any one drive.
Many young horses are urged and driven
until they get tired of trotting; thus,
whole seasons are lost, and frequently
they are put permanently back.

HORSE, Diet for the. — In acute dis-
eases no food whatever ought to be given
until improvement has taken place, and
even then only in a sparing manner; the
articles of diet most suitable are bran,,
oats, hay, carrots, Swede turnips, and
green food, either grass or clover.

The bran may be given either dry or
wetted, whichever way the animal pre-
fers it.

Oats may be given mixed with the
bran, either raw and crushed, or whole
and boiled.

It is necessary to keep the animal
without food or water half an hour be-
fore and after administering the medi-
cine.

HORSE, Clipping, Singeing and Trim-
ming.— The coat of the horse is changed
twice a year, the long hair of the winter
coming off in April and May, or some-
times earlier when the stables are warm
and there is no exposure to severe cold.
A slight sweat hastens this shedding, as
every horseman knows by experience, and
even in harness the hairs are cast in the
face of the driver to his great annoyance
on a windy day. Clipped horses are
I_nger than others in shedding their
coats, and present a most disagreeable
mottled appearance, which makes the
state still more noticeable. The long

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

33

hair on the legs is about a month later in
coming off, and indeed it will not fall till
midsummer, unless some more violent
means than are used in ordinary dressing
are adopted. With some breeds and in-
dividuals the winter coat is not very
much longer and coarser than that of the
summer ; but all, save blind horses, show
more or less difference in favor of the
summer coat. Curiously enough, horses
which are totally deprived of sight have
almost invariably a good winter's coat,
often better than that which they show at
other seasons ; but why this is so, no one
has ever been able to explain, though we
have never known the fact disputed.
About the middle of October, or early in
November, the summer coat is thrown
off; but some of the hair appears to re-
main as a sort of undercoat, among
which the long, coarse hairs of winter
make their appearance. These continue
growing for six weeks or two months if
they are clipped or singed, and even after
Christmas, if the weather is cold and the
skin is much exposed, there will be an ev-
ident increase in length of some of the
hair. In accordance with the growth of
this on the body is that of the hair on
the legs, which become feathered all the
way down below the knees in the fore
legs, and half way down the backs of the
canna bones in the hind legs. Low-bred
horses have more hair on those parts than
thorough-breds; but even these latter, if
they are not stabled tolerably warmly, ex-
hibit a great deal of hair on their legs.
Those who can see no possibility of im-
proving on nature come to the conclusion
that this long hair is a defence against the
cold, which ought not to be removed,
and they argue that clipping and singe-
ing are on that account to be rejected al-
together. But these gentlemen forget
that the horse in his native plains has al-
ways a short coat, and that the winds and
rains, which cause him here to throw out
an extra protection, are not natural to
him. Moreover, if the animal is left to
follow his own impulses, even when turned
out in this country, he will be all the bet-
ter for his long coat, for while it has the
great advantage of protecting him from
the cold, it is not wetted by sweat, be-
cause he does not voluntarily gallop long
and fast enough to produce that secre-
tion. The natural protection is therefore

undoubtedly good for the horse when left
in a state of nature ; but when man steps
in and requires the use of the horse for
such work as will sweat him severely, he
discovers that a long coat produces such
great exhaustion, both during work and
after it, that it entirely forbids the employ-
ment of the horse for hunting, or any fast
work. We have many times found it im-
possible to extend a horse for any dis-
tance on account of his long coat, which
distressed him so much as to make him
blow directly, whereas on removing it
with die clipping scissors he could gallop
as lightly as a race-horse, and be able to-
go as fast and as far again as before.
When this happens in the course of the
week following the previous failure, the-
only change made being in the coat,
there can be no mistake made, and a con-
stant repetition of the same result leaves
no room for dispute as to the beneficial
effects of removing the hair. But, say
the opponents of the plan, " All this may
be true, yet it is unsafe to expose the-
clipped horse after he has been warmed,,
or indeed at at any time." Experience
tells a very different tale, and informs us-
that so far from making the horse more
liable to cold, clipping and singeing ren-
der him far less so. Suppose one of our-
selves to be exposed to a cold wind,
should we rather have on a thin dry coat
or a thick wet one ? Assuredly the for-
mer, and undoubtedly the wearer of it
would be less liable to cold than he who-
has the wet one on. So with the horse.
As long as his winter coat can be kept
dry he is protected by it, and the slow
worker, who is not made to pull such
heavy weight as to sweat him, will be all
the better for its protection, but the mo-
ment the pace is sufficiently accelerated"-
to warm the skin, the sweat pours forthr
and is kept up in-doors by the matted*
mass of moist hair with which the horse
is covered. In former days we have had*
horses wet for weeks together, from the-
impossibility of getting them dry in the.
intervals of their work. They would:
break out afresh when apparently cool,,
and by no possible means could they be
thoroughly dried. This of course wasted
their flesh to a frightful extent, but on
clipping them it was soon put on again,
showing the great advantage of the plan.
A chronic cough almost always accom-

34

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

panies this state of constant sweat, and it
will be lucky for the owner of a horse so
treated if it does not become acute and
put an end to the miserable existence of
the poor, ill-treated brute. The case is
not always fairly put, as for instance by
Stewart in his Stable Economy, where he
says, " A long coat takes up a deal of
moisture, and is difficult to dry; but
whether wet or dry it affords some de-
fence for the skin, which is laid bare to
every breath of air when deprived of its
natural covering. Every one must know
from himself whether wet clothing and a
wet skin, or no clothing and a wet skin,
is the most disagreeable and dangerous.
It is true that clipping saves the groom a
great deal of labor. He can dry the
horse in half the time, and with less than
half of the exertion which a long coat
requires ; but it makes his attention and
activity more necessary, for the horse is
almost sure to catch cold, if not dried im-
mediately. When well clothed with hair
he is in less danger, and not so much de-
pendent on the care of his groom."
Now, we maintain that this passage is full
of fallacies and misstatements. The
comparison is not between wet clothing
and a wet -skin, and no clothing and a wet
skin ; but, as we have before observed,
between a wet long coat and a dry short
one. The clipping removes the tenden-
cy to sweat, or if its secretion is poured
out it ceases directly the exercise which
produced it is stopped. But taking Mr.
Stewart on his own terms, who has not
•experienced the relief which is afforded
by taking off wet gloves and exposing
the naked hands to the same amount of
■wind and cold ? This is exactly the case
as he puts it, and tells directly against his
argument ; but it is scarcely worth while
to discuss the subject at length, for we
know no horseman of experience in the
present day who does not advocate the
use of the scissors or the lamp, whenever
the winter coat is much longer than that
of the summer. That horses are occa-
sionally to be met with which show but
little or no change in the autumn we
know full well ; but these are the excep-
tions to the rule, being few and far be-
tween. The vast majority would have
their hair from one to two inches long if
left in its natural state, and they would
then be wholly unfit for the uses to whieh

they are put. We may therefore consid-
er that it is admitted to be the best plan
to shorten the coat in the autumn, and all
we have to do is to discuss the best modes
of effecting the purpose, with a view to
decide whether clipping or singeing is to
be preferred.

Horse Clipping is seldom performed by
any but the professed artist, inasmuch as
it requires great practice to make the
shortened coat look even and smooth.
When a horse is well clipped his skin
should look as level and almost as glossy
as if he had on his ordinary summer
coat ; but inferior performers are apt to
leave ridges in various directions, mark-
ing each cut of the scissors. It should
not be done till the new hair has attained
nearly its full length, for it cannot be re-
peated at short intervals like singeing. If
it is attempted too soon the new coat
grows unequally, and the skin in a fort-
night's time looks rough and ragged. A
comb and two or three pairs of variously
curved scissors are all that are required,
with the exception of a singeing lamp,
which must be used at last to remove any
loose hairs which may have escaped the
blades of the scissors. Two men gener-
ally work together, so as to get the ope-
eration over in from sixteen to twenty
hours, which time it will take to clip the
average-sized horse properly. These men
were formerly in great demand at the
clipping season, and it was extraordinary
how little rest sufficed them, but now the
use of the gas singeing-lamp has nearly
superseded that of the scissors, and clip-
pers are not so much sought after. While
the process is going on, the horse ought
to be clothed as far as possible, careful
men removing only so much of the quar-
ter piece as is sufficient to expose the part
they are working at, and no more. As
soon as the whole body is gone over as
well as the legs, the singeing lamp is
lightly passed over the surface, which will
leave the hair burned to such an extent
as to require either washing or a sweat,
which latter is generally adopted, in the
belief that it has a tendency to prevent
cold. Our opinion is, that this is a falla-
cy, and that soap and water used quickly
and rapidly, followed up by a good strap-
ping and the use of plenty of warm
clothing, is far less likely to chill the horse,
than the exhaustion consequent upon a

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

sweat. We have tried the plan repeat-
edly, and known it tried by others still
more frequently, but we have never heard
of any ill effects resulting. Very often a
sweat is exceedingly inconvenient, either
from the difficulty in getting ground, as
happens in towns, or from the infirm
state of the legs. But soap and water
can always be obtained, and if carefully
used there is not the slightest danger at-
tending them. Of course, after the re-
moval of a long coat the skin requires an
extra protection in-doors in the shape of
3. double allowance of clothing, and it
Avill be necessary to avoid standing still
out of doors, though, as we have before
remarked, on the whole the risk of taking
cold by horses Worked hard enough to
sweat them is less if they are clipped
than if they have their long coats on.

Horse Singeing requires less practice
than clipping, but it cannot be done with-
out some little experience of its difficul-
ties, and a novice generally burns the skin
as well as the hair. To keep a horse's
coat in good order it must be singed sev-
eral times during the autumn, beginning
as soon as the new growth has attained a
length of half an inch beyond what is
usual. The singeing lamp is then passed
lightly over the whole body, and soap
and water being used, as we have de-
scribed under the head of clipping, or a
sweat given if that plan is preferred, the
coat is left for a fortnight or two weeks
till it has grown another half inch, when
the process is repeated, and again a third,
and even a fourth time if necessary. On
account of these repeated applications of
the lamp, the professed singer is not so
often employed as the clipper, especially
as the former's work is not so difficult to
perform as that of the latter.

The lamp now in common use is at-
tached to a wide copper comb made like
a rake in principle, and is so arranged
that the teeth raise the hair and draw the
ends into the flame. Where gas is pro-
curable the comb is attached to the gas
pipe by a flexible tube, and the lamp con-
sists merely in a number of holes perfo-
rated along the edge of the comb, so
that a series of jets of gas are lighted,
and burn so strongly, that the coat is com-
pletely removed as near the skin as the
teeth of the comb raise it. If gas can-
not be obtained, a wide wick of cotton is

inserted in a flat holder, and the ends
protruding to the level of the teeth, while
a reservoir filled with naphtha supplies
them with that inflammable fluid, a con-
stant flame is maintained, but not nearly
equal in strength to that from gas. As
the coat is not allowed to grow so long
before it is singed, so the clothing need
not be much increased after its removal,
and, indeed, in well regulated stables,
there is little or no change required.
Singeing is performed in less than one
quarter the time* of clipping, and a shil-
ling's worth of naphtha is enough for one
horse, unless his coat is unusually long.

Horse Shaving was introduced some
years ago to a limited extent, but it re-
quires so long a confinement of the horse
after it was performed that it was soon
abandoned. The hair is lathered and cut
off with the razor as closely as from the
human chin, and unless this is done ex-
actly at the right time, the growth subse-
quently is too short or too long. Instances
have been known in which horses have
remained naked until the next spring, and
were thereby rendered perfectly useless, as
they were chilled directly their clothing
was removed. The only advantage in
shaving over clipping is to be found in
the reduced labor required ; a good razor,
or rather set of razors, soon going over
the surface. But the invention of singe-
ing did away with this superiority, and
the shaving of horses is therefore one of
the fashions of a day which have now dis-
appeared.

Horse Trimming. — The jaws, nostrils,
ears, legs, mane and tail, are all more or
less subjected to the care of the groom,
wrho removes superfluous hairs from each
or all by various means, as follows :

The jaws, nostrils and ears are singed,
the last named not being touched inside,
as the internal hairs are clearly a protec-
tion of the delicate lining membrane of
the ear from the cold and wet. The long
bristles of the nostrils may either be cut
off, pulled out, or singed off, but the first
plan is the easiest and the most humane.
There are, also, some bristles about the
eyes which are generally removed, but it
is very doubtful whether many an eye
would not be saved from a blow in the
dark if they were left untouched. Fash-
ion, however, dictates their removal, and
her orders must generally be complied

36

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

with. The hair which grows an inch or
more in length beneath the jaw, being of
he same nature as the rest of the coat, can
only be singed off with advantage, and it
should be done as fast as it gjows, espe-
cially if the singeing is not universal, or
there will be a different color presented in
these parts. Nothing gives a horse such
a low-bred appearance as a goatlike
beard, and the trimming of this part
alone will completely alter the char-
acter of the animal where the hair
has been at all long. The legs are
trimmed partly by singeing, and part-
ly either by clipping or pulling out the
hairs. Great dexterity is required to
manage this performance in a workrnan-
like manner, so as to avoid the stale and
post-like appearance which is presented
by a leg clipped all over (without a cor-
responding clipping of the body), and at
the same time to remove all, or nearly all,
the superfluous hair. In the summer a
clipped leg is totally inadmissible, and
even from the legs of a badly bred horse
the hair may be pulled by gradually work-
ing at it for a little time every day with
the fingers, armed with powdered resin.
This prevents the hair slipping through
them, and by its aid such a firm hold may
be obtained that, as we said before, per-
severance will enable the groom to clear
the legs entirely, with the exception gen-
erally of a strong lock of hair behind the
pastern. When this is very obstinate it is
allowable to use the scissors to clear away
the hair below the horny growth which is
found there, but there should always be
left a slight fringe round this, so as to
avoid the sharp and stiff outline presented
by the clipped leg. In the winter, the
arms and backs of the knees, as well as
the bosom and the insides of the quarters,
will generally want singeing, whether the
body is submitted to the lamp or not ; but
in the summer, even if any long hairs are
left there, they are easily removed by the
hand armed with resin. Unless general
clipping or singeing is practiced, the front
surfaces of the legs do not require trim-
ming at any season of the year.

The mane is not usually cut, but
formerly it was a very common practice
to " hog " it, that is, to cut it to a sharp-
pointed ridge, sticking straight upwards
from the crest, and giving that part the
appearance of extraordinary height,

Sometimes, however, the mane is very
thick, and then for the sake of appear-
ances, it is necessary to thin it, which is
done by twisting a small lock at a time,
round the comb, and pulling it out ; this,
gives some little pain, but apparently
not much, and evidently not more than
the trimming of the legs, and not so-
much as in pulling out the feelers or
bristles growing out from the nostrils.
A small lock of mane is generally cut
just behind the ears where the head of
the bridle rests, as it would otherwise lie
beneath that part in an untidy manner.

In trimming the tail various methods
are adopted, when it is cut square ; for
if the hairs are allowed to grow to the
full length, no interference is necessary
beyond an occasional clipping of their
points to prevent them from breaking or
splitting. A square tail, however, wheth-
er long or short, demands the careful
use of the scissors or knife, without
which the horse to which it belongs is
sadly disfigured. Two modes are prac-
ticed— in the first, the tail is carefully
combed out, and then allowing it to fall
in its natural position, it is gathered up
in the hand just above the part to be cut
off, and here a sharp knife is drawn
across it backwards and forwards, with-
out notching it, till it passes clean through.
The tail is then released, and any loose
hairs projecting are removed with the
scissors. The second mode is not so
easy, but when well carried out is more
satisfactory to the eye, inasmuch as it is
capable of giving a sharper and more de-
fined edge to the square tail. As in the
first method, the tail is carefully combed
out; it is then held by an assistant's
hand, placed beneath the root of the
dock, as nearly as may be in the position
which it assumes in the animal out of
doors. While thus poised the operator
takes a pair of sharp scissors, and holding
the blades horizontally open, he insinu-
ates one of them through the middle of
the tail at the place to be cut, passing it
straight backwards, and cutting the hair
quite level from the central line to the
outside on his own left. Then reversing
the blades, and keeping to the same
level, he cuts towards the right, and if he
has a good eye. and can use his hands in
accordance with its dictates, he will have
presented a very prettily squared tail.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

37

•On the other hand, if these organs are
•defective, or if he wants experience, he
-will have notched the end of the tail in
•a most unsightly manner. If the groom
wishes to try his hand in this operation,
he should get hold of a long tail, and
begin far below the point where the
squared end is intended finally to be.
This will afford him five or six experi-
mental cuts, and if he cannot satisfy him-
self, as he nears the proper length, that
he will be likely to succeed, he can still
■call in the aid of a more skillful operator
before it is too late. The hair of the tail
grows so slowly, that two or three months
are required to remove the disfigurement
which is sometimes caused in this way,
and consequently it behooves the groom
to be doubly careful, for his own sake as
well as his master's.

To make the mane lie smoothly on its
proper side, which it sometimes obsti-
nately refuses to do, it must be plaited in
.small locks, and the ends loaded with
lead, if it cannot be made to lie down
without. An experienced groom, how-
ever, will generally succeed in so man-
aging the plaits that they lie close to
the neck, which is all that can be effected
by the aid of lead, but sometimes the
hair is so obstinate that nothing else will
•effect the object in view.

HORSE, BANDAGES, Use and Applica-
tion of. — Bandages are applied to the
4egs of the horse for three different pur-
poses. First, to give support to the
blood-vessels and synovial capsules ; sec-
ondly, as a vehicle for applying cold lo-
tions ; and thirdly, for drying and warm-
ing them.

For the mere purpose of support either
linen or flannel bandages may be put on,
according to the weather, and the ten-
dency to inflammation. The legs of
reasoned old horses are seldom so prone
to become hot as those of young ones,
and excepting in very warm weather,
flannel bandages seem to suit them bet-
ter than linen. On the contrary, if flan-
nel is applied to the legs of a colt, even
if they are not inclined to inflame, they
will become hot and uncomfortable, and
he will learn to tear them off, in which
■some horses become perfect adepts.
Whichever kind of bandage is put on, it
^should be previously tightly rolled with
the strings inwards, then taking it in the

right hand, and unwrapping about six
inches, they are laid against the canna
bone on the side nearest to the groom, so
that the folds shall have a tendency to
unroll from him and not to him. While
the left hand keeps the end from slip-
ping, the right passes the roll of bandage
closely round the leg till it meets the left,
when the latter, still pressing the end
against the leg, lays hold of the roll, and
allows the right to be brought back to
meet it on the other side. After which
the coils are repeated till the whole band-
age is run out and the leg encased, one
row being slightly above or below the
level of the next, as may be required.
The great art consists in avoiding un-
equal pressure, and yet giving sufficient
to accomplish the purpose for which ban-
daging is designed. From the projec-
tion backwards of the pastern-joints, it is
impossible to make the folds lie perfectly
smooth, and there must be loose parts,
which however are covered over by the
next turn. No written description, how-
ever, will suffice to teach this little oper-
ation, and the young groom should watch
a good bandager, and imitate him as ex-
actly as he can. The strings at the end
serve to tie the bandage on, and these
also must neither be so tight as to cut the
leg, nor so loose as to allow the bandage
to fall down.

When cold lotions are to be applied by
means of bandages, linen is the proper
material, as flannel is too bad a conduc-
tor of heat, by evaporation, for the pur-
pose. The whole bandage, after being
rolled up moderately tight, should be
dipped in cold water, or in the lotion
which may be recommended, and then
while quite wet, it is to be applied in the
way which we have just described. The
following lotion is useful for the purpose :

Take of Tincture of Arnica a wine-glass-
ful ; Nitre, one-half ounce ; Sal Ammoniac,
one ounce; Water, half a bucketful.
Mix and use by dipping the bandages in
before applying them, and wetting them
with the solution afterwards by means of
a sponge.

If the groom is careful, he may remove
inflammations of the leg better by means
of dipping them in cold water, or the
above lotion may be applied with a
sponge every half-hour, holding each leg
over the bucket, than with the aid of band-

38

HORSE—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

ages. A cold douche by means of a
forcing garden engine is also extremely
beneficial to the legs, Lut it must be used
out of doors, as it will wet the litter and
the walls of the stall if the water is
splashed over them within doors.

For Drying and Warming the Legs
when the horse is being dressed, flannel
is the only proper material for bandages.
Its modes of application is not of much
consequence, provided the bandages are
put on moderately loose, for tight pres-
sure has a tendency to prevent the return
of natural heat, which is so much desired.
After wetting the legs the bandages should
be applied somewhat more tightly, so as
absorb the moisture as much as possible.

HORSE, FEET, Management of the.—
In the stabled horses the feet require con-
stant care, for they are not only artificially
shod, but they are allowed to stand on a
material which is a much worse conduc-
tor of heat than the surface of the earth,
by nature designed to bear them. Hence,
if neglected, they either become hard and
brittle, or they are allowed to be con-
stantly wet, and then the soft covering of
the frog is decomposed, and emits a dis-
agreeably smelling discharge, which soon
wastes it away, leaving no other protec-
tion to the sensible organ beneath, and
constituting what is called an ordinary
thrush. Again, it is found by experience,
that not only must the shoes be renewed
as they wear out, but even if no work is
done, and consequently they are not re-
duced in size, they no longer fit at the
expiration of about three weeks, and they
must be removed, to allow a portion of
the sole and crust being cut away before
they are again put on. The groom must
therefore attend to the following points :
First, to prevent the feet from becoming
too dry ; secondly, to take measures against
their becoming thrushy from wet; thirdly,
to see that the shoes are removed at the
end of every three weeks, or more fre-
quently if necessary; and fourthly, to
examine carefully every day that they are
securely nailed on without any of the
clenches having started up from the sur-
face, so as to endanger the other leg.

Dryness of the Feet is prevented by the
use of what is called stopping, which is
composed either of cow-dung alone, or
cow-dung and clay mixed, or of cow-
dung and pitch. The first is by far the

most powerful application, but it moistens-
the sole too much if employed every
night, and then produces the opposite
evil in the shape of thrush. A mixture
of equal parts of cow-dung and clay may
be used every night with advantage, and
this we believe to be the best of all stop-
pings. It should be kept in a strong box
of wood, about a foot long and eight
inches wide, with a handle across the top,
and it should be applied the last thing at
night to the soles of the fore feet only, by
means of a thin piece of wood, a foot
long and a couple of inches wide, with
which the space within the shoe is com-
pletely stuffed. If the feet are obstinately
dry, in spite of repeated stoppings with
cow-dung alone, which will rarely be the
case, a tablespoonful of salt maybe added
to the cow-dung, and this will never fail.
For most horses stopping with cow-dung
alone once a week is sufficient, but the
groom can judge for himself, by their
appearance, of the number of stoppings
required. If three parts of cow-dung
and one of clay are used, the feet may be
stopped twice a week, or, perhaps, every
other night, and if equal parts of each
are adopted as the composition, almost
any feet will bear being stopped every
other night, with exception of flat or
pumiced soles, which should never be
stopped at all. On the night before shoe-
ing, every horse, even if he has flat soles,
will be the better for having his feet stop-
ped, the application softening the horn so
as to allow the smith to use his knife to
slice it without breaking it into crumbling
fragments. Several patents have been
taken out for felt pads, to be soaked in
water, and then soaked in the hollow of
the shoe, but they do not answer nearly
so well as cow-dung stopping, which has
far more emollient qualities than mere
water. We believe nothing has yet been
discovered which has qualities at all equal
to this old-fashioned natural remedy.

Thrushes are prevented by keeping the
frogs free from ragged layers of elastic
substances of which they are partly com-
posed, and at the same time by maintain-
ing a dry state of the litter on which
the horse stands. We are now consid-
ering the management of the horse at
grass, where thrushes are generally pro-
duced when the weather is very wet, or
when the pasture is of too marshy a.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

39

character, but the frogs of the stabled
horse, which ought never to be allowed to
be so moist as to become decomposed.
Some ulcerated conditions of the frog
which are still considered to come under
the general denomination "thrush," are
due to several internal diseases of the
bones of the foot, and are not caused by
moisture at all. Still these are rare ex-
ceptions, and the ordinary thrush of the
stable may be considered as invariably
caused in the latter way. Cases are also
occasionally to be met with in which,
from general grossness of the system, the
sensible frog throws off part of its horny
covering, and secretes a foul matter in-
stead. The management of these dis-
eased conditions comes within the prov-
ince of the veterinarian, and we shall
therefore not enter upon its considera-
tion ; but the prevention of the mere de-
composition of the external surface by
moisture is a part of the duties of the
groom, and so is the application of the
proper remedies for it, as soon as the
nature of the case is clearly made out.
Here antiseptic astringents, which are
quite out of place in inflammatory thrush,
are the only useful applications, and by
their means alone can decomposition be
stopped. Of these Sir. W. Burnett's so-
lution of chloride of zinc is the best, but
in mild cases, Condy's fluid, which is the
permanganate of potass, will answer well,
and is not so poisonous in its nature if
carelessly left about. Friar's Balsam,
with as much of the sulphate of zinc dis-
solved in it as it will take up, is the old-
fashioned grooms' remedy for the thrush,
and a very good one it is, if carefully in-
sinuated into the cleft of the frog on a
piece of tow wetted with it. The grand
principle, however, is to prevent thrush
rather than "to cure it, but when horses
are bought, or come home from the grass
with it, the curative method must be car-
ried out.

The removal of the shoes at regular in-
tervals, whether they are worn out or not,
is a mcst important part of the duties of
the groom. On examining the shape of
the foot it will be seen that the diameter
of the circle in contact with the shoe is
greater than that of the coronet, and
hence as the shoe is forced away from its
original position, by the growth of the
horn, it confines the walls to the extent of

the difference between the diameter of the
foot at its old position and that of the
part which it now occupies. For if two-
lines from the surface of the coronet on
each side were continued through the out-
side surface of the crust to the new seat
of the shoe, they would be far from par-
allel, and yet the shoe nails must have
been carried on in perfect parallel lines on
account of the unyielding nature of iron.
For this reason a shoe, when it has not
been removed at the end of a month, will
be found to lie within the heel of one side
or the other, by which to some extent con-
traction is prevented, but at the expense
of the heel, into which the corresponding
part of the shoe has entered. This is a
frequent case of corns, and horses which
have once been subject to that disease
should have their shoes removed once a
fortnight.

One of the most annoying accidents to
the horseman is the loss of a shoe, whether
it happens in the hunting field or on the
road. Some horses can scarcely be pre-
vented by any care of their grooms from
pulling off a shoe in hunting when they
get into deep ground, but on the road
there is no such excuse, and the frequent
loss of a shoe by the hack or harness-
horse is sufficient to condemn the groom
of carelessness in this particular. Every
morning when the feet are picked out it is
easy to look the shoes over and see if they
are tight. The clenches also ought to be
examined, and if they are not raised at all
it may safely be predicated that the day's
journey will be completed without the
shoe being lost. A raised clench may se-
verely cut a horse on the inside of the
other leg, and in those who are predis-
posed to "speedy cut" it may cause se-
vere injury, and perhaps occasion a fall of
the most dangerous character.

HORSE, STABLE, Proper Treatment of
the. — There is scarcely any point upon
which there is so much difference of opin-
ion, as in relation to the temperature of
stables. Some contend for an amount of
heat which would raise Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer to 650 or 700, while others-
would never have their stables, if they
could help it, above 45 °. So much de-
pends upon the kind of horse in them,
and the work he has to do, that is to sayr
whether he is much exposed to the cold
or not, that no rule can be laid down

40

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

which is applicable to all stables, but we
believe it may be asserted that none
should be above 6op, or below 500, if it
can be avoided. There are days in the
summer season, when the air out of doors
in the shade stands at 900 or 95 °, and, of
course, in such weather, it is impossible,
even with the doors and windows wide
open, to keep the stable at a lower de-
gree, or even within several points of
those above stated. So also, with a ther-
mometer scarcely above zero, it will be
difficult to keep the air wholesome, and
yet to prevent its temperature falling
lower than 450, which, at such seasons,
feels very warm to those who come in
from the external air. But, with these ex-
ceptions, we think the rule which we have
laid down is a good one. The warmer
.the stable, the better the coat looks, till it
is exposed to the weather, and even if it
ds so, it will take no injury if the horse is
•kept moving, but if not, it soon becomes
•chilled, and not only does the general
health suffer, but the appearance also.
There is, however, another, and very seri-
ous objection to hot stables, consisting in
their ill-effect upon the legs and feet,
which inflame much more readily in a
warm atmosphere than in a cool one. We
.have often known horses stand severe rat-
tling for months together, while standing
.in a stable which was so cold as to make
their coats as rough as badgers, but when
•removed to warmer quarters, they have at
once gone "all to pieces," their legs or
feet becoming inflamed from missing the
refrigerating effect of cool air after their
daily work. The body may easily be kept
warm enough by extra clothing, and, if
necessary, a hood and breastplate may be
worn all day and all night, but not even
wet bandages will cool the legs if they are
surrounded by hot air. On the whole,
therefore, for the private gentleman's sta-
ble, including those for hunters, hacks,
and carriage horses, we should advise a
regular temperature to be preserved as
near 55° of Fahrenheit as possible. In
coming in from the external air this will
appear very warm to the sensations, but it
is far below the high state of heat at which
many of our stables were kept, until
within the last few years. We have often
known 700 to 750 of Fahrenheit insisted
<on as the lowest which would suffice to
get a hunter into condition, but practice

proves the reverse, and that with plenty
of clothing he will do in a cool stable of
the temperature we have recommended,
far better than in one possessing a higher
range. The celebrated "Nimrod" (Mr.
Apperley) was a great advocate for a hot
stable, which he thought ought never to
be reduced much below 700 or 750; but
his opinions, valuable as they undoubtedy
are in the main, cannot be looked upoi?
as in all points to be relied on.
. HORSE. — Crib-biting is a diseased con-
dition of the stomach, for which there has
never yet been a cure discovered, except
on the principle of restraint. It may,
therefore, be considered under the present
head. In crib-biting the teeth are ap-
plied to some fixed object — generally the
manger, so as to afford a fulcrum for
the muscles of the neck to act from,
and by preventing this, or by contriving
so that the contraction of the muscles
of the neck shall give pain, the vicious
habit is got rid of for the time. The
most common method is to buckle a
leather strap so tightly round the neck,
just behind the jaw, that when the horse
attempts to crib, he tightens the muscles
of that part, and these being pressed
against the strap, occasion such pain that
the act is not completely carried out, and
even if it is on the first occasion, the at-
tempt is not repeated. The strap is buck-
led sufficiently tight to do this without
much impeding the act of swallowing, or
the flow of blood from the head, through
the jugular veins to the body; but in con-
firmed cribbers no ordinary pressure will
suffice, and then the head often becomes
affected from the impediment which is
caused to the return of the blood from
the brain to the heart. To remedy this
defect Mr. Cook Saddler, of England,
two or three years ago, invented a neck
strap, containing a number of prongs,
which pass through holes in a spring
guard, and unless this is strongly pressed,
they do not touch the skin. It is applied
by throat straps to an ordinary head col-
lar, and in slight cases it is found to an-
swer most perfectly; but when the vice
has become confirmed, and the desire to
indulge in it is very strong, the pain occa-
sioned by the prongs is endured, and no
effect at all is produced. It is not, there-
fore, of much use, as the common strap
does no injury in those cases where Mr.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

41

Cook's is effectual, and the latter will not
.avai! when the plain strap is forbidden,
on account of the extreme pressure re-
quired. We cannot, therefore, recom-
mend any plan but such as will totally
prevent the prehension of the manger,
and this is accomplished by one of two
ways. In the first of these, the manger
itself is either concealed, or the corn and
hay are placed on the ground, in a space
slightly separated from the rest of the stall
by a row of bricks, or other similar bodies,
which cannot be laid hold of. To the
concealed manger and rack there is the
objection, that while the horse is feeding,
he can go on cribbing without interrup-
tion, and as this is the time chiefly chosen
for the act, success is only partly achieved.
Placing the food on the ground is entirely
successful in stopping the habit, but it
leads to some waste of provender, as the
horse is apt to tread upon it, after which
he will refuse to eat it. By far the best
preventive, in our opinion, is the bar muz-
zle, consisting in an iron frame work,
covering the lips and nose, and suspended
from the head by a leather head collar, so
that the lips can reach the corn or hay,
but the teeth are too wide to pass through
the bars and seize the manger. This me-
chanical contrivance is entirely harmless,
and perfectly effectual, the sole objection
to it being the fact that it proclaims the
wearer to every one who looks into the
stable as a cribber. This may be a valid
reason for rejecting its use for dealers'
horses, but in a gentleman's stable, utility
and humanity ought to have precedence
•of such a feeble argument. When the
bar muzzle is adopted, it should always
be kept on, excepting, of course, when
the bridle replaces it for work or exer-
cise, or while the head is being dressed.

HORSE, Kicking the Wall or Stall
Post is sometimes a very annoying trick,
and though not always done in a vicious
manner, it is objectionable, because the
kicker is liable to lame himself, or one of
his neighbors. In mares it is often of a
sexual nature, and in them it is much
more common than in geldings — the ex-
tent to which it is carried by them being
generally greatest at the beginning and
end of their being "in use." At such
times mares go almost mad, if they have
an irritating neighbor, who keeps smell-
ing them, and we once had one who

kicked herself to pieces in a paroxysm
of this kind, which nothing but tying up
the foreleg could restrain. There are
several remedies in common use, but
none can be relied on in all cases. Fore-
most among these is the use of gorse,
nailed to the stall-post, which will almost
invariably quiet a low-bred animal,
especially if a gelding, but high-bred
mares will sometimes kick at it all the
more, for the punishment they receive.
A padded leather strap, buckled round
the canna bone, with a common sinker
attached to it, or, instead of this, a few
links of heavy chain, will generally keep
the horse from kicking, because in mak-
ing the attempt he gives his coronet and
pastern a heavy blow. If, however,
this plan is unsuccessful, it is liable to
cause lameness, from the inflammation
produced by the blows, and, therefore,
the effect must be carefully watched.
Few horses kick out with both legs, and
a pair of hobbles buckled around the
hind fetlocks will, in a vast majority of
cases, put an end to the trick as long
as they are worn, without any risk, or
producing any serious annoyance, save
only what is inseparably connected with
the prohibition of the indulgence in the
desire to kick. A narrow strap buckled
round the part just above the hock, so as
to confine the hamstring, will have the
desired effect, by giving intense pain
when any attempt to strike out is made,
but it is a most annoying infliction to the
horse, and generally prevents his lying
down, from the necessity* which there is
for bending the hock in reaching the
ground. We should, therefore, give the
preference to the bunch of gorse, or if
that is not readily procurable, to the
sinker of wood or iron suspended to a
strap round the leg.

HORSE, Scratching the Ear with the
hind foot, the horse is very apt to get his
leg over the collar rein, if the sinker is
not heavy enough to keep the rein tight-
ly strained between the head collar and
the ring in the manger. Impatient ani-
mals, also, which are continually pawing
at their litter, will sometimes get one of
their fore feet over it, but this is not so
serious an accident To prevent the
mischief occasioned in either case by the
struggles to get free, especially when the
hind leg is thus caught, the ring for the

42

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

collar reins is sometimes made to draw
down with a spring-catch, which releases
them when pulled in that direction, but
in no other. When, however, the sinker
is properly weighted, it is almost impossi-
ble for such an accident to occur; and
this simple invention has now become ob-
solete.

HORSE, Tearing the Clothes off, is by
means an unusual stable habit, and it is not
one very difficult to cure. There are
two effectual preventives, however: one
of which consists in the regular employ-
ment of a rough horsehair cloth, made
like that for hops, outside the rug and
which is so disagreeable to the teeth,
that no horse will attempt to tear it ; the
other is carried out by means of a pole
of ash, about three-quarters of an inch
in diameter, with an iron eye attached to
each end. One of these is fastened, by
means of a short leathern strap or
buckle, to the side of the roller-pad,
while the other has a strap or chain about
a foot long, which attaches it to the head
collar. The pole should reach about fif-
teen inches beyond the point of the
shoulder, and it should be fixed on the
side which is generally uppermost when
the horse lies down, so as not to be un-
der him in that position, It is a very
simple and cheap apparatus, and any
village blacksmith can make and ap-
ply it.

HORSE, Weaving is a mark of an ir-
ritable nervous system, beyond which it
is harmless, but quite incurable. It con-
sists in a perpetual moving of the head
from one side of the manger to the
other, with an action like that, of a wild
beast in his den. The constant friction
soon wears out the collar reins when
there are two, and on that account a sin-
gle rein may be adopted in this particu-
lar instance with advantage.

HORSE, Eating the Litter is a pecu-
liar appetite, which chiefly occurs either
in those horses which are kept short of
hay on account of their tendency to fat-
ten, or when the animal possessing it has
been stabled for a very long time togeth-
er and requires a change. In the form-
er case, nothing but the muzzle will be of
the slightest service, but in the latter a
run at grass, or soiling indoors for a
month or two, will remedy the disorder
of the stomach. Rock salt in the man-

ger will sometimes have the desired
effect, producing a degree of thirst which
will make dry litter distasteful.

HORSE, Ricking and Biting savagely
are marks of actual vice, and scarcely
come within the limits of the present
section. Still the groom must know how
to guard against them in the best way,
so as to save himself from danger with-
out unnecessarily punishing the horse.
There are some animals which cannot be
effectually restrained without severity,
but on the average, kindness and firm-
ness united will overcome any horse.
Sometimes it is necessary to put on the
muzzle while the dressing is going onr
but this is chiefly because the skin is so
irritable that the brush or whisp excite
sensations which lead to the use of the
teeth or hind legs to prevent their recur-
rence.

HORSE, Bad Habits and Outdoor
Vices.- -Out-door vices depend upon the
temper of the individual, and include
shying, rearing, kicking, lying down,
plunging or bucking, shouldering, and
running away. Bad habits arise from a
defective formation of the body, and are
confined to stumbling and cutting.

HORSE, Shying generally arises from
timidity, but sometimes it is united with
cunning, which induces the animal to-
assume a fear of some object for the sole
purpose of finding an excuse for turning
round. The usual cause for shying is
doubtless the presence of some object to
which the colt has not been accustomed,
and if he has buck eyes, which render
him short-sighted, it will be difficult to
convince him of the innocent nature of
the novel object. There are endless pe-
culiarities in shying horses, some being
dreadfully alarmed by one kind of object,
which to others is not at all formidable.
When a horse finds that he gains his ob-
ject by turning round, he will often repeat
the turning without cause, pretending to
be alarmed, and looking out for excuses
for it. This is not at all uncommon, and
with timid riders leads to a discontinuance
of the ride, by which the horse gains his
end for the time, and repeats the trick on
the first occasion. In genuine shying
from fear, the eyes are generally more or
less defective ; but sometimes this is not
the cause, which is founded upon a gen-
eral irritability of the nervous system.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

43

Thus, there are many horses which never
shy at meeting tilted wagons, or other
similarly alarming objects, but which al-
most drop with fear on a small bird flying
out of a hedge, or any other startling
sound. These last are also worse, be-
cause they give no notice to the rider,
whereas the ordinary shyer almost always
shows by his- ears that he is prepared to
turn round.

The best plan of treatment which can
be adopted is to take as little notice as
possible of the shying, and to be espe-
cially careful not to show any fear of its
recurrence when a wagon appears in the
distance. When the horse begins to show
alarm, and not till then, the rider should
speak encouragingly to him, and, if neces-
sary, with a severe tone, which may even
be supported by the use of the whip
or spurs, if his own onward progress
cannot be otherwise maintained. The
principle which should be carried out is
to adopt such measures as will get the
horse to pass the object at which he shies
somehow or other, and this should be ef-
effected with as little violence as possible,
always commending in an encouraging
tone as soon as the purpose is gained.
Nothing has so great a tendency to keep
up the habit as the plan so common
among ignorant grooms, of chastising the
shyer after he has passed the object of his
alarm. If he can be persuaded to go quiet-
ly up to it and examine it with his muz-
zle as well as with his eyes, great good
will be effected ; but this can seldom be
done with moving wagons, and heaps or
stones are generally only alarming from
defect of vision, so that each time they
assume a new phase to the active im-
agination of the timid animal.

HORSE, REARING, How to Manage.
— In the British Sportsman we find the fol-
lowing hint respecting the management of
a rearing horse, which strikes us as being
worthy, as it is easy, of a trial. Whenev-
er you perceive a horse's inclination to
rear, separate your reins and prepare him.
The instant he is about to rise, slacken
one hand and bend or twist his head with'
the other, keeping your hands low. This
bending compels him to move a hind leg,
and of necessity brings his fore feet down.
Instantly twist him completely round two
or three times, which will confuse him
very much, and completely throw him oft

his guard. The moment you have finished
twisting him around, place his head in the
direction you wish to proceed ; apply the
spurs, and he will not fail to go forward.
If the situation be convenient, press him
into a gallop, and apply the spurs and
whip two or three times severely. The
horse will not perhaps be quite satisfied
with the first defeat, but may feel disposed
to try again for the mastery. Should this
be the case, you have only to twist him,
etc., as before, and you will find that in
the second struggle he will be more easily
subdued than on the former occasion ; in
fact, you will see him quail under the op-
eration. It rarely happens that a rearing
horse, after having been treated in the
way described, will resort to the trick a
third time.

HORSE, Rolling.— This is a very
pleasant and perfectly safe amusement for
a horse at grass, but cannot be indulged
in the stable without the chance of his
being dangerously entangled with the hal-
ter rein and being cast. Yet, although
the horse is cast, and bruised, and half
strangled, he will roll again on the follow-
ing night, and continue to do so as long
as he lives. The only remedy is not a
very pleasant one to the horse, nor al-
ways quite safe ; yet it must be had re-
course to, if the habit of rolling is inveter-
ate. "The horse," says Mr. Castley,
"should be tied with length enough of
halter to lie down, but not to allow of
his head resting on the ground; because,
in order to roll over, a horse is obliged to
place his head quite down upon the
ground."

HORSE, for Kickers, except when the
habit is merely a mode of letting off su-
perflous spirits, severity is the only rem-
edy, and a strong application of the whip
down the shoulder the best means of using
it. At the same time the snaffle-reins ought
to be firmly held, and by their means the
head kept up, for there is always a ten-
dency to lower this part in the act of
kicking; the gag-snaffle is very effectual
for this purpose.

HORSE, Plunging may be described as
a series of bounds into the air, which
when they are made up and down in the
same place, or nearly so, are called "buck-
ing," from their resemblance to the play-
ful antics of the deer. A bucking horse
is very difficult to sit, but by sawing the

44

HORSE—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

mouth with a twisted snaffle it may gener-
ally be stopped at once.

HORSE, Shouldering is an attempt to
crush the leg of the rider against a wall,
which some ill-tempered horses are fond of
doing. It is easily avoided by pulling the
horse's head round to the wall instead of
from it.

HORSE, Running Away is too well
known to need description. In some
horses it is a species of temporary mad-
ness, and scarcely any bit, however severe,
will stop them. When there is room and
scope enough, the remedy is simple, but,
unfortunately, runaway horses generally
'choose a crowded thoroughfare to indulge
their fancies in. A gallop to a stand-still,
with the free use of the spur or whip at
the latter part of it, will sometimes pre-
vent a recurrence of this vicious act ; but
where the tendency is very strong it
will have little effect. Punishing bits only
-make some high-couraged horses worse,
but the majority of runaways would be
dangerous with a plain snaffle only, and
yet there are some which will go quietly
enough in it, while the adoption of a curb
will rouse their tempers at once. Of course
they can only be ridden with great care
and judgment, and must never be roused
unnecessarily. Fortunately the mouths of
horses now are made so much more care-
fully than in former times,and their man-
agement is so much better understood, that
we seldom hear of or see an accident from
this cause, either in the saddle or in har-
ness. The most essential part of the
treatment of a runaway is the proper
selection of a bit, which would be suffi-
cient to control him without exciting op-
position from the pain it gives.

HORSE, Stumbling arises from a variety
of causes, and the nature of any particu-
lar case should be thoroughly investigated
before any remedy is attempted. Some-
times it is merely dependent upon low or
"daisy cutting" action, and then it is
possible that it may not be attended with
danger. We have known many horses
which would stumble at least every half-
mile, but yet they would travel for years
with sound knees, the other leg being al-
ways ready to catch the weight. In other
cases a stumble would only occur at rare
intervals, but if the trip was made it was
rarely recovered, and a fall was almost
sure to follow. Again, it happens with

some horses that when they are fresh out
of the stable their action is high and
safe, but after a few miles the extensors
of the leg tire and they are constantly
making a mistake. Inexperienced judges
are very apt to examine the action of the
fore legs alone, while that of the hind
quarter is of quite as much importance
to safety, and is more so as regards the
ease of the rider. Lameness is a frequent
source of a fall, from the tendency to put
the foot too soon to the ground in order
to take the weight off the other. And
lastly, upright pasterns will produce
stumbling, when the shoulders are so
formed that the foot is put down too near
the centre of gravity.

The best plans for remedying these
several conditions are as follows : If the
cause is weakness of the extensors, no care
can be of much service ; all that can be
done being to be on the look out for a
trip and then to take the weight off the
fore quarter as much as possible by sitting
well back, at the same time using such an
amount of sudden pressure on the bit as
to cause the horse to exert himself, with-
out any attempt to keep up the head by
mechanical force, which is an impossibil-
ity. When laziness is the cause, the stim-
ulus of the spur or the whip will suffice,
and it often happens that a horse is safe
enough at his top pace, while a slower
one is full of danger. In lameness, of
course, the only remedy is to wait till the
foot or feet are sound again.

HORSE, Cutting depends either upon
the legs being set on too near together, or
on their joints not acting in a proper
hinge-like manner. Many horses cut when
in low condition, but are quite free from
the defect when in flesh, and in such cases
it is only necessary to let them wear a boot
until they have had time enough to be-
come fresh. Wherever horses " go close"
care should be taken that the shoes do not
project beyond the hoof, and the clenches
of nails should be carefully watched, the
groom seeing that they are filed down
by the smith if they stand up at all above
the level of the horn. Cutting may take
place either on the prominent part of the
fetlock-joint, or midway between it and
the knee, or just below the latter, which
is called " speedy cutting," and is very apt
to cause a fall. A boot should be fitted to
the leg in either case, and worn till the part

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

45

is thoroughly healed and all swelling has
disappeared, when if any likely method
of treatment has been adopted the horse
may be tried without it, but no journey
should be undertaken without one in the
pocket in case it may be needed. A pe-
culiar method of shoeing, called a feather-
edged shoe, will often prevent this bad
habit as long as it is adopted.

HORSE, Slipping the Halter.— This is
a trick at which many horses are so clever
that scarcely a night passes without their
getting loose. It is a very serious habit,
for it enables the horse sometimes to
gorge himself with food, to the imminent
danger of staggers; or it exposes him, as
he wanders about, to be kicked and in-
jured by other horses, while his restless-
ness will often keep the whole team awake.
If the web of the halter, being first
accurately fitted to his neck, is suffered to
slip only one way, or a strap is attached
to the halter and buckled around the neck,
but not sufficiently tight to be of serious
inconvenience, the power of slipping it
will be taken away.

HORSE, Stubborn.— The brain of the
horse seems to entertain but one thought ;
for this reason continued whipping is out
of the question, and only confirms his
stubborn resolve. But if you can in any
manner change the direction of his mind,
give him a new subject to think of, nine
times out of ten, he will start without
further trouble. As simple a trick as a
little pepper, aloes, or the like, thrown
back on his tongue, will often succeed in
turning his attention to the taste in his
mouth.

HORSE, Vicious, to Tie.— A horse that
has contracted the habit of breaking loose
when tied or in the stable, may be secured
by the foot instead of the head, without
fear or danger of escape.

HORSE, Tricks of Dealers.— Unless
a person is accustomed to horses, it is
one of the most foolish things imaginable
for him to go to a regular horse dealer to
purchase a horse — taking his word for ev-
erything. Of course some will act honor-
ably, and you will find the horse all that
he recommends, while others will deceive
you, and do it in such a manner that un-
til you get your horse home you will not
discover the cheat. We give a number
of tricks which are used by them in buy-
ing as well as selling :

To MAKE A GOOD PULLING HORSE

baulk. — Take tincture of cantharides,
two ounces; and corrosive sublimate, two-
drachms. Mix well and bathe the shoul-
ders of the horse at night.

TO MAKE THE HORSE APPEAR AS LAME.

— Take a hair from the tail and place it
through the eye of a small needle ; press
the skin between the outer and middle
tendon or cord of the front leg; shove the
needle containing the hair through, then
cut oft the hair on each side, and let the
foot down. In twenty minutes' time the
horse will go lame.

TO MAKE A HORSE STAND BY HIS FOOD

and not touch it. — Take common tallow
and grease the horses front teeth and roof
of the mouth, and the horse will eat noth-
ing until you have washed the tallow out.

To cure a horse of the cribs or
sucking wind. — Saw between the upper
teeth to the gums.

To nerve a horse that is lame. —
About half way from the knee to the
joint, on the outsides of the leg, make a
small incision, and at the back part of the
shin bone you will find a small white ten-
don or cord ; cut this tendon or cord off,
and sew up the incision with a stitch, and
the horse will walk off on the hardest
pavement without a limp.

TO MAKE A HORSE APPEAR AS BADLY

foundered.— Around the fetlock, between
the foot and the heel, fasten it around
tight, and then smoothe the hair over the
wires. In thirty minutes the horse will be
lame. Do not leave the wire on over
twenty minutes.

To cover up the heaves. — Give the
horse one-third of a pound of small bird
shot, and he will not heave until they pass
through him.

To make a horse look as if he had
the glanders. — Melt five ounces of but-
ter, and pour it into the animal's ear.

To disguise lameness. — When a horse
is lame in one shoulder, it can be easily
disguised by making a similar lameness in
the corresponding leg, by taking off the
shoe and replacing, first putting a bean
between it and the foot.

To make a star on a horse. — Take a
piece of coarse tow-line, the same to be
just the size of the proposed star; spread
on it some warm pith, and apply it — the
place to be first shaved ; leave it on four
days, when wash the spot with smart-

46

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

water or elixir of vitriol four times a day
until well. When the hair grows, it will be
white.

To MAKE AN OLD HORSE APPEAR YOUNG.

— This you can do by filing down the
teeth, the dark markings of which are
done by hot irons, filling up the cavities
over the eyes by puncturing the skin over
the depressions, and filling with air
/through a tube, after which close the ap-
erture, when the brow will become smooth
— but only for a time, but long enough to
dupe some poor victim. The white hairs
are painted out, and the animal will
present a very youthful appearance, but
again only for a time.

To PUT BLACK SPOTS ON A WHITE HORSE.

—Lime (quick), powdered, half a pound ;
litharge, four ounces. Well beaten, and
mix the litharge with the lime. The
above to be put into a vessel and a sharp
ley is to be poured over it. Boil and
skim off the substance which rises to the
surface. This is the coloring matter,
which must be applied to such parts of
the animal as you wish to have dyed
black. Red hair may be dyed black with
a very similar composition. Thus, boil
four ounces of lime with four ounces of
fresh water ; the scum that rises will have
the same effect. If the hair be entirely
free from grease, one night will be suffi-
cient to stain it black.

HORSE, ORGANS, Classificatisn of the
Various. — The body of the horse, like all
the vertebrate animals, may be considered
as made up of several distinct appara-
tuses or systems. Of these, the first is
a machine composed of the bony skele-
ton, or framework, the various parts of
which are united by joints and moved by
muscles. Secondly, there are contained
within the thorax the organs which supply
the whole body with the means of nutri-
tion in the form of blood, and purify this
fluid. Thirdly, in the abdomen are pre-
sented to view the important organs which
assimilate the food to the condition of the
blood ; while in the adjoining cavity, the
pelvis, are the urinary and generative ap-
paratuses. Fourthly, the nervous system
may be considered as comprising the
grand centre of the mental faculties, and,
also, as presiding over and controlling the
whole of the functions performed by the
several organs ; and fifthly, certain special
organs, as, for example, those of sense,

and, likewise, the foot will complete the
whole circle of systems to be reviewed.
Each of these groups will, therefore, be
described in a separate chapter.

HORSE, BONE, Structure of the.—
The bones are composed of a tissue pe-
culiar to them, enveloped by a membrane,
the periosteum. They contain a semi-fluid
of a fatty nature, the marrow, and are
pierced in various directions by blood-
vessels and nerves.

The proper tissue of the bones is made
up of two distinct substances, either of
which may be removed by artificial
means, leaving the other entire. If, for
instance, a bone is submitted to the heat
of a furnace, it retains its shape and rigid-
ity, but becomes much whiter in color,
and is rendered extremely brittle. In
fact, the mineral salts entering into its
composition are left, but the animal mat-
ter binding them together is completely
decomposed and carried off in a gaseous
form. On the other hand, by immers-
ing a bone for two or three weeks in di-
luted hydrochloric acid, the earthy salts
are dissolved, while the animal matter is
untouched. Here the bone retains its
original shape, but it is soft and flexible ;
and instead of presenting its usual opaque,
yellowish-white color, it is semi-transpa-
rent, and resembles the ordinary gelatine
of the shops. According to Berzilius,
bone is chemically composed of the fol-
lowing constituents — namely, cartilage,
reducible to gelatine by boiling; blood-
vessels ; phosphate of lime ; carbonate of
lime; fluate of lime; phosphate of mag-
nesia; soda, and chloride of sodium.

Considered mechanically, the bones
form the framework of the animal ma-
chine. In the limbs they are hollow cyl-
inders, admirably fitted by their shape
and texture to resist violence and support
weight. In the trunk and head they are
flattened and arched, to protect the con-
tents of the cavities they form, and to
provide an extensive surface for the at-
tachment of. muscles. In certain situa-'
tions their exterior is raised into projec-
tions called processes, which serve as levers
for the muscles to act upon ; in others
they are grooved into smooth surfaces for
the easy gliding of tendons, when these
are stretched between the fleshy part of a
•muscle and one of its attachments. Last-
ly, they sometimes present a large hollow

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

47

for the lodgment of the belly of a mus-
cle, as in the case of the scapula. These
■differently shaped bones may, therefore,
be classed under the following three
heads :

i st. The long bones consist of the hu-
merus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and fib-
ula ; the metacarpal and metatarsal bones
(called, in horsemen's language, the can-
non bones), the phalanges (pastern bones),
and the ribs. These bones are all divisi-
ble into a central cylindrical shaft, and
two heads or extremities. The shaft is
usually of a prismoid form, dense in tex-
ture, and presenting a longitudinal tube in
the interior, called the medullary canal,
which contains marrow. The heads are
broad, to articulate with the next ad-
joining bones, and are covered with a thin
layer of cartilage, which will be described
in the chapter treating of the joints.
Their outer surface is a hard, osseous
layer, within which is a mass ot cells con-
taining red medullary matter, to be pres-
ently described.

2d. The flat bones are composed of
two layers of dense tissue, one on each
surface, having between them another of
a cellular nature, called the diploe. As a
matter of course, from their shape, they
have surfaces, borders and angles ; in ad-
dition to which they have projections,
called processes, of various shapes. They
consist of the chief bones of the head,
the scapula and pelvis.

3d. The irregular bones comprise the
lesser bones of the head and face, the ver-
tebras, sacrum, sternum, carpal and tarsal
bones, the sesamoid bones, the bones of
the foot, and the patellae. They resem-
ble the flat bones of 'their structure.

When microscopically examined, bone
is seen to be made up of a dense and
homogeneous substance (basis substance),
in which are numberless minute cells (cor-
puscles of Purkinje). The basis substance
is partially fibrous and slightly lamellated,
the layers being concentric in long bones
and parallel in flat ; it is traversed in all
directions (more especially in the long
axis, where there is one) by canals (Haver-
sian canals), which frequently branch and
inosculate, giving passage to vessels and
nerves. In certain situations the lamellae
separate, and leave between them spaces
of various sizes, called cancelli. Besides
entering into the composition of the ba-

sis substance, the lamellae are collected
concentrically round the Haversian canals
the boundaries of which they form, gener-
ally to the extent of ten to fifteen layers.
Both the compact and spongy tissues are,
therefore, composed of the same element-
ary structure, the former being especially
intended to afford resistance to violence
with as little weight as is consistent with
its office, for which reason it is hollowed
into a tube ; while the latter is enlarged
as much as possible without unnecessarily
adding to its weight, the problem being
solved by its development in a circular
form.

The Periosteum is a dense, fibrous mem-
brane which covers every part of the
surface of the bones, excepting their ex-
tremities when they enter into the compo-
sition of a joint, its place being then
occupied by cartilage. (See Joints.)
When this membrane covers the bones of
the skull it is called pericranium, and
when it invests the cartilages of the ribs
it receives the name perichondrium. It
is full of blood-vessels, especially in the
young, and they freely communicate with
those of the surrounding soft parts.
Hence it is extremely liable to inflamma-
tion, either caused by injury to itself or
to the parts which cover it.

The marrow, or medullary substance, is
contained in the cavities formed within
the bones, being of a yellow color and
oily nature in the shafts of the long
bones; and more or less red, from the
admixture with blood, in the flat and ir-
regular bones, and in the heads of the
long bones. It is contained within the
areolar meshes of a membrane, which
lines these cavities, answering to the peri-
osteum, which has been already described.
This medullary membrane is of excessive
tenuity, and is composed of blood-vessels
ramifying in fine cellular tissues. The
use of marrow in the animal economy is
not very clearly demonstrated.

In the embryo, all the bones originally
exist in the state of cartilage, being soft
and flexible. By degrees vascular canals
are developed within its substance, by the
union of its cells in rows. These concen-
trate towards some one or more points,
which in a long bone are one in the cen-
tre of the shaft and one at each extremity.
Starting from this point {punetum ossifica-
tionis), fibres run out, embracing clusters

48

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

of cells, and sending branches between
the individuals composing each group.
In this manner the network, character-
istic of bone, is formed, the cells uniting
to form the permanent areolae and Haver-
sian canals. At first the contents of the
cells are transparent, then granular, and
finally opaque, from the pressure of amor-
phous mineral matter. The several ossi-
fied portions are quite distinct for a long
time in the young animal, and may read-
ily be separated by boiling or maceration.
HORSE, Skeleton, The Number of
Bones Composing the. — The skeleton is
composed of two hundred and forty -seven
separate bones, which are united by joints
to form the spine, thorax, pelvis, tail, and
fore and hind extremities. The spine is
finished anteriorly by the head, which is
divided into the cranium and face, and
contains the teeth. Suspended from the
head is the os hyoides, which completes
the number of bones. Thus :
The spine consists of 7 cervical, 18
dorsal, and 6 lumbar vertebras —

Total.... 31

The thorax is made up of the dorsal
vertebrae, with 18 ribs on each side,
and the sternum in the middle —

Total 37

The pelvis comprises 2 ossa innomi-
nata (or ilium, ischium, and pubes),

and 1 sacrum — Total 3

The tail contains on the average 17

bones 17

The fore extremity is made up on
each side of the scapula, humerus,
os brachii, and 8 carpal bones, 3
metacarpal, os suffraginis, os coro-
nae, os pedis, os naviculare, 2 ossa
sesamoidea — Total on both sides . 40
The hind extremity has the femur,
patella, tibia, fibula, 6 tarsal bones,
3 metatarsals, os suffraginis, os cor-
onae, os pedis, os naviculare, 2 ossa

sesamoidea — Total 38

Bones of the cranium 10

Bones of the face and lower jaw 18

Teeth 40

Bones of the internal ear, 4 in each

organ 8

Os hyoides, or bone of the tongue,
made up of five sections 5

Grand total 247

HORSE, Diseases, General, Remarks. —

The diseases of bone are not commonly

attended by any constitutional disturb-
ance, and neither require an examination
of general symptoms, nor the adoption of
any but local treatment, beyond that at-
tention to the health which is always
necessary. They may all be included un-
der the heads of — 1st. Exostosis, or in-
creased growth of bone. 2d. Caries, or
ulceration. 3d. Anchylosis, or unnatural
union of two bones, in consequence of
exostosis, or caries, or both. 4th. Frac-
tures, or disunion by external force. Ma
lignant diseases of the bone also occur
very rarely in the horse, so that it will be
scarcely necessary to occupy any space
with their description, especially as they
are perfectly incurable.

Exostosis is the result of increased ac-
tion in the nutrition of the part, and is
much more prevalent in young horses
than in old. Indeed, after six or seven
years of age it is very rarely met with, and
never attacks the bones at that age for the
first time. It may be recognized by a.
hard swelling of the part, which in recent
cases is painfu! on pressure; but some-
times its site cannot be reached with the
finger, and the disease can then only be
detected by its effects. A blow upon any
of the bones when unprotected by any-
thing but skin will produce inflammation
followed by exostosis ; but the most ordi-
nary cause is the over-stimulus of hard
work. Heavy horses are more prone to
exostosis than light ones, partly from the
weight of their bodies and their high lum-
bering action jarring their limbs in a
greater degree, but also from the more
spongy and open texture of their bones,
which admit of" the pressure of large blood
vessels within them, and are thus more
liable to congestion, and consequent mor-
bid secretion. Exostosis is shown in the
form of splints, ring and sidebone, and
ossified lateral cartilages, as well as in the
growths which occur occasionally in other
parts of the body which have received no
distinguishing name. The vitality of the
new growth in exostosis is less than that
of healthy bone, and as a consequence,
when excessive inflammation is set up in
the part, it will often die and be separated
by absorption.

Caries (ulceration) occurs as a conse-
quence of inflammation, and in the horse
either results from external injury, as in
poll evil and fistulous withers, or from

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

49

mismanagement, as in navicular disease,
which latter affection will be considered
under the diseases of the foot. It is
always attended with pain, and in severe
cases with the formation of sufficient mat-
ter to require an outlet, but in very
restricted ulcerations, such as occur in
navicular disease, the pus passes into the
joint, and is reabsorbed with the synovia.

Anchylosis, when it is the result of caries
in the two adjacent surfaces of a joint,
produces union between them, but in the
horse it is generally of a secondary kind,
the result of bony growths (exostosis),
thrown out from the surfaces of the two
bones near the joint, which coalescing,
unite into one mass, and thus destroy all
motion.

HORSE, Ossification of the Lateral Car-
tilages.— This is commonly known as ossi-
fication of the cartilages, or false ring-
bone, no other cartilages being subject to
ossification, and these being therefore
known par excellence as the cartilages. In
heavy cart horses it often co-exists with
ringbone and sidebone, especially the lat-
ter; but it also attacks well-bred carriage
horses, and high-actioned hacks, which
are comparatively free from those diseases.

The symptoms are more or less enlarge-
ment of the back of the coronet, and
heel, the part feeling unnaturally hard and
irregular or lumpy. If recent, there is
generally increased heat on careful exam-
ination with the hand ; but if old standing
cases, there is nothing of the kind to be
detected. Lameness is not always pres-
ent, but if the horse is rattled over hard
ground, he will be more likely to show the
effects on the next day, by going short
and sore, than if he were free from this
disease.

The treatment should be confined to
recent cases for in old standing ones, un-
less lameness shows itself, it is better to
avoid any interference. A seton, with
rest, has sometimes proved very efficatious,
even in confirmed ossification, and re-
peated dressings with the biniodide of
mercury ointment, will, in those cases
where the inflammation does not run very
high, afford the best chance of causing
the absoption of some of the bone, for a
complete cure is never effected. When
there is much heat in the part, bleeding
from the foot may be adopted, and after-
wards the application of cloths dipped in

cold water, with the addition of a glass of
tincture of arnica to a quart of water. In
confirmed cases, where the parts have be-
come callous, a leather sole to the shoe will
take off the vibration, and should be used
during the summer season. Scarification
of the skin covering the enlargement with
a lancet, encouraging the bleeding by
warm water, and followed by the use of
cold water as soon as the bleeding has
ceased, will sometimes do wonders in recent
cases. The scarification should be re-
peated at intervals of five or six days,
taking care to avoid injury to the coron-
ary substance near the hoofs, which is.
sometimes followed by troublesome sores..

Fig. 22.— Case of Ringbone and Sidebone."
Occurring in a Heavy Dray Horse.

1. Os suffraginis.

2. Os coronse.

3. Os pedis.

4. Complete union by ossinc matter between the

os pedis and os coronae, but still incomplete in
the joint above.

5. Complete union of the three bones.

HORSE, FOOT, Diseases of the.— The*
most practical division of this subject is,
based upon the structures affected, so that
we may have diseases of the bones, of the
joints, of the soft tissues, and of the
hoof. A large portion of these are in-
flammations, or the results of inflamma-
tion.

5°

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

Original inflammation of the bony tis-
tue is comparatively rare, while that of
periostial investment of the bone is quite
frequent. A variety of causes may ac-
count for this. Perhaps the most com-
mon is the evil of overwork. Hard driv-
ing on a hard road, as on a plank road,
on the frozen ground, or on the ice, or the
strain of draught at too heavy a load,
may excite periostial inflammation, and
from this as a commencement we may
have splint, spavin, ring-bone, nodes, etc.

Fig. 23. - -Splint Attaching Internal Small
Metacarpal Bone.

1. Internal small metacarpal bone.

2. External small metacarpal bone.

3. Large metacarpal bone.

4. 4. Bony growth constituting a large splint, and

attaching the small to the large metacarpal
bone.

jt HORSE, Splint (Fig. 20) is a bony
tumor at some point about the cannon
and splint bones. The knee-joint is formed
at its inferior part, between the lower row
of carpal bones and the cannon and splint
bones, the two latter forming a consider-
able portion of the joint. As the leg is

flexed these bones slide upon the cannon-
bone, contributing to the elasticity of the
step. When the motion is violent and long
continued, especially with striking upon a
hard surface, irritation first and inflamma-
tion afterward may be produced in the
periostial membrane covering these bones.
Bony matter is thrown out in the imme-
diate vicinity of their adjacent surfaces,
and the result is a sealing together of the
bones and the formation of a bony tumor.
Unfortunately the condition is frequently
overlooked until the change is complete
and the disease beyond a remedy, for
when the bony union is thoroughly con-
solidated it cannot be remedied. For a
time, while the deposit is fresh callus, and
the circulation active, measures to abate
the inflammation and to excite the ab-
sorption of the deposit may restore the
integrity of the part.

HORSE, Ring-bone.— In the pathology
of the disease splint and ring-bone are
the same. They have the same causes,
and are preceded by the same stages of

Fig. 24— Antero-internal View of Exos-
tosis constituting Spavin.

1. Os scaphoides.

2. Os cuneiforme parvum.

3. Morbid growth of bone, constituting the dis-

ease known as bone spavin.

4. Large metatarsal or cannon bone.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

5*

morbid action ; but, from the relation of
parts, ring-bone, at its forming stage, gives
.rise to earlier and greater lameness. At-
tention is earlier called to the disease, and
treatment is usually sooner applied. Splint
may go on to its final stage of bony con-
solidation without giving rise to much
lameness, and without attracting attention
to the diseased part, which may escape
observation unless the hand is passed
over the small tumor, but in ring-bone
usually the lameness appears with inflam-
mation, and the earliest effusion over the
region calls attention to the seat of the
•disease.

HORSE, Side-bone.— (See Horse,Ring-

BONE.)

HORSE, Spavin (Fig. 22).— When it
■consists in the deposit of bony matter
about the hock joint, and the consequent
cementing together of the tarsal bones, or
the destruction of the tarso-metatarsal
joint, is a similar disease, having essen-
tially the same causes. This form of
disease may exist in every degree, from a
slight exostosis near the joint to such an
amount as will entirely destroy the joint,
and so invade the soft tissues that the
slightest movement is productive of great
suffering.

lreatment. — Cure or alleviation is pos-
sible only in the first stages of the dis-
ease, so that on the occurrence of lame-
ness for which the cause is not obvious,
careful search should be made in the lo-
calities in which splint, ring-bone, or
spavin may occur. Tenderness, and per-
haps swelling, may be detected by care-
ful examination. The first requisite is
rest. Bathing with warm water should
be promptly and perseveringly resorted
to. The foot should be put into a buck-
et of warm water, which should be ap-
plied with a sponge to the locality of in-
flammation. Should there be pain, as
shown by general uneasiness and con-
stant movement of the limb, a poultice
should be applied, moistened freely with
a mixture composed of equal parts of
the tinctures of aconite root, opium, and
belladonna. The application of a mix-
ture of one part chloroform and two
parts sweet oil, may act as a revulsive.
Later, when the pain has subsided, the
tenderness somewhat abated, and only
swelling remains, an ointment of one
part of the iodide of lead with eight

parts of lard will be found useful in re-
moving the swelling and remaining en-
gorgements of the parts. When put
again to use, the animal should be at
first gently exercised and brought gradu-
ally to his work.

The abuse in driving, which gives rise
to periostitis and the deposition of bone
about the joints, may result also in ulcer-
ation of the cartilages and bones entering
into the composition of the joints The
parts most usually affected are the knee,
the hock, and the joints of the navicular
bone, with the "coronet or coffin bone.
The commencement of the disease is an
inflammation of the synovial membrane,
which lines the1 bony surfaces between
which the motion of the joints occurs.
Prolonged lameness follows. Perfect
rest at this time with proper treatment
may remove the condition, but by neg-
lect, and continued use, the disease is
readily carried to its advanced stages.
The inflammation extends to the cartilages
covering the joint surfaces of the bones.
The vitality of this tissue is so low that
it readily breaks down under the inflam-
matory action, and is removed by the ul-
cerative process. From this condition
perfect recovery is impossible. The best
result possible is the formation of a
blind spavin, by the cementing of two
opposite surfaces of bone by an interme-
diate bony deposit. Instead of this, the
ulcerative process may extend to the
bony tissue itself.

HORSE, Laminitis.— Of the affections
of the soft tissues, perhaps the most com-
mon is laminitis. This term applies to
inflammation not only of the laminae but
of the entire fleshy portion of the foot.
It is not always the most readily detect-
ed, and in some of its more common and
milder forms it entirely escapes notice.
The lameness is assigned to the shoulder
or some other locality ; but when we re-
fer to the position of this tissue, between
a dense bone and a dense unyielding
horny envelope, and to its use to suspend
the bone and consequent entire weight
of the animal from the wall, and con-
sider that it suffers some degree of pres-
sure at every step, we can understand
how the slightest morbid condition of the
part, the congestion of its vessels, or irri-
tation of its nerves may — nay, must —
give rise to pain and consequent lame-

52

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

ness. Fortunately, in practice this is
much less frequent than, theoretically,
we might expect it to be. Any horse
that has been driven for several hours
upon a hard, or stony, or hot and sandy
road, would seem to be fairly fitted for
some degree of congestion of the soft tis-
sues of the feet. At the close of such
exertion he is stabled, perhaps upon a
damp floor, or where a draft of air may
blow upon him. No thought is given to
the condition of his feet. He is fed, and
perhaps he may have been moderately
groomed; but of the entire animal no
part has undergone so much exposure or
hardship as the feet, and no part really
needs so much attention.

La?ninitis, or, as it has been called by
writers, fever of the feet, or "founder"
may exist in all degrees, from the simple
congestion of the part to the most severe
and disorganizing inflammation. It is
mainly exhibited in the fore feet, being
an uncommon disease in the hind feet.
This is mainly due to the different kinds
and degrees of force used in the action
of the fore and hind legs and feet. In
movement a much greater amount of
weight comes upon the fore legs and
feet, the direction of the blow upon the
ground is different, and the consequent
strain and pressure upon the soft tissues
much greater.

If acute laminitis is present in one or
both fore feet, it is manifested by the
very obvious efforts of the animal to re-
lieve itself from pressure. If one foot
only is suffering, this is put forward and
is so rested upon the heel that not only
is pressure taken off, but the parts are re-
laxed to a still greater extent by the
weight of the limb. At the same time,
the foot is kept in continual motion,
indicating extreme pain. There is heat
in the hoof, and especially in the coronary
band around its summit. There may also
be tenderness in this tissue on pressure.
If both fore-feet are affected, the animal
endeavors as far as possible, by settling
back over the hind feet, to take cff the
pressure from them. This attempt may
also be shown by the continuous change
from one foot to the other. In severe
forms of the acute disease the entire sys-
tem will sympathize with the local disease.
The arteries supplying the part or parts
will be found throbbing; the general ar-

terial circulation will be quickened; the
pulse will become considerably acceler-
ated, and the constitutional condition will
be one of symptomatic fever.

The disease if unchecked may go on
to the destruction of the soft tissues of
the foot. Cases are on record in which
the entire hoof has been shed by the sep-
aration of the soft from the horny foot.
This is a rare termination, but the forma-
tion of an abscess and partial separation
is not so uncommon. Before this result
occurs, however, the disease has usually
passed into the chronic form. Prompt
resort to appropriate treatment may result
in restoration to health.

By no means advocating indiscriminate
blood-letting, we would in this case re-
commend the free local abstraction of
blood, either from the toe of the afflicted
foot, or from the plantar vein. If the
case is a very severe one, a branch of the
plantar artery of one side may be divided.
The foot should be placed in a large
bucket of warm water, and allowed to
bleed in it. Care should be taken to keep
up the temperature by frequent additions
of* hot water. When the foot is removed,
it may be placed in a large poultice, hav-
ing previously been drenched about the
coronary border with a liniment composed
of two ounces each of the tincture of
aconite root, belladonna, and opium, with
six ounces of soap liniment.

For the constitutional disturbance, the
tincture of aconite root, fifteen to twenty
drops in water, may be administered
every hour or half hour until a decided
impression is made upon the frequency
and hardness of the pulse. Half a
drachm of belladonna with fifteen grains
of digitalis may be given every half hour,
or in emergency the following draught
may/ be given every hour until the proper
impression is made on the system : Tinct.
aconite root and tinct. belladonna fifteen
drops each, and sulph. ether and lauda-
num half an ounce each. Later, saline
medicines, such as the nitrate of potash,
will aid in preventing secondary affec-
tions.

Laminitis may have a variety of termi-
nations. First, it may terminate in a com-
plete disappearance of all the symptoms,
that is, by resolution, and there be a com-
plete recovery. Second, it may pass into
a chronic condition in which all the symp-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

53

toms are of a mitigated character. When
quiet, the pain is slight, and the heat is
little, if any, in excess of the natural
state. If the animal is allowed rest on a
soft floor, or is turned to run in a pad-
dock, the lameness may be scarcely obvi-
ous ; but attempt to drive him, and, either
■while on the road or afterward, he be-
comes very lame again. This condition
may continue almost indefinitely. Third,
the inflammation may terminate in suppu-
ration, which may be confined to a small
region of the foot, and eventuate in a
partial recovery, or it may be general and
:so extensive as to destroy the connection
of the hoof with the soft tissues. Under
the latter circumstances the hoof may be
lost. When the destructive suppuration
falls short of producing complete separa-
tion, it may be sufficient to permit of a
change of relation of the coffin-bone to
the hoof. A portion of the anterior at-
tachments may be destroyed so that the
bone may fall away from the horn. In a
flat and weak foot this may cause a bulg-
ing of the sole, producing what is called
the pumice foot. If the hoof is preserv-
ed, the space produced by the falling of
the coffin-bone is filled by fleshy granula-
tions. The foot, however, suffers perma-
nently, and lameness is constantly pres-
ent.

Such is the structure of the foot that,
even when the damage is less than that
just described, the suppuration continues
and burrows in various direc ions, seek-
ing an outlet. Except when the inflam-
mation and suppuration are confined to a
limited space in the sole of the foot, the
•discharge must escape from the crown.
At some part of the coronal border of the
.hoof, swelling is perceived, which either
•opens of itself or is opened by the knife,
which is preferable. When suppuration
has commenced, the animal should re-
ceive better and more nutritious food,
while stimulating injections to the open-
ing may be useful. Should the sinuses
become chronic, it has been recommended
to trace their number and direction with
.a delicate probe, and then freely lay them
open. To do this, the hoof must be soft-
•ened by soaking in warm alkaline water,
when it may be cut easily.

Limited suppuration of the soft tissues
*of the foot may occur from a variety of
other causes, such as a wound made by

the shoe of one foot in the coronet of the
other, or by the prick of a nail driven into
the quick or so near it as to cause inflam-
mation by pressure, or by a bruise made
by the heel of the coffin-bone, to which
the term corn is applied. In all these
cases suppuration may follow inflamma-
tion, and the severity and extent of the
trouble will depend upon the locality of
the injury, and the distance the product
of suppuration has to travel to reach a
point of exit.

A fourth termination may be designated
— that by metastasis. The inflammation
being situated in the fibrous tissues of the
foot is liable to leave that locality and to
seize upon similar tissues elsewhere, and
under unfavorable circumstances we may
have resulting inflammation of the brain
or pleura, or indeed of any of the fibrous
tissues. A fifth termination may be in
mortification, the result of which would
be almost certainly fatal at an early pe-
riod.

Laminitis may be sub-acute from its
commencement. It is apt to take this
form in old horses that have been sub-
jected for a long time to hard work. Its
approach is gradual, pain at first small,
and lameness slight and not constant.
The foot should be given the same treat-
ment as in the more acute form. The
warm bath should be used freely. Bleed-
ing would probably be injurious, and any
debilitating medicines must be withheld.
The bowels may be loosened by fresh veg-
etable food, such as potatoes or carrots,
and if pain is present one or two draughts
in the day containing an ounce of sul-
phuric ether and a drachm of laudanum
may be given. Plenty of good, nutritious
food should be given. The horse should
not be used on the road until all the
symptoms have been absent for several
days. He may be gently exercised on a
soft sward as soon as the inflammation is
subdued.

A permanent, incurable lameness often
results from the continued use of a horse
suffering from some degree of inflamma-
tion of the soft tissues of the foot. When-
ever this condition is detected, the animal
should be given rest, and subjected to
treatment with a view to the cure of the
disease.
HORSE, Fever of the Feet, (See Horse,

Laminitis.)

54

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

HORSE, ftUITTOR.— We have spoken
of a limited suppuration with sinuses be-
tween the hoof and the coffin-bone as the
result of injury to the coronet, the prick
of a nail, or a bruise, which form an ab-
scess at the crown of the foot. To cer-
tain abscesses in this region, resulting
from an ulceration of the deeper-seated
cartilages, the term quittor has been ap-
plied. The local condition on which this
disease depends differs widely from that
causing a similar discharge in a healthy
foot by direct injury. Quittor is a deep-
seated lesion of the foot, seated in the
cartilages, or perhaps even in the coffin-
bone itself. It may follow the inflamma-
tion of injury, or it may originate in con-
stitutional conditions. Neglected corns,
increasing by continued bruising, may
cause by pressure the ulceration and mor-
tification of the cartilage, or even of the
bone. Fracture of some part of the
coffin-bone may eventuate in this disease.
It rarely gets well without assistance.
When it is diagnosticated, a well-informed
veterinary surgeon should be called. The
treatment is mainly by local injections,
aiding nature to discharge the product of
ulceration and stimulating to healthy gran-
ulations. Of course the animal is utterly
unfit for use.

HORSE, CORNS.— We have spoken
Of corns. These make their appearance
in two forms, the true and the false. The
locality of the true corn is the angle
caused by the inflection of the bars, and
is between the bars and wall. In this
space the posterior extremities of the cof-
fin-bone move freely in the move-
ments of the foot. By the irritation of
frequent, prolonged and severe use a
thickening of the laminae is produced.
This hardness ultimately becomes a semi-
corneous tumor. It may remain in this
condition, or it may become a smooth,
dense horn, more dense than any part of
the hoof. It is a constant source of pain
and consequent lameness.

The more common false corn is a bruise
of the sensitive sole which lies directly
under the heel of the coffin-bone. This
occurs more frequently in feet having a
fiat, level sole, deficient in the arch. It
may occur in any variety of foot which is
kept badly shod. A shoe with a broad
web level upon its foot-surface, and seated
for its whole width upon the wall and

sole, will aid in the production of this-
form of disease. Several varieties of the
false corn are described, but they are
simply different stages of the same dis-
ease. The true corn is essentially in-
curable. For the false, in its early stages,
the general principles of treatment to
abate local inflammation may arrest the
disease. If suppuration can be prevent-
ed, the duration of lameness will be much
limited. Care should be taken that the.
shoe should have its bearing only on the.
solar border of the wall, and a very slight.
portion of the outer border of the sole.
To this end, a shoe should be used with a.
narrow web, but little over half an inch
in width ; or the shoe with a wider web
should be seated so that its bearing-sur-
face would be narrow. Supposing the;
case has been neglected and suppuration
has occurred, the pain and lameness will,
be great until the matter is evacuated.
The sole must be carefully pared away
until the horn is very thin, when an open-
ing must be made through it, and the pus
evacuated. If great pain is inflicted by
the attempt, the foot should be soaked in
a warm alkaline bath, by which the horn
will be softened and the extreme tender-
ness abated. If possible, the foot should
be kept in a poultice for a day or two, or
three, according to the previous severity
of the disease. After that the shoe may
be reapplied, care being taken that the
opening through the horn be so protected,
that no dirt or gravel can enter.

A condition similar to false corn may
exhibit itself in any portion of the ground
surface of the foot as a result of a severe
stone-bruise. If detected early, the warm
foot-bath, with rest, will be sufficient treat-
ment for it.

HORSE, THRUSH.— One of the most
common of the diseases of the foot bears
the popular name of thrush. Of its ex-
act nature and locality perhaps no two
hippopathologists agree. Mayhew, Youatt,
Spooner, and others characterize the dis-
ease by one of its symptoms, and speak
of it as " an offensive discharge from the
cleft of the frog," to which is sometimes
added "with disorganization of the
horn." Both these are symptoms of the
real disease, which is a low form of in-
flammation in the soft tissues of a tender
frog. It exists in feet that have been al-
lowed to stand in damp, ill-cleaned stalls,.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

55

where they are continually covered with
wet manure. Running in a wet yard
predisposes to it. Gamgee describes
thrush as " a diseased condition of the vil-
lous membrane covering the frog," and
says that it is, in its usual form, produced
by filth and neglect.

The true seat of the disease is, we be-
lieve, in the superficial and less fibrous tis-
sues of the sensitive frog. It is doubtful
if true inflammation is present. Pain is
usually present in inflamed tissues,
and thrush is, to a remarkable de-
gree, a painful disease. One of the
properties of the sensitive frog is to se-
crete the tissue that becomes the horny
frog. Now if, by reason of local or con-
stitutional debility, the secretive action of
the part is imperfect ; if the secreted mat-
ter, lacking vitality instead of producing
horrf, breaks down into pus, or pus min-
gled with half-formed and decomposing
horn, we should get just the condition
we have in thrush.

In a healthy frog the cleft is so perfect-
ly covered over by an arch of horn that
fluid could escape only through an artifi-
cial opening; but in this diseased condi-
tion the horn is both in so imperfect a
state from defect in its original secretion,
and so disintegrated by the direct influ-
ence upon it of the diseased secretion,
that the offensive pus escapes freely from
it.

It has been claimed that contracted feet
and too great and long continued paring
of the frog, are the main causes of this
disease. They undoubtedly predispose
to it, as they contribute, by change of the
form of the foot, to effect a change in the
nutrition of the organ. But thrush is
seen, perhaps, in a well-spread, open foot
as frequently as in a contracted one.
Constitutional condition has much to do
with the local manifestation. An ani-
mal poorly nourished and cared for,
other things being equal, will be more
likely to exhibit the disease.

Any treatment that loses sight of the
constitutional condition will tail to do its
best work. First of all, the horse should
be placed in a stall having a dry floor, or
on a short and dry sward, covering a warm,
sandy soil. Then he should have thor-
oughly nutricious diet, and, if the disease
has been of long standing, alterative and
tonic medicines may be given. Red

bark, sulphuret of antimony, and nitre, in
the proportion of two parts of the first to
one part each of the last two ; or a ball,,
consisting of a quarter of a grain of
strychnine, half a drachm of iodide of
iron, half a scruple of extract of bella-
donna, and extract of gentian and pow-
dered quassia sufficient to make it, may
be given night and morning. The foot
should be put into a bath of warm water
and thoroughly cleansed; all dust and
pus should be carefully removed from the
commissures, and the part dried by the
use of dry tow. Then into the crevices
should be poured, once a day, a litttle of
a solution of the chloride of zinc (three
grains to the ounce of water). The foot
is to be kept shod with calkins, so that a
free space may be left under the foot for
the circulation of the air. Cases will
yield more readily to simply constitutional
than to simply local treatment. A judi-
cious combination of the two will have
the happiest results.

HORSE, Canker of the Foot.— The-
condition of thrush neglected may pass
into that of canker. Canker of the
foot may be an original disease in low-
bred, ill-conditioned horses, exposed in
wet or filthy stables or yards, and poorly
cared for. It more frequently, however,.,
follows thrush which has been neglected.
It commences in the same tissues, rapidly
extending from the frog to the sole and
and the laminated structures. The dis-
ease consists in destructive inflammation^
with ulceration, which destroys the con-
nection between the sensitive and hor-
ny sole and frog. After a time a foul
fungus sprouts from the ulcerations, ac-
companied with exceedingly disagreeable
discharge. The horn of the sole and frog
becomes disorganized, and breaks down.
The fungoid granulations, with the con-
stitutional depravity which predisposes to
them, constitute the disease.

The treatment consists in the removal
by the knife, of all the detached horn,,
togetuer with as much of the fungoid tis-
sue as can be removed without the loss
of too much blood, and the application
of astringents and mild caustics, so ap-
plied as to remove the remaining fungus
and to change the action of the part.
Constitutional treatment, tonics* and alter-
atives, with good care and nutritious food,,
will do much in causing a succesful issue.

^

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

HOBSE, Rheumatic. — It is believed
that much of the obscure lameness
to which horses somewhat advanced in
years, and especially those that have had
much severe driving and work, are sub-
jected, is rheumatic. From the nature of
the tissue composing the sensitive foot,
so largely fibrous as it is, we might antici-
pate that from long-continued hard usage
there would arise a degree of irritability
in that tissue that would cause lameness.
This condition must not be confounded
with acute rheumatic fever, to which
horses are sometimes subject, and which is
a different disease. The disease of which
we speak in this connection is an irrita-
bility and painful condition of the fibrous
tissue, without any of the products or re-
. suits of the inflammatory action.

The animal should be housed in a dry
and airy stable, but sheltered from draughts
of air, and should be blanketed. The feet
: should be treated to a warm bath, and
then rubbed dry, and have an application
of Fahnestock's liniment, and be band-
aged. At the same time there may be
given daily in meal an ounce of acetate
of potash, with a scruple of powered col-
chicum ; or a draught of the following :
Iodide of potassium, two ounces ; liquor
potassae, one quart ; of which two table-
spoonsful may be given, night and morn-
ing, in a pint of water or mixed with
feed.

There are several diseased conditions
which manifest themselves in the horny
foot. Of these the most important are
•the flat or convex sole, or the pumice-
foot, and the sand-crack. The false
•quarter is in no very great degree differ-
ent from the sand-crack. All diseases or
malformations of the horn must originate
in injury or in disease of the soft tissues
from which the horn is a secretion.

HORSE, Pumice Foot.— The pumice-
foot, which consists in a falling of the
sole to a level with the solar border of
the wall, or even so as to constitute a
convex surface, is usually preceded and
caused either by a destruction of the
elastic laminae attaching the coffin-bone
to the horn, or to an elongation of the
:same, or else to a softening, spreading,
.and flattening of the entire hoof. Ani-
mals with natural flat feet — those that
have been bred on marshy land, where
.their feet have been kept soft, are most

liable to exhibit this form. Probably
nothing can restore this kind of foot ; but
care in shoeing may enable the animal to
be of some service.

HORSE, Sand-crack. — Sand-crack is a
fissure in the hoof, which begins at the
coronet, - the thin edge first breaking
away. It is a disease of nutrition, the
horn of the foot being secreted in di-
minished quantity and impaired quality.
The break, small at first, is extended un-
til it may divide the entire hoof. It
usually occurs in the quarter, and per-
haps most frequently at the inner quar-
ter. It has been asserted that the whole
difficulty is produced by bad shoeing.
Low condition, impure state of the
blood, and lack of care are predisposing
causes. In this conjuncture slight injury
to the coronet may be followed by such
deficient secretion of horn at that place,
that the weakened part may give way
and sand-crack take place.

If possible the animal should be given
entire freedom from work, and should be
turned into a small paddock, or have a
loose box, in which he may move some-
what. He should have nutritious food
and sufficient green food or bran mash
to keep his bowels free. During the
early stages of the disease, and while
efforts are being made to restore the
soundness of the foot, the horse is better
without shoes, as the natural movements
of the parts tend to restore their vitality.
The bar-shoes, recommended by some
writers, are useful only in those cases of
long standing which are essentially in-
curable, and where the horses are to be
put to slow work. The part should be
interfered with as little as possible ; there
should be no cutting, paring, or burning;
and care should be taken to keep dirt,
gravel, etc., from the open sore. The
healthy condition of the open and granu-
lating surface should be maintained by
frequent washing with soap and water,
and the application of the solution of
chloride of zinc (three grains to the
ounce of water). If the animal is in use,
before being taken out the crack should
be filled with lint saturated with the solu-
tion, which should be confined in place
by a strip or cloth completely covered
with tar. This should be removed as
soon as the horse returns, and the wound
be cleansed, if it is at all foul, and care-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

57

fully dressed again. If treatment is com-
menced early, a fair degree of expecta-
tion of recovery may be entertained ; but,
in many cases, through neglect or lack of
proper treatment, a permanent deficiency,
of the hoof remains. In such cases, by
the use of a bar-shoe, properly adjusted,
ihe animal may be made of some use.

HORSE, FOOT, Contraction of.— Con-
traction of the horn of the foot is a fre-
quent cause of lameness. This may oc-
cur at some part of the coronary border,
or may be in the quarters, or may be
confined to the heels; the last being,
perhaps, its most frequent locality. , Con-
traction at the coronary border produces
lameness mainly by pressure on the ex-
tensor tendon. Movement produces
irritation and consequent pain, which is
shown when the animal is at rest by his
putting the foot forward. This position
relieves the pressure upon the tendon,
and gives partial relief from pain. Con-
traction at the quarters and heels may
not always cause lameness. If the con-
dition comes on very gradually, changes
of the contained parts may so accom-
pany it that little if any lameness will be
caused simply by the contraction. Again,
the contraction may be the consequence
of other disease, and the result of a par-
tial cure and a previous lameness les-
sened. Contraction may result from
chronic founder or fever of the feet. It
may be produced by long-continued sta-
bling upon a dry plank floor. Thrushes
may so demoralize the floor of the foot
as to cause contraction. Too great and
constant paring away the bars of the foot,
may destroy their resistance to the ap-
proach of the heels, so the paring of the
frog may destroy the function of that or-
gan as an elastic spring to keep the heels
open. The degree of lameness that fol-
lows the change of form produced by
these, causes is not so great as when it
results from inflammation of the elastic
portions of the foot. The changes are
more rapid, and pressure is made upon
the sensitive portions of the foot. The
horse indicates the amount of pain he
suffers by the peculiar short and quick
character of his step, and the gentle and
light manner in which he places his feet
upon the ground. When not in motion,
he rests his feet forward, and is continu-
ally changing them. Contraction is apt

to be seen most frequently in highly bred
horses with a naturally high and narrow
foot. This is one of the causes of lame-
ness in which the advice and probably
the treatment of an educated veterinary
surgeon are important. No definite di-
rections for treatment can be given.

There are several other forms of the
disease in the foot, but they are either so
slight or so rare, or so little amenable to
treatment, that we will not cumber this
article with them. In closing, we advise
that in all serious or doubtful cases of
lameness an educated veterinary surgeon
be called. If such a one is not obtaina-
ble, the advice of an educated physician
may aid in determining the locality and
cause of disease. This known, treat the
case according to the suggestions of this
article.

HORSE, Shoulder Lameness. — The
heads of the bones adjacent to most of
the joints of the body are more or less
subject to exostosis, though not so fre-
quently as those of the pastern bones
and tarsus. Next to these probably comes
the shoulder joint, the neighborhood of
which is often the seed of this disease,
but the treatment should be on the same
principle as for spavin, omitting the sub-
cutaneous scarification, which is not here
practicable on account of the nature of
the joint. Blisters, and especially with
the biniodide of mercury, will be the
most likely to succeed, but in most cases
the cure will be only partial.

HORSE, Fistula of the Withers.— When
a saddle has been allowed to press upon
the spinous processes of the dorsal ver-
tebrae, it produces inflammation, which,
if neglected, leads to the formation of an
abscess. But the situation of the part is
such that the matter cannot escape, even
if the skin over the points of the bones is
perforated, and it has a tendency, by the
force of gravity, to burrow down among
the muscles which connect the shoulder-
blade with the trunk. The consequence
is, that there is extensive inflammation,
and often lameness of the shoulder,
which could readily have been prevented
by using proper care before the mischief
was done, or removed by the adoption of
suitable treatment afterwards before the
disease is confirmed.

The symptoms in the early stage (that
is, before a fistula is established) are

5«

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

merely an enlargement of the ends of the
spinous processes, accompanied by heat
and tenderness, but these go on until an
abscess forms, which may be known to
the touch by the fluctuating nature of
the sensation which it gives on pressure
by the fingers of each hand. As soon as
this is made out, an opening should be
made as low down as possible on the
right side, taking care that it will allow all
the matter to run out as fast as it forms.
The reason why the right side should be
chosen is, that most horses lie down on
that side; but if the subject of fistulous
withers is in the habit of lying on the left
side, the opening should be made there
in preference. When an actual fistula
has been established, and the matter
points before or behind the shoulder
blade, a sufficiently large opening should
at once be made, taking care again that
there is no pouch below it which will
permit any accumulation. It is better to
divide even important muscles than to
suffer this to exist. In recent cases the
establishment of this dependent opening
will alone suffice to effect a cure ; but in
those of long standing, the lining of the
fistulous passage or passages has become
converted into a substance almost resem-
bling cartilage, and refuses to . throw out
healthy granulation, so as to lead to ad-
hesion of its walls. Here a stimulus
must be applied to their interior, which
may be either mechanical, in the shape
of a seton tape passed through from end
to end and left there, or chemical, by
means of injections. The latter are best
composed of chloride of zinc (Sir W,
Burnett's disinfecting fluid), diluted with
water. One drachm of this should be
mixed in a pint of water, and carefully
injected into every part of the sinus twice
or thrice a week.

HORSE, Poll Evil.— Poll evil is ex-
actly similar in its nature to fistulous
withers, being produced by a blow on
the prominent ridge, which is situated on
the top of the poll. The blow is gen-
erally produced in the stable, by the
horse suddenly lifting his head and strik-
ing it against a low beam or the lintel of
the door. Or it may be caused by fre-
quently straining against the halter rein,
and thus producing irritation and in-
flammation of the part. As the ligamen-
tu:n colli is attached above, and anterior

to, the inflamed part, when matter forms
it is confined and gives intense pain ; be-
sides which, it is a long time before it
opens a passage by natural means. The
symptoms are a painful swelling on the
poll, of a soft nature, accompanied by
the sense of fluctuation on examination,,
just like that described as accompanying
fistulous withers. The treatment must
be precisely similar to that described in
the last section; but as the matter when
formed lies very close to the spinal cordr.
some caution must be exercised in adopt-
ing stimulating injections, which are apt
to produce severe inflammation, likely to
extend to these important structures.
So also in opening it, the knife should
not be carried deeply into the situation
of the spinal marrow, which here lies ex-
posed, and is easily divided (as in the
operation known by the name of pithing),
but it should be used in a slanting man-
ner, again selecting the right side in pre-
ference to the left. A seton is here the
safest plan for promoting granulation and
adhesion, and as the fistulous track is.
seldom very long, the tape will work its-
way gradually out, by which time the
cure is effected.

HORSE, Caries of the Jaw.— The up-
per jaw, from its exposed situation, and
the lower from the same cause, and also
from the abuse of the bit, are liable to
mechanical injury, which ends in caries,
(ulceration), or sometimes in necrosis,
(mortification), of the part. Caries of
the lower jaw, between the tushes and
grinders, is extremely common, owing to
the barbarous punishment which is in-
flicted by the use of long levers to curb-
bits, together with tight curb chains.
The bony plate forming the roof of the
mouth is also often injured by the pres-
sure of the part when a tight noseband is
employed to keep the mouth shut. Ei-
ther may be known by the existence of a.
sore of a peculiar character; there is a
depression indicating a loss of substance,,
and in this lies a mass of unhealthy gran-
ulation (proud flesh), which is not at-
tached to the surrounding surface, being
only fixed to the bottom of the cavity, or
perhaps partially on one side. A watery
and offensive discharge goes on con-
stantly, but this is lost in the saliva, and
very often the only circumstance that
draws attention to the disease is the con-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

59

stant bleeding from the mouth, on the
slightest contact of the bit. When this
occurs, the mouth being full of pink
froth, it should be carefully examined,
and the state of things here described
will generally be found to exist. The
treatment should consist in the adop-
tion of a bit pressing upon another
part of the mouth, changing the curb for
a snaffle. The wound should be kept
open by the use of caustic (lunar) daily,
which should be pushed deeply into it
for a couple of seconds, and will destroy
the unhealthy granulations. By continu-
ing these measures, taking care not to
do more with the caustic than necessary
to keep down the fungus growth, a cure
can always be effected in the course of
time, without the aid of the trephine or
chisel to cut away the diseased bone.

HORSE, Osteo Sarcoma. — The jaws are
occasionally attacked by a malignant
growth from their cellular struct-
ure of a substance partaking of the
nature both of cartilage and bone.
It increases sometimes to an enor-
mous size, and forms a large, irregular
tumor, which interferes terribly with their
functions, often growing so as to prevent
the closure of the teeth. The symptoms
are entirely local, and when a large, un-
wieldy, and irregularly hard swelling on
either of the jaws is met with, it may
safely be set down as belonging to this
class of disease. No treatment is of any
avail except excision, which can rarely be
carried through without rendering the
horse unserviceable for his ordinary du-
ties.

HORSE, Fractures. — Bones are not
unfrequently broken in the horse ; but as
the accident generally occurs either dur-
ing the violent exertion of the muscles of
the limb, or from great external force, it
follows that in most cases the injury to the
soft parts is so great as to forbid the hope
of a perfect reparation. When, for in-
stance, a canna or pastern bone gives way
during the shock sustained in coming
down on hard ground from a leap, either
at the moment of the fracture or before
the horse can be stopped, the upper end
pierces the skin, and also tears or bruises
the tendons which alone connect it to the
part below. In surgical language, the
fracture is a compound one ; and from
the great tendency to contraction of the

muscles, the difficulty of bringing the dis-
united ends into apposition (or setting
them) is immense. Moreover, the horse
is very unmanageable' when an attempt is
made to confine him, and the means
which are adopted to keep the fracture set
must therefore be very complete as com-
pared with those which will serve for the
restoration of the human being who has
sustained a similar accident. Hence, un-
less the animal is wanted for stud pur-
poses alone, or unless the fracture is a
simple one, with little displacement, it will
seldom be worth the attempt to procure
the union of a broken bone in the horse.
Many cases are on record in which after
a fracture of a canna or pastern bone a.
complete cure has been effected, but they
must be considered as exceptional, and
not as affording us much encouragements
The symptoms of simple fracture are a
greater or less degree of deformity of the
limb, swelling, pain on motion, and a pe-
culiar grating or jarring which is felt
rather than heard, and which has received
the name of " crepitus." The last symp-
tom can only be made out when the
broken ends of the bone can be brought
together ; but when this is impossible, the
alteration of form is in itself sufficient to
lead to a detection of the nature of the
accident. In fractures of the head and
spine there is no crepitus felt, and the
effect upon the brain and spinal cord of
pressure will be often the sole means of
coming to a correct diagnosis. Frac-
tures of the pelvis are very difficult to
make out, unless the ala of the ilium is-
broken off, which is a common accident,,
for here the unnatural flatness of the hip,
showing itself without any great difficulty
of moving the hind leg of that sider
plainly marks that there is no dislocation,
and that the case can only be one of frac-
ture. It is always the result of a blow,
either when the horse is cast in a stall or
in passing through a narrow door-way. or
from a similar cause; and there will there-
fore be some swelling of the soft parts
which will interfere with the examination
at the time, but as nothing can be done
to restore the broken portion to its place,
and as there is no doubt about the diag-
nosis from dislocation, this is of little con-
sequence. Fractures of the ribs cannot
be readily detected; but as they almost
always follow a kick on the part, and as-

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

they do not require any treatment un-
less their broken ends press upon the im-
portant viscera of the thorax or abdomen,
it will be well to wait for the symptoms
which are caused by this mechanical irri-
tation before resorting to bandages, &c.
When a fracture occurs in any of the
bones of the extremities, which are con-
cealed by a large mass of muscle, the
total inability to use the limb, and the
loose way in which it is connected to the
body, so as to allow it to be moved in
any direction, indicate the general nature
of the case without difficulty, though a
careful examination must be made by a
skilful surgeon before the exact particu-
lars relating to it. can be ascertained.

The treatment will depend upon the
bone which is broken, and whether the
fracture is simple or compound. In most
cases of the latter description none will
avail, and the horse had better be de-
stroyed ; but if the owner is averse to
this, it will be on the whole the best sur-
gery, though apparently not very scien-
tific, to encase the parts with adhesive
plasters and tow, and then treat it as a
simple fracture.

If the bones of the skull are fractured,
unless there are symptoms of pressure on
the brain, it is advisable to leave all to
nature, simply keeping the patient quiet
and low, and if in a high state of pleth-
ora, bleeding and physicking.

A broken lower jaw is by no means
uncommon as the result of a kick. The
best treatment is to set the fracture, and
then mould some gutta percha to it,
which may be confined behind by strips
round the forehead and poll, and before
by a padded strap passed through the
mouth between the nippers and tushes,
and beneath the tongue. The horse must
be fed upon mashes and steamed food.

In fractures of . the spine and pelvis
nothing can be done beyond rest and
lowering, if necessary, by bleeding and
physic.

Broken ribs, when they cause inflam-
mation of the lungs or liver by their sharp
ends pressing upon these organs, may be
treated by buckling two or three ordinary
rollers abreast of one another tightly
round the chest, so as to prevent the na-
tural dilatation of the thorax, which takes
place in inspiration, and which keeps up
the irritation by constantly moving the

ends of the ribs. The general means
necessary to adopt to relieve the internal
mischief will depend upon its extent.

When either the scapula, humerus, or
femur is broken, all that can be done is
to sling the horse, and by bandages en-
deavor to bring the limb into as natural
a position as possible, and keep it there.
There must of necessity be great dis-
placement of the ends of the bones, and
these cannot by any means be brought
into apposition ; but the sides in contact
with one another, as they over-ride, will
unite in course of time, and this is all that
can be achieved by the utmost efforts of
the veterinary surgeon.

Fractures of the lower part of the tibia,
of the radius, of the canna bones and the
pasterns, if simple, must be treated by
adjusting the ends (which is the chief
difficulty, and will often require strong
extension to be employed), and then
adapting to the sides of the bones splints
of wood or gutta percha. If, by the aid
of assistants, the parts can be brought
into a good position, these may be care-
fully adjusted to maintain it, and may be
kept in place by tapes or straps fastened
moderately tight around them. It is
useless, however, to attempt a minute de-
scription of the means to be employed,
which can hardly be understood without
a demonstration; Many horses have re-
covered a fair use of the limb by appli-
cation of splints, without slinging, as they
will take care to avoid resting on that
foot in consequence of the pain it gives ;
but under the care of an accomplished
veterinary surgeon, slings will afford the
best chance of recovery.

HORSE, Muscle, Tendon and Ligament,
Diseases of. — Muscle is subject to simple
atrophy, with or without fatty degenera-
tion. The disease shows itself by a wast-
ing away of the part, accompanied by a
flabby feel to the touch. It should be
treated by friction, gentle but regular
work, and steel given internally, one
drachm of the sulphate of iron powdered
being mixed with the corn twice a day.

HORSE — Rheumatic Inflammation 'of a
muscle or muscles is one of the most com-
mon of all the diseases to which the horse
is subject. Most frequently it attacks the
muscles of the shoulder, or of the loins,
sometimes both those parts being involved
at the same time. When acute it receives

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

61

the name of a chill, and is generally
brought on by exposing the horse to a
draught of air after work, or by immers-
ing him in cold water up to his belly,
with a view either to refresh him, or when
the groom is lazy, to save him the trouble
of cleaning. The symptons are lameness
or inability to use the part, the horse,
when forced to do so, giving expressions
of severe pain. If the shoulder is affected,
the foot is not put to the ground, and
when the leg is moved backwards and
forwards by the hand, great pain is evi-
dently experienced. In severe cases there
is fever with accelerated pulse (70 to 80),
accompanied often by profuse sweating,
and heaving at the flanks, the legs remain-
ing warm. After a short time the part
swells, and is excessively tender. The
treatment should be by a copious bleed-
ing, if the horse is of a moderately strong
constitution; indeed, in severe cases it
should be carried on until the pulse is
greatly reduced, and repeated the next
day, if it returns to its original hardness
and fulness. The bowels should be acted
on as soon as it is safe to do so, and if
the dung is very hard, backracking and
clysters should be used, to accelerate the
action of the medicine. The best aperient
is castor oil, of which a pint may be given
with an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre.
When this has acted, if the kidneys are
not doing their duty, a quarter of an
ounce of nitre and a drachm of camphor
may be made into a ball and given twice
a day.

HORSE. — Chronic Rheumatism of the
muscles is similar in its nature to the
acute form, but, as its name implies, it is
more lasting, and of less severity. It
often flies from one part to another, at-
tacking the ligaments and tendons, as well
as the muscular fibres. It is seldom much
under control, and attention should be paid
rather to improve the general health than
to subdue the local affection.

Small Tumors, of about the size of a
pea, often form upon the tendons, espe-
cially the " back sinews " of the fore legs.
They may or may not occasion lameness,
but they are always to be regarded with
suspicion. As long as they remain indo-
lent, they are better left alone; but when
they produce inflammation and pain, the
best remedy is the biniodide of mercury
ointment (see Horse, Splints).

HORSE, Cartilage and Synovial Mem-
brane, Diseases of. — Cartilage is subject
chiefly to ulceration. When this occurs,,
its cells become enlarged and crowded
with corpuscles, which burst and dis-
charge their contents; the intercellular
structure at the same time splits into bands,
which, together with corpuscles, form a
fibro-nucleated membrane on the face of
the cartilage. In old horses, the ulcer-
ated cartilage covering the tibial surface
of the astragalus is sometimes converted
into a soft, fibrous substance, which ulti-
mately assumes the appearance of hard
and dense bone, commonly known as
" porcellaneous or ivory deposit." It is
accompanied by no symptoms of inflam-
mation ; the sole evidence of disease,
during life being a stiffness of the joint,
and a peculiar grating or crackling noise
during all attempts at movement. When
caries of the head of a bone has caused
a loss of substance, the cartilage dies, and
is gradually broken down by decomposi-
tion ; but this cannot be said to be a dis-
ease of the cartilage itself. With the ex-
ception of the navicular disease (which
will be included under the diseases of the
foot), ulceration of the cartilage is not
very common in the horse.

Acute Inflammation of the Synovial
Membrane is seldom met with; but a
chronic state, including an excessive se-
cretion of synovia, is extremely common.
The most usual situation is at the hock,
where the swelling has received the name
of bog-spavin and thoroughpin ; but they
also occur at the fetlock and knee-joints;
in the former case being sometimes con-
founded with windgalls, which are inflam-
ed bursae mucosae. (See Windgalls.)

Bog-Spavin is very apt to attack young
horses, when they are over- worked, before
being fully seasoned ; but it may occur at
all ages. It shows itself at the inner side
of the joint, because here the ligaments
are wider apart, and there is more room
for distension. Its seat is the capsule be-
tween the tibia and astragalus, which is
here unprotected by any strong fibrous
covering, and readily yields to the grad-
ual pressure of the secretion from its in-
ternal surface.

Thoroughpin may be either an increased
secretion of the synovial capsule, between
the astragalus and os calcis, or between
the scaphoid and cuneiform bones, or of

•62

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

the bursa mucosa lying between the tendo
Achillis and the tendo perforatus. In
the first of these cases, it often co-exists
with bog-spavin, and synovia may be
made to fluctuate from one bag to the
other, the only line of demarcation being
the astragalo-calcanean ligament.

Both bog-spavin and thoroughpin may
exist, or either separately, without occa-
sioning lameness; but where they are
just established, there is generally some
small degree of active inflammation, which
causes a slight lameness on first going out
of the stable, but soon disappearing.

The treatment should be by pressure,
kept up for a long time, by means of a
carefully-adjusted truss, alternated with
cold affusion, and the use afterwards of
tincture of arnica, diluted with water, as
a wash. Subcutaneous scarification has
succeeded in some few cases in causing
the secretion to cease ; but it has so often
produced extensive inflammation of the
joint that the operation is by no means
to be recommended. Blistering with bin-
iodide of mercury has also occasionally
answered ; but no plan is so successful,
on the whole, as pressure, alternating
with cold affusion.

Delicate young foals are subject to
rheumatic inflammation of their synovial
membranes, specially displayed in the
knees and hocks, and apparently caused
by exposure to cold. It seldom goes on
to produce disorganization of the cartil-
ages, but the capsular ligaments are dis-
tended with thin yellow synovia, causing
considerable stiffness. The cellular tissue
around the joints also becomes cedema-
tous, and the legs fill all the way down to
the feet. It is comonly known among
breeders as the "joint evil," and though
in itself it is not dangerous, yet it marks
the existence of constitutional weakness
which is likely to occasion some more fa-
tal malady. The treatment should con-
sist in attending to the general health by
strengthening the mare, which is best
done by giving her a drachm of the sul-
phate of iron in her corn twice a day.
The joints of the foal should be rubbed
with equal parts of soap liniment and
spirits of turpentine, and it should be
assisted to stand for the purpose of suck-
ing at regular short intervals if it is una-
ble to help itselt. In aggravated cases,
however, the foal is not likely to recover

its general strength, and it may be 'xitter
to destroy it, but so long as it can stand
and feeds well hopes may be entertained
of the ioints recovering.

HORSE, SHEATHS, Inflamed Tendi-
nous.— Every practical horseman is
aware that the sheaths in which the back
sinews and other tendons are lodged are
liable to inflammation and thickening,
without the tendon itself being involved.
By passing the hand down the leg, an ir-
regular network may be felt surrounding
the tendons, which move up and down
without disturbing it ; and the surround-
ing cellular membrane is also thickened,
and becomes hard and unyielding. There
may be considerable heat about the part,
but often it is quite cool ; and the disease
may continue for months without any
great lameness, and with nothing to draw
attention to it (excepting a slight stiffness
on leaving the stable) but the sensation
communicated to the hand. At length,
an unusually severe day's work sets up
active inflammation, the leg rapidly fills,
and there is so much lameness as to
cause the horse to be thrown by. The
treatment, in the early stage, should be
the use of bandages, constantly kept wet
with arnica and water, and nothing but
walking exercise. After the thickening is
fully established no remedy short of blis-
tering, or a charge, will be of the slight-
est avail, with a rest of two or three
months.

HORSE, MUCOSiE, Inflamed Bursa.
— These synovial bags are liable to in-
flammation, either from hard work, as in
windgalls and thoroughpin, or from blows,
as in capped hock and elbow. The lat-
ter are said by some veterinaries to be sa-
rous abscesses ; but there is no doubt that
in all horses a subcutaneous bursa exists
on the cap of the elbow and hock ; and
these become inflamed and filled with a
very thin synovia, when they are bruised.
They never extend beyond a certain size,
and have no tendency to burst ; nor are
they inclined to a healthy termination of
their own accord, but go in the same con-
dition from year to year.

Windgalls, or puffs, are the most usual
forms of these enlargements, and may be
observed in the legs (hind as well as fore)
of nearly every hard-worked horse, after
a time. Great care in the management
of the legs by bandaging will sometimes

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

63

keep them off, and some horses have nat-
urally no tendency to form them ; but in
most cases, on examining the legs, just
above the fetlock joints, of horses at
•work, a little oval bag may be felt on
each side, between the back sinew and
the bone. If recent, it is soft and puffy;
but if the work is hard, and the windgall
is of long standing, it will be as tense as
a drum. The synovial gag has no com-
munication with the fetlock joint; but
there is another sac in front of the joint,
and beneath the tendons of the exten-
sors, which is often enlarged, though not
so much so as the seat of the true wind-
gall, and which is generally, though not
always, continuous with the synovial cap-
sule of the joint. The treatment consists
in pressure by means of bandages, and
the application of cold lotions, if the legs
are hot and inflamed. Blistering and rest
will remove them entirely ; but no sooner
is the horse put to work again than they
return as badly as ever. There is no rad-
ical cure but subcutaneous puncture and
scarification, and this will produce too
much adhesion to be advantageously ap-
plied.

The form of thoroughpin in which the
bursa mucosa between the tendo Achillis
and the tendo perforatus is inflamed and
filled with synovia, has been alluded to
under the head of Horse Cartilage, and
its treatment is there described. (See
Horse, Thoroughpin.)

Capped hock is also the result of a
bruise of the superficial bursa, which is
situated on the point of the hock, imme-
-diately beneath the skin. It indicates
either that the possessor has kicked in the
stable or harness; but it is more frequent-
ly caused in the former way than in the
latter. The swelling is sometimes slight,
being then just sufficient to show the
point slightly enlarged, and to give a soft,
puffy sensation to the fingers, where there
ought to be nothing but bone felt beneath
the skin. The bursa always rolls freely
on the bone, and when large it can be
laid hold of and shaken like a bladder of
water. The treatment should be directed
to abate any slight inflammation that
may exist, if the case is established ; but
in recent ones it is doubly necessary to
apply cold lotions, which, however, there
is some difficulty in doing, owing to the
prominent nature of the part. A piece

of stout calico or fine canvas may, how-
ever, be shaped into a cap, carefully fit-
ting the point of the hock ; and this be-
ing tied by several pieces of tape in front
of the leg will allow not only of the ap-
plication of cold lotions, but of pressure
also. By this plan, continued for some
weeks, considerable enlargements have
been removed, but they are very apt to
return on the slightest bruise. Setons
through the bursa, and injections into its
cavity of stimulating applications, have
often been tried ; but they generally do
more harm than good, and nothing can
be relied on but the conjoint use of pres-
sure and cold applications. The best
lotion is the following :

Take of Tincture of Arnica - - 3 ozs.
Muriate of Ammonia - - 2 "
Methylated Spirit of Wine - 4 "
Water - ----- 3 pints. Mix

Gapped elbow is precisely similar in its
nature to capped hock, and must be
treated in the same way. It is also
known by the name of capulet.

HORSE, Strains.— The fibres of mus-
cles, ligaments, and tendons, and the
fascia covering them, are liable to be
overstretched, and more or less mechani-
cally injured. This is called a strain,
the symptoms of which are similar to the
inflammation of the part occurring ideo-
pathically. They are heat, swelling, and
pain on pressure or movement, shown by
flinching in the one case, and lameness
in the other. In some cases there is
considerable effusion of blood or serum,
the former occurring chiefly in the mus-
cles, and the latter among the torn fibres
of the tendons or ligaments. The symp-
toms and treatment will depend upon the
part injured, which will be found de-
scribed under the following heads; but
in most cases an embrocation composed
of equal parts of laudanum, olive oil,
spirit of turpentine, and hartshorn will be
beneficial if applied after the first active
inflammation has subsided.

HORSE, Strain of the Back and Loins. —
When a young horse has been hunted
or ridden with hounds over any kind of
fence, he is very apt to over-exert him-
self in his awkward attempt to clear the
obstacle, and next day he will often
show a stiffness of the loins and back,
which is seated in the large muscles con-
necting the pelvis with the thorax. He

64

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

is said to have " ricked his back," in the
language of the stable, and if the mis-
chief is confined to the muscles alone, he
may generally be permanently cured,
though he will be more liable to a return
than an animal which has never suffered
from any accident of the kind. If, how-
ever, the spinal cord is injured, either
from fracture of the vertebrae, or from
effusion of blood or serum pressing upon
it, the case is different, and a perfect
cure is seldom obtained. It is, however,
very difficult to form a correct diagnosis
between the one case and the other, and
the treatment may generally be conduct-
ed with the hope that the more important
organ is uninjured. When there is com-
plete palsy of the hind extremities, so
that the horse can neither feel nor use
them in the slightest degree, the case is
hopeless. (See Diseases of the Ner-
vous System.) For the management of
the strain of the loins, a full bleeding should
be adopted, as it generally happens that
the horse is plethoric and full of corn.
Then apply a double fold of thick flannel
or serge, dipped in warm water, to the
whole surface of the loins, cover this
over with a layer of India rubber sheet-
ing, and let it remain on, taking care to
renew the water if it has become dry. It
generally produces a copious sweating
from the part, followed by a slight irrita-
tion of the skin, both of which afford re-
lief. In three or four days the flannel
may be removed, and the embrocation
alluded to above rubbed in two or three
times a day, which will generally relieve
the muscles so much that at the end of
a week or ten days the horse is able to
move quietly about in a loose box, and
the cure may be left to time, aided by a
charge on the back.

HORSE, Shoulder, Strain of the. —
Shoulder strain was formerly very often
chosen as the seat of lameness in the
fore extremity, solely because the case is
so obscure that it is beyond the knowl-
edge of the unskillful examiner. Nev-
ertheless, it is by no means so uncommon
as is supposed by some writers, and per-
haps it may be asserted that it is now
more frequently passed over when it
really exists, than the reverse. It gen-
erally is seated in the serratus magnus, or
pectoralis transversus muscles, but it
may also occur in the triceps, or, indeed,

in almost any of the muscles around the
shoulder joint. The symptoms are very
peculiar, and cannot well be mistaken by
a careful observer who has once seen a
case of shoulder lameness. In all other
kinds (except the knee), the limb is free-
ly moved while in the air, and no pain is
expressed until the foot is about to touch
the ground; but here the lameness is
greatest while the knee is being protrud-
ed, and the limb is swung forward side-
ways, in a circular manner, which gives
an expression of great imbecility. It
also occasions great pain when the foot is
lifted and drawn forward by the hand,
just as in rhematism of the part (see
Horse, Rheumatism). When the ser-
ratus magnus has been strained by a fall
from a drop leap, or the pectoralis trans-
versus by a slip, causing the legs to be
widely separated, there is often great ob-
scurity in the case; bin; the history of
the accident will generally assist in form-
ing a correct diagnosis. The treatment
in the early stage will consist in bleeding
from the plate vein, to the extent of five
or six quarts of blood, followed by fo-
mentations with hot water, if there is
much heat and swelling, and giving
a dose of physic as soon as the bowels
will bear it. When the heat has disap-
peared, or at once, if there is none, ap-
ply the embrocation described for Horse,
Strain, and if this does not produce re-
lief, add to it one quarter of its bulk of
tincture of cantharides.

HORSE, Knee, Strains of the.— The
knee, unlike its analogue in the human
subject (the wrist), is seldom strained in
the horse, in consequence of the strong
ligaments which bind the bones of the
carpus together. Still it sometimes hap-
pens that the internal lateral ligaments.
are overstretched, or, if in calf-kneed
horses, the posterior common ligaments,
or that connecting the scaphoid with the
pisiform bone, or probably all these will
suffer from over-extension. The accident
may be recognized by the heat and
swelling of the part affected, as well as
by the pain given on using the joint.
The anterior ligaments are seldom
strained, but are liable to injury from
blows received in various ways. The
treatment should be conducted on the
same principles as those of strains in the
shoulder. Cold applications will seldom

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

65

do anything but harm in the early stage;
but after hot fomentations have relieved
the active mischief, by encouraging the
effusion of serum into the surrounding
cellular membrane, the former may be
used with advantage. When the heat
and other signs of active inflammation
have disappeared, the biniodide of mer-
cury ointment may be rubbed in, avoid-
ing the back of the joint. (See Horse,
Splints.)

HORSE, Fetlock, Strain of the.— This
accident shows itself at once, in conse-
quence of the superficial nature of the
joint, by swelling, heat, soreness to the
touch, and lameness. It may be very
slight or very severe, but in the latter
case it is generally complicated by strain
of the back sinews, or suspensory liga-
ment. The treatment will be precisely
on the same plan as for strain of the
knee. When the anterior ligaments of
the fetlock joint are strained and in-
flamed, as so often happens with race
horses, the condition is known as " shin
sere."

HORSE, Coffin Joint, Strain of the.—
Dissection proves that this joint is some-
times the seat of strain ; but it is almost
impossible to ascertain its existence with
certainty during life. The diagnosis is,
however, not of much consequence, as
the treatment will be the same, whether
the coffin joint, or the navicular joint is
the seat of the mischief. In any case, if
severe, bleeding from the toe should be
had recourse to, followed by cold appli-
cations around the coronet, by means of a
strip of flannel or felt, tied loosely round
the pastern, and kept constantly wet.
When the heat has subsided, the coronet
should be blistered.

HORSE, Suspensory Ligaments, Strain
of the. — The suspensory ligament not be-
ing elastic like the back sinews (Avhich,
though not in themselves extensible, are
the prolongations of muscles which have
that property), is very liable to strains,
especially in the hunter, and to a less de-
gree in the race horse. The accident is
readily made out, for there is local swel-
ling and tenderness, and in the well-bred
horse, which is alone likely to meet a
strain of this kind, the leg is rarely suffi-
ciently gummy to prevent the finger from
making out the condition of the ligaments
and tendons. There is no giving way of

the joints as in "break down," but on
the contrary the leg is flexed, and if the
case is a bad one, the toe only is allowed
to touch the ground. In ordinary cases,
however, there is merely slight swelling
of the suspensory ligament in a limited
spot usually near its bifurcation, or some-
times in one division only close above the
sesamoid bone to which it is attached.
The horse can stand readily on that leg,
but on being trotted he limps a good
deal. Sometimes, however, there is a
swelling of the feet without lameness, but
in this case the enlargement is generally
due to an effusion of serum into the cel-
lular covering of the ligament, and not to
an actual strain of its fibres. The treat-
ment will depend greatly upon the extent
of the mischief; if there is no great in-
jury done, and the enlargement is chiefly
from effusion of serum, rest and cold ap-
plications by means of bandages or other-
wise will in the course of two or three
months effect a cure. Generally, however,
the case will last six or eight months be-
fore the ligament recovers its tone, and in
a valuable horse no attempt should be-
made to work him before that time..
Where the swelling is small, as it gener-
ally is, bandages have no power over it,
as the projection of the flexor tendons
keeps the pressure off the injured part.
Here, dropping the leg in a bucket of
water every hour will be of far more ser-
vice than a bandage, and the sudden
shock of the cold water will be doubly
efficacious. After all heat has disappeared
the biniodide of mercury may be used as
a blister two or three times, and then the
horse may either be turned out, or put
into a loose box for three or four months, .
after which walking exercise will complete "
the cure.

HORSE, Back Sinews, Strain of the.—
In this accident the position of the leg is
the same as in strain of the suspensory
ligament, and there is no giving way of
the joints. The flexor tendons are en-
larged, hot, and tender, and there is great
lameness, the horse having the power^
to flex the joints below the knee, but re-
solutely objecting to extend them, by
bearing what little weight is unavoidable
upon his toe. The case is often con-
founded with a "break down," but it
may readily be distinguished by the fact
that in the latter the joints give way on

66

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

putting the weight upon them, whilst in
mere strains 'they do not, and the ten-
dency is to the opposite extreme. Fre-
quently after a bad strain of the flexor
tendons, the fetlock is " over shot," or
beyond the upright, in consequence of
Hhe continued flexion of the joint, to pre-
vent pressure upon the injured fibres, and
m the management this result should be
carefully guarded against. The injury
is generally confined to the sheath of the
tendons, which in most cases gradually
puts on inflammatory condition for some
time before actual lameness is observed.
In bad cases, however, the ligamentous
tfibres which are given off by the poster-
ior carpal ligament to the flexor tendons
.are ruptured, greatly increasing the
.amount of inflammation and subsequent
loss of strength. In any case the ten-
dons feels spongy, and slightly enlarged,
and there is more or less soreness on
pressure and on being trotted, but in the
"latter case exercise removes the tender-
ness, and very often temporarily causes
an absorption of the effused fluid, which
is again deposited during rest. This state

• of things goes on for a time, the groom
doing all in his power to alleviate it by
wet bandages, etc., but at last a severe
race or gallop brings on an extra amount

• of inflammation, with or without actual
. strain of the fibres of the tendon, and

then there can be no doubt about the
propriety of rest and severe treatment.
It often happens that both legs are slight-
ly affected, but one being more tender
vthan the other, the horse attempts to save
at by changing legs, the consequence of
•which is that the comparatively sound
itendons are strained, and he returns to
3iis stable with both legs in a bad state,
but with one of them requiring immediate
attention. The treatment should be by
local bleeding (from the arm, thigh, or
toe), followed at first by warm fomenta-
tions, and in a few days by cold lotions.
A high-heeled shoe (called a patten)
should be put on the foot, so as to allow
fthe horse to rest part of the weight upon
5the heel without distressing the tendon,
;and this will prevent him from over slioot-
dng at the fetlock joint, which he will
■otherwise be very apt to do, from con-
•stantly balancing his leg on his toe. After
:three or four days the hot fomentations
will have done what is wanted, and a cold

lotion may be applied by means of a loose
linen bandage. The best is composed as
follows :

Take of Muriate of Ammonia - - 2 oz.

Vinegar y£ pint.

Methylated Spirit of Wine - y2 pint.

Water 2 quarts.

Mix.

With this the bandage should be kept
constantly wet, the application being
continued for a fortnight at least, dur-
ing which time the patient must be
cool, by lowering his food, and giving
him a dose of physic. At the end of
three weeks or a month from the ac-
cident, the leg must be either blistered
or fired, the choice depending upon the
extent of injury, and the desire to avoid
a blemish, if such a feeling exists. The
former is the more efficacious plan no
doubt, but blistering will frequently suffice
in mild cases. If, however, the tendons
at the end of a month continue greatly
enlarged, a cure can hardly be expected
without the use of the "irons."

HORSE, Breaking Down. — Great con-
fusion exists among trainers as to the ex-
act nature of this accident, which is con-
sidered by the veterinary surgeon to
consist in an actual rupture of the sus-
pensory ligament either above or below
the sesamoid bones, which, in fact, merely
separate this apparatus of suspension into
two portions, just as the patella inter-
venes between the rectus femoris and the
tibia. Whichever part of the suspensory
apparatus is gone (whether the superior
or inferior sesamoidal ligament is imma-
terial), the fetlock and pastern joints lose
their whole inelastic support; and the
flexor tendons, together with their liga-
mentous fibres which they receive from
the carpus, giving way, as they must do,
to allow of the accident taking place, the
toe is turned up, and the fetlock joint
bears upon the ground. This is a com-
plete "break down;" but there are many
cases in which the destruction of the lig-
amentous fibres is not complete, and the
joint, though much lowered, does not ac-
tually touch the ground. These are still
called breaks down, and must be regard-
ed as such, and as quite distinct from
strains of the flexor tendons. The acci-
dent generally occurs in a tired horse,
when the flexor muscles do not continue
to support the ligaments, from which cir-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

67

cumstance it so often happens in the last
few strides of a race. The symptoms are
a partial or entire giving way of the fet-
lock joint downwards, so that the back
of it either touches the ground or nearly
so, when the weight is thrown upon it.
Usually, however, after the horse is pulled
up, he hops on three legs, and refuses
altogether to put that which is broken
down to the ground. In a very few min-
utes the leg " fills " at the seat of the ac-
cident, and becomes hot and very tender
to the touch. There can, therefore, be
no doubt as to the nature of the mischief,
and the confusion to which allusion has
been made is one of names rather than
of facts. Treatment can only be directed
to a partial recovery from this accident,
for a horse broken down in the sense
in which the term is here used can
only be used for stud purposes or at
slow farm work. A patten shoe should
at once be put on after bleeding at the
toe to a copious extent, and then fomen-
tations followed by cold lotions should be
applied, as directed in the last section.
As there must necessarily be a deformity
of the leg, there can be no objection on
that score to firing, and when the severe
inflammation following the accident has
subsided this operation should be thor-
oughly performed, so as to afford relief
not only by the counter-irritation which
is set up, and which lasts only for a time,
but by the rigid and unyielding case
which it leaves behind for a series of
years.

HORSE, Hip Joint, Stifle, and Hock,
Strains of the. — The hip joint, or round
bone, is liable to be strained by the hind
feet slipping and being stretched apart, or
by blows against the side of the stall,
when cast, which are not sufficient to dis-
locate the femur, but strain its ligaments
severely. The consequence is an inflam-
mation of the joint, which is evidenced
by a dropping of one hip in going, the
weight being thrown more upon the
sound side than upon the other. This is
especially remarkable on first starting, the
lameness soon going off in work, but re-
turning after rest. The case, however, is
a rare one, and its description need not,
therefore, occupy much of our space.
When it does happen, it is very apt to
lead to a wasting of the deep muscles of
the haunch, which nothing but compul-

sory work will restore to a healthy condi-
tion. The only treatment necessary in
the early stage of strain of the hip joint
is rest and cooling diet, etc.; but, after
six weeks or two months, a gradual re-
turn to work is indispensable to effect a
cure.

Strains of the stifle, independently of
blows, are rare ; but the latter often are
inflicted upon this joint in hunting, leav-
ing little evidence externally, so that it is
almost always doubtful whether the injury
is the result of a blow or strain. The
symptoms are a swelling and tenderness
of the joint, which can be ascertained by
a careful examination; and on trotting
the horse, there is manifested a difficulty
or stiffness in drawing forward the hind
leg under the belly. The treatment must
be by bleeding and physicking in the
early stage, together with hot fomenta-
tions to the part, continued every hour
until the heat subsides. After a few days,
if the joint is still painful, a large blister
should be applied, or, what is still better,
a seton should be inserted in the skin ad-
jacent.

The hock itself is liable to strain, inde-
pendently of the peculiar accident known
as " curb." When it occurs, there is some
heat of the part, with more or less lame-
ness, and neither spavin, thoroughpin,
nor curb to account for them. The injury
is seldom severe, and may be relieved by
fomentations for a day or two, followed
by cold lotions, as prescribed for Strain

OF THE BACK SINEWS.

HOESE, Curb.— The lower part of the
posterior surface of the os calcis is firmly
united to the cuboid and external meta-
tarsal bone by two strong, ligamentous
bands, called the calcaneo-metatarsal lig-
aments. The centre of these ligaments
is about seven or eight inches below the
point of the hock, and when a soft but
elastic swelling suddenly makes its ap-
pearance there, it may with certainty be
asserted that a "curb" has been thrown
out. The accident occurs somewhat sud-
denly; but the swelling and inflammation
do not always show themselves until after
a night's rest, when the part is generally
enlarged, hot, and tender. The precise
extent of the strain is of little conse-
quence ; for whatever its nature, the treat-
ment should be sufficiently active to re-
duce the ligaments to their healthy con-

68

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

dition. Some horses have naturally the
head of the external small metatarsal
bone unusually large, and the hock so
formed that there is an angle between the
large metatarsal bone and the tarsus,
leaving a prominence, which, however, is
hard and bony, and not soft and elastic,
as is the case with curb. Such hocks are
generally inclined to throw out curbs;
but there are many exceptions, and some
of the most suspicious-looking joints have
been known to stand sound for years.
Curbs are seldom thrown out by very old
horses, and usually occur between the
commencement of breaking-in and the
seventh or eighth year, though they are
not unfrequently met with in the younger
colt, being occasioned by his gambols
over hilly ground. The treatment should
at first be studiously confined to a reduc-
tion of the inflammation ; any attempt to
procure absorption till this is effected
being injurious in the extreme. If there
is much heat in the part, blood may be
taken from the thigh vein, the corn
should be removed, and a dose of physic
given as soon as practicable. The curb
should then be kept wet (by means of a
bandage lightly applied) with the lotion
recommended for Capped Hocks, and this
should be continued until the inflamma-
tion is entirely gone. During this treat-
ment, in bad cases, a patten shoe should be
kept on, so as to keep the hock as straight
as possible, and thus take the strain off the
ligaments which are affected. After the
part has become cool, it may be reduced
in size, by causing absorption to be set
up ; which is best effected by the appli-
cation of mercury and iodine (both of
which possess that power), in such a
large shape as to cause a blister of the
skin. The biniodide of mercury has this
double advantage, and there is no appli-
cation known to surgery, which will act
equally well in effecting the absorption of
a curb. It should be applied in the mode
recommended (see Horse, Splints), and
again rubbed on at an interval of about
a week, for two or three times in succes-
sion, when it will generally be found that
the absorption of the unnatural swelling
is effected ; but the ligaments remain as
weak as before, and nothing but exercise
(not too severe, or it will inflame them
again) will strengthen them sufficiently to
prevent a return. Friction with the hand,

aided by a slightly stimulating oil (sucb
as neats-foot and turpentine mixed, or
neats-foot and oil of origanum, or, in
fact, any stimulating essential oil), will
tend to strengthen the ligaments, by ex-
citing their vessels to throw out addition-
al fibres; and in course of time a curb
may be considered to be sufficiently re-
stored to render it tolerably safe to use
the horse again in the same way which
originally produced it.

HORSE, Dislocation. — By dislocation
is meant the forcible removal of the end
of a bone from the articulating surface
which it naturally occupies. In the-
horse, from the strength of his ligaments,,
the accident is not common ; those that
do occur being chiefly in the hip joint,
and in that between the patella and the.
end of the femur.

Dislocation of the hip joint is known
by the rigidity of the hind leg, which
cannot be moved in any direction, and is
carried by the horse when he is compelled
to attempt to alter his position. There is;
a flatness of the haunch below the hip,
but the crest of the ilium is still there,,
and by this the accident may be diag-
nosed from fracture of that part. No
treatment is of the slightest avail, as the
part cannot be reduced, and the horse is
useless except for stud purposes. The:
accident is not very common.

Dislocation of the patella sometimes;
becomes habitual, occurring repeatedly
in the same horse, apparently from a
spasmodic contraction of the external'
vastus muscle, which draws the patella
outwards, and out of the trochlea formed
for it in the lower head of the femur.
When the cramp goes off, the patella
drops into its place again as soon as the
horse moves, and no treatment is re-
quired. Occasionally, however, the dis-
location is more complete, and nothing
but manual dexterity will replace the-
bone in its proper situation. Great pain;
and uneasiness are expressed, and the op-
erator must encircle the haunch with his;
arms and lay hold of the patella with
both hands, while an assistant drags for-
ward the toe, and thus relaxes the mus-
cles which are inserted in it. By forcibly
driving the patella into its place it may be-
lifted over the ridge which it has passed,,
and a snap announces the reduction.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

69

HORSE, Wounds of Joints.— The knee
is the joint most frequently suffering from
-wound, being liable to be cut by a fall
upon it, if the ground is rough; and if
the accident takes place when the horse
is going at a rapid pace, the skin, liga-
ments and tendons may be worn through
by friction against the plain surface of a
smooth turnpike road. Whether the
joint itself is injured, or only the skin,
the accident is called a " broken knee,"
and for convenience sake it will be well
to consider both under the present head.

When a broken knee consists merely
in an abrasion of the skin, the attention
of the groom is solely directed to the res-
toration of the hair, which will grow
again as well as ever, if the bulbs or roots
are not injured. These are situated in
the internal layer of the true skin, and
therefore, when there is a smooth red sur-
face displayed, without any difference in
the texture of its- parts, confident hope
may be expressed that there will be no
blemish. If the skin is penetrated, either
the glistening surface of the tendons
or ligaments is apparent, or there is a soft
layer of cellular membrane, generally
containing a fatty cell or two in the mid-
dle of the wound of the skin. Even
here, by proper treatment, the injury
may be repaired so fully that the space
uncovered by hair cannot be recognized
by the ordinary observer, and not by any
one without bending the knee and look-
ing very carefully at it. The best treat-
ment is to foment the knee well with
warm water, so as to remove every parti-
cle of grit or dirt ; go on with this every
hour during the first day, and at night
apply a bran poultice to the knee, which
should be left on till the next morning.
Then cleanse the wound, and apply a
little spermacetti ointment, or lard without
salt, and with this keep the wound pliant
until it heals, which if slight it will in a
few days. If the skin is pierced there
will generally be a growth above it of red,
flabby granulations, which should be
carefully kept down to its own level (not
beneath it,) by the daily use of blue stone,
or if necessary of nitrate of silver. As
•soon as the wound is perfectly healed, if
the horse can be spared, the whole front
of the knee and skin should be dressed
with James' blister, which will bring off
the hair of the adjacent parts, and also

encourage the growth of that injured by
the fall. In about three weeks or a
month from its application, the leg will
pass muster, for there will be no differ-
ence in the color of the old and new
hair, as there would have been without
the blister, and the new will also have
come on more quickly and perfectly than
it otherwise would.

When the joint itself is opened the
case is much more serious, and there is
a risk not only of a serious blemish,
which can seldom be avoided, but of a
permanent stiffness of the leg, the mis-
chief sometimes being sufficient to lead
to constitutional fever, and the local in-
flammation going on to the destruction
of the joint by anchylosis. The treat-
ment should be directed to cleanse and
then close the joint, the former object be-
ing carried out by a careful ablution with
warm water, continued until there is no
doubt of all the dirt and grit having
been removed. Then, if there is only a
very small opening in the capsular liga-
ment, it may be closed by a careful and
light touch of a pointed iron heated to a
red heat. Generally, however, it is bet-
ter to apply some dry carded cotton to
the wound, and a bandage over this,
leaving all on for four or five days, when
it may be removed and reapplied. The
horse should be bled largely and physic-
ed, taking care to prevent all chance of
his lying down by racking him up. He
will seldom attempt to do this, on ac-
count of the pain occasioned in bending
the knee, but some animals will disregard
this when tired, and will go down some-
how. When the cotton is reapplied, if
there are granulations above the level of
the skin, they must be kept down as re-
commended in the last paragraph, and
the subsequent treatment by blister may
be exactly the same. By these means a
very extensive wound of the knee may
be often speedily cured, and the blemish
will be comparatively trifling.

The knee is sometimes punctured by a
thorn in hunting, causing great pain and
lameness. If it can be felt externally, it
is well to cut down upon it and remove
it; but groping in the dark with the
knife among important tendons in front
of the knee is not on any account to be
attempted. The knee should be well fo-
mented, five or six times a day, until the

70

HORSE—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

swelling, if there is any, subsides, and, in
process of time, the thorn will either
show its base, or it will gradually free it-
self from its attachments and lie beneath
the skin, from which position it may
be safely extracted with the knife.

HORSE, Thoracic Organs and their
Appendages, Diseases of the. — The im-
portance of soundness in the respiratory
apparatus is so fully recognized, that in
common parlance it is put before the or-
gans of locomotion, a popular expression
being "sound wind and limb." It is
true that good wind is useless without
legs; but the diseases of the latter are
known to be more under control than
those of the chest, and hence it is, per-
haps, that the wind is so carefully scrutin-
ized by all purchasers of horses. There
is, also, much greater difficulty in ascer-
taining the condition of the lungs and
their appendages, and the ordinary ob-
server can only judge of them by an ab-
solute trial; while the state of the legs
may be seen and felt, and that of the feet
can be tolerably well ascertained by a
very short run upon hard ground. So,
also, with the acute diseases of these
parts; while the legs and feet manifest
the slightest inflammation going on in
them by swelling and heat, the air-passa-
ges may be undergoing slow but sure de-
struction, without giving out any sign
that can be detected by any one but the
practiced veterinarian. In most of the
diseases of the chest there is disturbance
of the breathing, even during a state of
rest ; but in some of them, as in roaring,
for instance, no such evidence is afford-
ed, and the disease can only be detected
by an examination during, or immedi-
ately after, a severe gallop.

HORSE, Catarrh, or Cold.— Catarrh
may be considered under two points of
view — either as an inflammation of the
mucous membrane of the nasal cavities,
accompanied by slight general fever; or
as an ephemeral fever of three or four
days' duration, complicated with this con-
dition of the nose. The latter is, perhaps,
the more scientific definition, but for com-
mon purposes it is more convenient to
consider it as mainly consisting in the
most prominent symptom. There is in-
variably some degree of feverishness,
sometimes very considerable rt others so
slight as to be easily passed ovci. Usually

the pulse is accelerated to about forty or
fifty, the appetite is impaired, and there is
often sore throat, with more or less cough.
On examining the interior of the nostrils,
they are more red than natural ; at first
dry and swollen, then bedewed with a
watery discharge, which soon becomes,
yellow, thick, and, in bad cases, purulent,
The eyes are generally involved, their
conjunctival coat being injected with
blood, and often some slight weeping
takes place, but there is always an expres-
sion of sleepiness or dullness, partly owing
to the local condition of the organ, and
partly to the general impairment of the
health. The disease is caused in most
instances by a chill, either in the stable or
out, but sometimes, even in the mildest
form, it appears to be epidemic. The
treatment will greatly depend upon the
severity of the seizure; usually, a bran-
mash containing from six drachms to one
ounce of powdered nitre in it, at night,
for two or three consecutive periods, will
suffice, together with the abstraction of
corn, and, if the bowels are confined, a
mild dose of physic should be given. In
more severe cases, when there is cough
and considerable feverishness, a ball com-
posed of the following ingredients may be
given every night :

Take of Nitrate of Potass - - 2 drachms.

Tartarised Antimony - I drachm.

Powdered Digitalis - }4 drachm.

Camphor ----- 1^ drachm.
Linseed meal and boiling water enough to make
into a ball.

If the throat is sore, an embrocation or
equal parts of oil, turpentine, tincture
of cantharides, and hartshorn, may be
rubbed in night and morning.

Should the disease extend to the bron-
chial tubes, or substance of the lungs, the
treatment for bronchitis or pneumonia
must be adopted.

The stable should be kept cool, taking
care to make up for the difference in tem-
perature by putting on an extra rug;
water should be allowed ad libitum, and
no corn should be given.

Sometimes the discharge becomes
chronic, and it is then known by the
name ozena.

HORSE, Influenza, or Distemper. —
This may be considered to be an epidemic
catarrh, but the symptoms are generally
more severe and leave greater prostration
of strength behind them. They also re-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

1*

quire more careful treatment, which must
be specially adapted to the attack, for
remedies which will arrest the disease in
one year will totally fail the next time that
the epidemic prevails. The fever of late
years has had a tendency to put on the
typhoid type, and bleeding, which for-
merly was often beneficial, is now com-
pletely forbidden. The symptoms are at
first similar to those already described as
pertaining to common catarrh, but after a
few days the accompanying fever is more
severe than usual, and does not abate at
the customary period. The appetite is
altogether lost, and the appearance of the
patient is characteristic of" severe disease
rather than of a trifling cold. It is, how-
ever, chiefly from the fact that a number
of horses are seized with similar symp-
toms, either at the same time or rapidly
following one another, that the disease is
recognized. It usually prevails in the
spring of the year, or in a wet and un-
healthy autumn. Sometimes almost every
case runs on to pneumonia, at others the
bronchial mucous membrane alone is at-
tacked ; but in all there is extreme debility
in proportion to the apparent nature of the
disease. The ordinary appearances ex-
hibited in recent epidemics have been as
follows: The first thing observed is a
general slight shivering, accompanied by
a staring coat. The pulse is weak and
slightly accelerated, but not to any great
extent; the mouth feels hot; the eyes and
the nostrils are red ; the belly is tucked
up; there is no appetite; cough, to a va-
rying extent, begins to show itself; and
there is generally a heaving of the flanks.
The legs and feet are not cold as in pneu-
monia, but beyond this they afford no
positive signs. The cellular membrane
around the eyes, and of the legs, gener-
ally swells about the second day, and
often the head and limbs become quite
shapeless from this cause. In the early
stage the bowels are often relaxed, but
afterwards they are as frequently confined.
Sore throat is very a common complica-
tion, but it is not by any means an invari-
able attendant on influenza. It is, how-
ever, somewhat difficult to ascertain its
existence, as in any case there is no appe-
tite for food. The treatment should be
conducted on the principle of husbanding
the strength, and, unless urgent symp-
toms of inflammation show themselves,

the less that is done the better. If the
trachea or larynx is involved only slightly,
counter-irritation, by means of a liquid blis-
ter, must be tried, without resorting to*
strong internal medicines; but if serious
mischief ensues, the case must, to a cer-
tain extent, be treated as it would be
when coming on without the complica-
tion of influenza, always taking care to
avoid bleeding, and merely acting on the
bowels by gentle aperients, and on the
skin and kidneys by the mildest diaphor-
etic. The following is the ordinary plan
of treatment adopted:

Take of Spirit of Nitric Ether - - I ounce.

Laudanum ... - - 4 drachms.

Nitrate of Potass - - - 3 drachms.

Water 1 pint.

Mix, and give as a drench night and morning.

By constantly offering to the horse-
thin gruel (taking care that is does not
become sour), and no plain water, suffi-
cient nourishment may be given, as his-
thirst will induce him to drink.

During the stage of convalescence the
greatest care must be taken. At first, as
soon as the cough has somewhat subsided,
a mild stomachic ball will be desirable,
such as the following :

Take of Extract of Gentian - - 6 drachms.

Powdered Ginger - - 2 " Mix.

Afterwards, if the case goes on favorably, -
and the appetite returns, the restoration
may be left to nature, giving the horse by
degrees his usual allowance of corn, and
adding to his morning and evening feed
one drachm of sulphate of iron in fine-
powder. It must not be attempted to*
give this until the appetite is pretty keen^,
or the horse will be disgusted, and wilt
probably refuse his corn altogether.

Should typhoid symptoms be clearly
established, the case must be treated ac-
cording to the directions hereafter laid
down for typhus fever.

HORSE, Bronchitis. — Bronchitis is an
inflammation of the mucous membrane
lining the bronchi, and almost invariably
extending to these parts through the tra-
chea, from the larynx and nasal passages,,
which are primarily affected as in ordina-
ry cold. The membrane in the early
stage becomes filled with blood, and as a
consequence the diameter of the tubes-
is diminished, attended by some difficulty
and increased rapidity of breathing. Af-
ter a time a frothy mucus is poured out

72

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

from it, and this still further interferes with
respiration, and necessitates a constant
cough to get rid of it. These symptoms
are always present, but they will vary
greatly in intensity, and in the rapidity
with which they progress, from which cir-
cumstances bronchitis is usually said to
be acute or chronic, as the case may be.
In the acute form there are also several
variations, and veterinary writers are in
the habit of again sub dividing it into
acute and sub-acute, but the two leading
divisions are sufficient for all practical
purposes. It begins with the usual pre-
monitory appearances of a severe cold,
accompanied by a staring coat, and entire
loss of appetite. The breathing is some-
what quicker than natural, and the pulse
is raised to sixty or seventy. The legs
remain of the usual temperature, and
vthere is a hard, dry cough, the lining
•membrane of the nostrils being intensely
<red, and in severe cases dry and swollen.
On auscultation there is a dry rattling
rsound, very different from the crepitation
^of pneumonia, and as soon as mucus is
. secreted, succeeded by gurgling, and soap
.bubble sounds easily distinguished when
-once heard. If the attack goes on favor-
ably, the cough becomes loose, and there
is a free discharge of mucus, both from
the lungs, as evidenced from the nature
.of the cough, and from the nostrils, as
.-shown by the running from them. On
the other hand the prognosis is unfavor-
able when the breathing is very laborious,
with the legs extended, and the cough
■constant and ineffectual in affording re-
lief. Should no relief be afforded, death
takes place a week or ten days alter the
onset of the disease from soffocation.
The treatment should depend greatly up-
on the urgency of the inflammation, which
only an experienced eye can judge of.
If slight, nitre and tartar emetic internal-
ly, and a blister (to one or both sides,
according to the extent of the bronchi
involved), will suffice, but in severe cases
blood must be taken at the onset, or it
will be impossible to control the inflam-
mation. Bleeding should be avoided if
It is judged prudent to do so, for of late
■years the type of diseases has changed so
;much in the horse that he is found to
bear loss of blood badly. Nevertheless,
it is not wise to lay down the rule that it
is never desirable. The bowels must be

acted upon by the ordinary physic ball,
resorting to raking and clysters, if the
time cannot be afforded for the usual lax-
ative preparation. For the special con-
trol of the morbid state of the membrane
the following ball will be found advant-
ageous :
Take of Digitalis ••-••% drachm.

Calomel ----- X drachm.

Tartar Emetic - - - 60 to 80 grains.

Nitre ------ 2 drachms.

Mix with treacle, and give twice a day.

Should the disease continue after the blis-
ter is healed, a large seton may be put
in one or both sides with advantage.

Chronic bronchitis seldom exists ex-
cept as a sequel to the acute form, and after
adopting the balls recommended for that
state, it may be treated by attention to
the general health, a seton in the side,
and the exhibition of an expectorant
ball twice a day, composed of the follow-
ing materials;

Take of Gum Ammoniacum - - %. ounce.

Powdered Squill - - - I drachm.

Castle Soap • - - - - 2 drachms.
Mix and make into a ball.

HORSE, Epizootic Apthse. — This con-
tagious malady of stock belongs to the
class of zymotic diseases, or, in other
words, it is caused, like specific fevers
generally, by the introduction into the
system of a poison germ, which propa-
gates itself, and increases in the blood
and tissues in a manner allied to the
growth of a ferment in a saccharine solu-
tion. During this reproduction of the
virus in such fevers, the system passes
through a series of successive stages of
disease, the nature and duration of which
are determined by the character of the
particular poison taken in, and during
which the poison germs (contagious prin-
ciples) are given off abundantly by one
or other or all of the secreting surfaces.
Hence, like other zymotic diseases, this is
altogether specific in its cause, its nature,
and its mode of propagation. As known
in Western Europe and America, this
disease is invariably due to a virus or con-
tagion thrown off by some animal suffer-
ing from the disease ; it is always mani-
fested by a slight preliminary fever, and a
period of eruption and decline, and these
are respectively of constant and well-de-
fined duration. These different periods
of the disease are characterized by varied
manifestations. The first period is that

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

73

of incubation, during which the poison
germs are in the body of the animal, and
propagating themselves there, but have
not yet affected the constitution so as to
impair the functions, or give rise to the
more manifest symptoms of illness. To-
ward the end of this period, however, the
thermometer shows an increase of tem-
perature, in the interior of the body, of
about two degrees beyond the natural
standard. This period lasts twenty-four
to forty-eight hours, though in rare cases
it may apparently extend to a week.

It is followed by the period of eruption,
which is first manifested by the redness,
heat, and tenderness of the udder and
teats, of the space between the hoofs, and
-of the membrane of the mouth. In the
course of one day more, these parts are
found to be the seat of numerous hemis-
pherical elevations or blisters, caused by
the effusion of a clear, yellowish fluid
from the blood-vessels beneath the cuticle
•or scarfskin. These increase in size for
the next two or three days, burst, and dry

The period of decline is marked by the
•drying and scabbing over of the sores
caused by the rupture of the blisters, and
by the reproduction of the lost cuticular
covering or scarfskin. The elevated tem-
perature, which had declined somewhat
on the appearance of the blisters, now en-
tirely subsides, unless maintained by ex-
posure, or the irritation of the sores by
dirt or other bodies. This period has
passed and the disease is at an end by the
fifteenth day, in favorable cases.

Causes. — The only known cause of
Itself capable of inducing the disease is
contagion, or contact of a sound animal
with the virus discharged trom the sores
of an aphthous patient. Many accessory
causes may be named, such as a wet,
muddy season, which insures the contact
of the virus deposited on the soil with the
skin about the top of the hoofs ; the ac-
cumulation of cattle in large fairs or mar-
kets; the aggregation of large numbers
•of live stock for the supply of armies in
the field; travel of stock by rail or road,
and the like. Yet these are but means of
the diffusion of poison, while no one of
them, nor all taken together, can call the
•disease into existence where the poison is
not already present. Though prevalent
extensively in Europe during or after

almost every great war since 1695, it did
not reach Great Britain till 1839, when it
was brought by some Dutch cattle im-
ported into London. In the same year
it was brought by Dutch cattle to Cork,
Ireland ; and, as free trade in continental
cattle was established four years after, it
has been since steadily maintained by the
constant importations. In 1 84 1 it Avas first
reported in Denmark, a country which
breeds its own stock, and rarely imports
any. In the year 1872 was the first
time it appeared on American soil, and it
has not yet reached the great stock ranges
of Australia. In Great Britain it spreads
widely every year, after the great autumn
markets, in which home and foreign store
cattle mix freely; and yet there are in
that country many breeding districts into
which strange stock are never taken, and
where the disease has not yet penetrated.
It prevails very frequently on cattle deal-
ers' farms in the same country.

Such comprehensive facts as these nar-
row the list of real causes down to the
simple contact of the virus with a healthy
animal. This virus, however, is perhaps
the most contagious known. It is often
carried on the clothes, boots, and hands
of men; on the fibres of hay or straw;
preserved on the walls, floors, mangers,
and other fittings of buildings ; on stable
utensils ; in yards, parks, roads, and rail-
road cars; on drinking troughs; or it
may be carried on the legs or bodies of
dogs, chickens, rats, and other animals
which themselves escape the infliction.
In short, any solid body may retain and
be a bearer of this contagion. Fortu-
nately, it does not spread to any extent
in the atmosphere. Nothing is more com-
mon than to find a herd on one side of a
road struck down by the disease, while
another in a field on the opposite side of
the road remains perfectly healthy. It
may be carried by a strong wind in the
form of the virulent saliva, or the virus
may dry up on light bodies, such as paper,
hay, etc., which are afterward borne off
by the wind. It may be carried by men
or animals, or by water running from the
diseased to the healthy lot ; but, in the ab-
sence of such agencies, the breadth of a
common road is amply sufficient to cir-
cumscribe the disease.

Susceptibility of Different Ani-
mals.— Cloven-footed animals appear to

74

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

be the natural victims of this disease, and
all species are about equally obnoxious to
its attacks; but it may be communicated
to many if not all other warm-blooded
animals by inoculation or by contact of
the virulent discharges with their mucous
membranes.

Its transmission to man has been no-
ticed during almost every great outbreak
since that of 1695. Cases ot the disease
in man have been seen in Albany and at
South Dover, Dutchess County, New
York, during the outbreak in 1872. It
shows itself in man by slight feverishness,
and the formation on the tongue and in-
side the lips and cheeks, and sometimes
on the hands, of small blisters, rarely
amounting to the bulk of a lentil. In
children and young animals, feeding ex-
clusively on milk, diarrhoea and fatal in-
flammation of the stomachs and bowels
occasionally supervene. It is further to
be dreaded that the malady, gaining a
lasting hold on the dairies of our large
cities, may swell the lists of mortality of
the infant population by inducing those
fatal diarrhceas and enteritis reported by
Hubner, Balfour, and Watson.

In chickens it has been frequently no-
ticed. Chickens were attacked in De-
cember, 1870, on the farm of Mr. Eighmie,
La Grange, Duchess County, New York.
Drinking the castaway milk is probably
the common cause. Dogs and cats have
been noticed by Lagar, Younghusband,
and others, to suffer from drinking the
milk. A shepherd dog at Mr. Eighmie's
suffered from the disease, and another,
Mr. Preston's, South Dover, New York,
had only partially recovered when seen
by the writer.

Symptoms. — The victims may be usu-
ally picked out from a herd, twelve to
twenty-four hours before they show dis-
tinct signs of the disease, by the increase
of temperature indicated by a clinical
thermometer introduced into the rectum
and retained there for three minutes.

In cattle the eruption may be concen-
trated on the mouth, (including the muz-
zle and nostrils) on the udder and teats,
or en the space between the hoofs, though
it usually attacks all of these parts simul-
taneously, and in rare cases even extends
to the general integument or to the mu-
cous membrane of the throat, stomach
and bowels, or other internal organs.

The symptoms are slight shivering or
roughness of the coat, neglect of feeding
and rumination, redness, heat, swelling
and tenderness of the pasterns, teats and
mouth, arching of the back, and a,
crouching, hesitating gait, accumulation
of a white froth around the margin of
the lips, and a loud smacking noise made
by the tongue and lips. On the second
or third day the blisters may be seen on
the gums, on the dental pad behind the
upper lip, on the tongue, on the teats,,
and around the upper borders of the
hoofs and between them. In twenty-four
to thirty-six hours more — sometimes at
once — these burst, the cuticle is detached,
and raw pink sores are left, most notice-
able on the mouth and teats. With care
the process of healing goes on rapidly,
and is completed about the fifteenth day.
Complications are rare, unless as the re-
sult of neglect, and consist in inflamma-
tion and loss of the udder; extensive
formation of matter beneath the hoofs,
causing them to be shed; extension of
disease to the sinews, bones and joints of
the foot, with wide-spread destruction of
parts ; eruption on the stomach or bow-
els, with dangerous or fatal inflammation;
or implication of the womb with abor-
tion or long-continued weakening dis-
charges.

In sheep the feet are mainly affected,
and the malady bears a strong resem-
blance to foot-rot, and, under neglect,
may merge into this.

Swine also suffer severely in the feet,
and, as they are too commonly neglected
and left on mud and filth, shedding of the
hoofs is frequent. When the mouth suf-
fers they champ the jaws, and frothy sa-
liva collects around the lips.

The general system of treatment
which has proved successful has been
such as would be indicated in cases of
severe cold or influenza. The stables
should be thoroughly ventilated, and dis-
infectants, such as chloride of lime, car-
bolic acid, or bromo-chloralum, freely
used. The horses are to be kept well
blanketed, their bowels gently open by
the use of bran mashes, and, if necessa-
ry, aperients. The nostrils should be
sponged out several times a day with a
weak solution of carbolic acid, or bromo-
chloralum is also used as a wash for the

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

7S

throat. The following prescription is

used quite commonly:

Nitrate potash ------- iy£ ounces.

Tartarized antimony - - - t . \% "
Digatilis # "

Pulverize together, and make twelve powders ;
give one morning and night. If the case is not
very bad omit the digitalis.

In cases where the soreness has reach-
ed the throat, the following is used :

Unseed oil i}4 ounces.

Turpentine - 1% **

Liquor ammonia fort I "

Mix altogether in a four-ounce bottle and apply
to the throat.

The same veterinary surgeon who rec-
ommends the above prescriptions re-
marks :

So long as the disease is confined to
the larynx there is very little danger, but
should it descend to the lungs — which
will be indicated by the continued stand-
ing up of the animal, cold extremities and
labored breathing — a half-pound of mus-
tard should be mixed with two ounces of
turpentine and water to the consistency
of thick cream, and the mixture rubbed
well in behind the fore-legs or over the
region of the lungs. The legs should be
bandaged, if cold. If the pulse should
be over fifty-five per minute, fifteen drops
of Fleming's tincture of aconite should
be given every two hours, and if the
breathing still continues labored and the
pulse grows more rapid, apply the mus-
tard again, and give one and a half
drachms of calomel for two mornings.

The homoepathic treatment which has
been employed with the greatest success
by those who prefer that system, is aco-
nite and stibium in the first stage of the
disease, and arsenicum and nux vomica
in the more advanced stages.

HORSE, Cough, Common. — Common
cough is generally subdued without much
difficulty, though it often becomes of
most serious consequence if neglected.
It is accompanied by a heightened pulse,
a slight discharge from the nose and eyes,
a rough coat and a diminished appetite
being its symptoms. The horse should
be kept warm, fed on mashes, and should
have a dose or two of medicine. If the
cough be very obstinate bleeding may be
necessary.

The following further directions by the
same author contain valuable information
for all owners of horses :

In giving medicine, if balls are used,
they should never weigh above an ounce
and a half, or be above an inch in diame-
ter, and three in length. The horse
should be lashed in the stall, the tongue
should be drawn gently out with the left
hand on the off side of the mouth, and
fixed there, not by continuing to pull at it,,
but by pressing the fingers against the side
of the lower jaw. The ball is then taken
between the tips of the fingers of the
right hand, the arm being bared and
passed rapidly up the mouth, as near the
palate as possible, until it reaches the root
of the tongue, when it is delivered with a.
slight jerk, the hand is withdrawn, and
the tongue being released, the ball is.
forced down into the oesophagus. Its pass-
age should be watched down the left
side of throat, and if it do not pass immedi-
ately, a slight tap under the chin will easily
cause the horse to swallow it. The only
safe purgative for a horse is Barbadoes
aloes, or the flour of the Croton bean, for
some peculiar purposes, but its drastic na-
ture renders it undesirable as a general
aperient. When aloes are used, care
should be taken to have them new, as
they speedily lose their power, and they
should be freshly mixed. Very mild doses
only should be used; four or five drachms
are amply sufficient, if the horse has been
prepared, as he should be, by being fed,
for two days at least, entirely on mashes,
which will cause a small dose to have a.
beneficial effect, equal to double the quan-
tity administered to a horse not duly pre-
pared for it. The immense doses of eight,
nine, ten, and even twelve drachms, which
were formerly in vogue, and which are
still favored by grooms, hostlers and cart-
ers, are utterly exploded; and it is well
known that eight or nine good fluid evacu-
ations are all that can be desired, and far
safer than twice the number.

Four and a half drachms of Barbadoes
aloes, with olive or linseed oil and mo-
lasses, sufficient to form a mass in the
proportion of eight of the aloes to one of
the oil and three of the molasses, is the
best general ball, though often four drachms
given after a sufficiency of mashes or green
food, will accomplish all that is needed
or desirable. Castor oil is a most danger-
ous and uncertain medicine. Linseed oil is
not much better. Olive oil is safe, but
weak. Epsom salt is inefficient, except in.

76

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

enormous doses, and is then dangerous.
It is, however, excellent, given in clysters
of weak gruel, which, by the way, except
where very searching and thorough purg-
ing is required, as in cases of mange or
grease, is by far the safest, most agreea-
ble and mildest way of purging the horse
and evacuating his bowels. Where, how-
ever, his intestines are overloaded with
fat, where he shows signs of surfeit, or
where it is necessary to prepare him to
undergo some great change of system, as
from a long run at grass to a hot stable,
or vice versa, a mild course of two or
three doses of physic, with a clear inter-
val of a week between the setting of one
dose and the giving of another, is neces-
sary, and cannot be properly dispensed
with.

HORSE, Cough, Chronic in.— By this
term is understood a cough that comes on
without any fever or evidences of the
horse having taken cold. It differs in
•this respect from chronic bronchitis, which
generally supervenes upon the acute form,
and is always attended in the early stage
by feverishness. It appears probable that
chronic cough is dependent upon an un-
natural stimulus to the mucous mem-
brane, for it almost always makes its
appearance when much corn is given
without due preparation, and ceases on a
return to green food. It is, therefore,
very commonly termed a stomach cough.
The symptoms are all summed up in the
presence of a dry cough, which is seldom
manifested while in the stable, but comes
on whenever the breathing is hastened by
any pace beyond a walk. Two or three
coughs are then given, and the horse per-
haps is able to go on with his work, but
after resting for a few minutes, and again
starting, it comes on again, and annoys
the rider or driver by its tantalizing prom-
ise of disappearance followed by disap-
pointment. Very often this kind of cough
is caused by the irritation of worms, but
any kind of disorder of the digestive or-
gans appears to have the power of pro-
ducing it. The usual treatment for
chronic bronchitis seems here to be quite
powerless, and the only plan of proceed-
ing likely to be attended with success, is
to look for the cause or the irritation,
and remove it. Sometimes this will be
found in a hot stable, the horse having
.previously been accustomed to a cool

one. Here the alteration of the temper-
ature by ten or fifteen degrees will in a
few days effect a cure, and nothing else
is required. Again, it may be that the
corn has been over-done, in which case a
gentle dose of physic, followed by a di-
minished allowance of corn, and a bran-
mash twice a week, will be successful. If
the stomach is much disordered, green
food will be the best stimulus to a healthy
condition, or in its absence a few warm
cordial balls may be tried. The existence
of worms should be ascertained in doubt-
ful cases, and if they are present, the
proper remedies must be given for their
removal. Linseed oil and spirits of tur-
pentine, which are both excellent worm
remedies, are highly recommended in
chronic cough, and whether or not their
good effect is due to their antagonism to
worms, they may be regarded as specially
useful.

A very successful combination is the
following mixture:

HORSE, Costiveness.. — Ordinary cases
can generally be conquered without
medicine, by diet, such as hop or bran
mashes, green meat and carots; but
where it is obstinate, the rectum should be
cleared of dry fceces by passing the naked
arm, well greased, up the anus; and the
bowels should be then thoroughly evacu-
ated by clysters of thin gruel, with half an
ounce of Barbadoes aloes, or half a
pound of Epsom salts dissolved in it. If
the patent syringe be used the injection
will reach the colon and ccecum, and dis-
pose them also to evacuate their con-
tents.

Take of Spirits of Turpentine - - 2 ounces.
Mucilage of Acacia - - 6 ounces.
Gum Ammoniacum - - % ounce.
Laudanum ----- 4 ounces.

Water ------- 2 quarts.

Mix, and give half-a-pint as a drench every night:
the bottle must be well shaken before pouring
out the dose.

HORSE. Laryngitis, Roaring, Whist-
ling, etc., in. — One of the most common
diseases among well-bred horses of the
present day is the existence of some me-
chanical impediment to the passage of
the air into the lungs, causing the animal
to " make a noise." The exact nature of
the sound has little or no practical bear-
ing on the cause that produces it ; that is
to say, it cannot be predicated that roar-
ing is produced by laryngitis; nor that

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

77

whistling is the result of a palsy of some
particular muscle, but undoubtedly it may
safely be asserted that all lesions of the
larynx, by which the shape and area of its
opening (rima glottidis) are altered and
diminished, are sure to have a prejudicial
effect upon the wind, and either to pro-
duce roaring, whistling, wheezing, or
trumpeting, but which would result it
might be difficult to say, although the
precise condition of the larynx were
known, which it cannot be during life.
Until recently veterinary surgeons were
puzzled by often finding on examination
of a roarer's larynx after death no visible
organic change in the opening, and many
were led to imagine that this part could
not be the seat of the disease. On a
careful dissection, however, it is found
that a muscle or muscles whose office it is
to dilate the larynx is wasted and flabby
(crico-arytenoideus lateralis and thyro-
arytenoideus). The other muscles are
perhaps equally atrophied, but as their
office is to close the opening, their defects
are not equally injurious, and at all events
are not shown by producing an unnatural
noise The cause of this wasting is to be
looked for in the pressure upon the nerve
which supplies these muscles, and which
passes through an opening in the posterior
ala of the thyroid cartilage, so that what-
ever causes a displacement of that part
will mechanically affect the nerve. For
these several reasons it will be necessary
to examine, first of all, into the several
kinds of inflammation, etc., to which the
larynx is subject, and then to investigate
as far as we may the nature, mode of de-
tection, and treatment of the several con-
ditions known to horsemen by the names
of roaring, whistling, etc., which are only
symptoms of one or other of the diseases
to which allusion will presently be made.
By acute laryngitis is meant a more
than ordinary inflammation of the larynx,
and not that slightly morbid condition in
which the mucous membrane of that or-
gan is always involved in " the passage of
a cold into the chest." In the latter state
the ear detects no unusual sound, and in-
deed there is plenty of room for the air
to pass. But in true laryngitis, on placing
the ear near the throat, a harsh, rasping
sound is heard, which is sufficient at once
to show the nature and urgency of the
symptoms. The mucous membrane is

swollen, and tinged with blood ; the rima.
glottidis is almost closed, and the air in
passing through it produces the sound
above described, which, however, is some-
times replaced by a stridulous or hissing
one. In conjunction with this well-
marked symptom there is always a hoarse
cough of a peculiar character, and some
considerable fever, with frequent .respira-
tion, and a hard, wiry pulse of seventy to
eighty. The treatment must be of the
most active kind, for not only is life
threatened, but even if a fatal result does
not take place, there is great danger of
permanent organic mischief to the deli-
cate apparatus of the larynx, generally
from the effusion of lymph into the sub-
mucous cellular membrane. A full bleed-
ing should at once be practised, and re-
peated at the end of twelve hours if there
is no relief afforded and the pulse still
continues hard. The hair should be cut
off the throat, and the tincture of can-
tharides brushed on in a pure state until
a blister arises, when the part may be con-
stantly well fomented, to encourage the
discharge. Large doses of tartar emetic,
calomel, and digitalis, must also be given,
but their amount and frequency should be
left to an experienced veterinarian, the
preliminary bleeding and blistering being
done in his absence to save time. It is a
case in which medicine must be pushed
as far as can be done with safety, and this
cannot well be left to any one who is not
well acquainted with its effects, and with
the powers of the animal economy.
Cruel is he only food allowed during the
acute stage, and there is seldom time to
have recourse to aperient physic until the
urgent symptoms are abated, when an
ordinary dose may be given. During
convalescence the greatest care must be
taken to prevent a relapse, by avoiding
all excitement either by stimulating food
or fast exercise.

Chronic Laryngitis may occur as the
result of the acute form above described,
or it may come on gradually, without any
violent inflammation preceding it. In
either case the symptoms are similar in
their nature to those met with in the acute
form, but less in degree. The noise made
is not nearly so harsh, and can often
hardly be heard on the most careful ex-
amination. The peculiar, harsh, grating
cough is, however, always present, and by

78

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

it the nature of the case may generally be
easily made out. The disease often ac-
companies strangles, although in nine
cases out of ten it is overlooked by the
careless attendant. Very commonly, how-
ever, it makes its ravages in so insidious a
manner that no suspicion is felt of its
presence, until the horse begins to make a
noise, though he must in all probability
have shown by the cough peculiar to the
complaint that it has been working its
way for some weeks at least. Such cases
chiefly occur in the training stable, and
are due, according to our belief, to the
enormous quantity of oats which it is now
the fashion to give to colts from the earli-
est period of their lives, increased to
seven and eight feeds a day during the
second year. Continued spirit-drinking
has precisely the same effect upon the
human being, and the harsh, stridulous
cough of the confirmed drunkard marks
the existence of ulceration of the larynx,
in the only way which he will allow it to
be displayed, for he is not, like the horse,
made to exert his powers of running,
whether his wind is good or bad. There
is, of course, a considerable difference be-
tween the two diseases, but there is suffi-
cient analogy between them to explain
why the stimulus of over-corning should
affect the larynx in preference to any
other part. It would be difficult to show
the connection between the two in any oth-
er way, beyond the simple fact that roaring
has become general in an exact propor-
tion to the prevalence of the present
fashion of feeding. The advocates of the
plan will say that though the two have
come in together, yet it is merely a coinci-
dence, and not a consequence, the one of
the other; but if it can be shown that in
man a similar cause produces a similar ef-
fect, the argument is strengthened to such
a degree as to be almost unanswerable.
But whatever may be the cause there can
be no doubt that the treatment is most
troublesome and often baffles the skill of
the most accomplished veterinarian. Blis-
tering is not so useful as counter-irritation
by a seaton, which must be inserted in
the loose skin beneath the jaw, as close
as possible to the larynx. This alone will
do much towards the cure, but no pains
must be spared to assist its action by a
cooling regimen, consisting of bran
mashes, and if in the spring or summer,

green food, or in the winter, carrots.
Corn must be entirely forbidden, and the
kidneys should be encouraged to act free-
ly by two or three drachms of nitre given
in the mash twice a day. When the case
is very intractable, the nitrate of silver
may be applied to the part itself by
means of a sponge fastened to a piece of
flexible cane or whalebone. The mouth
should then be kept open with the ordi-
nary balling iron, and the sponge rapidly
passed to the situation of the top of the lar-
ynx, and held there for a second, and then
withdrawn. We have succeeded in curing
two obstinate cases of chronic laryngitis by
this plan, but some little risk is incurred,
as in one of them imminent symptoms of
suffocation presented themselves, but soon
went off. We should not, therefore, recom-
mend the application excepting in cases
where all other means have failed, and in
which there is reason to believe that the
patient is likely to become a permanent
roarer or whistler. The nitrate of silver
has great power in producing resolution of
inflammation in mucous surfaces, and in
this disease little or nothing can be effect-
ed by general measures. The solution
should be from ten to fifteen grains in the
ounce of distilled water.

Roaring is the bugbear of the purchas-
er at the hammer, and not without good
reason. The most experienced veterina-
rian or dealer will often fail to ascertain
its existence, in spite of all the artifices
he may call into play. Not the slightest
sound is heard during a state of quies-
cence, or even when the horse is trotted
or galloped for the short distance which
" the ride" will afford. The blow on the
side given with an artistic effect elicits no
grunt, and yet the animal is a confirmed
roarer, and not worth a shilling perhaps
for the purpose to which he is intended to
be devoted. On the other hand, many a
sound horse is condemned as a roarer for
giving out the obnoxious grunt; and
though there is no doubt that this sign
may be relied on in a great many cases,
yet it cannot be accepted as either nega-
tively or positively a certain proof. The
only real trial is the noiseless gallop on
turf or plough, when the ear can detect
the slightest sound, and can distinguish
its exact nature, and the precise spot from
which it proceeds. Many a horse will,
when he is excited, make a harsh noise in

HORSE—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

79

his breathing, accompanied by a kind of
"gluck," proceeding from a spasmodic
flapping of the velum palati ; but on gal-
loping him all this goes off, and he may
probably exhibit excellent wind. Such
cases we have many times known, and they
would be condemned as unsound by
those who have had little experience, or
are content with a careless and inefficient
trial. Stallions are particularly prone to
make this kind of noise, and it is ex-
tremely difficult to ascertain their sound-
ness in this respect by any means which
•can be safely resorted to. The causes of
roaring are of three kinds : ist, Inflamma-
tion, which has left a thickening or ulcer-
ation of the mucous membrane, or a fun-
gous growth from it; 2d, Paralysis of the
muscles; and 3d, An alteration of the
shape of the cartilages of the larynx, pro-
duced by tight reining.

In roaring produced by an ulcerated or
thickened condition of the mucous mem-
brane, or by a fungous growth, the sound
elicited is always the same in proportion
to the rapidity of respiration. None of
the ordinary expedients by which the
breath is introduced in a modified stream
(such as a full meal, or pressure on the
nostrils or windpipe), will be of much
avail, and the horse roars sturdily when-
ever his pace is sufficiently accelerated.
If a horse so affected can be made to
grunt by the blow on the side, the sound
will always indicate the disease, for it will
be harsh and rough, and not the natural
grunt of the animal. It is usually sup-
posed that no treatment can be of the
slightest avail here ; but wl believe that
sometimes the continued application of ni-
trate of silver would be followed by a cer-
tain amount of amelioration, the extent of
which it is impossible to guess at without
a trial. In any case, when the animal is
rendered almost worthless by disease, it is
fair to try experiments which are neither
expensive nor cruel ; and from the effect
of the remedy in those cases in which it
has been used, we are led to expect that it
may prove beneficial in those of longer
standing. Setons, blisters and embroca-
tions are all useless, as has been proven in
numberless cases; and beyond the pallia-
tion which can be afforded by employing
the horse only at such a pace as his state
will allow, nothing else can be suggested.
In some cases the roarer will be able to

do ordinary harness work, which, howev-
er, in hot weather, will try him severely;
in others he may be so slightly affected as
to be fit to hunt in a country where, from
its nature, the pace is not very severe ; but
by confirmed roarers the slow work of the
cart is all that can be performed without
cruelty.

Where paralysis of the muscles that
open the rima glottidis is the seat of the
roaring, no plan has yet been suggested
which is of the slightest avail. In the
first place, it is extremely difficult, and in-
deed almost impossible, to diagnose the
affection, and we know of no means by
which paralysis can be ascertained to exist
during life. Hence, although it is barely
possible that by the use of strychnine the
nerve might be stimulated into a restora-
tion of its functions, yet as the case can-
not be ascertained, it is scarcely wise to
give this powerful drug in the hope that it
may by chance hit the right nail on the
head. This paralytic condition seems
chiefly to attack carriage horses, and prob-
ably arises from the pressure made by the
over-curved larynx upon the laryngeal
nerve as it passes through the opening in
the thyroid cartilage. Many veterinary
writers have looked to the recurrent
branch of the par vagum to explain the
loss of power, but we believe it is rather
to the laryngeal nerve that the mischief is
due. It must be remembered that carriage-
horses are not only reined up for hours
while doing their daily work out of doors,
but they are also often placed in the same
position, or even a more constrained one,
by the coachman in the stable, in order to
improve their necks. One horse of his
pair perhaps has naturally a head better
set on than the other, and he wishes to
make nature bend to his wishes by com-
pelling the other to do that which the
shape of his jaw forbids without a sacri-
fice. The mouthing tackle is put on in
the stable with this view, and the poor
horse is " kept on the bit " for three or
four hours early in the morning, during
which time his larynx is pressed between
his narrow jaws into a most unnatural
shape. The consequence is, either that
the nerve is pressed upon, and the mus-
cles to which it is supplied are paralyzed,
as in the condition which we are now
considering, or the cartilages are perma-
nently disfigured, which is the subject of

8o

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

the next paragraph. When the paralyses
is established, we believe no means but
the internal use of strychnine are at all
likely to be beneficial.

An alteration in the shape of the car-
tilages, so as to permanently change their
form, is, we believe, the least common of
all the causes of roaring. Pressure for a
very long time will be required to effect
this, and far more than suffices to paralyze
the nerve. Cases, however, are recorded,
and the parts have been preserved, so that
there can be no doubt of their occasional
occurrence. No treatment can be of the
slightest service.

Although roaring, in all its varieties,
may be said to be generally incurable, yet
it may be greatly palliated by general at-
tention to the state of the lungs and
stomach, by proper food, and by the use,
while the horse is at work, of a special
contrivance, of a most ingenious nature,
published by a Mr. Reeve, but said to
have been in use for many years among
the London omnibus and cab men. At
all events, Mr. Reeve deserves the credit
of having laid the matter before the pro-
fession, and of explaining the true princi-
ple upon which it acts. He says, in his
paper upon the subject: "I thought it
possible to so modify the atmostpheric
supply to the lungs, that, during exercise,
the volume of air when it arrives at the
glottis, should not exceed that which pas-
sed through its opening when the horse
was tranquil, and which (from the fact of
the sound being absent) does not at that
time produce roaring. A strap was ac-
cordingly made to pass around the nose
of the horse, just over the region of the
false nostrils, and buckle beneath the
lower jaw. To the inner surface of this
strap, and immediately over the false nos-
tril on each side, was fixed a body re-
sembling in shape the half of a hen's egg,
cut longitudinally. When applied, these
bodies pressed upon the triangular spaces
formed by the apex of the nasal bones
and upper jaw, thus closing the false nos-
trils, and partly diminishing the channel
of the true ones. The result was highly
gratifying; for the patient, which pre-
viously could not travel without stopping
every minute to take breath, now travel-
led, to all appearance, without inconven-
ience or noise. At first the strap seemed
slightly to annoy the horse; and when-

ever it became displaced, the roaring
would again commence. A slight modi-
fication, however, overcame every diffi-
culty; the strap instead of being buckled
around and under the jaw, was fastened
on each side of the bit ; and, to prevent its
descent, another was carried from its cen-
tre, and fastened to the front of the har-
ness-bridle." Mr. Reeve asserts that the
effect was all he could have wished, and
that the horse on which he had tried the
plan, " which previously had been entire-
ly useless, now performs his work in a
heavy brougham, and gives great satisfac-
tion. The roaring is stopped, and, with
the usual speed, there appears no impedi-
ment to respiration." He concludes : " I
have paid particular attention to this case,
and am inclined to think, that when by
the compression we have neutralized the
action of" the false nostrils, the object is
effected without the necessity of further
narrowing the nasal passage."

Few people would care to drive a roarer,
if they could help it, even with the aid
of the nasal compress; but if necessity
compels such a proceeding, it is well to
know how the poor animal may be used
with least annoyance to himself and his
master.

Highblowing is a perfectly healthy
and natural habit, and cannot be con-
founded with roaring by any experienced
horseman. It is solely confined to the
nostrils ; and the noise is not produced in
the slightest degree during inspiration,
but solely during the expulsion of the air,
which is more forcible and rapid than us-
ual, and accompanied by a vibratory
movement of the nostrils, which is the
seat of the noise. Roaring, on the con-
trary, continues during inspiration as well
as expiration; and by this simple test the
two may readily be distinguished. Most
highblowers have particular good wind,
of which the celebrated Eclipse is an ex-
ample; for there is no doubt that he was
addicted to the habit.

Whistling (and piping, which is very
similar to it) are produced by the same
causes as roaring, in an exaggerated con-
dition. Thus a roarer often becomes a
whistler as the rima glottidis is more and
more closed by disease; on the other
hand, the whistler is never converted into
a roarer. The noise made is seldom a
decidedly shrill whistle, but it has more

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

8r

resemblance to that sound than to roar-
ing, and the name may well be retained
as descriptive of it. Whistlers are always
in such a state of confirmed disease, that
treatment is out of the question — indeed,
they can only be put to the very slowest
kind of work.

Wheezing is indicative of a contracted
condition of the bronchial tubes, which
is sometimes of a spasmodic nature, and
at others is only brought on during oc-
casional attacks after exposure to cold.
The treatment should be that recommend-
ed for chronic bronchitis, which is the
nature of the disease producing these
symptoms.

Trumpeting is not very well defined
by veterinary writers, and we confess that
we have never heard any horse make a
noise which could be compared to the
trumpet, or to the note of the elephant so
called.

The question relating to the hereditary
nature of roaring is one which demands
the most careful examination before a re-
liable answer can be given to it. It would
be necessary to select at random a num-
ber of roaring sires and dams, and com-
pare their stock with that of an equal
proportion of sound animals, which would
be a Herculean task, beyond the power
of any private individual. Nothing short
of this could possibly settle the dispute;
but, as far as opinion goes, it may be as-
sumed that there are strong authorities
against the hereditary nature of the dis-
eases which produce roaring. That it is
often the result of ordinary inflammation,
which in itself can scarcely be considered
hereditary, is plain enough; and that it is
also produced by mismanagement in tight-
reining is also admitted, which latter kind
can scarcely be supposed to be handed
down from sire to son; but that it is safer,
when practicable, to avoid parents with
any disease whatever, is patent to all.

HORSE, Pneumonia and Congestion
of the Lungs in. — The theoretical defi-
nition of pneumonia is that it consists of
inflammation of the parenchyma of the
lungs, independently both of the mucous
lining to the air passages, and of the
serous covering of the whole mass. The
mucous membrane ceases abruptly at
the terminations of the bronchial subdi-
visions, and consequently the air cells are
not lined with a continuation from it.

Hence there is an extensive cellulo-fibrous
area, which may be the subject of inflam-
mation, without implicating the mucous
surface. Until within the last fifteen or
twenty years, it was commonly supposed
that the air cells were all lined by mucous
membrane, and that the parenchyma was
confined to an almost infinitesimally thin
structure, filling up its interstices ; but the
microscope has revealed the true struc-
ture of the lungs, and has shown that
there is a well-founded distinction be-
tween bronchitis and pneumonia, upon
the ground of anatomy, as well as obser-
vation. Still, it cannot be denied that
the one seldom exists to any great extent,
or for any long period, without involving
the adjacent tissue; and broncho-pneu-
monia as well as pleuro-pneumonia are as
common as the pure disease.

Pneumonia, or peripneumony, must
be examined, with a view, first, to its in-
tensity, whether acute or sub-acute ; and
secondly, as to its effects, which may be •
of little consequence, or they may be sa»
serious as to completely destroy the sub-
sequent usefulness of the patient. It is-
not, therefore, alone necessary to provide
against death by the treatment adopted,
but due care must also be taken that the-
tissue of the lungs is not disorganized by
a deposition of lymph, or of matter, so-'
as to lead, in the one case, to a consoli-
dation of the air cells, and, in the other,
to the formation of a large abscess, and{
consequent destruction of substance. The
former is a very common sequel of pneu-
monia; and probably there are few at-
tacks of it without being followed by a
greater or less degree of hepatization, by
which term the deposit of lymph is known,
from its causing the lungs to assume the-
texture of liver. In very severe cases,
gangrene of the lungs is induced; but as-
death almost always speedily follows this
condition, it is not necessary to consider
it, excepting as bearing upon the fatal re-
sults.

The cause of pneumonia may be over-
exertion, as in the hunting-field, especially
in an unprepared horse ; or it may come-
on as a primary disease after exposure to>
cold ; or it may follow upon bronchitis
when neglected and allowed to run on
without check. In the two first cases it
appears to be produced by the great con-
| gestion of blood which takes place in the

82

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

fine network of vessels of which the lungs
are in great part composed. The blood
in the one case is collected by the in-
creased necessity for its aeration with a
failing circulation, as in over-exhaustion, or
in the other it is forced inwards upon the
vital organs by the chill which the skin
has received. The capillaries are then
roused to act beyond their strength, and
an inflammatory condition is established
as a reparatory effort of nature, which
may possibly stop short as soon as the ob-
ject is accomplished, but more frequently
.goes on beyond this, and an attack of
pneumonia sets in with more or less inten-
sity, according to circumstances. For
these reasons, when the lungs are evi-
dently congested no pains should be
:spared to relieve them by causing the skin
to act, before the aid of nature is invoked,
rsince it can never be certain that she will
-stop short at the proper point.

Congestion of the lungs is too often
neglected and allowed to go on to inflam-
mation. Veterinary surgeons, indeed, are
: seldom called in before this stage has run
its course and inflammation is established.
It is true that every horse owner endeav-
ors to ascertain all the particulars relating
to it, because he is constantly in fear of
having to treat it, and he would gladly
benefit by the advice and experience of
those, more competent to treat it than
himself. But the great mass of horse-
masters are wholly ignorant of its action,
.and we shall therefore endeavor to lay
■ down instructions which may be benefi-
. cia> to those who are so unlucky as to
shave a horse with congested lungs, either
.caused by over-exertion or by a chill, or
Iby a combination of the two, as most fre-
quently happens.

When a fat " dealer's horse," that is,
one made up for sale and not for use, is
ridden in a sharp burst across the country,
his lungs are, most unfortunately, tried;
for he is not only loaded with blood con-
taining an excess of stimulating materials
(or in a state of plethora, as it is called),
but his heart and blood-vessels are not
prepared by previous exercise to carry on
khe circulation when unusual demands
•upon them are made. The consequence
is, that as soon as he has gone half a
dozen miles, he not only tires, but, if
pressed, his gallant spirit carries him on
until the blood collects and stagnates in

his lungs, from a defect in the circulating
apparatus, and he becomes absolutely
choked from a want of that decarboniza-
tion which is necessary to his very exist-
ence. Air is taken freely into his lungs,
but the circulation almost ceases in them,
and in spite of his hurried breathing, as
shown by his panting sides, he is almost
as completely suffocated as if a cord was
tied round his neck. On examining his
eyes and nostrils they are seen to be tur-
gid and purple, the vessels being filled
with carbonized blood, while the heart
beats rapidly but feebly, and the counten-
ance is expressive of anxiety and distress.
In this state many a horseman finds his
steed every winter, and a pretty dilemma
he is in. The question of treatment is a
serious one even to the most experienced
in such matters, but one thing is quite
clear, that the more urgent the case the
more danger there is in having recourse
to the lancet. Bleeding to the extent of
a few pounds will sometimes relieve a
trifling case of exhaustion, but in a really
severe one it will take away the only
chance which remains. The best plan is
to give the animal plenty of air, turn his
head to the wind, and if any kind of fer-
mented liquor can be obtained, give him
a little at once. Neat spirits are apt to
cause increased distress from spasm of the
larynx, but it is even better to risk this
than to let the exhaustion continue. If,
therefore, the horse is incapable of walk-
ing to the nearest farm-house or inn, the
better plan is to leave him with a light
covering on him of some kind, and at
once to proceed to procure a quart of ale
or wine, whichever can be obtained the
most easily. One or the other of these,
slightly warmed, and spiced if possible,
should be poured down his throat, which
can readily be done, as he has no power
to resist, and then in. a few minutes he
may generally be induced to move quietly
on towards the nearest stable. Here he
must remain all night if the attack is a
bad one, or if he recovers soon he may
be walked quietly home. When he
reaches his stable, in the evening or the
next morning early, if the pulse rises and
is hard and jerking, he may be bled with
advantage, but rarely should this be done
for some hours after the first attack. Con-
gestion is essentially produced by debility,
and although an abstraction of blood re-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

8.3

lieves the vessels of a part of their load,
it increases their weakness in a still greater
degree, and they are less able to do their
work, diminished though it may be, than
they were before. Hundreds of over-
worked horses have been killed by the
abuse of the lancet in the hunting-field,
but the principle on which their treatment
should be conducted is better understood
now than formerly.

When congestion shows itself as the
result of a chill, the following symptoms
are displayed : First and foremost there is
rapid and laborious breathing, the horse
standing with his legs wide apart, his
head thrust straight forward, and his
flanks heaving. The skin is generally dry,
but if there is any sweat, it is a cold one.
The legs are icy cold, and also the ears.
The whites of the eyes and lining of the
nostrils are of a purplish hue, but not very
deep in color. The pulse is slightly ac-
celerated (from forty to fifty), but not hard
and incompressible ; and lastly, the attack
is of recent duration. These signs, how-
ever, are not to be fully relied on as mark-
ing congestion rather than inflammation,
without having recourse to an examina-
tion of the lungs by means of the ear.
Placing it against the side of the chest,
in inflammation there would be certain
marked sounds, presently to be described,
whilst in the state we are now consider-
ing they are wholly absent, and all that is
heard is the usual respiratory murmur
slightly increased in intensity. It is of the
utmost importance to make out exactly
the nature of the case, for the treatment
should be very different in congestion and
inflammation. If in the former condition
the blood can only be drawn into the
skin, relief is at once afforded and all
danger is at an end; but in the latter,
though some slight advantage would be
gained, the progress of the disease would
not be materially checked. To produce
this determination of blood to the skin
without loss of time, is sometimes very
difficult ; but by the application of hot
water and blankets, it may generally be ac-
complished. Two men, supplied with a
tub of very hot water and plenty of cloth-
ing, should be rapid in their movements,
and proceed as follows : Have an assist-
ant ready to strip the patient when or-
dered, then dipping a blanket in the
water, it is taken out and partially wrung,

leaving as much water in its meshes as it
can hold without dropping ; as socn as it
is cool enough for the human hand to
bear its pressure it should be gently, but
quickly, laid upon the horse's back, and
the rug, which has just come off, while
still warm, placed over it, with two or
three more over all, the number depend-
ing upon the temperature of the air. An-
other smaller rug may, in the same way,
be wetted and applied to the neck, cover-
ing it with two or three hoods, but taking
care to avoid pressure upon the windpipe.
The legs also should be wrapped in flan-
nel bandages, made as hot as possible be-
fore the fire, but dry. In the course of
half an hour, if the skin of the parts un-
covered does not become warm, and
show evidences of sweating coming on,
another rug must be dipped in the same
way and substituted quickly for the first.
Usually, however, the desired effect is
produced within twenty minutes, and
then great care and some little tact
are required to manage the operation. If
the sweating is allowed to go on beyond
a certain point exhaustion is produced,
attended by almost as much danger as in-
flammation ; while on the other hand, in
attempting to moderate the action of the
skin, risk is incurred of a chill, and thus
upsetting all the benefit which might
otherwise have been derived. But by
throwing open the doors to the external
air, which may freely be admitted as soon
as the skin acts, and by reducing the
number of additional rugs, the amount of
sweat given off may be kept within due
bounds, and in the course of two or three
hours the previously wetted rug or blanket
may be removed, and a dry, warm one.
substituted for it, but the assistants must
be "quick and handy in effecting the
change. Many a case of inflammation
of the lungs, kidneys, or bowels might be
stopped in limine by the adoption of this
plan ; but the misfortune is that it requires
all the Skill and tact of the veterinary
surgeon, first of all to diagnose the case,
and afterwards to manage its treatment.
Still, if a master will undertake the super-
intendence of the operation himself, and
is accustomed to disease, there is little
risk of failure.

The symptoms of acute pneumonia are
a quick and distressed respiration, averag-
ing about sixty inspirations in the minute.

84

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

Pulse quick (from seventy to eighty-five),
hard, often small, but always compressi-
ble. Nostrils distended, and the lining
membrane red (except in the last stage,
when suffocation is imminent). Cough
short, and evidently giving pain, which
occasions it to be checked as much as
possible. Legs and ears generally cold,
often icy. Feet wide apart, evidently
with an instinctive desire to dilate the
chest as much as possible. On putting
the ear to the chest, if the attack is very
recent, there will be merely a greatly in-
creased respiratory murmur; but when
fully developed there may be heard a
crepitant rattling, which is compared to
the crackling of a dried bladder; but we
confess that we could never make out the
similarity between the two sounds. In
the latter stages, this is succeeded by an
absence of all sound, owing to the con-
solidation of the lungs, or by mucous rat-
tles depending upon the secretion of mu-
cus. On tapping the exterior of the
chest with the ends of the fingers (percus-
sion), the sound given out is dull in propor-
tion to the extent of mischief, the effect of
pneumonia being to convert the spongy
texture of the lungs into a solid substance
like liver. The treatment will greatly de-
pend upon the stage of the disease, the
age and constitution of the horse, and the
nature of the prevailing epidemic, if there
is one. In modern days bleeding is very
badly borne, either by man or horse, nev-
ertheless, few cases of genuine pneumo-
nia will be saved without it. Sufficient
blood must be taken to make a decided
impression on the circulation, without
which the inflammation will not be mas-
tered. The quantity necessary for this
cannot be fixed, because the effect will
vary so materially that the abstraction of
three or four quarts of blood in one case
will do no more than double or treble
that quantity in another. A large orifice
must be made in the vein, and it must not
be closed until the lining membrane of
the nose or the white of the eye is seen
to have become considerably paler. It
may [possibly even then be necessary to
repeat the operation six hours afterwards,
or next day, according to the symptoms.
The rule should be followed of taking
enough, but not a drop too much, for
blood removed from the circulation takes
a long time to replace. With regard to

medicine, tartar emetic is the only drug
which seems to have much influence over
pneumonia, and it must be given every
six hours in drachm doses, with from half
a drachm to a drachm of powdered digi-
italis, or white hellebore, to keep down
the pulse, and two or three drachms of
nitre, to increase the action of the kid-
neys. Unless the bowels are confined no
aperient should be given, and if necessa-
ry only the mildest dose should be used.
The diet should consist of bran mashes,,
gruel, and a little hay, or green food if
the season of the year allows. A cool,
airy stable and warm clothing are indis-
pensable in this disease. When the first
violence of the attack has subsided, a
large blister on the side of the chest will!
afford great relief, and when it ceases to
act, if the disease is not entirely cured, a
second may be put on the other side.

Sub-acute pneumonia differs in no res-
pect from the acute form, excepting in
degree, and the symptoms and treatment
will vary only in proportion.

The terminations of pneumonia may
be death, or resolution (by which is to be
understood a disappearance of the symp-
toms without leaving any mischief be-
hind), or hepatization, or abscess. The
last named sequel may be very serious in
extent, but if an opening is made by nature
for the discharge of its contents into the
bronchial tubes the horse may recover, and
his wind may be sufficiently good for any
purposes but the race course or the hunt-
ing field. Hepatization is always attend-
ed with thick wind, but in other respects;
the health may be good, and the horse
may be suited to ordinary work. In pro-
cess of time some of the lymph is ab-
sorbed, and a considerable improvement
takes place, but it never entirely disap-
pears, and a horse which has once suf-
fered from pneumonia, attended; by hepa-
tization, remains permanently unsound.,

HORSE, Pleurisy in. — This disease is.
characterized by a very peculiar respira-
tion, the expirations being much longer
than the inspirations, owing to the paini
which is given by the action of the mus-
cles necessary for the latter, while the for-
mer, if the chest is allowed quietly to fall,,
is almost painless. Nevertheless, the
breathing is quicker on the whole than
natural, being from forty to fifty per min-
ute. The pulse is quick, small and. in-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

85

•compressible. Nostrils and eyes of a nat-
ural color, and the former are not dilated.
The countenance is anxious, and the legs
are rather drawn together than extended,
as in bronchitis and pneumonia, and they
are not colder than usual. There is a short
hurried cough, with great restlessness,
and the sides are always painful on pres-
sure; but this symptom by itself is not to
be relied on, as it is present in pleurody-
nia, which will be presently described.

The treatment should consist of copi-
ous bleeding, followed by a mild purga-
tive, and the same ball as recommended
for pneumonia, with the addition of half
a drachm of calomel. Blisters are not
desirable to be applied to the sides of the
thorax, as there is so little space between
the two surfaces of the pleura and the
skin that they are apt to do harm by im-
mediately irritating the former, rather than
to act beneficially by counter-irritation of
the skin. A large rowel may, however,
be placed in the breast with advantage.

Hydrothorax, or water in the cavity of
the chest, is one of the sequels of chronic
pleurisy, the serum thrown out being the
means by which a serous membrane re-
lieves itself. It can be detected by the
entire absence of respiratory murmur,
and by the dullness on percussion. No
treatment is of any avail but tapping,
which may be readily and safely per-
formed (if the diagnosis is correct) by
passing a trocar between the eighth and
ninth ribs, near their cartilages. If, how-
ever, an error has been committed the
lung is wounded, and death will most
probably ensue.

HORSE, Pleurodynia in. — Between
this disease and pleurisy there is some
similarity in the symptoms ; but in trieir
nature, and in the treatment required,
they are widely separated. It is, there-
fore, necessary that they should not be
confounded, for in the one case blood-
letting and other active measures may be
unnecessarily adopted, and in the other a
fatal result will most probably occur for
want of them. In pleuritis there is a
quick pulse, with general constitutional
disturbance, which will serve to distin-
guish it from pleurodynia, besides which,
it is rarely that we meet with the former
without some other affection of the lungs
co-existing. When, therefore, a horse is
evidently suffering from acute pain in the

walls of the thorax, unaccompanied by
cough, hurried breathing, quick'pulse, or
fever, it may safely be diagnosed that the
nature of the attack is a rheumatism of
the intercostal muscles (pleurodynia), and
not pleurisy. In treating it bleeding and
tartar emetic must be carefully avoided,
and hot mustard and vinegar rubbed into
the sides will be the most likely remedy
to afford relief.

HORSE, Pythisis in.— When a horse
has long been subject to a chronic cough,
and, without losing appetite, wastes away
rapidly, it may be assumed that he is a
victim to pythisis, and especially if he is
narrow-chested and has long shown signs
of short wind. On examining the chest
by the ear, it will be found to give out
sounds of various kinds, depending upon
the exact state of the lungs ; but in most
cases there will be great dullness on per-
cussion, owing to the deposit of tuber-
cles, in which the disease consists. In a
confirmed case no treatment will avail,
and the poor animal had better be de-
stroyed. When the attack is slight, the
progress of the disease may be stayed by
counteracting inflammation in the ordi-
nary way, avoiding loss of blood when
possible. Hemorrhage, from the break-
ing down of the substance of the lung,
by which a large blood vsesel is opened,
is a common result of pythisis, and will
be alluded to under the head of the dis-
eases OF THE VESSELS OF THE LUNGS,
which sse.

HORSE, Broken- wind. — A broken-
winded horse can be detected at once by
any horseman possessed of experience,
from the peculiar and forcible double ex-
piration. Inspiration is performed as
usual, then comes a rapid but not violent
act of expiration, followed by a forcible
repetition of the same, in which all the
muscles of respiration, auxiliary and or-
dinary, are called into play. This is, of
course, most marked when the horse has
been galloped, or even when he is at
rest the double expiration is manifest at
almost any ordinary distance from the
observer. The disease almost (if not
quite) invariably consists in emphysema,
or entrance of the air into unnatural
cells, which is retained there, as the urine
is in the bladder, from the valvular na-
ture of the openings, and cannot be en-
tirely expelled, nor in the slightest degree,

86

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

without calling into play all the muscles
of the chest. The presence of un-
changed air is a constant source of irri-
tation to the lungs, and although suffi-
cient may be expired easily enough to
carry on their functions while the body is
at rest, yet instinctively there is a desire
to get rid of the surplus, and hence the
two acts of respiration. Immediately
after this second act the muscles relax,
and the flank falls in, and this it is which
catches the eye in so remarkable a man-
ner. On examination after death, the
lungs are found to remain enlarged, and
do not collapse as in the healthy condi-
tion. They are distended with air; and
this is especially the case when the em-
physema is of the kind called interlobu-
lar, in which the air has escaped into the
cellular membrane. In the most com-
mon kind, however, the cells are broken
down, several being united together,
while the enlargement pressing upon the
tube which has opened into them dimin-
ishes its capacity, and prevents the ready
escape of air. This is the vesicular em-
physema of pathologists. The former is
generally suddenly produced by a severe
gallop after a full meal, while the latter
is a slow growth, and often occurs at
grass, as a consequence of neglected
chronic cough, the constant muscular
efforts appearing gradually to dilate the
cells.

The treatment can only be palliative,
as there is no recognized cure for the dis-
ease, though M. Hew, of Chaumont, has
lately published a report of ten cases in
which treatment by arsenic given with
green food or straw, and in some cases
bleeding, was perfectly successful. The
arsenic was given to the extent of fifteen
grains daily, and at the end of a fort-
night the symptoms of broken wind were
completely removed; but as the horses
were not subsequently watched, it is im-
possible to say whether the cure was per-
manent. It is known, however, that one
of them relapsed after three months, but
speedily yielded to a repetition of the
treatment. It may certainly be worth
while to try the experiment of the effect
of arsenic where a broken-winded horse
is valuable in other respects. The medi-
cine is not expensive, and the length of
time necessary for the treatment is not
very great. Broken-winded horses should

be carefully dieted, and even then con-
fined to slow work. The food should be
in small compass, consisting chiefly of
wheat-straw chaff, with a proper quantity
of oats, and beans may be added if the
animal is not very young. The water
should never be given within an hour of
going out of the stable, but it is better to
leave a constant supply, when too much
will never be taken. Carrots are pecu-
liarly suited to this disease, and a diet of
bran mixed with carrots, sliced, has some-
times been known to relieve a broken-
winded horse most materially.

HORSE, Wind, Thick in.— Thick wind
is the horseman's term for any defective
respiration, unaccompanied by a noise, or
by the signs of emphysema just alluded
to. It usually follows pneumonia, but it
may arise from chronic bronchitis, occa-
sioning a thickening of the mucous mem-
brane lining the bronchial tubes, and thus
lessening their diameter, or it may accom-
pany phthisic when the deposit of tuber-
cles is extensive. No treatment will be
of any service except such as will aid the
play of the lungs mechanically, by avoid-
ing overloading the stomach, as men-
tioned in the last section.

HORSE, Diaphragm, Spasm, of the, in. —

Some horses, when at all distressed by the
severity of their gallops, communicate to
the rider a most unpleasant sensation, as
if some internal part was given a sudden
blow or flap. This is not only a sensa-
tion, but a reality, for the diaphragm being
naturally weak, or overstrained at some
previous period, acts spasmodically in
drawing in the air. If the horse thus
affected is ridden onwards afterwards, he
will be placed in danger of suffocation and
death, either from rupture of the dia-
phragm, or from its cessation to act, or
from its permanently contracting and re-
fusing to give way during expiration.
There is no cure for the weakness which
tends to produce the spasm, and all that
can be done is to avoid using the horse
affected with it at any very fast pace, and
over a distance of* ground. Urgent
symptoms may be relieved by a cordial
drench, such as the following:

Take of Laudanum 6 drachms.

Ether ij£ ounce.

Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia 3 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger - - - 3 drachms.

Ale 1 pint. Mix.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

«r

Or if there is any difficulty in giving a
drench, a ball may be made up and given.

Take of Carbonate of Ammonia - I drachm.

Camphor ...--.*£ drachm.

Powdered Ginger - - - I drachm.
Linseed meal and boiling water sufficient to make
into a ball.

Either of the above may be repeated
at the end of three hours, if relief is not
afforded. Increased strength may be
given to the diaphragm by regular slow
work, and the daily mixture of a drachm
of powdered sulphate of iron with the
feed of corn.

HORSE, Heart, Diseases of the. — The
horse is subject to inflammation of the
substance of the heart (carditis) of a
rheumatic nature, and of the fibro-serous
covering (pericarditis), but the symptoms
are so obscure that no one but the pro-
fessional veterinarian will be likely to
make them out. Dropsy of the heart is
a common disease in worn-out horses,
and hypertrophy, as well as fatty degen-
eration, are often met with among well-
conditioned animals.

HORSE, Blood Vessels of the Chest
and Nose, Diseases of the. — The horse
is very subject to hemorrhage from the
nose, coming on during violent exertion,
and many a race has been lost from this
cause. Fat, over-fed horses are the most
likely to suffer from hemorrhage; but
most people are aware of the risk in-
curred in over-riding or driving them,
and for this reason they are not so often
subject to this accident (for such it is
rather than a disease), as they otherwise
would be. It is unnecessary to describe
its symptoms, as the gush of blood ren-
ders it but too apparent, and the only
point necessary to inquire into is, whether
the lungs or the nasal cavities are the seat
of the rupture of the vessel. In the
former case the blood comes from both
nostrils, and is frothy; while in the latter
it generally proceeds from one only, and
is perfectly fluid. The treatment should
consist in cooling the horse down by a
dose of physic and a somewhat lower
diet ; but if the bleeding is very persist-
ent, and returns again and again, a satu-
rated solution of alum in water may be
syringed up the nostril daily, or, if this
fails, an infusion of matico may be tried,
which is far more likely to succeed. It
is made by pouring half a pint of boiling

water on a drachm of matico-leaves, and
letting it stand till cool, when it should be
strained, and is fit for use.

Hemorrrhage from the lungs is a far
more serious affair, and its control re-
quires active remedies if they are to be of
any service. It may arise from the ex-
istence of an abscess in the lung of a
phthisical nature, which implicates some
considerable vessel ; or it may be caused
by the bursting of an aneurism, which is-
a dilatation of a large artery, and gener-
ally occurs near the heart. The treat-
ment can seldom do more than prolong
the life of the patient for a short time,
and it is scarcely worth while to enter
upon it. Bleeding from the jugular vein
will arrest the internal hemorrhage, and
must often be resorted to in the first in-
stance, and there are internal medicines
which will assist it, such as digitalis and
matico; but, as before remarked, this-
only postpones the fatal termination.

HORSE, Abdominal Viscera and their
Appendages, Diseases of the. — Though
not often producing what in horse deal-
ing is considered unsoundness, yet dis-
eases of the abdominal viscera constantly
lead to death, and frequendy to such a
debilitated state of the body that the
sufferer is rendered useless. Fortunately
for the purchaser, they almost always give
external evidence of their presence, for
there is not only emaciation, but also a.
staring coat and a flabby state of the-
muscles, which is quite the reverse of ther
wiry feel communicated to the hand in:
those instances where the horse is "poor"'
from over-work in proportion to his food..
In the latter case, time and good living-
only are required to restore the natural
plumpness ; but in the former the wasting
will either go on until death puts an end
to the poor diseased animal, or he will
remain in a debilitated and wasted condi-
tion, utterly unfit for hard work.

HORSE, Month and Throat, Diseases
of the in. — Several parts about the mouth
are liable to inflammation, which would
be of little consequence in itself, but that
it interferes with the feeding, and this -for
the time starves the horse, and renders,
him unfit for his work, causing him to»
"quid" or return his food into the man-
ger without swallowing it. Such are
lampas, vives or enlarged glands, barbs
or paps, gigs, bladders and flaps — all

38

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

which are names given to the enlarge-
ments of the salivary ducts — and carious
teeth, or inflammation of their fangs. Be-
sides this, the horse is also subject to
sore throat, and strangles, which are ac-
companied by constitutional disturbance,
and not only occasion "quidding," if there
is any slight appetite, but they are also
generally accompanied by a loss of that
function.

HORSE, Sore Throat.— When the throat
inflames, as is evidenced by fullness and
hardness of this part, and there is diffi-
culty of swallowing, the skin covering it
should immediately be severely sweated,
or the larynx will be involved and irre-
parable injury done. The tincture of
.cantharides diluted with an equal part of
spirit of turpentine and a little oil, may
.be rubbed in with a piece of sponge, un-
.til it produces irritation of the skin,
which in a few hours will be followed by
. a discharge from the part. Six or eight
.drachms of nitre may also be dissolved
, in the water which the horse drinks, with
. some difficulty, but still as he is thirsty he
will take it. Sometimes eating gives less
pain than drinking, and then the nitre
may be given with a bran mash instead
of the water.

HORSE, Strangles.— Between the third
and fifth year of the colt's life he is gen-
erally seized with an acute swelling of
the soft parts between the branches of the
lower jaw, accompanied by more or less
sore throat, cough and feverishness. These
go on increasing for some days, and soon
an abscess shows itself, and finally bursts.
The salivary glands are often involved,
ibut the matter forms in the cellular mem-
brane external to them. The treatment
should be addressed to the control of
constitutional symptoms by the mildest
measures, such as bran mashes with nitre
in them, abstraction of corn, hay tea,
etc. At the same time the swelling
should be poulticed for one night, or thor-
oughly fomented two or three times, and
then blistered with the tincture of can-
tharides. As soon as the matter can
plainly be felt it may be let out with the
lancet; but it is very doubtful whether
it is not the best plan to permit the ab-
iscess to break. The bowels should be
gently moved by giving a pint, or some-
what less, according to age, of castor oil,
.and afterwards two or three drachms of

nitre, with half a drachm of tartar emetic,
may be mixed with the mash twice a day,
on which food alone the colt should be
fed, in addition to gruel, and a little grass
or clover if these are to be had, or if not,
a few steamed carrots. The disease has
a tendency to get well naturally, but if it
is not kept within moderate bounds it is
very apt to lay the foundation of roaring
or whistling. Any chronic swelling which
is left behind may be removed by rubbing
in a weak ointment of biniodide of mer-
cury (half drachm to the ounce.)

HORSE, Colt, Distemper. (See Horse,
Strangles.)

HORSE, Lampas. — Lampas is an active
inflammation of the ridges, or " bars," in
the roof of the mouth, generally oc-
curring in the young horse while he is
shedding his teeth, or putting up the
tushes. Sometimes, however, it comes on,
independently of this cause, from over-
feeding with corn after a run at grass.
The mucous membrane of the roof of
the mouth swells so much that it projects
below the level of the nippers, and is so
tender that all hard and dry food is re-
fused. The treatment is extre/nely sim-
ple, consisting in the scarification of the
part with a sharp knife or lancet, after
which the swelling generally subsides, and
is gone in a day or two ; but should it
obstinately continue, as will sometimes
happen, a stick of lunar caustic must be
gently rubbed over the part every day
until a cure is completed. This is far
better than the red hot iron, whic\ was
formerly so constantly used, with good ef-
fect, it is true, and not accompanied by
any cruelty, as the mucous membrane is
nearly insensible, but the caustic is more
rapid and effectual in stimulating the ves-
sels to a healthy action, and on that score
should be preferred. If the lampas is
owing to the cutting of a grinder, relief
will be afforded by a crucial incision across
the protruding gum.

HORSE, Barbs, Paps, Etc. — The swel-
ling at the mouth of the ducts may gen-
erally be relieved by a dose of physic
and green food, but should it continue, a
piece of lunar caustic may be held for a
moment against the opening of the duct
every second day, and after two are three
applications the thickening will certainly
disappear.

HORSE, Vives. — Where vives, or chron-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

89

ically enlarged submaxillary glands, are
met with, the application of the ointment
of biniodide of mercury, according to the
directions given for splints (see Horse
Splints), will almost certainly cause their
reduction to a natural state.

HORSE, Gastritis. — Gastritis (acute in-
flammation of the stomach) is extremely
rare in the horse as an idiopathic disease ;
but it sometimes occurs from eating vege-
table poisons as food, or from the wilful
introduction of arsenic into this organ, or,
lastly, from kicking off corrosive external
applications, which have been used for
mange. The symptoms from poisoning
will a good deal depend upon the article
which has been taken, but in almost all
cases in which vegetable poisons have
been swallowed there is a strange sort of
drowsiness, so that the horse does not lie
down and go to sleep, but props himself
against a wall or tree with his head hang-
ing almost to the ground. As the drow-
siness increases he often falls down in his
attempt to rest himself completely, and
when on the ground his breathing is loud
and hard, and his sleep is so unnaturally
sound that he can scarcely be roused from
it. At length convulsions occur and death
soon takes place. This is the ordinary
course of poisoning with yew, which is
sometimes picked up with the grass after
the clippings have dried, for in its fresh
state the taste is too bitter for the palate,
and the horse rejects the mouthful of
.grass in which it is involved. May-weed
and water parsley will also produce nearly
similar symptoms. The treatment in each
case should be by rousing the horse me-
chanically, and at the same time giving
him six or eight drachms of aromatic spirit
of ammonia, in a pint or two of good ale,
with a little ginger in it. This may be
repeated every two hours, and the horse
should be perpetually walked about until
the narcotic symptoms are completely gone
off, when a sound sleep will restore him to
his natural state.

Arsenic, when given in large doses,
with an intention to destroy life, produces
intense pain and thirst — the former, evi-
denced by an eager gaze at the flanks,
pawing of the ground, or rolling; and
sometimes by each of these in succession.
The saliva is secreted in increased quanti-
ties, and flows from the mouth, as the
throat is generally too sore to allow of its

being swallowed. The breath soon be-
comes hot and fetid, and purging then
comes on of a bloody mucus, which
soon carries of the patient by exhaustion,
if death does not take place from the im-
mediate effect of the poison on the stom-
ach and brain. Treatment is seldom of
any avail, the most likely remedies being
large bleedings, blisters to the sides of the
chest, and plenty of thin gruel to sheathe
the inflamed surface of the mucous mem-
brane, which is deprived of its epithelial
scales.

Corrosive sublimate is sometimes employ-
ed as a wash in mange, or to destroy lice,
when it may be licked off, and will occa-
sion nearly the same symptoms as arsenic.
The treatment consists in a similar use of
thin starch or guel ; or, if the poison has
recently been given wilfully, of large quan-
tities of white of egg.

HORSE, Arsenic. — (See Horse, Gas-

TRISIS.)

HORSE, Corrosive Sublimate. — (See
Horse, Gastritis.)

HORSE, Poison.— (See Horse, Gas-
tritis.)

HORSE, Staggers, Stomach.— The exact
nature of this disease has never been
clearly made out, and it is now so rare
that there is little chance of its being satis-
factorily explained. The symptoms would
chiefly lead one to suppose the brain to
be implicated ; but there is so close a sym-
pathy between that organ and the stomach,
that we can easily account in that way for
the cerebral manifestations. A theory has
been propounded, that it is seated in the
par vagum, or pneumogastric nerve ; and
as all the parts with which that nerve is
connected are affected, there is some
ground for the hypothesis ; but it is not
supported by the demonstration of anat-
omy, simply, perhaps, because of the dif-
ficulty in the way of prosecuting the pa-
thology of the nerves. The first onset of
the disease is marked by great heaviness
of the eyes, soon going on to drowsiness ;
the head dropping into the manger, even
while feeding is in progress. It generally
makes its appearance after a long fast;
and it is supposed by some writers to be
owing to the demands made by the stom-
ach on the brain, when in an exhausted
condition for want of its usual supplies.
This theory is supported by the fact that,
in the present day, when every horsemas-

9o

HORSE—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

ter knows the danger of working his horses
without feeding them at intervals of five, or
at most six hours, the stomach staggers are
almost unknown. Even when the disease
shows itself at grass it is almost always
manifested directly after the horse is first
turned out, when he gorges himself with
much-coveted food, which has long been
withheld, and his brain is affected in a
manner similar to that which follows a
long fast from every kind of food. In a
short time, if the affection of the brain is
not relieved, that organ becomes still more
severely implicated, and convulsions or
paralysis put an end to the attack. Dur-
ing the course of the disease the breath-
ing is affected, and there is generally an
almost total cessation of the secretions of
bile and urine, which may either be the
cause or the effect of the condition of the
brain. With this state of uncertainty as
to the essence of the disease, it is some-
what empirical to lay down any rules for
its treatment; and, as we before remark-
ed, it is now so rare that they are scarce-
ly necessary. If care be taken to feed
the horse properly, he will never suffer
from stomach staggers in the stable; and
at grass, the attack is seldom observed
until he is beyond the reach of any reme-
dies. Still, it may be as well to observe,
that the usual plan of proceeding has
been to take away blood, so as to relieve
the brain, and to stimulate the stomach to
get rid of its load, by the use of warm
aperients, such as the following :

Take of Barbadoes Aloes - - 4 to 6 drachms.
Tincture of Ginger - 3 drachms.
Dissolve the aloes in a pint of hot water, then
add the tincture, and when nearly cool give as a
drench.

HORSE, Dyspepsia. — Every domestic
animal suffers in health if he is constantly
fed on the same articles, and man himself,
perhaps, more than they do. Partridges
are relished by him early in September,
but toujours perdrix would disgust the
most inveterate lover of that article of
food. Dogs are too often made to suffer
from being fed on the same meal, flavor-
ed with similar flesh or broth, from one
month to another. It is well known that
cattle and sheep must change their pas-
ture, or they soon lose condition; and
yet horses are expected to go on eating
oats and hay for years together without
injury to health; and at the same time

are often exposed to the close air of a
confined stable, and to an irregular
amount of exercise. We cannot, there-
fore, wonder that the master is often told
that some one or other of his horses is
" a little off his feed ;" nor should we be
surprised that the constant repetition of
the panacea for this, " a dose of physic,"
should at length permanently establish
the condition which at first it would
always alleviate. It is a source of won-
der that the appetite continues so good
as it does, in the majority of horses,
which are kept in the stable on the same
kind of food, always from July to May,
and often through the other months,
also. The use of a few small bundles of
vetches, lucerne, or clover in the spring
is supposed to be quite sufficient to re-
store tone to the stomach, and undoubt-
edly they are better than no change at
all; but at other seasons of the year
something may be done towards the pre-
vention of dyspepsia by varying the
quality of the hay, and by the use of a
few carrots once or twice a week. In
many stables, one rick of hay is made to
serve throughout the whole or a great
part of the year, which is a very bad
plan, as a change in this important article
of food is as much required as a change
of pasturage when the animal is at grass.
When attention is paid to this circum-
stance, the appetite will seldom fail in
horses of a good constitution, if they are
regularly worked; but without it, resort
must occasionally be had to a dose of
physic. It is from a neglect of this pre-
caution that so many horses take to eat
their litter, in preference to their hay ; for
if the same animal was placed in a straw-
yard for a month, without hay, and then
allowed access to both, there would be
little doubt that he would prefer the lat-
ter. Some horses are naturally so vora-
cious that they are always obliged to be
supplied with less than they desire, and
they seldom suffer from loss of appetite ;
but delicate feeders require the greatest
care in their management. When the
stomach suffers in this way it is always
desirable to try what a complete change
of food will do before resorting to medi-
cine; and, if it can be obtained, green
food of some kind should be chosen, or
if not, carroty or even steamed potatoes.
In place of hay, sound wheat or barley

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

9*

straw may be cut into chaff, and mixed
with the carrots and corn ; and to this a
little malt-dust may be added, once or
twice a week, so as to alter the flavor.
By continually changing the food in this
way, the most dyspeptic stomach may
often be restored to its proper tone,
without doing harm with one hand while
the other is doing good, as is too often
the case with medicine. The use of the
fashionable " horse-feeds " of the present
day will serve the same purpose ; and if
the slight changes I have mentioned do
not answer, Thorley's or Henri's food
may be tried with great probability of
success.

HORSE, Bots.— The larvae of the cts-
trus equi, a species of gadfly, are often
found in large numbers, attached by a
pair of hooks with which they are pro-
vided, to the cardiac extremity of the
stomach ; they are very rarely met with
in the true digestive portion of this or-
gan, but sometimes in the duodenum or
jejunum in small numbers. A group of
these larva;, which are popularly called
bots, are truly represented below, but
sometimes nearly all the cardiac ex-
tremity of the stomach is occupied with
them, the interstices being occupied by
little projections, which are caused by
those that have let go their hold, and

fig. 25.

GROUP OF BOTS ATTACHED TO THE
STOMACH.

have been expelled with the food. Sev-
eral of these papillae are shown on the
engraving, which delineates also* the ap-
pearance of the bots themselves, so that
no one can fail to recognize them when
he sees them. This is important, for it
often happens that a meddlesome groom

when he sees them expelled from or
hanging to the verge of the anus, as they
often do for a short time, thinks it neces-
sary to use strong medicine; whereas, in
the first place he does no good, for none
is known which will kill the larvae without,
danger to the horse; and in the second,,
if he will only have a little patience,,
every bot will come away in the natural
course of things; and until the horse is,
turned out to grass, during the season
when the oestrus deposits its eggs, he will
never have another in his stomach.

The oestrus equi comes out from the
pupa state in the middle and latter part
of summer, varying according to the sea-
son, and the female soon finds the proper
nidus for her eggs in the hair of the near-
est horse turned out to grass. She man-
ages to glue them to the sides of the hair
so firmly that no ordinary friction will get
rid of them, and her instinct teaches her
to select those parts within reach of the
horse's tongue, such the hair of the fore
legs and sides. Here they remain until
the heat of the sun hatches them, when,,
being no larger in diameter than a small
pin, each larva is licked off and carried
down the gullet to the stomach, to the
thick epithelium, to which it soon attaches,
itself by its hooks. Here it remains until
the next spring, having attained the size
which is represented in the engraving
during the course of the first two months
of its life, and then it fulfills its allotted
career, by letting go and being carried
out with the dung. On reaching the
outer air it soon assumes the chrysalis
condition, and in three or four weeks
bursts its covering to become the perfect
insect.

From this history it will be evident that
no preventive measures will keep off the
attacks of the fly when the horse is at
grass, and, indeed, in those districts where
they abound, they will deposit their ova
in the hair of the stabled horse if he is.
allowed to stand still for a few minutes.
The eggs are, however, easily recognized
in any horse but a chestnut, to which
color they closely assimilate, and as they
are never deposited in large numbers on
the stabled horse, they may readily be
removed by the groom. Unlike other
parasites, they seem to do little or no-
harm, on account of the insensible nature
of the part of the stomach to which they

'92

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

are attached, and moreover, their presence
is seldom discovered until the season of
their migration, when interference is un-
called for. On all accounts, therefore, it
is unnecessary to enter into the question,
whether it is possible to expel them ; and
even if by chance one comes away pre-
maturely it will be wise to avoid interfer-
ing by attempting to cause the expulsion
-of those left behind.

HORSE, Bowels, Inflammation of the.
— There are two divisions of the abdom-
inal serous sac, one of which lines the
walls of the cavity, and the other covers
the viscera which lie in it. In human
medicine, when the former is inflamed,
the disease is termed peritonitis, and when
the latter is the subject of inflammatory
action it is called enteritis. But though
in theory this distinction is made, in prac-
tice it is found that the one seldom exists
without the other being developed to a
greater or less extent. Veterinary writers
have generally taken the nomenclature
adopted in human anatomy and pathol-
ogy, but in regard to the inflammations of
the bowels, they define peritonitis as inflam-
mation of the peritoneal or serous coat,
and enteritis as inflammation of the mus-
cular coat. Our own belief is, that dur-
ing life it is impossible by any known
symptoms to distinguish the exact locale
of any inflammation of the bowels but
that of their mucous lining, which will
presently be described, and that wherever
the actual serous covering of the bowels
as involved the muscular fibres beneath it
will be implicated, but the serious and
fatal symptoms manifested in such cases
are not dependent upon the latter, but are
due entirely to the lesions of the serous

• coat. We have examined numberless
fatal cases of supposed enteritis, and have
uniformly found signs of inflammation of
the serous investment, sometimes impli-
cating the musclar fibres beneath, and
often extending to the peritoneal lining
of the walls of the abdomen, but we have
never yet seen marks of inflammation in
the muscular tissue without the serous

• covering being affected to a much greater
extent. We believe, therefore, that the
distinction is erroneously founded, and
that, theoretically, the same definition
should be made of the two diseases as is
in use by human pathologists, though
^practically this is of little importance.

There is no well made out inflammation
of muscular tissue (except that of the
heart) in which the symptoms are so ur-
gent and so rapidly followed by a fatal
issue as in the latter stages of the disease
described by Mr. Percivall under the
head enteritis, as follows : " The next
stage borders on delirium. The eye ac-
quires a wild, haggard, and unnatural
stare — the pupil dilates — his heedless and
dreadful throes render approach to him
quite perilous, he is an object not only of
compassion but of apprehension, and
seems fast hurrying to his end — when all
at once, in the midst of his agonizing
torments, he stands quiet, as though every
pain had left him and he were going to
recover. His breathing becomes tran-
quillized— his pulse sunk beyond all per-
ception— his body bedewed with a cold,
clammy sweat — he is in a tremor from
head to foot, and about the legs and ears
has even a dead-like feel. The mouth
feels deadly chill — the lip drops pendu-
lous, and the eye seems unconscious of
objects. In fine, death, not recovery, is
at hand. Mortification has seized the
inflamed bowel — pain can no longer be
felt in that which a few minutes ago was
the seat of most exquisite suffering. He
again becomes convulsed, and in a few
more struggles less violent than the former
he expires." Analogy would lead any
careful pathologist to suppose that such
symptoms as these are due to some lesion
of a serous and not a muscular tissue,
and, as we before remarked, we have
satisfied ourselves that such is really the
case. We have seen lymph, pus, and
serum effused in some cases of enteritis,
and mortification extending to a large
surface of the peritoneal coat in others,
but we have never examined a single case
without one or the other of these morbid
results. It may be said that so long as
the symptoms are correctly described
their exact seat is of no consequence;
but in this instance it is probable that the
ordinary definition of enteritis as an in-
flammation of the muscular coat may
lead to a timid practice in its treatment,
which would be attended with worse re-
sults. We have no fault to find with the
usual descriptions of the two diseases, or
with their ordinary treatment, but we pro-
test against the definition which is given
of them.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

93

An examination of the cause of inflam-
mation of the bowels is the only means
by which the one form can be distin-
guished from the other. If it has been
brought about from exposure to cold, or
from over-stimulating medicines given
for colic, the probability is that the serous
covering of the intestines themselves is
chiefly involved ; while if it has followed
castration it may generally be conclud-
ed that the peritoneal lining of the
abdominal muscles has taken on in-
flammatory action by immediate exten-
sion from the serous lining of the inguinal
canal, which is continuous with it. In
each case, however, the symptons are as
nearly as may be the same, and without
knowing the previous history, we believe
no one could distinguish the one disease
from the other — nor should the treatment
vary in any respect.

The symptoms of peritoneal inflamma-
tion vary in intensity, and in the rapidity
of their development, but they usually
show themselves in the following order :
At first there is simple loss of appetite,
dulness of eye, and a general uneasiness,
which are soon followed by a slight rigor
or shivering. The pulse becomes rapid,
but small and wiry, and the horse be-
comes very restless, pawing his litter, and
looking back at his sides in a wistful
and anxious manner. In the next
stage all these signs are aggravated ; th e
hind legs are used to strike at but not
touch the belly ; and the horse lies down,
rolls on his back and struggles violendy.
The pulse becomes quicker and harder,
but it is small. The belly is acutely ten-
der and hard to the touch, the bowels are
costive, and the horse is constantly turn-
ing round, moaning, and regarding his
flanks with the most anxious expression
of countenance. Next comes on the
stage so graphically described by Mr.
Percivall in the passage which we have
quoted, the whole duration of the attack
being from twelve to forty-eight hours in
acute cases, and extending to three or
four days in those which are denominated
sub-acute.

In the treatment of this disease, as in
all those implicating serous membranes,
blood must be taken largely, and in a full
stream, the quantity usually required to
make a suitable impression being from
six to eight quarts. The belly should be

fomented with very hot water, by two
men holding against it a doubled blanket
dipped in that fluid, which should be-
constantly changed, to keep up the tem-
perature. The bowels should be back-
raked, and the following drench should
be given every six hours till it operates,
which should be hastened by injections
of warm water.

Take of Linseed Oil
Laudanum

- I pint.
• 2 ounces.

If the first bleeding does not give re-
lief in six or eight hours, it must be re-
peated to the extent of three or four
quarts, and at the same time some liquid
blister may be rubbed into the skin of the
abdomen, continuing the fomentations, at
short intervals, under that part, which will
hasten its operation. The diet should be
confined to thin gruel, or bran mashes,
and no hay should be allowed until the
severity of the attack has abated.

To distinguish this disease from colic is
of the highest importance, and for this
purpose it will be necessary to describe
the symptoms of the latter disease, so as
to compare the two together.
HORSE, Peritonitis.— (See Horse, Bow-
els, Inflammation of.)

HORSE, Enteritis.— (See Horse, Bow-
els, Inflammation of.)

HORSE, Colic. — In this disease there
is spasm of the muscular coat of the in-
testines, generally confined to the caecum
and colon. Various names have been
given to its different forms, such as the
fret, the gripes, spasmodic colic, etc., but
they all display the above feature, and are
only modifications of it, depending upon
the cause which has produced it. In spas-
modic colic the bowels are not unnatu-
rally distended, but in flatulent colic their
distension by gas brings on the spasm,
the muscular fibres being stretched to so
great an extent as to cause them to con-
tract irregularly and with a morbid ac-
tion. Sometimes, when the bowels are
very costive, irritation is established as an
effort of nature to procure the dislodge-
ment of the impacted faecal matters, and
thus a third cause of the disease is dis-
covered. The exact nature and cause
are always to be ascertained from the his-
tory of the case, and its symptoms, and
as the treatment will especially be con-
ducted with a view to a removal of the
cause, they are of the highest impor-

9+

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

tance. The symptoms in all cases of
colic, by which it may be distinguished
from the last described disease, are as fol-
lows. In both acute pain is manifested
by stamping, looking at the flanks, and
rolling; but in enteritis the pain is con-
stant, while in colic there are intervals of
rest, when the horse seems quite easy, and
often begins to feed. In both the poor
(animal strikes at his belly; but in the
former he takes great care not to touch
the skin, while in the latter (colic) he will
often bring the blood by his desperate ef-
forts to get rid of his annoyance. In en-
teritis the belly is hot and exquisitely
tender to the touch, but in colic it is not
unnaturally warm, and gradual pressure
with a broad surface, such as the whole
hand, always is readily borne, and gener-
ally affords relief. The pulse also is little
affected in colic ; and lastly, the attack is
very much more sudden than in perito-
neal inflammation.

Sure are the general signs by which a
case of colic may be distinguished from
inflammation of the bowels, but beyond
this it is necessary to investigate whether
it is pure spasmodic colic or produced by
flatulence, or by an obstruction in the
bowels.

In spasmodic colic all the above symp-
toms are displayed, without any great
distension of the abdomen ; and if the
history of the case is gone into, it will be
found that after coming in heated, the
horse has been allowed to drink cold
water, or has been exposed in an exhaust-
ed state to a draught of air.

In flatulent colic the abdomen is enor-
mously distended; the attack is not so
sudden, and the pain is not so intense,
being rather to be considered, in the av-
erage of cases, as a high degree of un-
easiness, occasionally amounting to a
sharp pang, than giving the idea of ago-
ny. In aggravated attacks the distension
is so enormous as to leave no doubt of
the nature of the exciting cause. Here
also the spasms are often brought on by
drinking cold water while the horse is in
a heated and exhausted state.

Where there is a stoppage in the bow-
els to cause the spasm, on questioning the
groom, it will be found that the dung for
some days has been hard and in small
lumps, with occasional patches of mucus

upon it. In other respects there is little
to distinguish this variety from the last.

The treatment must in all cases be con-
ducted on a totally different plan to that
necessary when inflammation is present.
Bleeding will be of no avail, at all events
in the early stages, and before the disease
has gone on, as it sometimes will, into an
inflammatory condition. On the other
hand, stimulating drugs, which would be
fatal in enteritis, will here generally suc-
ceed in causing a return of healthy mus-
cular action. The disease is indeed simi-
lar in its essential features to cramp in the
muscles of the human leg or arm, the
only difference being that it does not as
speedily disappear, because it is impossi-
ble to get at the muscular coat of the in-
testimes, and apply the stimulus of fric-
tion.

As soon as a case is clearly made out
to be of a spasmodic nature, one or other
of the following drenches should be given,
the choice being made in proportion to
the intensity of the symptoms :

i. Sulphuric Ether i ounce.

Laudanum 2 "

Compound decoction of Aloes * * 5 "
Mix and give every half hour until relief is af-
forded.

2. Spirit of Turpentine 4 ounces.

Linseed oil - - • - • - . 12 "
Laudanum -.---... iy£ "

Mix and give every hour until the pain ceases.

3. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia - - 1% ounces.

Laudanum 2 "

Tincture of Ginger .... \*£ •<
Hot Ale 1 quart.

Mix and giv every hour.

Hot water should also be applied to
the abdomen, as described under the
head of Enteritis, and if an enema pump
is at hand, large quantities of water, at a
temperature of 100 9 Fahrenheit, should
be injected per anum, until in fact the
bowel will hold no more without a dan-
gerous amount of force.

In flatulent colic the same remedies
may be employed, but the turpentine
mixture is here especially beneficial. The
use of warm water injections will often
bring away large volumes of wind, which
at once affords relief, and the attack is
cured. Sometimes, however, the disten-
sion goes on increasing, and the only
chance of recovery consists in a puncture
of the caeum, as it lies high in the right
flank, where, according to French veteri-
nary writers, it may often be opened

HORSE—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

95

when greatly distended, without dividing
the serous covering. The operation, how-
ever, should only be performed by an ex-
perienced hand, as it is one of great dan-
ger, and a knowledge of the anatomy of
the parts concerned is required to select
the most available situation.

The treatment of impaction must be
completely a posteriori, for all anterior
proceedings with aperient medicines will
only aggravate the spasms. Injection of
gallons of warm water, or of gruel con-
taining a quart of castor oil and half a
pint of spirit of turpentine, will some-
times succeed in producing a passage,
and at the same time the spasm may be
relieved by the exhibition at the mouth
of one ounce of laudanum and the same
quantity of sulphuric ether. If there is
any tenderness of the abdomen, or the
pulse has a tendency to quicken, it will
be better to resort to bleeding, which
alone will sometimes cause the peristaltic
action to be restored in a healthy man-
ner. The case, however, requires great
patience and judgment, and as no great
good can often be effected, it is highly
necessary to avoid doing harm, which
•can hardly be avoided if the remedies
employed are not at once successful.

When the urgent symptoms of colic in
any of its forms are relieved, great care
must be exercised that a relapse does not
take place from the use of improper food.
The water should be carefully chilled,
and a warm bran mash should be given,
containing in it half a feed of bruised
oats. Nothing but these at moderate in-
tervals, in the shape of food or drink,
should be allowed for a day or two, and
then the horse may gradually return to
his customary treatment, avoiding, of
course, everything which may appear to
have contributed to the development of
colic.

HORSE, Diarrhoea and Dysentery. — A
distinction is attempted to be made be-
tween these two diseases — the former
name being confined to an inflammation
of the mucous membrane of the small
intestines, while the latter is said to reside
in the large. It is very difficult, however,
if not impossible, to distinguish the one
from the other by the symptoms during
life, and in ordinary practice they may be
considered as one disease, the treatment
•depending in great measure on the ex-

citing cause. This in most cases is to be
found in the use of too violent " physic,"
or in not resting the horse after it has be-
gun to act until some hours after it has
completely " set." Sometimes it depends
upon the cells of the colon having long
been loaded with faeces, which causes, at
length, their mucous lining to inflame, the
consequent secretion having a tendency
to loosen them and procure their dismis-
sal, either by solution or by the forcible
contraction of the muscular coat. This
last disease is known by the name of
" molten grease " to old-fashioned farriers,
the clear mucus which envelopes the
lumps of faeces being supposed to be de-
rived from the internal fat that is gen-
erally plentifully developed in the highly
fed horses that are especially subject to
the attack. For practical purposes,
therefore, we may consider the different
forms under the head of superpurgation,
diarrhoea, and dysentery, meaning by the
last name that condition which is brought
about by and attended with a discharge
of lumps of hard faecal matter enveloped
in mucus.

Superpurgation is sometimes so severe
as to place a delicate horse in great dan-
ger. When the action of the bowels has
gone on for three or four days consecu-
tively, and there is no disposition to
"set," the eyes become staring and glassy,
the pulse is feeble, and the heart flutters
in the most distressing manner, the
mouth has a peculiarly offensive smell,
the tongue being pale and covered with a
white fur having a brown centre. The
abdomen is generally tucked tightly up,
but in the later stages large volumes of
gas are evolved, and it becomes tumid.

The treatment should consist in the
exhibition of rice, boiled till quite soft,
and if not taken voluntarily, it should be
given as a drench, mixed into a thin
liquid form with warm water. If the
case is severe, one or two ounces of lau-
danum may be added to a quart of rice
milk, and given every time the bowels
act with violence. Or a thin gruel may
be made with wheat meal, and the lauda-
num be mixed with that instead of the
rice. A perseverance in these remedies
will almost invariably produce the desired
effect if they have not been deferred
until the horse is very much exhausted,
when a pint of port wine may be sub-

96

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

stituted for the laudanum with advant-
age.

In diarrhoea resulting from cold, or
over-exertion, the treatment should be
exactly like that prescribed for superpur-
gation, but it will sometimes be necessary
to give chalk in addition to the remedies
there alluded to. The rice or flour-milk
may be administered as food, and the
following drench given by itself every
time there is a discharge of liquid faeces :

Take of Powdered Opium - - - i drachm.

Tincture of Catechu - • % ounce.

Chalk Mixture - - - - I pint.
Mix and give as a drench.

During the action of these remedies
the body must be kept warm by proper
clothing, and the legs should be encased
in flannel bandages, previously made hot
at the fire, and renewed as they become
cold.

In dysentery (or molten grease) it is
often necessary to take a little blood away,
if there is evidence of great inflammation
in the amount of mucus surrounding the
faeces, and when aperient medicine does
not at once put a stop to the cause of
irritation by bringing the lumps away
from the cells of the colon. Back-raking,
and injection of two ounces of laudanum
and a pint of castor oil with gruel, should
be adopted in the first instance, but they
will seldom be fully efficient without the
aid of linseed oil given by the mouth. A
pint of this, with half a pint of good cas-
tor oil, will generally produce a copious
discharge of lumps, and then the irrita-
tion ceases without requiring any further
interference.

Whenever there is diarrhea or dysen-
tery present to any extent, rice-water
should be the sole drink.

HORSE Strangulation and Rupture. —
Mechanical violence is done to the stom-
ach and bowels in various ways, but in
every case the symptoms will be those of
severe inflammation of the serous coat,
speedily followed by death, if not relieved
when relief is possible. Sometimes the
stomach is ruptured from over-distension
— at others the small intestines have been
known to share the same fate, but the
majority of cases are due to strangulation
of a particular portion of the bowels, by
being tied or pressed upon by some sur-
rounding band. This may happen either
from a loop of bowel being forced through

an opening in the mesentery or meso-
colon, or from a band of organized lymph,
the result of previous inflammation — or
from one portion of the bowels forcing
itself into another, like the inverted finger
of a glove, and the included portion be-
ing firmly contracted upon by the exter-
ior bowel, so as to produce dangerous
pressure (intussusception), or, lastly, from
a portion or knuckle of intestine forcing
its way through an opening in the walls
of the abdomen, and then called hernia or
rupture, which being pressed upon by the
edges of the opening becomes strangu-
lated, and if not relieved inflames, and
then mortifies. None of these cases are
amenable to treatment (and indeed they
cannot often be discovered with certainty
during life, the symptoms resembling those
of enteritis), except strangulated hernia,
which should be reduced either by the
pressure of the hands, or by the aid of
an operation with the knife — which will
be described under the chapter which
treats of the several operations. When-
ever inflammation of the bowels is attend-
ed with obstinate constipation, the walls
of the abdomen should be carefully ex-
amined, and especially the inguinal canal,
scrotum, and navel, at which points in
most cases the hernia makes it appear-
ance. A swelling at any other part may,
however, contain a knuckle of intestine,
which has found its way through the ab-
dominal parietes in consequence of a
natural opening existing there, or of one
having been made by some accidental
puncture with a spike of wood or iron.
The swelling is generally round, or nearly
so, and gives a drum-like sound on being
tapped with the fingers. It feels hard to
the touch in consequence of the contents
being constricted, but it gives no sensation
of solidity, and may be generally detected
by these signs. None but an educated
hand can, however, be relied on to dis-
tinguish a ventral hernia from any other
tumor. When it occurs at the scrotum or
navel the case is clear enough.

HORSE, Worms. — Intestinal worms in
the horse are chiefly of two species, both
belonging to the genus ascaris. Bots, as
inhabiting the stomach, have already been
described with that organ; and, moreover,
they should never be confounded with
what are called properly and scientifical-
ly, " worms." Of these, the larger spe-

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

97

cies resembles the common earthworm in
s.11 respects but color, which is a pinkish
white. It inhabits the small intestines,
though it is sometimes, but very rarely,
found in the stomach. The symptoms are
a rough, staring, hollow coat — a craving
appetite — more or less emaciation — the
passage of mucus with the foeces, and
very often a small portion of this remains
outside the anus, and dries there. That
part generally itches, and in the attempt
to rub it the tail is denuded of hair ; but
this may arise from vermin in it, or
from mere irritation of the anus from
other causes. When these several symp-
toms are combined, it may with some de-
gree of certainty be supposed that there
are worms in the intestines, but before
proceeding to dislodge them, it is always
the wisest plan to obtain proof positive of
their existence, by giving an ordinary
dose of physic, when, on watching the
evacuations, one or more worms may gen-
erally be discovered if they are present.
When the case is clearly made out the
plan of treatment is as follows :

Take of Tartar Emetic I drachm.

Powdered Ginger - ~ % "
Linseed Meal sufficient to make into a
ball with boiling water.

One should be given every morning for
a week, then a dose of physic, linseed
oil being the most proper. Let the stom-
ach rest a week ; give another course of
balls and dose of physic, after which let
the horse have a drachm of sulphate of
iron (powdered) twice a day with his feed
of corn.

There is no medicine which is so effect-
ual for moving worms in the horse as tartar
emetic, and none which is so entirely in-
nocuous to the stomach. Calomel and
spirit of turpentine Were formerly in use
as vermifuges, but they are both danger-
ous drugs; the former, if given for any
length of time, causing great derange-
ment of the stomach and liver; and the
latter often producing considerable in-
flammation after a single dose, if suffi-
ciently large to cause the expulsion of the
worms. Linseed oil given in half-pint
doses every morning is also an excellent
vermifuge, but not equal to the tartar
emetic. If this quantity does not relax the
bowels, it may be increased until they aae
rendered slightly more loose than usual,
but avoiding anything like purgation.

The smaller species of intestinal worm
chiefly inhabits the rectum, but is oc-
casionally found in the colon and caecum.
It produces great irritation and uneasiness,
but has not the same prejudicial effect on
the health as the larger parasite. It is
about one to two inches in length, and
somewhat smaller in diameter than a crow
quill. These worms are commonly dis-
tinguished as ascarides, but both this spe-
cies and the round worm belong to the
genus ascaris. The term thread worm is
more correctly applied, as they are not
unlike sections of stout threat or cotton.
The only symptom by which their pres-
ence can be made out is the rubbing, of
the tail, when if, on examination, no ver-
min or eruption, is found in the dock, it
may be presumed that worms exist in the
rectum. The remedy for these worms is
by the injection every morning for a week
of a pint of linseed oil, containing two
drachms of spirits of turpentine. This will
either kill or bring away the worms, with
the exception of a few which are driven
by it higher up into the colon, but by
waiting a week or ten days (during which
time they will have re-entered the rectum)-
and then repeating the process, they may
generally be entirely expelled. The sul-
phate of iron must be given here, as
before described.

HORSE, Liver, Diseases of the.— The
liver or the horse is less liable to disease
than that of any other domestic animal,
and the symptoms of its occurrence are
so obscure that it is seldom until a post-
mortem examination that a discovery is
made of its existence. This unerring
guide, however, informs us that the liver
is sometimes unnaturally enlarged and
hard, at others softened, and in others
again the subject of cancerous deposits.
It is also attacked by inflammation, of
which the symptoms are feverish ; rapid
pulse, not hard, and generally fuller than
usual ; appetite bad ; restlessness, and the'
patient often looking round to his right
side with an anxious expression, not in-
dicative of severe pain; slight tenderness
of the right side; but this not easily made
out satisfactorily. Bowels generally con-
fined, but there is sometimes diarrhoea.
Very frequently the whites of the eyes
show a tinge of yellow, but anything
like jaundice is unknown. The treat-

98

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

ment must consist in the use of calomel
and opium, with mild purging, thus :
Take of Calomel,

Powdered Opium, of each one drachm.
Linseed Meal and boiling water enough
to make into a ball, which should be
given night and morning. Every other
day a pint of linseed oil should be ad-
ministered.

The diet should if possible be confined
to green food, which will do more good
than medicine; indeed, in fine weather, a
run at grass during the day should be pre-
ferred to all other remedies, taking care to
shelter the horse at night in an airy, loose
box.

HORSE, Kidneys, Diseases of the.—
These organs are particularly prone to
disease, and are subject to inflammation;
to diabetes, or profuse staling ; to hema-
turia, or a discharge of blood, and to tor-
. pidity, or inaction.

Inflammation of the kidneys {nephritis)
is generally produced by an exposure of
the loins to wet and cold, as in carriage-
horses standing about in the rain during
the winter season. Sometimes it follows
violent muscular exertion, and is then said
to be caused by a strain in the back, but
in these cases there is probably an expo-
sure to cold in a state of exhaustion, or
by the rupture of a branch of the renal
.artery or vein, as the inflammation of one
organ can scarcely be produced by the
strain of another. The symptoms are a
constant desire to void the urine, which is
■ of a very dark color— often almost black.
Great pain, as evidenced by the expres-
sion of countenance and by groans, as
well as by frequent wistful looks at the
loins. On pressing these parts there is
some tenderness, but not excessive, as in
rheumatism. The pulse is quick, hard
and full. The attitude of the
hind quarters is peculiar, the horse
standing in a straddling position with his
back arched, and refusing to move with-
out absolute compulsion. It is sometimes
difficult to distinguish nephritis from in-
flammation of the neck of the bladder,
but by attending to the state of the urine,
'-which is dark brown or black in the former
•case, and nearly of a natural color in the
latter, the one may be diagnosed from
the other. To make matters still more
clear, the oiled hand may be passed into
the rectum, when in nephritis the bladder
will be found contracted and* empty (the

urine being so pungent as to irritate that
organ), while in inflammation or spasm
of its neck, it will be distended, often to
a large size. The treatment to be adopt-
ed must be active, as the disease runs a
very rapid course, and speedily ends in
death if neglected. A.large quantity of
blood must at once be taken. The skin
must be acted on energetically, so as to
draw the blood to its surface. The ap-
plication of hot water, as recommended in
Pneumonia (See Horse, Pneumonia),
may be tried, and in many cases it has
acted like a charm. Failing the means
for carrying out either of these remedies,
the loins should be rubbed with an em-
brocation consisting of olive oil, liquor
ammonia and laudanum in equal parts,
but cantharides and turpentine must be
carefully avoided, as likely to be absorbed,
when they would add fuel to the fire. A
fresh sheepskin should be warmed with
hot (not boiling) water, and applied over
the back, and the liniment should be
rubbed in profusely every hour, restoring
the skin to its place immediately after-
wards. Mustard is sometimes used in-
stead of ammonia, and as it is always at
hand, it may form a good substitute, but
it is not nearly so powerful an irritant to
the skin as the latter, especially when
evaporation is prevented by the sheepskin,
or by a piece of any waterproof article.
A mild aperient may be given, linseed oil
being the best form, but if the bowels
continue obstinate, and it is necessary to
repeat it, eight or ten drops of croton oil
may be added to a pint of the oil, great
care being taken to assist its action by
raking and injection, the latter being also
useful as a fomentation to the kidneys.
The diet should consist of scalded linseed
and bran mashes, no water being allowed
without containing sufficient linseed tea
to make it slightly glutinous, but not so
much so as to nauseate the patient. If
the symptoms are not greatly abated in
six or eight hours, the bleeding must be
repeated, for upon this remedy the chief
dependence must be placed. A mild and
soothing drench, composed of half an
ounce of carbonate of soda, dissolved in
six ounces of linseed tea, may be given
every six hours, but little reliance can be
placed upon it. The inflammation either
abates after the bleeding, or the horse
dies in a few hours.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

99

HORSE, Diabetes. — Diabetes of late
years has been much more frequent than
was formerly the case, and especially
among race-horses and hunters, probably
owing to the enormous quantities of corn
which they are allowed in the present day.
But whatever may be the cause, the symp-
toms are clear enough, the horse con-
stantly staling and passing large quanti-
ties of* urine each time. The treatment
should be conducted on the principle that
the cause should if possible be ascertain-
ed and removed. Mowburnt hay will
often bring on diabetes, and new oats
have a similar tendency in delicate horses.
In any case it is wise to make a total change
in the food as far as it can possibly be
done. Green meat will often check it at
once, and a bran mash containing a few
carrots have a similar chance of doing
good. With these alterations in the
■quality of the food, attention should also
be paid to the quantity of the corn,
which should be reduced if more than a
peck a day has been given, and beans
should be substituted for a part of the
oats. Half a drachm of the sulphate of
iron (powdered) should be mixed with
each feed (that is, four times a day), and
the horse should be well clothed and his
legs warmly bandaged in a cool and airy
(but not cold and draughty) loose box.
By attention to these directions the attack
may generally be subdued in a few days,
but there is always a great tendency to
its return. Should it persist in spite of
the adoption of the measures already re-
commended, the following ball may be
tried:

Take of Gallic Acid - - - % drachm.
Opium - - - - I drachm.
Treacle and Linseed Meal enough to make a
ball, which should be given twice a day.

HORSE, Haematuria. — Hematuria.
like diabetes, is easily recognized by the
presence of blood in greater or less quan-
tities passed with the urine. It is not,
however, of the bright red color natural
to pure blood, but it is more or less dingy,
and sometimes of a smoky brown color,
as occurs in inflammation. Bloody urine,
however, may often be passed without
any sign of that condition, and therefore
unaccompanied by pain, or any other ur-
gent symptom. The causes are exceed-
ingly various. Sometimes a parasitic
"worm {Strongylus gigas) has been discov-

ered, after death from haematuria, in the
kidney, and was apparently the cause of
the mischief. At others, this organ has
been found disorganized by cancer or
melanosis — and again a sharp calculus
has been known to bring on consider-
able bleeding, and this last cause is by no
means infrequent The symptoms are
the existence of bloody urine, unaccom-
panied by pain or irritation, marking the
absence of nephritis. As to treatment,
little can be done in severe cases, and
mild ones only require rest, a dose of
physic, and perhaps the abstraction of
three or four quarts of blood. Green
food should be given, and the diet should
be attended to as for diabetes. If the
urine is scanty, yet evidently there is no
inflammation, two or three drachms of
nitre may be given with the mash at
night, but this remedy should be em-
ployed with great caution.

HORSE, Kidneys, Inaction of. — Inac-
tion of the kidneys is so common in every
stable that the groom seldom thinks it
necessary even to inform his master of its
occurrence. An ounce of nitre is mixed
and given with a bran mash as a matter
of course, and- sometimes more violent
diuretics are resorted to, such as powder-
ed resin and turpentine. Very often the
kindeys are only inactive because the horse
has not been regurlarly watered, and in
those stables where an unlimited supply
is allowed this condition is comparatively
rare. There is no harm in resorting to
nitre occasionally, but if it is often found
necessary to employ this drug, the
health is sure to suffer, and an altera-
tion in the diet should be tried in prefer-
ence. At all events, if it is given, the
horse should be allowed to drink as much
and as often as he likes, without which
the stimulus to the kidneys will be doubly
prejudicial, from being in too concentrat-
ed a form.

HORSE, Bladder, Diseases of the.— The
bladder is subject to inflammation of its
coats or neck — to spasm — and to the for-
mation of calculi.

Inflammation of the bladder (cystitis)
is not very common, excepting when it is
produced by irritants of a mechanical or
chemical nature. Thus, when the kidneys
secrete a highly irritating urine, the blad-
der suffers in its passage, and we have the
two organs inflamed at the same time.

IOO

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

Again, when cantharides have been given
with a view to stimulate exhausted nature,
or when they are absorbed from the surface
of the skin, as sometimes happens in
blistering, the bladder is liable to become
inflamed. The symptoms are — a quick
pulse — pain in the hind quarter, evinced
by the looks of the animal in that direc-
tion— and constant straining to pass the
urine, which is thick and mixed with mu-
cus, or in aggravated cases with purulent
matter. The treatment to be adopted if
the case is severe will consist in venesec-
tion, back-raking, and purgation with lin-
seed or castor oil, avoiding aloes, which
have a tendeney to irritate the bladder.
Linseed tea should be given as the sole
drink, and scalded linseed mixed with a
bran mash as food. The following ball
may also be given, and repeated if ne-
cessary :

Take of Powdered Opium - - I drachm.
Tarter Emetic - - 1*4 drachm.

To be made up into a ball with Linseed Meal and
boiling water, and given every six hours.

Retention of urine may be due either
to inflammation of the neck of the blad-
der, occasioning a spasmodic closure of
that part, or there may be spasm unat-
tended by inflammation and solely due to
the irritation of some offending substance,
such as a calculus, or a small dose of
cantharides. The treatment in either
case must be directed to the spasmodic
constriction, which is generally under the
control of large doses of opium and
camphor, that is, from one drachm to
two drachms of each, repeated every five
or six hours. If the symptoms are ur-
gent, bleeding may also be resorted to,
and when the bladder is felt to be greatly
distended, no time should be lost in evac-
uating it by means of the catheter, which
operation, however, should only be en-
trusted to a regular practitioner accus-
tomed to its use.

Calculi in the bladder are formed of
several earthy salts, and present various
forms and appearances, which may be
comprised under four divisions : ist. The
mulberry calculus, so named from its re-
semblance to a mulberry, possessing gen-
erally a nucleus. 2d. A very soft kind
resembling fullers' earth in appearance,
and being chiefly composed of phosphate
of lime and mucus. 3d. Calculi of a
white or yellowish color, rough externally

and easily friable. And 4th. Those
which are composed of regular layers,
and which are harder than the second
and third varieties.

The mulberry calculus, from its ex-
tremely rough surface, occasions more
irritation than other forms, but during
life it is impossible to ascertain the exact
chemical nature of the calculus which
may be ascertained to exist. These cal-
culi sometimes attain an immense size,
weighing several pounds. The symp-
toms are a difficulty of voiding the urine,
which generally comes away in jerks
after great straining and groaning. The
horse remains with his legs extended for
some time afterwards, and evidently indi-
cates that he feels as if his bladder was
not relieved. Often there is muco-puru-
lent matter mixed with the urine, which
is rendered thick and glutinous thereby,
but this only happens in cases of long
standing. The treatment must be either
palliative or curative. If the former, it
should consist in the adoption of the.
means employed for subduing irritation:
and inflammation of the bladder which
have been already described. The cure
can only be effected by removing the.
stone. This requires the performance of
a difficult and dangerous operation
(lithotomy), the details of which can be-
only useful to the professed veterinary
surgeon, and we shall therefore omit them,
here.

HORSE, Generative Organs, Diseases,
of the. — Balanitis, or inflammation of the-
glans penis, ((3a/iavog, glans,) is very com-
mon in the horse, being brought on by
the decomposition of the natural secre-
tions, when they have been allowed to*
collect for any length of time. At first
there is merely a slight discharge of pus,,
but in process of time foul sores break
out, and very often fungus growths spring,
from them, which block up the passage
through the opening of the sheath, and
cause considerable swelling and incon-
venience. These are quite distinct from
warts, which occur in this part just as.
they do in other situations. The treat-
ment requires some skill and experience,
because mild remedies are of no use, and.
severe ones are not unattended with dan-
ger. The parts must first of all be well
cleansed by syringing, or if the end of
the penis can be laid hold of, by washing.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

ior

•with a sponge. The following wash may
then be applied, and it should be repeat-
■ed every day:

Take of Solution of Chloride of Zinc 2 drachms.
Water . i pint. Mix.

If the morbid growths are very exten-
sive, nothing but amputation of the penis
or the use of corrosive sublimate will re-
move them. Severe hemorrhage some-
times follows both of these measures, but
it seldom goes on to a dangerous extent.
Still it is scarcely advisable for any one
but a professional man to undertake the
operation.

In the mare the vagina is sometimes in-
flamed, attended with a copious yellow
discharge. An injection of the wash
mentioned in the last paragraph will gen-
erally soon set the matter right. At first
it should be used only of half the strength,
gradually increasing it, until the full quan-
tity of chloride of zinc is employed.

Inversion of the uterus sometimes fol-
lows parturition, but it is very rare in the
mare. The uterus should be at once re-
placed, using as little force as possible,
and taking care before the hand is with-
drawn that it really is turned back again
from its inverted position.

Nymphomania occurs sometimes in
mares at the time of being " in use," and
goes on to such an extent as to render
them absolutely regardless of pain, for the
time being, though not to make them
lose their consciousness. They will kick
and squeal till they become white with
sweat, and no restraint will prevent them
from trying to continue their violent at-
tempts to destroy everything behind them.
These symptoms are especially developed
in presence of other animus of the same
species, whether mares or geldings; but
the near proximity of an entire horse will
be still worse. If placed in a loose box,
without any restaint whatever, they gen-
erally become more calm, and when the
state is developed, such a plan should al-
ways be adopted. It is chiefly among
highly-fed and lightly-worked mares that
the disease is manifested; and a dose of
physic, with starvation in a loose box,
away from any other horse, will very soon
put an end to it in almost every instance.

HORSE, Phrenitis, or Mad Staggers.—
Phrenitis seldom occurs, except in over-
fed and lightly-worked horses, nor among
them is it by any means a common dis-

ease. The early symptoms are generally
those of an ordinary cold ; there is heavi-
ness of the eyes, with a redness of the
conjunctiva, and want of appetite. After
a day or two occupied by these premoni-
tory signs, which will seldom serve to put
even the most experienced observer on his
guard, the horse becomes suddenly deliri-
ous, attempting to bite and strike every
one who comes near him, regardless of
the ordinary influences of love and fear.
He plunges in his stall, attempts to get free
from his halter rein, and very often suc-
ceeds in doing so, when he will stop at
nothing to gain still further liberty. If
unchecked, he soon dashes himself to
pieces, and death puts an end to his strug-
gles. The only treatment which is of the
slightest use is bleeding till the horse ab-
solutely falls, or till he becomes quite
quiet and tractable, if the case is only a
mild one. Immediately afterwards a large
dose of tartar emetic (two or three
drachms) should be given, followed in an
hour or two by a strong physic ball ; or,
if the case is a very bad one, by a drench,
containing half a pint of castor oil and
six or eight drops of croton oil. Clysters
and back-raking will of course be requir-
ed, to obviate the risk of hard accumula-
tions in the bowels, but where there is
great violence, they cannot always be em-
ployed, and the case must take its chance
in these respects. The diet should be
confined to a few mouthfuls of hay or
grass, with a plentiful supply of water.

HORSE, Epilepsy and Convulsions. —
These diseases, or symptoms, are not often
met with in the adult, but in the foal they
sometimes occur, and are not unattended
with danger. The young thing will per-
haps gallop after its dam round and round
its paddock, and then all at once stop,
stagger, and fall to the ground, where it
lies, struggling with more or less violence,
for a few minutes or longer, and then raises
its head, stares about, gets up, and is ap-
parently as well as ever. It is generally
in the hot days of summer that these at-
tacks occur, and it appears highly prob-
able that the direct rays of the sun play-
ing on the head have something to do
with it. Death seldom takes place during
the first attack, but sometimes after two
or three repetitions, the convulsions go on
increasing, and the foal becomes comatose
and dies. A mild dose of linseed oil is the

102

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

only remedy which can be safely resorted
to, and as it is supposed that worms will
sometimes produce these convulsive at-
tacks, it is on that account to be selected.
Epilepsy is so very rarely met with in the
adult, and of its causes and treatment so
little is known, that we shall not trouble
our readers with any account of them.

HORSE, Megrims. — This term is used
to conceal our ignorance of the exact
nature of several disordered conditions of
the brain and heart. In fact, any kind
of fit, not attended with convulsions, and
only lasting a short time, is called by this
name. The cause may be fatty condition
of the heart, by which sudden faintness
and sometimes death are produced, or it
may consist in congestion of the vessels
of the brain, arising from over-work on a
hot day, or from the pressure of the col-
lar, or from disease of the valves of the
heart. Attacks reputed to be megrims
have been traced to each of these causes,
and as in every case the horse, while ap-
parently in good health, staggers and falls,
and after lying still for a few minutes
(during which there is seldom an oppor-
tunity of examining the state of the cir-
culation) rises as well as before, there is
no chance of distinguishing the one from
the other. The most usual symptoms are
the following : The horse is perhaps trot-
ting along, when all at once he begins
shaking his head as if the bridle chaf-
ed his ears, which are drawn back
close to the poll. The driver gets down
to examine these facts, and observes the
eyelids quivering, and the nostrils affected
with a trembling kind ot spasm. Some-
times the rest will allow of the attack go-
ing off, but most frequently the head is
drawn to one side, the legs, of that half
of the body seem to be paralyzed, and
the horse making a segment of a circle
goes down, lies a few minutes on the
ground, and then rises as if nothing had
happened beyond a slight sweating, and
disturbance of the respiration. Treat-
ment can be of little avail, however, un-
less a correct diagnosis is made, for rem-
edies which would be suited to congestion
would be prejudicial to a diseased heart.
If the attack has happened while in har-
ness, the collar should always be carefully
inspected, and if at all tight it should be
replaced by a deeper one. A diseased
state of the valves of the heart .ought lo

be discoverable by auscultation, but it re-
quires a practised ear to do this, and the
directions for ascertaining its presence
are beyond the scope of this book. The
only plan which can safely be adopted, is
to take the subject of megrims quietly
home to his stable, and carefully examine
into the condition of all his functions,
with a view to improve the action of any
organ which appears to be out of order,
whatever it may be. If all seems to be
going on well — if the appetite is good,
and the heart acts with regularity and
with due force, while the brain seems
clear, and the eye is not either dull or
suffused with blood — nothing should be
attempted; but the horse being subject tc*
a second attack, as proved by manifold
experience, should be put to work in
which no great danger can be appre-
hended from them. He is not safe in any
kind of carriage, for it can never be
known where the fall will take place;
and as a saddle-horse he is still more ob-
jectionable, and should therefore be put
to some commercial purpose, in executing
which, if he falls, the only injury he can
effect is to property, and not to human
life.

HORSE, Rabies, Hydrophobia or Mad-
ness.— One reason only can be given for
describing this disease, which is wholly
beyond the reach of art; but as the horse
attacked by it is most dangerous, the
sooner he is destroyed the better ; and
for this reason, every person who is likely
to have any control over him should be
aware of the symptoms. As far as is-
known at present, Rabies is not idiopath-
ically developed in the horse, but must
follow the bite of a rabid individual be-
longing to one or other of the genera.
canis and felis. The dog, being con-
stantly about" our stables, is the usual
cause of the development of the disease,,
and it may supervene upon the absorp-
tion of the salivary virus without any
malicious bite, as has happened accord-
ing to more than one carefully recorded
case. The lips of the horse are liable to
be ulcerated from the action of the bit,
and there is reason to believe that in the
early stages of rabies, these parts have
been licked by a dog, the saliva has been
absorbed, and the inoculation has taken
place just as it would do from any other
wound. It is difficult to prove that this.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

105

is the true explanation of those cases
where no bite has been known to have
occurred, but as the mouth has in each
instance been shown to have been abrad-
ed, there is some reason for accepting it
as such. To proceed, however, to the
symptoms : Mr. Youatt, who has had
great opportunities for examining rabies,
both in the dog and horse, describes the
earliest as consisting in "a spasmodic
movement of the upper lip, particularly
of the angles of the lip. Close following
on this, or contemporaneous with it, are
the depressed and anxious countenance,
and inquiring gaze, suddenly, however,
lighted up, and becoming fierce and men-
acing from some unknown cause, or at
the approach of a stranger. From time
to time different parts of the frame, the
eyes, the jaws, particular limbs, will be
convulsed. The eye will occasionally
wander after some imaginary object, and
the horse will snap again and again at
that which has no real existence. Then
will come the irrepressible desire to bite
the attendants or the animals within
its reach. To this will succeed the de-
molition of the rack, the manger, and the
whole furniture of the stable, accompa-
nied by the peculiar dread of water,
which has already been described. To-
wards the close of the disease there is
generally paralysis, usually confined to
the loins and the hinder extremities, or
involving those organs which derive their
nervous influence from this portion of the
spinal cord; hence the distressing tenes-
mus which is occasionally seen." How
paralysis can produce tenesmus is not
very clear, but of the very general exist-
ence of this symptom there can be no
doubt. The dread of water, as well as of
draughts of cold air, is also clearly made
out to exist in this disease (as in human
rabies), and the term hydrophobia will
serve to distinguish it better than in the
dog, where it is as clearly absent. When-
ever, therefore, these symptoms follow
upon the bite of a dog, unless the latter
is unquestionably in good health, rabies
may be suspected, and the bare suspicion
ought always to lead to the use of the
bullet, which is the safest way of killing
a violent horse. There is only one dis-
ease (phre?iitis) with which it can be con-
founded, and in that the absence of all
consciousness and, in milder cases, of

fear, so that no moral control whatever
can be exercised, marks its nature, and
clearly distinguishes it from rabies, the
victim to which is conscious to the lastr
and though savage and violent in the ex-
treme, is aware of the power of man, and
to some extent under his influence.

HORSE, Tetanus, Lock Jaw Tetanus,

one form of which is known as lock jaw,
has its seat apparently in the nervous sys-
tem, but, like many other diseases of the
same class, the traces it leaves behind are
extremely uncertain, and are displayed
more on the secondary organs, through
which it is manifested, than on those
which we believe to be at the root of the
mischief. Thus the muscles, which have
been long kept in a state of spasm, show
the marks of this condition in their soft-
ened and apparently rotten condition.
They, in fact, have had no interval of rest,
during which nutrition could go on, and
have lost much of the peculiarity of
structure which enables them to contract.
The stomach often shows marks of in-
flammation, but as all sorts of violent
remedies are employed, this may be due
to them rather than to idiopathic disease.
The lungs also are generally congested,
but here, like the state of the muscles, it
may be a secondary effect of the long-
continued exertions of the latter, which
nothing but the absence of all important
lesions of the brain and spinal cord
would induce the pathologist to pay the
slightest attention to.

Tetanus may be either idiopathic or
symptomatic, but the former condition is;
somewhat rare. It almost always follows',
some operation, or a severe injury hx
which a nerve has been implicated, the
most frequent causes being the piercing
of the sole by a nail, or a prick in shoe-
ing, or the operations of docking, nick-
ing, castration, etc.

The symptoms are a permanent rigid-
ity of certain voluntary muscles, and
especially of the lower jaw (whence the
popular name, lock jaw). The mouth is
kept rigidly shut, the masseter muslces
feeling as hard as a deal board. One or
both sides of the neck are rigid, in the
former case the head being turned to one
side, and in the latter stretched out as if
carved in marble. The nostrils are di-
lated; the eyes retracted, with the haws
thrust forward over them ; the ears erect.

io4

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

and stiff, and the countenance as if
horror-struck. At first the extremities
are seldom involved, but as the disease
progresses their control is first lost, and
then they become rigid, like the neck and
head. The patient is scarcely able to
stand, and plants his feet widely apart to
prop himself up, while at last the tail also
becomes a fixture. The pulse varies a
good deal, in some cases being quick,
small, and hard, and in others slow and
labored. The bowels are generally cos-
tive, and the urine scanty; but this last
symptom is not so well marked as the
state of the bowels alluded to. The
treatment should be of a twofold nature,
partly palliative and partly curative.
Since the introduction into use of chloro-
form we have possessed a drug which in-
variably enables us to remove the spasm
for a time, and if it does nothing more,
it gives room for other remedies to act
.and relieve the patient from the horrible
tortures which are occasioned by the
:spasm, while it also allows the muscular
.and nervous powers to be recruited.
When, therefore, a case of tetanus occurs
in a horse of any value, an apparatus for
applying chloroform (described under the
chapter on Operations) should be pro-
cured, and the animal at once placed un-
der its influence. This done, the whole
length of the spine should be blistered
with tincture of cantharides, and an
active aperient should be given, consist-
ing, if practicable, of a pint of castor oil,
and six or eight drops of croton oil.
This may be pumped down the throat by
the usual syringe and tube, if the front
teeth can be separated; but if this can-
not be done, some solid cathartic must be
selected, though there is often as much
difficulty in forcing a ball down as in
passing an elastic tube. Failing in either
of these, two drachms of calomel, and
the same quantity of tartar emetic should
be slightly damped, and placed in the
mouth as far back as possible, in the
hope that they may be gradually swal-
lowed; the bowels should be raked, and
copious injections of castor oil and tur-
pentine, mixed with several quarts of
gruel, should be thrown up. If these
remedies fail, nature must be left to her
own resources, and they will sometimes
,be found equal to the task, for many
cases have recovered after having been

given up as beyond the reach of our art.
Opium, henbane, digitalis, hellebore, and
a host of other drugs have been tried;
sometimes with, and sometimes without
success, and perhaps it is worth while,
after the bowels have been well relieved,
to give a full dose of one or other of
these powerful remedies, such as two
drachms of solid opium; but we confess
that we think little reliance is to be
placed on them, and we prefer the adop-
tion of chloroform every six hours, con-
tinued for about two or three hours and
gradually withdrawn, leaving the cure to
the action of the blister and purgatives.

HORSE, Apoplexy and Paralysis. —
Usually these are only different degrees
of the same disease, but there are excep-
tions, in which the latter is produced by
some chronic affection of the spinal cord
or brain. As a rule, both depend upon
pressure made on the brain by an over-
loaded state of the vessels, commonly
known as congestion, or by extravasation
of blood, in which it escapes from them.

Paralysis is marked by a loss of power
over the muscles of a part, and may be
confined to one limb or organ or extend
to more. It is a symptom of pressure
on, or disorganization of, some part of
the nervous system, and must be consid-
ered as such, and not as a disease of the
affected muscles. Thus it requires a
knowledge of anatomy to trace it to its
seat, without which its treatment would
be conducted on false principles. By far
the most common form of paralysis is
hemiplegia, or paralysis of the muscles ol
the hinder extremities and loins, generally
arising from an injury to the spine. Some-
times the body of a vertebra is broken,
and the parts being separated, their edges
press upon the spinal cord and produce
the disease. At others the vessels within
the canal have received a shock, and the
serous membrane secretes (or allows to
ooze out) a bloody fluid which presses
upon the cord, and produces the same
effect, but in a more gradual manner. In
India, a disease known there as Kumree
causes paralysis of the hinder extremities,
and is due to inflammation of the mem-
branes, which secrete a bloody serum.
In this country, however, paraplegia is
very rare, excepting as the result of acci-
dent.

When a horse falls in running, and

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

ioc,

never moves his hind legs afterwards, but
lies with his fore legs in the position to
get up, groaning and expressing great
pain and distress, it may be concluded
that he has fractured or dislocated his
spine and that the case is hopeless.
Sometimes, however, after lying for a lew
seconds, he slowly and with difficulty
rises and is led to a stable, but after two
or three hours lies down and cannot be
got up again. Here there will be some
difficulty in ascertaining whether the mis-
chief is confined to a strain of the mus-
cles or is situated within the vertebral
canal. If the former is the case, the pain
is extreme, and generally there will be
some quivering or slight spasm of one or
more of the muscles of the hinder ex-
tremity, which feel naturally firm, while
in paralysis they feel soft and are as quiet
as they would be after death. By atten-
tion to these signs the two cases may be
distinguished, but when the case is made
out to be true paralysis the treatment is
not likely (even if successful in preserving
life) to bring about a useful restoration to
healthy action. In valuable horses an
attempt may be made by bleeding, phys-
icking and blistering to produce an ab-
isorption of the effused serum or blood,
but the recovered animal is seldom worth
the outlay, and too often as soon as he is
put to any kind of work is subject to a
relapse. The most humane, and certainly
the most economical plan is to put him
out of his misery at once by a pistol ball
or knife; but if it is determined to try
what can be done towards effecting a
cure, no better means can be adopted
than those we have alluded to.

HOBSE, Sleepy Staggers— (See Horse,
Apoplexy.)

HOBSE, String Halt.— This is a peculiar
snatching up of the hind leg, and is sup-
posed to depend upon some obscure dis-
ease of the sciatic nerve. It, however, is
very doubtful whether this explanation is
"well founded, and there is evidence that
in some cases the hock itself has been
-affected. The extensor pedis seems to be
the muscle most severely implicated,
though not the only one which is thrown
into spasmodic action. No treatment is
of the slightest avail. Horses with string
halt are able to do any kind of work, but
it is considered to be a form of unsound-
ness.

HOBSE, Ear, Diseases of the. — Deaf-
ness is sometimes met with in the horse,
but we know of no symptoms by which
its precise nature can be made out ; and
without ascertaining the seat of the dis-
ease, it is useless to attempt to treat it.

Sometimes from a blow on the external
ear inflammation is set up, and an abscess
forms ; but all that is necessary is to open
it, so that the matter can readily flow out
as fast as it forms, without which pre-
caution it will not readily heal.

HOBSE, Eye, Inflammation of the. —
This important organ is subjected to three
forms of inflammation, to opacity of the
lens, and to paralysis of the nerve called
amaurosis

Simple inflammation is the most com-
mon of all the diseases to which the
horse's eye is subject, and it precedes most
of the others. It is always the result of
any injury of this part, or of cold ; and
it shows itself if there is a tendency to
inflammation of this organ, whenever the
horse is in a state of plethora. The symp-
toms are an intolerance of light, so that the
eye is kept half closed, by which it looks
smaller than the other; a gummy secre-
tion glues the lids together at the angles ;
the eyelids are slightly swollen, showing
a distended state of their veins ; and there
is more or less watering or overflowing of
tears. When the lids are separated, their
internal surface looks more red than na-
tural, and the white of the eye is covered
with a net-work of fine red vessels. Af-
ter the second day the transparent cornea
loses it clearness, and becomes muddy,
sometimes over the whole surface, and
at others in specks. If the disease
is allowed to go on unchecked, the cornea
is involved, and the lining membrane of
the aqueous humour follows ; a secretion
of pus takes place into the chamber, or
the cornea ulcerates, and the contents of
the eye escapes. The treatment should
be a copious bleeding from the jugular
vein, followed by a ball, such as
Take of Common Physic Ball - - 2 drachms.
Tartar Emetic - - - - I drachm.

Mix and give every six hours.

This not only acts on the intestines, but
it keeps up a constant nausea, and so
tends to lower the action of the heart.
The eye should be bathed with warm
water frequently ; and, if the mischief be
[severe, a seton should at once be put into

io6

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

the skin covering the upper jaw, about
two inches below the eye. On the next
day, if " the white " still looks red, the
bleeding must be repeated ; and, if the
bowels are much moved, the tartar emetic
may be continued without the aloes, while
if they are obstinate, the dose of the lat-
ter may be increased. When the acute
symptoms have somewhat diminished, a
camel's hair brush may be dipped in wine
of opium, and the eye gently touched
with it daily, which will generally com-
plete the cure. The diet must be low,
corn being forbidden entirely, and the
stable should be kept very cool and airy.
Purulent ophthalmia is confined to
the conjunctiva, and it may be recog-
nized by the profuse discharge of puru-
lent fluid which takes place. The eyelids
are much swollen, and the white of the
eye is covered with a puffy red mem-
brane, which rises up above the level of
the cornea, sometimes in fungoid excres-
cences. This form of inflammation is
generally epidemic, and sometimes runs
through a stable without a single excep-
tion. The treatment should be, at first,
similar to that recommended for simple
inflammation; but when it reaches the
chronic stage, a more powerful stimulus is
required to restore the vessels to a healthy
condition. A wash, composed as follows,
must therefore be applied :

Take of Nitrate of Silver - - - 6 grains.
Distilled Water - - - I ounce.
Mix, and drop a little into the eye from a quill
daily.

Iritis, or inflammation of the iris, gener-
ally known as specific ophthalmia, is the
most formidable of all the diseases to
which the eye is subject, and, if not
checked, rapidly disorganizes it ; while it
also, even when running an unusually fa-
vorable course, is very apt to produce
opacity of the lens or its capsule (cata-
ract). This pest of the stable is, un-
doubtedly, often brought on by over stim-
ulations, first of the whole body, through
the food, and, secondly, of the eyes them-
selves, through the foul emanations from
the accumulated urine and dung. But
these would produce no such effect in a
horse, unless he were predisposed to oph-
thalmia; and we find that cattle and
sheep are often fed to an enormous de-
gree of obesity, in far closer and worse
ventilated stalls, without any prejudicial

effect upon their eyes. It may, then, be
assumed, that these organs in a horse
have a tendency to put on inflammation ;
but though these words are true they ex-
plain nothing ot the real cause, and only
serve to conceal our ignorance of it*
There is another question bearing upon
this subject, which is of the highest im-
portance. Is the stock of blind horses
more liable to blindness than that of
sound ones ? This has been discussed so
often that it is scarcely possible to throw
any fresh light upon it, chiefly because it
is so difficult to rely upon the facts ad-
duced pro and con. Blindness is often the
result of accident, and such cases are be-
lieved to be exceptional, and not at all
likely to hand down the disease ; but, on
the contrary, we are inclined to believe
that many of them show a marked ten-
dency to its development; for an acci-
dent never destroys both eyes, and when
one follows the other, it is a pretty sure
sign that there is a tendency to ophthal-
mia. On the whole, it may, we think,
be assumed, that the tendency to specific
ophthalmia is handed down from gen-
eration to generation, and, consequently,
that the offspring of a horse who has
gone blind from that cause is peculiarly
prone to it. Its symptoms appear very
rapidly, the eye having been quite right
over night, looks contracted and almost
closed next morning, and on inspecting it
closely " the white " looks of a deep red,

'the cornea looks muddy, and the colored
part of the eye (the iris) has lost its bright
color, and often shows one or two white
specks upon it (these must not be con-
founded with the specks on the cornea).
As the disease advances, the intolerance
of light is very great, the cornea and iris
become gradually more muddy, and either
lymph is thrown out on the latter in the
shape of white patches, or pus is secreted
and fills the chamber of the aqueous
humour, in part or wholly. If the treat-
ment is sufficiently energetic, these signs
abate, the pus or lymph is absorbed, and
the eye recovers its transparency; but
there are generally some traces left be-
hind. Bleeding (either from the jugular
or the angular veins of the face), moder-
ate purging, and a seton, are the remedies
best calculated to effect this object, con-
joined with an airy stable and a light diet-

I Unfortunately, however, iritis is almost

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

107

sure to return on the restoration of the
usual food, and exposure to the elements ;
and hence it is of the utmost consequence
in purchasing a horse to examine his eyes
for the marks left behind by it. If the case
is hopeless, it becomes a question whether
or not it will be wise to put an end to the
inflammation by destroying the affected
eye, for it is well known that if it goes on
for any length of time, the other, sound eye,
becomes affected. The only difficulty con-
sists in feeling assured that there is really
no chance of recovery ; for when once
the eye is finally condemned, the sooner
it is opened and its contents evacuated,
the sooner will the horse return to his
work, and the more chance has the other
eye of escaping. The operation is very
simple, and merely requires a sharp-point-
ed knife to be passed into the anterior
chamber from one edge of the cornea,
and driven back till it cuts into the lens,
when it is to be brought out on the other
side of the cornea, and the whole of the
humours will escape on making pressure
upon the upper eyelid.

In injuries of the eye, fomentation with
warm water should be carried on for half
an hour, and then omitted for three or
four hours, after which it may be repeat-
ed again and again, at similar invervals.
Great care should be taken to remove any
extraneous bodies, such as particles of
dust, etc.

Cataract, or opacity of the lens, is very
commonly the result of iritis, its capsule
having been coated with a layer of white
lymph, deposited by the inflamed vessels;
but it also sometimes makes its appear-
ance without being preceded by any of
the signs of inflammation. In the former
case the early symptoms are those of iritis ,
but in the latter, the opacity often goes
on increasing, without the owner of the
horse, or his groom, having his attention
drawn to the eyes, until he finds that he is
nearly blind. This progress is generally
marked by the development of an unus-
ual timidity ; the previously bold animal
is alarmed at objects advancing on the
• road, and covered carts and wagons, of
which he formerly took no notice,
occasion him to shy in the most timid
manner. On examining his eyes careful-
ly, instead of the beautifully clear pupil,
with the reflection of tapetum lucidum shin-
ing through it, there is seen either a mass

of dull white, generally more opaque in
the centre, or an appearance of mottled,
semi-transparent soap, or, lastly, one or
two distinct white spots, not quite circu-
lar, but with irregular edges. In confirm-
ed cataract, the white pupil can be seen
at any distance; but in the very early
stage, only a practised eye can detect the
opacity, which, however, is so manifest to-
him, that he wonders it is not visible to
every one else. The reason of this diffi-
culty of detecting the alteration of struc-
ture seems to be, that inexperienced ex-
aminers look at the eye in such a manner
that they are confused by the reflection
on it of their own faces, hiding all be-
neath. If, however, they will turn their
heads a little more to one side, this will
disappear, and they cannot fail to per-
ceive the disease. When cataract is
clearly proved to exist, all idea of treat-
ment may be abandoned, as nothing but
an operation can procure a removal of
the opacity; and that would leave the
horse in a more useless condition than be-
fore, since he could see nothing clearly,
and would only be subject to continual
alarms. In the human being, the opera-
tion is performed with great success, be-
cause the lens which is sacrificed can be
replaced externally by means of convex
glasses ; but in the horse nothing of the
kind can be done. Hence, it is useless to
dream of effecting any improvement in
this disease ; and if both eyes are the
subject of cataract, the horse is incurably
blind. But supposing there is a cataract
in one eye only, is the other sure to go-
blind, or may a reasonable hope be en-
tertained of its remaining sound ? Here
the history of the disease must be exam-
ined before any opinion can be formed.
If the opacity followed an accident,,
there is no reason for concluding that
the other eye will become diseased;
but if it came on idiopathically, either
preceded by inflammation or otherwise,
there is great risk of a repetition in the
sound eye. Nevertheless, instances are
common enough of one eye going blind
from cataract, while the other remains
sound to the end of life; and those are
still more frequent in which the one sound
eye continues so for six or seven years.

HORSE, Amaurosis. — This is a palsy of
the nervous expansion called the retina^
produced by some disease, either func-

io8

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

tional or organic, of the optic nerve,
which is generally beyond the reach of
our senses, in examining it after death.
The symptoms are a full dilatation of the
pupil, so that the iris is shrunk to a thin
band around it, and is so insensible to the
stimulus of light, in confirmed cases, that,
even when the eye is exposed to the di-
rect rays of the sun, it does not contract.
In the early stages, this insensibility is
only partial ; and though there is such
ccmplete blindness that the horse cannot
distinguish the nature of surrounding ob-
jects, yet the pupil contracts slightly, and
the inexperienced examiner might pass the
eye as a sound one. The unnaturally
large pupil, however, should alwas create
suspicion ; and when, on closing the lids
and re-opening them in a strong light,
there is little or no variation in its size,
the nature of the disease is at once made
apparent. The treatment of amaurosis
must depend upon the extent to which it
has gone, and its duration. If. recent,
bleeding and a seton in close proximity
to the diseased organ will be the most
likely to restore it. Sometimes the dis-
ease depends upon a disordered condition
of the stomach, and then a run at grass
will be the most likely means to restore
both the affected organs to a sound state.
Generally, however, an amaurotic eye in
the horse may be considered as a hopeless
case.

HORSE, Buck Eye.— A buck eye is,
strictly, rather a congenital malformation
than a disease; but practically, in refer-
ence to the utility of the animal, it mat-
ters little. It depends upon an excess of
convexity of the conea, by which the
focus of the eye is shortened too much,
the image being thus rendered indistinct
as it falls on the retina. No treatment
xan be of the slightest use.

HORSE, Surfeit. — An eruption of the
skin, which shows itself in the form of
numerous small scabs, matting the hair,
and chiefly met with on the loms and
quarters, is known by this name. Doubt-
less, it has been supposed to arise from an
excess of food, causing indigestion; but
it often comes on in horses which, appa-
rently, are quite free from that disorder.
The most common cause appears to be,
sweating the horse when he is in a gross
or plethoric condition, and then exposing
him to a chill. Colts are very subject to

surfeit while being broken, as are horses
fresh from grass during the summer,
when they are usually over-fat, and re-
quire great care in reducing this plethoric
condition. The usual course of the
eruption is for the scabs to dry and grad-
ually loosen, when the hair of the part is
slightly thinned by being pulled out in
dressing, a fresh crop of pustules forming,
and, to the casual observer, keeping up
the appearance of a permanent state of
the original scabs. Surfeit is not con-
fined to gross horses, as it sometimes
makes its appearance in those which are
low in condition, exhibiting the same ap-
pearance to the eye; but, on examina-
tion, the secretion from the skin will be
found to be thinner, and of a more puru-
lent nature. The treatment must greatly
depend upon the state of the general
health. If the horse is very gross, it may
be desirable to take a little blood away;
but this will seldom be necessary, and
never is desirable. Physic seems to do
little immediate good ; and, indeed, it is
very doubtful whether any treatment is of
much service, excepting such as will
gradually bring the horse into working
condition. The disease, in most cases,
has its origin in obstruction of the seba-
ceous and perspiratory pores; and until
these are restored to their proper func-
tions, by gradually exercising them, little
good can be done. Unfortunately, the
very means which will accomplish this
object are apt to increase the disease for
a time; but still this must be put up with,
as a matter in which no choice can be
made. Regular exercise and grooming
must be fully attended to, using the whisp
only in dressing the skin, when the erup-
tion shows itself, and carefully avoiding
the brush and currycomb. By acting on
the kidneys, more good will be done than
by purging physic, which seems to be of
little or no service in any case but when
the stomach is greatly out of order. An
ounce of nitre may be given with a mash
twice a week, or the following balls may
be administered:

Take of Nitre, - 3 drachms.

Sulphur 3 drachms.

Sulphuret of Antimony - £ drachms.
Linseed Meal and Water enough to form two
balls.

HORSE, Hidebound.— This is essen-
tially a disorder of the skin produced by

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT,

109

sympathy with the stomach. It rarely
occurs in any horse but one sadly out of
health, from a deficiency either in the
quantity or quality of the food. Some-
times it comes on in the latter stages of
consumption or dysentery, without any
previous mismanagement ; but in the vast
majority of cases, the cause may be laid
to the food. The skin of a horse in
health feels supple, and on his sides it may
readily be gathered up by the hand into
a large fold, but in hidebound, it is as if
it were glued to the ribs, and were also
too tight for the carcass which it invests.
The name, indeed, is expressive of this
state, and the disease can scarcely be
mistaken when once seen, or rather felt.
Coincident with this condition of the skin,
there is also, generally, either a distended
state of the abdomen from flatulence, or
a contracted and "tucked up" appear-
ance from diarrhoea. The treatment should
be addressed to the digestive organs, the
state of which must be carefully exam-
ined, and, if possible, rectified. A pint
of linseed, scalded, and mixed with a
bran mash every night, or scalded malt
given in equal quantities with the corn ;
or, in the spring time, vetches, clover, or
lucerne, will do more than any medicine;
but when there is a deficient appetite, or
the bowels or stomach, or either of them,
are evidently much weakened and disor-
dered, a stomachic ball once or twice a
week will do good. The remedies appro-
priate to these several conditions will be
found under their respective heads. (See
Horse, Diarrhoea.)

HORSE, Mange. — Mange corresponds
with the itch of the human subject in
being produced by a parasitic insect,
which is an acarus, but of a different spe-
cies to that of man, and of a much larger
size, so as to be readily visible to the
naked eye. It is generally produced by
contact with horses previously affected
with the same disease, but it appears
highly probable that a poor, half-starved
animal, allowed to accumulate all kinds
of dirt on his skin, will develop the para-
site, though how this is done is not
clearly made out. The whole subject of
parasites is wrapt in mystery, which mod-
ern researches appear likely to fathom,
but hitherto little progress has been made
except in the history of the metamor-
phoses of the tape-worm, from the anal-

ogy of which some idea may be formed
of the probable modes of production of
other parasites. When caused by conta-
gion, as certainly happens in the vast
majority of cases, the first symptoms no-
ticed will be an excessive itching of the
skin, which is soon followed by a bare-
ness of the hair in patches, partly caused
by constant friction. The disease usually
shows itself on the side of the neck, just
at the edges of the mane, and on the
insides of the quarters near the root of
the tail. From these parts the eruption
extends along the back and down the
sides, seldom involving the extremities
excepting in very confirmed cases. After
a time the hair almost entirely falls off,
leaving the skin at first bare and smooth,
with a few small red pimples scattered
over it, each of which contains an acarus,
and these are connected by furrows,
along which the acari have worked their
way to their present habitation. In pro-
cess of time, the pimples increase in num-
ber and size, and from them a matter ex-
udes which hardens into a scab, beneath
which, on examination, several acari may
readily be seen, moving their legs like
mites in a cheese, to which they are
closely allied. At first the mangy horse
may keep his health, but after a time the
constant irritation makes him feverish;
he loses flesh, and becomes a most miser-
able object; but such cases of neglect
are happily rare in the present day. The
treatment must be addressed to the de-
struction of the life 01 the acarus, which,
as in the human subject, is rapidly de-
stroyed by sulphur, turpentine, arsenic,
hellebore, and corrosive sublimate. Some
of these drugs are, however, objectiona-
ble, from being poisonous to the horse,
as well as to the parasite which preys
upon him, and they are, therefore, not to
be employed without great and urgent
necessity, in consequence of the failure of
milder remedies. The following recipes
may be relied on as perfectly efficacious,,
the former being sufficient in mild cases,
and the latter being strong enough in any :

1. Take of Common Sulphur - 6 ounces.

Sperm or Train Oil - I pint.
Spirits of Turpentine - 3 ounces.
Mix and rub well into the skin with a flannel, or
in preference with a painter's brush.

2. Take of Compound Sulphur Ointment, 8 ounces.

Train or Sperm Oil - - I pint.
Spirit of Turpentine - - 3 ounces.
Mix and use as above.

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

One or other of the above dressings
should be well rubbed in every third day
for at least three or four weeks in bad
■cases, and two in trifling ones, when the
inflammation resulting from the acari and
also from the application may be allowed
to subside, in the hope that all the para-
sites are killed, in which case the erup-
tion disappears, but the hair does not al-
ways come on again as quickly as ever.
All the stable fittings around the stall or
box in which the horse has been standing
should be thoroughly washed over with a
solution of corrosive sublimate, made as
follows :
Take of Corrosive Sublimate - - - I ounce.

Methylated Spirit of Wine - 6 ounces.

Water I gallon.

Dissolve the sublimate in the spirit by rubbing
in a mortar, then mix with the water, and use
with a brush, stirring it up continually to prevent
its settling.

The clothing should be destroyed, as it
is scarcely possible to cleanse it complete-
ly from the parasites ; but if it is deter-
mined to risk a return of the disease, it
should be thoroughly washed, and when
dry, saturated with spirit of turpentine.

When the health has suffered from the
irritation of mange, a few tonic balls may
be required, but generally the removal of
the cause will be sufficient.

HORSE, Lice. — In former days lice
were not uncommon in the horse, but now
they are comparatively rare. Still they
are occasionally met with, and their pres-
ence is readily ascertained, being of a
considerable size, and easily seen with the
naked eye. They may be destroyed by
rubbing into the roots of the hair white
precipitate, in powder, taking care to
avoid sweating the horse or wetting his
skin for some days afterwards.

HORSE, Mallenders and Sallenders

These eruptions are both of the same na-
ture, differing only in the locality where
they are displayed. The former shows
itself in the flexure at the back of the
knee, and the latter at the bend of the
hock. The symptoms are shown in the
appearance of a foul scurf mixed with a
few thin scabs, the skin underneath being
stiff* and unyielding. They are generally
brought on by washing the legs and leav-
ing them undried. The treatment re-
quired is merely the application of the
following ointment, which should be well
rubbed in every night :

Take of Cerate of Superacetate of

Lead, 2 ounces.

Take of Creosote ------ 10 drops.

Mix and use as above.

If the skin continues to be very hard
and stiff, a little glycerine should be
brushed on two or three times a week.

HORSE, Warbles, Sitfasts and Harness
Galls. — When the saddle has galled the
skin beneath it the inflammation resulting
is called a "warble," and if this is neglect-
ed, so as to cause a troublesome sore, the
term "sitfast" is applied. The effect pro-
duced is similar to a harness gall, and
there is not the slightest necessity for in-
venting names to distinguish each stage
of cruelty in the rider, for if attention is
paid to the warble, no sitfast will
ever make its appearance. Preven-
tion is better than cure, and it may al-
most always be effected by the adoption
of the plan of always keeping the saddle
on (after loosing the girths) for a quarter
of an hour or twenty minutes. Some-
times, however, in spite of this precau-
tion, the skin of the back swells, and
when a heavy man has been riding
for six or eight hours on a horse unaccus-
tomed to his weight, the cuticle will per-
haps peel off, bringing the hair with it.
When the swelling is considerable it
should be fomented for an hour, and then
bathed with a lotion composed of one
drachm of tincture of arnica in a half pint
of water. The saddle should never be
reapplied until the skin is quite cool, and
free from all inflammation, even if con-
siderable inconvenience is thereby suf-
fered. The same treatment will also ap-
ply to harness galls. Oiling the inside of
the collar will often prevent the shoulder
from suffering excoriation.

HORSE, Grubs.— The larva of some
beetle, but of what species we do not know,
is occasionally met with in the horse, caus-
ing a small lump about the size of a
raisin, and usually on the back. This ob-
stinately continues for months, if its
its nature is not understood, in spite
of all ordinary applications. At last a
white larva or grub, with a black head,
and very similar in everything but size to
the maggot found in the nut, makes its
appearance, and either escapes to fall to
the ground and become a chrysalis, or
else it is squeezed out by the groom,
which is easily done as soon as the head

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

is visible. When discovered previously,
an opening may by made with the point
of the penknife, and then the larva may
be gradually squeezed out, avoiding too
much haste in the operation, which will
only retard the process.

HORSE, Bites and Stings of Insects. —
Horses are liable to be stung by hornets,
wasps and bees. If there are only one
or two stings made no interference is
necessary, but sometimes a larger num-
ber of poisonous punctures have been ef-
fected, and then the best treatment is the
application of spirit of turpentine and
laudanum in equal proportions.

The bites of the gadfly are so trouble-
some in their effects that it is sometimes
desirable to prevent them if possible.
This is effected by making a strong infu-
sion of the green bark of the elder, and
washing the flanks, etc., with it before
going out.

HORSE, Swelled Legs.— The skin of
the legs and the cellular membrane be-
neath it are liable to two kinds of swell-
ing, one of which is of an inflammatory
character, while the other is solely due to
a. deposit of serum (oedema), owing to
the non-performance of their office by the
kidneys. Both kinds are much more fre-
quent in the hiad legs than the fore, but
especially the former.

Inflammatory swelled leg, sometimes
•called weed, is generally accompanied by
a certain amount of feverishness, and
comes on suddenly, almost always show-
ing itself on the inside of the hind leg,
which is hot and extremely tender. It is
not a very common disease, and merely
requires the ordinary low treatment, by
purging physic, and, if necessary, bleed-
ing. Should it continue for more than
two or three days after these are tried, an
ounce of nitre may be given every night
in a bran mash.

Ordinary swelling of the legs, or oedema,
occurs in every degree, from a slight " fil-
ling," to which many horses are always
subject, whether they work or stand in the
stable, to an enlargement extending up to
the stifles and elbows, sometimes render-
ing the legs almost as round and as hard
as mill-posts. When horses are first
brought in from grass their legs almost
always fill more or less, and until they are
regularly seasoned to their work there is
seldom that clean condition of the sus-

pensory ligaments and back sinews which
one likes to see even before the daily ex-
ercise is given. The oedema appears to
depend partly upon a deficient action of
the kidneys, but chiefly on the vessels of
the legs not acting sufficiently without
constant walking exercise, such as is na-
tural to the horse when at liberty, and
which he takes at grass. Half an hour's
walking will generally produce absorption
completely, so that a daily remedy is
forthcoming; but as a rule, whenever
there is this tendency to " filling " of the
legs, the cellular membrane is not the
only tissue in fault, but the tendons and
the joints are also liable to inflammation.
The treatment will greatly depend upon
the exact cause. If the swelling is only
due to the change from grass to the con-
finement of a warm stable, time alone is
wanted, taking care not to over-work the
horse, in the meantime. Bandages will
always assist in keeping down the swell-
ing ; but they should not be used without
necessity, as when once the horse becomes
accustomed to them, his legs can hardly
be kept fine without their aid.' If weak-
ness is the cause, a drachm of sulphate of
iron given in the corn twice a day will
often strengthen the system, and with it
the legs. Diuretics may be adopted as
an occasional aid to the kidneys, but they
should be of the mildest kind, such as
nitre, or they will do more harm, by
weakening the body generally, than good
by their stimulus to the kidneys. Indeed,
they are often the sole cause of the legs
filling, for some grooms use them so con-
tinually, whether they are wanted or not,
that the kidneys becomes diseased and
refuse to act, which is a sure forerunner
of oedema. Where swelling of the legs
is confirmed, bandages must be regularly
applied as recommended in article
Horse, Bandages, Use and Applica-
tion of, which see.

HORSE, Chapped Heelr. — When a
horse suffers from oedema of the legs, he
is particularly prone to an eruption of a
watery nature in the cleft between the heels
and behind the lesser pastern. Those also
whose legs are washed and not dried are
still more prone to it, especially if the
hair is white. The skin cracks, and, in
bad cases, is so inflamed and swollen that
the leg cannot be bent without great pain,
and often there is a bleeding from the

112

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

cracks, caused by the action of the limb,
but only to a sufficient extent to show
that blood has escaped. The treatment
must ( be local as well as general if the
eruption is not entirely due to misman-
agement. In any case, the part should
be dressed with cerate of acetate of lead,
a little of which should be rubbed in
every night. Next morning some glycer-
ine should be brushed on an hour at least
before the exercise, and renewed before
the daily work is commenced. This will
prevent all risk of the skin cracking,
while the ointment will act beneficially on
the vessels of the heart. In addition to
the^e applications, the general health
should be attended to if in fault, and ton-
ics or diuretics should be given, as the
case may require.

HORSE, Grease. — The eruption known
as grease is sometimes only an aggravat-
ed form of chapped heels, and is often
preceded by them. At others the ap-
pearance of the disease is ushered in by
constitutional symptoms, such as fever-
ishness, oedema of the limbs and hide-
bound. The first local sympton is a
slight swelling of the skin of the heels
and adjacent parts, which soon cracks,
and from the fissures there exudes an of-
fensive discharge which looks greasy, but
is really watery, being of a serous nature.
It inflames every part that it touches, and
has a tendency to cause a spread of the
eruption in all directions, but chiefly
downwards. The legs go on swelling to
a frightful extent, and are thereby render-
ed so stiff and sore that great lameness is
produced. If this stage is neglected the
whole surface ulcerates, and a fungoid
growth makes its appearance, chiefly from
the original cracks. The discharge be-
comes purulent and has a most foul smell,
and the leg can with difficulty be bent at
all. Finally, the fungous excresences
cover the whole of the diseased skin, be-
ing of a bright red color, and slightly re-
sembling grapes in form, from which cir-
cumstances this stage has been called
" the grapes." It is now very rare to meet
with grease in any of its forms except in
the cart-stable, where the hairy legs of its
inmates render them peculiarly prone to
its attacks, from the time required to dry
them when wet. They are so difficult to
clean without water that the carters may
well be excused for using it, but if they

do they ought carefully to dry the legs
afterwards. The treatment when grease
is established must be founded upon the
same principle as in chapped heels. The
skin must be kept supple, and at the same
time stimulated to a healthy action. For
the former purpose glycerine is most val-
uable, being far more efficacious than any
greasy dressing, such as we were obliged
to employ before the discovery of this
substance. In all the stages of grease,
this latter agent may be employed, and
as it is readily soluble in water it can be
washed off and renewed as often as it
may be desired. The discharge is so foul
and irritating that it ought to be thor-
oughly removed at least once in twenty-
four hours ; and one of the chief advan-
tages of the use of glycerine is that it so
greatly assists this cleansing process from
its solubility in water. In addition to this
emollient plan, some stimulus must be se-
lected, and none answers so well (in all
stages but the very earliest) as chloride
of zinc. When, therefore, the heels are
in that state that it is almost doubtful
whether the disease is the mere chap or
absolute grease, the treatment recom-
mended for the former may be tried, but
should this fail, the groom should at once
proceed to cut the hair of the skin which
is diseased as short as possible. Then let
him take some soap and warm water and
gently wash the parts with a sponge till
the skin is perfectly clean and free from
scab or scurf, taking care to remove every
particle of soap by well rinsing it. Next
dry the leg, and them with a small paint-
brush rub gently into the inflamed parts
enough of the following lotion to damp
them, but not to wet them thoroughly:

Take of Chloride of Zinc - - - 30 grs.

Water --•-•- 1 pint. Mix.

A quarter of an hour afterwards apply a
little glycerine over the whole, and keep
the parts sufficiently supple with it. If
there is much discharge the cleansing may
be repeated night and morning, followed
by the chloride of zinc, but in most cases
once a day will be sufficiently often. If
the ulcerated or inflamed skin does not
put on a healthy appearance in a few days,
the lotion may be increased in strength,
using forty, fifty, or sixty grains to the
pint, as required; but the remedy will be
found to be almost a specific, except for
the grapy form, if properly proportioned

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

"3

in strength. When the iungoid growths
are very extensive, nothing but their
removal, either by the knife or by the
actual or potential cautery, will suffice.
The least painful plan is to slice them off
to a level with the skin and then just
touch the bleeding surface with a hot
iron, which will have the doubly good
effect ot stopping the bleeding and induc-
ing a healthy action. The glycerine may
then be applied, and next day the leg may
be treated in the same way as for ordinary
grease, described above. When the dis-
ease is of long standing, local applications
may cure it for a time ; but either it will
return, or there will be some other organ
attacked, unless the unhealthy state of
the blood is attended to. It must be
remembered that during the existence of
grease, this vital fluid is called upon to
supply the materials for the secretion
which is constantly going on. Now, if on
the cessation of the demand for them the
blood still goes on obtaining its supplies
from the digestive organs, it becomes
over-loaded, a state of plethora is estab-
lished, which Nature attempts to relieve
in some one or other of her established
modes by setting up disease. To avoid
such a result arsenic may be given inter-
nally, for this medicine has a special
power in counteracting this tendency.
How it acts has never yet been made out,
but that it does exert such a power is
thoroughly ascertained, and if the doses
are not too large it is unattended by any
injurious effect. Indeed, for a time it
seems to act as a tonic. The arsenic
should be given in solution and with the
food, so as to procure its absorption into
the blood without weakening the stomach.
A wine-glassful of liquor arsenicalis (i^
oz.) should be poured over the corn twice
a day, and continued for a couple of
months, when it may be discontinued
with a fair hope of its having had the
desired effect. Should the skin, however,
look inflamed, a second course of it may
be given, and it will be found that if it is
given with the corn it will not be followed
by any injurious consequences.

HORSE, Warts. — Warts are, generally,
only to be considered as eyesores; for,
unless they appear on the penis, they are
not injurious to health ; nor do they inter-
fere with work unless they happen to
appear on the shoulders beneath the col-
8

lar in a harness horse, which is very rare
indeed. They are, doubtless, very un-
sightly, and, for this reason, it is often
desired to remove them, which may be
done by first picking off the rough outer
surface, so as to make them bleed, and
then rubbing in, with a stiff brush, some
yellow orpiment, wetted with a little
water. This will cause considerable
inflammation, and in a few days the wart
will drop off, leaving a healthy sore, which
soon heals. Sometimes the whole wart
does not come away on the first applica-
tion, in which case a second must be
made. When the glans penis is completely
covered with warts, the best plan is to-
amputate it, as it requires the greatest
caution and tact to remove them by arsenic
or any other caustic without destroying,
also, as much of the penis as is taken away
by the knife.

HORSE, Falie Quarter.— When, from
an accident, the coronary substance is
permanently injured, it ceases to secrete
sound horn, and a stripe of the crustr
defective in strength, runs all the way
down from the coronet to the plantar edge.
This generally happens at the inner quar-
ter, and is owing to the horse treading on
his coronet ; but it may also occur on the
outside, either from the tread of another
horse, or from some kind of external
violence. The result is similar to that of
a sandcrack ; there is no strength in the
affected heel, and lameness is produced.
The treatment is very much the same as
for sandcrack. In the first place, the
pressure must be taken off the quarter,
and a bar-shoe applied, so as to convey
the weight on the frog, as described under
the head of sandcrack. The heel of the
affected quarter should be lowered, and
thus further injury will be prevented.
The next thing to be done is to stimulate
the coronet to a healthy action by blis-
tering it, which must be done two or
three times, taking care that the blister is :
not of too violent a nature, and that the
skin heals before a second is applied. By
these means, a cure may sometimes bef
effected; but it takes considerable time,,
and until the quarter is reproduced in full!
strength, ok nearly so, the bar-shoe should
be continued. By its use, any horse with
a sound frog can travel very well on the
road, even if the quarter is entirely and
permanently separated from the toe by

H4

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

inefficient horn; and without it, the
chance of a cure is not to be reckoned on.

HORSE, Foot, Disease of.— In coun-
tries where the roads are hilly and rough,
this is a common trouble, and it is doubt-
less caused by disease of that part of the
foot which centers round the navicular
bone (a small bone in the center of the
foot), and is caused by constant and irri-
tating jars upon this highly sensitive part.
To the cutting of the frog and the removal
of that elastic cushion, provided by nature
for the protection of these delicate parts,
is due the prevalence of this disease,
which unfortunately is rarely curable. An
unerring symptom is the throwing for-
ward of the foot by the horse when in the
.stable, or pointing, as it is called,
mentioned as belonging to this case.
Absolute rest, with good feed, cooling
bandages to the leg, stuffing the hoof
with cow-dung, making a soft bed of wet
■ clay for the fore-feet to rest in, and rub-
, bing the hoof with glycerine to soften and
cool the crust, are the best remedial
measures. It is a mistake to suppose the
horse's foot is a solid mass of horn ; if one
.is dissected, it will be found a very differ-
ent thing indeed, and it should be treated
accordingly.

HORSE, Founder— (See Horse, Lam-

•INITIS).

HORSE, Seedy Toe.— This term is so
generally employed among horsemen,
that though the state which it describes
is one of the ordinary consequences of
laminitis, we prefer to give it a distinct
. section. We have already described its
nature in the preceding page, and have
• only now to allude to its treatment. This
imay generally be so conducted as to
'.restore the shape of the foot, if the inflam-
mation has not lowered the toe of the
pedal bone, as shown at fig. i ; for if this
has taken place, although it is perhaps
possible to get rid of the cavities in the
horn, the relative positions of the bony
parts cannot be changed. When, how-
ever, as is often the case, a moderately
rsmall hollow has been formed between
.the layers of the wall, and the foot retains
a tolerably healthy shape, by cutting
.away all the external horny walls, expos-
ing the parts in contact with the laminae,
jand resting the horse in a loose box, the
-secreting surface will form a new wall,
without any spongy texture, in the course

of three or four months, if the coronary
band is constantly stimulated by external
applications. To effect this, the horse
should be put to stand on red deal saw-
dust, without shoes ; and his coronets,
after being gently stimulated by a mild
liquid blister, should be kept dressed with
tar ointment, which should also be applied
to the exterior of the horn. It is seldom,
however, that a foot which has been thus
treated is sufficiently sound to bear hard
work.

HORSE, Navicular Disease. — This
formidable disease, called also the navicu-
lar joint lameness, and navicularthritis, is
the chief danger to be apprehended from
a good-looking strong foot, just as the
open flat one is prone to laminitis, and is
rarely subject to disease in the navicular
joint. The reason of this immunity on
the one hand, and the contrary on the
other, is this. The open foot, with a large
spongy frog, exposes the navicular bone
and the parts in contact with it to con-
stant pressure in the stable, so that these
parts are always prepared for work. On
the other hand, the concave sole and
well-formed frog are raised from the
ground by our unfortunate mode of shoe-
ing, and when the whole foot is exposed
to injury from battering, and, in addition,
the tendon which plays over the navicular
bone presses it against the os coronae, the
unprepared slate in which this part is
allowed to remain is sure to produce
inflammation, if the work is carried far
enough. Thus in each case the weak
part suffers; but occasionally, though very
rarely, the foot with an arched sole con-
tracts laminitis, and the flat one is attack-
ed by navicular disease ; the exceptions,
however, are so few that they may be
thrown out of the calculation, and from
the shape of the foot alone it may almost
invariably be pronounced, when a horse
is known to be subject to chronic lame-
ness, whether its seat is in the laminae or
in the navicular joint.

When a foot is examined after death
which is known to have been the subject
of navicular disease, the parts implicated
are invariably either the navicular bone,
or the soft parts in contact with it, or
often all together. Most frequently on
dividing the tendon of the flexor perforans,
and turning it down so as to expose the
back of the joint between the navicular

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

and coronal bones, that part will be greatly
thickened and inflamed, the tendon being
often adherent to it. In the healthy con-
dition there ought to be no adhesion of the
fibres of the tendon to any part of the
navicular bone but its postero-inferior
•edge, to which the tendon is fixed by some
few fibres, the bulk passing to be inserted in
the os pedis. The posterior face of the na-
vicular bone should be beautifully smooth,
and lined by synovial membrane, which
forms a lubricating sac for it to play upon,
and thus take off the friction between the

Fig. 27. — Ulceration of the Posterior
Surface of the Navicular Bone.

1. Lower or plantar surface of pedal bone.

2. Small specks of exostosis.

3. Carious patch.

tendon and the bone. Such is nature's
provision against mischief in this delicate
part of the machinery of the foot, which
she keeps in order by the constant supply
of synovia or joint oil. But when the
sac is not stimulated to a healthy action
by the pressure of the frog below it in-
doors and out, synovia is no longer se-
creted in proper quantity, and as soon as
the horse is put to hard work, inflamma-
tion takes place for want of it. The re-
sult is some one of the consequences of
inflamed joints. Either ulceration takes
place in the postero-inferior surface, where
the tendon glides over it as shown in fig.
27 (at 3), sometimes ending in caries of
the bone itself; or adhesion takes place
without ulceration of the tendon with the
surface of the bone, or there are small
exostoses thrown out, see fig. 27 (2); or
lastly, there is simple inflammation with-
• -out either adhesion or ulceration, and in

this stage the disease is amenable to treat-
ment without leaving any trace behind.

The symptoms of navicular disease are
the same, whether the mischief has ex-
tended to ulceration or not ; but the his-
tory will guide us in ascertaining how far
it has gone. Of course they vary in de-
gree, for there may be only a slight extent
of ulceration, or a high degree of simple
inflammation ; but in the former case the
lameness will not be so marked as in the
latter, though the prospect of recovery
will be much less. There is always more
or less lameness ; but, in consequence of
its affecting both feet, it is not so marked
to the careless observer as in some much
more trivial cases where only one is dis-
eased. The distinguishing sign, though
not absolutely infallible, is the pointing of
the toe, and a peculiar rounding forward
of the fetlock joint, so as to relieve the
navicular bone of any weight. In 1am-
initis, the object of the sufferer is to re-
lieve all pressure as much as possible, by
bringing the hind legs under the body,
and by bearing the weight of the fore
quarter on the heels. Here, the reverse
of the latter attitude is observed — the
heels are not allowed to take any pressure,
and the toes alone are placed at all firmly
on the ground. This is marked in the
stable by the pointing of the toe (in each
foot alternately, if both are diseased, but
in the one only, if they are not both
affected). Out of doors, the toes dig into
the ground, the heel never being brought
firmly down; and frequent stumbles mark
the difference between this species of
lameness and laminitis. The subject of
navicular disease generally walks sound ;
but the moment he is trotted, he goes as
if his legs were tied together, his stride
being shortened in a remarkable manner,
but without exhibiting the peculiar fum-
bling gait of the foundered animal. As
in his case, soft ground suits him, and he
has no fear of plough, because his sole is
hard and unyielding. Many tolerably
confirmed cases of navicular disease may,
therefore, be driven, except when the
ground is hard, supposing, of course, that
they are kept off the road ; but no plan
of management will enable them to bear
the jars incidental to harness-work or
hacking. When one foot only is the sub-
ject of navicular disease, it often hap-
pens that it is smaller altogether than the

n6

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

other; but it is- somewhat difficult to say
whether this is a cause or a consequence
of inflammation. One thing is quite
clear, that many horses are met with, still
perfectly free from lameness, in which
there is a difference of size in their fore
feet ; but whether or no these are after-
wards invariably the subjects of navicu-
lar disease, it is almost impossible to
ascertain. It is, however, the general
opinion, founded on experience, that
when this variation exists, navicular dis-
ease is extremely likely to attack the
smaller foot, if it is not already there;
and for this reason, horses with such feet
are generally avoided by the intending
purchaser.

The treatment of navicular disease, as
before remarked, is only successful in the
early stage, before either ulceration or ad-
hesion has taken place. If a horse with
strong, concave soles suddenly becomes
lame, points his toe, and shows other
signs that his navicular bone is inflamed,
he should be treated in the usual way
suited to inflammation, and at the same
time liberty should be given to the vascu-
lar tissues to expand, by reducing the
substance of the horn. Bleeding at the
toe has the double good effect of abstract-
ing blood, and at the same time weaken-
ing the sole, so as to allow of the expan-
sion which is desired. The operation
should, therefore, at once be performed;
at the same time, the whole sole may be
reduced in thickness, and the heels low-
ered in proportion. The foot should then
(after the shoe is tacked on) be placed in
a cold bran poultice, which will soften the
horn ; and the system should be reduced
by the exhibition of the medicines recom-
mended under Laminitis. Next day, if
the pulse continues high, more blood may
be taken; but, in ordinary cases, it is
better at once to insert a seton in the frog
(see Figure 27,) and trust to this for
relieving the chronic inflammation re-
maining, by its counter-irritation. But
when the disease itself is mastered, there
is still a good deal to be done to prevent
the injurious effects which are so apt to
follow. The horse contracts a habit ot
stepping on his toes, to prevent hurting
his navicular structures; and hence the
frog is not used, the heels of the crust
and the bars are not strained, and there
being no stimulus to the soft parts which

secrete them, they waste and contract in
size. If the human hand is allowed to>
lie idle, the palm and the insides of the:
fingers are covered with a delicate cuticle,,
which affords so poor a protection to the
cutis, that, on using it with any kind of
hard work, it actually separates, and
leaves an exposed surface, which speedily
inflames. But by gradually exposing the
same hand to pressure, a thickened and
tougher cuticle is secreted; and this will
bear any moderate amount of pressure
or friction without injury. Nevertheless,.
even the hand so prepared must be con-
tinually stimulated by work, or the skin
returns to its original delicate state, and:
is then exposed to the same risk of injury
as before. So it is with the horse's foot,
even in a state of health ; but this is far
more marked after an attack of disease..
The tendency then is to produce the na-
tural horny growths of a smaller sub-
stance than before ; and if the secreting
surfaces are not stimulated by pressure,,
they become doubly idle, and the frog,,
as well as the adjacent parts beneath the
navicular bone, shows a wasted and shriv-
elled appearance. To avoid the risk of
these ill consequences, the horse should,
be placed, for two or three hours daily,,
on a bed of wet clay, which will allow
the shoe to sink into it, but will yet be
tenacious enough to make firm and
steady pressure on the frog, while its low
temperature will keep down inflammation.
No plan is of so much service in pro-
ducing what is called expansion of the
heels and growth of the frog as this ; not,,
as is commonly supposed, from the clay
mechanically pressing the heels out, but
from the stimulus of its pressure causing
the soft parts to secrete more horn, and.
of a sounder quality than before.

Should these remedies fail in restoring
the foot affected with navicular disease to
a healthy state, recourse can only be had
to the operation of neurotomy, which is.
perfectly efficacious in removing the lame-
ness; and if there is no ulceration, and
merely an adhesion of the tendon to the
bone, it will, by causing the horse to step
more on his heels, effect an absolute
improvement in the shape of the foot,
and hence it has sometimes been consid-
ered to have produced a cure. Where,,
however, there is caries of the bone, or
even ulceration of the synovial membrane,,

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT

117

!the disease progresses even faster than be-
fore the operation, and in process of time
the joint becomes mechanically unfit to
perform its duties.

HORSE, Legs and Feet, Accidents to
the. — These parts are subject to a variety
of accidents, trifling perhaps in the cause
which produces them, but serious in their
effects, from the lameness which ensues.
The chief of these are ordinary cutting,
speedy cutting, and pricks of the foot
either from putting the sole down upon a
nail or a piece of glass, or driving a nail
improperly in shoeing. Bruises and over-
reaches also come under this head.

Ordinary cutting may occur either be-
fore or behind, the latter being the more
common. It is often met with in poor
horses, where the flesh is so reduced in
substance that the legs are brought nearer
together than in a proper condition. Here
all that is required is patience, till the
legs are restored to their proper relative
position, taking care in the meantime that
there is no permanent injury done. Us-
ually the inside of one or both feet strike
the fetlock joint of the other leg in pas-
sing it, but sometimes the blow is given
higher up, and it may occur anywhere on
the cannon bone except just below the
knee, when it is called " speedy cutting,"
which will be separately considered.
Sometimes this blow on the cannon bone
is either the cause or the effect of a splint,
the blow of the foot having a tendency
to produce exostosis (see Splints). But
if a splint is thrown out on a part of the
cannon bone which comes in the way of
the natural action, the horse whose foot
previously passed clear of that part of
the other leg will hit it, and not only give
pain, but cause a considerable access of
inflammation in the previous enlarge-
ment. In the treatment, therefore, of
cutting, it is necessary to prevent the
habit being continued from the swelling
produced either by a splint or by previous
blows. A horse, perhaps, either from
weakness or bad shoeing, hits his legs
and produces considerable swelling and
soreness. Here, unless the swelling is re-
duced or protected, there is no chance of
preventing the cutting, because there is a
projection of the swollen soft parts right
in the way of the other foot. No altera-
tion of the shoeing, and no increase of
strength or flesh, will be of service until

the inflammation is reduced, and the sore,
if any exists, is healed, and this can only
be done either by rest or by protecting the
leg with a boot. The latter is the better
plan, and wherever a horse cuts it is, in
our opinion, advisable to let him wear a
boot for some weeks, until the skin is
quite sound again and reduced to its
proper thickness. A piece of an old rug
folded round the leg so as slightly to over-
lap, and then tied with a tape and turned
down over the fetlock joint, is quite suf-
ficent to serve this temporary purpose,
and being soft it is well calculated to pro-
tect a swollen joint ; but if it is worn any
length of time, the pressure of the tape
and the friction of the grit from the road
wear away the hair, and cause an un-
sightly appearance, which is sometimes
permanent. If, therefore, the cutting is
not rectified completely in the course of a
month or six weeks, a leather or india-
rubber boot should be nicely adapted to
the joint and buckled round it, the flat
surface of the strap not having so injuri-
ous an effect as the tape of the cloth
boot. When the cutting takes place
above the joint, a pad must be adapted
to its inside, and fastened round the can-
non bone by two or three buckles, accord-
ing to the height at which the injury takes
place.

Such is the best mode of guarding
against the injury done by cutting, but
we must also consider how it can be en-
tirely prevented. In the first place, it
should be carefully ascertained by what
part of the foot or shoe the blow is given.
Most commonly it will be found, by
chalking the inside of the foot, that a
small patch is rubbed clear of chalk,
about half an inch above the middle of
the quarter, and corresponding with the
hindermost nail hole, especially when
four inside nails are used. When this is
the hitting point, if great care is taken to
avoid driving in a nail there, the tenden-
cy to cut can never be increased as it
often is by a raised clench, and at the
same time the rasp may safely be used
to reduce the thicknees of the hoof at
least the eighth of an inch, or often
much more. The crust is usually here
about three-eighths of an inch thick, and
very often it is so sound that it will bear
to be rasped down till there is only one-
eighth left, provided it has not to bear

n8

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

the pressure of a nail near it, and
that the reduction is not carried up too
near to the coronet. In the hind foot
the quarter is fully half an inch thick, and
it therefore will bear reduction better
even than the fore foot. Sometimes the
blow is given by the shoe itself, which is
fixed on so as to overlap the crust, and
then the remedy is simple enough, for this
ought never to occur, and can easily be
prevented by any smith. But supposing,
in spite of these precautions, the cutting
still continues after the horse is restored
to his natural strength and flesh, can any-
thing be done by shoeing? In most
cases this question may be answered in
the affirmative, by the use of what is
called a feather-edged shoe, which will be
described under the head of shoeing. By
its aid the heels are both raised, not the
inner one only (which is entirely useless
and even prejudicial, for then the ground
surface of the shoe is not a true plane),
but both heels, the inner one being nar-
rower, and having no nail holes beyond
the two near the toe, so that there is no
danger of the web projecting; nor is
there any nail hole required, with the fear
of a clench rising, or of the crust being
weakened so as to prevent its being thin-
ned to a proper degree. By thus raising
the heels (in the hind foot especially), the
fetlock is less bent, and as in horses that
cut there is almost always a tendency in
their fetlock joints to bend inwards as
well as backwards, this diminution of the
angle will not only straighten the leg in a
forward direction, but it will also increase
the distance between the joints, which is
the object to be desired. In the fore foot
the obliquity in this direction is not so
frequent, and then the high heel will be
of no use ; indeed, it is only when the
toes are too much turned out that this
plan of shoeing the fore foot is ever suc-
cessful. When cutting occurs before, un-
less there is this turn out, it is better to
put the shoes on in a perfectly level man-
ner, and trust to the reduction of the
thickness of the quarter, and the absence
of the third nail. If, with these precau-
tions, the horse, when in good condition,
still strikes his fore legs, it will be better
to put up with the constant use of a boot.
Generally, however, if the inflammation
is first subdued, and the foot is shod in a
perfectly true and level manner, taking

care to rasp away the particular part
which strikes the other leg, it will be
found that the cutting is avoided.

Speedy cutting is more dangerous than
ordinary cutting, because the pain given
by the blow is generally more severe, and
is often so great that the horse falls as if
he were shot. On examining the leg of
a confirmed speedy cutter there is always
apparent a small scab or bruise on the in-
side of the cannon bone, immediately be-
low the knee; but in slight cases rest may
have been used to allow the skin to heal,
and then no mark may possibly be left.
A careful examination will, however, gen-
erally detect a small bare place, partially
concealed by the growth of the adjacent
hair. In bad cases the periosteum is
swollen, and there is a considerable en-
largement of the surface of the bone. In
the management of slight cases of this
kind of cutting the action should be ex-
amined while the hoof is covered with
chalk, and the latter should be treated in
the same way as already described. If,
however, this fails, as it generally does in
this form of cutting, there is no remedy
but to put on a regular speedy-cut boot,
in which there is a pad buckled on the
inside of the leg, and reaching from the
knee to the fetlock. It must be of this
length, because otherwise it cannot be
kept in its place, as the leg allows it to
slip down until it reaches the larger cir-
cumference presented by the joint.
Where there is pain and swelling, caused
by the contusion, it must be treated in the
ordinary way, by the application of cold
water and the tincture of arnica, a wine-
glassfull of the latter in two quarts of
water.

Pricks in shoeing occur from the want
of skill in the smith, who drives the nail
too near the laminae, and sometimes even
absolutely wounds them. It may be that
the nail in its passage upwards is not
within an eighth of an inch of these del-
icate parts, and the horse may not have
flinched during the driving of it, but
when he is put to work the nail opposes
a hard, unyielding line to the soft parts,
inflammation is established, and possibly
even matter is formed which may end ini
quittor. When, on the day after shoe-
ing, a horse which was previously sound
goes lame, and the foot is hot to the
touch, it may generally be assumed that

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

n<>

a nail or nails have been driven too near
to the quick, unless there is evidence of
laminitis from other causes. On tapping
the crust with a hammer*, the horse will
flinch at some particular spot, and there
is the nail which is in fault. Sometimes
there is little inflammation as yet set up,
but the pressure of the nail is sufficient to
cause lameness, and in either case the
shoe should be taken off. Then, if there
is reason to suppose that matter has
formed, the opening from which the nail
came out should be enlarged, and the mat-
ter allowed to escape. If, however, the
foot has been merely "bound," it may be
either left to nature, with a shoe lightly
tacked on, and a wet "swab" round the
coronet, or it may be placed in a bran
poultice, which is the safest plan.

When a nail is picked up on the road
the prognosis will depend upon the part
which it has penetrated. If it has en-
tered deeply into the toe of the frog, the
probability is that the navicular joint has
been wounded, dr probably the tendon of
the flexor at its insertion into the pedal
bone, either of which are very serious ac-
cidents. If the wound is further back
there is less risk of permanent injury, as
the bulbous heels or cushion of the frog
will bear a considerable amount of injury
without permanent mischief. In any case
the treatment should consist in cutting
away the horn round the opening, so as
to allow of a free escape of matter if it
forms. At the same time inflammation
should be kept under by cold "swabs" to
the coronet, or by putting the whole foot
into a bran poultice.

Over-reaches, when slight, may be
treated by the application of Friar's bal-
sam, or tincture of arnica in full strength,
which will have a tendency to dry them
up and prevent suppuration. If, howev-
er, the heel is very much bruised, a poul-
tice must be applied, but even then a lit-
tle tincture of arnica should be sprinkled
on it. When the bruise is so severe that
a slough or core comes away the wound
may be dressed with a piece of lint,
dipped in a solution of nitrate of silver,
eight grains to the ounce of distilled
water, and over this a bran poultice. In
most cases, however, it is better to fo-
ment the part well and then apply the
tincture of arnica neat.

A bruise on the thin sole will some-

times cause matter to form, in which case
the horn must be cut away and the case-
treated as foi quittor. (See Horse, Quit-
tor.) Before matter forms the horn
should be reduced, and the foot placed in
a cold bran poultice.

HORSE, Snow Balling, to prevent. —
Clean their hoofs well, then rub thorough-
ly with thick soap suds before going out
in the snow.

HORSE, Interfering. — To prevent in-
teifering in a horse who is turned out in the
front feet, the shoe should be applied to
fit closely on the inside, and the nails ap-
plied round the toe and to the outside.
In some instances a small piece of leather
placed betwixt the sole and the shoe, and
allowed to project outwards, has a very
good effect in preventing interfering.

HORSE, Knee-Fan Displaced. — Feed
the horse well on oats, barley and sound
hay ; give him a drachm of powdered
phosphate of iron daily in his food; keep-
in a stall with a perfectly smooth and
level floor, and not less than 5^ or 6 feet
wide ; apply a shoe with a bar welded ta
the toe, projecting two or three inches,,
and then let it be turned up; rub the
joint with an ointment made of one
drachm of powdered cantharides to one-
half ounce of lard, repeating the ap-
plication the next day if it has not blis-
tered. When a blister rises wash it off
with soap and warm water, and then,
anoint the part daily with lard, until the
scab and other effects have passed offr
when another blister may be applied.

HORSE, Feet, Scaling in Summer. — To*
prevent horses' feet from scaling or crack-
ing in summer, and enable the shoes to be'
carried a longer time without injury, the
French practice is to coat the hoofs once
a week with an ointment composed of
equal proportions of soft fat, yellow wax,
linseed oil, Venice turpentine and Nor-
way tar ; the wax is melted separately be-
fore mixing.

HORSE, Fevers. — The horse is very
rarely subject to fever as a disease of it-
self, independently of inflammation, un-
der which head we have already described
catarrhal fever, both of the simple kind
and when epidemic, and known as influ-
enza. Indeed, all the important inflam-
mations of the body are attended with
fever; but in them the local affections are-
evidently more serious than the general

PIORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

disturbance of the system, which we call
by the name of fever. By many veteri-
narians it is doubted whether fever ever
shows itself in the horse without inflam-
mation; but occasionally it may be ob-
served under the form of simple fever,
presenting all the symptoms which ac-
company ordinary inflammation, but
without any such complication, and
more rarely of the typhoid form, which
now sometimes attends influenza and
other epidemics.

Simple fever shows itself by dullness
and reluctance to move, a staring coat,
and cold legs and feet, with increased
warmth of the body. The pulse is quick,
soft and variable — breathing a little accel-
erated, but not much — appetite entirely
lost — bowels confined, and urine scanty.
These symptoms continue for two or
, three days, and then either go on into the
typhoid form, or they are complicated by
inflammation in some organ of the body.
The treatment merely consists in giving a
mild dose of physic, followed by a febri-
fuge drink, such as the following :
Take of Spirit of Nitrous Ether - I ounce.

Mitre 3 to 5 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger - - 2 drachms.
Camphor Mixture - - 6 ounces.

Mix, and give twice a day.

Typhoid fever sometimes appears as an
^epidemic, occurring either as a sequel to
influenza, or in its pure form, without any
-complication. The latter condition is,
however, extremely rare. In its early
:stage it can scarcely be recognized or dis-
tinguished from simple fever; but in the
^course of two or three days the strength
is so much reduced, the breath is so
fetid and the mouth is loaded with
such a black discharge from the tongue
and gums, that the nature of the dis-
<ease is clearly manifested. The pulse
is very low, the languor increases, and
there is often more or less delirium. The
course of the disease is extremely rapid,
and in five or six days a strong horse will
sink beneath its powers, refusing food, and
dying without any attempt to rally. The
treatment should be of the most generous
kind, as soon as the bowels have been
gently moved, which should be effected,
if possible, by injection. Then give a ball
two or three times a day, composed thus :
Take of Carbonate of Ammonia - % to I drachm

Powdered Ginger - - - - I drachm.

Powdered Yellow Bark - - 3 drachms.
.Syrup enough to make into a ball.

This should be washed down with a
quart of ale caudle, and hay tea should be
allowed as the drink ad libitum y or, if
there is diarrhasa, rice water may be used
in the same way. Few cases, however,
will recover, in spite of every exertion and
careful treatment on the part of the
attendant.

HOR.SE, Anasarca. — Anasarca, or
moor-ill, occurs chiefly among horses
turned out in marshes or low commons,
and may readily be known by the general
swelling of the body, increasing by gravi-
tation in the legs during the standing
posture, but showing itself chiefly in the
lower side of the body in the early morn-
ing, when the horse has been lying down
all night. The disease is now rare, but
it occasionally appears under the circum-
stances above described. The treatment
must be by acting on the kidneys, the
following being a useful recipe for the
purpose :

Take of Nitre - - - - 4 drachms.

Powdered Resin - - 3 drachms.

Ginger I drachm.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether l}4 oz.

Warm Water - - - 2 Pints.
Mix and give as a drench every night.

HORSE, Moor-Ill, (See Horse, Ana-
sarca).

HORSE, Glanders. — This frightful con-
stitutional disease appears to consist in
the generation of some poisonous matter
in the blood, which nature attempts to
throw off by establishing a discharge in
the nostrils. It is perfectly incurable, and
therefore it is only necessary to study its
symptoms, with a view to distinguish it
from ozena, with which alone it is liable
to be confounded. Its chronic character
and insidious onset will serve to distin-
guish it from catarrh and strangles.

At its commencement, it seems to be
confined to the internal lining of the
nostrils, which is not reddened, as in
chronic catarrh (ozena), but presents a
leaden or purple color, sometimes of a
deep shade, 'but at first generally very
light and pale. This is accompanied by
a thin acrid discharge, transparent, and
without odor. Generally one nostril
only is affected, which in this country is
more frequently the left, and in France
the right; but why this should be so has
never yet been even conjectured with any
appearance of probability. This state of
things usually only lasts for a few weeks,

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

121

but it may go on for an indefinite time,
and is recognized as the first stage ; dur-
ing which the health does not suffer, and
the horse can, and often does, go on with
his ordinary work. It may be distin-
guished from ozena by the purple color
of the lining membrane, and by the trans-
parency and freedom from smell of the
discharge.

In the second stage, the discharge in-
creases in quantity, and though still
watery and transparent, it is slightly sticky,
indicating the presence of mucus. The
lymphatic glands below the jaw enlarge,
and become adherent to the bone, feel-
ing hard to the touch, and almost like
exostosis. Here the permanent character
of the discharge and the adherence of the
glands to the bone are the diagnostic
signs from ozena.

In the third stage, the discharge in-
creases rapidly, and becomes yellow and
opaque — in fact, it is pure pus. If the
nose is carefully examined, its lining mem-
brane will be seen to present one or more
sores, with depressed centres and ragged
edges, and surrounded by small varicose
vessels leading to them from all directions.
In proportion to the extent of the local
mischief, constitutional disturbance is dis-
played. The appetite fails — the horse
loses flesh and spirits — the coat is turned
the wrong way — the skin is hide-bound,
.and the legs fill slightly during the day,
but go down at night — the nose is, at last,
frightfully ulcerated, the sores spreading
to the larynx — ulcers break out on the
body — and the horse finally dies, worn to
a skeleton.

When the diagnosis of the disease is
confirmed, as it is undoubtedly highly
contagious, both to other horses and to
man himself, the patient ought to be
destroyed. By the use of green food, his
life may be prolonged for a time, and a
certain amount of work may be got out of
him; but the risk of contagion is too
great to be incurred, and no man who re-
gards his own welfare, and that of his
neighbors should keep a glandered
horse.

HORSE, Farcy. — This disease appears
to depend upon the development of the
same poison as in glanders ; but the at-
tempt at elimination is made in the skin,
instead of the mucous membrane lining
the nose. A horse inoculated with slan-

ders may exhibit farcy, and vice versa ; so
that the essence of the disease is the
same, but its seat is a different tissue.

Farcy usually shows itself first by one
or two small hard knots in the skin called
" farcy buds." These soon soften, and
contain a small quantity of pus ; but as
this is rapidly absorbed, the lymphatics
which convey it into the circulation in-
flame ; and at a short distance another bud
is formed, and then another, and another.
These buds are usually met with in the
thin skin covering the inside of the thighs
and arms, or the neck and lips. They
vary from the size of a shilling to that of
a half-crown ; and as they increase in
numbers, the skin becomes cedematous.
In process of time, the general system
suffers, as in glanders, and the horse dies,
a miserable, worn-out object. No treat-
ment can be relied on to cure the disease;
and as it is equally contagious with
glanders, every farcied horse ought at
once to be destroyed. The hard nature
of the buds, and the thickened lymphatics
extending like cords between, clearly
make known the nature of the disease.

HORSE, Chloroform, Administration of.
— The use of chloroform to procure in-
sensibility to pain is a great aid to the
operator on the horse, who without it acts
under great difficulties, owing to the nerv-
ous twitch which the poor animal gives
at each touch of the knife. Under chlo-
roform, however, he lies as if dead ; and
as long as its effects continue, the most
elaborate dissection may be conducted
with comparative ease. There is some
little danger of over-doing this powerful
agent, but the risk is not so great as is
generally supposed, and with ordinary
care it is more than 1,000 to i that no
injurious effects produced.

The best and most simple apparatus for
the purpose of administering chloroform
is a common wire muzzle, to the upper
edge of which a strip of leather six inches
deep is stitched, and so arranged that it
may be buckled round the upper part of
the jaws. This insures that all the air
inspired shall pass through the wires, and
by covering them with a cap of very loose
flannel, in which a few holes are cut to
facilitate respiration, the muzzle may be
made ready for use. The horse is first
cast, after which the above apparatus is
put on and buckled round the jaw, when

122

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

on sprinkling the chloroform over the
cap of flannel, it may be applied or re-
moved in an instant, and the amount of
anaesthesia regulated accordingly. With-
out some guard such as the wire affords,
the chloroform runs over the nostrils and
lips, and blisters them to a serious ex-
tent; but when it is used, such an ac-
cident can only occur from over-satur-
ating the flannel. The necessary quantity
of this powerful agent must be employed;
but when once it is found that a prick of
a pin or other pointed instrument is borne
without shrinking, the flannel may be
withdrawn, and the operation quickly
commenced, taking care to have an
assistant ready to put it on again if the
horse shows signs of returning sensibility
to pain. Six or eight ounces of chloro-
form must be provided, as the quantity
required is rather uncertain, the average
dose being about three or four ounces.

If casting is objected to, either from
the absence of hobbles, or from fear of
injury to the horse, a soft bed of straw
should be provided, and a strong halter
must be put over the muzzle with two
cords, one of which should be held by a
man on each side. These will serve to
guide the horse in falling; but it is ex-
tremely difficult to make sure of his going
down where he is wanted to lie; and
there is also considerable time lost in se-
curing him after he is down, which the
safety of the operator imperatively re-
quires. The effect of the chloroform
must therefore be kept up for a much
longer time than if it is given after the
horse is cast and secured.

HORSE, Confining the Horse, Methods
of. — There are various plans adopted by
veterinary surgeons to bind the horse's
limbs, so that he cannot injure himself or
them when undergoing an operation.
Even when chloroform is employed, some
coercion of this kind must generally be
adopted, as directed in the last section ;
for if it is given in the standing position,
the horse is very apt to injure himself in
falling, which is often accompanied by
powerful convulsive motions, and more-
over he cannot with certainty be placed
in a suitable position. The plan adopted
by Mr. Rarey is seldom suitable, because
it can only be employed on subjects
taught to go down without resistance, for
the severe struggle which the untaught

horse makes before he submits is calcu-
lated to produce injurious constitutional
disturbance, and, moreover, it would
sadly increase any of the various diseases
of the limbs for which operations are so
often performed. Sometimes, however, it
might advantageously be introduced into
veterinary surgery, as for instance in cas-
tration, when the colt will not suffer his
hind legs to be touched, but even then it
will be necessary to throw him two or
three times, or he will be in such a state
of arterial excitement that inflammation
will be likely to follow. The usual meth-
ods of confinement are: ist. The hob-
bles. 2d. The side line. 3d. The trevis,.
or break. 4th. The twitch and barna-
cles.

Hobbles consist of four broad padded
leather straps, provided with strong buck-
les, and long enough to encircle the
pasterns. To each of these an iron ring
is stitched, and to one of them a strong,.
soft rope, six yards in length, is securely
attached. Provided with four, or, if pos-
sible, five assistants, the operator buckles
the hobble with the rope attached to the
near fore leg, and the remaining three to
the other legs. Then passing the rope
through their rings, and through the first
also, it is held by three assistants, the
nearest of whom stands about a yard
from the horse, so as to pull upwards as.
well as away from him; a fourth assistant
holds him by the head to keep him quiet,
and to be ready to fall on it as soon as he
is down, and the fifth stands at his quar-
ters, ready to push him over on his off
side. This place is sometimes occupied
by the operator himself when he is short
of hands. Casting should never be at-
tempted on any hard surface, a thick bed
of straw being necessary to prevent injury
from the heavy fall which takes place.
The hind legs should be brought as far
forward as possible before beginning to.
pull the rope, and when the men do this
they should do it " with a will," but with-
out jerking, so as to take the horse off his
guard, when he will resist much less
stoutly than if he is allowed more time.
As soon as the legs are drawn up to-
gether, the man at the quarters is quite
safe from injury, and he may lean forcibly
against that part, and force the horse over
to the off side, upon which he falls ; the-
assistant at the head keeping that part

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i*3

down, no further struggling takes place,
and he is secured by passing the end of
the rope under the hobble rings between
the fore and hind legs, and securing it
with a hitch. Something more, however,
is necessary to be done before any of the
usual operations can be performed, as all
of the legs are at liberty to a certain ex-
tent and the scrotum cannot be reached
in safety. The following further precau-
tions must therefore be taken, varying
according to the part to be operated on.

For castration the horse should be
cast on his near side, with a web halter
in the usual place of a collar. The rope
of the halter is then passed through the
ring of the hobble on the off hind leg,
and using it as a pulley the foot is drawn
forcibly forward beyond the arm and
firmly secured to the webbing round the
neck, and bringing it back again it may
be passed round the thigh above the hock
(which should be guarded from friction
by a soft cloth or leather), amd again se-
cured to the webbing. By these precau-
tions the scrotum is completely exposed,
and the hind legs cannot be stirred be-
yond the slight spasmodic twitch which
extends to the whole body.

To perform any operation on the fore
leg, it must be taken out of its hobble, and
drawn forward upon the straw by a web-
bing attached to its pastern, where it
must be held by an assistant, the horse
having little or no power over it in this
position.

The hind leg is secured in the same
way as for castration, unless the fetlock
is to be fired, when webbing must be ap-
plied to the thigh above the hock only.
With most horses, however, firing can be
performed without casting, by buckling
up the fore leg, or by having it held by
a competent assistant.

When the horse is to be released, the
hobbles are quietly unbuckled in succes-
sion, beginning with the undermost hind
leg.

Several improved hobbles have been
invented, but they are suited rather for
the veterinary surgeon than for the ordi-
nary horsemaster, who will only require
them for castration and minor operations.

The side line is sometimes used for se-
curing one hind leg thus : the long rope
and single hobble only are required, the
latter being buckled to the hind pastern,

which is to be secured. The rope is then
passed over the withers and brought back
round the bosom and shoulder of the
same side as the leg to which it is secured,
and then passed inside the first part of
the rope. By pulling at the end of this
cord the hind leg is drawn up to the
shoulder, and secured there with a hitch,
but the plan is not nearly so safe as cast-
ing.

The trevis or break consists of four
strong posts driven into the ground, at the-
corners of a space six feet long by three
feet wide. They are strongly braced to-
gether by wooden stays, three feet six
inches from the ground on three sides, the.
fourth being left open for the horse to en-
ter, after which this also is made good by
a padded bar passed through stout iron
rings fixed at three feet from the ground to
the uprights. By means of this frame-
work, to which sundry rings are bolted,
the body of the horse is first securely con-
fined by two broad bands under the belly
and two above the shoulders and croup.
Thus he can neither rear nor kick to any
extent sufficient to free himself, and all
that is necessary is to lay hold of any limb
selected for operation, and confine it to
one of the uprights, or to some other con-
venient point. This is the best plan to
be adopted for firing and other operations
on the legs, and if the belly-bands are
wide, strong, and secure, chloroform may
be administered in it, without the horse
going down.

The twitch is a short stick of strong
ash, about the size of a mopstick, with a
hole pierced near the end, through which
is passed a peice of strong but small cord,,
and tied in a loop large enough to admit
the open hand freely. This is passed
over the upper lip close to the nostrils,
and then, by twisting the stick, compres-
sion is made to a painful extent, which
will keep horses quiet for any slight oper-
ation. Sometimes it is placed on the ear
in preference, but in either case the effect
is dependent on the pain produced.

Barnacles consist in the application of
pressure by means of the handles of a
pair of pincers inclosing the muzzle, and
held firmly by an assistant. They are,
however, not so useful as the twitch.

HORSE, Bleeding. — In the early part
of the present century bleeding was re-

124

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIED

sorted to on every appearance of the
slightest inflammation, and often without
the slightest necessity. Many horses were
regularly bled " every spring and fall," to
prevent mischief, as was supposed ; but at
last it always happened to every horse
which lived long enough, that the more fre-
quently blood was taken, the more the oper-
ation was required, and when it was ab-
solutely wanted to lower the heart's action,
such a quantity of blood must be taken
that the system was reduced to a danger-
ous degree. Stallions were constantly
submitted to this treatment, and mares as
long they were worked, so that in course
of time it has happened to the horse, as it
has also to man himself, that the horrid
abuse of the lancet for two or three con-
secutive generations has completely chang-
ed the type of the diseases to which they
are both subject. Inflammation does not
now follow the same course that it used to
do, but is of a much milder type, and the
attendant fever is inclined to assume the
typhoid character, if lowering measures
are pushed to any great extent. An at-
tempt has been made to account for this
change in human diseases by the altera-
tion in the habits of the present genera-
tion, which are certainly more temperate
than those of the previous one ; but in the
case of the horse the reverse holds good,
for he is now stimulated by more corn
than ever. The only point, as far as we
can make out, in which the horse and his
master have been similarly maltreated, is
in the abuse of the lancet, which undoubt-
edly may account for the change in the
type of their diseases to which we have
alluded, and it is, therefore, reasonable to
refer it to this cause. But though this pow-
erful agent has been thus abused, we must
not be deterred from having recourse to
it when severe inflammation occurs in the
horse. Sometimes there is no time to
wait for the effects of a slower remedy,
even if there is one which will be suffi-
ciently powerful to control the heart's
action. The only sensible plan in such
case is to choose the lesser of the two
evils, and to save life, or the integrity of
the organ attacked, as the case may be,
by abstracting blood, always remember-
ing that this is to be avoided as long as it
is safe to do so, but that when it is decid-
ed on, a sufficient quantity must be taken
to produce a sensible effect, without which

there is no attendant good to counterbal-
ance the evil. '

Bleeding is either performed in the jug-
ular vein, when the whole system is to be
affected; or when a part of the body
only is inflamed, it may be desirable to
abstract blood locally, as for instance
from the toe or from the plate vein, in in-
flammation of the foot, and in ophthal-
mia from the vein which lies on the face
just below the eye.

The instruments used are either the
lancet or the fleam, the former being the
safer of the two, but requiring some prac-
tice to manage it properly. In bleeding
from the jugular vein, a string is some-
times tied round the neck below the part
to be opened, which is four or five inches
below the fork in the vein in the upper
part of the neck. The skilled operator,
however, makes pressure with his left
hand answer the purpose of causing the
vein to rise, and during this state either
uses the lancet with his right or the fleam
with the aid afforded by the blow of a
short stick, callen a "blood stick."
When the blood begins to flow, the edge
of the bucket which catches it is pressed
against the same part, and as long as this
is continued a full stream will run until
faintness occurs. After sufficient blood has
been been taken, the two lips of the wound
are raised between the fingers, and a small
common pin passed through both, when
the point is cut off and some tow is twist-
ed round, by which the edges are kept to-
gether and the pin is retained in position.
In a couple of days the pin may be with-
drawn without disturbing the tow, and
the wound will heal with little or no de-
formity. Sometimes the blood continues
to flow beneath the skin after it is pinned,
and a swelling takes place in consequence,
which is called ecchymosis. "When this
happens, cold water should be freely ap-
plied and the head kept up by racking to
the manger.

The quantity of blood necessary to be
taken will vary according to circumstances,
and can scarcely be fixed from the ap-
pearance of the blood drawn, but a repe-
tition of the operation may be decided on
if the clot of the blood, after standing,
is very concave at the top (cupped), or if
it is very yellow (buffed), and especially
if both these signs are present. In in-
flammation of a severe character less

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

I2S

than six quarts of blood will seldom
lower the pulse sufficiently to be of much
service, and sometimes seven or eight
quarts even must be taken from a large,
plethoric animal.

Inflammation of the vein will some-
times supervene upon bleeding, the symp-
toms being a slight swelling appearing in
the evening, or the next day, with a little
oozing from the wound. These are soon
followed by a hard, cord-like enlarge-
ment of the vein, which feels hot to the
touch, and the parts at the angle of the
jaw swell considerably. The conse-
quence generally is that the vein is oblit-
erated, occasioning some disturbance to
the circulation, especially when the head
is held down, as it is at grass. The treat-
ment consists in cold applications as long
as there is heat, the lotion recommended
(see Horse, Capped Hock) being gen-
erally useful. When the heat has sub-
sided, and the vein remains enlarged, the
biniodide of mercury will procure the
absorption of the new deposit, by rub-
bing it in as recommended. (See Horse,
Splints.)

HORSE, Firing. — The purpose for
which the heated iron is employed is two-
fold ; first, to produce immediate counter-
irritation, by which the previous inflam-
mation is reduced; and secondly, to
cause the formation of a tight compress
over the part, which lasts for some
months. It is the fashion to deny the
existence of the latter effect of this ope-
ration ; but every practical man must be
aware that it follows upon firing to a
greater or less extent, according to cir-
cumstances, but always lasting for a few
months, until the skin stretches to its pre-
vious condition. The blemish which it
leaves, and the pain which it occasions,
both during and after the application of
the iron, should cause it to be avoided
when any equally useful substitute can be
employed; but, unfortunately, there are
many cases where it stands without a
rival, as being at once the safest and the
most efficient remedy which can be adopt-
ed. Blisters and setons can be made to
cause the same amount of counter-irrita-
tion; but the inflammation accompany-
ing the former often extends beneath the
skin, and increases the mischief it was in-
tended to relieve; while the latter has no
effect whatever in producing pressure

upon the parts beneath. The pain of
firing can be relieved entirely at the time
of the operation by chloroform; but the
subsequent smarting is quite as bad, and
this is beyond the reach of any anaesthetic.
Independently, however, of the interests
of the master, it is also to the advantage
of the horse to get thoroughly cured ; for
if he is not, he will either work on in
misery, or he will be consigned to the
knacker's yard ; and, therefore, the adop-
tion of the most efficacious plan of treat-
ment, even if somewhat the most painful,
is the best for both.

Firing may be performed standing, by
the use of the side line for the hind leg,
or by fixing up one fore leg when the
other is to be operated on. There is,
however, nothing like the break or trevis,
where more than a slight extent of sur-
face is to be lined. The firing-iron should
have a smooth edge, about the thickness
of a worn shilling; and it should be
heated to the point when it shows a dull
red in the dark. When the disease for
which the irons are used is slight, the skin
should not be penetrated; but in bad
cases, where the mischief is great, and
particularly when it is wanted to have a
good permanent bandage, the cauteriza-
tion must be deeper; but this requires
some practical knowledge to decide.
The hair of the part should be cut very
closely with the scissors, or shaved;
then, having secured the leg, the iron is
to be steadily but rapidly passed in par-
allel lines over the skin, making just the
proper pressure which is required to burn
to the requisite depth. A light brown
mark should be left, which shows that the
proper effect has been produced ; and the
color should be uniform, unless it is de-
sired to penetrate deeper at certain parts,
which is sometimes practised with ad-
advantage. The lines are sometimes
made in a slanting direction round the
leg, and at others straight up and down ;
but it is useless to describe the details of
this operation, which can only be learned
by watching its performance by another
hand. Badly done, firing is always an
eyesore; but when the lines are evenly
drawn, and they have healed without any
sloughs, caused by irregular or excessive
pressure, they show that a master-hand
has been at work, and that the poor beast
has been treated scientifically. In very

126

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

severe diseases, a blister is sometimes ap-
plied over the part, immediately after the
tiring; but this can seldom be required,
and as it aggravates the pain tenfold, it
should be avoided, if possible. On the
following day, a little neat's foot oil
should be gently rubbed, or brushed with
a feather, over the leg ; and this should
be repeated daily, until the swelling which
'comes on has nearly subsided. Less
than three months' rest should never be
allowed for the operation to have its full
effect, as, if the horse is put to work be-
fore that time has elapsed, the disease
will almost certainly return. Indeed, it
is far better to allow double this time,
especially if the horse is wanted for fast
work.

HDItSE, Setons and Rowels. — Se*ons
are pieces of tape or lamp cotton, passed
through and beneath the skin, leaving
the two ends hanging out, either tied
together or with a knot upon each. The
latter is the safter plan, as the loop is
always liable to be caught on a hook or
other projecting body. The needle with
which the passage is effected has a spear
point, slightly turned up, and an eye at
the other end, through which the tape or
cotton is threaded. The ordinary one is
about nine or ten inches long, and by its
means a tape or piece of lamp cotton,
smeared with blister cerate, may be passed
through a long track of the cellular mem-
brane, by pinching up the skin into a'fold,
and piercing this close to the body with
the needle, which is then to be carried
straight through. On drawing the tape
out of the eye, it must be tied in a large
knot at each end, which will prevent its
slipping out. In three or four days, a
profuse discharge will come on, and it
must be kept up, if necessary, by repeated
applications of blister cerate, or digestive
ointment, as may be necessary. The
ends should be sponged occasionally, to
remove the accumulated matter.

A smaller curved needle, about five or
six inches long is used for introducing a
seton into the frog, or beneath the eye.
For the former operation, a twitch is first
applied, and the foot is then buckled up
to the arm. The needle then, armed with
the tape, greased with blister cerate, and
a little oil to lubricate the surface, is thrust
in at the heel and out at the cleft of the
frog, taking care not to go deep enough

to wound the tendon as it passes over the
navicular bone. The needle is then forci-
bly drawn through, and the tape knotted,
as already described. The openings must
be kept clean by sponging daily ; and in
three or four weeks the tape will have
nearly worked its way out, when it may
be withdrawn.

Rowels are now seldom employed,
being very unmanageable plans for caus-
ing counter-irritation. An incision,
about an inch long, is made in the skin,
selecting a part where it is loosely at-
tached, and into this a blunt instrument,
called a " cornet," is pushed, and worked
about in all directions, until the skin is
separated from the subjacent parts for a
circle with a diameter of from two to
three inches. Into this a piece of thick
leather of that diameter, with a hole in
the middle, is inserted, previously having
smeared it with blister cerate ; and the
part is then left to nature. In a few days,
a discharge of matter comes on, which
must be washed off occasionally ; and in
the course of time, the leather, if allowed,
would find its way out by ulceration. Be-
fore, however, this takes place, it is gen-
erally removed.

HOBSE, Blistering.— When it is decid-
ed to blister any part, the hair should be
cut off as closely as possible ; the oint-
ment is then rubbed in with the hand for
ten minutes, leaving a good quantity
smeared on the surface. If the legs are to
be blistered, the heels should be protected
by lard. Considerable itching is caused
after the first two or three days, and many
horses, if allowed, gnaw the part to such
an extent as to cause a serious blemish.
It is therefore necessary to keep the head
away, which is done by putting a " cradle"
on the neck. The irritation of loose
straw is very aggravating, and the
stall or box should either be bedded with
tan, or sawdust, or with used litter, so
damp as to lie smoothly. It is generally
the practice to put the blistered horse on
a bare floor; but he will often do great
harm to his legs and feet (which are of
course unsound, or they would not be
treated in this way), by constantly stamp-
ing from the pain occasioned while the
blister is' beginning to rise. When the
legs are stiff and sore from the swelling,
he stands still enough, but at first there is
nothing of this kind to keep him quiet.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

127

James' blister, which is very mild, and
useful for trifling diseases of the legs, or
for bringing on the hair after " broken
knee," can generally be used without a
cradle ; but even with it horses will some-
times gnaw themselves, and it is better
not to run any risk. At the end of a
week, some , neatsfoot oil should be ap-
plied every morning, with a feather or
soft brush, to keep the scabs as supple as
possible. The various formulas for blis-
ters will be given in the list of Domestic
Animals, Medicines for.

HORSE, Castration. — For removing
the testicles several methods of operation
have been proposed ; but hitherto none
has been tried which is so successful as
the old plan, in which the division of the
cord is performed by a heated iron with a
sharp edge. In human surgery the sper-
matic artery is tied, and all danger of
haemorrhage is over, because the small
amount of bleeding which takes place
from the artery of the cord is of no con-
sequence, as it cannot enter the cavity of
the peritoneum. In the horse, on the
other hand, the inguinal canal communi-
cates with that cavity, and if the ligature
is used, there is a double danger of in-
flammation— first, from effused blood; and
secondly, from the irritation of the ends
of the ligature. This plan, therefore, is
now generally abandoned, though some
few practitioners still adhere to it, and the
choice rests between two methods of re-
moval by cautery, namely, the actual and
potential — the former giving more pain
at the moment when the heated iron is
applied, but the latter being really far
more severe, as the caustic is a long time
in effecting a complete death of the nerve
and other sensitive parts. Torsion of the
vessels has been also tried, but it is often
followed by haemorrhage, and, moreover,
the pain which is caused during the twist-
ing of the artery is apparently quite as
great as is given by the heated iron. We
are all inclined to fancy that fire occasions
more agony than it really does, but those
who have in their own persons been un-
fortunately able to compare the effects of
the two kinds of cautery, have uniformly
admitted that the actual is less severe than
the potential, if the two are used so as to
produce the same amount of cauterization.
The best period for performing the
operation on the foal is just before wean-

ing, provided the weather is mild. If,
however, his neck is very light, and the
withers low, its postponement till the fol-
lowing spring will give a better chance
for the development of these parts. The
cold of winter and heat of summer are
both prejudicial, and the months of April,
May, September, or October should
always be selected.

No preparation is required in the
" sucker," but after weaning, the system
always requires cooling by a dose of
physic and light food before castration
can safely be performed. Horses which
have been in training, or other kind of
work attended with high feeding, require
at least three weeks' or a month's rest and
lowering, by removing corn, mashing, &c,
together with a couple of doses of physic,
before they are fit to be castrated.

For the ordinary method of operating, a
pair of clams should be provided, lined at
the surfaces where the compression is
made, with thick layers of vulcanized
india-rubber. This material gives a very
fiim hold without bruising the cord,
and causing thereby inflammation. A
large scalpel and a couple of irons will
complete the list of instruments, over and
above the apparatus necessary for casting
the horse. (See Casting.) The horse
being properly secured according to the
directions there given, and a twitch being
put on the lip in case he should struggle
much, the operator, kneeling on the left
side, grasps the testicle so as to make the
skin of the scrotum covering it quite tense.
A longitudinal incision, about three inches
long, is then made down to the testicle,
which, if care has been taken that there is
no rupture, may be rapidly done — a
wound of its surface not being of the
slightest consequence, and giving far less
pain than the slow niggling dissection of
its coverings, which is sometimes practised
to avoid it. The testicle can now be
cleared of its coverings, and the hand
laying hold of it gently, the operator
raises it from its bed, and slips the clams
on each side of the cord, at once mak-
ing the proper pressure with them, which
should be sufficient to prevent all risk of
the part inclosed slipping from between
its jaws. Great care should be taken that
the whole of the testicle, including the
epididimis, is external . to the clams ; and
as soon as this is satisfactorily ascertained,

128

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

the cord may be divided with the ordina-
ry firing-iron at a red heat. To make
sure that no haemorrhage shall occur,
some operators sear the artery separately
with a pointed iron ; but if the division is
slowly made with the heated iron, and
avoiding any drag upon the cord, no
such accident will be at all likely to fol-
low, though very rarely it will happen in
spite of every care. The clams may now
be removed, and the other testicle treated
in the same way ; after which the hobbles
are cautiously removed, and the patient
is placed in a roomy, loose box, where he
can take sufficient exercise to insure the
gravitation of the discharge, but no more.
The French plan, by means of caustic,
requires two pieces of wood, each about
six inches long and an inch square, with
a notch or neck at each end, to hold the
twine by which they are tied together,
and a groove in the two opposite surfaces,
to hold the caustic. This is composed of
one part of corrosive sublimate and four
of flour, made into a paste with water,
and it is introduced while moist into the
grooves, which it should completely fill.
The horse is then secured as before, the
cord is exposed, the pieces of wood are
adjusted on each side, and firmly held to-
gether with the pincers by an assistant,
while the operator binds their ends to-
gether with waxed string. The testicle
may now be removed with the knife, if
the string has been tied sufficiently tight ;
but unless the operator has had some ex-
perience, it is safer to let it remain on till
it comes away by the ulceration of the
cord. This is the uncovered operation,
the covered one being performed with the
same instruments, as follows. The scro-
tum is grasped, and opened, taking care
to avoid wounding the tunica vaginalis
reflexa, or outer serous investment, but
cutting down to it through the skin, dar-
tos muscle, and cellular membrane. These
are to be carefully dissected back, until
the cord can be isolated without wound-
ing its serous investment (tunica vaginalis),
which is so thin that it is easy to ascertain
with certainty the nature of its contents
by examination with the fingers. If there
is no hernia, the caustic can at once be
applied to its outside in the same way as
before; and if there is, it must be pushed
back into the cavity of the abdomen, by
a little careful manipulation.

Some veterinary surgeons operate in
a similar way to one or other of the
two last described plans, with the omission
of the caustic, which they maintain is
wholly unnecessary, for there must be suf-
ficient pressure to cause a sloughing of the
cord. There jk certainly some truth in
this argument, but if the pressure has not
been sufficient to cause the sloughs, the
caustic will assure that essential process,
and thus it renders the operation safer,
though it somewhat increases the subse-
quent local inflammation. The plan with-
out the caustic is almost precisely the same,
as far as safety is concerned, as that form-
erly adopted by country farriers, called
" twitching," in which two pieces of wood
were applied on each side of the base of
the scrotum, and tied firmly at each end.
The pain, however, occasioned by the
pressure on so large a surface of skin is
intense, and the operation is on that ac-
count indefensible, besides which it is not
nearly so successful as either the ordinary
English or French operations.

HORSE, Docking and Nicking.— These
operations on the tail are subject to the
fashion of the day, the former being used
for the purpose of shortening its length, ,
which is inconvenient to the rider or
driver in dirty weather, and the latter for
altering its carriage, when this is too low
for the taste of the owner. Nicking is,
however, very seldom practised in the
present day, and never to the extent
which was the fashion fifty years ago.
Herbert says : " These barbarous meth-
ods of depriving the horse of his natural
form and appearance, in order to make
him conform to the fashion of the time,
are, fortunately, very fast going into dis-
use. If the tail of the horse were given
to him for no good purpose, and if it were
not a design of nature that he should
have the power of moving it forcibly to
his sides, there might be some excuse for
cutting it off, within a few inches of his
body, or for separating the muscles at its
sides to lessen this power ; but that this
is not the case, must be acknowledged by
all who have seen how a horse, whose
tail has been abridged by ' docking,' or
weakened by nicking, is annoyed by flies.

" If a horse has a trick of throwing
dirt on his rider's clothing, this may be
prevented by cutting of the hair of the
tail, below the end of the bones, as is the

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

custom with hunters in England, where
the hair is cut squarely off about eight or
ten inches above the hocks.

" No apology is offered for not giving
in this work a description of these two
operations ; they are so barbarous and so
senseless that they are going very rapidly
out of fashion, and it is to be hoped that
they will ere long have become obsolete,
as has the cropping of the ears, formerly
so common in England.

" A more humane way of setting up
the horse's tail, to give him a more stylish
appearance, is by simply weighting it, for a
few hours each day, in the stall, until it
attains the desired elevation. This is
done by having two pulleys at the top of
the stall, one at each side, through which
are passed two ropes, which come togeth-
er and are fastened to the tail, the ropes
having at their other ends weights (bags
of sand or of shot are very good for the
purpose), which must be light at first, and
may be increased from day to day. The
weighting should be continued until the
tail has taken a permanent position as de-
sired. It is true that this method requires
a somewhat longer time than that of cut-
ting the muscles, but while it is being
done, the horse is never off his work, and
he suffers infinitely less pain.

"The method of nicking or pricking, as
usually performed in this country, is not
quite so cruel or so hazardous as the cut-
ting of the muscles, described in Stewart's
1 Stable Book : '

" ' The tail has four cords, two upper
and two lower. The upper ones raise the
tail, the lower ones depress it, and these
last alone are to be cut. Take a sharp
penknife with a long slender blade ; insert
the blade between the bone and under
cord, two inches from the body; place the
thumb of the hand holding the knife
against the under part of the tail, and op-
posite the blade. Then press the blade
toward the thumb against the cord, and
cut the cord off, but do not let the
knife cut through the skin. The cord is
firm, and it will easily be known when it
is cut off. The thumb will tell when to
desist, that the skin may not be cut. Sever
the cord twice on each side in the same
manner. Let the cuts be two inches apart.
The cord is nearly destitute of sensation;
yet, when the tail is pricked in the old
manner, the wound to the skin and flesh

is severe, and much fever is induced, and
it takes a long time to heal. But with
this method the horse's tail will not bleed,
nor will it be sore, under ordinary cir-
cumstances, more than three days ; and
he will be pulleyed and his tail made in
one-half of the time required by the old
method.' "

HORSE, Unnerving. — The nerves dis-
tributed to the foot are sometimes divided
for navicular disease, as they lie on each
side of the bone above the fetlock joint.
No one, however, should attempt this op-
eration without having previously seen it
performed, as it requires considerable dex-
terity for its due execution. We have de-
scribed such operations as can be wanted
in the country, where a veterinary sur-
geon cannot always be reached, but un-
nerving is never required there, and we
shall therefore omit any detailed account
of it.

HORSE, Hernia, Reduction of— Her-
nia is sometimes strangulated ; that is to
say, the protruding portion of bowel is
confined in its situation by such pressure
on its neck as to cause danger of mortifi-
cation. Under such circumstances, if it
is found to be impossible to return the
bowel by careful manipulation, an opera-
tion must be performed. This consists in
carefully dissecting through the coverings-
of the bowel, and when it is exposed a
long and narrow guarded knife (Bistouri
cache) is passed by the side of the intes-
tine through the opening into the abdo-
men, and then making the blade promi-
nent it is withdrawn, and the fibres caus-
ing the pressure are divided. This usu-
ally allows of the Bowel being passed
back again into the abdomen, when the
operation is completed by bringing the
parts together with one or two stitches.

When hernia occurs in the colt either
at the naval or scrotum, it is often desired
to effect a cure by returning the bowel
and causing the opening to close by ad-
hesive inflammation. If the colt is uncut
the performance of the covered -operation:
on the French plan (see Castration) will
generally succeed, great care being of
course necessary to return the intestine
before the clams are applied. In umbili-
cal hernia, a similar plan has been tried,
but the adhesion is too superficial to be
of much use; and the only successful
method is the passas." of one or two

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

skewers through the opposite edges of the
opening, and then winding some waxed
twine round them, with a moderate de-
gree of force. This should not be suffi-
cient to cause mortification, or the open-
ing will only be increased in size, and the
bowel will protrude without any covering
of skin; but it should be just sufficient
to cause adhesive inflammation ; experi-
ence in such matters alone enabling the
operator to hit upon the right amount.

In all operations for hernia, chloroform
is of great assistance, as it prevents the
risk of a protrusion of the bowel while
the knife is being used, which will other-
wise sometimes happen during the strug-
gles of the horse.

HORSE, Physic, Administration of. —
Medicine may be given to the horse
either in the solid form as a ball, or
liquid, and then called a drench, or as a
• dry powder, when in small compass and
with little taste, mixed with the corn or
.mash. Sometimes also a small quantity
of a tasteless liquid, such as liquor arsen-
icalis, may be given with the food.

In giving a ball place a halter on the
head with a knot, so that the jaws may
be widely opened. Then turn the horse
round in the stall and back him up to the
manger, lay hold of the tongue and draw
it out of the mouth, grasp it with the left
hand, which must also hold the halter-
cord so short that the strain is partly
taken off the tongue, and then holding
the ball in the right hand with the fingers
inclosing it like a cone, and, the arm
bare, it should be rapidly carried to the
back of the mouth and deposited there,
.holding the head up till it is seen to pass
down the gullet. Cautious grooms use a
balling iron, which gags the mouth and
protects the arm, but a handy man will
have less difficulty in introducing his
hand than in inserting the gag, unless the
horse is a determined biter, when it may
be absolutely necessary. In that case the
gag is insinuated with as much case as a
bit in a flat direction, and the handle be-
ing suddenly depressed, the mouth gapes
(and the teeth cannot be brought togeth-
er. Then holding its handle together
with the halter in the left hand, the right
easily introduces the ball into the
pharynx.

In giving a drench, two persons are
necessary, the operator standing at the

right shoulder, while the assistant is ready
to steady the head and aid him on th^
the left. The operator raises the head
with his left hand beneath the jaw, and
with his right he forces the lip of the horn
into the side of the mouth, and, raising
the small end, pours the contents in. If
the horse is violent, a twitch must be
placed on the nose and held by the
assistant. The horn must not be passed
far into the mouth, or any unnecessary vio-
lence used, for fear of producing a
cough ; in which case the hand must be
instantly lowered. A neglect of this pre-
caution will probably cause some of the
liquid to pass into the larynx.

HORSE— Clysters are most valuable
agents, if properly administered. The
best syringe for the purpose is Read's, by
which any quantity may be thrown up ;
and in colic, some gallons of warm water
are sometimes required to produce the
desired effect. For an ordinary opening
clyster, a handful or two of common salt
may be dissolved in five or six quarts of
warm water.

HORSE— Back-Raking is effected by
passing the greased hand and arm into
the rectum and withdrawing any harden-
ed faeces which may have accumulated
there. When the quantity of these is
great, the hand must be passed several
times, until it cannot reach any more.
Whenever physic is given to an unpre-
pared horse, as is sometimes necessary in
severe disease, this precaution should
never be neglected. Mr. Gamgee, of Ed-
inburgh, is of opinion that this opera-
tion is more safely and easily performed
by the aid of instruments, supporting his
views by the assertion that the introduc-
tion of the hand gives unnecessary pain.
On one or two occasions we have cer-
tainly seen a shoulder of mutton at the
end of a human arm, and this would per-
haps cause some little difficulty ; but no
hand of average size is nearly so large as
the mass of dung usually passed; and
those who are not above doing a dirty
job when duty requires it, well know by
experience that the hand and arm may
be passed to the shoulder without giving
any pain whatsoever. Instruments are
useful when they cannot be dispensed
with, but they are always liable to cause
laceration.

HORSE, Bowels, Loose. — In cases of

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

*3*

chronic diarrhoea a good remedy is to put
powdered charcoal in the feed, and if the
disease depends on a digestive function —
the liver included — give a few doses of
the following :

Powdered Golden Seal 2 ounces.

Ginger - . - . - i ««

Salt ----- i "

Dose, }4 ounce twice a day.

HORSE, Clicking.— This is noticeable
by a disagreeable clicking noise made by
the horse striking the toe of his hind shoe
.against the inner edge of the fore one.
To prevent this annoying habit, shoe the
hind foot short at the toe — that is to say,
set the shoe as far back as you can with
safety and security. The fore shoe should
be forged narrow, with the inner margin
filed round and smooth.

HORSE, Flies, to keep from.— Procure
a bunch of smartweed and bruise it to
cause the juice to exude. Rub the ani-
mal thoroughly with the bunch of bruised
weed, especially on the legs, neck and
ears. Neither flies nor other insects will
trouble him for twenty-four hours. The
process should be repeated every day.
A very convenient way of using it is to
make a strong infusion by boiling the
weed a few minutes in water. When cold
it can be conveniently applied with a
sponge or brush. Smartweed is found
growing in every section of the country,
usually on wet ground near the highways.

Another. — Take two or three small
handfuls of walnut leaves, upon which
pour two or three pints of soft and cold
water ; let it infuse one night, and let it
boil for a quarter of an hour; when cold
it will be fit for use. No more is required
than to moisten a sponge, and before the
horse goes out of the stable let those
parts which are most irritable be smeared
over with the liquor, viz: between and
upon the ears, the flank, etc.

HORSE, Heaves. — This disease is indi-
cated by a short, dull, spasmodic cough,
and a double-jerking movement at the
flank during expiration. If a horse suf-
fering from this disease is allowed to dis-
tend his stomach at his pleasure, with dry
food entirely, and then to drink cold
water, as much as he can hold, he is
nearly worthless. But if the food be
moistened, and he be allowed to drink a
moderate quantity only at a time, the dis-
ease is much less troublesome.

Take one pound and a half ot good
ginger for a horse. Give two table spoon-
fuls a day, one in the morning and the
other in the evening, mixed with bran.
This recpie has been selling at five dol-
lars to the eastward, where the efficacy of
the above medicine has been proved in
the cure of several cases of obstinate
heaves. Another remedy is to feed no
hay to the horse for 36 or 48 hours, and
give only a pailful of water at a time.
Then throw an armful of well cured smart
weed before him and let him eat all he
will. In all cases where the cells of the
lungs are not broken down great relief,
if not a perfect cure, will follow. Anoth-
er remedy is sunflower seed, feeding one
or two quarts of the seed daily.

HORSE, Hoof, Cracked.— The horse
must be laid up from work, if possible.
The shoe must be removed. The edges
of the crack must be pared away at the
upper part, so that a distinct separation
is made between the crack and the coro-
net, or between the old horn of the hoof
and the substance from which the new
horn grows. No union can ever be
formed of the parts separated by the old
crack, so that a new start must be had.
Blistering ointment may be applied to the
coronet, to encourage the new growth,
and the hoof should be smeared with tar
and bound up, to prevent injury by blows
or accidents. (See Horse, Navicular
Disease.)

HORSES, How to Save from Barns on
Fire. — Horses are frequently burned to
death when barns or stables are on fire,
owing to the impossibility of leading or
driving them out of the building while
their eyes are dazzled by the blaze. But
we are assured that by simply covering
their eyes with a bag, a coat, or a pocket-
handkerchief, they may be led out of
danger without trouble or difficulty. They
will readily come out if the saddle and
bridle, or harness to which they are accus-
tomed, be thrown over them as usual.

HORSES, Palsy in.— The stream of
nervous influence is sometimes stopped,
and thence results palsy. Every organ
of motion and of sense is paralyzed.

Palsy in the horse generally attacks the
hind extremities. It commences gener-
ally in one hind leg, or perhaps both are
equally affected. The animal can scarcely
walk.

132

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

Commence with bleeding. Continue
until the pulse begins to falter or the
horse to reel. To this should follow a
dose of physic — strong, compared with
the size of the animal. The loins should
be covered with a mustard poultice fre-
quently renewed. The patient should be
warmly clothed, supplied plentifully with
mashes, but without a grain of corn in
them ; and frequently injections should be
had recourse to.

HORSE, Tongue, Sore to Cure.— By
making use of a little tar, once a day,
rubbed on the tongue of the sound horses
with a mop, is an effectual preventive;
for the diseased horse, take a common ta-
blespoonful of the spirits of turpentine
and pour it on the tongue, as far down as
practicable, then with a mop well satur-
ated with the spirits of turpentine, mop
every part of the tongue ; after this make
use of the tar in the way above men-
tioned as a preventive; this done once or
twice a day, for two or three days, has
never failed making a cure.

HORSE, Tongue, Lolling of the.— Rivet
a section of a knife from a mowing-ma-
chine on his bit; dull the edges, and
make everything smooth. The knife run-
ning up in his mouth prevents him from
drawing his tongue far enough back to
get it over the bit. Carelessness in
breaking colts is the cause of it.

HORSE, Big Head.— When this dis-
ease occurs, every care must be taken to
improve the general health. Let work
be regular and moderate. Have the sta-
ble clean, dry, and well ventilated. Feed
on sound hay and oats, either bruised or
cooked. Under no circumstances give
the horses Indian corn. Four or five
pounds of linseed cake may be given
daily. Give every day in the feed two
drachms of phosphate of iron, and four
drachms of powdered gentian.

HORSE, Big Shoulder.— (See HoRse,
Big Head.)

Horse, Big Leg. — Apply the Blister (see
Buster, Liquid in Medical Receipts)
every third hour until it blisters. In
three days wash the leg with linseed oil.
In six days wash it clean with soap and
water. Repeat the last, operation every
six days until the swelling goes down.
If there should be any callous left, apply
Spavin Ointment. (See Horse, Spavin.)

HORSE, Breast, Sore.— This generally

occurs in the spring, at the commence-
ment of plowing. At times the fault is in
having poor old collars, and not having
the collar properly fitted to the horse's
breast; and at others, the hames are
either too tight or too loose. There is a
great difference in horses about getting
chafed or galled, and at times it has
seemed to be impossible to keep their
breasts from getting sore, but a thorough
application of strong alum water or white
oak bark to the breast of the animal,
three days before going to work, will
toughen the flesh, so that the same will
not get sore. Another excellent plan is,
when you let your team rest for a few
moments during work, to raise the collar,
pull it a little forward, and rub the
breast thoroughly with your naked hand.

HORSE, Blood, Fullness of. — When
this condition appears, the eyes appear
heavy, dull, red or inflamed, and are fre-
quently closed as if asleep. The pulse is
small and oppressed; the heat of the
body somewhat increased; the legs swell;
the hair also rubs off. Horses that are
removed from grass to a warm stable, and
full fed on hay and corn, and not suffi-
ciently exercised, are very subject to one
or more of these symptoms. By regu-
lating the quantity of food given them,
by proper exercise, and occasional laxa-
tives a cure may soon be effected.

HORSE, Gravel.— Steep one pound of
hops in a half gallon of water, and give
it as hot as the horse can bear it.

HORSE, Founder, To Cure. — Clean
out the bottom of the foot thoroughly,
hold up firmly in a horizontal position,
and pour in a tablespoonful of spirits of
turpentine, if the cavity will hold that
much ; if not, then pour in as much as it
will hold, without running over. Touch
the turpentine with a red hot iron (this
will set it on fire), hold the hoof firmly
in this position till it burns out, and be
careful that none of the turpentine runs
on the hair of the hoof, lest the skin be
burned. This will give speedy relief, and
the animal will be ready for service in a
short time. Another way, is to mix a
pint of the seed of the sunflower in his
feed, as soon as the founder is discovered.
Still another plan is adopted by some of
standing the animal up to his belly in
water a short time daily, for six or seven
times.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT

123

HORSE, Hoof-Bound. — Cut down sev-
eral lines from the coronet to the toe all
around the hoof, and fill the cuts with
tallow and soap mixed ; take off the shoes,
and (if you can spare him) turn the ani-
mal into a wet meadow, where his feet
will be kept moist. Never remove the
sole or burn the lines down, as this in-
creases instead of diminishing the evil.

HORSE, Hair, Loss of. — To promote the
growth of hair, where the skin has been
deadened by bruises or rubbing, take of
quinine eight grains, finely powdered
galls ten grains, powdered capsicum five
grains, oil of almonds and pure lard of
each one ounce, oil of lavender twenty
drops ; mix thoroughly, and apply a small
quantity to the denuded parts two or
three times a week. Where there is fall-
ing out of the hair of the mane and tail,
take glycerine two ounces, sulphur one
ounce, acetate of lead two drachms,
water eight ounces. To be well mixed,
and applied by means of a sponge.

HORSE, Halter Pulling.— A new way
to prevent horses pulling at the halter, is
to put a very small rope under the horse's
tail, bringing the ends forward, crossing
them on the back, and tying them on the
breast. Put the halter strap through the
ring, and tie to the rope in front of the
breast. When the horse pulls, he will, of
course, find himself in rather an uncom-
fortable position, and discontinue the
effort to free himself.

HORSE, Ringbone, Remedies. — Pul-
verized cantharides, oils of spike, origa-
num, amber, cedar, Barbadoes tar, and
British oil, of each two ounces; oil of
wormwood one ounce spirits of turpen-
tine four ounces, common potash half
ounce, nitric acid six ounces, oil of vitriol
(sulphuric acid) four ounces, and lard
three pounds. Melt the lard and slowly
add the acids; stir well and add the oth-
ers, stirring until cold. Clip off the hair,
and apply by rubbing and heating in; in
about three days, or when it is done run-
ning, wash off with suds and apply again.
In old cases it may take three or four
weeks, but in recent cases two or three
applications will cure. — 2. Take half pint
spirits of turpentine, half ounce blue-
stone, half ounce of red precipitate.
Shake well and use every morning ; and
keep the hoof well greased. This will
not only take off the hair, but cause a

severe blister, which, after healing, if
there still be signs of lameness, repeat the
remedy.

HORSE, Scratches.— If a horse's blood
is pure he will not have the scratches.
Give him a tablespoonful of saltpetre
every day for fifteen days, and be careful
about his taking cold while feeding it.
It opens the pores, so that he will take
cold very easy. Along with this take
pure, dry white lead, pure oxide of zinc,
and glycerine, of each half an ounce;
fresh lard (free from rancidity) 1 *4 ounce.
Mix the white lead, oxide of zinc and
glycerine to a uniform, smooth paste,
then add the lard, a little at a time, till a
uniform, smooth ointment is formed.
Wash the parts with Castile soap and
water, and dry with a cloth, then apply
the ointment two or three times daily
with the fingers. Wash once in two or
three days, and dry the spot well before
dressing again.

The horse should stand on a plank
floor kept clean and dry; and if used,
all dust, sand and dirt should be washed
off, so that the affected parts may remain
clean. If these directions are strictly
carried out, it will seldom, if ever, fail to
cure the very worst cases within a reason-
able time.

HORSE, Sweeny. — A horse is said to
be sweenied when the muscles of the
shoulder appear to have perished away,
and the skin seems to be attached closely
to the shoulder-blade. These symptoms
may arise from chronic lameness in the
foot or other part of the limb. In such
case, of course it is of no use to apply
remedies to the shoulder. Cure the foot,
and the shoulder will come right, although
stimulants and rubbing will expedite it.
But genuine sweeny is quite different from
the above, although the appearances are
the same. It is caused by hard drawing
in a collar that is too large ; or where no
whiffletree is ever used, but the traces are
hitched directly to the thills, as in "jump-
ers,' as they are called; or by jumping
fences, or the like. The presence of real
sweeny may be discovered by moving the
horse in a circle, or causing him to step
over bars, when you can generally deter-
mine the seat of the lameness. For such
cases irritants with friction, is the proper
treatment. Blistering liniment, or seton,

134

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

or a piece of leather inserted under the
skin, will cure, with rest.

HORSE, Warts on Nose. — Dissolve
one-half pound of alum in a quart of
water, with a brush or cloth wet the warts
twice each day for four days, and they
will disappear. Another remedy is to
smear the warts with salted butter.

HORSE, Water-Farcin. — Symptoms :
The horse is dull and loses his appetite,
and swells along the belly or chest and
between the fore legs. To cure : Rowel
in the breast and along each side of the
chest, as far as the swelling goes. Leave
the rowels in until the swelling goes
down ; give a spoonful of cleansing pow-
ders morning and night.

HORSE, Wen, To Cure a.— Take equol
parts of soft soap and slacked lime, well
mixed. Lance the wen at the time of
making the application, or two or three
days after. Two or three applications
will cure.

HORSE, Wind in, to Improve.— It will
be found, if tar water and powdered
charcoal are mixed with horse's feed, that
it will have a most beneficial effect on his
wind and condition.

HORSE, Nasal Gleet or Running at the
Nose. — Take one-half pound rosin, one-
halt pound blue vitrol, and lour ounces
ginger; grind them together to powder,
and give the horse a spoonful two or
three times a day.

HORSE, Baulky, to Cure.— A sure and
complete remedy to cure a baulky horse,
is to silently take a rope and tie one end
to his tail and the wagon, making it so
that when you start him the rope will
be so short that the whole strain of
the pull will be upon the rope and tail.
This is an effectual remedy. The horse
will pull to save his tail — and he will
never repeat the operation again. A city
passenger railway in Philadelphia, which
owned nearly fifty baulky horses, gave
$ 1,000 for this receipt on condition that
it operated as recommended, and out of
the fifty horses forty-nine were completely
cured of "baulkiness" on the first trial.

If a horse baulks and refuses to go
fonvard buckle, a strap around his fore
foot below the fetlock and pull gently but
firmly and steadily forward. It will not
be difficult to move forward the foot, and
the horse will be compelled to go forward
to recover his position.

HORSES, Shoeing in Winter. — lv
Canada, where the winter is never of less
duration than five months, they shoe their
horses in the following manner, which
serves for the whole winter : The smith
fixes a small piece of steel on the fore-
part of each shoe, not tempered too hard,
which turns up about one-fourth of an
inch, in the shape of a horse's lancet ; the
same to the hinder-part of the shoe,
turned up a little higher than the fore-
part, tempered in the same manner. In
going up a hill the fore-part gives a pur-
chase that assists the horse, and in going
down prevents him sliding forward.

HORSE, Itch.— To cure a horse afflict-
ed with itch, first reduce his daily allow-
ance of food, putting him on a low diet ;
and then give him a teaspoonful of a
mixture of equal parts of sulphur and
antimony, and at the end of a week or ten
days the sores will have disappeared, and
the horse will be covered with a fine coat
of new hair.

HORSE, Collar, How to Fit.— An excel-
lent plan, and one that will not injure the
collar, is to dip it in water until the
leather is thoroughly wet, then put it on
the horse, secure the hames firmly, keep-
ing it there until it becomes dry. It is
all the better if heavy loads are to be
drawn, as that causes the collar to be
more 'evenly fitted to the neck and
shoulder. If possible, the collar should
be kept on from four to five hours, when
it will be perfectly dry, and retain the
same shape ever afterwards ; and as it is
exactly fitted to the form of the neck, will
not produce chafes nor sores on the
horse's neck.

HORSE, When Unsound.— Any of the
following defects constitute unsoundness
in a horse :

Lameness of all kinds and degrees.
Diseases of any of the internal organs.
Cough of every kind, as long as it exists.
Colds or catarrhs, while they last. Roar-
ing, broken wind, thick wind, grease,
mange, farcy and glanders; megrims or
staggers, founder, convex feet, contracted
feet, spavins and ringbones, enlargement
of the sinews or ligaments, cataracts and
other defects of the eyes, impairing sight.

The following may or may not occasion
unsoundness, according to the state or
degree in which they exist : Corns, splints,
thrushes, bog-spavins, thorough-pins, wind

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

*35

galls, crib-biting. Curbs are unsoundness,
unless the horse has worked with them for
some months without inconvenience.

Cutting, particularly speedy cutting,
constitutes unsoundness when it cannot
be remedied by care and skill. Quidding,
when a confirmed habit, injures the sound-
ness of a horse.

Defects, called blemishes, are : Scars
from broken knees ; capped hocks, splints,
bog-spavins, and thorough-pins ; loss of
hair from blisters or scars, enlargements
from blows or cutting, and also specks or
streaks on the corner of the eye.

Vices are : Restivenes, shying, bolting,
running away, kicking, rearing, weaving,
or moving the head from side to side,
stringhalt, quidding, slipping the halter.

HORSE, Water for. — Water is usually
given three times a day ; but in summer,
when the horse sweats much, he should
have water four or five times ; under ordi-
nary circumstances, two rules will guide
the attendant. The first is, never to let
the horse get very thirsty ; the second, to
give him water so often and in such
quantity that he will not care to take any
within an hour of going to fast work.
Tlie quantity of water which a horse will
drink in twenty-four hours is uncertain;
it varies so much that one will drink quite
as much as other two or three. It is in-
fluenced by the food, the work, the
weather, and the number of services; the
demand for water also increases with the
perspiration. Horses at fast work, and
kept in hot stables, need a large allow-
ance, which must be still larger in hot
weather ; horses of slow work may be per-
mitted to take what quantity they please ;
but to those of fast work occasional re-
striction is necessary. Restriction is
always necessary before fast work. A few
quarts given an hour before going to work
ought to suffice. Water should always
be given before rather than after grain.
Water your horses from a pond or stream
rather than from a spring or well, because
the latter is generally hard and cold,
while the former is soft and comparatively
warm. The horse prefers soft, muddy
water to hard water, though never so clear.

HORSE, Cleaning. — When brought in
from work, warm with exertion, the horse
must be rubbed down and then blanket-
ed ; but we would not blanket a horse in
a good stable, as a general rule, except in

extremely cold weather. A sharp toothed
curry comb is the dread of a fine skinned
horse, and the brush and straw wisp
answer the same purpose much better, if
used as frequently as they should be.
Mud should not be allowed to dry on the
legs of a horse ; it is the cause of half the
swelled legs, scratches, and other affec-
tions of the feet with which they are-
afflicted.

HORSE, Harness, Care of.— First take
the harness apart, having each strap and
piece by itself, and then wash it in warm
soap-suds. When it has been cleaned,,
black every part with the following dye :
one ounce extract of logwood, twelve
grains of bichromate of potash, both
pounded fine; put it into two quarts of
boiling rain water, and stir until all is
dissolved. When cool it may be used.
You can bottle and keep for future use if
you wish. It may be applied with a
shoe-brush, or anything else convenient.
When the dye has struck in, you may oil
each part with neatsfoot oil, applied with
a paint-brush, or anything convenient.
For second oiling use one-third castor oil
and double that quantity of neatsfoot oil,,
mixed. A few hours after wipe clean
with a woolen cloth, which gives the har-
ness a glossy appearance. The prepara-
tion will not injure the leather or stitch-
ing, makes it soft and pliable, and obvi-
ates the necessity of oiling as often as is
necessary by the ordinary method.

HORSE, Shoeing. — Few horseshoers
understand thoroughly the anatomy of
the horse's foot. The great mistake is
made in attempting to trim the hoof to
fit the shoe, whereas the shoe should be
made to fit the hoof. Very little trim-
ming is needed if the shoe is made right.
The frog should never be touched by the
buttress, if the foot is healthy, as Nature
has intended that to be the spring or
cushion to first receive the blow when
the foot is set down on the road, to
guard the knee and shoulder from the
concussion.

Nothing can be more barbarous than
the carving and cutting of a horse's foot
before shoeing, though on his skill in this
many a farrier prides himself. The idea
that the frog must not be allowed to bear
on the ground — that the sole must be
thinned till it " springs on the thumb," is
a most pernicious one.

*36

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

As you value your horse do not let
the blacksmith even scrape the dirt off
the frog. It would be better if he could
not see it, because, if anything fit to be
called a frog, he will beg, argue, and try
every means to persuade you to let him
cut it. Do not turn your back to him
while he has the foot in his lap and knife
in his hand, or else off comes a portion
of the frog. If the frog is left to itself it
will, when Nature gets ready, shed itself;
but the difference between shedding and
cutting is, that before shedding the under
frog is protected by a suitable covering,
but when cut it is exposed to the action of
the air and water, which causes it to
crack, leaving those "rags" which the
blacksmiths love so well to cut. Do not
•open the heels, as it increases the resist-
.ance offered to contraction.

The summer shoe needs to present a
flat surface to the ground. Make it of
the same width and thickness from the
toe to the heel. Have the seating deep,
rso as to prevent the sole pressing upon
the shoe as it descends. Have a clip at
the toe to prevent the shoe slipping back",
but none at the sides, as they not only
destroy too much of the hoof, but pre-
vent expansion. Have the fullering deep
to receive the nail-heads, and have the
nail holes straight — neither inclined in-
wardly or outwardly. Have only five
nails to hold on the shoe — two on the
inner, and three on the outside. Place
.the two on the inner side about i^
inches from the top; those on the out-
:side may be placed further back toward
the heel. The reason is, that when the
foot strikes the ground it expands to re-
lieve the horse of the shock of his weight,
and the inner side being thinner than the
outside, the expansion is greater. By
placing the nails far back we prevent that
expansion, thereby cramping the foot,
which makes the animal step short and
quick, like one with tight boots. If we
take an old shoe, we find at the heels that
it is worn down, and also that it is smaller
and bright, which is not done by the
shifting of the shoe, as you only find it
at the heels, by the action of the foot
while expanding and contracting. Of
.course, this action wears upon, but the
foot is continually growing.

On fitting the shoe, do not let it burn
the foot, as it makes a strong foot brittle,

and on a weak one hurting the horse.
Be sure it fits close to the foot. Bring
in the heels, as they do not, but the nails
prevent expansion. Do not get the nails
larger than necessary; bring them out
low down in the crust, and make the
clinchers very broad. Rasp below but
not above the clinchers, as the foot above
is covered — if healthy — with a varnish
which excludes the air and water.

The hind shoe need not be so broad,
but a little higher at the heels. In this
put seven nails, as the hind legs propel
and the front legs receive the weight.

The winter shoe needs toe and heel
pieces to prevent the horse from slipping.
Have the inner cork not quite so sharp as
the outer one, so that if he steps upon
the other foot it will not cut it.

The outside of the hoof ought not to
be at all touched by the rasp, save at the
very edge, as rasping tends to thicken the
hoof and make it coarse and clumsy.
Shoes should be made just as light as
they possibly can be to answer the pur-
pose. Ordinarily they are one-third too
heavy. A horse's hoof should be care-
fully cleaned every day, and oiling the
hoof once or twice a week is recom-
mended.

HORSE, Training. — If you wish to
control your horse study his character, as
horses, like men, differ in their disposi-
tion, and each one has to be understood
to be controlled.

i. Learning him to Pace. — Buckle
around his hind legs a four or five pound
weight (lead is the best); after which
ride the animal briskly, at the same
time twitching each rein of the bridle al-
ternately ; soon he will be thrown into a
pace. After training him in this manner
several times, detach the weights, and in
their stead place two pound weights, and
use these several times ; then change for
something still lighter ; leather, padding,
or even something still lighter, will an-
swer the purpose, and these let him wear
until he is perfectly trained, and you will
have a smooth and easy pacer.

2. To make him trot. — Use rollers
on the front feet. These rollers should
be made of wood or horn, made round,
about the size of a hickory-nut, with a
small hole bored by a gimlet in the cen-
tre of each, and about a dozen of them
strung on a string or narrow strap. The

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

137

string or strap should be much smaller
than the hole. Then tie or buckle very
loosely around the fetlock joint next to
the hoof, so that they can play loosely
up and down when the animal is moving.
As soon as the horse finds that there is
something on his feet, he will naturally
think that there are stones in his road,
and will lift them up higher, and throw
them out further, and soon he will learn
to be a good trotter.

Another mode is, that a small or medi-
um-sized flat is the best and greatly supe-
rior to the track system for teaching the
horse or colt to gather quickly. Always
use a very light skeleton wagon or gig in
training.

3. To MAKE HIM SIT ON HIS HAUNCHES.

— First learn the horse one idea, and this
is, that you are his master, and that he
must obey you, so that when you say
"ho !" he will stand still. Then, having
already learned him to lie down, let him
attempt to rise, and when he gets up on
his fore legs, say the word "sit!" and
make him understand that you want him
to stop at that point of his rising. Teach
him to hold his position, and always use
the same word for whatever feat you wish
the animal to perform — if to sit, use the
word "sit," and if to lie down, use the
word "down."

4. To make him follow you. — Take
your animal to the stable, and there place
on him a surcingle and a bridle with short
reins, which may be checked up a little
and fastened on the surcingle. Then lead
him about the yard for fifteen or twenty
minutes, after which let go of the bridle,
but still continue to caress him, at the
same time saying constantly "come." If
he seems to rebel, or lags behind, give
him a light cut behind with a long whip,
but in doing this do not change your po-
sition from being ahead of him. Con-
tinue this plan until you have been suc-
cessful.

5- To TEACH HIM TO PICK UP A HAND-
KERCHIEF.— Place on the ground or stand
a. white cloth handkerchief containing a
quantity of oats j lead the horse around
the yard, and when he comes to the spot
where you have placed the handkerchief
let him take some of the oats. This is
the first and most important lesson, and
its object is to fix in the mind of the
horse a connection between the handker-

chief and the oats. Continue this prac-
tice each day for several , weeks and he
will soon leam to stop as readily in a trot or
gallop as in a walk. After you feel that
so far is a success, the handkerchief must
be doubled over and tied in a knot ; the
animal shakes it to get at the grain, but
not being successful he takes it up from
the ground, which is just what you want.
When the horse has done this a number
of times and finds that though he can
shake nothing out, but yet at each time
he receives a reward of a handful of oats,
he may be trusted to perform before an
audience. The last step is to persuade
the horse to carry the handkerchief to
his master, and that is an easy task. Of
his own will he will keep hold of the
handkerchief until the same is taken from
his mouth, and but little difficulty will be
experienced to coax him to walk a few
steps, when he knows that by so doing he
will be rewarded with a handful of oats
or a carrot for his obedience.

6. Teaching him to stand. — Take the
horse, and over his back throw a strap,
and fasten the same to his right fore-foot.
Lead him about, and when you wish to
stop him say "whoa," and at the same
moment pull down the strap, which will
throw him on his three feet, which will
bring him to a sudden halt. Then put
him in harness with the foot-strap on, and
drive him a few yards. The moment he
attempts to move take his foot and say
"whoa." Get into the carriage and out
again; rattle the thills and make all
kinds of noises. Make him understand,
by pulling his foot each time he attempts
to move, and this can be done in a very
short time.

7. Taming, preparations for. — Have
in separate bottles a quantity of finely
grated horse-castor, and oils of rhodium
and cummin. Keep the bottles well
corked. Place some of the oil of cum-
min on your hand and approach the ani-
mal on the windy side. He will then move
towards you, after which rub some of the
cummin on his nose; then give him a
small quantity of the castor on anything
he is fond of, and while he is about tak-
ing it watch your chance and get on the
point of his tongue from seven to ten
drops of the oil of rhodium. He is then
at your service, and will do almost any-
thing you desire. Follow up this advan-

13*

HORSE—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

tage by all the attention and kindness
possible, and you will soon have him en-
tirely under your control.

HORSE. Taming and Breaking, Rarey's
Flan. — The apparatus which is required
is, first of all, an ordinary snaffle or
straight bit in the
mouth, without
which nothing
could be done
with any vicious
horse; and if any
animal is to be
"Rarey-fied," the
preliminary oper-
ation is to get this into the mouth. In
vicious animals, however, this is no easy
matter, and the best way is to entice the
animal up to a wagon loaded with hay ;
under which the operator should hide
himself, and while the animal is busily
eating, he should slip his arm through
the wheel, and quietly and cautiously

'Fig. 28.— Rarey's Leg Strap. No. i

buckle the leg strap (See No. 1) on his
leg.

As soon as this is done the horse is inno-
cent of all mischief except with his teeth,
for he cannot kick on three legs, and even
his mouth may be kept away from the
operator by draw-
ing on the off
rein. To bring
him speedily to
submit to the
power of the oper-
ator, the other leg
must also be con-
fined, which is
effected by first buckling on a surcingle,
as represented in the engraving below, and
then catching the off fetlock in the run-
ning noose of leg-strap No. 2, which is
made in the annexed form. Provided
with this second strap in his pocket, and
having already applied the leg-strap No.
1, and the surcingle as shown below, the

Fig. 29. — The Horse, with the Leg Strap and Surcingle on.

subject under manipulation is either in-
duced to drop his off foot into the noose, or
it is slipped round his ankle, while the off
rein is held by the other hand to keep
the teeth off the operator. As soon as
this loop is firmly drawn round the leg,

surcingle under the belly, and entire con-
trol of the horse is only a work of time.
The arrangement of these straps is well
shown in the engraving, where the horse is
sketched ready for the final struggle.
Up to this time, almost every horse will

the other end is slipped through the | be tolerably quiet and unresisting, some

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i3£

squealing when any approach is made to
their elbows to tighten the surcingle, and
others when the strap No. 2 is slipped
through it. Few, however, plunge much ;
and if they are made to hop on three legs,
they are able to go on for so long a time,
without producing the necessary amount
of fatigue, that the
operator would be
tired before his pu-
pil. It may be
observed that with
a violent horse, it
is always better to
let him feel his
want of power for

doingmischief with Fig. 30.— Mr. Rarey's Strap,

the near fore leg strapped up, and the
slight degree of fatigue which a few min-
utes' hopping will produce, before the
second strap is called into play, especially
if the operator has not acquired great
skill in the use of the apparatus. When
this is done, and the second strap is ap-

plied, and slipped through the surcingle,
as shown in figure 31, taking care to put
a stout glove on the right hand, the left
rein is taken in the left hand, and gently
jerked — using, if necessary, the usual slight
stimulus with the tongue, to make the
horse move, which he can onlyjdo by
raising the off fore
leg off the ground
in the action known
as hopping. The
moment this be-
gins, the right hand
firmly draws the off
leg up to the sur-
cingle, and keeps
No. 2. it there, when the

horse must either bound into the air
on his hind legs, or he must go down
on the ground, supported from falling
on his side in the attitude of kneel-
ing. To avoid mischief, therefore, the
loose box or yard where the operation is
carried on should be thickly bedded with

Fig. 31. — The Horse in the Power of his Master.

straw ; for no knee-caps are stout enough
to protect the joints from injury on hard
ground ; nor, if they escape being bruised,
will the shock to the body on falling be at
all safe. Even straw can hardly be relied
on, if the floor beneath is of brick, stone,

pebbles, or hard natural soil ; for it is apt
to give way during the struggles of the
horse, and allow the knees to reach it
without the intended protection. When,
therefore, there is no tanned riding-school,
or other similar surface, at command, a.

140

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

good solid bed of manure (which is al-
ways to be had where horses are) should
be spread a foot thick at least, and over
this clean straw may be laid. To return
to the subject of the operation, whom we
left with the alternative of bounding in
the air on his hind legs, or falling on his
knees in the annexed attitude, the chief
art in managing this part of the process
is to keep firm hold of the strap attached
to the off leg close to the surcingle ; the
hand being protected by the glove, can
easily prevent it from slipping through
during the struggles of the horse, and at

the same time serves as a. point cP appuiiox
the operator, so that he can follow the
movements of the bounding animal in
whatever direction he may progress. The
operator must on no account attempt to
stand away from his patient, nor must he
advance before the girth-place ; but keep-
ing close to this he is in no danger, pro-
vided he has sense and the ability to give
way if the horse should throw himself
down towards his side. The rein, being
still held in the left hand, prevents the
horse falling away from the operator, and
is also used by him as a means of guiding

Fig. 32. — The horse bounding on his hind legs.

the animal, if he happens to progress in a
direction which is not desired. Nothing
else is to be attempted till the horse has
quite exhausted all his energies, which
those possessed of high courage will soon
do; but low-bred animals are very apt to
turn sulky, and, refusing to plunge, re-
main on their knees, in spite of every kind
of stimulus which can be given them short
of severe punishment with the whip,
which is to be avoided, as opposed to the
principles on which the whole process is
founded. By taking time with these brutes,
they may always be made to tire them-
selves, for the kneeling position is very
irksome to them, and the most stubborn
will give a plunge now and then to relieve

themselves, though they will not follow
up one with another as speedily as a thor-
oughbred. Sooner or later (the time vary-
ing from ten minutes to two or three hours),
the tail begins to tremble, the flanks
heave, and a profuse perspiration breaks
out, which are signs that the horse of
himself desires the recumbent position,
and will lie down of his own accord, if
not pulled over by the right hand of the
operator.

Let them wait till the horse is thor-
oughly tired, and then only interfere to
such an extent as to keep him leaning to-
wards their side, by laying hold of the
right rein instead of the left, as shown in
the engraving Fig. 32 ; and drawing the

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

141

head away from themselves. Mr. Rarey
generally used the right hand for this
purpose, when he wished to throw his
patient before he was exhausted, because
he could in that way employ more force ;
and, at the same time, his dexterity was
such, that if a bound was made, he was
always ready to hold the strap attached
to the off foot before the horse could get
fairly on his hind legs. In which ever
way the task is accomplished, the effect is
apparently the same — the horse lies ex-
tended on his side, panting and sweating,
in the most exhausted condition ; but, of

course, showing more of these symptoms
of distress the longer he has been kept
resisting the restraints put upon him.
Now comes the test of the practical
ability of the operator ; for whereas before
he had only plain directions to carry out,
he has at this stage to judge how far his
efforts are successful. If he takes off the
straps too soon, the patient is patient no
longer, but rises rapidly, and perhaps
rewards him by planting a severe blow on
his ribs. It is here that Mr. Rarey dis-
played his great skill to perfection. Ap-
parently by intuition, he knew when his

Fig. 33.— The Horse on his Knees, about to fall on his side.

pupil was mastered; but, as he was always
ready to explain, it was really by two
symptoms that he judged whether he had
gained the mastery or not. One of these
was the expression of the eye, which it
would be difficult to describe, and which
experience alone could adequately con-
vey to those who wish to understand it ;
but the other, being readily tested, is
within the reach of every one. This con-
sists in the entire flaccidity of the muscles
of the neck and limbs ; and until this is
ascertained to have been obtained, the
straps should not be entirely removed.
Mr. Rarey's plan of proceeding at this
stage was the following. A second or two
after the horse went down, he let him

raise his head, and then dragged it down
again to the ground by the mane. On
repeating this once, twice, or thrice, the
animal would give in as far as that part
was concerned ; and being rewarded with
a pat of the hand, the head remained still
on the ground, and that part was" gentled.**
Next removing the leg straps, the fore
legs were separately gently rubbed down-
wards; and on being lifted, and let fail, as
if dead, they also were passed as in a simi-
lar satisfactory state. While in this state,
the horse lies in the attitude and with the
expression which is very well represented
in the accompanying sketch, and there he
will gladly lie as long as he is permitted
to do so. But he is not to be allowed to

142

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

recruit his powers ; and as sodn as he had
gone through the tricks which we have de-
scribed, Mr. Rarey made him rise, and
then showed that the power which he had
gained was not lost as soon as the animal
stood on his legs again. Calling for a
saddle, it was in every case shown to the
horse, and put first on his head, then on
his neck, and finally in its proper place.
The animal then always submitted to be
mounted, and even allowed the danger-
ous plan recommended and adopted by
Mr. Rarey, of standing close to the hind-
quarter while putting the foot in the

stirrup to be carried out without kicking,
which before the " Rareyfication" most ot
the vicious brutes operated on in public
would probably have done.

By this plan, it is indisputable that any
active man, of good temper, but possessed
of firmness and courage, and accustomed
to deal with horses, may gain such a con-
trol over even the most vicious, that he
can do what he likes with them in doors.
No one who has examined into the mat-
ter can doubt Mr. Rarey's power, nor can
he refuse him the merit of improving
upon the old system of controlling the

Fig. 34.— The Horse Tamed.

horse, by the addition of the second leg
strap, which adds so much to the power
of the human arm, that the most violent
and muscular horse has no chance what-
ever. The secret lies in two essential
natures ; first, that the horse must never
be coerced or resisted, unless the man is
certain of success in controlling him; and,
secondly, that when the former is thor-
oughly convinced of his powerless condi-
tion, and his muscles are tired out, the
latter interferes and relieves him of his
trammels, " gentles" him, gives him kind
words, and at length encourages him to
rise. The effect is marvellous — the most
vicious brute, who would previously tear
any man to pieces, after he is thus first

coerced, and then " gentled" and relieved,
appears to grow fond of his master, and
follows him about like a dog.

MULE, Splint on. — To remove these
bony formations, the treatment consists in
repeated blistering. Having first cut the
hair short, rub a little of the following
ointment into the skin, covering the splint
every night until a free watery discharge is
produced from the surface :

Take of Biniodide of Mercury - - 2 drachms.
Lard ------- 1 ounce.

Mix.

If, after an interval of a fortnight, the
splint does not appear much reduced in
size the ointment should be re-applied
and repeated at similar intervals.

HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

H3

COLTS, Their Care and Management.

Much harm arises from improper wean-
ing. A good method is, when the colt
is four or five months old, to put a strong
halter upon him, place him in a stall, and
put his mother in an adjoining stall, with
a partition between, so arranged that they
can see each other, and, if possible, get
their heads together. The first day let
the colt nurse twice — the next day once.
Feed the mare upon dry hay and dry
feed, and about half milk her two or
three times a day until dry. Feed the
colt upon new-mown grass or fine clover
hay, and give him a pint of oats twice
per day, and in about two weeks you will
have your coit weaned, and your mare
dry, and your colt looking as well as
ever. When he is one year old he has as
much growth and development of muscle
as one two years old weaned in the usual
manner. When the mare becomes dry, colt
and mare may be again turned in pasture.
An opinion generally prevails among far-
mers that, from the time the foal is taken
from its dam up to coming maturity, it
should not be "pushed," as the saying is,
nor fed on grain, for fear it would injure
one so young and tender. This accounts
for the great number of moping or spirit-
less and unthrifty colts, that are scarcely
able to drag one leg after another. Their
very appearance, cadaverous and pitiful
looks, seem to convey to the mind of
every sensible man that they are the vic-
tims of a wretched system of starvation,
which enervates thjp digestive organs, im-
pairs the secretions and impoverishes the
blood. Hence the deficiency in the de-
velopment of bone and muscle. The
muscles and tendons, being so illy sup-
plied with material for growth and devel-
opment, become very weak and afford but
little support to the bones and joints, so
that the former become crooked and the
latter weak — defects which no after feed-
ing, no skill in training can counteract.
It must be known to breeders that from
the time of birth up to maturity, colts re-
quire food abounding in flesh-making
principle, nitrogenous compounds — oats,
corn, etc.; otherwise they must naturally
be deficient in size, symmetry and powers
of endurance. Therefore they should
be regularly fed and watered, and their
food should consist of ground oats, wheat
bran, and sweet hay, in quantities suffi-

cient to promote their growth. Finally,
proper shelter should always be provided
for them. They should not be exposed,
as they often are, to the vicissitudes of the
weather, under the false notion of making
them tough and hardy. Equally unwise
is it to confine colts to close, unventilated
and filthy stables, deprived of light, exer-
cise and pure air. They should be
groomed every day ; a clean skin favors
the vitalization of the blood. They
should be permitted to gambol about as
much as they choose. Exercise devel-
ops muscle, makes an animal active and
spirited, and increases the capacity of the
lungs and chest. By the above means,
and proper attention to the principles of
breeding, the business of raising colts
may become both creditable and profit-
able.

COLT, to Prevent from Jumping. —

Pass a good stout surcingle around his
body; put on his halter, and have the
halter strap long enough to go from his
head between his fore legs, then through
the surcingle and back to one of his hind
legs. Procure a thill strap and buckle
around the leg between the foot and joint;
fasten the halter strap in this — shorter or
longer, as the obstinacy of the case may
require. It is also useful to keep colts
from running where there is likely to be
danger from the result. If the thill strap
should cause any soreness on the leg, it
may be wound with a woolen cloth, and
it would be well to change from one leg
to the other occasionally.

COLT, Callus in. — This is considered a
sure remedy:

Take of Bitter Sweet i ounce.

Skunk Cabbage I "

Blood Root i "

Steep and mix with lard ; make an ointment

and apply once or twice a day.

HORSES, Stables for The floor of

the stable should be level, or nearly so.
When otherwise, it causes the horse to
hang back, because the incline causes his
loins and hind parts to ache intolerably,
and he hangs back in order, if possible,
to get his hind legs beyond the gutter,
diminishing, by many degrees, his stand-
ing up hill. The best bedding is straw —
fine shavings from a planing mill, or saw-
dust (pine saw-dust being the best, and
oak saw-dust the worst.) They should

144

HORSE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

be allowed to stand on the naked floor as
little as possible.

HORSE, Stables, to Deodorize.— Saw-
dust, wetted with sulphuric acid, diluted
with about forty parts of water, and dis-
tributed about the stable, is a good de-
odorizer. Keep the mixture in shallow
earthenware vessels.

HORSE, Blanketing. — In reference to
blanketing horses in winter it is without
doubt true that blanketing keeps a horse's
coat smoother in winter, and, therefore, fine
carriage and saddle horses will continue
to be blanketed, no matter how injurious
it may be. But where horses are kept
more for service than show, the blanket-
ing had better be dispensed with. Keep-
ing them constantly covered makes them
tender and liable to take cold. It is far
better to give them a warm stable and
plenty of straw for bedding and good
food, and leave the blankets to be used
only when they are compelled to stand
for any length of time out of doors on a
cold winter's day. Also, when they come
in from work steaming hot, they should
be allowed to stand a short time, until
they are partially cooled oft— then put
the blankets on for an hour. Be careful
and not delay putting on the blanket un-
til they are chilled.

HORSE, Poor, how to Patten. — Many
good horses devour large quantities of

hay and grain, and yet continue poor,
and the more they eat the poorer they
appear to grow. The fault is, that the
food is not properly assimilated. If the
usual feed has been unground grain and
hay. nothing but a change will make any
desirable change in the appearance of the
animal. In case oil meal cannot be ob-
tained readily, mingle a bushel of flax-
seed with a bushel of barley, one of oats,,
and another bushel of Indian corn, and
let it be ground into fine meal. This will
be a fair proportion for all his feed. Or
the meal or barley, oats and corn, in
equal quantities, may at first be procured,
and ]{ of all cake mingled with it when
the meal is sprinkled on cut feed. Feed

2 or 3 quarts of the mixture 3 times daily
with a peck of cut hay and straw. If the
horse will eat that amount greedily, let
the quantity be gradually increased, until
he will eat 4, 5 or 6 quarts at every feeding

3 times a day. So long as the animal will
eat this allowance the quantity may be
increased a little every day. But always
avoid the practice of allowing the horse
to stand at a rack well filled with hay.
In order to fatten a horse that has run
down in flesh, the groom should be very
particular to feed the animal no more
than he will eat up clean and lick his
manger for more. Follow the above
suggestions and the result will be satisfac-
tory.

CATTLE:

DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT OF.

CATTLE, Age of, How to Ascertain by
their Teeth. — Tne calf is usually born
with two fore or cutting teeth, and at a
month old, the whoie eight are cut. The
age is then guessed at by the wearing down
of these teeth, until the calf is eight
months old, when tney begin to become
narrower and smaller. At eight months
the two centre teeth are smaller than the
rest; and from that time until eighteen
months the others gradully diminish, until
the whole are very considerably lessened
in size and stand apart from each Other.

At two years old the two middle teeth
are pushed out, and succeeded by two
permanent ones ; at three there are four
permanent teeth ; six at four years ; and
all the eight at five^ when the animal is
said to be full-mouthed; but he is not
actually so until six years old, when all
the eight are level.

A good judge of cattle will generally
determine the age with considerable ac-
curacy for many years after that. From
six to nine he will be guided by the wear-
ing down of the teeth, and after that by
the diminution in their bulk, as in the
milk teeth. At nine the two middle fore
teeth are evidently smaller and narrower
than the rest; at ten the two next are so;
and so on until twelve, when, as in the
steer of two years old, the teetn again be-
gin to stand singularly apart trom each
other.

CATTLE, Age by the Horns.— The
surface of the horn continues nearly
smooth until the expiration of the second
year of the animal's life, when a wrinkle
or circle of thicker horn begins to be
formed around the base. This is fully
completed in a twelvemonth, and another
ring then begins to appear, so that if the
perfect rings or circles are counted, and
two added to them, the age of the beast
is supposed to be ascertained. These
rings, however, are not always clear and

distinct, and it is very easy to remove on*
or two of them with a rasp, at least to the
unpracticed eye, when the animal begins
to be unmarketably old. In addition to
this, a well-known fact should be stated,
that if a heifer takes the bull at about two
years old, the first ring is formed a twelve-
month before its usual time, and, conse-
quently, she would always appear to be,
reckoning by her horns, a twelvemonth
older than she really is.

After all, the age, 'as denoted by the
horn, can only be calculated in the cow;
these rings do not begin to appear in the
ox or bull until the animal is five years
old, and then they are frequently too con-
fused to be accurately counted.

CATTLE, Bleeding, its Utility, and in
what cases Necessary.— Bleeding is a most
useful and powerful remedy in the cure of
inflammatory complaints. It lessens the
quantity of blood in the vessels, and di-
minishes nervous power. The following
are the chief diseases in which bleeding is
required :

i. Where animals in a thriving state-
rub themselves until the hair comes off,
and the spot is covered with a dry scab ;:
while at the same time the eyes appear
dull, languid, red, or inflamed, the breath
hot, and the veins puffed up, and consid-
erably larger than usual.

2. In all kinds of inflammatory dis-
eases, as of the brain, lungs, kidneys,
bowels, eyes, womb, bladder, shape, and
udder, or in swelling of the joints.

3. In the disease called blain, and in
which bleeding, not only general but local.
and local far more than general, has the
best possible effect, the tumefaction usual-
ly almost immediately subsiding, and the
beast speedily recovering.

4. When the glands or kernels between
the jaws, or those of the throat, are en-
larged, and especially if they are on.'y

(145)

146

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

recently affected, immediate recourse
should be had to bleeding, for otherwise
the lungs will probably become diseased,
and dangerous or consumptive hoose will
speedily ensue.

5. In bruises, hurts, wounds upon the
head, strains in different parts, and all
other accidents that may occur to the
animal, and in which there is reason to
apprehend considerable inflammation,
bleeding will be proper.

6. In violent catarrh or cold, bleeding
is employed; but, in slight cases, a few
fever drinks will restore the animal.

7. The yellows, when attended with
feverish symptoms, or constipation of the
bowels, requires bleeding.

The manner of performing this opera-
tion is too well known to require any de-
scription.

The Fleam is an instrument in general
use for oxen, and the jugular or neck vein
is that which is mostly opened. Local
bleeding is, however, in many cases par-
ticularly serviceable. In inflammation of
the eye, the eye-vein is frequently cut ; in
foot-halt, we sometimes bleed at the toe ;
and in inflammation of the bowels, or ud-
der, or even of the chest, blood is advan-
tageously taken from the milk-vein.

The quantity of blood that it may be
proper to take away at one time cannot
here be determined; but must be regulated
by the size, strength, and condition of the
animal, and the disease under which he
labors. In many inflammatory com-
plaints, too much can hardly be taken,
provided the bleeding is stopped as soon
as the patient appears likely to faint or
to fall down. A strong, healthy beast
will bear the loss of five or six quarts of
"blood, without the least injury. Larger
■cattle, that are attacked with inflamma-
tory complaints, will profit by the abstrac-
tion of a greater quantity ; seven or eight
quarts may be taken away with decided
advantage : but when it is necessary to
repeat the bleeding, the degree of fever
and the strength of the beast will regulate
the quantity. The blood should flow from
a large orifice, for sudden depletion is far
more powerful in its operation, than when
the blood is suffered slowly to trickle
down. The blood must never be allowed
to fall upon the ground, but should be re-
ceived into a measure, in order that the
quantity taken may be known. No ab-

solute quantity of blood should ever be
prescribed, but when extensive bleeding
is demanded, the stream should flow until
the pulse falters, or intermits, or the ani-
mal begins to heave violently, or threatens
to fall, or other circumstances show that
the system is sufficiently affected. The
beast should not be permitted to drink
cold water immediately after bleeding,
nor to graze in the field : the former has
sometimes induced troublesome catarrh,
and the latter may cause the orifice to
open again. If this operation is per-
formed in the summer season, it will be
most prudent to fetch the cattle out of
the pasture towards evening, in order that
they may be bled; and, after that, to let
them stand in the fold-yard all night, and
drive them back to the field on the follow-
ing morning.

CATTLE, Diarrhoea, or Purging.—
Purging is produced by various causes: by
change of food, from dry to green meat,
or from short to luxuriant pasture; by
poisonous plants, bad water, or unknown
atmospheric agency.

It is not always to be regarded as a dis-
ease, nor should the farmer be always
anxious to stop it. It may be an effort of
nature to discharge something that is in-
jurious ; it may exist while the beast enjoys
almost perfect health, and is even thriving.

The farmer will not regard an occa-
sional fit of purging ; he will only attack
it if it is violent, or if it continues too long.
In the first case it indicates some disor-
dered state of the bowels, or the presence
of some offending matter in them, and he
will endeavor to remedy this ; not as is
too often done by attempting to arrest the
discharge as speedily as he can — not by
the exhibition of astringent medicine —
but by giving a mild dose of physic, in
order to assist nature in her effort to get
rid of some evil. Nothing so much dis-
tinguishes the man of good sense from
the mere blunderer as the treatment of
purging.

From half to three-quarters of a pound
of Epsom salts should be given with the
usual quantity of ginger. The next day
he may probably administer a little as-
tringent medicine. The Astringent Drink
(see No. 17 Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for) will be effectual, and not too
powerful.

In the second case also, when purging

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

H7

has long continued, and the animal is be-
oinning to become thin and weak, the
practitioner must begin with physic. There
is probably some lurking cause of intes-
tinal irritation. He should give the quan-
tity of Epsom salts just recommended, or
perhaps he will more prudently give from
half a pint to a pint of castor oil. It will
usually be a good practice to give a rather
smaller dose on the following day, and
after that he may safely have recourse to
the astringents. The animal should be
brought into a cow-house or enclosed
yard, where it can be sheltered from the
weather, and kept partly or altogether on
dry meat.

It is of great consequence that diarrhoea
or simple purging should be distinguished
from another disease with which it is too
often confounded. They are both char-
acterized by purging. That which has
been just considered, is the discharge of
dung in too great quantity, and in too
fluid a form ; but that which will form the
subject of another chapter, dysentery, is
the evacuation of the dung, mingled with
mucus, or mucus and blood. In diarrhoea
the dung is voided in large quantities, and
in a full stream; it has sometimes an
offensive smell, and is occasionally bloody;
but dysentery is often accompanied by a
peculiar straining; the dung is not so great
in quantity, and it is more offensive, and
more highly charged with blood.

The one is an accidental thing — not
always to be considered as a disease — and
often ceasing of itself when the purpose
for which nature set it up — the expulsion
of some acrid or injurious matter from the
alimentary canal — has been accomplished;
the other is an indication of an inflam-
matory affection of the larger intestines,
difficult to be controlled, often bidding
defiance to all means, and speedily de-
stroying the animal. Diarrhoea occurs at
all times of the year, and particularly after
a sudden and great change of pasture;
dysentery is a disease almost peculiar to
the spring and autumn alone. It must be
confessed, however, that diarrhoea is some-
times the precursor of dysentery in its
worst form.

CATTLE, Stone in the Urinary Passa-
ges, or Bladder. — There seems to be a
greater disposition to the formation and
retention of calculi, or stones, in the uri-
nary passage of the ox than of the horse.

The manner in which cattle gather then-
food, the half-cutting, and half-tearing, by
which the roots of a portion at least of the
herbage are taken into the mouth and
swallowed, and the propensity which al-
most all cattle have to swallow earth in
order to prevent the acid fermentation of
the food in the paunch — these things ac-
count for the more frequent collection of
sand and gravel in the bladder of cattle
than of horses.

This sand and gravel is the foundation
of, or the preparation for, the future for-
mation of stone in the bladder; and when
the stone begins to form it is far more
likely to be detained, and to accumulate
in size, in the bladder of the ox than that
of the horse, because the urethra is very
much smaller and more curved in its
course.

Stone in the bladder may be suspected
when there is much fever, accompanied
by a frequent turning of the head and
earnest gaze on the flanks; when the hind
limbs tremble, and there are ineffectual
endeavors to pass urine, or it is evacuated in
small quantities, and mingled with blood.

The suspicion may very easily be
reduced to certainty, by examining
the bladder with the hand intro-
duced into the rectum, or last gut. The
bladder of the ox, as has already been
described, lying so much more in the
pelvis than the bladder of the horse does,
the stone cannot fail of being felt if there
is one.

The presence of stone in the bladder
having been thus proved, that farmer will
pursue the most judicious course who
sends the beast immediately to the butch-
er, for no medicine will dissolve it, and
the animal will lose condition every day.

The retention of a small calculus in
some part of the urethra occurs much of-
tener than is generally suspected. The
symptoms would be nearly the same as
those of stone in the bladder, except that
the stoppage of urine would be more
complete. On examination, the stone
will be easily felt, and generally in the
double curvature ot the penis. An in-
cision may be made upon it, and it may
be thus easily extracted. Two or three
sutures, according to the size of the cal-
culus, having been passed through the
edges of the wound, it will usually heal
in a few days.

148

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

CATTLE, Seton, Mode of Inserting a. —
The seton is commonly made of tow and
horse hair plaited together, or cord or
coarse tape alone, or leather. It should
be tolerably thick, and eight, ten, or
twelve inches in length. Before inserting
the seton, it should be dipped in oil of tur-
pentine. The seton being now prepared,
an assistant is to hold the animal, while
the seton-needle, with the cord affixed to
it, is plunged into the upper edge of the
brisket or dewlap, and brought out again
towards its lower edge: the space between
the two openings should be from four to
eight inches. The seton is to be secured
by fastening a small piece of wood, or
tying a large knot at either end of the
cord. Matter will begin to run the sec-
ond day, and, after that, the cord should
be drawn backwards and forwards two or
three times every day, in order to irritate
the parts, and by this means increase the
discharge.

When setoning is had recourse to in
inflammatory complaints, the cord should
be dipped in the following blistering oint-
ment:

Take yellow basilicon I ounce

Cantharides, in powder - - 3 drachms
Spirit of turpentine - 2 fluid drachms

This ointment will be found to act effi-
caciously and quickly in stimulating the
parts to action, and hastening on the
suppurative process.

The root of the common dock forms a
very good seton, and one that will act
speedily and powerfully ; but the best of
all, where a considerable effect is intended
to be produced, is the root of the black
hellebore. This will very quickly cause
considerable swelling as well as discharge.

CATTLE, Cold and Cough— Hoose. — A
simple cold, attended by slight cough and
discharge from the nostrils, is easily
removed. Warm housing, a few mashes,
and the cough and fever will usually
succeed.

(See No. 1 Drink in Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicine for.)

There are few things, however, more
dangerous, if neglected, than cough or
hoose ; and there are few maladies that
are so often neglected.

The farmer will go into the cow-house,
or into the pasture, again and again, and
hear some of his cows coughing, and that
perhaps hardly, or hollowly, or painfully ;

but, while they continue to chew the cud,
and do not waste in flesh, he thinks little
about it, and suffers them to take their
chance.

The inflammation is slight ; the animal
is scarcely ill at all ; the cough remits and
returns, with or without his observation.
He adds to it, perhaps, by improper treat-
ment. He exposes the beast unnecessarily
to cold or wet; or he crowds his cattle
into stables shamefully small compared
with the number of the animals, and the
air is hot and nauseous, and charged with
watery fluid thrown off from the lungs
and from the skin. The cough increases,
it becomes hoarse, and harsh, and painful;
and that affection is established which
oftener lays the foundation for consump-
tion and death than any other malady to
which these animals are exposed.

That farmer is inattentive to his own
interests who suffers a cough, and espe-
cially a hoarse, feeble cough, to hang
about his cattle longer than he can help.
He should be warned in time, before his
cows are getting off their feed, and becom-
ing thin, and are half dry ; for then it will
generally be too late to seek for advice, or
to have recourse to medical care : the dis-
ease has fastened upon a vital part, and
the constitution is undermined.

Cough occasionally assumes an epi-
demic character — from sudden changes of
the weather, chiefly and particularly in.
the spring and the fall of the year : it then
spreads over a great part of the country,
and is often particularly severe.

The symptoms of epidemic cold or
catarrh, or influenza, as it is sometimes
called, are frequently serious. The beast
is dull and heavy, with weeping at the
eyes, and dry muzzle ; the hair looks pen-
feathered, or staring; the appetite fails;
the secretion of milk is diminished ; there
is considerable heaving of the flanks ; the
pulse is from 60 to 70, and the bowels are
generally costive or sapped.

Cattle that have been tenderly managed
during the winter, and cows after calving,,
are very subject to it, especially if they
have been poorly fed, or driven long dis-
tances, and exposed to a cold, piercing
wind.

It will be necessary to commence the
treatment of this disease with bleeding.
From four to six quarts of blood should
be taken, and then a dose of physic ad-

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

149

ministered. The purging drink will be a
good purgative medicine in such a case.
(See No. 2, Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for.)

After that the purging drink No. 1
should be given morning and night, the
drink No. 2 being repeated if the bowels
should be costive.

It will be proper to house the beast, and
especially at night ; and a mash of scalded
bran with a few oats in it, if there is no
fever, should be allowed. It is necessary
carefully to watch the animals that are
laboring under this complaint ; and, if the
heaving should continue, or the muzzle
again become or continue dry, and the
breath hot, more blood should be taken
away and the purging drink repeated.
At the close of the epidemic catarrh the
animal will sometimes be left weak and
with little appetite. It should be well as-
certained whether the fever has quite left
the beast, because listlessness and disin-
clination to move, and loss of appetite,
and slight staggering, may result as much
from the continuance of fever as from the
debility which it leaves behind. If the
muzzle is cool and moist, and the mouth
not hot, and the pulse sunk to nearly its
natural standard, or rather below it, and
weak and low, the purging drink may be
ventured on ; but No. 1 must be returned
to if there is the slightest appearance or
increase of cold or fever. (See No. 3,
Domestic Animals, Medicines for.)

There is another way in which the
worms may with greater certainty be got
rid of. There are some substances which
are immediately destructive to worms when
brought in contact with them. Some of
these medicaments may be taken into the
circulation of the animal with perfect
safety to him, and probably death to the
worms. Among those which most readily
enter into the circulation after being swal-
lowed is the oil or spirit of turpentine.
The breath is very soon afterward tainted
with its smell, which shows that a portion
of it has passed into the lungs. Therefore,
when other means have failed, and the
continuance of the violent cough renders
it extremely probable that worms are in
the air passages, the turpentine drink for
worms may be resorted to. (See No. 5,
Domestic Animals, Medicines for.)

This may be repeated every morning
without the slightest danger; and even

when we are a little afraid to give longer
by the mouth, it may be thrown up in the
form of an injection. A pint of lime water
every morning, and two tablespoonfuls of
salt every afternoon, have also been ad-
ministered with advantage when worms
are present in the windpipe.

Should the case appear to be obstinate,
the exhibition of half doses of physic every
second or third day will often be useful,
with the stimulating drink, morning and
night, on each of the intermediate days.
(See No. 6, Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for.)

A seton in the dewlap should never be
omitted ; and if the disease seems to be
degenerating into inflammation of the
lungs, the treatment must be correspond-
ingly active.

The termination of hoose that is most
to be feared is consumption. That will
be indicated when the discharge from the
nose becomes purulent or bloody, and the
breath stinking, and the cough continues
to be violent, while the beast feeds badly,
and the eyes begin to appear sunk in the
head, and he rapidly loses flesh. The best
remedy here, so far as both the owner and
the animal are concerned, is the pole-axe
of the butcher ; for in the early part of the
disease the meat is not at all injured, and
may be honestly sold. If, however, it is
wished that an attempt should be made to
save the animal, the cough and fever
drink may be given daily, more attention
should be paid to the warmth and com-
fort of the beast, and if the weather is
favorable it should, after a while, be turned
into a salt marsh, either entirely or during
the day.

CATTLE, Influenaa in. — (See Cattle,
Cold and Cough.)

CATTLE, Catarrh in. — (See Cattle,
Cold and Cough.)

CATTLE, Inflammation of the Lungs. —
When common catarrh has been ne-
glected, it will sometimes run on to in-
flammation of the lungs, or the beast may
be attacked with this disease without any
of the previous symptoms of catarrh. This
is a very serious complaint, and requires
the most prompt and decisive treatment.

The symptoms are dullness, shivering,
and cough that is particularly sore; the
ears, roots of the horns, and legs are some-
times cold, but not invariably so, as the
quantity of cellular membrane about the

'5°

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

legs is often sufficient to keep them warm
in spite of the nature of the complaint ;
the breath and mouth are hot ; the mouth
is generally open, and there is a ropy dis-
charge from it; the beast will often lie
down, and can scarcely be induced to
move ; the flanks heave very laboriously,
and the head is protruded, showing the
great difficulty of breathing. The pulse
is not always much increased in number,
but is oppressed, and can sometimes
scarcely be felt.

Inflammation of the lungs is caused by
the perspiration being obstructed from
sudden and great changes of the weather,
especially when accompanied with wet.
Cattle that are driven long distances, and
then exposed to the cold and damp air of
the night, are particularly liable to it. In
most cases it can be traced to the cattle
being imprudently exposed to cold ; but
when the cause is not so apparent, it
oftenest attacks those that are in good con-
dition.

Young cattle, and particularly calves,
are more subject to this disease than older
ones ; and in them it must be principally
attributed to their being in a state of ple-
thora, that is, having a redundancy of
blood in their systems.

Sometimes the membrane covering the
lungs and lining the chest is the part prin-
cipally attacked; the disease is then
termed pleurisy, and is in this form often
complicated with rheumatism, but it is
more usual for the substance of the lungs
to be affected in common with their en-
velopments.

Copious bleeding is the remedy most to
be depended on for subduing the inflam-
mation, and should be had recourse to as
soon as the disease is discovered. The
beast should be put into a cool cow-
house well littered, and immediately bled.
If the difficulty of breathing and other
symptoms are not much relieved in six or
eight hours after the first bleeding, it
should be repeated. A third or fourth
bleeding may in bad cases be requisite.
In this disease, more than in any other,
the person who attends the cattle should
be present when the beast is bled. It is
impossible, by looking at the patient, and
considering the symptoms, to say what
quantity of blood ought to be taken away;
but, as a general rule, and especially in in-
flammation of the lungs, and at the first

bleeding, the blood should flow until the
pulse begins to falter, and the animal
seems inclined to faint. The faltering of
the pulse will regulate the quantity of the
after-bleedings. Little bleedings of two or
three quarts, at the commencement of in-
flammation of the lungs, can never be of
service ; from six to eight quarts must be
taken, or even more, regulated by the cir-
cumstances that have been mentioned, and
the blood should flow in a large, full
stream.

A seton should be set in the dewlap
immediately after the first bleeding, and
the purging drink No. 2 given. Four
drachms of nitre, two of extract of bella-
donna, and one of tartarized antimony,
may afterward be administered twice a day
in a drink.

In very severe cases, the chest has been
fired and blistered with advantage.

Warm water and mashes must be regu-
larly given two or three times a day.

When the beast has recoverd, it will be
proper, as much as possible, to avoid all
those causes which induced the complaint.
The animal should for a short time be
housed during the night, and, if the weather
is very unsettled, kept up altogether or
turned out for a few hours only in the
middle of the day.

CATTLE, Pleurisy.— (See Cattle, In-
flammation of the Lungs.)

CATTLE, Bheumatism, or Joint-Felon.
— The early symptoms of this complaint
are those of common catarrh, with no
great cough, but more than usual fever ;
by degrees, however, the animal shows
some stiffness in moving, and if the hand is
pressed upon the chine or any part of the
back, the beast will shrink, as if this gave
him pain. When the complaint goes no
farther than this, it is called chine-fel-
on in many parts of the country ; but
generally, in two or three days, the ani-
mal appears stiffer in the joints ; these af-
terwards begin to swell, and are evident-
ly painful, particularly when he attempts
to move. Sometimes the stiffness ex-
tends all over the body, and to such a
degree that the beast is unable to rise
without assistance.

This is generally termed joint-felon.
Old cows are very subject to it, and es-
pecially a short time before calving ; but
milch cows and young cattle are oftener
attacked by it in the spring of the year.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i?r

It is mostly occasioned by the animal
being kept in a state of poverty during
the winter, and suddenly exposed to the
vicissitudes of the weather in the spring,
or to the inclemency of the north or
northeasterly winds, especially in low sit-
uations.

This disease sometimes comes on sud-
denly, and is present in a very acute form,
being in fact a severe chill ; these acute
symptoms may subside, and be succeed-
ed by others, milder but more obstinate.
Sometimes abscesses will form amongst
the muscles, or the sheaths or bodies of
the tendons; and the capsular ligaments
of the joints are often distended with
synovia. These symptoms are particular-
ly unfavorable.

As soon as the disease makes its ap-
pearance, the beast must be taken to a
warm cow-house or stable, or some situa-
tion sheltered from the severity of the
weather. The Sulphur Purging Drink
No. 7 (See Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for), should then be given.

The bowels having been gently opened,
Rheumatic Drink (See No. 8, Domestic
Animals, Medicines for,) which may
cause some determination to the skin,
and increase the insensible perspiration,
should be administered.

If there should be much fever at any
period of the complaint, the Sulphur
Drink must be exchanged for the Purg-
ing Drink, No. 2. and three or tour
quarts of blood taken away.

If. any of the joints should continue
swelled and painful, they should be
rubbed twice a day, or for a quarter of an
hour each time, with the gently stimulat-
ing Rheumatic Embrocation, (See No. 9,
Domestic Animals, Medicines for.)

Should a scaly eruption break out on
the joints, or any part of the legs, after
the beast has apparently recovered, the
Healing Cleansing Ointment (See No. 10,
Domestic Animalls, Medicines for,)
will generally clear cff the scurf, heal the
cracks or sores, and cause the hair to
grow again.

If stiffness or swelling of the joints
should remain after the inflammation and
tenderness are removed, the joints should
be well rubbed morning and night with a
gently stimulating Camphorated Oil, (See
No. 11. Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) embrocation.

When a beast has had one attack ^i
rheumatism, he will be always subject to its
return, and therefore should be taken more
than usual care of in cold, variable weather;
and should he appear to have a slight
catarrh, or to walk a little stiffer than
usual, he should be housed for a night or
two, and should have a warm mash, and
the Cordial Rheumatic Drink; (See No.
12, Domestic Animals, Medicines for)
which, however, would be very improper
in hoose or cold, or rheumatism connect-
ed with any degree of fever.

CATTLE, Chine-Felon. — (See Cattle,
Rheumatism.)

CATTLE, Inflammation of the Liver. —
This is a disease to which cattle are often-
er subject than is imagined, and particu-
larly those that are in high condition and
stall-fed: the symptoms, however, are
usually sufficiently distinct to guide the
attentive observer.

When the milch cow is attacked there
is a diminution of the milk, and it has a
ropy appearance and saltish taste after
being separated from the cream. The
animal has a heavy appearance, the eyes
being dull, the countenance depressed,
with a stiffened, staggering gait ; the ap-
petite is impaired, and the membrane of
the nostrils and the skin is of a yellow-
color. Sometimes the respiration is much
disturbed; at others it appears tranquil;
but the pulse, though unusually quick-
ened, is rarely hard or full. The bowels
are generally constipated, though some-
times purging exists. Rumination is
usually disturbed, and occasionally alto-
gether suspended. To these will occa-
sionally be added the characteristic symp-
toms of pain on pressure on the edge of
the short ribs on the right side. In acute
inflammation of the liver the most frantic
pain has been exhibited; but this is rarely
the case.

A high degree of fever will indicate the
propriety of bleeding, but it should not
be carried to too great an extent, but
may be repeated. After bleeding, one or
two drachms of calomel, with a scruple
of opium, and two drachms of ginger,
may be given in gruel, and a few hours
afterwards twelve ounces of Epsom salts
and half a pint of linseed oil. The cal-
omel and opium may be repeated twice a
day, and the purgative also until the bow-
els are sufficiently operated on. If*

*5*

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

however, purging be present from
the first, a tew ounces only of Epsom
salts should be given, but a drachm each
of calomel and opium, repeated twice a
day ; and if the purging continue the case
may be treated as one of diarrhoea. (See
Cattle, Diarrhoea.) The sides in this
disease should be blistered, and setons
may also be inserted.

Inflammation of the liver frequently
leaves after it a great deal of weakness,
and tonics are clearly indicated. The
best medicine that can be given is (See
No. 13, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for.)

No hay, and light corn, should be
given in inflammation of the liver; but
the diet should consist of mashes and
green meat.

It has been stated that fat beasts, or
such as are in good condition, are very
liable to this disease, and particularly
those that have been fed mnch on oil-
cake. It is more frequent in hot than in
cold weather, and in store cattle that
have been over-driven, or worried in
woodland pastures by the flies. Sudden
change of weather; the exposure to con-
siderable cold, of a well-fed beast that
had been well housed, or indeed anything
that has a tendency to excite fever, will
produce inflammation in an organ that
has been over-worked, or is disposed to
disease from the undue secretion of bile
in the rapid accumulation of flesh and fat.
Chronic inflammation of the liver is char-
acterized by symptoms similar but more
moderate than those detailed. The de-
bility gradually increases, and death often
succeeds. The same treatment should
be pursued, with the exception of bleed-
ing.

CATTLE, the Yellows, or Jaundice. —
This is a far more common disease than
the last, and almost as dangerous, bedause,
although it is not marked by any acute
symptoms, or accompanied by much fever,
it creeps on insidiously, and fastens itself
on the constitution, beyond the power of
medicine to eradicate it ; or it is the con-
sequence and the proof of some disease
of the liver, which is equally difficult to
cure. It may be produced by inflamma-
tion of the liver, or too great secretion of
the bile, or stoppage of the vessels
through which the bile should flow into
the bowels. If its passage is obstructed,

it is thrown back again upon the liver,
and there taken up by the absorbents,
and carried into the circulation, and com-
municates a yellow color to the blood ;
and as the blood, by means of capillary the
vessels, is carried to every point and part
of the body, so the yellow hue of the dis-
ease spreads over the whole ot the frame.

This obstruction is sometimes effected
by the undue thickness of the bile ; some-
times by hardened bile or gall-stones;
and in not a few cases it is caused by a
greater secretion ot bile than can find its
way into the intestines, and which, con-
sequently, accumulates in the liver, until
it is taken up by the absorbents, and car-
ried into the frame in the manner that has
just been described.

At the beginning of the disease there is
considerable dulness and languor, and loss
of appetite. The cow wanders about by
herself, or is seen standing by the side of
the hedge or the fence in a most dejected
manner. The quantity of milk is gener-
ally lessened ; the bowels are costive; and
the fore-teeth are sometimes loose : milch
cows are more subject to it than oxen, and
particularly in the latter end of the year.
Sudden change of weather frequently
gives rise to it, and especially if the ani-
mal has previously exhibited symptoms of
ill-health.

The treatment and the hope of cure
depend upon the causes and degree of
the disease, and which should be most
carefully ascertained. If it has followed
symptoms of fever, probably indicative of
inflammation of the liver, it may be diffi-
cult to remove, because it is an indication
of the ravages which disease has made in
the organ. Should the pulse be strong
as well as quick, moderate bleeding will
be judicious, but not otherwise. The
bowels should then be freely opened by
means of the purging drink (No. 2), and
kept open by half doses of it administered
as occasion may require. In this disease,
oftener than in any other to which cattle
are subject, stomachics are useful to rouse
the digestive organs to their proper tone
and power. Mingled with them, or at
other periods of the day, medicines may
be given which are supposed to have a
direct effect on the liver, and a tendency
to restore its healthy action; therefore,
while the tonic drink (No. 13) is given
in the morning, the drink for the yel-

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

153

lows may be given at night (See No. 14
Domestic Animals, Medicines for.) If,
on pressing the sides, the animal evinces
pain, we may suspect some inflammation
of the liver; and a blister on the sides,
but particularly the right side, will be
useful.

After the yellowness is removed, and
the beast restored to health, the tonic
drink (No. 13) should be given twice in
the week, for a month. This will con-
tribute to restore the weakened appetite,
and particularly will bring back to the cow
the proper flush of milk.

CATTLE, Inflammation of the Brain in.
— This is not a very frequent, but a most
frightful disease. It is commonly known
by the names phrenzy or sough. It is most
prevalent among well-fed cattle, and par-
ticularly in the summer months. In the
early period of it the beast is dull and
stupid. He stands with his head protruded,
or pressed against something for support.
He refuses to eat, ceases to ruminate, and
is in a manner unconscious of surround-
ing objects. Now and then he will stand
motionless for a long time, and then sud-
denly drop ; he will start up immediately,
gaze around him with an expression of
wildness and fear, and then sink again
into his former lethargy. All at once,
however, his eyes will become red, and
seemingly starting from their sockets ; the
countenance will be both anxious and
wild ; the animal will stagger about, fall-
ing and rising again, and running uncon-
sciously against everything in his way : at
other times he will be conscious enough
of things around him, and possessed with
an irrepressible desire to do mischief. He
will stamp with his feet, tear up the
ground with his horns, run at every one
within his reach, and with tenfold fury at
any red object; bellowing all the while
most tremendously, and this he will con-
tinue until nature is quite exhausted; a sud-
den and violent trembling will then come
over him, he will grind his teeth, and the
saliva will pour from his mouth ; he will
fall, every limb will be convulsed, and he
will presently die.

Causes. — It proceeds most commonly
from a redundancy of blood in the sys-
tem, called by farmers an overflowing of
the blood; and this is induced by cattle
thriving too fast when turned on rich pas-
ture grounds, or their being fed too quickly

in order to get them into condition for
show or sale. It is sometimes occasioned
by the intense heat of the sun, when cattle
have been turned into the fields where
there has been nothing to shade them
from its influence. It may be brought on
by severe contusions on the head, or by
the cattle being harassed and frightende,
when driven along the road, or through
large towns.

The chief or the only cure is bleeding.
The neck vein should be opened, on each
side, if possible, and the blood should be
suffered to flow until the animal drops.
It is absurd to talk of quantities here ; as
much should be taken as can be got, or
at least the blood should flow until the
violence of the symptoms is quite abated.

To this a dose of a strong physic
drink (see No. 15 Domestic Animals,
Medicines for) should follow.

If the violence, or even the wandering,
should remain, another bleeding should
take place six hours afterwards, and this
also until the pulse falters, and the purging
should be kept up: dosec of 1 ounce
epsom salts, and y^ drachm each of calo-
mel and opium, mixed in y2 pint linseed
oil, should be given twice a day.

Although it is very difficult to produce
a blister on the thick skin of the ox, it
should be attempted if the disease does
not speedily subside. The hair should be
closely cut or shaved from the upper part
of the forehead and the poll, and for six
inches on each side down the neck, and
some of the Blister Ointment (See No. 16
Domestic Animals, Medicines for,)
well rubbed in.

When the blister is beginning to peel
off green elder or marshmallow ointment
will be the best application to supple and
heal the part. A little of it should be
gently smeared over the blistered surface
morning and night.

A seton smeared with the above oint-
ment may be inserted on each side of the
poll in preference to the application of a
blister.

Although the violence of the disease,
and of its remedies, will necessarily leave
the beast exceedingly reduced, no stimu-
lating medicine or food must on any ac-
count be administered. Mashes and
green meat, and these in no great quanti-
ties, must suffice for nourishment, or, if
the animal, as is sometimes the case, is

*54

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

unable to eat, a few quarts of tolerably
thick gruel may be horned down every
day; but ale and gin, and spices, and
tonic medicines, must be avoided as down-
right poisons. Even the treacle and the
sugar in the gruel must be prohibited,
from their tendency to become acid in
the debilitated stomach of the animal re-
covering from such a complaint.

Every symptom of the disease having
vanished, the beast may very slowly re-
turn to his usual food; but, when he is
turned out to pasture, it will be prudent
to give him a very short bite of grass,
and little or no dry meat. Nature is the
best restorer of health and strength in
these cases ; and it is often surprising not
only how rapidly the ox will regain all
he has lost, if left to nature, and not fool-
ishly forced on, but how soon and to
what a considerable degree his condition
will improve, beyond the state in which
he was before the complaint.

The ox that has once had inflamma-
tion of the brain should ever afterwards
be watched, and should be bled and phys-
icked whenever there is the least appear-
ance of staggers or fever. The safest
way will be to send him to the butcher as
soon as he is in sufficient condition.

Sometimes the disease does not run its
full course. There is but a slight degree
of inflammation, or there may be sudden
determination or flow of blood to the
head from some occasional cause, and
without inflammation. This is known by
the name of Staggers (which see).

CATTLE, Phrenitis. (See Cattle,
Inflammation of the Brain.)

CATTLE, Staggers, or Swimming in
the Head. — The symptoms are heaviness
and dullness ; a constant disposition (See
Cattle, Inflammation of the Brain)
to sleep, which is manifested by the
beast resting its head upon any con-
venient place ; and he reels or staggers
when he attempts to walk. If this dis-
ease is not checked by bleeding, purging,
and proper management, it will probably
terminate in inflammation of the brain or
inflammatory fever.

It mostly attacks those cattle that have
been kept in a state of poverty and star-
vation during the winter season, and in
the spring of the year have been admitted
into too fertile a pasture : hence is pro-
duced a redundancy of blood in the sys-

tem, which, on the slightest disturbance,
or even naturally, gives rise to the dis-
ease.

The cure must be attempted by taking
four, five or six quarts of blood from the
animal, according to the size and
strength; the Physic Drink must then be
administered, and Purging Drink No. 2
continued in half doses every eight hours
until the full purgative effect is produced.
If the animal is not relieved in the course of
two hours from the first bleeding, the op-
eration must be repeated to the same ex-
tent, unless the beast should become faint;
and the bowels must be kept in a loose or
rather purging state by No. 2. As soon
as the bowels are opened, the Fever
Drink No. i should be given morning,
noon and night until the patient is well.
Nothing more than a very little mash
should be allowed, and all cordials should
be avoided as absolutely destructive to
the beast.

When the animal appears to be doing
well, he must very slowly be permitted to
return to his usual food. He should for
some weeks be put into short and scanty
pasture ; the seton should be continued
in the dewlap, and occasional doses of
Epsom salts administered.

CATTLE PLAGUE.— Chloride of cop-
per is now extensively used in Germany as
a preventive against the cattle plague.
The mode of administering the specific
is as follows: A solution is first made by
dissolving one quarter of an ounce of the
green crystallized salts in spirits of wine.
In this solution a pad of cotton is soaked
for a little while, and is then laid on a
plate and set on fire in the centre of the
stable, the animals' heads being turned to-
ward the flame so as to make them breathe
the fumes. The operation is performed
morning and evening, and a spirit lamp
filled with the solution left burning in the
stable every night. The liquid is also ad-
ministered internally, with the addition of
one-half an ounce of chloroform for the
above quantity, a teaspoonful being put
into the animal's drink three times a day.

CATTLE, Sore Month in. — Take a weak
solution of carbolic acid, say 1 to 5 drops
to the ounce of water, washing the mouth
every few hours, allowing a little to be
swallowed, and following this with mild
tonics and food that will not irritate the
mouth.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

CATTLB, Dysentery, Slimy Flux or
scouring Bot. — It just has been observed
that this disease is most prevalent in the
spring and autumn, particularly in low,
wet and swampy situations. It is one of
the most fatal diseases to which oxen, and
dairy cows in particular are subject, and
destroys more than any other malady.

It begins with frequent and painful ef-
forts to expel the dung, which is thin,
slimy, stinking and olive-colored. The
animal, as appears from his restless state,
suffers much pain, frequently lying down
and soon rising again. There is "lalso a
frequent noise in the intestines. If the
disease is neglected, or improperly treat-
ed, the beast gradually gets thin, although
for a while he retains his appetite, and
continues to ruminate ; at length he evi-
dently begins to get weak, rumination is
imperfectly performed and the food passes
from him half digested. As this disease
is often the consequence of a previous af-
fection of the liver, considerable tender-
ness will be discovered on the spine, a lit-
tle beyond the shoulders. This is one of
the methods, and a very good one, by
which the farmer endeavors to ascertain
whether a beast which he is thinking of
purchasing has the scouring rot. As the
disease proceeds the dewlap hangs down
and has a flabby appearance ; the dung
runs off with a putrid and offensive smell,
and, as it falls upon the ground, rises up
in bubbles, and a membranous or skinny-
like substance is often seen upon it; this
is occasioned by the natural mucus, which
was given to defend the bowels, being dis-
charged. In proportion to the quantity
of mucus that mingles with the faeces, the
whole is rendered more adhesive, and the
bubbles are larger, and remain longer on
the dung. When this is the case the dis-
ease is always obstinate, and generally
fatal. The hair all over the body soon
appears pen-feathered or staring. Fever-
ish symptoms also accompany the com-
plaint; the eyes become dull and in-
flamed, there is much working of the
flanks, and the pulse is quick.

The causes ot this dreadful malady are
— taking cold at the time of calving;
long journeys jj exposure to sudden vicis-
situdes of the weather; and, after being
over-heated in traveling, being turned into
damp pastures, etc. Poor keep is a very
frequent cause, and especially when con-

nected with exhaustion from constant
milking; and it is more especially the
consequence of the cows being badly fed
in the winter. Some cold wet lands are
particularly liable to give the rot; yet
where the land and treatment are similar,
it prevails more in some dairies than in
others, depending much on the breed of
the cattle. Old cows that are fed on
sanded pastures are very subject to this
complaint.

In all cases the animals should be
taken from grass and put into a large cow-
house, or an open yard, where they can
be sheltered from the weather, and kept
on dry food, such as good hay, ground
oats, barley and beans. An equal pro-
portion of each of the three last articles
and of linseed cake will make an excel-
lent food for cattle laboring under dysen-
tery. A quantity proportionate to the
size and appetite of the patients should
be given two or three times a day, or if
they are much reduced and their appetite
is quite gone, a thick gruel should be
made of these ingredients, and adminis-
tered three or four times a day.

This disease consists in inflammation
of the lining membrane of the large in-
testines. It will then be evident that
bleeding, proportioned to the suddenness
and violence of the attack, and the ap-
parent degree of fever, should be first re-
sorted to.

If the eyes are inflamed, with heaving
of the flanks, and painful twitchings ot
the belly, accompanied by severe strain-
ing and apparent gripings in the expul-
sion ot the excrement, the abstraction of
blood is indispensable.

The purgative drink No. 2 should
precede the use of every other medicine,
in whatever state the bowels may be. It
will prepare for the safer use of astring-
ents. In almost every case there will be
something in the bowels, which, if it did
not cause the disease, contributes to keep
it up. The proprietor of cattle, and he
who professes to treat their diseases,
should know that there can be nothing
more dangerous than to attempt suddenly
to stop a violent purging, especially one
that assumes the character of dysentery.
Let that which offends in the bowels be
first got rid of, and the disease will some-
times cease of itself, or, if it does not,

15*

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

astringents may then be administered
with safety.

The safest and the most effectual astrin-
gent mixture for the scouring rot is that
which was recommended for diarrhoea.
It may be given once or twice in the day,
according to the violence of the com-
plaint.

Ale should never be given in these
cases. The astringents may be com-
menced twenty-four hours after the pur-
gative has been administered.

If the disease does not speedily yield
to this treatment, it will not be prudent to
continue the use of such large quantities
of astringent medicines for any consider-
able time. The astringent drink, with
mutton suet (see No. 18 Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicines for) may then be given,
and continued morning and night for five
or six days.

When the dysentery is stopped, the
beast should very slowly and cautiously
be permitted to return to his former geeen
food. Either during the night or the day,
according to the season of the year, he
should be confined in the cow-house, and
turned out twelve hours only out of the
twenty-four. Water should be placed
within reach of the animal, in the cow-
house, and, if possible, in the field ; for
there are few things more likely to bring
on this disease, or more certain to aggra-
vate it, than the drinking of an inordinate
quantity of water after long-continued
thirst.

These precautionary measures should
be continued for a considerable time ; for
there is something very treacherous in
this malady, and it will often suddenly
return several weeks after it has been ap-
parently subdued.

In those cases, and they are much too
numerous, which totally resist the influ-
ence of the medicines already recom-
mended, other means should be tried.
The Alum Whey has sometimes suc-
ceeded. (See No. 19 Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicines for.)

This may be administered twice every
day.

The disease may not yield even to this.
It will then be evident that it is the con-
sequence of some other disease, and, prob-
ably, of the liver, the vitiated bile secreted
by which is keeping up the purging. It
is almost a forlorn hope to attack such a

case; but the beast maybe valuable, and,
at all events, we cannot be worse off.
The only medicine that can have power
here is mercury, for it seems to exert its
chief influence on the liver and the dis-
charge of bile. The mildest, and at the
same time the most effectual, form in
which it can be administered, is that of
the blue pill, half a scruple of which may
be given morning and night, rubbed down
with a little thick gruel. There is very
little danger of salivation : yet it may be
prudent to give half a pound of Epsom
salts every fifth or sixth day; and most
certainly to give them every second day,
and discontinue the blue pill, if the mouth
should become sore, or the breath stink-
ing, or there should be a more than usual
discharge of saliva from the mouth.

In many cases there is found a schirr-
ous state of the third and fourth stom-
achs in cattle that have died of, or been
destroyed for this disease.

CATTLE, Red-water in The nature

of this disease has been very much mis-
understood. It consists of a discharge of
high-colored urine, and therefore has been
attributed to an inflammatory affection of
the kidneys. It will generally be found
to begin in another organ, the liver, and
to be connected, in the first stage at least,
far more with disease of that gland than
of the kidney.

There are evidently two distinct species
of red-water.

One, but which occurs most seldom,
begins with decided symptoms of fever.
There is shivering, succeeded by increased
heat of the body ; the muzzle dry ; work-
ing of the flanks ; urine of a red color,
evidently tinged with blood, and occasion-
ally consisting almost entirely of blood,
discharged in small quantities, and fre-
quently with considerable pain; loss of
appetite. As the disease proceeds, the
animal loses strength ; the bowels become
constipated or very loose; and the urine
of a dark color, approaching to black.

Very early in the complaint the loins
become exceedingly tender, and the ani-
mal shrinks when they are pressed upon ;
some heat is likewise felt there, showing
evidently the seat and nature of the dis-
ease. It sometimes proceeds from cold,
particularly when beasts are turned into
low pasture grounds at the spring of the
year. It also frequently seizes young cattle

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

»57

that are feeding, or in good condition ; for
a fullness of blood in the system renders
them more liable to the complaint.

Sometimes inflammation of the kidneys
proceeds from external injuries, suah as a
violent bruise across the loins, in conse-
quence of other beasts ramping on them,
or a severe blow in the region of the kid-
neys.

The discharge of bloody urine may
either proceed from inflammation 01 the
kidneys or a rupture of some of the blood-
vessels, and in either case blood is dis-
charged with the urine, and may be often
detected in clots; whilst in the other kind
of red-water, although the urine is dark
in color, it does not contain blood. The
former disease is more frequent with bulls
and oxen, and the latter with milch cows.

When the kidneys are inflamed, and
the animal evinces tenderness on pressing
the loins, the treatment should consist of
blood-letting, purging, and the applica-
tion of sheep-skins and stimulants to the
loins. But in some cases where blood is
discharged with the urine without any in-
flammatory appearances, the exhibition of
Astringents and Stimulants (See No.
20 Domestic Animals, Medicines for)
have effected a cure.

True Red Water is a disease of the di-
gestive organs, principally of the liver;
and the dark color of the urine is owing
to the presence of vitiated bile, probably
loaded with carbon, and not to blood, as
used to be supposed.

The more frequent causes are connect-
ed with the nature of the pasture. There
are some fanns or particular parts of the
farm, where red-water is almost sure to
follow when cattle are turned upon them.
Low marshy grounds are apt to produce
it, and also pastures with much woodland,
and especially in the latter part of au-
tumn', when the leaves are falling. Some
have said that elm-leaves are apt to cause
red-water ; others attribute the disease to
the oak ; and many more to some of the
numerous species of ranunculuses that
abound in our marshy and woodland pas-
tures. The truth of the matter, however,
is, that no one knows what plant is most
concerned in the affair; and all that the
farmer can do is to observe what pas-
tures most frequently produce red-water,
and at what season of the year, and to use

them as much as he can for other stock
in the dangerous seasons.

A removal from a poor to a luxuriant
pasture, or from a low marshy situation to
a dry and lofty locality, are frequent
causes of red-water; and it often occurs
after a long succession of dry weather.

Cows that are dried of their milk are
often attacked by it, when put into luxu-
rious pasture, while, perhaps, it does not
affect those that are still milked. The
reason of this is plain enough : the super-
fluous nutriment not being carried off by
the udder in the form of milk, the digest-
ive organs are deranged, and the secre-
tions of the liver become vitiated.

A cow that has once had an attack of
red-water is very liable to a repetition of
the complaint. The farmer is obliged to
take a great deal of care properly to
manage the change, of pasture with her,
and, notwithstanding all his care, she will
probabably have two or three attacks of
the disease every year. It will behoove
him to consider how far it is prudent to
keep such an animal. No beast that is
subject to periodical complaints of any
kind should be kept, for it may easily be
prepared for the butcher, and disposed of
with little or no loss to the farmer.

The symptoms of red-water are at first
purging, which is usually followed by con-
stipation; the appetite is impaired; the
pulse and breathing quickened ; and the
former, though bounding at the heart, is
often weak. The membranes of the nos-
trils and eyelids are pale, and the legs
cold; the milk is diminished and rumina-
tion ceases. The urine, from being
brown, often becomes black, and the dis-
ease is, in this state, often denominated
black-water.

The red and the black water are diseases
that require prompt and careful treat-
ment; for, although, in some slight cases,
the beast does not seem to be much af-
fected by either, and works or yields her
milk as well as ever, yet ere long it preys
upon the constitution, and the animal
gradually wastes away.

It is folly to wait in order to see wheth-
er nature will effect a cure. Except in
beasts suddenly put upon more than
usually rich pasturage, it never is or can
be a salutary discharge. It must be prey-
ing upon the system and wasting the
strength, and the sooner it is got rid of

158

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

the better. It attacks milch cows oftener
than others, and it is more injurious to
them than to others. While it lasts it
often materially lessens the quantity of
milk, and, even after it is removed, the
animal is slow in returning to her former
strength.

The first thing to be done is to remove
the cause of the disease. The pasture
should be changed. A more open and a
drier situation should be found, and
where the grass, although succulent and
nutritious, is not very plentiful. If there
is considerable fever, or the animal should
appear to be really ill from the discharge,
she should be taken under shelter, and
fed on mashes, with a very little hay ; or
a few turnips or carrots may be allowed
her, if they are in season.

Bleeding is often necessary at the onset
of this disease, but it should always be
practiced with moderation, and in many
cases abstained from altogether. About
two hours after bleeding the Stimulat-
ing Drink, No. 21, (See Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicines for,) should be admin-
istered.

A quarter part of this drink may be
given every six hours, until the bowels
are freely opened, and the medicine may
be assisted by clysters. The successful
treatment of the disease very much, oral-
together, depends on early and thorough-
ly opening the bowels. If this is early
accomplished, the animal will almost cer-
tainly recover. If it is neglected, or the
constipation cannot be overcome within
the first two or three days, the termination
will probably be fatal.

When the bowels are properly acted
on, mild Stimulating Drink (See No. 22
Domestic Animals, Medicines for,)
may be exhibited.

If, with the amendment of the other
symptoms, the urine should appear black,
a diuretic — such as one ounce of nitre —
may be given with the above drink, or
even the more powerful stimulant, spirit
of turpentine, in doses of one or two
ounces.

If, after the bowels have been well
opened, and the fever is somewhat
abated, the discharge of blood still con-
tinues, and in as great a quantity as be-
fore, it will be right to have recourse to
astringents, yet such as will not irritate
and stimulate the kidneys; and even

these should be administered cautiously.
Constipation attended the early and most
violent stage of the disease — some remis-
sion, at least in the fever and the pain, if
not much diminution of discharge, at-
tended the removal of the constipation :
it must, therefore, be dangerous to con-
fine the bowels again. The Mild Astrin-
gent (See No. 23, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for,) will be as efficacious as
any.

This may be given morning and night,
for a week, cautiously watching the state
of the bowels, and suspending the astrin-
gent, and even having recourse to physic,
if the bowels should again be confined.

The recovery of the animal is denoted
by the restoration of the pulse and breath-
ing to the natural standard, and the return
of the appetite, together with the healthy
appearance of the urine. It is essential,
however, to exercise the greatest caution
with regard to the food for some little
time, bearing in mind that the digestive
organs have been greatly impaired.

CATTLE, Black-Water.— See Cattle,
Red-Water.

CATTLE, Thrush.— See Cattle, Blain.

CATTLE, Black Tongue. — See Cattle,
Blain.

CATTLE, Binderpest— Dr. Hope, in a
communication to the British Associa-
tion, stated the result of certain experi-
ments upon cattle with carbolic acid dur-
ing the prevalence of rinderpest in 1867.
Of about two hundred and seventy cows
under his charge, the majority were at-
tacked by the disease; but by injecting a
solution of carbolic acid, either through
the mouth or rectum, he was enabled to
save one hundred and eleven of them.
The remainder, not so dealt with, died,
or had to be slaughtered.

COWS, Puerperal Fever. — See Cows,
Milk Fever.

CATTLE, Cud in, Loss of.— Loss of
Cud is a species of indigestion, and may
be brought on by the animal's eating
greedily of some food to which it has un-
accustomed. Loss of cud and loss of
appetite are synonymous : The following
is a compound for loss of cud :

Golden Seal, powdered I ounce.

Caraway, powdered 2 "

Cream of Tartar % "

Mix. Divide into six powders and give one
every four hours in a sufficient quantity of camo-
mile tea.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

J59

COWS, Garget in, or the Downfall in
the Udder of. — This is a disease of the
utmost consequence to the owners of
neat cattle. Young cows in high condi-
tion are most liable to it, especially at the
time of calving. Such as are aged are
chiefly subject to it during hot and sultry
weather, particularly those which are
fattened for the shambles; when this is
the case, the loss is considerable, for a
summer's keep is generally thrown away.

This disorder makes its appearance in
one or more quarters of the udder, which
become swollen, hard, hotter than usual,
and painful when pressed. If the patient
is a milch-cow, the secretion of milk is
lessened, and mingled with blood, pus,
and corruption. At other times the flow
of milk is totally stopped, and the tume-
fied quarter proceeds to a state of sup-
puration. It not unfrequently happens
that the hind extremities, at the same
time, become swollen and inflamed, espe-
cially about the hip joint, hock, and fet-
lock, which disables the animal from
getting up, almost from moving.

It is inflammation of one or more
quarters of the udder, and is most com-
monly induced by the animal catching
cold. It particularly attacks those cows
that have a redundancy of blood in the
system, or are of a gross habit of body.
Young heifers are not always exempt from
it.

It will be necessary, as soon as the
downfall is discovered, to bring the ani-
mal out of the pasture, and take away
from three to five quarts of blood, accord-
ing to her size or strength. If she is
bled at night, it will be proper on the
next morning to give her the purging
drink, No. 2, or if a stout beast, Physic
Drink No. 15

The cow should be sparingly fed for a
day or two on mashes with a little hay,
and afterwards turned on rather short
pasture. As this is a disease either con-
fined to, or most violent and dangerous
in, cows that are in high condition, it will
be quite necessary to keep the patient for
a while on spare diet. The ground oats,
and barley, and clover-hay, and oil-cake,
that are sometimes given, cannot fail to
aggravate the complaint.

Mercurial Garget Ointment. — The
ointment should be well rubbed into the

affected quarter, immediately after milk-
ing, but it must be carefully washed off
again with warm water before the milk is
drawn.

This ointment will penetrate into the
diseased part of the udder, and be of
very great service.

In obstinate cases the Iodine Ointment
(see No. 25 Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for) has been applied to the in-
durated udder with great success.

A portion, varying from the size of a
nut to that of a filbert, according to the
extent and degree of the swelling and
hardness, should be well rubbed into the
affected part morning and night.

It may sometimes be advisable to give
the hydriodate internally, and from eight
to twelve grains may be administered
morning and night in a little gruel, with
very good effect.

During the continuance of the disease,
the bowels must be kept open with half-
doses of Purging Drink No. 2. The
fever drink, No. i, will also be useful,
or one or more decidedly diuretic, as Di-
uretic Drink. (See No. 26 Domestic
Animals, Medicines for.)

After the purulent and bloody dis-
charge has ceased, and the teat seems to
be free from inflammation, and nearly of
its natural size, color, and softness, it will
be prudent to continue the ointment
daily, and this last drink occasionally for
two or three weeks at the least.

Cases, however, will occur, either neg-
lected at the beginning, or the beast
being too fat, and very much disposed to
inflammation, in which the teat and the
whole quarter will long continue hard
and swelled, and tender, and will get
worse and worse. The whole of the
affected part must then be carefully ex-
amined, to ascertain whether there is
matter within, and whether it is pointing,
i. e., whether there is a part a little more
prominent and softer than the rest. If
this is detected, it should be freely opened
with a lancet or penknife, the matter suf-
fered to flow out, and the wound dressed
with Tincture of Aloes or Friar's Balsam.
Slight incisions with a lancet, where mat-
ter cannot be detected, will often be ser-
viceable. The flow of blood should be
encouraged by fomentations with warm
water. The teats are sometimes cut off

i6o

CATTLE— D~T3EASES~AND REMEDIES.

in obstinate cases of this kind; but that
should, if possible, be avoided, for the
quarter will be lost, and there will be a
serious diminution in the quantity of milk
as long as the cow lives. The teat may-
be cut deeply in order to let out the mat-
ter. This wound will readily heal again,
and the quarter will be as useful as ever.

If the udder appears grangrenous, it
should be scarified with a lancet, and a
solution of chloride of lime applied,
whilst the strength of the animal should
be supported by tonic medicine.

When the cow dies it is generally from
mortification, to prevent which it is often
necessary to remove not only the affected
teat, but the whole of the quarter. A
skillful man, more competent than a com-
mon cow-leach, should be employed for
this purpose.

A frequent but unsuspected cause of
this disease is the hasty and careless mode
of milking, which is often adopted. A
considerable quantity of milk is left in the
bag, particularly when a cow gives her
milk slowly. This is not only a loss to
the farmer, from so much less milk find-
ing its way to the dairy room, and from
the quantity of milk regularly secreted in
the udder of the cow gradually diminish-
ing; but the milk curdles in the teats and
produces swellings, and lays the founda-
tion for garget.

The Sore Teats, to which some cows
are subject, is a very different disease, and
often a very troublesome one. It usually
occurs a little while after they have calved.
If it happens in the summer the animals
are so badly tormented by the flies that it
is difficult to milk them ; and the discharge
from . the cracks and wounds passing
through the hand in the act of milking,
and mingling with the milk, renders it dis-
gusting, if not unwholesome.

The ointment for Sore Teats will gen-
erally be found effectual. (See No. 27
Domestic Animals, Medicines for.)

A little of this should be rubbed on the
teats morning and night after milking;
and if the flies tease the animal much, a
small quantity of aloes or assafcetida may
be mixed with the ointment. The latter
is the more effectual, but its smell is very
unpleasant.

The teats are sometimes so sore that it
is necessary to hobble the cow, in order
to make her stand; but this is seldom

effectual ; for the legs of the cow get sore,
and she kicks worse than ever. Kind-
ness and patience are the best remedies.
It is never of any use to beat or ill use a
cow for this fidgetiness at milking. She
will either at the time do mischief in re-
turn, or she will at some other opportu-
nity take her revenge.

There is another variety of disease to
which the udder of cows is liable, some-
what different from that described, termed
Weeds. It is attended by considerable
fever and constitutional disturbance, com-
mencing with a shivering fit, which, after
some hours, is succeeded by a hot fit, in
which all the symptoms of fever are pre-
sent— the cow hangs her head and refuses
to feed, and the udder is painful, hot, and
swollen. If relief is not soon obtained,
an abscess forms, and one or more quar-
ters become cold, black, and insensible;
the udder becomes disorganized, and the
animal is lost.

The first thing to be done is to admin-
ister a Warm Stimulant. (See No. 28
Domestic Animals, Medicines for.)

Sometimes this draught alone will effect
a cure, but the body should be clothed
and the cow well nursed. On the follow-
ing day, if the bowels are constipated and
the cow appears dull, a purgative should
be given. The udder must be fomented
with warm water for an hour at a time,
several times a day, and if it is much
swollen, it should be suspended with
cloths passing over the loins. It may
also be rubbed with a liniment composed
of hartshorn and oil. It is of much im-
portance that the fomentations should be
as hot as can be borne, and applied in
good earnest to the part affected, and for
a long time together.

COWS, Sore Teats.— See Cow, Garget.

COWS, Weeds.— See Cow, Garget in.

COW, Before and during Calving,
Treatment of the. — It is an old and true
saying, and the truth of it is nowhere
more evident than in the treatment of the
milch cow, that .the prevention of an evil
is better than the cure. The difficulty of
calving, and the mortality afterwards, are
in a great measure to be traced to the im-
proper management of the cow. So far
as the udder is concerned, there is a plan
usually adopted, and a very necessary
one — the cow is dried six or eight weeks
before calving. Two reasons are given

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

161

for this : the first is, that after a long pe-
riod of milking, the strength and consti-
tution of the cow require a little respite.
A more important reason, however, is,
that from some cause that has never been
fully explained, the mixture of the old
milk, and the new secretion that nature
prepares for the expected calf, produces
frequently great irritation and inflamma-
tion in the udder, and obstinate garget is
apt to ensue.

During the early period of gestation the
animal may, and should be, tolerably well
fed, for she has to provide milk for the
dairy and nourishment for the foetus ; yet
even here there should be moderation
and care ; but when she is dried her food
should be considerably diminished. She
should not be too fat or full of blood at
the time of calving, for that is the fre-
quent cause of difficult labor, garget, milk-
fever, and death. There are few things in
which the farmer errs more than in this.
There maybe an error in starving her
before she calves, but it is a much more
dangerous one to bring her in too high
condition.

Some cows are apt to slink their calves,
or to produce them dead befor their time.
This generally happens about the middle
of their pregnancy. If about that time a
cow is uneasy, feverish, off her food, or
wandering about in search of something
for which she seems to have a longing, or
most greedily and ravenously devouring
some particular kind of food, she should
be bled and physicked with Purging Drink
No. 2. If she is not quieted, she should
be bled and physicked again in the course
of three or four days. She should be
immediately removed from the other cows;
for should she slink her calf among them,
it is not improbable that some, or even
all, of the others will do the same. This
is not easily accounted for, but it is per-
fectly true. The cow that slinks her calf
will often require much attention. She
should always be physicked, and in most
cases bled, and after that the best thing to
be done with her is to fatten her for the
butcher; for she will probably do the
same again, and teach others the habit.

When the ninth calendar month has
nearly expired (see Cows, Gestation in,)
the cow should be diligently looked after.
She should be brought as near to the
house as can be conveniently done ; she

should lose three or four quarts of blood,
unless she is very poor, and she should
most certainly be physicked. It will be
better if she can be separated from the
other cows ; and, although it may not be
prudent to house her entirely, there should
be some shed or shelter into which she
may go.

When it appears that labor is close at
hand, she should be driven gently to the
cow-house, and for a while left quite
alone. She will do better by herself than
if she is often disturbed by one and
another looking in upon and watching,
her. If, however, she is discovered in
the act of calving in the homestead, she
should not be moved, however exposed
may be her situation. It would some-
times be dangerous to drive her even a
hundred yards.

The usual symptoms of the approach
of calving are uneasiness, slight lifting of
the tail, lying down and getting up, the
evident labor-throe, gentle at first, and
increasing in force, and the commence-
ment of the protrusion of the membranes
from her shape. The still earlier symp-
toms, and preceding the labor by a few
days, are enlargement of the udder, and
redness of the space between her shape
and the udder.

The labor having actually commenced,
the membranes will more and more pro-
trude until they break, and the fluid by
which the calf is surrounded will escape.
If her pains are strong, the cow should
for a while be scarcely meddled with;
but if an hour or more elapses, and no
portion of the calf presents itself, the
hand, well greased, should be introdued,
in order to ascertain the situation and
position of the calf. The natural position
is with the fore-feet presenting, and the
muzzle lying upon the fore-legs. If the
fetus is found in this position, and ad-
vanced into the passage, some time longer
should be allowed to see what nature will
do ; and the strength of the animal may, .
if necessary, be supported by some gruel,
with which a pint of warm ale has been,
mixed, being horned down. As soon,,
however, as the throes begin to weaken,,
and before that, if no progess has been
made, manual assistance must be ren-
dered.

Here it will be recollected that there
are two objects to be accomplished — the

i6:

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

saving of the lives of both the mother
and the young one, and that, conse-
quently, the means at first employed
should be gentle. The hand should be
introduced, and the fore-legs of the calf
laid hold of and drawn down, the efforts
of the operator being employed at the
moment of the throes of the mother. If
the legs are brought forward a little way,
care should be taken that the head is ac-
companying them. The hand will some-
times be sufficient for this purpose. It
the head cannot be moved by the hand,
a cord must be procured with a slip knot
at the end, which is to be passed carefully
into the passage, and, the mouth of the
young animal being opened, fastened
Tound his lower jaw. The end of this
must be given to an assistant, who should
be instructed to pull gently, but firmly,
;at the moment of the throes, while the
principal operator is endeavoring to draw
on the feet.

Should not this succeed, it will appear
that, either from the narrowness of the
pelvis, or the size of the foetus, there will
be difficulty and danger in accomplishing
its extraction. The operator must then
begin to think less of the safety of the
calf, and endeavor to secure that of the
mother. Two other large cords or ropes
must be procured, and one fastened round
each leg. The service of two assistants
will now be required. One should pull
at the head, and the other the feet, while
the operator ascertains the progress that
is made ; too much force, however, should
not immediately be used, for the chance
•of saving the young one must not yet be
;given up. This not succeeding, greater
power must be applied, until the assist-
ants begin to use their full strength, pull-
ing steadily, and with the pains of the
cow, if they still continue.

In the natural position of the calf, the
young one is almost uniformly extracted
by these means, and its life is preserved ;
for both the mother and her progeny will,
without serious injury, bear the employ-
ment of more force than would by some
l>e thought credible. When the womb is
unable to discharge its contents, and the
throes are diminishing, or perhaps ceasing,
much benefit may be derived from the
administration of the ergot of rye, which
appears to act as a stimulus specifically
>on the uterus ; two drachms of this med-

icine, finely powdered, may be given in a.
pint of ale, and repeated several times, if
required, with intervals from half an hour
to an hour.

The foetus is not, however, always pre-
sented naturally, and it is the duty of the
operator to ascertain its exact position in
the womb. This he will not find much
difficulty in accomplishing.

The most usual false position is the pre-
sentation of the head, while the feet
of the calf are bent and doubled down
under his belly, and remain in the
womb. A cord must be passed as
before around the lower jaw, which is
then pushed back into the womb. The
operator now introduces his hand, and
endeavors to feel the situation of the feet.
He is generally able to find them out,
and to fix a cord round each pastern, or
at least about the knee, and then he can
usually bring them into the passage. The
head is next to be brought forward again
by means of the cord; and, the three
cords being afterwards pulled together,
the foetus is extracted. Should the calf
have been long fixed in the passage, and
be evidently much swelled, it is certainly
dead ; the head may then be opened in
order to lessen its bulk, and the extrac-
tion accomplished as before.

When the feet present, and the head
is doubled under the rim of the passage,
the case is more difficult, and the calf is
very rarely saved : indeed it may be reck-
oned to be dead if it has remained in this
position for any considerable time. Cords
are first to be placed round the feet ; the
hand must be afterwards passed into the
womb, and the situation of the head ex-
actly ascertained, and the cord passed
round the lower jaw. The calf being
then pushed farther back into the womb,
the head must be brought into the pas-
sage, and, the three ropes being pulled
together, the delivery effected as quickly
as may be, without the exertion of more
force than is necessary.

The last false presentation we shall
mention is that of the breech, the tail ap-
pearing at the mouth of the shape. The
hand is to be passed into the uterus, and
the cords fastened round each hock. The
calf is then to be pushed as far back as
possible into the womb, and the hocks,
one after the other, brought into the pas-
sage, the ropes being shifted as soon as

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

163

possible to the fetlock. With the exer-
tion of considerable force, the calf may
now be extracted, and sometimes without
serious injury.

By studying these cases the operator
will be enabled to adapt his measures to
every case of false presentation ; and they
.are numerous. Great force must some-
times be used to effect the extraction of
the calf. The united efforts of five or
six men have been employed, and (al-
though such practice can scarcely be de-
fended in any case), a horse has some-
times been attached to the cords. The
fcetus has been necessarily destroyed, but
the mother has survived : too often, how-
ever, she has evidently fallen a victim to
this unnecessary violence. If by the
united force of two or three men the
foetus cannot be brought away, any ruder
and more violent attempt must always
be fraught with danger, and will often be
fatal. The safer way for the mother —
yet that is attended with considerable
risk — is to cut off some of the limbs of
the fcetus. One or possibly both shoul-
ders may be separated, slipped, and then
the head and trunk may, without much
difficulty, be brought away. The knife
must be one that can be concealed in the
hand, and that is hooked at the end, and
rounded and thick at the back; but, not-
withstanding that, there is much danger
of wounding the womb, which is forci-
bly pressing on the hand of the operator.

Labor is not unfrequently prevented by
the diseased state of the entrance or neck
of the womb, which becomes hard and
scirrhus, and thus prevents the calf from
escaping. When this is found by exami-
nation to be the case, an operation should
be performed, which consists in dividing
the contracted entrance by means of a
small knife passed up, protected by the
hand and ringers. Considerable care
must be exercised so as not to cut too
deeply ; and it is better to divide the stric-
ture "ghtly in several places.

From the violent efforts of the cow, or
from unnecessary artificial violence, the
uterus, the calf-bed, may protrude, and be
absolutely inverted. The case is not des-
perate. The part must be cleaned from
blood and dirt, and supported by a sheet;
then, the operator beginning at the very
fundus or bottom of the womb, it may be
gradually returned by the union of some

little ingenuity and a great deal of pa-
tience. The animal should be copiously
bled before this is attempted, in order to
relax the passage ; and the application of
cold water for a considerable time may
contract the womb itself, and render its
return more easy. A stitch or a couple of
stitches should be passed through the lips
of the shape, in order to prevent a repe-
tition of the protrusion, and the Anodyne
Drink (See No. 29 Domestic Animals,
Medicines for,) administered.

If the cow has calved unseen and un-
attended, she will, like every other quad-
ruped, set diligently to work to devour
the cleansing, and lick the new-born ani-
mal clean. This, however, is often care-
fully prevented when there is the oppor-
tunity of so doing. The calf is taken
immediately away, and the cleansing
thrown on the dung-heap. We act con-
trary to nature in this. She would not
have given to herbivorous animals this
propensity to eat the placenta, had not
some useful purpose been effected by it.
Cleanliness was one object, the next was
either to support the strength of the ani-
mal, or to have an aperient or salutary in-
fluence on her. The mother and the young
will be happier if they are left to pursue
the dictates of nature. Many a cow has
fretted herself into a fatal fever from the
sudden loss of her little one, and many
a calf has died from the neglect of that
cleanliness which the mother could best
effect.

A great deal has been said of the ne-
cessity of cleansing the cow after calving,
or the removal or expulsion of the pla-
centa. There is much error in this. The
placenta comes away with the calf; and
it is that natural discharge from the womb,
continued during several days, and which
is observed to a greater or less extent in
all quadrupeds, that gives the notion of
anything being retained. Medicine, never-
theless, is necessary in order to prevent
that access of fever to which the cow in
high condition is liable ; but that medi-
cine should be administered, not in the
form of a stimulating cordial, from the
false supposition that the animal wants
support after the fatigue and pain it has
undergone, but in that of a purgative, in
order to prevent an attack of fever to
which the animal is so naturally exposed
after parturition, and which is so often

164

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

hastened and aggravated by absurd man-
agement.

The mother requires little care after
calving, except that of protection from
too great severity of weather, and this
more especially if she had been much
nursed before parturition. A warm mash
may be given daily for a little while, but
otherwise she may return to her previous
and not too luxuriant feed. The state of
her udder, however, should be examined :
if it is at all hard, she should be milked
twice every day, and the calf should be
put with her several times in the day at
least, if not altogether. Perhaps she will
not let it suck, especially if it is the first
calf, on account of the soreness of her
teats, and her being unaccustomed to the
duties of nursing. She must then be care-
fully watched at sucking time, and the
bag, if it is very hard, and kernelly, and
sore, must be fomented with warm water,
or, if necessary, the Garget Ointment,
No. 24, or Ointment for Sore Teats,
No. 27 (Domestic Animals, Medicines
for) /nust be rubbed into the part princi-
pally affected.

COW, Milk Fever, or the Drop.— This is
a disease almost peculiar to cows in high
condition at the time of calving : whether
young or old, all are liable to be attacked
by it ; they are, however, rarely attacked
until after they have had several calves :
and it is stated that the short-horned
breed is more liable to it than others.
Whenever it takes place, either at home or
in the field, it is distressing to the animal,
as well as troublesome to the owner, for
the beast is seldom able to rise during
several days. The puerperal or milk fever
is most frequent during the hot weather
of summer. The cows most liable to be
attacked by this fever have large udders,
that have been full of milk for several
days before calving. It is a very danger-
ous disease when severe, and often proves
fatal even under the most judicious treat-
ment.

The milk fever most commonly appears
about the second or third day after calving,
but the cow is occasionally down within a
few hours of parturition. It is first recog-
nized by the animal refusing her food,
looking dull and heavy ; then follows pro-
trusion of the eye, heaving of the flank,
restlessness, and every symptom of fever.
In a few hours, or on the next day at the

latest, the cow begins to stagger ; is weak
in the loins ; palsy steals over the whole
frame ; and she falls, unable to rise again.
It is in this advanced stage that the com-
plaint is too often first observed ; the pre-
vious symptoms are not taken notice ofr
and the beast is almost past cure before
the owner is aware of her illness. From
this seeming palsy of the hinder limbs,
and sometimes of the whole frame, the
disease is very appropriately called drop-
ping after calving.

There are evidently two varieties of
this disease, one being considerably more
dangerous than the other. In the severer
kind, the brain, as well as the spinal mar-
row, is affected, whilst the milder disease
is principally confined to the loins.

In the former kind, we first notice a
staggering gait, the breathing then be-
comes irregular and disturbed, the eyes
full and glassy, and the pupil dilated.
The animal, after reeling about ior some
time, falls, and frequently never rises again.
She then becomes, in great measure, un-
conscious; the head is turned on one side;
sensation appears partially lost, so that, if
liquids are given with the horn, they often
enter the windpipe without occasioning,
coughing. The hind legs become entirely
paralyzed, and the fore ones are some-
times affected in a similar manner. The
pulse is generally very quick, but weak ;
the appetite is altogether lost ; rumination
ceases; and the bowels are obstinately
constipated. If the animal dies, it is gen-
erally within forty-eight hours from the
commencement of the symptoms, and in-
deed sometimes only a few hours after-
wards. In some cases, the animal will lie
in a state of insensibility ; in others, she
exhibits considerable pain and distress.
The cow is unable to discharge either her
urine or dung, the nerves influencing these
offices being paralyzed. On examining
the bodies of cows that have died from
this disease, the principal mischief has
been found in thebrainand spinal cord; in
the latter, chiefly at the region of the loins.
The womb, in the greater number of instan-
ces, has been found in the same state as it
usually is after parturition ; but, in some
cases, it presents the appearance of the
most intense inflammation. In such cases,
it appears that the inflammation of the
womb is superadded to the other disease.

In the milder form of the complaint it

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

165

Is, to a greater extent, a local malady :
the spinal cord at the region of the loins
is affected ; but the brain is comparative-
ly exempt; and thus, though the hind
extremities are paralyzed to a great ex-
tent, yet the insensibility is by no means
general, and consciousness is retained.
In both the severe and mild form the di-
gestive organs are altogether deranged,
and in fatal cases the third stomach is
found loaded with hard, indigestible food,
and the other viscera are often tound in-
flamed.

The cause of the disease has net been
ascertained, but it appears connected with
a high- state of condition, and is best pre-
vented by keeping the cow short of food
some days previous to her calving.

The treatment of this disease must be
modified according to the severity of the
symptoms, and the fact of its being the
milder or the severer affection. It is im-
portant also to ascertain whether the se-
cretion of milk has ceased; as it has been
ascertained that when this is the case the
disease is fatal, and when not so the cow
recovers. If the pulse is strong, it will
be proper to bleed to the extent, perhaps,
of four or five quarts. The principal ex-
pectation of relief, however, must be
placed on the exhibition of strong Purga-
tive Drink. (See No. 30 Domestic An-
imals, Medicines for.)

One-half of this draught may be re-
peated twice a day until the bowels are
properly opened. In the severer affec-
tion it will be proper to add from ten to
twenty drops of the croton oil to the first
draught, and even two drachms of car-
bonate of ammonia and ten grains of can-
tharides have been conjoined with advan-
tage. It is of importance to administer
the draught slowly and carefully; and
when the cow is any way unconscious it
will be better to give it by means of
Read's syringe, putting the tube half way
down the neck, so as to prevent any of
the medicine getting into the windpipe,
where it has been known to produce fatal
inflammation. The action of the physic
should be assisted by frequent clysters,
and the bladder should be emptied from
time to time by a catheter. A blistering
liniment should be rubbed on the course
of the spine : in the milder disease it may
be limited chiefly to the loins, but in the
severer affection it should extend from the

head to the tail, and be often repeated.
It is astonishing what a vast quantity of
purgative medicine may often be admin-
istered in this disease without producing
any effect, the stomachs being in such a
torpid state.

In the milder disease, the treatment
must be similar in its nature, though not
so powerful as that here recommended;
trie croton oil may be dispensed with, and
the blistering application confined to the
loins.

The cow should be made as comforta-
ble as possible. A good bed of straw
should be got under her, and her fore-
quarters should be considerably raised, so
that the dung and urine may flow away.
It not unfrequently happens, that as soon
as the cow begins thoroughly to purge
she gets up and walks about, although
still continuing for a while in a very weak
state.

In order to make her as comfortable as
possible, the cow should be shifted from
side to side twice in the day ; all filth of
every kind should be carefully removed, a
warm cloth thrown over, and warm gruel
or linseed tea frequently offered to her
with mashes, if she will eat them.

It will be a very bad symptom if she
begins to swell, and there are frequent
belchings of very foetid gas. If the di-
gestive powers are thus weakened there
is but little hope. The Cordial Drink,
(See No. 31 Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for,) should then be given, still
continuing the purgative medicine if
necessary.

This, in the form of a ball, will proba-
bly find its way into the paunch. Half
the quantity of the above ingredients
should also be given morning and night
as a drink, in a pint of warm ale, and the
same quantity of thin gruel.

If the cow should continue to swell,
relief must be obtained by means of the
flexible pipe for that purpose ; and if the
proprietor has the pump which should
accompany the pipe, some gallons of
warm water in which a little ginger has
been boiled may be thrown into the
paunch, in order wash out a portion of
its contents. Should not the pipe be at
hand, an opening may be made into the
paunch at the flank with a sharp-pointed
knife, in the usual manner ; or, if the case
is becoming absolutely desperate, the op-

1 66

CATTLE—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

crator will be justified in enlarging the
opening so as to admit the hand, and
gradually take out the greater part of the
undigested food. The edges of the
wound should then be brought together
and held by two or three stitches, the
divided skin and the wall of the paunch
being included in each stitch.

There is one thing that should not be
omitted, and that is, the attempt
two or three times every day, to
bring back the milk, by diligently strok-
ing the teats. As the drying up ot the
milk is the earliest symptoms of the at-
tack of the disease, so the return of it is
the happiest promise of recovery.

If the cow does not get up on the
third or fourth day, there is but little
chance that she ever will. The case,
however, should not be abandoned, for
she has done well even after the four-
teenth day.

If the udder is hard. and knotty the
Camphorated Oil, No. n, should be
well rubbed over it twice a day ; and if it
is very hot and tender, fomentations of
warm water should be used, but no cold
lotion is admissable in such a case.

As the cow is frequently unwilling, and
sometimes unable, to take sufficient nu-
triment herself, some nutritious food
should be horned in ; and there is noth-
ing better than good thick gruel. Two
or three quarts given four times every day
will be enough. All sweet things, which
farmers are so apt to give, should be
omitted ; the food in the paunch is suffi-
ciently ready to ferment, without giving
any sugar.

A cow laboring under milk fever should
scarcely ever be left. She naturally gets
very tired of coughing so long, and some-
times attempts to shift herself, and would
get sadly bruised if assistance were not
afforded; besides which, in the early
stage of the disease, and occasionally
afterwards there is some affection of the
brain, and the animal is half unconscious
of what she does, and would beat herself
dangerously about if care were not taken
of her.

We must again repeat, that prevention is
better than cure ; and that the best pre-
ventive of milk fever is not to let her be
. i too high condition, but to take four or
i.ve quarts of blood from her, and give

her a physic drink eight or ten days before
the expected time of calving.

COWS, Milk Mirror in. — The Milk
Mirror of Guenon is the upward-growing
hair on the back part of the under and
the inside of the hind legs. An examina-
tion of any cow will show that the line
where the hair meets the downward-
growing hair of the immediately adjacent
parts of the body, is well defined by what
is called a " quirl," and the hair included
within the quirl, and covered by the up*
ward-growing hair, is the Milk Mirror.
The shape of the mirror is very different
in different races, and generally assumes:
one of two or three different forms. As
a general rule, the size of the mirror bears
a pretty constant proportion to the amount
of the yield of milk, and constitutes per-
haps the simplest indication of the gen-
eral dairy qualities of any individual
animal.

The great value of Guenon's system
depends on the fact that in calves which,
neither by the texture of their hides nor
the conformation of their bodies, nor, in-
deed, by any of the general marks on
which we depend in the selection of dairy
animals, give an indication of their future
milking qualities, it is possible by a sole
dependence on the character of the
escutcheon to predict with considerable
certainty their future usefulness for the
dairy.

CATTLE, Colic in. — Colic is occasioned
by a want of physiological power in the
organs of digestion, so that the food, in-
stead of undergoing a chemico-vital pro-
cess, runs into fermentation, by which
process carbonic acid gas is evolved.

Symptoms. — The animal is evidently
in pain, and appears very restless; it
occasionally turns its head, with an
anxious gaze, to the left side, which seems
to be distended more than the right;
there is an occasional discharge of gas
from the mouth and anus.

Treatment. — Give the following car-
minative :

Powdered aniseed, half a teaspoonful,

" cinnamon, " "

To be given in a quart of spearmint tea, and
repeated if necessary.

CATTLE, Vermin on. — See Cattle,
Mange.
CATTLE, Warbles. — See Cattle,.

Mange.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i6f

CATTLE, Hoove, Eoven, or Blown. —
This disease is a distention of the rumen,
or first stomach, by the gas which is ex-
tracted from certain substances under-
going the process of fermentation within
it. The herbage is hastily gathered at
first, and received into the rumen, in order
to undergo there a process of maceration,
by means of which it may be more per-
fectly ground down, and all its nutritive
matter extracted when it is subjected to a
second mastication.

The rumen has been described as divid-
ed into various compartments, and its
coats containing a strong muscular struc-
ture. By the action of these muscles the
food is made slowly to traverse these
compartments in the order in which it was
received ; and the journey, in the ordinary
state of health, occupies sufficient time for
the herbage to be to a certain degree
macerated or softened, but not for that
process of fermentation to be set up, to
which all vegetables are liable.

Supposing an ox to be suddenly turned
into new and luxuriant pasture, he sets to
work, and gathers the herbage rapidly
and greedily ; so much so that the stomach
is unable to propel forward the different
portions of food as they are received, but
becomes overloaded and clogged, and at
length ceases altogether to act upon its
contents. The food remains longer in
the stomach than nature designed that it
should, and it begins to ferment; and
while fermenting, throws out a quantity of
gas, which distends the stomach almost
or quite to bursting. Thence arises the
danger of sudden change of pasture from
an inferior to a better quality, and the
numerous cases of distension of the
stomach and death which occur when the
fog-grass is plentiful and succulent, or the
beast has without preparation or care been
turned upon clover or turnips.

Some animals, however, are subject to
hoove, but in a slighter degree, without
this change of pasture. Many a weakly
cow has occasional swellings of the paunch
where there has been little or no change
of food. The stomach, also, is subject to
disease — it sympathizes with disease of
every other part; and one of the first and
most frequent results of an unhealthy state
of it is the production of an acid, which
wonderfully accelerates and increases the
process of fermentation and the develop-

ment of gas. Hence it is that distension
of the stomach is an accompaniment of
almost every malady to which cattle are
liable. No case of difficult parturition,
or of dropping after calving, or of milk
fever, occurs without some degree of dis-
tension of the paunch, either from the
stomach being so weakened as to be
unable to force the food along, or from its
secreting this unnatural and unhealthy
acid, so favorable to the progress of fer-
mentation.

The symptoms of hoove are sufficiently
known. The beast seems to swell, and
that to an enormous extent ; the breath-
ing is very laborious, and the animal is-
evidently in great distress, and threatened
with immediate suffocation, from the pres-
sure of the distended stomach against the
diaphragm diminishing the cavity of the
chest, and rendering it impossible for the
lungs to expand. The difficulty ot breath-
ing increases with the distension of the
stomach and the pressure on the lungs,
and the animal is inevitably lost if relief
is not soon obtained.

This relief consists, and can alone con-
sist, in relieving the stomach from the
distension. But how is this to be accom-
plished ? Medicine seems to be almost
or quite thrown away. If a drink is
given, not a drop of it will find its way
into the paunch, the entrance to which is
so firmly closed that it seems scarcely pos-
sible that even a ball should now break
through the floor. A very stimulating,
drink, passing into the fourth stomach,,
and exciting it, may, by sympathy, induce-
the paunch to act ; yet it is difficult to*
conceive how that viscus can possibly act
while its fibres are put thus violently upon
the stretch.

Something might have been done by
way of prevention. If, when the cattle
had been turned into the fresh pasture,
they had been carefully watched, and re-
moved again to the straw-yard, before the
paunch had been too muqh gorged, and
this had been repeated two or three times,
the appetite would have been blunted and
hoove prevented.

Some fanners, an hour or two before
they have turned such cows as are of a.
greedy disposition into a fresh pasture,
give them a cordial drink. The stomach
is stimulated by this, and induced to con-
tract in time upon its contents ; and this-

i68

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

contraction has reminded the animal of
the necessary process of rumination, or
has rendered it almost impossible for him
to continue to feed until some portion of
the contents of the stomach has been re-
turned and remasticated.

If the farmer will adopt such a plan,
the Cordial Drink, No. 46, is as good as
any that can be given. (See Domestic
Animals, Medicines for.)

I must confess, however, that, although
I would not absolutely condemn such a
practice, I would much rather trust to
simpler and more effectual precautions.
I would take care that the change of food
should not be too sudden nor too great.
If there was an evident difference in the
nutritive quality of the two pastures, I
would be carefully on the watch, and re-
move the beast to shorter grass, before
material mischief could be effected.

Suppose, however, that the mischief is
•done ; the stomach is distended, and the
animal is evidently threatened with imme-
diate suffocation. Nothing but mechani-
cal means will now be of avail.

Some drive the animal about. This is
sadly cruel work; for he seems to be
scarcely able to move, and appears as if
he would be suffocated every moment.
This has, however, been sometimes suc-
cessful, especially if the beast is made to
trot; for, by the motion and shaking of
the stomach thus produced, the roof of
the paunch has been forced a little open,
and a portion of the air has escaped, and
some of the food with it, and the stomach
has been relieved from a part of its dis-
tension, and has been enabled to act
upon the remaining food, and the process
of rumination has recommenced. It is,
however, dangerous work; for in the act
of moving with the stomach so distended,
either it or the diaphragm upon which it
is pressing, is in danger of being ruptured.

Some have resorted to an operation.
Midway between the last rib and the
haunch-bone, the distended paunch will
be felt pressing against the flank. A
lancet or a pocket-knife has been plunged
into the animal at that spot, which has
passed through the skin and the wall of
the belly, and entered the paunch. The
vapor has then rushed out with a hissing
noise, and steamed up four or five feet
high, and some of the contents of the
\bowels have been forced up with the gas,

and the flanks have fallen, and the beast
has evidently become less, and has been
so much relieved that he has begun to
ruminate, and has done well. The wound
is left open for a while, that any newly-
formed gas may escape; it then soon
heals of itself, or would almost immedi-
ately if its edges were brought together
by a slip of adhesive plaster.

It, however, too frequently happens,
that, although present relief has been
obtained, and the beast has ruminated
and eaten, it has in a lew days begun to
show symptoms of indisposition, and has
become feverish, and drooped, and died.
We account for this by some of the gas,
and, perhaps, a portion of the food, get-
ting into the belly, between the paunch
and the flank, and falling down among
the intestines, and causing irritation and
inflammation there.

Some have adopted even rougher and
more effectual methods of remedying the
evil. They have not contented them-
selves with simply puncturing the paunch,
but they have cut a hole into it through
the flank large enough to introduce the
hand ; and so they have not only liberated
the air, but have taken out the fermeDting
food by pailfuls. They have even gone
so far as to pour in water, and fairly wash
the paunch out. They have then brought
the edges of the wound together by pass-
ing a few stitches through it, and includ-
ing the substance of the flank and the
wall of the paunch in each stitch, and
afterwards covered the wound with ad-
hesive plaster, and it has readily healed,
and no bad consequence has ensued. In
desperate cases, as when the paunch
seems to be filled with a mass of food
that will continue to ferment, and cannot
be got rid of either by rumination or by
physic, this bold mode of treatment nay
be adopted. The paunch has few blood-
vessels, and little sensibility, and will bear
great injury without any fatal conse-
quence. But this expedient has not
always succeeded. Inflammation has
ensued, and carried the animal off. Be-
sides this, the paunch, being suspended
by these stitches, and afterwards hanging
thus from the flank, is kept permanently
out of its place, and is unable freely and
fully to contract afterwards upon its con
tents : thus inflammation has ensued ; and
the subsequent want of condition :n some

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

169

xj{ these animals, and the difficulty of
fattening them thoroughly, is easily ac-
counted for.

Some farmers go a little more judici-
ously to work. They thrust a flexible
stick, or a cart-whip, down the throat,
and through the floor of the passage
beneath, and the roof of the paunch,
and thus enable some of the gas to
escape; and this, perhaps, would be
effectual, if the stick could be kept there
long enough, and the stomach did not
close around it.

CATTLE, Inflammation of the Bowels,
with Costiveness. — Inflammation of the
bowels is by no means an uncommon dis-
ease among neat cattle, and frequently
proves fatal to them from injudicious treat-
ment. It is a complaint easily recogniz-
able on account of the peculiar symp-
toms by which it is attended.

The animal is continually lying down
and getting up again immediately, and,
when up, he strikes at his belly with the
hind feet. The bowels are obstinately
constipated : the dung, if any is voided,
is in small quantities — hard, covered with
mucus, and that sometimes streaked with
blood — and the urine is generally voided
with difficulty. The pulse is quicker than
natural, and there is much heaving at the
flanks.

It is distinguished from colic by the
great degree of fever that evidently at-
tends it, the muzzle being dry and the
mouth hot. The animal becomes speed-
ily weak, he falls or throws himself down
suddenly, and when he rises he does it
with difficulty, and he staggers as he
walks. The lowness and weakness ap-
pear more speedily and decidedly than in
almost any other disease.

The attack is sudden, like that of colic.
The animal quits his companions and
hides himself under the hedge. If he is
in the plow, he all at once becomes deaf
to the voice of the driver, and insensible
to the goad. He trembles all over — his
skin becomes hot — his back and loins are
tender — his ears and horns are hot. Ev-
erything indicates the highest degree of
local inflammation and general fever.

The disease mostly arises from sudden
exposure to cold; and especially when
cattle go into rivers or ponds after being
heated and fatigued. It is sometimes pro-

duced by change of pasture and feeding
too much on dry and stimulating diet.

The first thing to be done, and that
which admits of no delay, is to bleed ;
from six to eight quarts of blood at least j
should be taken away. Immediately after-
ward the Physic Drink (see No. 1 5 Do-
mestic Animals, Medicines for,) should
be administered, and its effect promoted
by half doses of Purging Drink, No. 2,
given every six hours. This is a very
dangerous disease, and the measures pur-
sued must be of the most decisive kind.
The symptoms succeed each other rapidly,
and if one day is suffered to pass without
proper means being taken, the beast is
irrecoverably lost.

The third stomach or manyplus will
generally be found, after death, choked up
with dry food, hardened between the
leaves of which that stomach is composed.
It will be necessary to wash this well out
before the proper path to the fourth
stomach can be opened. In order to
effect this, plenty of thin gruel, or water
with the chill taken off, should be given ;
or, if the beast will not drink it, several
quarts of it should be horned down. Clys-
ters of warm water or thin gruel, with a
purging powder dissolved in them, should
likewise be administered.

After having bled the animal once co-
piously, and, if the fever has not subsided,
a second, or even a third time, the farmer
should in this disease of high inflamma-
tion of the bowels, and strangly obstinate
costiveness, found his only hope of saving
the animal in producing purging, and to
this purpose his whole attention should be
directed.

If it should not be accomplished after
the third dose of the medicine, a pound of
common salt may be given. The water
or other liquid which the beast will prob-
ably be induced to drink will assist in
purging him. Should not this succeed, a
pound and a half of castor oil must be ad-
ministered.

The patience of the attendants will
sometimes be almost worn out — they
must, however, persist. Clysters, numer-
ous, and in great quantity, must be ad-
ministered. The Epsom salts and the
castor oil will not do harm in whatever
quantities they are given ; it will not be
prudent, however, to repeat the common
salt. During the whole of this time the

170

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

cordial drink of the cow-leech must be
avoided as a dose of poison.

The farmer or the attendant must not
be deceived by the passage of a little
liquid dung in a small stream, for that
shows that there is yet much hardened
faeces clinging round the intestines, and
which must be removed, and, therefore, he
must pursue the measures recommended
until the dung is expelled in considerable
quantities, and in a large, full stream,
and without much straining. There has
generally been something more than usual
wrong in the food or management when
this sad constipation is observed. Either
the animal has been kept too much
and too long on dry food, or he has been
turned into fresh pasture (and particularly
in the antumn) in which there are oak-
trees or some astringent vegetables. The
cause must be removed, or the disease
will return.

The state of the bowels of a beast that
has once been sapped, should be observed
for some time afterward, and gentle aperi-
ents occasionally administered ; cold water
should not, for a little while, be permitted,
and strict attention should be paid to the
diet.

Inflammation of the bowels, however,
will in a few cases occur without all this
costiveness, and yet produced by nearly
the same causes. The other symptoms
.are the same, but the danger is not so
great. The beast should be bled and
physicked, kept moderately warm, and
have warm water with bran mashes.

CATTLE, The Blain, Etc., Etc.— This
is by no means an unfrequent disease, and
is commonly known by the name of blain,

HAWKES, or GARGYSE.

The animal appears dull and languid,
the eyes red and inflamed, with tears
trickling from them. A swelling begins
about the eyes, and occasionally appears
on other parts of the body; but the
characteristic symptom is, that there are
generally blisters under the tongue, or at
the back part of the mouth ; the pulse is
quicker than natural; there is more or
less heaving of the flanks ; and the bow-
els are sometimes constipated. When the
complaint is not checked at the outset,
there is often a copious flow of saliva
from the mouth, mixed often with a puru-
lent, bloody, stinking discharge ; the beast
becomes extremely weak and reduced,

and is in danger of being suffocated by
the great and rapid enlargement of the
tongue.

Causes. — Those cattle are the most
subject to this complaint that are in high
condition, and feeding on rich pasture
grounds. It appears in many cases to be
brought on by a redundancy of blood in
the system, or from the beast taking cold
while in that state. It is most prevalent
in the summer months, especially when
the weather is hot and sultry, but it occurs
at all times of the year, and in pastures
of every kind, yet oftenest in low, marsby
situations.

This is a disease which must not be
trifled with for a moment. We have known
it prove fatal in the course of one day ;
and when neglected at the beginning it
has speedily assumed a malignant char-
acter, which baffled every attempt to ar-
rest its progress.

The remedy, ancLoften a very expedi-
tious one for this disease, is to cut deeply,,
and from end to end, the bladders that
will be found along the side of and under
the tongue. They will appear to be filled
with a glutinous matter, and, although
there may not be much bleeding from
them at first, considerable bloody fluid
will gradually ooze out, the swelling of
the mouth and head will subside, and the
beast will be very much relieved. All the
curious operations of thrusting sticks and
tar down the throat have this for their
object, to break these bladders, but which
is most easily and completely effected by
the knife.

If, however, much fever has accom-
panied the enlargement of the tongue, it
will be prudent to take away five or six
quarts of blood, and to give a physic
drink, and particularly if, on the day fol-
lowing the operation, the beast should
continue to be feverish. The mouth may
likewise be washed with a solution of the
chloride of lime in water, in the propor-
tions of one drachm of the chloride to a
quart of water, while the mouth is very
offensive ; and with equal parts of tincture
of myrrh and water afterward, in order to
promote the healing of the ulcer.

If the fever continues, the Fever Drink
No. 1 may be given morning and night,
and the bowels kept open by the Purg-
ing Drink No. 2, or Sulphur Purging
Drink No. 7.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

171

Should considerable weakness and loss
of appetite remain when the fever seems
to be subdued, the Tonic Drink (see No.
32, Domestic Animals, Medicines for,)
may be given.

This may be repeated daily, or twice a
day, as circumstances may require.

It will sometimes happen that the ani-
mal will for some days refuse to eat, on
account of the soreness of the mouth.
Thin gruel should always be placed within
his reach, and plenty of thick gruel ad-
ministered with the horn.

The person that has to attend on cattle
that have the blain should take care that
none of the discharge from the mouth
comes in contact with any sore place, for
very troublesome ulcers have been pro-
duced by this means. If there is any fear
that a sore place has been thus inocu-
lated, the lunar caustic should be applied
to it.

CATTLE, Blood, Blood-striking, Black-
leg, Quarter Evil, or Black Quarter. — The
disease which we are now to describe is
indicated by these curious names,' and a
great many more, in various parts of the
country. Very few of these names, how-
ever, are misplaced, for they indicate some
variety, or symptoms, or stage of this
dreadful malady. It would be much
better recognized by the title of Inflam-
matory fever.-

Its attack is confined almost entirely to
animals that are in high condition, or
rapidly improving; we should say, too
high condition, and too rapidly improv-
ing. In some instances the disease will
give some warning of its approach, but,
generally, the beast appears to be to-day
perfectly well, and to-morrow he will be
found with his head extended, his flanks
heaving, his breath hot, his eyes protrud-
ing, his muzzle dry, his pulse quick and
hard — every symptom, in short, of the
highest state of fever. He utters a
low and distressing moaning ; he is al-
ready half unconscious ; he will stand for
hours together motionless, or if he moves,
or is compelled to move, there is a pecu-
liar staggering referrable to the hind limbs,
and generally one of them more than the
other : by and by he gets uneasy, he shifts
his weight from foot to foot, he paws
faintly, and then lies down. He rises,
but almost immediately drops again. He
now begins to be, or has already been,

nearly unconscious of surrounding ob-
jects.

There are many other symptoms from
which the different names of the disease
arose. On the back or loins, or over one
of the quarters, there is more or less swell-
ing; if felt when it first appears it is hot,
and tender, and firm, but it soon begins
to' yield to the touch, and gives a singular
crackling noise when pressed upon. One
of the limbs likewise enlarges, sometimes
through its whole extent, and that enor-
mously. It, too, is at first firm, and hot
and tender, but it soon afterwards be-
comes soft and flabby, or pits when press-
ed upon, /. e., the indentation of the finger
remains. When examined after death,,
that limb is full of red putrid fluid : it is
mortified, and seems to have been putre-
fying almost during the life of the beast.
Large ulcers break out in this limb, and
sometimes in other parts of the body, and
almost immediately become gangrenous;
pieces of several pounds in weight have
sloughed away; three-fourths of the udder
have dropped off, or have been so gan-
grenous that it was necessary to remove
them, and the animal has been one mass
of ulceration. The breath stinks horribly;
a very offensive, and sometimes purulent
and bloody fluid runs from the mouth ;
the urine is high-colored or bloody, and
the fasces are also streaked with blood,
and the smell from them is scarcely sup-
portable.

In this state the beast will sometimes
continue two or three days, at other times
he will die in less than twelve hours from
the first attack. In a few instances, how-
ever, and when the disease has been early
and properly treated, all these dreadful
symptoms gradually disappear, and the
animal recovers.

It is to a redundancy, or overflowing
of the blood, the consequence of the sud-
den change from bad to good living, that
this diease most commonly owes its origin.
It is most prevalent in the latter part of
the spring and in the autumn ; and very
often, at these seasons of the year, proves
destructive to great numbers of young
cattle in different parts of the States. It
is sometimes, however, seen in the winter
and the early part of spring, when the
cattle are feeding on turnips. Some situa-
tions are more subject to this complaint
than others. It is most frequent in low,.

I72

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

marshy grounds, and pastures situated by
the side of woods.

It is a disorder of high condition and
over-feeding. The times of the year and
the character of the cattle prove this. It
occurs in the latter part of the spring,
Avhen the grass is most luxuriant and nutri-
tive, and in the autumn, when we have the
second flush of grass; and the animals
attacked are those principally that are
undergoing the process of fattening, and
that have somewhat too suddenly been
removed from scanty pasturage and low
feeding to a profusion of herbage, and
that of a nutritious and stimulating kind.
The disease sometimes occurs when the
cattle have been moved from one pas-
turage to another on the same farm; but
more so when they have been brought
from poor land, at a distance, to a richer
soil. There are in the latter case two
preparatory causes — the previous poverty,
and the fatigue and exhaustion of the
journey.

This disease rarely admits of cure, but
fortunately it may in general be prevented.
If the malady is discovered as soon as it
makes its appearance, the beast should be
immediately housed, and then from four
to eight quarts of blood taken away, ac-
cording to the age and size. Two hours
after bleeding give the Purging Drink
No. 2 which will be found of a proper
strength for young cattle from the age of
one two years.

The bleeding should be repeated in
three or four hours, if the animal is not
materially relieved ; and a third bleeding
must follow the second, if the fever is
unabated. There must be no child's play
here ; the disease must be knocked down
at once, or it will inevitably destroy the
beast. The physic likewise must be re-
peated until it has had its full effect.

As soon as the bowels are well opened
the Fever Drink, No. i, should be admin-
istered, and repeated morning, noon and
night, all food except a little mash being
removed.

At the first appearance of the disease
the part principally affected should be fo-
mented several times in the course of the
day with hot water, and for at least an
hour each time. For this purpose there
should be two or three large pieces of
flannel in the water, that after one of
►them has been applied thoroughly hot

and dripping to the part affected, another
equally hot may be ready when this gets
cold.

As soon as the fever begins evidently
to subside, and the beast is more himself,
and eats a little, the fever medicine must
not be pushed too far. It should be re-
membered that this is a case of highly in-
flammatory disease, which soon passes
over, and is often succeeded by debility
almost as dangerous as the fever. The
ox, therefore, must not be too much low-
ered; but, the fever abating, mildest
Tonic Drink (See No. 33 Domestic An-
imals, Medicines for,) should be given.

If this does not bring back the fever
it may be safely continued once every
day until the ox is well; or the quantities
of the gentian may be increased, and the
emetic tartar lessened, and at length alto-
gether omitted, the nitre being still re-
tained.

A seton (of black hellebore root if it
can be procured) should be inserted into
the dewlap; and, if the beast can be
moved, it should be driven to much scan-
tier pasture.

Should not the disease be discovered
until there is considerable swelling, and
a cracking noise in some tumefied part, a
cure is seldom effected. Bleeding at this
stage of the complaint, can seldom be re:
sorted to, or, at least, one moderate bleed-
ing only should be practiced, in order to
subdue any lurking fever that may re-
main. If a cure is in these cases at-
tempted the Tonic Drink should be
given, which may invigorate the system
by its cordial and tonic powers, and pre-
vent the mortification extending.

The swelled parts should be frequently
bathed with equal portions of vinegar and
spirits of wine, made as hot as the hand
will bear; or, if ulceration seems to be
approaching, slight incisions should be
effected along the whole extent of the
swelling, and the part bathed with spirit
of turpentine, made hot.

If ulceration has commenced, accom-
panied by the peculiar fcetor that attends
the disease, the wounds should be first
bathed with the Disinfectant Lotion
(No. 34, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for.)

. The hot spirit of turpentine should be
applied immediately after this, and con-
tinued in use until either the mortified

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i73

parts have sloughed off, or the sore begins
to have a healthy appearance. The tinc-
ture of aloes or Friar's balsam may then
follow.

Since so little can be done in the way
of cure, we next anxiously inquire wheth-
er there is any mode of prevention. The
account which we have given of the dis-
ease immediately suggests the prevention,
viz., to beware of these sudden changes
of pasture ; now and then to take a little
blood from, or to give a dose of physic
to, those beasts that are thriving unusu-
ally rapidly, and, whenever the disease
breaks out on the farm to bleed and to
purge, and remove to shorter and scan-
tier feed every animal that has been ex-
posed to the same exciting causes with
those that have been attacked. The far-
mer should be particularly watchful dur-
ing the latter part of the spring and the
beginning of the autumn ; he may thus
save many a beast, and the bleeding and
the physic will not arrest but rather assist
their improvement. He who will not at-
tend to a simple rule like this will de-
serve the loss that he may experience.

CATTLE, Murrain, or Pestilential Fe-
ver.— The treatment would be, first, and
the most important thing of all, to sepa-
rate the diseased from the sound : to re-
move every animal that seemed to be in
the slightest degree affected to some iso-
lated portion of the farm where contact
Avith others would be impossible. It
would be imprudent to remove those that
appeared to be unaffected, because it
would be impossible to know that the
virus did not lurk in their veins, and
thus the poison might be conveyed to
other parts of the farm. The sick only
should be taken away, and that as speed-
ily as possible.

In the early stage of the disease there
can be no doubt of the propriety of
bleeding. The fever which, according to
every account, characterizes the first at-
tack, should, if possible, be subdued;
otherwise its prolonged existence would
aggravate, if it did not cause, the subse-
quent debility. The animal should be
bled, in proportion to his size, condition,
and the degree of fever; he should be
bled, in fact, until the pulse began to
falter or he began to stagger. The blood
should be taken in as full a stream as
possible, that the constitution might be

more speedily and beneficially affected.
When the blood flows slowly, a quantity
may sometimes be taken away before the
animal begins to feel it, the loss of which
would afterwards produce alarming de-
bility ; but if the blood flows freely, the
beast will show symptoms of faintness —
the effect we wish to produce — before
one-fourth ot the quantity is drawn that
would be lost if it ran in a slow stream.
We want to attack and subdue the fever,
without undermining the strength of the
frame.

Then we should with great propriety
administer a brisk purgative. If fetid
and obstinate purging so soon follows,
we should be anxious to get rid, if we
can do so, of a portion of the offending
matter ; and therefore a pound or twenty
ounces of Epsom salts should be given
in a sufficient quantity of thin gruel.

Next, as it is a disease so much and so
early characterized by debility, we should
attend to the diet. Green succulent grass
would scarcely be allowed, because it
would probably not a little increase the
purging ; but mashes of bran, with a little
bean-meal, carrots, or sweet old hay,
should be given in moderate quantities.
The animal should be coaxed to eat ; for
it is necessary that the constitution be
supported against the debilitating influ-
ence of such a disease. The animal
should not be at first drenched, for this
might produce nausea and disguSt for
food; but if two or three days should
pass, and the beast should obstinately re-
fuse to eat, plenty of warm thick gruel
must be forced upon him. As for medi-
cine, we scarcely know what to advise.
The fact stands too clearly upon record,
that nineteen animals out of twenty,
seized with the murrain, have died. That
on which we should put most dependence
would be the Drink for Murrain. (See
No. 33, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for.)

This may be repeated every six hours,
until the purging is considerably abated ;
but should not be continued until it has
quite stopped.

The purging being abated, we must
look about for something to recall the
appetite and recruit the strength, and we
do not know anything better than the
Tonic Drink for Murrain. (See No. 36,
Domestic Animals, Medicines for.)

174

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

There cannot be a more proper means
adopted than a seton in the dewlap, made
with the black hellebore root. The mouth
should be frequently washed with a dilute
solution of the chloride of lime. The
ulcerated parts, if they are fetid, should
have the same disinfectant applied to
them, and the Avails ana ceiling, and
every part of the cow-house should be
washed with it.

One caution should be used with re-
spect to the food ; while the beast should
be coaxed to eat, in order to support him
under the debilitating influence of the
disease, it is only on the supposition that
he ruminates his food. Until he begins
again to chew the cud, we are only inju-
riously overloading the paunch by enticing
the animal to eat. Until rumination is
re-established, the food should consist of
gruel, or any other nutritive fluid, and
should be so administered that the greater
part of it may pass on into the fourth
stomach, without entering the first. When
the animal appears to be recovering, he
should be gradually exposed to cool and
open air, and very slowly permitted to
return to his usual food.

When the disease is quite subdued, the
cleansing of the cow-house should be
seriously undertaken, and thoroughly ac-
complished. Let every portion of filth
and dung be carefully removed, the walls,
and the wood-work, and the floor care-
fully washed with water, or soap and
water, and then every part washed again
with a lotion, in the proportion of a
quarter of a pound of the chloride of
lime, in powder, to a bucket of water.
This will be better than any fumigation
that can be possibly applied. Should,
however, the chloride of lime not be at
hand, then the simple and cheap Fumi-
gation (See No. 37, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for), on which very consider-
able dependence can be placed, may be
resorted to.

The salt should be put in an earthen
vessel, and placed in the middle of the
cow-house, and the oil of vitriol gradu-
ally poured upon it. They should be
stirred well together with a stick, and the
person preparing the thing should retreat
as quickly as he can, to prevent himself
from suffering by the fumes of the chlo-
ride, closing the door carefully after him,
every window and aperture having been

previously closed. In a few hours he
may enter the cow-house again, and re-
move the vessel without any serious in-
convenience.

CATTLE, Horn Ail in, or Hollow Horn.
— If the animal is chill, shivering, or has
a rough, staring coat, and if the horn is
unnaturally cold, give an injection of
three quarts of warm water, repeating it
if it is thrown off. Administer by the
mouth several quarts of warm gruel, con-
taining six or eight ounces of whisky,
brandy or gin; or, if attainable, four
ounces of sweet spirits of nitre, or five
drachms of carbonate of ammonia.
Blanket the patient warmly from head to
tail, and actively hand-rub the limbs. A
good plan is to heat dry bran, salt, and
sand in a stove; put it in a long,
ljroad bag, and lay it along the beast's
spine from shoulder to rump; or wring a
thick rug out of very hot water, lay it over
the animal's back from head to tail, cover it
with several dry rugs or buffalo-skins, and
bind them closely to the skin with sur-
cingles, that the heat may be retained.
The limbs, meanwhile, may be actively
rubbed and then tied up in warm flannel
bandages, loosely applied, so as not to
impede the circulation. In half an hour
the patient will usually be in a glow of
warmth and covered with perspiration.
The coverings must be removed gradu-
ally, one by one, and the damp one
quickly replaced by an ample dry one,
after one and a half to two hours. Dan-
gerous inflammations in the chest, abdo-
men, etc., may often be warded off by
these measures, when taken in the initial
stage ; and though a little more trouble-
some than the gimlet surgery, it has the
compensating claims of being at once
rational and successful.

Real horn-ail is a disease of very rare
occurrence, but it may sometimes exist.
Matter collects inside of the horn, and
even in the forehead, in larger quantity than
can be readily discharged through the
nostrils. It may be recognized by the
discharge from the nose of whitish or
yellowish matter, and sometimes pure
blood ; by the heat and tenderness of the
root of the horns and forehead ; by the
hanging head, the partially closed eyes,
great dullness and listlessness ; and by
the absence of a hollow sound when the
forehead is gently tapped with the tip of

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i7S

the middle finger. Boring the horn with
a gimlet or sawing off must not be em-
ployed as a remedy. "The treatment
should be absolute rest, a dose of
opening medicine, a semi-liquid, more
stimulating diet, the application of cold
water, or even hot fomentations, steadily
maintained, to the forehead, steaming the
nostrils by hot water vapor, and, in obstinate
cases, opening the cavity in the interval
between the eyes, and syringing it out
daily with a mild astringent lotion until a
healthy action has been established."
The operation of opening the forehead
should be performed by a veterinary
surgeon.

CATTLE, Glands, Inflammation of.—
There are numerous glandular bodies dis-
tributed over the animal structure. Those
to which the reader's attention is called
are, first, the parotid, situated beneath the
enr; secondly, the sub-lingual, beneath
the tongue ; lastly, the sub-maxillary, sit-
uated just within the angle of the jaw.
They are organized similar to other
glands, as the kidneys, etc., possessing
arteries, veins, lymphatics, etc., which ter-
minate in a common duct. They have
also a ramification of nerves, and the
body of the gland has its own system of
arterial vessels and absorbents, which are
enclosed by a serous membrane. They
produce a copious discharge of fluid
■called saliva. Its use is to lubricate the
mouth, thereby preventing friction; also
to lubricate the food and assist digestion.

Inflammation of either of these glands
may be known by the heat, tenderness,
enlargement and difficulty of swallowing.
They are usually sympathetically affected,
as in hoose, catarrh, influenza, etc., and
generally resume their natural state when
th2se maladies disappear.

Treatment. — In the inflammatory
stage warm teas of marshmallows, or slip-
pery elm, and poultices of the same, are
the best means yet known to reduce it ;
they relax constricted or obstructed or-
gans, and by being directly applied to the
parts affected, the more speedily and ef-
fectually is the object accomplished. Two
or three applications of some relaxing
poultice will be all that is needed, after
which apply :

Olive Oil, or Goose Grease - - 1 gill.

Spirits of Camphor I ounce.

Oilof Cedar I "

"Vinegar Vz g2t

Mix. To be rubbed around the throat as occasion
may require. All hard or indigestible food will
be injurious.

CATTLE. — Inflammation of the Blad-
der.— This disease does not often occur
in cattle, except from eating acrid and
poisonous herbs, or when cows are near
their time of calving. In the first case,
there are frequent and violent, but in-
effectual, efforts to stale. There is true
and proper inflammation of the neck of
the bladder. This may be occasioned by
cold, but is more frequently produced by
the animal having fed on healthy pas-
tures, and on the hot and stimulating
plants that abound there. The broom is
a frequent cause of this disease.

It is of much consequence to be en-
abled to distinguish this from inflamma-
tion of the bladder itself. In the early
stage of inflammation of the neck of the
bladder no urine will be voided, while it
will be discharged much more frequently
than usual, and apparently in larger
quantities in true inflammation of the
bladder; and when at length, in inflam-
mation of the neck of the bladder, urine
is voided, it is after much straining, and
is evidently and forcibly squeezed out
from the over-distended but closed vessels.
The most certain way, however, of dis-
tinguishing the one from the other, is to
introduce the hand into the rectum ; the
distended bladder will then be plainly
felt below. It may sometimes be detected
by examination of the outside of the
belly.

The course to be pursued is sufficiently
plain — the bladder must be emptied, or
more fluid will pour into it until it actually
bursts. For some time before the fatal
termination of the complaint in the rup-
ture of the bladder, not only the constant
straining, but the heaving of the flanks,
the quickness of the pulse, the loss of
appetite, the cessation of rumination, and
the shivering fits, will sufficiently indicate
the extent of the danger. The better
way of emptying the bladder is, if possi-
ble, to relax the spasm of its neck. It is
the spasmodic action of the sphincter
muscle of the neck of the bladder that is
the cause of the obstruction. A very
large bleeding will sometimes accomplish
this; but it must be a large one, and
continued until the animal is exhausted
almost to fainting.

176

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

To bleeding, physic should succeed, in
order to lower the system, and relax the
spasm; but no medicine must be given
that would in the slightest degree increase
the flow of urine. Sulphur, or aloes, or
both combined, would be indicated here.

Should not the flow of urine be re-
established, mechanical means must be
resorted to. Here a skilful practitioner
should be consulted. The water may be
readily drawn from the cow by a catheter;
but in the ox, from the curvature of the
penis, this would be a very difficult affair.
Some have recommended to cut down
upon the penis, behind the bag, and lay
open the urethra, and so pass a catheter
into the bladder ; but this will produce a
wound, difficult to heal from the passage
and excoriation of the urine. Others
would puncture the bladder through the
rectum, and others through the belly;
but both operations may be accompanied
and followed by various unpleasant cir-
cumstances.

The farmer, nevertheless, having fully
ascertained the nature of the case, may
often evacuate a great portion of the urine
in a very simple way. The bladder of
the ox lies more in the pelvis than does
that of the horse — it is more easily felt
than in the horse — it is more readily
pressed upon by the hand — and the
muscle at the neck of the bladder is much
weaker; so that the hand being intro-
duced into the anus, and gentle pressure
made upon the bladder, a great quantity,
or almost the whole, of the urine may be
forced out, without danger.

A catheter may be introduced into the
bladder of a cow without difficulty.

Inflammation of the bladder itself is a
disease more frequent, and from the same
causes, namely, cold and acrid herbs.
Here the animal should be bled and
physicked, and fomented across the loins,
and every diuretic medicine carefully
avoided. The Drink for Inflammation of
the Bladder may be administered with
good effect, after the bleeding and purg-
ing. (See No. 42, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for.)

It should not, however, be forgotten,
that in cows that are near parturition
this discharge of urine is not unfrequent,
and arises from irritation of the bladder,
caused by the pressure of the fetus, or
from sympathy with the uterus, now much

excited, and not from actual inflamma-
tion. When she has calved, this will
gradually cease; or a dose of salts,
followed by one or two of the powders
just recommended, will afford immediate
and considerable relief. In some cows
this incontinence of urine has been pro-
duced by the retention of a dead calf in
the womb beyond the natural period,
and it being at the same time in a state
of putrefaction. The mingled influence
of long-continued pressure, and of prox-
imity to a large body in a state of de-
composition, will occasionally produce a
state of extreme irritability. The animal
should have warm mashes once or twice
daily.

CATTLE, Eye, Diseases of the.— Oxen
are very apt to receive injuries about the
eye, as wounds penetrating into the orbit
of the eye, or even fractures of the orbit.
The principal thing is to prevent or abate
inflammation, by fomentations or poul-
tices, and a little physic, and to leave na-
ture pretty nearly to herself. Either from
injury or from a disposition in the bullock-
to throw out tumors of every kind, there
are frequently bony enlargements about
the eyes of oxen. It will be easily seen
how far they are a nuisance to the ani-
mal, or impede the sight; and if it is
necessary to remove them, the aid of a
professed practitioner on cattle should be
obtained, as an important vessel may be
divided, or a sad blemish left.

Soft, fungous tumors sometimes grow
out of the orbit, or from the bone around.
These can only be got rid of by the use
of the knife, and that should be placed in
a skilful hand ; but even in the most skil-
ful hands, the knife often fails; or, rather,
there is a disposition to reproduction in
these tumors, which it is impossible to
repress.

The eyelids of the ox are very subject
to disease. Sometimes there is scaliness
around the edges ; sometimes a row of
pustules resembling the stye of the hu-
man being: both of these diseases are-
frequently a great source of annoyance.
They appear early in the spring of the
year, and continue during the summer
and the greater part of the autumn, and
disappear as winter comes on. A solu-
tion of white vitriol, in the proportion of
a drachm to a pint of water, will often be
a useful application. If this fails, the

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

*77

nitrated ointment of quicksilver may be
smeared over the lid, taking care that
none of it gets into the eye. It will, how-
ever, be necessary at times to prepare for
the use of these by washing the part with
a goulard lotion for a few days.

Young oxen are subject to warts, which
are frequently sadly teasing. They would
probably disappear after a while, but, in
the meantime, they are unsightly, and
much annoy the animal by getting be-
tween or within the lids. They may
either be clipped off with the scissors,
touching the root afterwards with the lu-
nar caustic, that the wart may not be re-
produced ; or — the best way when prac-
ticable— they may be removed by tying a
ligature of fine strong silk tightly round
the pedicle, or root.

The eye itself is not unfrequently in-
flamed, and sometimes very acutely. The
horse has a little shovel, concealed in the
inner corner of the eye, which he is ena-
bled to protrude whenever he pleases
over the greatest part of the eye, and by
aid of the tears to wipe and wash away
the dust and gravel which would other-
wise lodge in the eye and give him much
pain. When the haw is swelled in dis-
ease, the ignorant farrier too often cuts it
away, not knowing that it is the mere ef-
fect of inflammation, and that a little
cooling lotion would probably abate that
inflammation, and lessen the swelling,
and restore the part to its natural size and
utility. The ox has something of the
same contrivance, but it is not so mova-
ble or so effectual; and, when he travels
over a dusty road in the heat of summer,
he sadly suffers from the small particles
of dirt and the insects that are contin-
ually flying into his eye. This is unob-
served by the careless driver, and inflam-
mation is established, and the eye weeps,
and becomes dim, and sometimes blind-
ness follows.

This portion of the eye, or this third
eyelid, seems to be peculiarly subject to
disease. Little swellings and ulcers, and
fungous growths appear upon it; and a
fungous, like that just described, springs
up and almost covers the eye. This is
sometimes in a manner epidemic on va-
rious farms.

But from other causes, and of the na-
ture of which we know little, inflamma-
tion of the eye is produced, and goes and

comes as in the horse, time after time, the
attack being gradually more severe, and
the intervals between the attacks shorter,
until, as in the horse, the inflammation
extends to the internal part of the eye,
and the lens becomes opaque, and cata-
ract ensues, and the ox is incurably blind.

All these must be dealt with as other
inflammations are. In order to combat
general inflammation of the eye, bleeding,
physicing and fomentations are the prin-
cipal weapons employed. The blood
should be taken from the jugular, for
that is supplied by veins coming from the
inflamed parts. If the bleeding is ever
local, the lid should be turned down, and
the lining membrane lightly scarified. A
few drops of blood thus obtained will
often do a great deal of good. The fo-
mentation having been continued for a day
or two the Sedative Eye Lotion (See No.
43, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) should be used, a few drops of it
being introduced into the eye two or
three times every day.

There cannot be a better sedative in
the early stage of inflammation of the
eyes.

In many cases this alone will effect the
temporary or perfect removal of the in-
flammation; but should the eye not im-
prove , or should it appear to become in-
sensible to the influence of the tincture,
try the other Sedative Eye Lotion. (See
No. 44, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for.)

The inflammation being subdued by
the one or the other of these applica-
tions, or even bidding defiance to them,
and assuming a chronic form, the
Strengthening Lotion for the Eye, (See
No. 45, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) a lotion of a different character
must be had recourse to.

When the inflammation runs high, the
transparent part of the eye is apt to ul-
cerate, and a fungous substance sprouts,
and sometimes protrudes through the
lids. This should be lightly touched
with a solution of nitrate of silver, or, if
if is very prominent, it should be cut off,
and the base of it touched with the
caustic.

A seton in the dewlap will always be
beneficial in inflammation of the eye, and
it should either be made of the black.

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

hellebore root, or a cord well soaked in
turpentine.

Of one circumstance the breeder of
cattle should be aware — that blindness is
an hereditary disease, and that the prog-
eny of a bull that has any defect of sight
is very apt to become blind.

If the case is neglected, inflammation of
the eye will sometimes run on to cancer,
and not only the eye, but the soft parts
around it, and even the bones, will be af-
fected.

When this termination threatens, the
globe of the eye will usually turn to a
bottle-green color, then ulceration will
appear about the center of it, and either
the fungous of which we have spoken
will sprout, and the eye will become of
three or four times its natural size, or it
will gradually diminish and sink into the
orbit. The fluid discharged from it will
be so acrid that it will excoriate the parts

• over which it runs, and the lids will be-
i come swollen and ulcerated.

The radical cure, and the most humane
method to be adopted with regard to the
animal, is to remove the eye. Here the
assistance of a veterinary practitioner will
be indispensable.

If the owner does not think proper to
adopt this method, let him at least try to
make the poor beast as comfortable as he
can. The part should be kept clean, and
when there appears to be any additional
inflammation, or swelling, or pain, the
eye should be well fomented with a de-

• coction of poppy-heads. Let none of
the stimulating ointments or washes of
;the farrier be used. This would be
^cruelly punishing the animal, when no
;good purpose could possibly be effected.

Sometimes the centre of the eye is not
150 much affected as the haw at the inner
corner of it. When that part merely
enlarges from the inflammation, or the
eye generally, the digitalis or the Goulard
wash will usually abate the swelling ; and
he would be both ignorant and cruel who
would remove it on account of simple
enlargement accompanying inflammation;
ibut when it becomes hard and schirrous,
and especially if fungous granulations
begin to spring from it, the case assumes
a different character. No sedative or
other lotion will lessen the schirrous or
the fungous tumor. It must be removed
by an operation — it must be cut away.

The method of accomplishing this by a
skillful practitioner is not difficult. The
beast must be thrown, and the head held
firmly down by an assistant. The opera-
tor then passes a curved needle, armed
with a double strong silk, through the
body of the tumor, and, drawing a por-
tion of the silk through it, gives the
needle and the end of the silk to be held
by another assistant. He pulls the silk
gently, but firmly, until he draws the
tumor as far as possible from the corner
of the eye, so that the attachment of its
base may be seen. The operator then
with a knife dissects it out, or with a pair
of scissors snips it off. No bleeding of
any dangerous consequence will follow,
and the blood that is lost will abate the
inflammation, and ease the pain which
the animal had previously endured. The
removal by ligature is a slow and not
always effectual method of proceeding;
for it may not be possible to apply it
accurately around the very base of the
tumor, and then the enlargement will
probably be reproduced. It is also
necessary to tighten the ligature every
day, or every second day, and at each
time the contest with the beast must be
renewed if this mode of removing the
tumor is adopted.

CATTLE, Choking. — Cattle are ex-
tremely liable to become choked when
feeding on turnips or other roots, and
many are in consequence destroyed. A
round object, such as a potato, is more
likely to occasion suffocation than a more
irregular body, as it produces greater
pressure on the windpipe, and is embraced
more closely by the oesophagus. The
appearances attending choking can
scarcely be mistaken. The animal evinces
great distress, tries to bring up the ob-
structing body, slavers at the mouth, pokes
its nose, and draws up the neck. After
awhile the abdomen swells from the in-
flation of the paunch with gas. Sometimes
the beast will die in a very short time,
but the urgency of the case depends
much on the situation and the size of the
obstructing body.

If the rumen is so distended as to
threaten immediate suffocation, it will be
proper to puncture it ; but this, if possi-
ble, should be avoided. It will next be
desirable to ascertain the situation of the
obstruction. Sometimes it will be found

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

179

that the body is impacted at the back of
the mouth or beginning of the oesophagus;
in these cases by using a balling-iron the
object can frequently be removed by
passing up the hand.

If, however, the substance is situated
low down the tube, it will be desirable to
force it onwards. For this purpose half
a pint of oil should be given to lubricate
the passage as much as possible, and then
the beast, being properly secured, and a
gag placed in the mouth, a flexible tube
or red, with a knob at the end, should be
carefully passed down the oesophagus
until it reaches the body ; a steady pres-
sure should now be employed to force it
onwards; but this should be done pa-
tiently, so as not to injure the parts. By
alternately resting and trying again, the
object will generally be removed.

If the object is situated near the
mouth, but not sufficiently so as to be
reached by the hand, it can best be re-
moved by means of an instrument in-
vented by Mr. Simonds, and which is
constructed so as to embrace the obstruct-
ing body by a forceps, concealed in the
bulb at the end of the tube, and thus to
remove it upwards by the mouth.

After forcing the object into the
stomach it will be desirable to let the
probang remain a short time, if the
animal is hoven, to afford an exit for the
gas ; and this may be assisted by pressing
the flank.

No solid food should be allowed for
several days afterwards, as there is great
danger of a repetition of the choking
until the muscles entirely recover their
tone. Sometimes, after all attempts of
removing the body by the methods before
described have failed, it will be proper to
do so by means of an operation which
has been performed with success; and
this consists in making an incision through
the skin into the oesophagus, sufficiently
large to extract the body. Great ca"re
must be exercised, so as not to injure the
important nerves and blood-vessels situ-
ated near the part. The beast should be
cast for the operation, and the wound
carefully sewed up afterwards, and for
several days the food should consist
principally of gruel.

CATTLE, Locked-jaw. — Fortunately
this is not a very frequent disease among
cattle ; but it is a very fatal one when it

does occur. If the attendant is careful,
he will observe the symptoms of this
malady one or two days before it is
thoroughly and incurably established.
There will be a stiffness of gait in the
beast — he will walk unusually wide be-
hind— there will be difficulty of turning —
permanent cocking of the tail, except
when that is interrupted, or accompanied
by a singular tremulous motion of it.
The. animal can scarcely, and, after
awhile, not at all, bend his neck to graze;
but he will stand with his head protruding,
and his ears stiffened, and unnaturally
fixed in a somewhat backward direction.
Rumination gradually ceases, or is per-
formed slowly and painfully. At length
the jaws become firmly closed, and the
neck perfectly stiff. The eyes are strangely
fixed, and with some degree of squinting,
and the expression of the countenance is
peculiarly anxious. The breathing is
considerably affected, and there is much
labor of the flanks.

The animal will linger on in this dread-
ful way for eight, or nine, or ten days,
almost every muscle of the body being
painfully cramped, and the poor creature
unable to take a morsel of food, until at
length it dies, exhausted by the violent
contraction of the muscles and by starva-
tion.

The usual cause of locked jaw is some
neglected or unobserved wound, particu-
larly in the feet. Working oxen, there-
fore, are most subject to it. Several
weeks sometimes pass between the inflic-
tion of the wound and the appearance of
this disease. Working oxen that have
been exposed to cold and wet, after being
heated in drawing, frequently have locked
jaw. It has been said that locked jaw is
occasionally produced by eating some
poisonous plants. We much doubt the
accuracy of this; and in many, and
probably the majority of instances, the
cause is altogether unknown.

The treatment is indicated by the
nature of the disease. It is a most vio-
lent action of the nerves of motion,
either of a part or the whole of the
frame. The most likely means to quiet
this is the loss of blood, and that in a
large quantity. Therefore, the ox should
be bled as soon as the complaint is dis-
covered, and bled until his pulse falters,
and he staggers, and threatens to fall.

iSo

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

The bleeding will usually relax the mus-
cles of the jaw to a certain degree, and
for a little while ; and advantage must be
taken of this to give the Strong Physic
Drink. (See No. 47, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for.)

Generally the jaw will be now suffi-
ciently relaxed to permit the introduction
of the thin neck of a claret bottle into
the mouth.

The bowels having been opened, those
medicines must be resorted to which have
the readiest and most powerful effect in
quieting the nervous system. These are,
as it regards cattle, the Anodyne Drink
for Locked Jaw. t^See No. 48, Domes-
tic Animals, Medicines for.)

This medicine should be administered
three or four times every day, care being
taken that the bowels are kept open,
either by means of aloes or Epsom salts.

The bleeding should be repeated on
the second day, if the animal is not evi-
dently relieved; and as much blood
should be again taken as the patient can
bear to lose.

The stable or cow house should be
warm, and the animal covered with two
or three thick rugs. If considerable per-
spiration can be excited, the beast is al-
most sure to experience some relief.

While all this is done to lower the ac-
tion of the nervous system, the strength
of the beast must be supported. He will
not, or rather he cannot eat ; but he often
looks very wistfully at his food. Let a
good mash, a little at a time, and moister
than usual, be placed before him, a por-
tion of which he will try hard to suck up.
If he manages this tolerably well he needs
not to be forced with gruel or any other
nutriment ; but if his jaws are too firmly
fixed for this, the small end of the pipe
of Read's pump should be introduced
into the mouth, and as much thick gruel
pumped down as the attendant pleases.
When the poor animal has been hungry
two or three days through utter impossi-
bility of eating, he will gladly enough
submit to this operation, and almost offer
himself for it.

It will be almost labor in vain to en-
deavor to stimulate the skin, or to raise a
blister. Two, three or four setons in the
dewlap have been useful; and benefit has
been derived from shaving the back along
the whole course of the skin, and cauter-

izing it severely with a common firing-iron.
If it should be found impracticable to
administer either food or medicine by the
mouth, they must be given in the form of
clysters. Double the usual quantity of
the medicine must be given, on account
of the probable loss of a portion of it,
and the small quantity that the absorb-
ents of the intestines may take up ; but
too much gruel must not be injected,
otherwise it will probably be returned. A
quart will generally be as much as will be
retained, and the clyster may be repeated
five or six times in the course of the day.

Should the progress of the disease
have been rapid, and the symptoms vio-
lent ; or should it be found to be impossi-
ble to give medicine by the mouth, or
cause them to act by injection, the most
prudent thing will be to have recourse to
the butcher. The meat will not be in the
slightest degree injured, for it is a disease
that is rarely accompanied by any great
degree of fever.

CATTLE TEACHEA, Inflammation of
the. — See Cattle, Throat, Inflamma-
TrON of the.

CATTLE, Bronchitis in. — Bronchitis
consists in a thickening of the fibrous
and mucous surfaces of the trachea, and
generally results from maltreated hoose or
catarrh.

Symptoms. — A dry, husky, wheezing
cough, laborious breathing, hot breath
and dry tongue.

Treatment. — Warm poultices of slip-
pery elm or flaxseed, on the surface of
which sprinkle powdered lobelia. Apply
them to the throat moderately warm ; if
they are too hot they will prove injurious.
In the first place, administer the follow-
ing drink :

Powdered Liquorice 1 ounce

Powdered Elecampane % "

Slippery Elm 1 "

Boiling water sufficient to make it of the con-
sistence of thin gruel.

If there is any difficulty in breathing,
add half a teaspoonful of lobelia to the
above, and repeat the dose night and
morning. Linseed or marshmallow tea is
a valuable auxiliary in the treatment of
this disease. The animal should be com-
fortably housed, and the legs kept warm
by friction with coarse straw.

CATTLE, " Blasting." — See Cattlk
Hoove.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

181

COWS, Foot-rot in. — This disease
makes its appearance sometimes between
the claws of the foot, often in the heel,
and extending up the leg, causes extreme
lameness, loss of flesh and loss of milk.
It often runs through a whole dairy, and
its appearance is becoming every year
more common. Make an ointment of
lard and red precipitate, one part of the
latter to four of the former, to be applied
to the affected parts and rubbed in ; or in
bad cases, when the disease is in the heel
and upon the leg, worked in by holding a
hot iron near the foot. The foot should
be cleaned before the application, by
washing well with soap and soft water.
One application, if thorough, will gener-
ally effect a cure ; but if all parts are not
reached by the ointment, a second applica-
tion should be made in forty-eight hours.

CATTLE, Pleuropneumonia, Cure of.—
Sir W. Miles writes to the Wincanton Bet-
ty Sessions, Somerset county, in England,
that after having had the pleuro-pneumo-
nia in his herd for nearly eighteen months,
he has arrested its progress by causing the
herd to inhale carbolic acid night and
morning, which stopped the disease. The
acid was mixed with water, and sprinkled
with a watering pot on saw-dust, put un-
der the fore feet of the cattle when tied
up. Cures are also reported by causing
the cattle to inhale the fumes ef sulphur.

COW, to Dry of Her Milk.— It is often
necessary to dry up the milk when cows
are wanted speedily to fatten, and this is
now and then found to be a difficult mat-
ter, especially with large and gross beasts.
If the flow of milk is suffered to con-
tinue it may overload the udder, and pro-
duce inflammation of it, or garget, or gen-
eral fever, or inflammation of the lungs,
or foul in the foot.

The best time to dry the cows is very
early in the spring, when they are eating
dry meat. A good dose of physic, fol-
lowed by mild astringent drinks, will
usually settle the business, especially if
she is moderately bled before the physic
is given. Alum in the form of whey (see
Alum Whey, No. 19), or dissolved in
water, will be the most effectual, as well
as the safest astringent. Six drachms will
be the medium dose. The cow may be
milked clean when the astringent is
given, and then turned on some dry up-
land pasture.

Two days afterwards she should be ex-
amined, and if the udder is not overload-
ed, nor hard nor hot, the milking may be
discontinued; but if the udder is hard
and full, and especially if it is hot,
she should be fetched home, cleanly
milked, and another astringent drink
given. The third drink, if it is necessary
to give one, should be en aperient one,
and after that the Diuretic Drink, No.
26, every second day.

The milking should only be resorted to
if the state of the udder absolutely re-
quires it, for every act of milking is but
encouraging the secretion of milk.

COWS, Holding Back the Milk.— Lay-
ing a wet rag on the back of the cow
that holds back her milk is a very good
remedy. Another writer says a weight
laid on the back — as a bag of earth or
sand, or a chain in the bag — will make her
give her milk. As all the remedies in
vogue for the vice relate to an applica-
tion to the back there may be something
in it.

CATTLE, the Mange. — Mange may be
generated either from excitement of the
skin itself, or through the medium of that
sympathetic influence which is known to
exist between the skin and organs of di-
gestion. We have it, appears to me, an
excellent illustration of this in the case of
mange supervening upon poverty — a fact
too notorious to be disputed, though
there may be different ways of theorizing
on it.

Mr. Blanie says: " Mange has three
origins — filth, debility and contagion."

The most effectual application is Mange
ointment, No. 54, of which sulphur is the
principal ingredient. Some mercurial
ointment, however, must be added, but in
no great quantity, for cattle will lick them-
selves, and salivation may ensue. There
is nothing so injurious to the milk, or to
the fattening of the beast, as salivation,
even in a slight degree.

This should be well rubbed in with the
hand daily, wherever there is mange, the
hair being carefully separated where the
affected part is covered by it. No possi-
ble danger can happen from the pro-
longed use of this ointment if the animal
is not exposed to severe cold.

Alterative medicine will materially
assist the cure, and may be given without

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

injury to the milk, and without any pre-
caution being needed. (See Alterative
Drink, No. 55, Domestic Animals, Med-
icines for.)

Connected with mange, generally ac-
companying it, and often producing it, are
lice. The presence of these vermin ar-
gues extreme negligence, and is an abso-
lute disgrace to the farmer. They rap-
idly spread from cow to cow ; the slight-
est touch transfers some of them from
one beast to another; they are crawling
continually in the stable or on the the pas-
ture; and although they are never originally
bred in the skin of a diseased animal,
yet in one that has been half-starved or
mangy, and whose coat clings to the
skin, and will not come off when nature
usually sheds it, these vermin find too fa-
vorable a shelter. They are both the
consequence and the cause of mange, and
other affections of the skin. Myriads of
them are sometimes found on the poor
beast, teazing it almost to death.

The mange ointment above recom-
mended will often be effectual in destroy-
ing them, or should it not be sufficiently
powerful, a weaker kind of mercurial
ointment for vermin (See No. 56, Domes-
tic Animals, Medicines for,) may be
applied.

Some prefer a lotion. The best Lo-
tion for Vermin, is No. 57, Domes-
tic Animals, Medicines for.

This is strong enough to kill the ver-
min, but cannot possibly injure the beast.
An ointment, however, is best, for it
can be more thoroughly rubbed among
the hair, and into every lurking place
which the vermin may occupy. A por-
tion of the liquid is often lost in the act
of applying it. The ointment or the lo-
tion should be used daily, and three or
four dressings will generally remove the
nuisance.

Scotch snuff has been dusted on the
beast with partial good effect; the animal-
cule have been thinned, but not extir-
pated. The snuff cannot possibly reach
naif of them.

While the lice are attacked, the condi-
tion of the animal should, if possible, be
improved. Poverty and bad condition
are sad encouragers of these pests. The
alternative drink just recommended
may be advantageously combined with
tonics. (See Alterative Tonic Powders,

No. 58, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for.)

Warbles may here be not improperly
considered. The breeze, or gad-fly, or ox-
fly, appears about the end of the summer,
and is a sad annoyance to the ox. At
the very hum of the insect the cattle wilt
gallop distractedly over the field, and
sometimes do themselves serious injury.
When the fly has the opportunity of
alighting on the beast, he chooses the back
or the loins, and piercing the skin, depos-
its an egg under it. Some venom is also
distilled into the wound, tor a tumor is
shortly afterwards formed, varying from
the size of an hazel-nut to that of an egg.
It is a kind of abscess, for it speedily
bursts and leaves a little hole on the top
of it for the grub, which is now hatched,
to breathe, and where he lives on the fat-
ty matter that he finds in this curious
abode.

These warbles are often a sad nuisance
to the animal. He licks them when he
can get at them, and rubs himself vio-
lently on anything within his reach.

Country people sometimes get rid of
them by compressing them between the
finger and thumb and forcing the maggot
out. Others, with more certain effect,
either pull off the scab around the mouth
of the tumor, or open it with a lancet or
pen-knife, and then pour in a few drops
of spirit of turpentine, or introduce a
heated needle.

The farmer is scarcely aware how much
injury this fly does to the hide, for, al-
though the holes may apparently close up
that part will always be weak.

CATTLE, Throat Inflammation of the.
— In many cases, if attended to imme-
diately, nothing more will be necessary
than confining the animal to a light diet,
with frequent drinks of linseed tea,
warmth and moisture applied locally in
the form of a slippery elm poultice, which
may be kept in close contact with the
throat by securing it to the horns. But,
in very severe attacks, mullein leaves
steeped in vinegar and applied to the
parts, with an occasional stimulating in-
jection, together with a gruel, are the
only means of relief.

CATTLE LARYNX, Inflammation of
the. — See Cattle, Throat, Inflamma-
tion OF THE.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

1 8 s

CATTLE, Poison* — In the early part
of the spring, and before the different
vegetables have attained their proper
growth and smell, cattle are liable to be
injured, and even destroyed, by eating
poisonous plants; and especially when
they are turned into fresh pasture. In
some countries, and in some seasons,
when particular plants have prevailed, a
great many cattle have been lost, and it
has appeared as if some epidemic disease
was raging, until a botanist, accidentally
coming into that part of the country, has
discovered the true cause of the malady.
It is a great pity that farmers and graziers
are not sufficiently acquainted with bota-
ny to know the different plants, whole-
some and poisonous, that are growing in
their fields.

Some have thought that cattle are poi-
soned by drinking from stagnant pools,
full of venomous insects and of every
kind of decomposition from animal and
vegetable substances. We doubt the truth
of this; for the cow seems to be natu-
rally one of the foulest drinkers among
our domesticated quadrupeds. She will
often choose the most filthy puddle in the
straw-yard in preference to the clearest
running stream. Nature would not have
given her this propensity for foul and pu-
trid drink if was prejudicial to her.

The symptoms of empoisonment vary
with the plant that has been devoured.
In general the animal moans sadly, as if
in dreadful pain; or a sudden stupidity
comes upon it — or violent convulsions.
After eating the yew-clippings, cattle
are often perfectly delirious; and in
almost every case the belly more rapidly
swells than it usually does in hoove.

It is plain that there can be no case in
which more speedy and decisive measures
are needed; and yet very little can be
done, except that useful instrument, far
too little known, Read's patent pump, is
at hand. The pipe should be introduced
into the paunch, so that the extricated
gas which causes the swelling may escape.
After this a quantity of warm water
should be thrown into the stomach, suffi-
cient to cause sickness, and thus get rid
of a part, at least, of the offending matter.
Then, by introducing the pipe only a
part of the way down the gullet, a physic-
drink may be gradually introduced, which
will thus pass on to the fourth stomach,

and cause speedy purging. The Strong
Physic Drink (See No. 47, Domestic
Animals, Medicines for), will be the
most effectual purgative. It will usually
be advisable to bleed moderately ; drinks
of vinegar and water, not exceeding half
a pint of vinegar at a time, should be
administered if it is suspected that the
poison is of a narcotic kind, and the
purging should be kept up by repeated
small doses of the aperient medicine.
When the poison seems to be nearly
evacuated, the Cordial Drink, No. 31,
will be beneficial in giving to the
stomach.

Cattle are exposed too much to the
influence of poisons of another kind, used
under the form of medicines. Corrosive
sublimate and tobacco-water have de-
stroyed many a valuable ox. An antidote
is in these cases usually quite out of the
question, for the constitution is fatally
affected before the owner knows anything
of the matter.

Cattle in the neighborhood of lead-
mines have been dangerously affected
from the effects of this ore in the grass.
Difficult respiration with loud wheezing
is one of the most prominent symptoms,
the beast losing its appetite, pining away,
and at length dying of suffocation or
attacked by epileptic symptoms. Large
doses of Epsom or Glauber's salts with
linseed oil, and followed by opium, are
the best remedies. The smoke from
copper-mines has also produced sad dis-
ease amongst animals in the neighbor-
hood; it causes swellings of the joints of
a painful description. An early removali
to another soil forms the best treatment.

Ranking under the general term of
poisons, we may mention the bites of
venomous reptiles. The beast is generally
stung about the head or feet, for it is
most likely to disturb these reptiles either
in the act of browsing, or as it wanders
over the pasture. Cattle bitten in the
tongue almost invariably die. They are
suffocated by the rapid swelling which
takes place. The udder has occasionally
been stung; but the supposed bites on
the teats are, far oftener than otherwise,.
the effect of garget.

The country remedy is not a bad oner
viz., to rub the part well with a bruised
onion. Some follow this up by cramming
another onion down the throat. A better

1 84

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

application is the Embrocation for Bite of
Serpents. (See No. 49, Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicines for.)

A quart of olive oil should also be
given to the animal, mixed with an ounce
of hartshorn. Oil of turpentine may be
used when hartshorn cannot be procured ;
but it is not so much to be depended
upon.

The stings of hornets, wasps, and bees,
in some cases produce much temporary
swelling and pain. If the part is well
rubbed with warm vinegar, the incon-
venience will soon subside.

Leech-bites may be mentioned here.
While the animal is drinking from some
stagnant pool, a leech will occasionally
fasten itself on the muzzle, and afterwards
creep up the nostril, and produce a very
considerable, and, in some cases, danger-
ous, bleeding by its bites. If the leech
can be seen, or it is in a manner certain
that it has insinuated itself into the
nostril, a little strong salt and water
should be injected up the nose, which
will immediately dislodge the intruder, if
it can be brought into contact with it.

CATTLE, Wounds.— From the horns of
their companions, and from the brutal
violence of those who look after them,
cattle are often exposed to wounds. The
treatment of them is generally simple
•enough, except in a joint, or the neigh-
borhood of one.

The first thing is to clean the wound
from all dirt and gravel, which would
cause irritation, and prevent the healing
of the part. A good fomentation with
warm water will effect this, and at the
same time will help to abate any inflam-
mation which may probably have arisen.

Next is to be considered the state of
the wound. Is it a lacerated or punctured
one ? If it is a lacerated wound, we
must try how neatly we can bring the
divided parts together. If there are any
portions so torn as to prevent us from
doing this completely, they should be
removed with a knife or a sharp pair of
scissors. Then, when the edges are
brought well' together, they should be
retained by passing a needle and strong
waxed twine deeply through them, mak-
ing two, or three, or more stitches at the
distance of half an inch from each other.
A surgeon's crooked needle, or a glover's
large triangularly pointed needle, will be

. ^

necessary for this purpose. A little dry,
soft, clean tow should then be placed over
the wound, and the whole covered by a
bandage closely, but not too tightly ap-'
plied. Let none of the farrier's abomina-
ble tents, or pledgets of tow, be intro-
duced ; the intervals between the stitches
will be quite sufficient to permit the escape
of any matter that may be formed. The
wound should not, if possible, be opened
for two days after the first dressing.

When it is at length examined, let
none of the hot torturing applications of
the furrier be used. If it looks tolerably
healthy, and is going on well, it may be
dressed with tincture of myrrh and aloes,
or with the Healing Ointment, No. 10,
or with both ; a pledget of tow soaked in
the tincture being put immediately on the
wound, and more tow, with the ointment
spread upon it, placed over this.

If proud flesh should begin to spring,
the wound should be first washed with a
strong solution of blue vitriol, and then
dressed with the tincture; or if the dis-
charge is very offensive, the wound should
be well bathed with the Disinfectant
Lotion, No. 34, and then the tincture
applied.

If it is a punctured wound, its direction
and depth must be carefully ascertained.
Fomentations of marsh-mallows, or pop-
py-heads boiled in water, should be ap-
plied for a few days, in order to abate in-
flammation, and the tincture of aloes and
myrrh should be injected into the wound
morning and night; the injured parts be-
ing covered if the flies are troublesome,
but otherwise left open. If the wound
runs downwards and the matter cannot
escape, but collects at the bottom, and
seems to be spreading, a seton should be
passed into the original orifice, and di-
rected as far as the very lowest part of
the sinus, or pipe, and there brought out.
There is never occasion for the introduc-
tion of lint into these wounds : if they
are well syringed with the tincture to the
very bottom, and a seton passed through
the sinus, should one happen to be
formed, they will do very well.

From the yoke being too heavy, or not
fitting the neck, the shoulders of oxen
will sometimes get sadly wrung, and deep
ulcers will be produced, resembling fistu-
lous withers in the horse. These ulcers
are very troublesome to deal with. The

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

185

secret, however, of properly treating them
is to pass a seton through the very bot-
tom of the ulcer, in order that the matter
may flow freely out : then, in the major-
ity of cases, the wound will readily heal,
or if it should not, the diabolical scalding
•mixtures of the farrier are never wanted.
If we allowed any scalding mixture, it
would be boiling tar, because tar boils at
a very low degree of temperature. The
surface of the wound would be sufficiently
stimulated, and the life of the part would
not be destroyed; but he who pours in
his boiling oil, or his corrosive sublimate,
deserves never more to possess, or to be
permitted medically to treat, a beast. In
obstinate cases diluted acid (one part of
nitric acid and two of water) may be ap-
plied over the surface of the ulcer, with
a pencil or sponge.

When a tumor is forming on the shoul-
der from the pressure of the collar, every
attempt should be made to disperse it. A
saturated solution of common salt will
•often be useful, or sal-ammoniac dissolved
in eight times its weight of water; but
the best discutient application is the Dis-
cutient Lotion (See No. 50, Domestic
Animals, Medicines for).

The part should not only be wetted
with this embrocation, but gently yet
well rubbed with it.

. Should the swelling still increase, and,
on feeling it, matter should evidently be
formed, the sooner the tumor is opened
the better, and the best way to open it is
to pass a seton from the top through the
lowest part of it.

Oxen are very apt to be wounded in
the feet. If this is soon discovered, all
that will be necessary is to apply a
pledget of tow wetted with tincture of
aloes, confining it between the claws with
a bandage, or to touch the part lightly
with the butyr of antimony. When the
application of the caustic is necessary,
there is no need to apply it with the se-
verity used by some, so as to corrode the
parts to the very bone.

If the wound is extensive, and accom-
panied by much swelling, heat, and pain,
and especially if the beast should begin
to lose its appetite, and to heave at the
flanks, it will be prudent both to physic
and to bleed.

If much contusion or bruise attends
the wound, and which is very likely to

happen when cattle are gadding about
and breaking out of their pastures in
summer, and especially when strange
beasts are intermixed, the previous fo-
mentation will be more than usually
necessary, in order to prevent inflamma-
tion, and to disperse or favor the escape
of the effused blood. The fomentations,
should be continued during half an hour
at each time, and repeated three or four
times in the day. The flannels should be
applied dripping wet, and as hot as the
hand can bear them.

If the wound penetrates the cavity of
the chest, as it sometimes will when one
beast gores another, it will be necessary
to bring the parts more accurately to-
gether, and to confine them by closer
stitches; a piece of adhesive plaster
should then be placed over the wound,
and secured by the application of proper
rollers or bandages. If the air is suffered
to pass in and out of the wound for any
considerable time, the edges of it will be
indisposed to unite together and to heal,
and the pleura or lining of the chest will
probably become inflamed by the un-
natural presence of air in the cavity of
the chest.

Should the belly be wounded, and a
portion of the bowels protrude, it will be
necessary to calculate the probability of
being able to return them into their prop-
er situation, and healing the wound ; for
in many of these cases the best thing the
farmer can do is to send the animal at
once to the butcher. If a cure is at-
tempted, all dirt and clotted blood should
be carefully removed from the protruded
intestine with a sponge and warm water.
It must then be cautiously returned into
the belly, and the edges of the wound
brought together and secured by the
close stitches. After that, rollers or band-
ages must be passed round the belly, and
which, being removed only while the
wound is dressed, must remain until a
cure is completed, and for a few days af-
terwards.

In all these cases a veterinary surgeon
should be consulted. He alone is able to
give an accurate opinion as to the proba-
bility of a cure, and to guard against a
thousand accidents and annoyances that
are likely to occur in the treatment of
such a case.

Many persons are frightened when

1*6

CATTLE—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

they see the profuse bleeding which some-
times takes place from deep or lacerated
wounds. Except some large arterial
trunk is divided, there is little or no dan-
ger of the animal bleeding to death.
When a certain quantity of blood is lost
the stream will flow slowly, and a coagu-
lum, or clot of blood, will be formed in
the vessel, and plug it up, and afford a
mechanical obstruction to the hemor-
rhage. Sufficient blood, however, may
be lost to interfere materially with the
condition of the beast, and to leave con-
siderable and lasting weakness behind.
We are therefore anxious to stop the
bleeding as soon as we can.

Where the situation will admit of it, a
dossil of lint, placed upon or in the
wound, and secured by a firm bandage,
will often be effectual. If the vessel is
but partly closed by the pressure of the
lint, yet that may be sufficient to produce
a coagulation of the blood, and the con-
sequent stoppage of the stream.

The next preferable way of proceeding
is to endeavor to pass a ligature round
the bleeding vessel. This is often practi-
cable by means of a tenaculum or any
hooked instrument, by which it may be
drawn a little from its situation, and some
waxed silk or twine passed round it.
Sometimes it may be laid hold of with a
pair of forceps or small pincers, and so
secured; or, should neither of these
methods be practicable, a crooked or
glover's needle, armed with waxed silk,
may be plunged into the flesh or cellular
membrane in two or three places around
the wound, and when the silk is tight-
ened the vein or artery will probably be
compressed and closed. The hot iron is
sometimes applied, but usually a great
deal too hot, so as to destroy the life of
the part, instead of simply searing it, and
thus causing renewed hemorrhage when
the dead part is thrown off. As for styy-
tic powders or lotions, they appear to
have little or no effect in stopping pro-
fuse bleeding in cattle.

The bleeding is generally arrested with
most difficulty when the horn is broken
off in some of the fights among the cat-
tle. The bone of the horn is full of
blood-vessels, and it is only by plaister
after plaister of tar that a compress is
made all round the horn, and through
which the blood cannot penetrate. These

plaisters should not be removed for many
days, otherwise the bleeding from such a
vascular part will return.

Of all the wounds, however, to which
the cattle are occasionally exposed, the
most dangerous are those about the
joints, and especially when the joint it-
self is penetrated. The ox is not so sub-
ject to this as the horse ; but the fetlock
and the knee are occasionally deeply
wounded, and the joint laid open, either
by falling, or by being brutally wounded
by a fork.

Here, as in all other wounds, the first
thing to be done is carefully to wash
away all dirt and gravel. The probe
must then be introduced; and the depth
to which it will penetrate, and, more par-
ticularly, the grating sound which will be
heard when it comes into contact with the
bone, will generally determine whether
the joint has been injured. If any doubt
remains about this, a poultice should be
applied. This will not only abate or pre-
vent inflammation, but if the joint has
been penetrated the synovia, or joint oil,
will escape and appear upon the poultice
in the form of a glairy, yellowish fluid.
Then there is no doubt as to the course
to be pursued. The flow of this must be
stopped, and that immediately. It was
placed there to be interposed between the
ends of the bones, and thus to prevent
them rubbing against each other, and be-
coming irritated or inflamed. The mem-
brane with which the heads of the bones
are covered is in the highest degree sen-
sitive, and with the slightest injury pro-
duces inflammation, attended by the ex-
tremest torture. There is no agony equal
to that caused by an opened joint. We
must then confine the interposed joint
oil, and prevent this dreadful friction be-
tween the membranes.

There are two ways of accomplishing
his. That which seems to be the most
humane is to place a small compress on
the part, exactly covering the wound;
to- bind it down tight, and not to remove
it for many days. Yet it has often hap-
pened that when the compress has at
length been taken off, the joint oil has
flowed as quickly as before; therefore, we
believe, we must go back to the old meth-
od, and apply the hot iron to the wound.
The iron, being of a dull red heat, should
be run lightly across the surface of the

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i8T

wound in various directions, the conse-
quence of which will be that so much in-
flammation and swelling will usually be
produced as fairly to block up the orifice
with that which soon becomes organized,
or converted into the same substance as
that in contact with which it is placed,
and thus the opening into the joint is se-
curely and for ever stopped ; or, should
the joint oil in a very few cases after-
wards flow a little again, a re-application
of the iron will put an end to the busi-
ness : the sore may then be treated as a
common wound.

In many cases a lotion composed of
corrosive sublimate dissolved in spirits of
wine, applied several times a day to the
surface of the wound, only until the joint
oil disappears, will answer the purpose
better than the hot iron. In very severe
cases, where the carcass of the animal is
of trifling value, and it is, therefore, de-
sirable to attempt a cure at all risks, the
application of a paste made with flour,
and firmly bound round the part by a
number of linen bandages, will, by pre-
venting the flow of joint oil, succeed in
closing the joint in many cases : the band-
ages, however, should not be removed
for several weeks, and if necessary the
animal may be slung.

Should, however, the wound be very
large, and the opening into the joint
large too, it will usually be prudent to
destroy the animal at once, especially if it
is in tolerable condition. A dead horse
is worth comparatively little, but a dead
ox, fairly slaughtered, will produce its full
value. Therefore, the possibility of a
cure not being effected, or of the animal
materially losing condition while the cure
is attempted to be performed, should
always be taken into account; and in
cases where the meat is not injured, it
should be inquired whether the expense
and trouble, and the sufferings of the
animal, should not be at once terminated
by the butcher.

In every joint case it will be prudent
to bleed, and administer a dose of physic,
and use all proper means to prevent or
abate fever.

CATTLE, Strains and Bruises. — The
ox is not so subject as the horse to
strains, for his work is slower and usually
less laborious. The horse is seldom
strained at slow and steady work, and

that only is generally exacted from the
ox. The principal cause of strain in
these animals arises from their contests
with, or their riding or ramping each
other.

In recent strains, attended with lame-
ness and heat, the Embrocation for
Strains (See No. 57, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for) is one of the best that
can be used.

Bathe the part frequently with this
embrocation. There cannot be a better
application for strains or bruises in the
horse or cattle, or even in the human
being, when the skin is not broken.
When the heat and tenderness have
somewhat subsided, and only weakness of
the part remains, the Rheumatic Embro-
cation, No. 9, will be serviceable.

Frequent fomentations with warm water
should precede the use of these embroca-
tions. In bad cases it may be prudent
to give a doze of physic, or even to
bleed.

For very deeply-seated strains a more
powerful application may be necessary.
Then use the Strongest Embrocation for
Strains. (See Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for.)

This should be well rubbed in morning
and night. It is not intended absolutely
to blister the animal; and should the em-
brocation cause much redness or tender-
ness, it may be lowered with an equal
quantity of olive oil.

After all, a considerable degree of
weakness and lameness will occasionally
remain, and especially about the hips and
loins. A strengthening plaster (See No.
53, Domestic Animals, Medicines for),
will be very useful here. It is best ap-
plied in the form of a charge.

A little short tow is then placed over
this, before it gets cool, and which, ad-
hering to it, forms a thick coat over it.
The charge acts as a support to the part,
and as a permanent bandage. It can
never do harm ; and many an old strain,
or lameness, or rheumatic affection, has
been effectually removed by it. It should
remain on the part two or three months,
in order to insure its full success; and
after the application of the charge, the
beast should be turned out.

Although not exposed so much as the
horse to strains generally, yet there is
one joint — the fetlock — in the ox, which.

1 88

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

often suffers. The division of the lower
part of the leg into two bones materially
weakens this joint; therefore it is not
unusual to see enlarged fetlocks, and a
considerable accumulation of bone about
them. The mild and the strong embro-
cation must in turns be diligently applied,
and these failing of success, recourse
must be speedily had to the blister, or the
firing iron ; but, if these should not be
successful, and the lameness is so con-
siderable as to injure the condition of the
animal, relief can be obtained by dividing
the nerve which supplies the foot above
the fetlock, thereby removing pain and
lameness by destroying sensation.

Fractures of the leg sometimes occur ;
they have been successfully treated by
bandaging the parts, and keeping the
animal quiet.

The leg, too, has even been amputated
with success, a wooden leg being after-
wards substituted.

CATTLE, Cancerous Ulcers.— There
•seems to be a natural disposition in cattle
to the formation of tumors on various
parts of the body. They are mostly
found in the neighborhood of joints,
and generally either hanging loose, or
slightly adhering to the parts beneath.
They sometimes grow to an excessive
size. In some cases they are evidently
constitutional, for many of them appear
on different parts. They do not seem to
give much pain to the animal, and
occasionally they continue month after
month without being of any serious in-
convenience; they then suddenly break,
and a malignant ulcer ensues, which
speedily degenerates into a cancerous
one.

The tumors are sometimes smaller, and
fixed to the parts beneath by a broad
base, and which are chiefly found about
the face, on the cheeks, or under the
eyelids, or in the channel between the
jaws. These are more likely to break
than the others, and when they break, are
far less manageable. The fluid that is
discharged from them is thin and ex-
coriating, and the wounds are covered
with proud flesh, springing again as
quickly as it is removed. If they are
attacked before they break, they will
generally be got rid of.

As an external application, nothing is
superior to the Iodine Ointment. (See

No. 25, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for.)

At the same time a drachm of the
tincture of Iodine may be given in a little
gruel morning and night, at or soon after
the time of feeding; or the Hydriodate
of Potash, beginning with four grains
morning and night, and gradually in-
creasing the dose to twelve grains. This
preparation of Iodine is preferable to the
tincture ; but the internal and the external
use of the Iodine must be continued at
least three or four weeks, before any
decisive benefit will be obtained. The
tumors will frequently disappear alto-
gether; but the ointment and tincture
must be used for at least a month before
any decisive good can be expected.

If the tumors at the end of that time
should not be evidently diminishing, the
veterinary surgeon should begin to think
about removing them with the knife.
They are seldom fed by any very con-
siderable vessel, and may usually be
taken away without the slightest danger.
It will, however, be prudent to give the
tincture of Iodine for three weeks or a
month after the operation, in order to
remove the constitutional tendency to a
return of the tumor.

It will in the majority of cases be
useless to attempt to heal these tumors
when they have once broken. Strong
ointments, and caustics of all kinds, have
been tried, but the ulcer has daily spread
and gone deeper and deeper, until it
became necessary to destroy the animal.
If anything is attempted in the way of
healing the ulcers, the wound should be
washed before every dressing with the
tincture of Iodine, lowered with four
times its weight of water, and the Healing
Cleansing Ointment, No. 10 (See Domes-
tic Animals, Medicines for) be daily
applied.

These tumors are often very trouble-
some to treat, and the preferable way will
generally be to remove them as soon as
possible with the knife, except more
should be found on any other part of the
beast, in which case the removal of the;
principal tumor would only hasten the
growth of the rest. Mercurial ointment
will have no effect on these tumors;
except to irritate them, and cause them
to grow faster, and sometimes it will
salivate and seriously injure the beast.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

189.

CATTLE, Angle Berries. — These are
little warty tumors growing on various
parts of the skin. They are unpleasant
to the eye, and they sometimes become
very sore.

They are a sad nuisance about the
teats, and often render the cow very
difficult to milk; and, on the eyelids, they
are a source of perpetual torment to the
animal. The- easiest and surest way to
remove them is to tie a piece of waxed
silk firmly round the base of each, and to
tighten it every day ; by means of this
the tumor will drop off, and rarely grow
again ; there will be no bleeding, and the
neighboring parts will not be inoculated.

If they are so numerous and large that
it is necessary to have recourse to the
cautery, the heated iron should be im-
mediately applied to the angle berry.
The bleeding will thus be readily stopped,
and the tumor will not sprout anew

If they are early attended to, and
before they have reached any considera-
ble size, they will gradually disappear
when they are daily touched with the
nitrate of silver, either in substance or in
the form of a strong solution. The strong
nitrous acid will answer the same pur-
pose. When there is an inveterate dis-
position to the growth of these berries,
the iodine may be given, as already
directed, with every prospect of success.

CATTLE, Clue-bound, Fardel-bound.—
These are different terms for costiveness,
to which cattle are often subject, and
especially in the beginning of almost all
inflammatory complaints. The dung gets
more tenacious and harder, and is forced
away in very small quantities. There is
considerable dryness of the muzzle, heat
of the mouth, quickness of the pulse,
anxiety of the countenance, and every
indication of fever. Sometimes the disease
is evidently in the bowels principally or
entirely; at other times it is only the
symptom or accompaniment of other
diseases. It always requires immediate
attention, and may be considered as
highly dangerous. Bleeding will be very
useful, not only as lowering the fever, but
disposing the purgative medicine to act
more speedily. After bleeding, the bowels
should be attacked in good earnest. The
physic drinks already recommended
should be given — at first, the mild Purg-
ing Drink, No. 2. If that, repeated after

an interval of six hours, is not successful,
the Strong Physic Drink, No. 47, should
be tried; and if that also fails, a pound
of common salt should be administered,
and repeated four hours afterwards. This
will seldom deceive, in extreme cases,,
although, from its irritating the bowels a
little too much, it is not a purgative to be
recommended in ordinary cases.

The action of the purgatives will be
hastened, and generally secured, by the
use of injections. Haifa pailful of warm
water, in which Epsom salt or common
salt has been dissolved, may be thrown
up every two or three hours.

After the obstruction has been once
overcome, the continued exhibition of
mild purgatives will be prudent, for the
costiveness is too apt to return. The
Sulphur Purging Drink, No. 7, will be
the best medicine for this purpose. The
food should be mashes principally, or
young succulent grass.

CALVES, Canker in the Mouth.— The
teeth of the young calf follow each other
in rapid succession and, as is the case
with the human infant, the cutting of the
teeth is attended by soreness of the
mouth, and disinclination to eat. Nu-
merous pimples often appear about the
gums and membrane of the mouth, and
these are often run together, considerable
ulceration follows, and the animal pines
away through lack of nutriment. The
gums and tongue are sometimes consid-
erably swollen, and no small degree of
fever is excited. The first business is to
evacuate the bowels. Epsom salts will
here also constitute the preferable medi-
cine, given in doses of one or two ounces,,
and repeated daily until the proper effect
is produced. Asa local application, equal
parts of tincture of myrrh and water may
be advantageously applied to the mouth,
or a solution of common alum in water
in the proportion of half an ounce of
alum to a pint of water. Should any con-
siderable degree of fever accompany the
soreness of the mouth, the fever drink al-
ready recommended may be given in half
doses, with a scruple of magnesia added
to each.

CATTLE PHARYNX, Inflammation of
the. — See Cattle, Throat, Inflamma-
tion of THE.

190

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

OXEN, Breaking. — The sooner this is
commenced the more complete will be
the command of the teamster. It would
be well, if convenient, to have them
named and haltered, and taught to stand
and to start, to "gee" and to "haw,"
when not more than a year old, and
slightly worked in the summer and au-
tumn after they are two. Gee and haw
are the terms used in most parts of the
country. The first indicates that the
yoke is to incline off to the right, or from
the near side, on which the driver should
always take his stand. The yoke, how-
ever, should not be put on their necks
until they are to be worked, as they might
acquire a habit of running off in it,
which it will be found very difficult to
correct.

The proper time " for putting them to
work, is at three years old ; and such as
have not been handled, as above recom-
mended, while growing, should be driven
round the field for a day or two, before
being yoked, so as to tire them. The
propriety of this is proved by the greater
ease with which they are broken, when
taken and yoked directly out of a drove,
before they have time to recruit from the
fatigue of traveling. Instead, then, of
being yoked two together, they should be
tied by the horns (with a rope slipped
over and resting on the top of the head)
to the side of a house, taking care that
there be no place for the horns to become
entangled, and stand tied in this manner
till they cease to pull by the cord, which
will in most cases be in a day or two.
They may then be led very readily, and
taught to turn, stop, or start, singly, just
as a colt may be, instead of coupling two
together at first, which any man in the
care of horses would condemn, as being
most likely to end in the destruction of
one or both, which has not unfrequently
happened with young steers when forci-
bly yoked together in the first instance.

When two young cattle "are yoked
and turned loose with their tails tied to-
gether to run and plunge about, they are
almost certain to acquire a habit of run-
ning away ; and even should this not be
the case, one, and sometimes both, lose a
part of their tail in these violent exer-
tions. When they are sufficiently broken
to the halter, they may be placed side by
side, for the purpose of receiving the

yoke, having reference to their relative
size, strength, and mastership; because,
if one is stronger and more free than the
other, he should be placed on the off-side
that the team may rather incline to, than
from the driver."

If one should be larger than the other,
he will be likely to be stronger and more
free; and, should they be put to the
plow, the furrow ox being the larger, the
yoke will be kept nearer a level than in
the other case. It requires but little ob-
servation to see that they are easier to be
turned to the right, or made to "gee,"
than to the left, or to "haw," or "come
hither " therefore, if the master-ox be on
the off-side, he will assist in controlling
the near or left one in " coming round ;"
but when reversed, and the master-ox on
the near side, and he not altogether will-
ing to "come here," the team is some
time stationary ; for let the then off-ox be
never so willing to obey the voice of the
driver, the horn of the near one speaks a
contrary language, equally intelligible.
After the yoke is put on securely, their
tails should be well tied together, and
they suffered to stand tied as before until
a strong pen is built round them, not
more than sixteen or eighteen feet in di-
ameter, taking care that the ends of the
rails do not extend inwardly. The ropes
should then be loosed, if possible, in such
a way that they will not be sensible of it.
Here they will soon learn to turn them-
selves about, without one violent exer-
tion, or the least fright. They should be
tied up as before, at night, their tails un-
tied, and the yoke removed, to be re-
placed in the morning as before ; and the
day following they may be led or driven
in a larger space. By this time the cause
will be gained in a manner calculated to
insure a prime pair of cattle. They may
now be attached to something light, and
led about for a few hours, daily and grad-
ually increasing the draft, and greasing
their necks occasionally, to prevent
galling. When put to the cart or harrow
with others already broken, contrary to
the usual practice, they should be placed
betore instead of behind them ; by which
arrangement it will be found that if
frightened the old cattle will not let them
run ; but, if otherwise, they, by running
against the older ones, may frighten them
also.

CATTLE— C ARK AND MANAGEMENT.

191

In Kentucky they practice another
mode of breaking steers, which is thus
described : Where the establishment is a
large one, and there are some to be broken
in every year, the fixture and practice
here recommended would seem to be eli-
gible and judicious. " Get a strong post,
eight feet long by two thick; plant it
three and a half feet in the ground, well
rammed ; round or level the top of the post
and leave a pin to it, or make a mortice
and insert a strong two-inch pin of tough
wood in it, perpendicularly at the top, six
or eight inches long. Then get a tough
sapling twenty-five feet long; measure off
at the small end of it the usual length of
a yoke, and bore the holes for your bows.
Then bore three holes, or more if you
choose, four, eight and twelve feet from
the other end of the sapling, of the size
of the pin in the top of the post, giving
the shortest lever first, draw your steers
up, let them be young or old, gentle or
wild, it makes no difference ; yoke them
to the end of the pole ; but instead of
tying their tails together, if you wish
to avoid bob-tailed oxen, tie their loins to-
gether with a good rope, wrap up their
head halters, clear the front, and let
them go; round and round they will go
with a rush; drunk — drunker still they
grow, until groaning, down they drop. For
a while they lie panting and looking wild ;
at length they leap as if suddenly frightened,
rush round and round again, grow drunk
and drop again. Leave them, they will
repeat the experiment, until reeling, they
will stop or stand. In a few hours you
may lead them around by their halters.
Uncouple them from the pole, or yoke
them to your cart, and drive them where
you please with safety.

CATTLE, Cow, Bulling in, to Produce,
and Treatment of Bull-Burnt. — It some-
times happens that the cow will not stand
to the bull at the time that the farmer
wished, so that either the calf is dropped
a month or two after the most convenient
and piohtable time, or the most valuable
season for making butter and cheese is lost.
Some cows are thus backward because
they have been previously starved; a
week or fortnight's better keeping will
usually effect the desired purpose. In-
deed, if the animal has been well kept,
and is in good health, there will be little
trouble from her unwillinsmess to asso-

ciate with the bull, but occasionally some
of a contrary nature.

Many recipes have been given by vari-
ous authors to hasten thi period of the
cow being in season. A very common
thing with the farmer is to give the cow
that is wanted to take the bull a quart of
milk immediately after it has been drawn
from a cow that is in season. Two or
three good cordial drinks, such as Cordial
Drink No. 31 will be more serviceable.
A few malt mashes, oats, carrots, etc.,
may likewise be given. We would earnest-
ly advise the farmer never to have re-
course to cantharides. It is a danger-
ously stimulating medicine; some cows
have had suppression of urine quickly
following the exhibition of it, and others
have died from inflammation of the sex-
ual parts.

On the other hand, cows should not be-
too fat at this time, because they will fre-
quently then not stand the bulling. A
fat cow should have a dose or two of
physic and be bled ; a lean cow requires
better keeping.

The sheath and penis of the bull occa-
sionally becomes swollen and tender, and
full of little ulcers, with fetid ichorous
discharge. The animal can seldom be
managed unless he is thrown, when the
yard should be drawn out, and all the
sore places bathed with the Lotion for
Bull-Burnt. (See No. 54, Domestic An-
imals, Medicines for.)

A few application of this will give
speedy relief, and heal the sores.

The shape of the cow will sometimes
inflame and swell, accompanied with con-
siderable pain at the time of staling, and
also a thin ichorous discharge. The part
should be washed with this lotion, or a
little of it injected up the shape with a
syringe.

CATTLE, Cow-Pox.— This disease used
to be generally confounded with sore
teats, until, Jenner discovered its preserv-
ative power against small pox. Other
scientific men have since proved that it is
identical with small-pox — that it is, in
fact, the small-pox of the cow.

It appears under the form of pustules
or vesicles on the teats, which are easily
broken in milking, and which, left alone,
break of themselves, and discharge a thin,
unhealthy fluid. The pustules are sur-
rounded by a broad circle of inflamma-

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

{'.on, and if neglected, or roughly han-
illed, occasionally run into ulcers, very
foul, and difficult to heal.

At the time of, or a little before, the
appearance of the pustules, the animal
droops, refuses to feed, ceases to rumi-
nate, and labors under considerable fever.
The eyes are heavy and dull; the cow
moans and wanders about by herself, and
her milk materially lessens, and at length
is almost suspended.

It will rarely be prudent to bleed, but
the bowels should be fairly opened, and
the fever drink, No. i given once or
twice in the day, according to the ap-
parent degree of fever. The teats should
be frequently washed with warm water,
and the Lotion for Cow-pox applied
morning and night. (See No. 60, Do-
mestic Animals, Medicines for.)

If the ulcers become very foul, and
difficult to heal, they must be treated in
the way recommended for garget.

It is well known that these eruptions
give a similar disease to the milker.
Pustules appear about the joints of the
hand, and the ends of the fingers ; and
there is sometimes considerable fever,
pain in the head and limbs and loins,
shivering, vomiting, and a quickened
pulse. The pustules burst in three or
four days, and sometimes become trouble-
some sores difficult to heal ; and if un-
fortunately the patient should have rubbed
his cheek or his lips with the diseased
hand, the ulcers will appear there also.

It was the observation that persons
who had had this disease of the cow were
usually exempt from small-pox, which led
to the most important discovery in medi-
cine that has been made in modern
times.

There is another eruption on the teat
of the cow that bears no inconsiderable
resemblance to the true cow-pox, and
that has been confounded with it. The
pustules are smaller: they are not so
round, nor so deep ; nor have they the
blue color of the others, and they con-
tain pus or matter from the very first.
They will readily yield to the Ointment
for Sore Teats, No. 29.

Even without any application to them,
the scabs usually peel off in a few days,
and the skin underneath is quite sound.
If, however, these are carelessly rubbed

off in the act of milking, troublesome
ulcers are apt to ensue.

It is of much importance to the farmer
to be able to distinguish between these
two eruptions. The first is contagious,
and may be communicated to the milk-
maid, and, by her, to other cows. It is
the true cow-pox. The second is not
contagious, and is readily got rid of.

CATTLE, Babies, Hydrophobia.— This
dreadful disease is produced by the bite
of a rabid or mad dog. The time that
may elapse betweeD the bite and the
appearance of the malady varies from
three weeks to three or four months.

The symptoms of its approach are dul-
ness; loss of appetite; the eyes are anx-
ious, protruding and red; the animal fre-
quently and pitifully lows, and is contin-
ually voiding its dung or its urine. Sali-
va drivels plentifully from the mouth, but
after a day or two the discharge dries up,
and is succeeded by thirst almost insatia-
ble; there is no hydrophobia or dread ot
water at any time. Presently weakness
of the loins and staggering appear; these
are succeeded by palsy of the hind limbs,
and the animal lingers six or seven days,
and dies.

In some cases the beast is dreadfully
ferocious ; he runs furiously at every ob-
ject, stands across the path bellowing and
tearing up the ground, and violently at-
tacks and gores his companions.

There is no cure; the most prudent
thing is to destroy the aninal as soon as
the disease is sufficiently plain. Care
should b2 taken that the saliva of the
rabid ox is not received on a wound or
abraded part, for it has produced the dis-
ease in other animals. Any wound on
which it has fallen should immediately
have the lunar caustic applied to it.

When a mad dog has been known to
bite an ox, or a cow, there is a possibility
of their escape, for the hide is thick,.
and the hair is thick too, and the skin
may not be penetrated, or the tooth may
have been cleaned in passing through the
hair. They should be most carefully ex-
amined, and especially about the part c .1
which they were seized by the dog, and il
the minutest scratch can be found, Ike
hair must be cut off round it, and the lu-
nar caustic applied. That being done
effectually, and every bite being discov-
ered and operated on, the animal is safe ;

CATTLE— CARE AND. MANAGEMENT

*93

but it is possible, or rather it is too prob-
able, that every bite will not be discov-
ered, considering how thickly the skin is
covered by hair. It is, therefore, the
safest course, if the beast is in tolerable
condition, to sell it at once to the butch-
er, for it will not be fit for the shambles
after rabies has once appeared. Medi-
cine would be completely thrown away in
these cases.

CALVES, Young, the Diseases Inci.
dent to. — When the calf is dropped,
proper care should be taken of the cow
by providing her with a comfortable place
to lie down ; she should also be suffered
freely to lick her calf, for this will not
only make her fond of it, but the young
animal will be thoroughly cleansed, and
raised much sooner than it otherwise
would, and the mother, in eating the
cleansing, will obtain that medicine
which nature designed for her.

It is usual to take away a quart of the first
milk, called the beastings, before the calf
is allowed to suck. After this the young
animal may be allowed access to the cow,
but regulated by the plan of suckling or
bringing up on which the grazier may de-
termine. The calf should remain with
the mother during a few days at least, or
until the milk is proper for the purposes
of the dairy.

The mother's first milk is of an ape-
rient quality, and sufficiently so to cleanse
the bowels of the calf from the black,
sticky substance which they contain when
first dropped. If this should not be ef-
fected, a little opening medicine, .such as
Aperient Drink for Calves, (See No. 61,
Domestic Animals, Medicines for,)
will be necessary.

The Epsom salts are as efficacious as
any kind of oil for purging young cattle,
as well as far less expensive than most
oils. Custom, however, has sanctioned
the almost general use of castor oil in
these cases, and there is no objection
to it.

After the first or second day, it will be
prudent to tie the calf in a corner of the
hovel, that it may not be always sucking
the mother, for it might overgorge itself
with milk, which would coagulate in the
fourth stomach, and choke it up, and pro-
duce disease, and even death. If it is
evident that the cow would yield more
milk than the calf should have, it is the

*3

custom, and very properly, to take away
a portion of it from her two or three
times in the day, before the young one is
unfastened.

The time that the calf, after this, re-
mains with the mother is chiefly regulated
by the system which the breeder usually
pursues, but reference should always be
had to the state of the cow's udder, If
it is perfectly free from knobs, or kernels,
or hardness, the calf may be removed at
a comparatively early period ; but if any
induration of the teats appears, the young
animal should be permitted to suck a
while longer. The frequent sucking will
prevent the milk from curdling in the
udder; and also the friction and shaking
of the bag, by the jolting of the calfs
head in the act of sucking, will contrib-
ute not a little to the dispersion of the tu-
mors. We have already spoken of garget,
and shown that a very prevalent cause
of it is the weaning of the calf too soon.

Few things are more injurious than the
exposure of the young calf to wet and cold.
It lays a foundation for rheumatism and
hoose, which no medical treatment can
afterwards remove.

Bleeding from the navel string is not
an uncommon complaint among calves,
and it is a verv troublesome one. The
first 'thing to be done is to pass another
ligature round the string nearer to the
body ; for if the bleeding is not stopped
the life of the young animal will some-
times be endangered. It may happenr
however, that the first ligature may have
been nearer to the belly than it ought to
have been, so near indeed, that another
cannot be passed within it. A pledget of
lint that has been dipped in a decoction
of galls (half a dozen galls bruised, and
boiled in half a pint of water), should be
placed over the part, and confined with a
proper bandage. This will be far prefer-
able to the blue vitriol, and oil of vitriol,
which some cow-leeches are so fond of
applying. It will stop the blood, but not
eat into and destroy the part.

From the application of the caustic, orj
even of the second ligature, a great deal
of swelling will sometimes take place.
This should be well fomented until in-
flammation is pretty nearly subdued. The
after-treatment will depend on circum-
stances. If there is a solid tumor, the
fomentation, or a poultice, must be con-

194

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

tinued until the swelling breaks, or points
so decidedly that it may be opened with
a lancet. Poultices must then be applied
until the matter has fairly run out, after
which a little Friar's Balsam will usually
complete the cure.

In consequeuce of the bleeding and
discharge of matter, the calf will some-
times be exceedingly reduced; some tonic
t medicine will then be necessary. The
'Tonic Drink, No. 3, given in half doses,
will be serviceable, and at the same time
the calf should be forced with good oat-
meal or pea-meal gruel.

CALVES, Diarrhoea.— One of the most
frequent and fatal diseases to which young
calves are subject is diarrhoea, or violent
purging. It occurs most frequently when
the young animal is from a fortnight to
six weeks old, and is in the majority of
cases the consequence of neglect. The
calf has been too early exposed to cold
and wet, or has been half starved, and
then one full and hearty meal often dis-
arranges the whole alimentary canal. It
is bad policy to stint the calf too much in
its quantity of milk. The loss of two or
three calves in the course of a year will
more than swallow up the supposed sav-
ing resulting from a system of starvation.

At the time of weaning, or when the
food is changed from milk to gruel or
porridge, diarrhoea and dysentery are very
apt to occur, and are subdued with great
difficulty. The weaning and change of
food should be effected slowly, and with a
great deal of caution. The new milk
should be mixed with the skim milk or
gruel which is afterwards to be substituted,
and the quantity of the one gradually
diminished, while the other is as cautious-
ly increased. •

The symptoms of diarrhoea in calves
are, continual purging; the matter dis-
charged is covered with more than its
natural quantity of mucus ; sometimes it
is bloody, and often fetid; the animal
loathes its food, staggers as it walks, and
becomes rapidly thin. Towards the last
stage of the disease the dung is more and
tmore fetid and bloody, a greater portion
of mucus mixes with it, and at length the
discharge seems to be composed of mucus
and blood, with scarcely any mixture of
natural foecal matter. When this occurs
there is little or no hope of cure.

The principal thing is to treat these dis-

eases in time, before the mucous coat of
the intestines becomes so inflamed that a
bloody discharge ensues which soon wears
the animal down.

Much acidity in the stomach and bow-
els attends all these complaints; there-
fore, it is necessary to get rid of it, first of
all, by the administration of a mild purga-
tive, and afterwards by the exhibition of
chalk, or some other medicine with which
the acid will readily combine. Two
ounces of castor oil, or four of Epsom
salts, may be given.

Opium in some form or other must
always be united with the chalk. It is of
no use to get rid of one complaint when
others are lurking and ready to appear.
It will not be sufficient to neutralize the
acidity of the stomach; the mouths of the
vessels that are pouring out all this mu-
cus and blood must be stopped ; and we
have not a more powerful or useful medi-
cine than this in our whole catalogue of
drugs. It acts by removing the irritation
about the orifices of the exhalent vessels,
and when this is effected they will cease
to pour out so much fluid. Other astrin-
gents may be added, and a carminative
mingled with the whole to recall the ap-
petite, and rouse the bowels to healthy
action. The Calves' Diarrhoea Medi-
cine (see No. 62, Domestic Animalsv
Medicines for,) will present the best
combination of all these things.

This will be the proper dose for a calf
from a fortnight to two months old. If
the animal is older, the dose may be in-
creased one-half. The common Dalby's
Carminative is not a bad medicine, al-
though a dear one, and may be given in
doses of half a bottle at a time, when it
happens to be at hand, and the case is
urgent, and the drugs which compose
Recipe No. 62 cannot be immediately
procured.

When these preparations have been
given some time, and have failed to stop
the purging, we have known the Calves'
Purging to Stop (see No. 63, Domes-
tic Animals, Medicines for,) given
with very good effect. This may be given
morning and night.

When constant and violent straining
accompanies the expulsion of the dung,
an injection of a pint of thick gruel, with
which half a drachm of powdered opium
has been mixed, will be very useful.

CATTLE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

i95

Diarrhoea will often in the early stage
be accompanied not only by inflammation
■of the bowels, but much general fever.
This will be known by much panting,
heat of the mouth, and uneasiness, the
animal lying down and getting up again,
rolling, or kicking at its belly. It will
then be prudent to bleed. A pint will be
the proper quantity to be taken from a
calf under a month ; after that an addi-
tional ounce may be taken for every
month. When, however, the diarrhoea
has been long established, and the calf is
getting weak and rapidly losing flesh, it
would be madness to bleed ; the strength
of the animal would be more speedily
exhausted, and its death hastened. Chalk,
or starch, astringents, and carminatives
will then afford the only rational hope of
success. After the cure has been com-
pleted, much care should be taken re-
specting the diet of the animal ; and it
will sometimes be useful to give him a
lump of chalk and another of salt in his
feeding place, to lick them .when he likes.

CALVES, Costivenesa in. — This disease
occasionally attacks young calves a few
days after they are born. It is then caused
by coagulation of milk in the fourth
stomach, which is completely distended
by the solid curd, and the passage through
it obstructed. There is not often any
remedy for this. The most likely method
to succeed is to pour in plenty of warm
water in which Epsom salts have been
dissolved, by means of the stomach-
pump so often recommended. The first
dose may consist of two ounces of the
salts dissolved in two or three quarts of
water ; after which ounce-doses may be
given every six hours, likewise in the
same quantity of water, until the bowels
are opened.

The costiveness of calves is generally
produced by bad management. Either
the calf is suffered to suck too plentifully,
or put to a cow whose milk is too old, or
fed with new milk from the dairy pro-
miscuously. All these things are injuri-
ous, and thousands of young animals
have been destroyed by them.

When costiveness occurs in calves ot
two or three months old, it is usually
when they have been too suddenly
changed from fluid food, as gruel or
porridge, to that of a dryer and more
•stimulating kind, and consisting princi-

pally of hay. This is a dangerous com-
plaint ; for there is not only obstruction
usually in the tnanyplies, or third stomach,
which is employed in rubbing down the
hard fibrous food, and now becomes
overloaded and clogged, but the paunch
itself is generally filled with undigested
food, and rumination has ceased.

Here again everything depends on
diluting the hardened mass, and opening
the bowels. The first dose of medicine
should consist of a quarter of a pound of
Epsom salts, dissolved in a gallon of
warm water. It will not be forgotten
that by introducing the pipe a little way,
or far down the gullet, the medicine may
be thrown at once into the third and
fourth stomachs, or into the first. If it is
introduced only a little way, and the
pump worked gently, the fluid will pass
on through the canal at the base of the
gullet, which was described in the early
part of the work, and enter the third
stomach. Flowing through this in con-
siderable quantities, it will perhaps dis-
solve, and wash out the hardened mass
contained between the leaves of the
manyplies, while the salts will open the
bowels, and by emptying them, solicit the
food forward from the gorged stomachs.

If, after the bowels have been well
opened, rumination should not return, it
will be prudent to have recourse again to
the stomach-pump, the tube of which
should now be pushed farther down the
gullet until it enters the paunch. Plenty
of warm water being now pumped in,
and with some force, it will stir up the
contents of the paunch, and cause them to
be disgorged into the canal leading to the
true stomach; or vomiting will be ex-
cited, and the greater part of it thus
brought away. The stomach will prob-
ably act upon the little that remains,
rumination will again be established, and
the animal will speedily recover.

There are few things so dangerous to
young cattle as being thus sapped or
costive. It is the foundation of fever,
and of many a serious complaint. As
soon as the dung is observed to be hard,
a mild dose of physic should be given to
every calf. A little attention to this would
keep the breeding stock in good order ;
and their preservation, and health, and
rapid thriving would abundantly repay
the little additional trouble and expense.

196

CATTLE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

Farmers in general, however, are shame-
fully careless here ; and no notice is taken
of half the diseases under which their
stock of every kind plainly and evidently
labor, until they are past all cure. It is
also matter of general observation, that
a calf that has a considerable tendency
to costiveness is slow in getting fat and
preparing for the market.

All cattle are subject to occasional
costiveness, and which should be removed
as early as in the calf, as being the
frequent root of much evil. It is either
one of the symptoms of the beast labor-
ing under inflammatory fever, or it lays
the foundation for inflammatory fever.
A purge of Epsom salts, or even of
common salt, if the other should not be
at hand, will not cost much, and would
save the lite of many a beast ; let not the
farmer, however, follow up the farrier's
practice of giving a cordial drink two or
three days after the physic, under the
notion of removing flatulence, and pro-
moting digestion, and invigorating the
system. The fever, of which this cos-
tiveness is either the forerunner or the
cause, would only be hastened and ag-
gravated by this absurd system of stimu-
lation.

CALVES, Hoose in the.— This disease
in the adult animal has already been con-
sidered; in the calf it assumes different
and more aggravated symptoms, and is
more speedily connected with consump-
tion and death. The moment a calf is
observed to cough violently, he should be
removed from the pasture, and put under

tolerably warm shelter and taken care of.
A bleeding and a dose of physic, and a
fever powder, will then usually restore the
animal to perfect health.

At times the hoose is epidemic among
cattle, and hundreds of them die. Prop-
er treatment at first will, in the majority
of cases, remedy the evil ; but should the
animal get rapidly worse, and his cough
be peculiarly violent and distressing, care
should be taken to examine the first that
happens to die, on the farmer's own es-
tate, or that of his neighbor, and if the
windpipe and the air tubes below should
be found filled with the worms which have
already been described, recourse should
be had to the spirit of turpentine, which
will often succeed in destroying them.
The principle on which the turpentine
acts has been already explained. The
Receipt No. 64, Calves, Hoose in, (See
Domestic Animals, Medicines for,)
will be found a good formula for its ad-
ministration to calves from six to twelve
months old.

A cure has also been obtained by the
exhibition of half a pint of lime-water;
every morning and a table spoonful of
salt the same afternoon. The origin of
these worms has not yet been satisfacto-
rily developed; but it is supposed that
the eggs are taken with the water, ab-
sorbed by the blood vessels, and thus en-
ter the windpipe, where they are hatched j
but one thing is certain, that in nine cases
out of ten the farmer may attribute all
the losses he sustains to neglect of the
calf, or premature exposure of him to cold
and wet.

SHEEP:

DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT OF.

This has been a sadly neglected branch
of veterinary inquiry and practice. The
.nature and treatment of the diseases of
sheep form little or no part of the instruc-
tion given in some of our veterinary
schools, and seldom come under the
cognizance of the surgeon afterwards.
The shepherd undertakes the treatment
of foot-rot, and scab, and hoove; and
with regard to the other maladies to which
this animal is subject, they are either
suffered to take their course, or, if a veteri-
nary practictioner is ever employed, it is
when the disease is firmly established, or
the whole flock infected, and medical aid
is fruitless. This is much to be lamented,
and very absurd; for although an indi-
vidual sheep may not be worth much, yet
a numerous flock forms no inconsiderable
portion of the farmer's wealth, and the
frequent mortality among these animals is
a very serious loss to him.

The internal structure of the sheep so
nearly resembles that of the ox, that we
will content ourselves with referring to
the anatomy of the ox, as described in
the early part of this work. The diseases
of both have a very great resemblance in
their nature, and cause, and progress, and
medical treatment. The same drugs are
administered to both. There cannot be
a better purgative for sheep than Epsom
salts : there is no better fever medi-
:ine than the digitalis, emetic tartar,
and nitre. The principal difference is in
the quantity to be administered; a sixth or
eighth part of the usual dose for cattle
will be sufficient for the sheep. The
quantity of blood taken will depend on
the size of the animal and the nature of
the disease. Four ounces would be a fair
average bleeding from a lamb, and a pint
from a full grown sheep. Shepherds are
ipt to bleed from the eye-vein ; but the
)lood generally flows slowly, and, arier

all, the proper quantity will not always be
obtained. The best place for bleeding is
from the jugular, as in cattle. A ligature
should be tied round the neck, and then
the vein will rise so evidently that it can-
not possibly be mistaken. The vein
should be opened with the lancet com-
monly used for the human being: the
orifice should be large, and the blood ob-
tained as quickly as possible.

SHEEP, Lambing Season.— The ewe
goes with lamb five months. With the
best care a great deal of danger attends
this early lambing, and even at a later
period a few cold nights are fatal to many
of the lambs. There is nothing that re-
quires more reformation than the treat-
ment both of the ewe and the lamb at the
time of weaning.

During the time of gestation more at -
tention is required than is generally paid.
To enable the ewe to produce her lamb
with comparative safety, she should not
be too well fed. One of the most preva
lent causes of puerperal fever, or dropping
after calving, in the cow, is her too high
condition. It is more particularly so with
the ewe; and there are few things that the
farmer should be more careful about than
that the fair, but not unusual or forced,
condition of the animal is preserved. A
week or two before the time, a little bet-
ter keep may be useful in order to give
them sufficient strength for the lambing.
It is a kind of middle course which the
farmer has to pursue, qnd the path is not
very difficult to trace : too high condition
will dispose to fever ; on the other hand,
with too poor keep the ewe will not have
sufficient strength to go through the pro-
cess safely, nor will she have milk enough
for the lambs. If the dam has not suffi-
cient support previously, the lamb will be
weakly when it is dropped, and will not
thrive well afterwards.

(i97)

10S

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

When the time of yeaning approaches,
a little care may prevent a very great loss
to the farmer. The ewes should be
brought as nearly home as possible. They
should be sheltered from the wind, it it
be only a high and thick hedge; but a
kind of shed, however rudely constructed
would abundantly pay the expense of
building it. At night, particularly, they
should be folded in some sheltered place.

The care of the farmer or lamber will
vary a great deal according to tne period
of the year and the state ot tne weather.
In the early lambing the greatest losses
are at the beginning; they arise princi-
pally from cold. In March or April the
latter part of the lambing season is most
dangerous, for there is more abundant
keep, and more tendency to inflamma-
tion.

The clatting of the ewes is a very useful
practice now. They are tiirown, and a
portion of the wool is remo'/ed from their
tails and udders. The sticking together
of the wool from the purging to which
the ewe is often subject in "the early part
of the spring, when the grass is fresh, has
lost many a lamb. When the udders are
thus cleaned, the lamber will more easily
perceive the stain on the part, which, and
Avhich alone, will sometimes tell him
whether the ewe has yeaned ; for it is no
uncommon thing for a young ewe to
desert her lamb, and be found grazing
with the rest of the flock as unconcernedly
as if nothing had happened.

An experienced lamber win almost
always tell when the ewe is about to
yean. If he finds her soon afterwards
taken with labor pains, and they continue
to succeed each other regularly, and she
remains lying down, he will take care not
to disturb her ; but if a couple of hours
pass, and the lamb is not produced, he
carefully examines her. If the nose and
the tips of the toes have presented them-
selves, and the lamb seems to be in a
proper position, but the head is large, or
the passage is narrow, he leaves her
again for another hour; but if there is
evidently a false presentation, he intro-
duces one or two fingers, or his hand,
well guarded with oil, puts the young one
in the proper position, and nature speedily
effects the rest.

The principal art of the lamber is to
know when he should interfere. In every

case of false presentation his help should
be ready and immediate ; but otherwise
he should very rarely meddle with the
ewe, except the mother is nearly ex-
hausted, or the life of the young one
appears to be in danger. One moment's
observation will discover the state of the
mother; and the degree of protrusion of
the tongue of the young one, and its
color, will not often deceive with regard
to him. When the tongue hangs far
from the mouth, and is getting livid or
black, it is high time for the lamber to
interfere.

The lamber should use as little violence
as possible; but then he should recollect
that the ewe will often bear a great deal
of force being applied without the slight-
est injury to her, and sometimes with no
great danger to the little one. The
exhausted state of the one or the other
Avill regulate the degree of force. When
there is much exhaustion, no time is to
be lost, and some strength should be
applied in the extraction of the lamb.

The state of the weather, too, will
somewhat regulate this. In cold weather
more time may be allowed. The process
of parturition is then slower. In warm
weather there is more tendency to fever,
and the ewe should not be suffered to
exhaust herself too much.

Unnatural presentations are often very
awkward things to have to do with. The
ewe should be driven into the pound, and
after having rested a few minutes, some
of the fingers, or the hand, if it is small,
should be introduced into the vagina. If
only one leg presents, and the shoulder
thus forms an obstruction, the other leg
will generally be easily laid hold of and
brought down. If the neck is bent, and
the crown of the head presents itself, it
may be pushed back, and the two fore-
paws brought into the passage, and then
the muzzle will naturally follow. If the
foetus lies sideways, the cord and the
position of the legs will enable the shep-
herd to distinguish between the spine and
the belly. The turning is sometimes a
difficult thing; but practice will often
give the lamber a great deal of clever-
ness in this operation.

In extreme cases, and when the lamb
is evidently dead, it may be necessary to
introduce a blunt-pointed knife into the
uterus, and cut the little animal to pieces.

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT

199

The greatest care must be taken that the
mother is not wounded, for that would
produce inevitable death. When the
lamb has been thus taken away piece-
meal, a little physic — an ounce of Epsom
salts, with a few grains of ginger — should
be given to the mother, who should then
be left undisturbed for several hours.

The ewe, and especially if she was in
high condition, is occasionally subject to
after-pains. Some of the country peo-
ple call it heaving. It continues many
hours, and sometimes exhausts and de-
stroys the animal. It is particularly
dangerous if she has been too well kept,
and much force has been used in extract-
ing the lamb. Twenty drops of laudanum
should be given in a little gruel, and
repeated every second hour until the
pains abate. It will always be prudent
to bleed the ewe, if she is not better soon
after the second dose of the laudanum.

The womb is sometimes forced out of
the orifice, when great force has been used
in extracting the lamb. It must, if neces-
sary, be cleaned with warm water, and
carefully returned by a person with a
small hand. Gentle and continued pres-
sure will effect this much sooner and
safer than the application of the greatest
force. It will, however, again protrude if
a couple of stitches, with tolerably strong
twine, are not passed through the lips of
the orifice. If the womb is thus returned
before it has been much bruised, or in-
flamed by hanging out, there will be little
danger to the mother, and she may suckle
her lamb as usual. When she has ac-
complished that, she should be fattened,
for the same accident would almost cer-
tainly happen at her next parturition.

Attention should now be paid to the
lamb, and it requires it even more than
the mother. It is want of care that
causes the loss of more than four-fifths of
the dead lambs. The principal evil is
exposure to cold. If the weather is
severe, great numbers of lambs are often
lost in a single night. A few hurdles with
straw, or a warm quick hedge, or a shed
for them to go into, would save the
greater part of them. The farmer needs
but to use a little observation in order to
be convinced how eagerly the ewes and
the lambs seek that shelter, and how safe
they are compared with others that are
exposed. Some breeds are more hardy

than others, but the hardiest of them will
not endure absurd and cruel neglect and
exposure. Let the farmer think of the
sudden change from the warmth of the
mother's womb to the driving sleet, and
the cold wet ground ; he will not wonder
that so many of his lambs are palsied
and starved to death.

The lambs are not quite out of danger
when a day or two has passed after they
have dropped. They live for the first
week or fortnight on the mother's milk,
and then begin to imitate their parent and
graze a little ; indeed, they have not their
teeth up to enable them to graze at first.
They should not be put on too good pas-
ture at this early period, for the change
of food is often dangerous. A lamb of a
fortnight old will often sicken suddenly,
refuse the teat, cease to ruminate, swell,
heave, and die in less than twenty-four
hours. On being examined, the stomach
will sometimes be found enormously dis-
tended, at other times there will be little
food in it, but there always is a great deal
of bile in the upper intestines, with inflam-
mation there, the evident cause of death,
and produced by the change of food.
Those who die at this early period are
often called gall-lambs t from the great
quantity of bile found in their intestines.
When, at three or four months old, the
lamb is perfectly weaned, he is subject to
a similar complaint, and from a similar
cause. The lamb should certainly have
better pasture when he is deprived of his
mother's milk, but the change should not
be sudden or violent.

Physic will evidently be required here,
such as Epsom salts in doses of half an
ounce every second or third day ; and if
there is much swelling, the stomach-pump
will be used with advantage, both in ex-
tracting the gas, and in injecting warm
water into the stomach with all intention
either to cause vomiting or to wash out
the contents of the stomach.

The operation of castration is a very
simple one in the sheep, and yet is often
attended with danger — sometimes result-
ing from the unskilfulness of the operator,
and at other times from some unfriendly
state of the atmosphere. We have known
on the same farm, and the same gelder
being employed, that in one year not a
lamb has been lost, and in the following
year several scores. Generally speaking,

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

however, the fatal result is to be attributed
to bad management. The younger the
lambs are the better, provided they are
not very weak. From ten days to a fort-
night seems to be the most proper time,
or, we may say, as soon as the testicles can
be laid hold of. We would advise the farm-
er never to set apart a day when the whole
or the greater part of his male lambs are
to undergo the operation, for many of
them will then be too old, and he will
assuredly lose some of them. He should
take them as soon as they are ready, al-
though there may be only a few at a time.

The lamb being well secured, the scro-
tum or bag is to be grasped in one hand
high up, and the testicles pushed down as
low as possible : two incisions are then to be
made across the bag at the bottom of it,
and the testicles forced out. The gelder
now often takes the stones between his
teeth, and bites the cord asunder. This
is a nasty and a cruel way of proceed-
ing. The better way is to draw the testi-
cles down an inch or more from the scro-
tum, and then to cut through the cord
close to the scrotum with a knife that is
not very sharp. Scarcely a drop of blood
follows when the cord is thus separated ;
the end of the cord retracts into the bag,
and there is not half the danger of inflam-
mation which there is when the cord is
gnawed and torn by the teeth.

Except the lambs are very weakly, and
the ewes much exhausted and emaciated,
it will not be requisite to give any medi-
cine after yeaning. In the great majority
of cases the animals will do a great deal
better without it. Should, however, tonic
medicine be necessary, we know nothing
better than the Tonic Drink. (See No.
65, Domestic Animals, Medicines for.)

If the ewes will not feed well at all,
they should be forced with good gruel,
and the best is made of equal parts of oat
and linseed meal.

IAMBS, Coagulation of the Milk.— We
have spoken of this when treating of the
diseases of calves. The lamb is, if pos-
sible, more subject to this curdling of the
milk than the calf is, and it carries off the
finest and best of the flock. The farmer
likes to see his lambs growing fast 5 but it
is possible to make more haste than good
speed. The lamb may have excess of
nutriment, and particularly of its mother's
milk. When a lamb thrives at an extra-

ordinary rate, the bag of the mother
should be examined, and if it is too large
and full, it will be prudent to milk away-
daily a little of its contents, otherwise the
yet weak stomach of the young animai
may have more coagulated milk in it than
it can digest. All the milk that is swal-
lowed by the young lamb coagulates in
the stomach, and if it accumulates too
fast, the stomach will become perfectly
choked with it, and the lamb will be de-
stroyed. Two pounds of curdled milk
have been found in the stomach of a
lamb. When a thriving lamb, with a
healthy mother having a full bag, begins
all at once to be dull, and stands panting
and distressed, and can scarely be induced
to move, and is considerably swelled, it is
probably from this cause.

In this disease there is often apparent
purging of a light color, which is, in fact,
the whey passing off, whilst the curd accu-
mulates and produces obstinate constipa-
tion.

The first thing to be done is to admin-
ister an alkali, to dissolve the mass, such
as magnesia, in doses of half an ounce
twice a day; after which two to four
drachms of Epsom salts, with a little gin-
ger, dissolved in warm water, and the
warm water often repeated, if necessary,
by means of the stomach-pump as useful
for them as for cattle. When the bowels
have thus been opened, and the curdled
milk has in some measure passed off, the
stomach may be strengthened by occa-
sional doses of the Tonic Drink for Cat-
tle. (See No. 32, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for.) The ewe and lamb
should then be turned into scantier pas-
ture.

LAMBS, Diarrhoea. — There is not a
more destructive disease among young
lambs than this. It frequently attacks
them when they are not more than a day
old, and carries them off in the course of
another day. Oftener it does not appear
until they are nearly a week old, and the
lambs have not then a much better chance.
But if they are two or three months old,
and have gained a little strength, they
may, perhaps, weather the disease. The
causes are various, but not always diffi-
cult to discover. They are generally re-
ferrable to the neglect and mismanage-
ment of the farmer. It may be the
consequence of absurd and cruel ex-

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

posure to cold. For sheep generally —
and more'particularly for lambs — we once
repeat it, and we would impress it on the
mind of the farmer and the practitioner,
shelter and comfort are the first and grand
things to be considered. I do not mean
confinement in a close and ill-ventilated
place, but that defence from the wind and
snow which it would cost the farmer little
to raise, and for which he would be amply
paid in one season. If it probably arises
from cold, the remedy is plain — better
shelter, and, for a few days, housing.

It is sometimes attributable to want of
proper support. The ewe, if it be her first
lamb, may have deserted it, or she may
have little milk to give it ; and the com-
bined influence of starvation and cold
produces diarrhcea sooner than anything
else. Warmth and new cow's milk are
good remedies, but the best method to
cure or prevent is to give them daily a
few messes of wheat in the sheaf; a regu-
lar quantity of salt at all times. If it oc-
curs in the winter, steep, in brine, ripe
hay, in the seed; wheat chaff is good, as
is a small quantity of oats, and a few pine
or hemlock tops. Keep them a few days
on ripe hay or corn fodder.

Not unfrequently the mother's milk
seems to disagree with the lamb. It is
naturally aperient. It may occasionally
be too much so. If her teats are full, and
she evidently has plenty of milk, this will
probably be the case. She should be fed
on dry meat for a day or two, or should
be turned out only during the day, and
housed at night, when she should be
•allowed a little hay. While the food is
altered the bowels should be well
cleansed. There may be something
amiss about the ewe, which causes the
milk to be thus purgative and unwhole-
some. The best purgative for sheep is
the Purging Drink. (See No. 66, Domes-
tic Animals, Medicines for.)

This being given to the mother will
will likewise be of service to the lamb, by
helping to carry off any acidities or crudi-
ties from the stomach or bowels.

In a disease so fatal, and which runs its
•course so rapidly no time is to be lost, and
therefore Astringent Medicine (see No.
■67, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) should be administered to the lamb
as speedily as possible.

If the animal should still linger on, and

the purging should not be much abated,
it is probable that the milk of the mother
is most in fault. The lamb should then
be taken from her, and fed with cow's
milk boiled, to every pint of which a
scruple of prepared chalk has been added,
the astringent drink being continued as
before.

If the purging abates, the medicine
should be immediately suspended, or not
given so frequently, lest costiveness should
follow, a disease which we shall presently
describe, and which is also very fatal.

The lamb with diarrhcea should be
docked on the first appearance of the
disease, if the operation had not been
previously performed, and the hair
should be carefully cut away under the
tail, otherwise it is liable to become clot-
ted. It will adhere together, and form
an obstruction about the anus, so that the
faeces cannot be discharged. The least
ill consequence of this will be very great
soreness about the part; but in many
cases the animal will die in consequence
of the obstruction, before the existence of
it is suspected.

The color of the discharge will con-
siderably influence the mode of treatment.
If it is of an olive-green color, the drink
should be persevered in; and on every
third day half a table-spoonful of castor
oil should be administered. If this is of
a white color, it may probably proceed
from coagulation of the milk, and should
be treated as advised in a previous page.

If the lamb is two or three months old,
the medicine should be correspondingly
increased, and he has a better chance. Ir
he is five or six months old, he will only
be lost through the negligence of the
farmer or attendant. The same means
must be pursued ; but another thing must
be added, and that of the greatest im-
portance— a change of pasture from a
succulent to a bare and dry one. The
removal to a stubble-field is a frequent
and very successful practice.

LAMBS, Costiveness in. — When no
evacuation appears to be effected, but the
animal is continually straining, two cir-
cumstances must be carefully examined
into ; first, whether there is the obstruc-
tion of which we have just spoken, ut-
terly preventing the discharge of the
dung, and a speedy remedy being at
at hand, namely, the removal of the clot-

ro2

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

ted wool; or whether after the staining,
some drops of liquid faeces may not be
perceived; this, although often mistaken
for costivencss, clearly indicates a very
different state of the bowels ; they are ac-
tually relaxed — too much so, and the
straining results from irritation about the
anus.

Actual costiveness, however, is not an
unfrequent complaint, and must be speed-
ily attacked; for it is either the accompan-
iment of fever, or it will very speedily
lead on to fever. The existence of fever
should be carefully inquired into ; heav-
ing of the flanks, restlessness, and heat
of the mouth will be sufficient indica-
tions of it. Bleeding in proportion to
the degree of fever, and the age and
strength of the lamb should then be had
recourse to. Next, the bowels must be
opened; one-fourth of the Purging
Drink (See No. 66, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for,) will be the best thing
that can be given, and it should be re-
peated every sixth hour until the desired
effect is produced. The lamb should be
turned into greener and more succulent
pasture, and especially where there is any
fresh flush of grass ; and if, after a while, he
should altogether refuse to eat, he may be
drenched with gruel, in which a little Ep-
som salts should always be dissolved.
While this affords nutriment, it will cool
the animal and open the bowels.

LAMBS, Staggers in. — Many lambs
are lost from this disease, and the farmer
most certainly has here no one to blame
but himself. It attacks the most thriving
lambs, and especially when they are
about three or four months old ; and it
arises from the farmer making a great
deal more haste than usual in fattening
them for the market. It resembles the
blood in cattle, and is usually produced
by the same causes.

The lamb will appear to be in perfect
health. All at once he will stand still,
heaving violently at the flanks, and with
the head protruded; or he will wander
about with great uncertainty in his walk
and manner ; he will then all at once fall
down and lie struggling upon his back
until he is helped up, or dies. Sometimes
he is very much convulsed.

Bleeding must be resorted to immedi-
ately, and afterwards the bowels well
opened by means of the Purging Drink.

To this some cooling febrifuge medicine,,
such as Cooling Fever Drink, (See No..
68, Domestic Animals, Medicines for,)
should succeed.

On examination after death, the head
will be found to be the principal part
diseased; the vessels of the brain will be
distended with blood, and there will
sometimes be water in the ventricles.

We have seen half a dozen lambs in
staggers in the same field at the same
time. They had all been exposed to the
same cause ; and when the disease had.
begun in one or two it spread among the
rest by the strange and often too power-
ful influence of sympathy.
SHEEP, Bed-Water in.— The disease rec-
ognized under this name is very different
from that described in the cow, for here it
consists in an accumulation of red, dish-
colored fluid (whence its name is derived)
in the cavity of the abdomen, and fre-
quently in the chest and heart-bag like-
wise. This water accumulates in conse-
quence of inflammation of the serous
membrane which lines these cavities. In
many places the disease is termed water-
brazy. It is most prevalent at the latter
end of autnmn or the beginning of win-
ter, and is generally observed among
sheep that are in the most thriving con-
dition, and especially if they have been
turned into new and rich pasture, and by
the side of a copse or wood. Sometimes
it is very sudden in its attack, and speed-
ily fatal. In some fine flocks we have seen
it destroy the animal in twenty-four hours.
In other cases it is less violent, and also
slow in its progress. The sheep is first
'observed to be off its feed, dull, disin-
clined to move; it loiters behind, and
pants, and is restless. The flanks are
tucked up, and there is often costiveness,
though sometimes purging. This disease
is still more common in lambs than in
sheep, and in them often appears in the
spring of the year, when they are first put
on turnips with the ewes. In farms where
pasturage is scarce, the disease is a very
frequent visitor, and may be considered
to be produced by the application of cold,
either externally or internally, or proba-
bly both.

In the treatment of this disease it is
very important to remove the animal to. a
dry and comfortable situation. Bleeding
should then be freely employed and a

SHEEP—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

203

laxative medicine. (See No. 69, Domi:
tic Animals, Medicines for.)

In addition to this, the abdomen should
be well fomented with hot water — a
Iamb, indeed, may be placed altogether in
a warm bath.

Every shepherd should have a little
born, made of that of a sheep, <*nd which
will hold about the usual quantity of med-
icine given as a drink; or at least the
quantity which the horn will hold should
be carefully ascertained, and then a large
bottle of the mixture may be taken into
the field, and the proper dose given to as
many ot the sheep as may seem So re-
quire it, without the trouble of measuring
it every time.

If the animal recover, a change of food
must be afforded, and a short, sweet pas-
ture should be preferred.

SHEEP, Sturdy, Giddiness, or Water in
the Head. — This is a very singular, and
also s, very fatal disease. It commonly
attacks yearlings; a two or three-shear
sheep is generally exempt from it. The
animal becomes dull; separates himself
from the rest of the flock ; is frightened
at the most trifling circumstance, and at
the least noise]; he runs round and round,
but always in one direction; holds his
head on one side ; if there is a brook in
the field, he stand upon its banks, poring
over the running stream, and nodding
and staggering, until he frequently tumbles
in ; or he breaks from his fit of musing,
and gallops wildly over the field, but with
no certain course, and with no determinate
object. Soon his appetite fails, or he
evidently feels so much inconvenience
when he stoops to graze, that he gives up
eating altogether; and then he wastes
rapidly away : he seems to be half
stupid, and at length dies a mere skele-
ton.

The disease generally attacks the
weakest of the flock. It is in some
measure connected with a peculiar state
of the atmosphere. It is most prevalent
after a moist winter, and cold, ungenial
spring. It usually begins in the spring,
continues through the summer, and dis-
appears as the winter approaches. It is
dependent partly on the season, but more
on the health and strength of the animal.
It may be prevented by good upland
pasture; and is most common in low and
xnarshy ground. It is not contagious,

nor does it seem to be hereditary. Hav-
ing once attacked the animal, and gradual
loss of flesh having commenced, the
case is hopeless.

All medicine will be thrown away in
such a case. It is the consequence of
pressure on the brain by a strange,
bladder-like-formed animal j and it would
be more for the advantage of the owner
to destroy the sheep, however out of
condition it may be, than to commence
any desperate and fruitless course of
medicine.

Various methods have been tried in
order to break this bladder, such as hunt-
ing the sheep with dogs, and frightening
him half to death, throwing him into a
gravel-pit, and various other absurd as
well as brutal methods. They who pur-
sued this course much oftener succeeded
in breaking the animal's neck than rup-
turing the bladder. At length some
persons bethought them of getting at,
and puncturing or removing, this bladder
by some operation. They thrust iron
wires or skewers up the nostril, and into
the brain, and sometimes succeeded in
effecting their purpose. If they hit upon
the nuisance, and pierced its envelope or
skin, they were made aware of it by a
greater or smaller quantity of water flow-
ing from the nostril, and they could
always tell on which side the hydatid lay,
by the sheep inclining his head that way.
They could also sometimes tell the precise
situation of the bladder; for after being
a long time inclosed between the skulL
and the brain, and pressed upon both,
and pressing upon both of them in turn,,
not only in consequence of that pressure
was a portion of the brain below destroyed
and absorbed, but even the bone above
was softened, nothing but a yielding
membrane sometimes remaining over a
particular spot. Some surgeons suggested
that this membrane should be punctured,
and it was done so with the lancet, or,
oftener, by a heated sharp-pointed wire,
and thus the creature beneath was
wounded and destroyed. Others im-
proved upon this method of operating.
A surgeon's trephine was used, and a
circular piece of the skull taken out* at
the place where it was softened, and thus
the hydatid was bodily removed; and
when this was carefully done, and the
bladder was not broken, the hydatid, by

204

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

slight but sufficiently distinct motion,
when put into warm water, showed that
it was alive.

Both these operations occasionally suc-
ceeded, but the instances of failure were
so numerous, that the farmer's interest
still required that he should kill every
sheep, unless a favorite, or very valuable
one, as soon as he was evidently sturdied,
and before he had wasted and become
unfit for the market.

There may, however, be some preven-
tion, although no cure ; and that preven-
tion consists in good and sufficient, and
upland pasture, yet in some untoward
seasons even this will not avail with
unhealthy and weakly animals. Habitual
shelter from the sleet and snow of winter
is another and very important means of
prevention. The unfeeling abandonment
of the sheep to all the inclemency of the
coldest weather is the fruitful source of
the majority of the diseases, and of the
most fatal ones, to which these animals
are subject.

This malady is sometimes accompanied
by palsy. Every continued pressure on
the brain is apt to produce loss of power
•over some of the limbs; but in this case
the palsy is variable ; it shifts from limb
to limb, and from side to side, and, unlike
simple palsy, is generally attended by
partial blindness, and by the greatest
degree of stupidity.

We repeat it again, that no medicine
can be of the least avail in destroyi-g
the blob, as it is called in some parts of
the country ; but if either of the opera-
tions is tried, one of the purging drinks
may be useful in abating inflammation ;
and whether the skull is punctured or
trephined, a pitch plaster over the wound
will preserve the sheep from being tor-
tured by the flies.

SHEEP, Inflammation of the Brain in.
This, although a frequent disease of the
sheep, and of the same part, and almost
as fatal as that which has been just
described, is accompanied by such differ-
ent symptoms, that it is scarcely possible
to confound them. Inflammation of the
brain generally attacks the healthiest
sheep, and of all ages, and more in hot
weather than in tne early part of spring.
There is no character of stupidity about
this affection, no disinclination to move,
no moving round and round without any

determinate object; but the eyes arc-
protruding, bloodshot, and bright; and
there is an eager and ferocious, not a
depressed and anxious countenance. The
animal is in constant motion; he gallops
about, attacking his fellows, attacking the
shepherd, and sometimes quarrelling with
a post or tree ; he is laboring under wild
delirium, and this continues until he is
absolutely exhausted. He then stands
still, or lies down for a while panting
dreadfully, when he starts afresh, as de-
lirious and as ungovernable as before.

The first and the grand remedy is
bleeding; and that from the jugular,
and copiously, and to be obtained as
quickly as possible. The guide as to
the quantity will be the dropping of the
animal. To bleeding, physicking will of
course succeed, and the sheep should be
removed into a less luxuriant pasture.
This also is one of the diseases that
should be attacked at its very commence-
ment. Violent inflammation c f the brain
and its membranes will very soon be
followed by serious disorganization ; and
if water once begins to be formed under
the membranes, or effused in the ven-
tricles, the case is hopeless. Here also
the attention of the farmer should be
directed to preventives. One case of
goggles may be accidental ; but if two or
three are seized with inflammation of the
brsvn, the farmer may be assured that
there is something wrong in his system
of management, and that which, in the
majority of cases, is the root of the evil,
is too rich pasture, probably succeeding
to spare feed. A dose of salts should,
therefore, be given to each sheep, and
the pasture of the whole should be
changed.

SHEEP, Inflammation of the Lungs
in. — Is not unfrequently the result of a
common cold, not attended to, the dis-
ease extending itself to the lungs : it more
commonly appears in the spring of the
year ; its symptoms are dullness, hanging
of the ears, quick breathing, cough, and
discharge from the nostrils. The animal
should be bled freely from the neck — a
pint in general will not be too much for
a full grown animal to lose. After this a
dose of salts should be given, and should
be followed by the fever drink (see No.
68 Domestic Animals, Medicines for)
once a day.

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

205

SHEEP, Blown or Blast in.— This is of
as frequent occurrence among sheep as
oxen, and it is as fatal. The cause is the
same, the removal of the animals from
poor keep to rich and succulent food.
When sheep are first turned on clover, or
even on any pasture more nutritious than
that to which they have been accustomed,
if they are not watched and kept moving
during the day, and folded elsewhere at
night, they are too apt to overload the
paunch, so that it can no longer contract
upon and expel its contents; fermenta-
tion then ensues, and the extrication of
gas ; the paunch is distended to the ut-
most, and the animal is often suffocated.
The remedy of the farmer is the same
here as with the ox — paunching, or thrust-
ing a sharp pen-knife into the paunch, be-
tween the hip bone and the last rib on
the left side, when the gas with which the
the stomach is distended will escape.
The objection to this practice is likewise
the same as in oxen — that when a por-
tion of the gas has escaped, the stom-
ach will no longer be firmly pressed
against the side, and the wounds in the
side and the paunch will no longer exact-
ly correspond ; a portion of the gas, and
of the contents of the stomach too, will
then pass into the cavity of the abdomen,
and (although the animal may seem for a
while to recover (will be an unsuspected
source of inflammation, and even of
death.

The common elastic tube, so strongly
recommended by Dr. Duncan, is prefera-
ble to the knife; the gas will escape as
completely, and without possibility of
danger. It is passed down the gullet
into the paunch. The stomach-pump,
however, is here likewise a far preferable
instrument, for, as was remarked when
treating of the hoove in oxen, the acid
fluid which is probably in the stomach
may be pumped out, or sufficient warm
water pumped in to excite vomiting, and
thus free the stomach of its oppressive
load. If neither the pump nor the tube
is at hand, a stick with a knob at the end
of it should be passed by the shepherd
into the paunch, which, separating the
muscular pillars that constitute the roof of
this stomach, is far preferable to the knife.

When a sheep is first seized with the
blown or blast, he will often be relieved
by being driven gently about for an hour

or two and put into a bare pasture. In
the act of moving, these pillars will be
occasionally separated a little from each
other, and the gas will escape; but the
animal must not be galloped or driven by
dogs, lest the stomach should be rup-
tured.

The animal having been relieved, or
the contents of the stomach evacuated, a
purgative should always be administered,
and that combined with some aromatic.
The physic for blown (see No. 71, Domes-
tic Animals, Medicines for) will be
useful.

The same treatment recommended for
cattle for this disease is likewise equally
desirable for sheep, the dose being about
one-sixth or one-eighth less in quantity.

SHEEP, the Yellows or Jaundice in. —
Sheep are subject to several sad affections
of the liver, among which ranks that
destructive disease, the rot. Jaundice is.
a less formidable malady, but often suf-
ficiently destructive. It consists of a su-
perabundant discharge of bile, or an ob-
struction of the biliary tubes; and in
either case a considerable quantity of bile'
enters into the circulation, penetrates into
the capillary vessels, and thus tinges the-
skin. A superabundant discharge of the
bile is the most frequent cause.

The liver seems to be a very tender or-
gan in fatted and pampered sheep, and
easily inflamed or put out of order. In
the half-starved, half-wild varieties of
sheep, inflammation of the liver and
jaundice seldom occurs; but too high
living exhibits injurious consequences in
this organ first of all. It is often seen,
after sheep have been moved into fair but
not too luxurious pasture, that if they
have escaped the blown, a yellowness
has soon begun to steal over the eyes and?
the mouth, and the skin generally; and
the animal has been dull, and has dis-
liked to move, and has sometimes been
purged, but more frequently costive, and
the urine has been of a dark, yellow-
brown color. The liver could not main-
tain its healthy state under this injudicious
increase of nutriment. When the farmer
and the shepherd have either neglected ta
observe this, or to adopt the proper treat-
ment, many of the sheep have died in a
few days. On examination after death,,
marks of intense inflammation have ap-
peared everywhere, but more particularly

2oG

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

in the liver, which has been of a red-
brown color, and double its natural size,
and is broken to pieces with the slightest
force.

If it is taken in time, this is not a dis-
ease difficult to treat. On the first de-
cided yellowness being observed, the ani-
mal should be removed to a bare field,
and should have the purging Drink (See
,No. 66, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,); half doses of it should also be re-
peated for several successive mornings, so
that the bowels may be kept in a relaxed
state. Mercury will not be wanted. Cal-
omel is rarely a safe medicine, and is a
very uncertain one for sheep. A little
starvation and plenty of purgative medi-
cine will be all that is required. Should
the animal appear to be considerably
weakened, General Tonic Drink, (See No.
72, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) will be used.

SHEEP, Cold, and Discharge from the
Nose, etc., in.— Here again, from the cru-
el and impolitic abandonment of the
sheep, hundreds of them are tost during
the winter. When they are drenched to
the skin by continual rams, or half smoth-
ered with snow, and have not even a
hedge a yard high to break the biting
blast, can it be wondered that cold and
cough should be frequent in the flock]
and that it should be severe and unman-
ageable, and even occasionally run on co
inflammation of the lungs, and consump-
tion and death? We are not an advocate
of close housing, or too much nursing. Wo
am aware that we may thus render the
sheep unnaturally tender and moie ex-
posed to catarrh and all its consequences*
but we would tell the farmer, that the
fleece of the sheep, however thick, is an
insufficient protection in cold and wet
weather, and an open and bleak situation.

The symptoms of catarrh are heavi-
ness, watery eyes, running from the nose.
The discharge is thick, and clings about
the nostril, and obstructs it, and the sheep
is compelled to suspend its grazing al-
most every minute, and with violent ef-
forts blow away the obstruction. Cough
frequently accompanies this discharge;
and if there is much fever, it will be
shown by loss of appetite and rapid
weakness.

There is a discharge from the nostrils
which sometimes attacks the whole flock,

and if it is not attended by wasting u
flesh or loss of appetite, the farmer does
not regard it; for he knows from experi-
ence, that, in spite of all he can do, it will
probably last through the winter, and dis-
appear as the spring advances. When,
however, he perceives this nasal gleet, he
should keep a sharp look-out over his
flock, and if there is one that stays be-
hind, or will not eat, he should catch
him, and remove him to a warmer situa-
tion, and bleed him, and give him the lax-
ative and fever drinks, and nurse him with
mashes and hay. If a seeond or a third
sheep should fail in the same manner, he
must indeed look about him; there is
danger to all, for the inflammation has
spread itself from the throat down the
windpipe to the air-passages of the lungs,
and a very dangerous disease, called
bronchitis, is produced. He must move
the whole flock to a more sheltered situa-
tion. He must move them to a pasture
of somewhat different character. He
must take them from their turnips or their
hay, and give them what other food his
farm will afford. He should, if he will
take the trouble to do so (and he would
be amply repaid for that trouble), bleed
them all round, and physic them all.
This is strange doctrine to the farmer,
who is accustomed to look on and let
things take their course. It is, however,
good advice, and he will find it so, if he
w..l but follow it. Yet let him not, in
iiis determination to rouse himself and do
something, listen too much to the sug-
gestions of the shepherd or the farrier.
Let him not give any of those abomina-
ble cordial drinks, which have destroyed
thousands of sheep. Warmth, housing at
night, littering with clean straw, and
warm gruel if the animal will not eat or
drink, are not only allowable, but useful :
nay,, we would allow a little ginger or a lit-
tle ale with the medicine ; but not those
compounds of all manner of hot and in-
jurious spices, which would kindle a fire
in the veins of the animal, if it were not
blazing there before.

Experienced sheep-breeders recommend
a dose of tar, to be repeated for foul
noses, but lest that be neglected, it is re-
commended as a good precaution, under
all circumstances, to have some small sap-
lings or small trees bored with a large au-
ger at proper distances, and the holes to

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

207

be kept supplied with common salt. Let
the edges of these holes be smeared with
tar, and thus the sheep in the act of get-
ting the salt will tar his own nose. There
can be no doubt that this would be a
good and wholesome practice as an item
of general management. Few farmers at-
tend as they ought to do, to having their
stock regularly and plentifully salted, and
there is known to be something in tar and
in resinous plants, as pine and cedar, par-
ticularly healthy for sheep.

SHEEP, Influenza in. — Sometimes a
catarrh assumes an epidemic form, and
appears as the influenza. This disease
may be distinguished from a cold, or
from bronchitis, by the discharge from
the nostrils being more profuse and the
eyes nearly closed, great uneasiness of
the head, and a sudden prostration of
strength. Sometimes the animal will run
round in a circle, and a rattling will be
heard in the windpipe ; the symptoms will
be soon followed by death.

Bleeding should in general be abstain-
ed from in this disease, but half an ounce
of Epsom salts, with one drachm of gen-
tian, should be given dissolved in gruel ;
but if the sheep purged before, instead of
the above the strengthening drink (see
No. 70, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for) should be given, and be assisted by
good nursing and care.

SHEEP, Bot in the.— This disease is
the very pest of the sheep, and destroys
more of them than all the other maladies
put together. There are few winters in
which it may not be safely said that
many hundred thousands perish by it.
The cause seems to be better understood
than it used to be, and on many a pasture
that had formerly obtained a fatal celeb-
rity for rotting sheep, they may now feed
securely ; yet almost as many sheep die
of the rot as there ever did.

The symptoms of the rot in the early
•stage are exceedingly obscure. There is
little to indicate the existence of the
disease, even to the most accurate ob-
server. This is one cause of the mischief
that is done ; for it prevents the malady
from being attacked when only it could
be conquered. The earliest symptom is
one that is common to a great many
other diseases, and from which no certain
conclusion can be drawn, except that the
animal is ill, and labors under fever. The

sheep is dull, he lags behind in his
journey to and from the fold, and he does
not feed quite so well ; but these are as
much early symptoms of the staggers as
of the rot.

This, however, goes on for some time,
and then a palish yellow hue steals over
the skin, easy enough to be seen when the
wool is parted, and most evident in the
eyelids, and that which is generally called
the white of the eyes. The lips and
mouth are soon tinged, but not to so
great a degree. The sheep does not
otherwise appear to be ill. If he does
not eat much, he does not lose flesh ; on
the contrary, he seems to gain condition,
and that for several weeks.

This thriving period soon passes over,
and the sheep begin to waste much more
rapidly than they had acquired condition.
First, there is a perceptible alteration in
the countenance — a depressed, unhealthy
appearance, accompanied by increased
yellowness. The tongue especially be-
comes pale and livid. The animal is
feverish ; the heat of the mouth, and the
panting, and heaving of the flanks, and
general dullness, sufficiently indicate this.
Some degree of cough comes on ; some
discharge from the nose; or the breath
begins to be exceedingly offensive. The
sheep is sometimes costive ; at other times
it purges with a violence which nothing
can arrest, and the matter discharged is
unusually offensive, and often streaked
with blood. And now the soft mellow
feel of the sheep in condition is no longer
found, but there is an unhealthy flabbi-
ness ; even where there is but little left
between the skin and the bone, there is a
flabby — a kind of pitty feeling ; the parts
give way, but they have lost their elas-
ticity, and they do not plump up again ;
there is also a crackling sound when the
loins or back are pressed upon. The
fanner knows what this is, and what he
is to expect, both in the sheep and the
ox; very few of them recover after this
crackling has once been heard

At an uncertain period of the disease
the sheep usually become what the
graziers call chockered, that is, a consider-
able swelling appears under the chin. If
this is punctured, sometimes a watery
fluid escapes, and sometimes matter; and
occasionally the swelling bursts, and aft
ulcer, very difficult to heal, follows.

208

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

The bowels, which are variable at first,
become at length very relaxed. A fetid
purging comes on of all colors, and
which pursues its course in defiance of
every astringent.

The wool begins to fall off in patches ;
it is loose all over the animal, and easily
pulled off, and there is a white scurfiness
adhering to its roots. The disease now
still more rapidly proceeds; and while
the sheep loses flesh every day, and every
rib and every bone of the back can be
plainly felt, his belly increases — he gets
dropsical. The end is not then far off.

The progress of the disease is more or
less rapid, according to the violence of
the attack, or the strength or weakness
of the sheep, or the care that is bestowed
on him, or the utter neglect to which he
is abandoned. The animal occasionally
dies in two months after the first evident
symptom of rot, but usually four or five
or six months elapse before the animal is
perfectly exhausted.

The farmer is not much accustomed to
examine his sheep after death. It would
be better for him if he paid more atten-
tion to this, for he would discover the
nature, and probably the cause, of many
a complaint that is committing sad rav-
ages in his flock. The appearances ex-
hibited in the sheep that has died of the
rot are very singular. There appears to
be dropsy, not only in the belly, but all
over the animal. Wherever the knife is
used, a yellow watery fluid runs out ; and
the consequence of the existence of this
fluid everywhere is, that the muscles, and
that which should be firm, honest fat, are
yielding, and flabby, and unwholesome.
When the belly and chest are opened,
the heart is pale, and soft, and flabby,
and often to such a degree that we
wonder how it could have continued to
discharge its duty. The lungs are more
or less gorged with blood ; and there are
a great many hard knotty points, of
various sizes (tubercles) in them and on
them, some of which have probably
broken, and the lungs are full of ulcers ;
or when this is not the case, the lungs
are studded with innumerable little knotty
points of a dark color.

The principal disease, however, is in
the liver, which is much enlarged, often
of double its natural size, broken down
by the slightest touch, sometimes black

from inflammation and congested blood,
and at other times of an unhealthy livid-
ness ; but that which is most remarkable,
which is characteristic of the disease,
is, that its vessels are filled with flukes,
curiously-shaped things like little soles,
which are swimming about in the bile in
every duct, and burrowing into every part
of the liver. Several hundreds of them
are sometimes contained in one liver. A
few of them may occasionally be found
in the upper part of the intestines, but
rhere only.

The upper part of the liver is frequently
speckled like the body of a toad ; indeed
this has been so often remarked, that the
examiner, if he does not find flukes, and
sometimes when he does, looks out for
the toad's liver. The liver is so diseased
and corrupted, that if an attempt is made
to boil it, instead of becoming hardened,
it falls all to pieces, or is in a manner
dissolved. Abscesses are oftener found
in the liver than in the lungs, and to an
extent sufficient to destroy the sheep
without any other cause. Sometimes
there are knots in the liver as well as in
the lungs — small, round, hardened lumps
— and in a few cases they are so numer-
ous that it is almost impossible to find a
sound part.

If the farmer would accustom himself
to observe these things, and carefully
examine every sheep that dies in the
autumn, he would sometimes detect the
existence of this disease in his flock
before he would otherwise have been
aware of it. Nay, he should not confine
his examination to this, but should ob-
serve the appearance of the inside of
every sheep which he may kill for the use
of his family about that time. It should
be a practice never omitted, and however
seemingly healthy the animal may die,
whatever quantity of suet may cover the
kidneys, if the liver is dappled with white
spots, or if the vessels of the liver are
thickened, and if there are flukes, how-
ever small, floating about in the bile, that
sheep was certainly rotted; and if one
sheep is rotted, the greater part of the
remainder will probably follow. Aware
of this, and at this early period of the
disease, the grazier may, either by hasten-
ing the fattening process, or shifting the
pasture, or adopting medical treatment,
put many scores of pounds into his.

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

zog

pocket, which would otherwise be irre-
coverably lost.

The history of the rot is plain enough
here. It prevails, or rather it is found
only in boggy, poachy ground. On up-
land pasture, with a light sandy soil, it is
never seen : and in good sound pasture,
in a lower situation, it is only seen when,
from an unusually wet season, that pas-
ture has become boggy and poachy. It
is also proved to demonstration, that land
that has been notoriously rotting ground,
has been rendered perfectly sound and
healthy by being well underdrained, that
is, by being made dry. There are hun-
dreds of thousands of acres, on which a
sheep, forty years ago, could not pasture
for a day without becoming rotten, that
are now perfectly healthy.

We can also tell the kind of wet ground
which will give the rot. Wherever the
water will soon run off, there is no dan-
ger; but where it lies upon the surface of
the ground, and slowly evaporates, the
rot is certain. One part of a common
shall be enclosed ; or if it has not been
drained, at least the hollows in which the
water used to stand are filled up, and the
surface is levelled : no rot is caught there.
On the other side of the hedge there are
these marshy places, these little stagnant
ponds, where evaporation is always going
forward, and the ground is never dry — a
sheep cannot put his foot there without
being rotted. These are plain, palpable
facts, and they are sufficient for the farm-
er's purpose, without his puzzling his
brains about the manner in which wet
ground produces diseased liver.

He may be assured that it has nothing
to do with the animal's feeding on stimu-
lating or poisonous herbs. It has noth-
ing whatever to do with the food. It
depends on the wetness or dryness of the
pasture.

How is it, then, that when so great a
part of the country is underdrained, the
rot should continue to be almost as prev-
alent as ever? Why is it not so prevalent
where the ground has been properly
underdrained? There are fields in every
well-managed farm in which the rot is
never known ; there are others in which
it still continues to depopulate the flock.

The draining may not be equally ef-
fectual in both. It might have been
carelessly, superficially performed in the

14

one case ; or the soil of the two pastures
may be very different. The one may be
light and porous, and a little draining
may effect the purpose : the soil of the
other may be heavy and tenacious, and
drains not more than a yard asunder would
scarcely keep it dry. What is more to
the purpose, but less thought of, there
may be little nooks and corners in the
field that have not been underdrained.
A few minutes' trampling upon them will
be fatal to the sheep, and one or two of
them upon the whole farm will render all
the labor bestowed on every other part
absolutely nugatory.

It is surprising how soon the animal is
infected. The merely going once to
drink from a notably dangerous pond has
been sufficient. The passing over one
suspicious common in the way to or from
the fair, and the lingering only for a few
minutes in a deep and poachy lane,.
Then it can easily be conceived what
mischief one or two of these neglected
corners, in which there may be little
swamps perhaps only a yard or two
across, may do in a farm in other respects
well managed, and perfectly free from in-
fection.

The disease of the liver, terminating in
or constituting the rot, is, then, depend-
ent on moisture, and that retained for a
certain time on the surface of the ground,
so that the process of evaporation may
have commenced; it is also probable that
the decomposition of vegetable matter
growing on the surface has much to do
in producing the complaint.

If sheep-breeders would get more into-
the habit of having oxen to turn upon
the aftermath of their low and dangerous
pastures, instead of venturing so frequent-
ly to send their sheep there, because they
cannot afford to lose that portion of the
crop, they would not suffer the grievous,
losses which sometimes almost break,
them down.

The preventive, then, seems plain
enough. On good sound ground the
sheep need not fear the rot; and other
stock should be kept on the farm to pas-
ture on the suspicious or dangerous places.
The draining should be effective where it
is attempted, and no nook or corner
should escape.

Can anything be done by way of cure?
Probably there may, and a great deal

2IO

SHEEP—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

more than the farmer imagines. All,
however, depends upon the stage of the
disease. The liver may be diseased, but
it must not be disorganized ; it must not
be tu berculated or ulcerated ; and the flukes
must not have burrowed too deeply into it.
The farmer, from habitual observation of
his flock, must have discovered it at the
very commencement of its attack, or he
must have been made aware of it by the
examination of some sheep that died, or
that had been slaughtered for the use of
his family. Then he may do good.
Good is often done without his help. A
succession of dry weather will often stop,
or at least retard, the ravages of the rot.
If moisture be the cause of it, he must
remove that cause. He must change the
pasture, and drive his flock to the driest
ground his farm contains; and besides
this, he must give a little dry meat — a
little hay. Some have advised to feed
the suspected sheep altogether on hay.
This is carrying the matter a little too
far ; for in the prime of the season the
sheep will pine for the grass, and rapidly
lose condition for want of it. A change
to a thoroughly dry pasture will some-
times do wonders. At all events, it is
worth trying. The animals must, how-
ever, be carefully watched, and if it is not
evident from their more cheerful counte-
nance and manner, and the diminution
or disappearance of the yellowness, that
the disease is giving way, advantage must
be taken of their present condition, and
they must be turned over to the butcher.
Let the farmer at least do something:
let him either sell them at once, reckon-
ing, and generally rightly, that the first
loss is the least; or let him set to work
and endeavor to combat the disease; but
do not let him stand with folded arms,
and suffer the best of his flock to dwindle
away one after another.

As for the medical treatment of the rot
in sheep, there are a great maxy nos-
trums, but few, if any, have stood the
test of extensive experience. This has
partly arisen from a cause which has al-
ready been hinted at — the disease not
being recognized and attacked before it
has made much inroad on the constitu-
tion, and when, or perhaps when only, it
will yield to medicine. But we believe that
with regard to the fairest cases every med-
icine has occasionally failed,or failed almost

as often as it has succeeded. We must in
no case despair; the disease has some-
times been suspended, and the sheep has
recovered. Let not, however, the prac-
titioner be deluded into the use of calo-
mel, or blue pill, or any preparation of
mercury, because the rot is an affection
of the liver. Mercury rarely seems to
agree with the herbivorous animals in any
form. We have seen it do much harm in
some affections of the liver, and we have
known many animals destroyed by the
use of it.

There is, however, a drug, or, rather, a
very common and useful condiment,
which we believe has entered into the com-
position of every medicine by which this
complaint has been successfully treated ;
we mean common salt. The virtues of
this substance are not sufficiently esti-
mated, either as mingled with the usual
food, or as an occasional medicine. All
herbivorous animals are fond of it. It
increases both the appetite and the di-
gestion. Cattle will greedly eat bad for-
age that has been sprinkled with it, in
preference to the best fodder without
salt ; and it seems now to be a well-ascer-
tained fact, that domesticated animals of all
kinds thrive under its use, and are better
able to discharge the duties required from
them.

The consideration of this induced the
use of salt in various complaints, and es-
pecially in the rot, which is an affection
of one of the most important of the di-
gestive organs ; and it has not deceived
the expectations that were raised as to its
sanative power.

As, however, the rot is a disease ac-
companied by so much debility, and
wasting of flesh as well as of strength,
tonics and aromatics are usually mingled
with the salt ; but first of all of the bowels
are evacuated by some of the usual pur-
gatives, and the Epsom salts are the
best. The Mixture for the Rot (See
No. 73, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) should then be tried.

A table spoonful of this mixture should
be given morning and night for a week,
and then the Second Mixture for the Rot
(See No. 74, Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for,) may be given at night, while
the former is continued in the morning,
and by which the flukes may be destroy-
ed as the worms in the bronchial tubes

SHEEP—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

211

sometimes are in the hoose of young
cattl

The morning dose should be given on
an empty stomach, and the evening dose
before the night's feed is given, if the an-
imal is housed.

All the hay should be salted, and some
have recommended that even the pasture
should be impregnated with salt. This
is easily managed. A little plot of
ground may be selected, or a portion of a
field hurdled off, and salt scattered over it
as equally as possible, and in the propor-
tion of ten bushels to an acre. Three
weeks afterwards the sheep may be
turned on it to graze, stocking the ground
after the rate of ten sheep to an acre ; in
the meantime the field from which they
are taken may be brined in the same man-
ner. When they have eaten the grass quite
close, they may be changed back to the
other plot, and so on as often as may be
necessary, strewing at each change five
bushels of salt per acre on the pasture.
The sheep will fatten at a rapid rate if the
disease is not too much advanced, and
the disease will sometimes be arrested
even in the worst cases.

It must, however, be confessed, that
although sheep are often saved from the
rot by the use of salt, they have rarely
been perfectly restored to their former
health. The taint is left ; they are more
disposed to receive the the infection from
a slight cause ; and, six or twelve months
afterwards, they frequently die of hoose
or inflamed bowels ; therefore, it will be the
interest of the farmer to fatten them as soon
as possible, and sell them to the butcher.
The butcher will always tell by the ap-
pearance of the liver whether the sheep
had at any former time been rotted. In
some few cases lambs have been procured
from ewes thus cured, but they have sel-
dom lasted longer than one or two
seasons.

SHEEP, Blindness in. — Sheep are more
subject to diseases of the eye that lead on
to blindness than many persons who are
most accustomed to them imagine. It is
a singular circumstance, and not so well
known as it ought to be, that if the eyes
of a flock of sheep are carefully exam-
ined, half of them will exhibit either dis-
ease then present, or indications of that
which existed at no very distant date.

Inflammation of the eye, which consti-

tutes the commencement of the disease,
may arise from various causes. Sheep
driven fast to a distant market have sud-
denly become blind ; those who have
been chased about by dogs, have at no
great distance of time lost their sight, and
especially if, in both cases, they were af-
terwards exposed in a damp and bleak
situation. The violent driving, while it
produced fever, determined an undue
quantity of blood to the head; it pressed,
or perhaps was effused upon the origins
of the nerves of the eye; and the after
neglect confirmed the fever, and aggra-
vated the mischief.

At other times, this seems to be an ep-
idemic complaint. The greater part of
the flock is suddenly afflicted with sore
and inflamed eyes, and particularly at the
latter end of the year, and when the
weather has been variable, yet cold and
moist. Some have thought that this com-
plaint is infectious, but it is at least epi-
demic. A white film gradually spreads
over the eyes, which the animal generally
keeps closed, while at first a watery fluid,
and afterwards a thicker mucous matter,
is discharged from them. The film in-
creases until the whole of the eye is of a
pearly whiteness. If proper means are
adopted, and often if nothing is done, in-
flammation abates, and the eye begins
to clear, usually commencing at the up-
per part of the eye, and gradually pro-
ceeding downward until the whole of the
organ is once more transparent, with the
exception) perhaps, of a diminutive spot
or two, or a discoloration of part of
the iris. Many of the sheep, however,
do not perfectly recover the sight of
both eyes, and some remain totally
blind, either from the continuance of the
opacity, or that, while the eye becomes
clear, the optic nerve is palsied, the pu-
pil does not dilate, and there is gutta
serena.

The first thing to be done is to bleed
from the vein at the corner of the eye.
There will be the double advantage of
bleeding generally and of drawing blood
from the inflamed part. The shepherd
should take the sheep between his knees,
and then, placing the animal with his
rump against the wall, he will have full
command of him. If he now presses
upon the vein with his left hand, about
two inches from the angle of the jaw,

212

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

and opposite to the third grinder, he
will see it rise as it descends from the
corner of the eye, and runs along the
cheek. He should puncture it about an
inch or rather less from the eye. Some
shepherds recommend that the blood
should be suffered to run into the eye,
but this is a ridiculous notion. It must
do harm rather than good.

Next give the Purgative Drink (See
No. 66 Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) and repeat if necessary, in three
or four days. No other medicines will
be required.

No stimulating application should be
made to the eye. It is too often the
practice among shepherds to apply su-
gar or salt, or white vitrol; but this
worse than uselessly tortures the poor
animal; it increases the inflammation,
and causes blindness where it would not
otherwise have occurred. A drop or
two of the vinous tincture of opium may
be introduced into the eye, two or three
times daily; or a teaspoonful of lauda-
num may be added to a half pint of water,
and the eyes frequently washed with it.

It will be quite time enough to think
of stimulants if the eye should remain
cloudy after the inflammation has sub-
sided, and then the Lotion for Cloudiness
of the Eye (See No. 83 Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicines for,) is the strongest
that can be permitted.

Although, perhaps, it would be prudent
to send the sheep decidedly and confirm-
edly blind to the butcher, lest they should
perchance be drowned in a ditch, or
some serious accident should occur to
them, yet it is pleasing to observe how
well they shift for themselves, and what
little harm comes to them. For the first
few days they are awkward and confused,
but, after that, they keep to their own
walk, and take with the others, or even
by themselves, the accustomed way home;
and some one of the flock takes the
blind sheep under his protection, and is
always at his side in danger, and tells
him the way that he is to go by many a
varied and intelligible bleat.

SHEEP, Epilepsy in. — This is somewhat
different from staggers, as the animal does
not remain quietly on the ground, but it
suffers from convulsions, it kicks, rolls its
eyes, grinds its teeth, etc. The duration
of the fit varies much; sometimes it ter-

minates at the expiration, of a few min-
utes ; at other times, a quarter of an hour
elapses before it is perfectly conscious.
In this malady there is a loss of equilib-
rium between the nervous and muscular
systems, which may arise from hydatids in
the brain, offering mechanical obstructions
to the conducting power of the nerves.
This malady may attack animals in appa-
rently good health. We frequently see
children attacked with epilepsy (fits) with-
out any apparent cause, and when they
are in good flesh.

The symptoms are not' considered dan-
gerous, except by their frequent repe-
tition.

The following may be given with a
view of equalizing the circulation of the
nervous action :

Assafoetida % tea-spoonful.

Gruel made from Slippery Elm . . 1 pint.

Mix while hot. Repeat the dose every other
day. Make some change in the food. Thus, if
the animal has been fed on green fodder for any
length of time, let it have a few meals of shorts,
meal, linseed, etc. The water must be of the
best quality.

SHEEP, Kidneys, Inflammation of the

in. — A derangement of these organs may
result from external violence, or it may
depend on the animal having eaten stim-
ulating or poisonous plants.

Its symptoms are, pain in the region of
the kidneys ; the back is arched, and the
walk stiff and painful, with the legs wide-
ly separated; theie is a frequent desire to
make water, and that is high colored or
bloody ; the appetite is more or less im-
paired, and there is considerable thirst.

The indications are, to lubricate the
mucous surfaces, remove morbific materi-
als from the system, and improve the gen-
eral health.

We commence the treatment by giving:

Poplar Bark, finely powdered I ounce.

Pleurisy Root, **■ " 1 tea-spoonful.

Make a mucilage of the poplar bark, by stirring
in boiling water ; then add the pleurisy root ; the
whole to be given in the course of twenty-four
hours. The diet should consist of a mixture of
linseed, boiled carrots and meal.

SHEEP, Sore Nipples, in. — Lambs often
die of hunger, from their dams refusing
them suck. The cause of this is sore
nipples, or some tumor in the udder, in
which violent pain is excited by the tug-
ging of the lamb. Washing with pop-
lar bark, or anointing the teats with
powdered borax and honey, will gener-
ally effect a cure.

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

2'3

SHEEP, Foot-Rot in. — Although this
disease resembles the last in name, it is
altogether different in character. It is
not so fatal as the liver rot, but it is sadly-
annoying : it is of very frequent occur-
rence, and it seems to be increasing.

It is, like the rot, peculiar to certain
pastures ; but there is more variety in this
than is found with regard to the rot.
There we must have stagnant water, and
the process of evaporation going forward.
For the production of the foot rot we
must have soft ground, and it does not
seem much to matter how that softness
comes about. In the poachy and marshy
meadow, in the rich and deep pasture of
the lawn, and in the yielding sand of the
lightest soil, it cannot, perhaps, be said
that it is almost equally prevalent, .but it
is frequently found. Soft and marshy
ground is its peculiar abode. The native
mountain sheep knows nothing about it :
it is when the horn has been softened by
being too long in contact with some rich
and moist land, that the animal begins to
halt. This softness is connected with
unnatural growth of horn, and with un-
equal pressure; and the consequence is
that some part of the foot becomes irri-
tated and inflamed by this undue pres-
sure, or the weakened parts of the horn,
too rapidly and unevenly growing, are
broken off, and corroding ulcers are pro-
duced. Although there would not ap-
pear to be any great wear and tear of the
foot in this soft land, yet the horn be-
comes so exceedingly unsound and
spongy, that small particles of sand or
gravel make their way through the soft-
ened mass, and penetrate to the quick.
It not unfrequently happens that injuries
of this sort are produced unconnected
with and independent of the foot-rot, and
they may be cured much easier, but by
very similar means. The hardness or the
sponginess of the horn depends altogether
on the dryness or moisture of the soil in
which the animal has fed. Large, heavy
sheep, having comparatively thinner hoofs
than lighter ones, are more subject to the
disease.

True foot-rot more frequently begins
from above than below. The horn is
rendered softer, weaker, and more luxu-
riant by exposure to wet : the foot, from
being kept wet and cold, is exposed to
re-action with any change of weather,

and inflammation is thus excited within
the foot, which often ends in suppuration,
and this occasions those troublesome ul-
cers that are sometimes witnessed.

The first symptom of the disease is the
lameness of the sheep. On the foot
being examined this morbid growth is
almost invariably found. The foot is hot,
and the animal shrinks if it is firmly
pressed. It is particularly hot and pain-
ful in the cleft between the two hoofs;
and there is generally some enlargement
about the coronet. There is always an
increased secretion, usually fetid, and
often there is a wound about me coronet
discharging a thin, stinking fluid : some-
times there is a separation of the horn
from the parts beneath, and that too fre-
quently preceding the dropping off of the
hoof. In comparatively a few cases the
hoof seems to be worn to the quick at or
near the toe. The lameness rapidly in-
creases, and often to such a degree indeed
that the sheep is unable to stand, but
moves about the field on its knees. The
soft portions of the foot, and sometimes
the very bones of it, slough away, and
drop off.

All this is necessarily attended by a
great deal of pain, and the animal shows
how much it preys upon him by his moan-
ing, and refusing to eat, and ceasing to
ruminate, and most rapidly wasting. Ir-
ritating fever comes on, and after the
poor creature has crept about the field on
his knees for a few weeks, he dies from
irritation and starvation.

Of one thing the farmer may be as*
sured — that the foot-rot is exceedingly
infectious. If it once gets into a flock, it
spreads through the whole. Some valua-
ble writers have denied this ; but there ia
scarcely a farmer who has not had woful
experience of the truth of it. Even on
the dryest soil, the greater part of the
flock have become lame in a very few
weeks after a diseased sheep has come
among them. There are, however, some
instances in which a sheep with the foot-
rot has grazed among others during sev-
eral months, and no disease has ensued ;
and some curious experiments would
make it appear that under particular
circumstances it is difficult to produce
foot-rot by inoculation. But these are
exceptions to the general rule; and nc
who trusts to the non-contagiousness <jt

ri4

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

foot-rot will suffer as assuredly as the
man who, deluded by some of the mis-
chievous theories of the day, believes
that he may keep a glandered horse in
his stable with impunity.

The treatment of foot-rot is simple
enough, and, in the early stage of the
complaint, usually successful. The foot
must be carefully examined, and every
portion of horn that has separated from
the parts beneath thoroughly removed,
and the sore lightly touched with the
butyr (chloride) of antimony, applied by
means of a small quantity of tow rolled
round a flat bit of stick, and then dipped
into the caustic. A stronger, and often-
times a better, application is made by
dissolving corrosive sublimate in spirits of
wine. Hydrochloric acid is also a very
useful caustic for foot-rot. If a fungus is
sprouting at the place where the horn
separates from the foot, it must be first
cut away with the knife, and then the
root of it touched also with the caustic ;
or, what is still better, it may be removed
by means of a hot iron. It is necessary,
indeed, to be rather sparing with the use
of the knife throughout the disease.
There will seldom, except in very bad
cases, be necessity for binding the foot
up; indeed, the animal will generally do
better without this. It will be seen by
the altered color of the part whether the
caustic has been applied with sufficient
severity, and the dry surface which will
be formed over the sore will protect it
from all common injury better than any
covering.

To these must be added that reason-
able and successful practice of removing
the sheep to higher ground. Sheep
among whom the foot-rot is beginning to
appear are sometimes completely cured
by being driven to higher and dryer
ground. Some farmers, and with a great
deal of advantage, have their flocks
driven four or five times daily along a
hard road. They thus accomplish two
purposes — they wear away the irregularly
formed horn, the unequal pressure of
which has irritated and inflamed the foot,
and the remaining horn is hardened, and
enabled better to resist the influence of
the moist or soft ground. Where the
ulceration is extensive, means must be
adopted similar to those recommended
for the treatment of foul in the foot in

cattle; but in most cases it will be more
profitable to the farmer to destroy the
sheep that has bad foot-rot, if it is in
tolerable condition, rather than rely on a
cure that is uncertain, and during the
progress of which the animal very rapidly
loses flesh and fat.

If, however, he is determined to attempt
a cure, let him wash the foot well from
all grit and dirt, and then cut off every
loose and detached piece of horn, and
every excrescence and fungus, and cover
the wound with the Caustic Astringent
Powder for foot-rot. (See No. 75, Do-
mestic Animals, Medicines for.)

This shpuld be sprinkled over the sorer
and a little dry tow placed upon it, and
bound neatly and firmly down with tape.
The animal should afterwards stand in a
dry fold-yard for four-and-twenty hours.

On the next day the tape should be
removed, and if the surface is tolerably
regular, it may be touched, as already
directed, with the butyr of antimony ;
but if any fungus remains, the powder
must be applied another day. The
fungus no longer continuing to grow, a
light dressing with the butyr should be
continued every second day until the
animal is well. Some prefer a liniment
or paste to the powder, and it is made by
mixing the powder with a sufficient
quantity of honey. The farmer may use
which he pleases ; but a firm and equable
pressure being produced by the tape is
the principal thing to be depended upon.

The sheep-master should as carefully
avoid the ground producing foot-rot, as
that which causes the fatal affection of
the liver; and he should attempt the
same method of altering the character or
the low and moist ground by good
underdraining. The effect of this, how-
ever, is far from being so certain and
beneficial as with regard to the rot. The
water which would stagnate on the sur-
face may be drained away with tolerable
ease, but the soil cannot be rendered hard
and dry, or, if it could, that would not be
an advantageous change. The sheep
might not have the foot-rot, but the
ground would he comparatively unpro-
ductive.

If the farmer intends to drive his sheep
a considerable distance to the market or
fair, he will prepare them for the journey
by a few days' removal to harder and

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

«5

firmer ground, or, perhaps, by driving
them a short distance, daily, on the still
harder public road.

The farmer should not only take his
sheep from light sandy soil in long-
continued dry weather, because they
would starve there, but because then
alone that soil would give them the foot-
rot ; its yielding nature will not sufficiently
keep down the growth of horn, and
many a particle of sand will insinuate
itself into the soft and spongy horn, and
produce inflammation. For the same
reason he should avoid dry old pasture at
the season when the dews are heaviest,
because then moisture would most abound
there.

In grounds that are disposed to give
the foot-rot, the farmer would find it
advantageous to have the hooves of his
sheep rasped or pared once every fortnight
or three weeks. This is not often done,
but it appears reasonable, and would not
be very expensive. In uninclosed or
mountainous countries, where the sheep
have particular tracts, gravel might be
scattered in sufficient quantity to wear
and harden the horn.

Quite a number of remedies are given
as being, or having been, in successful
operation in different parts of this country
and in Europe.

The most common and popular remedy
now used in Central New York is : 1 lb.
blue vitriol; }£ lb. (with some, ^ lb.)
verdigris ; 1 pint of linseed oil; 1 quart
of tar. The vitriol and verdigris are
pulverized very fine, and many persons,
before adding the tar, grind the mixture
through a paint-mill. Some use a decoc-
tion of tobacco boiled until thick, in the
place of oil.

The following is reported by Australian
inspectors of sheep as an efficacious
remedy for foot-rot : .

Mix carbolic acid with an adherent
and greasy substance, thus forming a
plaster which will adhere to the foot of
the sheep for two or three days, prevent
contact of air, and allow time for produc-
tion of the desired healing effect. Where
this particular method of individual ap-
plication is not practicable on account of
the number of diseased sheep, a trough
may be filled with the medicated mixture
and the sheep (their feet having been
carefully pared) made to pass through it,

when their feet become impregnated with
the substance.

SHEEP, Sore Head.— This disease is
connected with, or often produced by,
the striking of the fly, and especially in
woody countries. Next to the tail, the
head is the part most frequently and
seriously attacked, and in defending them-
selves from their tormentors, the sheep
are continually striking their heads with
their hind feet, until at length a consider-
able sore or ulcer is formed. No sooner
is this done than the fly persecutes the
poor animal with tenfold fury, anxious to
lay its eggs on or near the wound; and
the ulcer will often spread so far and so
rapidly as to be very difficult to heal, and
occasionally it will destroy the sheep.

The first thing to be done is to procure
a cap or covering for the head, made of
soft leather, or of brown paper, if leather
cannot be procured. This should be cut
so as to protect the whole of the head,
and yet not to come too close to the
eyes. Then use the Ointment for Sore
Heads. (See No. 79, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for.)

While this ointment is warm and softr
it should be thickly spread upon the
leather, and the cap fitted to the head.
If this be done in the evening, when the fly
begins to cease to torment the sheep, the
animal will be quiet, and the ointment will
gradually cool, and stick close to the head.

Some spread the ointment over the
head without the cap, making a kind of
charge, a few flocks of wool being
scattered over the top of it; and if it
should be somewhat too liquid for this
purpose, it is stiffened by the addition of
a little yellow resin. It is difficult, how-
ever, to confine the ointment to the sore
when it is thus applied, and it is very apt
to run over the eyelid and the face, to the
great annoyance of the animal.

SHEEP, Appetite, Loss of. — This is
generally owing to a morbid state of the
digestive organs. All that is necessary
in such case is, to retore the lost tone by
the exhibition of bitter tonics. A bounti-
ful supply of camomile tea will generally
prove sufficient. If, however, the bowels
are inactive, add to the above a small
portion of extract of butternut. The
food should be slightly salted.

SHEEP, Brmematism. — See Sheep.
Foundering.

!l6

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

SHEEP, Scab.— The general preva-
lence of scab in this country gives im-
portance to a brief examination of this
subject.

The scab of sheep, like scabies, the
itch of man, is caused by an insect. The
mange affecting the horse, ox, dog, and
cat, also depends upon the presence of
insects. There are different insects,
known as acari, infesting different ani-
mals, having destructive characteristics
in each, and generally confined to that
species of animals, yet the mange from a
dog is said to have been communicated
to man, and a horse has been infested
with mange by means of the skin of a
mangy cat.

The sheep acarus does not bore gal-
leries in the skin, but remains on the sur-
face, clinging to the wool, and finding
shelter among the masses of scab pro-
duced by the drying of exudations from
the wounds inflicted by these parasites.
Experiment has shown that increase of
temperature hastens the hatching of their
ova; fourteen days, according to Profes-
sor Brown, of England, sufficed to hatch
a lot in a bottle " carried in the trowsers
pocket," while two months' time was re-
quired with some kept under glass in a
room. The young have six legs; the
fully grown, after several changes of skin,
have eight. The microscope reveals
sucking-caps or disks in the legs, ena-
bling the parasite to cling to the wool
and skin of the sheep ; and renders beau-
tifully apparent the action of these struc-
tures, showing, as the feet advance, how
the disks are expanded to grasp the sur-
face of the substance over which the
acarus is moving, apparently retaining
their hold in obedience to the volition of
the animal. Thus its structure adapts it
for crawling over and adhering to the
skin, instead of burrowing beneath it.
Burrowing acari, like the itch insect in
man, are always armed with cutting
teeth, set in ] strong jaws, and their legs
are very short. The body of the female
of the sheep acarus is larger than that of
the male, rounder in form, the fourth pair
of legs are developed nearly as well as
the third, and are supplied with terminal
sucking disks. Mature mites are visible
to the naked eye as pellucid points of the
size of a pin's head.

Various experiments have been made

to ascertain the rapidity of the growth,
and reproduction of these parasites.
The young acari have been detected in
fourteen days from the direct transference
of the acarus to the skin of the sheep.
In a month the disease had spread over
a space of five inches ; in ten to twelve
weeks pretty nearly over the whole body.
A greater or less amount of time may be
required under different circumstances of
temperature, and other modifying in-
fluences.

Symptoms. — The first sign of the exist-
ence of scab is rubbing against any pro-
jecting body within reach; as it extends,
sheep bite themselves, kick with their
hind feet at their sides and shoulders. If
one is caught and the hand placed on the
mouth, while infected parts are scratched,
gratification is evinced by nibbling at the
hand, and when the infection is severe or
general this nibbling movement is re-
garded as an infallible sign. Examina-
tion will disclose spots on the skin, white
and hard, the center marked with yellow
points of exudation, which adheres to the
wool, matting the fibers together. The
wool may be firm on these spots, and no
scabs are seen at this stage. Then the
yellow moisture, evaporating, gives place
to a yellow scab, which adheres firmly to
the skin and wool. Raw places appear
at points which the animal can reach with
his teeth and hind feet. The disease is
complicated in summer by the presence
of the larvae of the blow-fly, the mag-
gots burrowing under the scab. The ani-
mal becomes nervous, excited to wildness,
and cannot obtain properly either food or
rest, thus losing flesh and becoming re-
duced to a skeleton, from constant irrita-
tion and lack of nutrition, only the
strongest animals recovering, if left with-
out treatment.

Remedies. — Destruction of the parasite
and its eggs is the only object of reme-
dial treatment. Arsenic and mercury are
often employed very effectually, but they
are poisonous, and therefore injurious and
dangerous to the sheep. These and
other solutions are used both as washes
and dips. Sudden changes of weather
and locality, or a deficiency of food after
such treatment, often induce serious or
fatal results, which cannot be guarded
against. Whole flocks have thus been
lost. Mercurial ointment, with olive oil

SHEEP—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

217

and a little turpentine, is popular in Eng-
land, nevertheless, and is regarded as im-
proving the yield of wool. Experiment
proves that the acarus will live in arsenic
and sulphur for some hours; potash is
more fatal, and tobacco is more deadly
.still, killing in a few minutes. But carbolic
acid is probably the most potent remedy
used. When combined with one hundred
times its bulk of water, it has killed acari
in two minutes; when used with fifty
times its bulk of water, a degree of poten-
cy harmless as a dip, it kills in forty to
ninety seconds. Professor Brown thus
describes the manufacture of the carbolic
acid dip, which, it is claimed , has never
failed when properly used.

First, it is necessary that carbolic acid
should be obtained of uniform strength,
and experience has proved that the crys-
talline product is less efficacious in the
destruction of parasites than the liquid
residue, which is sold under the name of
terebane, or cresylic acid, which can al-
ways be obtained of the manufacturers.
The liquid is, when fresh, of a very light
straw color, becoming dark brown on ex-
posure to the atmosphere. The pure car-
bolic acid was employed in many experi-
ments, at first with only partial success,
but even had it proved to be superior
to the liquid terebane, the price would
have been a serious objection ; terebane,
however, is very much cheaper, and in
every experiment was found to be more
active as a remedial agent than the
pure carbolic acid, while its fluid con-
dition at all temperatures renders it more
easy of manipulation.

To effect perfect combination between
the terebane and the water used for di-
lution care is essential, as imperfect
mixtures are capable of doing injury,
and may cause the death of some of
the sheep, particularly of those which
are first introduced into the bath. The
reason of this is obvious. An incom-
plete mixture allows the separation of
the terebane, which floats on the surface
of the fluid in the form of a brownish,
oily, or rather tarry scum; the first few
animals which are dipped become cover-
ed with the undiluted acid, which acts at
once and energetically as a caustic, caus-
ing prostration and death, unless immedi-
ately on observing the symptoms of dis-
tress, means are taken to wash off the

agent with warm water and soap; this
treatment is not, however, at all times
successful.

An accident of the kind never ought to
occur, and, in fact, never can occur if the
dip is properly prepared and used. It is
scarcely probable that agriculturists will
attempt to make the compound, and the
following directions, therefore, may be
taken as meant for the instruction of the
practical chemist or the veterinary sur-
geon who has charge of the diseased
flock : .

A quantity of terebane, proportioned to
the number of sheep to be dipped, is to
be placed in a convenient vessel of iron
or earthenware, and, if possible, the ves-
sel should be suspended in a larger one
containing water, and so arranged that
heat can be applied. In all chemical la-
boratories a water-bath will be available ;
but for the purpose of making small quan-
tities of the dip, an iron bucket suspend-
ed in an ordinary copper filled with wa-
ter, which may be kept hot, but not up to
the boiling point, will answer perfectly
well. As soon as the terebane is placed
in the temporary water-bath, a certain
proportion of soap, one bar weighing over
two pounds to each gallon of terebane, is
to be added. The mixture should be
stirred with a wooden rod until the soap
is entirely dissolved, care being taken
that the fluid does not boil. When the
solution is complete the compound should
be removed from the fire, and as soon as
it ceases to give off vapor, oil of turpen-
tine is to be added in the proportion of
one pint to each gallon of terebane. The
mixture, when cold, may be poured irito
carboys or casks ready for use.

While the above remedies may be en-
tirely efficacious, and are to be recom-
mended as the best, it may not be amiss
to give a few which have been popular
heretofore :

An infusion of arsenic, half a pound of
the mineral to twelve gallons of water.
The sheep should be washed in soap-suds
and then dipped in the infusion.

Mercurial ointment, incorporated thor-
oughly with four times its weight of lard,
rubbed upon the head and upon the skin
(the wool being carefully parted) in par-
allel lines from head to tail, four inches
apart. The mixture applied should not
exceed two ounces, and a half an ounce

2l8

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

may be enough for a lamb. A light sec-
ond application is sometimes necessary.

One pound of sulphur gradually mixed
with half a pound of oil of tar, the mix-
ture rubbed down with two pounds of
lard, may be applied in the same way.
Some would prefer this, because not poi-
sonous, if sure to be effectual.

Another mixture contains half a pound
of corrosive sublimate, three-fourths
pound of white hellebore, six gallons
whale oil, two pounds rosin, and two of
tallow. This is powerful, and should be
sparingly applied. Tobacco decoctions
are much used in this country and quite
effectually, if thoroughly applied after the
wool is taken off.

A correspondent in New York, who
did not succeed with the tobacco wash,
effects cures with a mixture (well rubbed
in) of one ounce subcarbonate of potash,
two ounces lac sulphur, one ounce oil of
tar, and one pint of whale oil.

Chancellor Livingston found the fol-
lowing a specific : A decoction of tobac-
co, one-third as much lye of wood ashes,
with as much lard as the lye would dis-
solve, a small quantity of tar, with one-
eighth of the whole by measure of the
spirits of turpentine, applied, after rub-
bing hard with a shoe-brush to break
down the scabs, by rubbing the parts
affected, two or three times, at intervals
of three days.

Another Remedy. — From that emi-
nent agriculturist, Mr. George Geddes, to
the New York Tribune, is so full and
complete that we copy it entire:

M. Walz, a German, was the first to
establish the true character of the dis-
ease; a minute insect (acarus) does the
mischief. If by any means one of these
insects is put upon the fibre of the wool
of a living sheep it at once travels to the
skin and burrows within it, where it re-
mains until about the tenth or twelfth
day, when a little swelling commences,
and by the sixteenth day a pustule breaks
and liberates the insect, and if it is a fe-
male, she comes forth with her young
that have hatched in the skin of the unfor-
tunate sheep. These at once spread them-
selves over the skin and bury themselves
and propagate their kind, and, unless in-
terfered with by man, go on in their work
until the animal is covered with sores,
which so torture it that it constantly rubs

itself against posts or any convenient
thing, and scratches itself by using its
feet, or tears its flesh off by its teeth, and
finally dies in misery.

There is an old and true saying : "One
scabby sheep will spoil a whole floc>;."
The disease once introduced spreads rap-
idly, for every post or other projecting
object in the field or shed or yard to
which the diseased animal may be con-
fined has very soon enough of these acati
to attach themselves to the wool of every
sound sheep that may happen to touch
these objects or lie down on ground that
has before been occupied by diseased
sheep. M. Walz found that while the
very young insects died by being long
kept in a dry place, the old and mature
ones would live when so exposed through
a whole winter.

The two remedies most used by farm-
ers to destroy insects on their domestic
animals are spirits of turpentine and the
juice of tobacco. These two substances
combined and properly applied will kill
the acari certainly, as has been repeat-
edly proven by owners of large flocks
that had become severely afflicted with
scab. A letter before us from Wyoming
Territory says that the signers thereot
had a flock of 1,200 sheep that was pur-
chased a year and more ago, and soon
after purchase symptoms of scab appear-
ed. Six hundred pounds of damaged un-
manufactured Wisconsin-grown tobacco
was purchased, and the sheep dipped in
the juice soon after shearing, without
good result, "for our sheep are troubled
worse with the disease now than a year
ago." This is a hard case, and the cure
a big job, but it is practicable. To show
that it is possible, we will give the history
of a case, all the facts of which I have
taken some pains to learn : Fifteen years
ago Major Davis Cossitt, of Onondaga
Hill, New York, well known as a wool-
grower and sheep-breeder, allowed a pass-
ing drove of sheep to be confined in his
yards during one night, having no suspi-
cion of danger from disease. The follow-
ing winter his own sheep, to the number
of six hundred, were kept in these yards
that the drove had for but one /light oc-
cupied several months before. Sickness
kept the owner confined to his house
during the early part of the winter,
and when at last he was able to visit his

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

219

flocks he saw at the first glance that they
were thoroughly infected with scab. The
usual efforts were made to apply spirits of
turpentine and tobacco to the diseased
parts as they could be reached while the
wool was unshorn, and with the usual un-
satisfactory result. Much wool was lost, and
great injury to health was suffered, until
the spring came and the sheep could be
sheared. As soon as the shearing was
done Major Cossitt adopted the following
course of treatment :

A large quantity of the stalks of tobac-
co plants, from which the leaves had been
stripped and sold, as the only merchanta-
ble part, and the stalks thrown away as of
no value, were procured from his neigh-
bors who largely cultivated tobacco.
These stalks were cut into convenient
lengths and placed in a large kettle, and
boiled until the water was black with their
juice. ' A platform was made large
enough to place upon it a sheep, having a
bottom made tight, and over that, and
about two inches from it, another floor
made of slats so near each other that the
sheep could not put their feet between.
This platform was placed on benches of
convenient height, and was a little in-
clined toward a large tub (half hogs-
head), and so placed that all the fluid
that drained from the sheep ran into the
tub. This was to save waste. The tub
having in it a sufficient quantity of to-
bacco-juice to fully immerse a sheep,
a little spirits of turpentine — say one
gill — was added, and a sheep dipped
in all over up to his eyes, and held there
until every part of his skin is thoroughly
wet. The animal was then laid on the
platform and all sore places thoroughly
rubbed by the hands of the men em-
ployed, so that the very bottom of the
sores was reached, and in some cases some
blood followed. The sheep was then lib-
erated, and quite likely showed marked
signs of being in the condition that am-
bitious boys sometimes find themselves
when, anxious to be men, they first form
the acquaintance of this poisonous plant.
I have heard of sheep actually dying un-
der treatment, and I have seen them very
sick when kept too long in the tub.

The water in the tub was kept as hot
as it could be and not burn the sheep, by
from time to time adding new from the
kettle over the fire; and about every

sixth sheep that was dipped, a new sup-
ply of spirits of turpentine of about a
gill was added. The turpentine floats on
top of the water, and for this reason must
be supplied in small quantities and often.
Mr. Cossitt put every one of his large
flock through this laborious course of
treatment, whether there were found or
not any sores on each, and at the
end of the week he repeated the treat-
ment, and after another week the whole
thing was the third time gone over, and
the fourth time at the end of a fortnight
from the third. Thus, in four weeks from
shearing, every sheep had been four times
dipped and scraped where necessary. No
signs of scab were ever again seen in this
flock ; though, to make all safe, the sheep
were all (young lambs as well as shorn
sheep) dipped once the year after, and
again once the third year immediately
after shearing. It may be that the first
year's four dippings were sufficient, but if
this was so the benefits derived by de-
stroying all ticks, and the promotion of a
healthy condition of the, skin generally,
justified the cost of the operation herer
where tobacco-stems can be had for
nothing. Many wool-growers think this
annual dipping in tobacco-juice pays in
the increased quantity and' improved con-
dition of the wool of the next fleece.

Another Remedy. — Rub soft soap on
the back pretty thickly, after shearing in
the spring, and let them take the rain ; for
a month or two the soap will be partially
melted, and will run down over the whole
body when it rains; this will effectually
kill the insect and cure the scab.

SHEEP, Lice Ticks and Flies.— Sheep,
and especially if they are neglected and
poor, are often sadly annoyed by these
vermin. They frequently precede the
scab ; the dreadful itching which they oc-
casionally cause, prepares for or produces
the scab, or they multiply most rapidly
when the skin is fouled by the scab. The
sheep-louse is too well known to every
shepherd; it is of a brownish or reddish
color, with a flat body, and three legs on
either side; the tick has a large round body,
and small chest and head, which he buries
deep into the skin, and by means of
which he holds so fast as to be with diffi-
culty torn off. The lice are propagated
by means of eggs or nits ; the origin of
the tick is not so well understood.

220

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

- They are both injurious to the wool, and
also to the health of the animal, from the
•constant irritation which they produce.
The louse is more injurious than the tick.
The tick only buries his head in the skin ;
the lice burrow, and form their nest in or
under it. They collect together, and a
scab soon rises, whence a glutinous mat-
ter proceeds. The scab continues to in-
crease until it is of the size of a sixpence,
and undermines and destroys the roots of
the wool, and the fleece comes off in
patches. The itching becomes intolerable,
and the sheep rub themselves eagerly
against every thing within their reach,
and tear off the wool by mouthfuls. The
lice are thickest about the throat and un-
der part of the neck, and when this is the
case, it has sometimes happened that the
sheep has been seriously injured, or even
destroyed, in a very curious way. He
bends his head down as closely as he can
to get at the vermin, and then some of
the wool entangling itself about the
teeth, the head becomes fixed, and the
animal is said to be bridled. If he is not
•observed and relieved, the head will be
held until the muscles are seriously in-
jured, so that he can no longer comforta-
bly bend his neck to graze, or until he is
absolutely destroyed.

Many washes have been invented to
^destroy these insects, but few of them
have perfectly succeeded. That which
seems to have the best effect is the
Arsenical Wash for Sheep Lice. (See
No. 76, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for.)

The infected sheep should be immersed
in this, the head only being kept out;
and while he is in the liquid the fleece
should be well rubbed and moulded, so that
the wash shall penetrate fairly to the skin.
When taken out of the tub, the fluid
should be pressed as thoroughly as possi-
ble out of the fleece, which will then do
for another of the flock ; and the sheep
should be kept from cold and wet for a
few days.

Other persons prefer the Mercurial
Wash for Lice. (See No. 77, Domestic
Animals, Medicines for.)

These washes, however, are not always
safe, and they are very troublesome in
their application. The ointment which
-we have recommended for the scab is
more easily applied, and more effectual.

It may be rendered more fluid, and con-
sequently more easily rubbed in by being
mixed with an equal weight of neats-foot
oil; and it should be as carefully applied
over every part as it would be in the act
of smearing, for the vermin will speedily
collect and burrow in any spot which the
ointment may not have reached. The
tick is many times as large as the louse,
but not so frequently found. When not
gorged with blood it is flat, but when
bloated it is round, and brown or black,
and varies in size from a pin's head to a
small bean. When one of them fastens
itself upon the sheep, it seems to retain
precisely the same situation for some
weeks, or even months, and yet the young
ticks are found round the old ones, re-
sembling numerous red points, but be-
coming brown as they increase in size.
They, too, select the sheep that is debili-
tated by want of proper nourishment or
by disease.

The tick is more frequent on some
grounds than on others. On some
farms, even although badly managed,
it is seldom found; on others it is
scarcely to be got rid of, even although
the sheep should be h*ealthy. It would
seem as though it were bred in the
ground, and that one part only of its ex-
istence is spent on the sheep. Some
shepherds set diligently to work, and pick
them off. This, however, is an almost
endless task. Others dress the sheep with
turpentine, which usually destroys them;
but the scab ointment is the surest reme-
dy, as well as preventive.

The sheep is tormented by two species
of flies. The one endeavors to lay its
eggs on the muzzle, and thence, speedily
hatched by the moisture and warmth of
the breath, the animalcule, or larva, creeps
up the nostril, and finds its way into the
frontal sinuses, or some of the cells above
the nose, and there fastens itself, and
lives and grows, until it becomes a large
worm; it then creeps again down the
the nostril, assumes the form of a grub,
burrows in the earth, and in due time ap-
pears in the form of a fly. It is only
during the time of the depositing of the
egg that the sheep are disturbed or injur-
ed, and then they may be seen huddling
together on the barest part of the pasture,
with their noses close to the ground, and
by continual shaking of the head and

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

32r

stamping, endeavoring to prevent the
depositing of the egg. When the little
worm has reached its destined situation,
it seems no longer to trouble the animal ;
and these bots are found in the heads of
some of the largest and fattest sheep.
This is the destined place of this worm,
and nature would not make it destructive,
or even much annoying, to the animal by
which it is to be supported.

Another species of fly, or perhaps
several other species, are far more trouble-
some and injurious. At some uncertain
time after shearing, and seemingly oftener
occurring to those that were early than to
those that were later sheared, the sheep
will be struck with the fly. This will be
discovered by the uneasiness of the
animal. It is not the itching of scab, for
it is before the usual appearance of that
disease, and when the sheep was shorn
there was not the least appearance of it.
The sheep will hang down their heads,
stand for awhile as if listening, then bow
up their backs, violently shake their tails,
stamp furiously with their feet, gallop
away for a short distance, and then turn
round and try to bite the affected part.
The tail is evidently the part oftener
attacked.

On being caught, there will probably
be found little lumps or bladders on
various parts, but particularly about the
tail ; and if these are pierced, they will
be found to contain numerous little
maggots. If there are any sores about
the animal made in the shearing, they
will become full of maggots in different
stages of maturity, and these vermin will
crawl through the wool, over almost
every part of the body.

In warm weather they are peculiarly
annoying and destructive. We have
seen them spreading from the root of the
tail to the head of the sheep, deepening
every sore, eating even through the
sound skin in various places, and pene-
trating to the very entrails.

A sheep struck by the fly should not
be neglected a single day, for the mag-
gots will sometimes do irreparable mis-
chief in a very short space of time. The
wool should be cut off round the places
where the maggots seem principally to
prevail, and they should be carefully
picked out ; but this will not effectually
destroy them; for many will crawl far

away out of the reach of the looker.
Some ointment or powder must be ap-
plied, which will at the same time heal
the sores and destroy the maggot. An
application of this kind may be obtained
in some of the preparations of lead. The
Fly Powder (See No. 78, Domestic
Animals, Medicines for) will be very
useful.

While one man holds the sheep by the
head, let another have a dredger or
pepper-box containing some of the
powder in his right hand, and a stick in
his left ; let him introduce the stick near
the tail of the animal, and draw it gently
along the back as far as the head, raising
the wool, and scattering in the powder as
he proceeds. Then let him dip his hand
in some of the coarsest whale oil, and
smooth down the wool again, smearing
the whole of the fleece with the oil. This
will not only destroy the maggots, but
prevent the future attack of the fly.
There are few flies that will approach
anything that smells strongly of this oil;
it would, therefore, be a good practice to
smear the sheep with a little of it after
shearing. No injury could possibly be
done to the wool, but, on the contrary,
its growth would be promoted.

If, however, the flies have made any
deep wounds or ulcers, some of the
powder should be mixed up with tar, and
the ointment gently rubbed on the sores.
Another good way is to dip the lambs in
a decoction of tobacco, just strong
enough to kill ticks in a minute or two.
One man takes the lamb by the forelegs
and head, and dips him in the vessel so
as just to leave the head out. It is then
raised and held over the kettle while
another presses the liquor out of the
fleece back into the kettle.

Maggots originating from fly-blows on
wounds, may be prevented by dressing
the wound with tar, and may be destroyed
by an application of honey, when spirits
of turpentine would prove ineffectual.

SHEEP, Erysepelas.— See Sheep, Scab.

SHEEP, Stretches. — See Sheep, Indi-
gestion.

SHEEP, Shearing.— Sheep should be
sheared before they are turned out to
pasture. This prevents a loss of wool by
their shedding it on bushes, etc., and it is
also cleaner and freer from grit or sand.

SHEEP, Itch.— See Sheep, Scab.

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

SHEEP, Diarrhoea, or Purging in.— The
full-grown sheep is almost as subject to
purging as is the lamb, but it is not so
difficult to be cured, nor is it so fatal. A
sheep can scarcely be turned into fresh
pasture in the spring without beginning
to scour, and especially when warm
weather is succeeding to cold, and the
grass shoots rapidly; but this in most
cases is beneficial rather than injurious.
It rouses the digestive organs to full and
healthy action, and the sheep that scours
a little when first turned into the meadow
or on the marsh, is sure to thrive more
quickly afterwards. The purging, how-
ever, must not be too violent, nor con-
tinue too long.

The looseness caused by feeding on
young succulent grass, seldom lasts more
than a few days; but if it should continue
longer, the sheep must be removed to in-
ferior pasture, and a little hay allowed
them if they can be induced to eat it :
some dry sound old seeds should also be
put before them, and the astringent powder
(See No. 80 Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for) administered.

A favorite remedy with some farmers,
and succeeding in slight cases, but ineffi-
cacious in severe ones, is suet boiled in
milk. Others give a very curious medi-
cine : it consists of the lime dug out of an
old wall, and mixed with tar. What good
purpose the tar can answer, we cannot
conceive, and the lime would be super-
seded by the prepared chalk recommend-
ed in the last recipe.

When the disease abates, the sheep
must not be turned out again on their
former pasture, but on the best old grass
land which the farm will yield ; and even
then, a little good hay and corn should
be daily allowed them.

The farmer should be careful that he
does not confound the consequence of
the diarrhoea with costiveness. When
there is much mucous discharge, it is very
sticky, and adheres to the wool under the
tail, and glues it to the rump, thus form-
ing a mechanical obstruction to the pas-
sage of the dung. The sheep straining
very hard, careless observers have sup-
posed that he was costive, and have given
him a strong dose of physic, and thus
added fuel to the fire.

There is but one form of the disease
under which all hope is precluded, and

that is when it is connected with chronic
cough or confirmed hoose. That animal
may be patched up for a little while, but
he will most assuredly perish.

It is necessary to make a distinction
between diarrhoea and dysentery, the
latter being attended with considerable
fever and the evacuations are often slimy
and bloody, and the disease sometimes
terminates fatally in a few days. It some-
times follows diarrhoea, but is generally
produced by change of food or pasture
and exposure to bad weather. Lambs
are rather more liable to the disease than
sheep, and it has been found to attack
them very frequently on coming from low
lands to high. The treatment should
consist in giving Mild Laxatives (See No.
81 Domestic Animals, Medicines for).

SHEEP, Dysentery, (See Sheep, Diar-
rhoea).

SHEEP, Indigestion and Debility in. —
Bad management, and that alone, causes
the appearance of these complaints in a
flock. When sheep have been over-
driven, and excessively wearied ; or ewes
have had twins, and have afterwards been
kept with their lambs on scanty pasture,
where there was not enough even for the
mother ; or have weaned very early, before
there was any flush of grass ; or, during the
winter, have not yet been supplied with a
proper quantity of hay or corn — in all
these cases, the sheep are apt to pine
away. They do not seem to relish their
food, but wander over the field picking a
little here and there, the belly being tuck-
ed up and the back bowed.

The remedy for this is simple enough if
the sheep have not been neglected too
long. It is plain that the powers of diges-
tion are weakened or suspended, and the
object to be accomplished is to rouse them
once more to their proper tone and action.
A mild purgative should lay the founda-
tion for this. Half the Purging Drink (See
No. 66 Domestic Animals, Medicines
for) should be given, and this followed
up by tonics or stomachics. Some farm-
ers content themselves with giving a little
good caudle for two or three successive
days, and with general good effect, except
that its sweetness is objectionable. The
Tonic Drink for Debility (See No. 82
Domestic Animals, Medicines for) will
be preferable.

Repeat the half-dose of physic a week

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

223

afterwards, and pat the sheep on fresh
and good pasture.

SHEEP, Dizziness in.— Mr. Gunther
says: "Sheep are often observed to
describe eccentric circles for whole hours,
then step forwards a pace, then
again stop, and turn round again.
The older the disease the more the
animal turns, until at length it does
it even in a trot. The appetite goes
on diminishing, emaciation becomes
more and more perceptible, and the state
of exhaustion terminates in death. On
opening the skull there are met, either be-
neath the bones of the cranium or beneath
the dura mater, (the membrane which lines
the interior of the skull), or in the brain
itself, hydatids varying in number and
size, sometimes a single one, often from
three to six, the size of which varies ; ac-
cording as these worms occupy the right
side or the left, the sheep turns to the
right or left ; but if they exist on both
sides, the turning takes place to the one
and the other alternately.

The animal very often does not turn,
which happens when the worm is placed
on the median line ; then the affected an-
imal carries the the head down, and
though it seems to move rapidly it does
not change place. When the hydatid is
situated on the posterior part of the
brain, the animal carries the head high,
runs straight forward and throws itself on
every object it meets.
Treatment. — Take

Powdered Worm Seeds ......I ounce.

" Sulphur X "

" Charcoal 2 "

" Linseed, or Flaxseed I pound

Mix. Divide into eight parts, and feed one
every morning. Make a drink from the white In-
dian hemp (asclepias incamata), one ounce of
which may be infused in a quart of water, one-
fourth to be given every night.

SHEEP, Grub-in-tlie-Head;— The Grub-
in-the-head is the grub of the gadfly of
the sheep. The egg is deposited within
the nostrils of the sheep, where it is im-
mediately hatched by the warmth and
moisture; and the larvae crawl up the
nose to the sinuses, where they attach
themselves to the membrane and remain
until the next year, feeding upon the
mucus.

Some farmers protect their sheep meas-
urably from the attacks of the grub, by
plowing a furrow or two in different por-

tions of their pastures. The sheep thrust
their noses into this on the approach of
the fly. Others smear their noses with
tar, or cause them to smear themselves,
by sprinkling their salt over tar. Those
fish oils which repel the attacks of flies
might be resorted to. Blacklock sug-
gested the dislodgement of the larvae
from the head, by blowing tobacco smoke
up the nostrils — as it is said to be effectual.
It is blown from the tail of a pipe, the
bowl being covered with cloth. Tobac-
co-water is sometimes injected with a
syringe for the same purpose. The last
should be prevented from entering the
throat in any considerable quantity.

SHEEP, Leaping. — The manner of
treating rams has lately received a very
great improvement. Instead of turning
them loose among the ewes at large, as
heretofore, and agreeably to universal
practice, they are kept apart, in a sepa-
rate paddock, or small enclosure, with a
couple of ewes only each, to make them
rest quietly; having the ewes of the flock
brought to them singly, and leaping each
only once. By this judicious and accu-
rate regulation, a ram is enabled to im-
pregnate near twice the number of ewes
he would do if turned loose among them,
especially a young ram. In the old
practice, sixty or eighty ewes were es-
teemed the full number for a ram. [Over-
taxing the male gives rise to weak and
worthless offspring.]

"The period during which the rams*
are to go with the ewes must be regulated
by climate, and the quantity of spring
food provided. It is of great importance
that lambs should be dropped as early
as possible, that they not only be well
nursed, but have time to get stout, and
able to provide for themselves before
winter sets in. It is also of good ad-
vantage to the ewes that they may get
into good condition before the rutting
season. The ram has been known to live
to the age of fifteen years, and begins to
procreate at one. When castrated, they
are called wethers ; they then grow soon-
er fat, and the flesh becomes finer and
better flavored."

SHEEP, Fractures, Wounds and Bites
in. — It is not often that the sheep gets a
broken bone by any fault of his own, but
the shepherd is sometimes a brutal fellow.
If he is a youngster, he is too frequent-

224

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

\y designedly mischievous; and in the
struggle between a sheep and the dog a
leg has now and then been broken. The
treatment of fracture below the elbow or
the hock is easy enough. The broken
limb must not be roughly stretched or
handled, but the divided edges of the
bone must be brought gently and as per-
fectly opposite, and close, and fitting
again to each other as possible, and kept
together by some strips of adhesive plas-
ter or pitch spread upon leather wound
round the part. Over this splints should
be placed, reaching a little beyond the
joint, above and below, and these con-
fined with more plaster, or with waxed
thread. A little lint or linen rag should
have been previously placed under the
end of the splints, to prevent them from
excoriating or injuring the part beneath.
This being done, the leg should not be
meddled with until the bandage becomes
loose, which will be in about ten days.
The splints must be replaced once, and
at the expiration of another ten days, the
edges of the bone will generally be found
to have united; the animal, however,
should be kept for a little while longer
as quiet as possible, and if the bone is not
quite firm, the strips, without the splints,
should be once more bound round it.

Sometimes considerable swelling will
take place after the splints have been em-
ployed. They may have been put on a
little too tight, or they do not press
equally. They should not, however, be
taken off at once, for the bones beginning
to unite may again be separated during
the removal of the bandages; but, with a
sharp and strong pair of scissors, two or
three notches should be cut through the
edge of the bandage above and below.
This will generally afford sufficient room
for the re-establishment of the circulation,
and the swelling will subside, without the
fracture having been disturbed.

If it should be a compound fracture,
that is, if a portion of the bone should
protrude through the skin, either the set-
ting of the bones must be deferred until
the wound is healed, or the bandages
must be so applied, that the wound can
be readily got at for the purpose of dress-
ing. This, however, is so difficult a mat-
ter that it will be prudent to destroy the
animal that has a bad compound frac-
ture.

Sheep are far oftener subject to wounds
than they ought to be, from the ferocity
of the shepherd's dog, encouraged by his
brutal master needlessly to worry the
flock. They are too frequently seriously
lamed, and the ears almost torn from
their heads. The proprietor of sheep
should never forgive wanton cruelty of
this nature.

The treatment of wounds in sheep is
very simple, and consists mostly in avoid-
ing the burning irons and caustics, of
which the farrier, and sometimes the shep-
herd, are too fond.

The first thing is to clean the wound
thoroughly with a sponge and warm wa-
ter, and to remove those parts which are
much lacerated, or in a manner torn off.
If it is a simple cut wound, and the edges
are not far separated, all that will
be necessary to be done will be to
apply daily a little tincture of aloes, and
to cover the part, that the flies may not
deposit their eggs on the sore. If it is a
wide and gaping wound, the edges of it
must be brought as nearly and accurately
together as possible, and confined by one
or two or more stiches passed through
them with a crooked needle and waxed
thread, and which the shepherd should
always carry with him. The only dress-
ing wanted here will be the tincture of
aloes, with occasional fomentations if
there is much inflammation; but the
wound should be more carefully covered
from the flies, either by a bandage or
pitch plaster, or for a small wound, a lit-
tle tar will answer.

No dependence is to be placed on the
accounts which are given by some au-
thors of the udders of the ewes being
sucked by snakes. The reptile has never
been seen thus employed; but sheep are
sometimes bitten by the viper, and a few
have been destroyed by the swelling hav-
ing been neglected, and inflammation
widely spreading. It is difficult at all
times to discover the accident. Whenev-
er a sheep is lamed, the affected limb
should be well examined; and at other
times, if he is evidently ill, and the illness
accompanied by local or general swelling,
careful search should be made into the
nature of the mischief. The wound in-
flicted by a viper will be very small, but
there will be swelling and heat about it,
and a great deal of tenderness.

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

225

The best application is oil of turpen-
tine, which should be well rubbed over
and around the part; while a quarter of
an ounce of hartshorn, and four ounces
of sweet oil, may be given to the animal,
and repeated in half an hour if the part
should continue to swell, or the sheep
appear to be seriously ill. Some shep-
herds, when they suspect an accident of
this kind, rub the part well with an onion,
and doubtless with considerable effect;
the turpentine, however, is more effectual,
and should be obtained as speedily as
possible.

SHEEP, Scours in. — In scours, the sur-
face evaporates too little of the moisture,
and should be relaxed by diffusable stim-
ulants in the form of ginger tea. The
treatment that we have found the most
successful is as follows : take four ounces
raw linseed oil, two ounces of lime water ;
mix. Let this quantity be given to a
sheep on the first appearance of the above
disease; half the quantity will suffice for
a lamb. Give about a wine glass full of
ginger tea at intervals of four hours, or
mix a small quantity of ginger in the food.
Let the animal be fed on gruel, or mashes
of ground meal. If the above treatment
fails to arrest the disease, add half a tea-
spoonful of powdered bayberry bark. If
the extremities are cold, rub them with
the tincture of capsicum.

SHEEP, Foundering. — In this malady,
the animal becomes slow in its move-
ments ; its walk is characterized by rigid-
ity of the muscular system, and, when
lying down, requires great efforts in order
to rise.

Causes. — Exposure to sudden changes
in temperature, feeding on wet lands, etc.

Indications of Cure. — To equalize
the circulation, invite and maintain action
to the external surface, and remove the
cause. To fulfill the latter indication,
remove the animal to a dry, warm situa-
tion.

The following anti-spasmodic and dia-
phoretic will complete the cure : Powdered
lady's slipper (cypripedium^) 1 teaspoon-
ful. To be given every morning in a
pint of warm penny-royal tea.
, If the malady does not yield in a few
days, take powdered sassafras bark, one
teaspoonful; boiling water, one pint;
honey, one teaspoonful. Mix, and repeat
the dose every other morning.

J5

SHEEP, Age of, How to Tell.— The
age of sheep may be known by examining
the front teeth. They are eight in num-
ber, and appear during the first year, all
of a small size. In the second year the
two middle ones fall out, and their place
is supplied by two new teeth, which are
easily distinguished, being of a larger
size. In the third year, two other small
teeth, one from each side, drop out, and
are replaced by two large ones, so that
there are now four large teeth in the
middle, and two pointed ones on each
side. In the fourth year, the large teeth
are six in number, and only two small
ones remain, one at each end of the
range. In the fifth year, the remaining
small teeth are lost, and the whole front
teeth are large. In the sixth year, the
whole begin to be worn; and in the
seventh — sometimes sooner — some fall
out and are broken.

SHEEP *AND LAMBS, Care and Man-
agement of. — 1. Keep sheep dry under
foot with litter. This is even more neces-
sary than roofing them. Never let them
stand in mud or in snow. 2. Do not
starve them during the winter, but by an
abundance of food keep them in good
condition. A more painful sight than
the flocks of many farmers, near the
close of the winter, cannot be witnessed.
When a farmer has more sheep than he
can properly keep or sell, he should kill
the surplus when winter sets in, even if he
should get nothing from them but the
pelts. 3. Furnish an ample supply of
water, convenient of access, during the
winter months. 4. Always try to avoid
letting any of your sheep or lambs have
any sudden change of food. 5. Take
up lamb bucks early in the summer, and
keep them up until the December follow-
ing, when they may be turned out. 6.
Drop or take out the lowest bars as the
sheep enter or leave the yard, thus saving
broken limbs. 7. Count every day. 8.
Begin feeding grain with the greatest
care, and use the smallest quantity at
first. 9. If a ewe loses her lamb, milk
her daily for a few days, and mix a little
alum with her salt. 10. Let no hogs eat
with the sheep, by. any means, in the
spring. 11. Give lambs a little mill feed
in time of weaning. 12. Never frighten
sheep if possible to avoid it. 13. Furnish
sow rye for weak ones in cold weather, if

226

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

possible. 14. Separate all those that are
weak, thin or sick from those that are
strong, in the fall, and give them special
care. 15. If any one of your sheep is
hurt, catch it at once and wash the
wound ; and, if it is fly-time, apply spirits
of turpentine daily, and always wash with
something healing. If a limb is broken
bind it with splinters, but not tight enough
to interfere with the circulation of the
blood. 16. Keep a number of good
bells on the sheep. 17. Do not let the
sheep spoil their wool with chaff or burrs.
18. Cut tag-locks in early spring. 19.
For scours, give pulverized alum in wheat
bran; prevent by taking great care in
changing dry for green feed. 20. If one
is lame, examine the foot, clean out
between the hoofs, pare the hoof if un-
sound, and apply a wash of carbolic acid.
21. Shear at once any sheep commencing
to shed its wool, unless the weather is too
severe, and save carefully the pelt of any
sheep that dies. 22. If sheep are given
pine boughs once or twice a week, they
will create appetite, prevent disease, and
increase their health. 23. Their general
health during the grazing season will be
promoted by giving the sheep tar, at the
rate of a gill a day for every twenty
sheep. Put the tar in a trough, sprinkle
a little fine salt over it, and the sheep will
consume it with eagerness. 24. The best
sheep to keep, both for wool and mutton,
is the American merino,

SHEEP, Catarrh in.— The following is
asserted to be a sure cure for this disease.
Take a quill from a hen's wing, immerse
the feather end in spirits of turpentine,
run it up the nostril of the sheep the
Avhole length of the feather end, and
twist it round before withdrawing it; wipe
it off clean each time before immersing.
One application will cure ordinary cases ;
the second or third, at intervals of two or
three days, will cure the worst.

SHEEP, To Fatten for Winter.— Other
things taken into consideration, large
sheep fatten more easily and profitably
than small sheep, and full grown animals
than those that have not reached maturity.
Two-year-old wethers are the most profit-
able to fatten, and it is a matter of con-
siderable surprise that so few of our
farmers breed them. Sheep will fatten
readily in winter on good clover hay
alone ; we do not mean the dark looking,

burnt-up stuff, commonly called by that
name, but what an American farmer would
call " hay," cut when in full bloom, and
cut in such a manner as to retain all its
juices before they are turned into woody
fibre, and of a good green color. A
sheep of say 120 lbs. live weight, will
consume 21 lbs. of clover hay per week,
and increase in weight 2 lbs. Allowing
that it would ordinarily consume 10 lbs.
to keep it in good stationary condition,
an expenditure of 7 lbs. of hay extra will
produce 1^ lbs. of mutton, worth, in the
spring, 10 cents, so that the extra feeding
is literally realizing to the farmer at the
rate of nearly $30 per ton for his hay.
No other stock, we think, will give such
a return for the trouble of fattening as
this.

If it is desired to fatten sheep rapidly,
the addition of a small quantity of oats to
their food will be of great service; a
gallon of oats once a day, among twenty
sheep, will be a great help to fattening.
Fattening sheep do not require very warm
quarters — in fact, they will not bear close
confinement, but their quarters must be
dry, well ventilated, and abundantly lit-
tered with clean straw ; they must be fed
regularly, kept quiet, have access to
water, and an occasional taste of salt. It
will be found that when the weather is
very cold they will require to consume
somewhat more food than at other times,
in order to counteract the waste of sub-
stance used in generating heat for their
bodies, otherwise they will lose instead of
gaining on cold or stormy days.

SHEEP, To Protect from the Gad Fly.
In August and September this fly lays its
eggs in the nostrils of sheep, where they
are hatched, and the worms crawl into
the head, and very frequently they eat
through to the brain. In this way many
sheep are destroyed. As a protection
smirch their noses with tar. Lay some
tar in a trough or on a board, and strew
fine salt on it — the sheep will finish the
operation. The tar will protect them,
and what they eat will promote their
health.

SHEEP, Rheumatism in. — This disease
consists in a peculiar inflammation of the
muscles of the body very frequently causing-
considerable pain when they 'are called
into action. It is usually caused by ex-
posure to cold, and sometimes shifts from

SHEEP— CARE AND MANAGEMENT

227

one foot to another, occasionally degene-
rating into a slow or chronic form, and at-
tacking the sinews, ligaments* and joints,
as well as the muscles. The neck and
loins are the parts most frequently at-
tacked, either separately or combined.
The former affection causes the head to
be carried in a bent position, and the lat-
ter produces considerable stiffness and
weakness of the loins. The treatment
should consist in removing the animal to
a comfortable place, giving an active pur-
gative, such as two ounces of Epsom
salts dissolved in warm water, with a
drachm of ginger and ^ an ounce of
spirits of nitrous ether. A stimulant,
such as hartshorn and oil, or opodeldoc,
should be well rubbed over the affected
part; and if the disease assumes a chron-
ic form, a seton should be inserted near
the part.

SHEEP, Directions for Shearing.— The
shearer may place the sheep on that part
of the floor assigned to him resting on its
rump, and himself in a posture with his right
knee on a cushion, and the back of the ani-
mal resting against his left thigh. He grasps
the shears about half way from the point
to the bow, resting his thumb along the
blades, which gives him a better command
of the points. He may then commence
cutting the wool at the brisket, and, pro-
ceeding downward, all upon the sides of
the belly to the extremity of the ribs, the
external sides of both sides to the edges
of the flanks, then back to the brisket,
and thence upwaid, shearing the wool
from the breast, front, and both sides of
the neck, but not yet the back of it, and
also the poll, or forepart, and top of the
head. Then "the jacket is opened," and
its position, as well as that of the shearer
is then changed, by the animal's being
turned flat upon its side, one knee of the
shearer resting on the cushion, the other
gently pressing the fore-quarter of the an-
imal to prevent any struggling. He then
resumes, cutting upon the flank and rump,
and thence onward to the head. The sheep
is then turned on the other side — in do-
ing which great care is requisite to pre-
vent the fleeces being torn; and the
shearer proceeds as upon the other side.
He must then take the sheep near to the
door through which it is to pass out, and
neatly trim the legs, leaving not a solita-
ry lock anywhere as a lodging-place for

ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him
to remove from his stand to trim, other-
wise the useless stuff from the legs be-
comes intermingled with the fleece-wool.
In the use of the shears, the blades must
be laid as flat to the skin as possible, the
points not lowered too much, nor should
more than one or two inches be cut at a
clip, and frequently not so much, but de-
pending on the compactness of the wool.

SHEEP, How to Purchase. — The best
sheep for a man to buy who is just start-
ing a flock, are young two and three year
old ewes. Next to such, we should prefer
to buy yearling ewes, although having to
wait a year longer for increase. We con-
sider it poor policy, and do not practice
breeding yearlings. It will do in small
flocks, where yearlings are large of their
age, but not in large flocks — or Merino
sheep especially. Next to yearlings, we
would take a flock of thrifty lambs. But
there is a very wide difference in the lots
of lambs raised by different owners in the
West, owing much to the manner in
which they have been treated. The sort
we should not want are those which were
dropped in May, June and July, which
were not weaned early enough, or not
given a good chance at weaning, or even
in some cases which have not been wean-
ed at all, any further than the ewes wean-
ed them. Although four and five year
old ewes are not objectionable, if right
other ways, yet there is, in general, noth-
ing like young sheep.

A man who is acquainted with sheep
should, on proposing to himself to buy a
flock which may have been driven in to
sell, for instance, take with him some man
who is posted on sheep. A sheep man,
on coming up to such a flock, will take a
general look over it to note condition,
thrift, quality of wool, etc. He will then
wish to have them up in a yard, where
he can catch them, to make more partic-
ular examination. He catches a lot of
the oldest appearing ones and looks in
their mouths; he watches sharply for any
indications of scab (small patches of wool
gone), and makes a rigid examination
with his knife of the hoofs of such as
limp the least bit or show any tenderness
in their feet. If any of the hoofs have
been treated for foot rot at any time
within six months, he is sure to see it;
it shows either in the growth of the edge

228

SHEEP— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

of the hoof from its former paring
with the knife, or in the rough and un-
natural hardness of the hoof which the
application of all foot rot medicines
(caustics) leave. A new man should
never buy a flock which indicates that it
has been treated for scab or foot rot.
They may be cured, but he is not the
man to risk it. Nothing sickens new
men like having to go through a siege of
doctoring a diseased flock.

Buy only good sheep, if you can't buy
so many of them. Of all the profitless
stock, a hard lot of sheep is the most so.
One thing we forgot to mention above,
and that is, in buying sheep in the sum-
mer or fell, to try and learn whether they

have had bucks running with them. One
of my neighbors bought a flock in such
condition last fall, and has had two hun-
dred or more lambs dropped this winter,
not one of which is alive at this time. In
addition to the loss of the lambs, many
of the ewes have died from weakness in
lambing, and of those which live through
many of them will shed their wool, and
all shear but light fleeces. Don't buy
ewes out of a flock driven in from a distance
which have had bucks driven with them,
even if they have been aproned. Aprons
will slip sometimes, and, as we have
heard, "accidents will happen in the best
of families."
SHEEP, Fits.— See Sheep, Epilepsy.

SWINE:

DISEASES AND MANAGEMENT OF.

SWINE, Treatment of. — Pigs should
always have access to fresh water. No
matter how sloppy the food is, or how
much dish-water is furnished, they should
always be supplied with pure water. We
are satisfied that pigs often suffer for want
of it.

Salt, sulphur, charcoal, ashes, bone-
dust, or superphosphate, should occasion-
ally be placed where the pigs can eat
what they wish of them.

Pigs will eat beans, if thoroughly
boiled, though they are not fond of
them. Peas they eat with avidity, and
when as cheap as corn, should be fed in
preference, as they afford much the richer
manure. Half peas and half corn are
probably better than either alone. Peas
make very firm pork.

Oil-cake, when fed in large quantities,
injures the flavor and quality of the pork,
but we have fed small quantities of it
with decided advantage to the health and
rapid growth of the pigs, without any ap-
parent injury to the lard or pork. It is
quite useful for breeding sows. It keeps
the bowels loose, and increases the quan-
tity and quality of the milk.

Bran, except in small quantities, is not
a valuable food for fattening pigs. It is
too bulky. But when the rich, concen-
trated food is given, such as corn, barley,
peas or oil-cake, pigs should be allowed
all the bran they can eat, placed in a sep-
arate trough. In this way it becomes a
very useful and almost indispensable arti-
cle to the pig feeder. It is also very use-
ful for breeding sows. The best roots to
raise for pigs are parsnips and mangel-
wurzel.

The period of gestation in a sow is al-
most invariably sixteen weeks. In three
or four days after pigging, a sow in good
condition will generally take the boar.
But, as a rule, it is not well to allow it.
If she passes this period she will not take

the boar until the pigs are weaned. If sh«
fails the first time, she will "come round
again" in from two to three weeks.

In mild cases of diarrhoea, nothing is
better than fresh skimmed milk, thickened
with wheat flour.

Pigs should be castrated a week or two
before they are weaned.

Nothing in the management of pigs is
more important than to provide a trough
for the sucking pigs separate from the
sow, and to commence feeding them
when two or three weeks old.

Many of the diseases of pigs are con-
tagious, and the instant a pig is observed
to be sick it should be removed to a sep-
arate pen ; and it would be well to re-
gard this single case of sickness as an in-
dication that something is wrong in the
general management of the pigs. Clean
out the pens, scald the troughs, scrape
out all decaying matter from under and
around them, sprinkle chloride of lime
about the pen, or, what is probably
better, carbolic acid. Dry earth is a cheap
and excellent disinfectant. Use outside
wood-work, troughs, plank floors, etc.,
with crude petroleum. It is the cheap-
est and best antiseptic yet discovered.

To destroy lice, wash the pig all over
with crude petroleum, and the next day
give him a thorough washing with warm
water and soap, with the free use of
the scrubbing-brush.

Pigs should be provided with scratch-
ing posts, having auger holes bored for
pegs at different heights, to accommodate
pigs of different sizes.

The following description may be con-
sidered the perfection of form in a fat
pig : The back should be nearly straight,
though being arched a little from head to
tail is no objection ; the back uniformly
broad and rounded across along the
whole body; the touch along the back

(229)

:3o

SWINE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

should be firm, but springy, the thin-
nest skin springing most; the shoulders,
sides and hams should be deep perpen-
dicularly, and in a straight line from
shoulder to ham; the closing behind
filled up ; the legs short and bones small;
the neck short, thick and deep; the
cheeks round aad filled out; the face
straight, nose fine, eyes bright, ears
pricked, and the head small in proportion
to the body ; a curled tail is indicative of
a strong back.

SWINE, Breeds and Breeding— There
are several good breeds which lay claim
to public favor — none of which are
free from defects, or which embody all
the points a of good hog — the Berkshire
has retained the good opinion of the pub-
lic longer than any other breed, and the
improved Berkshire is probably our best
breed. The Berkshire was first obtained
by crossing the Neapolitan with one of
the large English breeds. The Neapoli-
tan is a descendant of the improved Roman
hog, probably from their best, a proof of the
skill of that ancient people in that di-
rection.

Most of the improved English breeds
were obtained by a cross of the large
and rather coarse English hog with the
fine and delicate Chinese. The Suffolk
is the result of one of those crosses, and
is esteemed the best breed in England.
It is of fair size, and retains in a remark-
able degree the fine fattening qualities of
its China parent.

The pure Suffolk is almost destitute of
hair, a very serious defect under our
scorching sun and dry and hot climate; it
is rather tender for our western treatment,
but in fattening, gives a good return for
all the food consumed,

There are several American breeds that
have attracted attention, as the Ma-
gee hog in Ohio and the Chester White
from Pennsylvania, both good hogs, but
as yet hardly entitled to be called distinct
breeds. It requires a long continued
breeding in one direction, with careful
and judicious selection, to form a distinct
breed, so that all the pigs will be of uni-
form character, size and form ; till fully
established, there is a tendency to breed
back generally to the most defective pro-
genitor, and till that tendency is over-
come, the certainty of reproduction in
its perfection cannot be relied on.

The Chester White, when distinctly es-
tablished, will be as most of the breeds
are now, valuable hogs, the square and
deep form, stout and erect legs, broad
and short head, quiet disposition, good
fattening qualities, and heavy weight, form
a combination of good qualities that can
hardly be surpassed.

Although our best breeds of hogs were
obtained by judicious crossing, and our
future successful efforts will be perfected
in the same way, yet the indiscriminate
crossing practiced by our farmers cannot
be too strongly condemned. There seems
to be a mania for mixing all breeds, while
the aim should be to preserve each breed
distinct and pure. We often see litters of
pigs with no two alike, but each is a rep-
resentation of some one of the eight or
ten breeds whose blood is mingled in the
genealogical compound. We once made
a cross of the Irish Grazier, a large, slow,
maturing hog, with the Berkshire, and
then crossed that sow with the Suffolk —
and the product were three distinct
breeds from the same litter — first, a fine
delicate pig that would fatten at any age;
second, a medium-sized hog that would
fatten at twelve to eighteen months ; and
third, a Grazier hog, that would weigh
from five to seven hundred, but must be
two or two and a half years old before
they would lay on fat. Preserve the
breed pure and distinct, should be the
rule.

Both parents should be at least one
year old before being allowed to breed,
and if the female should be kept till five
or six years for that purpose it would ma-
terially improve the size and vigor of the
pigs; while breeding from young sows,
deteriorates both size and vigor. The
period of gestation with the sow is about
sixteen weeks, or 1 1 2 days ; during this
period the sow should never be closely
confined, but should have ample room
for exercise, with free access to water;
the food should be generous, but not too
heavy and heating — such as will insure
the most perfect health.

The best season for sows to farrow is
April, or early in May ; an April pig is
worth one-third more than a July pig,
and more than double a September pig.
Some breeds can be fattened at any age,
but none will fatten as well at one year
or much as at 15 to j 8 months; any hog

SWINE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

231

must arrive fully at maturity before it can
be easily fattened. And an April pig can
be kept till a year from the following Jan-
uary at less expense and trouble than a
September pig. While suckling the sow
should have free access to grass, and
should have a generous supply of tolera-
bly rich slop, and if fed in a trough easy
of access, the young porkers will soon
learn to feed with her with decided bene-
fit to themselves and the mother. At
eight weeks old they should be weaned —
and if they have learned to eat with the
mother and are fed milk or dairy slop
with a generous supply of fine bran or
coarse meal they will not fall off, but will
continue growing without interruption.

A growing pig should never be fed
corn to any amount, it contains too much
oil and does not contain elements of
growth; light grain, bran and shorts,
with a good supply of grass and succu-
lent vegetables, should constitute their
food. After weaning, a pig should never
be made extremely fat, it checks the
growth and injures their thrift afterwards;
nor should they be permitted to be-
come poor — a poor pig can never be
made to attain the size or form it would
have done had it never been stopped in
its growth — like a hill of corn, if it once
becomes feeble and sickly, no after cul-
ture can atone for the injury done. A
mangy pig is worthless and should be
consigned to the golgotha where the dead
animals of the farm are deposited.

Neat, cleanly and well sheltered accom-
modation should be provided for swine,
especially during the season of growth —
the hog has been much slandered in rela-
tion to his uncleanly habits — in some re-
spect the hog is more cleanly than the
cow or the horse or most domestic ani-
mals. It is true, like the elephant and
other pachyderms, he is fond of bathing,
a cleanly habit, and it is more the fault
of his keeper than his own that he wal-
lows in mud when better accommoda-
tions are not accessible. But if young
pigs have to lie in a damp and dirty bed,
their skin soon becomes encrusted with
scurf, the ears and tail frequently drop
off, and the growth is at once arrested.
During the entire rearing to the term of
fattening, the animal should be kept in a
sleek, healthy and growing condition.

The natural instincts of every animal

must be consulted and followed to pro-
duce the best results when domesticated.

The hog is impatient of both heat and
cold; any unusual exertion during the
heat of summer, especially if in full flesh,
will frequently cost him his life; comfortable
shade should always be provided, conve-
nient of access, such as will protect them
from the noonday heats of the summer
sun ; neglect of this is inexcusable cruel-
ty, and will be a serious drawback from
the credit side of the pork account.

Equally important is ample protection
from the opposite extreme of the winter
cold. Pigs dropped in the fall are unfit,
with all the care that can or will be giv-
en by our common farm accommodations,
to pass uninjured the severity of the win-
ter season. Early spring pigs will do
much better, but a well covered, well
protected and well littered sty where the
pigs will not lie more than one deep,
and when the owner will not have the
nightmare from listening to their unearth-
ly screams from suffering from the biting
cold, is essential to successful pork raising.
And we do not believe that any good
Christian can say his prayers and sleep
easily and quietly while the whole neigh-
borhood is made vocal by the cries of his
freezing pigs.

During the cold season, a proportion
ofcornasfood is not objectionable. It
is well calculated to keep up the animal
heat, and from the care and convenience
of feeding, it is now, and doubtless will
continue to be, the principal food at that
season. Yet the best results will not follow
when most of the coarser grains with bran
made into slop, and refuse apples, pota-
toes, or other roots or green food, consti-
tute the diet.

Dry grain of any kind is not the best
feed, and for this reason the hogs that fol-
low beef cattle highly fed with corn do
better than when they receive the corn
directly from the crib.

During the summer, before fattening, a
clover or timothy pasture is indispensable
to successful fattening, and to economical
production of pork — and the next best
course is soiling with clover, timothy, or
other succulent grasses or vegetables.
Confinement in small pens, and heavy
feeding with corn, is the most expensive,
as well as the least successful preparation
for fattening in the fall that can well be

232

SWINE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

adopted. If fed through the hot weather
exclusively on corn, the teeth become
sore, and the animal is generally dis-
eased. At killing time the livers will
generally be found diseased, and it will
be found impracticable to make them put
on fat.

One autumn, when corn was worth
twenty cents, a neighbor inquired of us
if we could tell why his hogs would not
fatten, and also saying that most of his
neighbors made the like complaint. We
replied that the reason was obvious — cheap
corn was the trouble; not that ten cent
corn is less nutritious than when the price
is one dollar, but it is fed too liberally,
and neither a hog or any other animal
can stand full feeding with corn alone but
a few months and continue in health.
The proper course is to so feed during
».he summer as to preserve the animals in
the most perfect health, keep them thrift-
ly growing, and slightly gaining in flesh,
so as to prepare them best for the fatten-
ing process, which is always more or less
a health-destroying process. With good
clover or timothy pasture, a little corn or
other grain is not objectionable, but they
will do well on the pasture alone — they
will grow but not fatten — and if kept
through the summer on grass alone, will
be in admirable condition to take on flesh;
they will account promptly for every ker-
nel of corn judiciously given them.

Their teeth and digestive organs are
all fresh and in good condition, and with
strong appetites and vigorous health,
their advance to the condition of respect-
able porkers is easy and rapid. Sudden
changes from solid to succulent food
should be carefully avoided, and vice
versa, the change from grass to heavy
feeding with corn should be very gradual,
especially as the fattening season com-
mences.

There is one primary rule in fattening
that should never be violated: the change
of feed should always be from lighter to
heavier, and never from heavier to light-
er. Consequently, when taken from
grass and vegetables, a little soft corn or
meal should be gradually introduced.
Corn cut while the kernel is in the milk is
good food to follow the grass. The grad-
ual hardening of the grain will be a prop-
er increase of the nutrient quality of the
food. When fairly established on a diet

of sound corn, it should be fed on a clean
floor, and in amount about what will be
eaten, but not so as to have a kernel left.
The practice of leaving a quantity of
corn more than will be eaten on the feed-
ing floor is a very wasteful and bad prac-
tice. The nice point to ascertain is to
find, by measurement, the amount that
will be consumed without any waste, and
then to always measure the feed, by that
standard, varying the amount as their ap-
petites require. There are no animals
that will retain their appetite and thrive
as well when fed to a surfeit, with the
unused food blown and dirty constantly
before them as they will with just enough
to give healthy and full action to the
digestive organs, and to preserve the
appetite unimpaired. To effect this the
last of each feed should be consumed
with avidity. Thus the old adage, that
the lazy farmer who leaned upon the
fence while his hogs finished their meal,
always had the leanest pork, has much
significance.

Plenty of water, with occasionally a
little salt, coal and ashes to correct the
acidity of the stomach of the gourmand
porkers, completes the required dietary.
This system of feeding is adapted to
corn fattening as practiced at the West.

Our Eastern friends have a somewhat
different system. First, having secured
the necessary buildings, kettles, troughs,
etc., they commence the fattening pro-
cess by boiling vegetables, such as apples,
potatoes, pumpkins, or any other that
hogs will eat, and when thoroughly cook-
ed, these constitute the food for the first
few days, they then commence adding a
very little meal, mixing it with the hot,
boiled or steamed vegetables, so as to
cook it thoroughly. When the mess has
undergone a slight fomentation it is ready
for use. The amount of meal is very
gradually increased, till toward the close
of the fattening season, when meal alone
is given ; the meal is of corn, oats, buck-
wheat, and barley, 'ground, either mixed
or separately.

Hogs kept in a close pen and fed corn
through the whole period of their exist-
ence will figure up the profits on the
wrong side of the balance sheet; and
much depends on the breed; there will
be a wide difference between results from
a good and inferior breed with the same

SWINE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

233

keeping. There is much point in the
•reply of the man when his neighbor
•wanted to get some of his breed of hogs,
•that he would want his swill tub too.
Yet, both a good breed and a well-filled
trough are essential to successful pork
raising.

SWINE, Debility, General, or Emacia-
tion.— The falling off in flesh or wasting
away, of swine is in most cases owing to
derangement in the digestive organs.
The cure consists in restoring the. tone
of these organs. We commence the
treatment by putting the animal on a
boiled diet, consisting of bran, meal, or
any wholesome vegetable production.
The following tonic and diffusible stimu-
lant will complete the cure : powdered
golden seal, powdered ginger, equal
parts. Dose, a teaspoonful, repeated
night and morning.

When loss in condition is accompanied
with cough and difficulty of breathing,
mix, in addition to the above, a few
kernels of garlic with the food. The
drink should consist of pure water. Should
the cough prove troublesome, take a tea-
spoonful of fir balsam, and the same
quantity of honey; to be given night and
morning, either in the usual manner, or it
may be stirred into the food while hot.

SWINE, Epilepsy. — The symptoms are
too well known to need any description.
It is generally caused by plethora, yet it
may exist in an hereditary form.

Feed with due care, and put the animal
in a well-ventilated and clean situation ;
give a bountiful supply of valerian tea,
and sprinkle a small quantity of scraped
horse radish in the food; or give pow-
dered assafoetida, 1 ounce; powdered
capsicum, 1 teaspoonful; table salt, 1
tablespoonful. Mix. Give half a tea-
spoonful daily.

Dr. Dan states with reference to epi-
lepsy with which pigs are often suddenly
attacked, that the inherited tendency may
be mitigated by keeping the animals
clean, warm, and comfortable, and sup-
plied with a sufficiency of good, digesti-
ble, and somewhat laxative food.

" To eradicate it the stock must receive
an infusion of new blood; and this is
especially necessary, as epilepsy in pigs
depends in most cases on continued
breeding in-and-in."

SWINE, Fits. See Swine, Epilepsy.

SWINE, BJienmatism in. — Exposure,
wallowing in filth, etc.

It is recognized by a muscular rigidity
of the whole system. The appetite is
impaired, and the animal does not leave
its sty willingly.

Keep the animal on a boiled diet,
which should be given to him warm.
Remove the cause by avoiding exposure
and filth, and give a dose of the following,
equal parts : Powdered sulphur, powdered
sassafras, powdered cinnamon.

Dose, half a teaspoonful, to be given
in warm gruel. If this does not give im-
mediate relief, dip an old cloth in hot
water (of a proper temperature), and fold
it round the animal's body. This may be
repeated, if necessary, until the muscular
system is relaxed. The animal should
be wiped dry, and placed in a warm
situation, with a good bed of straw.

SWINE, Ophthalmia. — Sudden changes
in temperature, unclean sties, want of
pure air, and imperfect light.

Keep the animal on thin gruel, and
allow two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar
per day. Wash the eyes with an infusion
of marshmallows, until a cure is effected.

SWINE, Vermin. — Some animals are
covered with vermin, which even pierce
the skin, and sometimes come out by the
mouth, nose, and eyes.

The animal is continually rubbing and
scratching itself, or burrowing in the dirt
and mire.

First wash the body with a strong lye
of wood ashes or weak saleratus water,
then with an infusion of lobelia. Mix a
teaspoonful of sulphur, and the same
quantity of powdered charcoal, in the
food daily.

Or, procure some leat tobacco, and
boil it to a strong amber in water suffi-
cient to float it. Mix in, while hot, suffi-
cient amount of lard or refuse grease, to
make a thin salve, rub on the pigs or
hogs troubled, and in less than 24 hours,
if the ointment is thoroughly applied,
they will not have a single louse on them.
SWINE, Colic in.— Spasmodic and flat-
ulent colic requires anti-spasmodics and
carminatives, in the following form : Pow-
dered caraway seeds, one teaspoonful;
powdered assafoetida, one-third of a tea-
spoonful. To be given at a dose in warm
water, and repeated at the expiration of
an hour, provided relief is not obtained.

234

SWINE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES,

SWIKE, Trichinae. — To prevent the
Trichinae from getting into our hogs, it is
necessary to remember that the most
likely sources of the parasite are the ani-
mal offal and garbage which they eat
when allowed to run at large, and the rats
they are apt to devour when they can get
at them; in illustration of which fact it
may be mentioned that the pigs in Ire-
land, which are allowed much more lib-
erty of wandering, and are less regularly
fed than their congeners in England and
Prussia, are more apt than these others
to present the Trichinae upon microscopic
investigation. It is therefore advisable to
keep pigs intended for human consump-
tion in clean sties, containing only one
or two each, and impervious to rats. The
animals should be plentifully fed with
sound grain, buttermilk, etc., well water-
ed, and allowed some salt occasionally;
in other words, placed in good hygienic
conditions, and excluded from diseased
food. It may perhaps seem necessary to
dwell upon the value and necessity
of measures which commend themselves
at once as affording not only the best
safeguard against the special disease un-
der notice, but as going far toward the
prevention of other diseases to which the
hog is subject. Yet in view of the neg-
lect and even positive abuse with which
pigs are treated throughout the land, it is
well that breeders should understand the
fearful consequences liable to result from
carelessness, which, in matters of such
vital importance, is closely allied to crim-
inality.

SWINE, Cholera. — Give one pint of
turpentine each week to fifteen hogs, or
in the same proportion to a lesser num-
ber, mixing it with slops.

SWINE, Choking.— Choking is often
produced by feeding on roots, particularly
round and uncut roots, like the potato.
The animal slavers at the mouth, tries to
raise the obstruction from the throat,
often groans, and appears to be in great
pain. Then the belly begins to swell,
from the amount of gases in the paunch.

The obstruction, if not too large, can
sometimes be thrust forward by intro-
ducing a flexible rod, or tube, into the
throat. This method, if adopted, should
be attended with great care and patience,
or the tender parts will be injured. If
the obstruction is low down, and a tube

is to be inserted, a pint of olive or lin-
seed oil first turned down the throat will
so lubricate the parts as to aid the opera-
tion, and the power applied must be
steady. If the gullet is torn by the care-
lessness of the operator, or the roughness
of the instrument, a rupture generally
results in serious consequences. A hol-
low tube is best, and if the object is
passed on into the paunch, the tube
should remain a short time, to permit the
gas to escape. In case the animal is
very badly swelled, the dose of chloride
of lime, or ammonia, should be given, as
for the hoove, after the obstruction is re-
moved.

Care should be taken, after the ob-
struction is removed, to allow no solid
food for some days.

SWINE, Black Teeth in— Sickness in
hogs from indigestion, deranged biliary or
urinary secretion, is sometimes attributed
to an imaginary disease called the black
tooth. The treatment usually adopted is
to examine the teeth of the animal, and
if one is found blacker than the rest, it is
supposed to be the cause of the disease,
and is hammered off even with the jaw,
leaving the broken roots and lacerated
nerves of the tooth to increase the suffer-
ing of the animal. Notwithstanding all
this cruel treatment the hog sometimes
recovers, and would probably have done
so much sooner if he had been let alone.
The tooth in these cases is not diseased,
but only stained by food or otherwise.
The cruel treatment of breaking off the
tooth down to the nerve would certainly
cause disease, and might, in connection
with the true one, cause the death of the
animal. A proper treatment would be to
wash the hog thoroughly with soap and
water, and give it three or four ounces of
castor oil.

SWINE, Rot, Tails of Young Pigs.—
The tails of young pigs frequently drop
or -rot off, which is attended with no
further disadvantage to the animal than
the loss of the member. The remedies
are, to give a little brimstone or sulphur
in the food of the dam; or rub oil or
grease daily on the affected parts. It
may be detected by a roughness or scab-
biness at the point where separation is
likely to occur.

SWINE, Bleeding. — The most conve-
nient mode is from an artery just above

SWINE-CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

■35

the knee, on the inside of the forearm.
It may be drawn more copiously from the
roof of the mouth. The flow of blood
may usually be stopped by applying a
sponge or cloth with cold water.

The diseases of swine, though not nu-
merous, are formidable, and many of
them soon become fatal. They have not
been the subject of particular scientific
study, and most of the remedies applied
are rather the result of casual or hap-
hazard suggestion than of well-digested
inference from long-continued and accu-
rate observation.

The cardinal principles of successful
pig raising are, to breed only from sound
and healthy parents of remote relation-
ship, to keep the animal in dry, warm,
and cleanly quarters, to feed regularly
and with varying food, and to remove as
early as possible any diseased or weakly
animal from the herd.

SWINE, Apoplexy and Inflammation
of the Brain. — In distilleries, and Avhere
many hogs are kept, and too well kept,
this is a very destructive and not unfre-
quent malady. If the swine had been
carefully observed it would have been
seen that they were making a more than
usually rapid progress, but there was at
the same time a laziness, or heaviness, or
stupidity about them. A dose or two of
physic would have removed this, and not
have interfered with the fattening ; indeed
they would have thriven the better after
it. If this, however, has been neglected,
the apoplexy will probably be established.
The swine, in the act of feeding, or when
moving across the sty, will fall suddenly,
as if struck with lightning. He will be
motionless for a little while, and then con-
vulsions will come on, strong and dread-
ful; the eyes will seem protruded, the
head and neck will swell, and the veins
of the neck will be brought into sight,
notwithstanding the mass of fat with
which they may be covered. In the
midst of his struggles the animal will be
perfectly unconscious He will often die
in a few minutes, or should he recover, he
will be strangely exhausted, and some in-
ternal injury will be evidently done, so
that he will afterwards be very subject to
returns of these attacks, either of apo-
plexy or of fits.

The course here is plain enough. He
should be bled, and bled copiously. In-

deed, the blood should be suffered to flow
as long as it will. Two or three ounces
of Epsom salts should then be given ; the
quantity and the heating character of the
food should be diminished, and a couple
of drachms of sulphur given daily in the
first meal.

When apoplexy or fits have once appeared
in a sty they spread like wild-fire. There
is nothing contagious in them, but there
is the power of sympathy acting upon an-
imals become too disposed to inflamma-
tion and fever. The most forward of
them should be disposed of as soon as
possible

The habit of fits once established can-
not easily be broken, and the only way to
prevent the continuance of much annoy-
ance is, to separate those that are oftenest
affected from the rest, and to fatten them
as soon as possible.

SWINE, Measles. — This is an inflam-
matory disease, not always indeed dis-
covered during the life of the animal, but
plain enough after death, and very con-
siderably diminishing the value of the
carcass. The red and pimpled appear-
ance of the skin, or of the cellular sub-
stance between the flesh and the skin, suf-
ficiently marks the disease. It shows that
there has been general inflammation,
either resulting from the fattening process
being carried too far, or, much oftener,
from the animal having too suddenly been
taken from poor keep, and suffered to have
as much as it will eat of highly nutritious
and stimulating food. The measles are
very seldom or never fatal, but the dis-
ease may generally be recognized by the
pink blush of the skin, or of some parts
of it, and by the hog rubbing himself
more than usual, while the skin is free
from pimples and scurf. The remedy
would be a less quantity of food, or of not
so stimulating a character, and occasional
doses of Epsom salts or sulphur.

SWINE, Mange. — Few domesticated
animals are so subject to this loathsome
disease as the hog if he is neglected and
filthily kept ; but in a well cleaned and
well managed piggery it is rarely or never
seen, unless some, whose blood from gen-
eration to generation has been tainted
with it, should be incautiously admitted.
A mangy hog cannot possibly thrive well.
His foul and scurfy hide will never loosen,.

236

SWINE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

so as to suffer the accumulation of flesh
and fat under it.

Except it is hereditary, it may, although
with some trouble, be perfectly eradicated.
The first thing to be done is to clean the
hog well ; without this all external appli-
cation and internal medicines will be
thrown away. The animal must be
scrubbed all over with a good strong soap
lather, and when he is well dried with
wisps of straw he will be ready for the
ointment, and no better one can be used
than the Mild Ointment for Scab in
Sheep. (See No. 85, Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicines for.) A little of this
should be well rubbed all over him every
second or third day; but at the same time
internal medicine, such as the Alterative
Powder, (See No. 89,. Domestic Ani-
mals, Medicines for,) should not be
omitted. There is no animal in which it
is more necessary to attack this and simi-
ilar diseases constitutionally.

This, like the scab in sheep, is a very
infectious disease, and care should be
taken to scour the sty well with soap, and
afterwards to wash it with a solution of
chloride of lime, as recommended else-
where. The rubbing-post, that useful but
too often neglected article of furniture in
■every sty, should particularly be attended
to.

SWINE, FEET, Soreness of the.— This
often occurs to pigs that have traveled
any distance ; the feet often becomes ten-
der and sore. In such cases, they should
be examined, and all extraneous matter
removed from the foot. Then wash with
weak lye. If the feet discharge fetid mat-
ter, wash with the following mixture:
Pyroligneous acid, two ounces; water,
four ounces.

In the treatment of diseased swine, the
"issues," as they are called, ought to be
examined, and be kept free. They may
be found on the inside of the legs, just
above the pastern joint. They seem to
serve as a drain or outlet for the morbid
fluids of the body, and whenever they
are obstructed, local or general disturb-
ance is sure to supervene.

SWINE, Pigging.— The sow usually
goes with pig four months, but there is
more irregularity in her time than in that
of any other of our domesticated quad-
rupeds. A week or ten days before her
pigging she should be separated from the

rest, otherwise the young ones would
probably be devoured as soon as they
are dropped ; and if she shows any dis-
position to destroy them, or if she has
ever done so, she should be carefully
watched, a muzzle should be put upon
her, and her little ones should be smeared
with train oil and aloes as soon as possible.

The teats of the sow will sometimes
swell, and hard knots may be felt in
them, as in the garget of cattle. The
treatment should be nearly the same
except that bleeding is scarcely requisite.
A dose of physic, however, is indispensa-
ble. The Garget Ointment for Cattle
(See No. 24, Domestic Animals, Medi-
cines for,) may be rubbed with advant-
age into the teats, which should be care-
fully wiped or washed before the young
ones are permitted to suck again ; indeed
they will not suck while any unusual
smell remains about the teats. The milk
should also be gently, but well pressed out
of the diseased teats.

When it is wished to spay a breeding
sow, in order that she may be put up for
fattening, it may be done while she is
suckling. The young pigs may be cut at
three or four weeks old; they should
never be suffered to suck longer than two
months ; and they may be rung as soon
as convenient after weaning. No hog
should escape ringing, even if he is
destined to live in the sty. It is the only
way to keep him quiet, and will con-
tribute materially to his thriving.

SWINE, Quinsy.— This disease in the
hog is compounded of sore throat and
enlargement of the glands of the throat,
and is something like strangles in the
horse — inflammation and enlargement of
the cellular substance between the skin
and muscles under the lower jaw. The
progress of the malady is rapid, and
the swelling is sometimes so great as to
prevent the breathing, and consequently
to suffocate the animal. To a skin so
thick as that of the hog it is useless to
make any external application. The pa-
tient should be bled ; two ounces of salts
should be given, and half-ounce doses
repeated every six hours, until the bowels
are well opened ; while warm weak wash,
or milk and water, should be occasionally
poured into the trough. It is not often a
dangerous disease if remedies are early
adopted.

SWINE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

=37

SWINE, Inflammation of the Lungs. —
This complaint is known among the
breeders and fatteners of swine by the
term of rising of the lights. There seems
to be a peculiar tendency in every mala-
dy of this animal to take on a highly in-
flammatory character. It is the conse-
quence of the forcing system that is
adopted in the fattening of the hog. It
resembles the blood or inflammatory fever
of oxen and sheep — a general and high
degree of fever, produced on a system al-
ready strongly disposed to take on in-
tense inflammatory action from the slight-
est causes. Every little cold is apt to de-
generate into inflammation of the lungs
in the fatted or fattening hog; and so
many cases of this sometimes occur in
the same establishment, or the same
neighborhood — in fact, among those who
are exposed to the same exciting cause,
that the disease is mistaken for an epi-
demic. There is no doubt that when this
heaving of the ligths begins to appear in
a herd of swine, a great many of them
are sooner or later affected by it, and die.
It is the cough or cold that is epidemic,
but it is the plethora and inflammatory
state of the animals that cause it to be
so general as well as fatal.

The early symptom is cough. A cough
in a hog is always a suspicious circum-
stance, and should be early and promptly
attended to. The disease is rapid in its
progess. The animal heaves dreadfully
at the flanks ; he has a most distressing
cough, which sometimes almost suffocates
him, and he refuses to eat. The princi-
pal guiding symptom will be the cough
getting worse and worse, and becoming
evidently connected with a great deal of
fever.

In many cases congestion takes place
in the lungs, and the animal dies in three
or four days; in others he appears for a
while to be getting better; but there is a
sudden relapse, a frequent dry, husky
cough comes on, there is a little appetite,
rapid wasting, and the hog dies in a few
weeks, evidently consumptive.

The first thing that is to be done is to
bleed, and the most convenient place to
bleed the hog is from the palate. If an
imaginary line is drawn from between the
first and second front middle teeth, and
extending backward an inch along the
palate, and the palate is there cut deeply,

with a lancet or fleam, plenty of blood
will be obtained. A larger quantity of
blood, however, can be abstracted from
the vein on the inside of the fore-arm,
about an inch above the knee. The ap-
plication of cold water with a sponge will
generally stop the bleeding without diffi-
culty, or at least so far arrest it that no-
harm will be done if it should continue a
little while longer. An assistant may
easily open the mouth sufficiently for all
this by means of a halter or stout stick,
but beyond this the swine is an awkward
patient to manage. He will struggle ob-
stinately against every attempt to drench
him, and the inflammation may be ag-
gravated by the contest. It will, there-
fore, be necessary in the majority of cases
to endeavor to cheat him by mixing his.
medicine with his food.

Here we must recollect the nature of
his stomach ; it is not of that insensible
character and difficult to be acted upon
or nauseated as in the cow and the
sheep, but it approaches as nearly as pos-
sible to the structure of that of the hu-
man being ; and we must adapt our med-
icine accordingly. The emetic tartar must
be omitted from our Fever Medicine, or
it would sadly vomit the patient. The
Fever Medicine for swine (see No. 88,
Domestic Animals, Medicines for,)
may be given.

In the greater number of cases the an-
imal will readily take this ; but if he is so
ill that nutriment of every kind is refused,
he must be drenched.

This should be repeated morning, noon
and night, until the inflammation is.
abated. A purgative should quickly fol-
low, and we have those for the hog which
are mild as well as effectual, and from
which no danger can result. The Ep-
som salts may be given in doses of from
one to three ounces, and they will com-
municate a not unpleasant or unusual fla-
vor to his broth or swill.

If this inflammation of the lungs in
the hog rivals in the speed with which it
runs its course, and in its intensity and fa-
tality, the blood, or inflammatory fever of
oxen and sheep, no time should be lost in
adopting the proper measures, and the
bleeding should be copious, and the med-
icine given in doses sufficiently powerful.
When the disease lingers on, and the dry,
husky cough remains, and the animal is.

238

SWINE— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

evidently wasting, medicine will be in a
manner useless, and warmth and cleanli-
ness, and food that has no heating qual-
ity, afford the only chance of cure.

' SWINE, Sore Ears.— There are often
troublesome cracks and sores at the back
of the large lop-ears of some breeds. If
there is any disposition to mange, it is
most evident about the ears of these ani-
mals, and the mischief is sadly aggravat-
ed when brutes in human shape set every
ferocious dog at the stray pig, the favor-
ite hold of which is the ear. The Heal-
ing Cleaning Ointment for Cattle (See
No. 10, Domestic Animals, Medicines
for,) will most readily heal the sores.

SWINE, Costiveness. — This is not an
uncommon complaint of the confined
and fattening hog, and is easily removed
by the Epsom salts, or by five grains of
calomel being given in a little of the
animal's favorite food. It will be danger-
ous, however, to push the calomel beyond
the second or third dose, for the hog is
very easily salivated. The bowels having
been well opened, a dose of the Alterative
Powder (See No. 89, Domestic Animals,
Medicines for), given every fourth day
will be very beneficial, and will hasten
the fattening of the styed hog that ex-
hibits any disposition to costiveness.

Sometimes, however, this costiveness is
produced by inflammation of the bowels,
which is attended by considerable pain,
heat and tenderness of the abdomen,
with a quick pulse, and other symptoms
of fever, and sometimes by fits and in-
sensibility. The treatment should consist
of copious bleeding, oily laxatives, clys-
ters, warm fomentations to the abdomen,
and, if the animal is not too large, warm
baths.

SWINE, Red Eruption in.— This dis-
ease is somewhat analogous to scarlet fe-
ver. It makes its appearance in the form
of red pustules on the back and belly,
which gradually extend to the whole
body.

The external remedy is: Powdered
bloodroot, half an ounce; boiling vine-
gar, one pint. When cool, it should be
rubbed on the external surface. The
diet should consist of boiled vegetables,
coarse meal, etc., with a small dose of
sulphur every night.

SWINE, Dropsy in. — The animal is
sad and depressed, the appetite fails, re-

spiration is performed with difficulty, and
the belly swells.

Keep the animal on a light, nutritive
diet, and give a handful of juniper ber-
ries, or cedar buds, daily. If these fat!,
give a table-spoonful of fir balsam daily.
SWINE, Catarrh in. — Occasional fits
of coughing, accompanied with a mucous
discharge from the nose and mouth
caused by exposure to cold and damp
weather.

Give a liberal allowance of gruel made
with powdered elm or marshmallows, and
give a teaspoonful of balsam copaiba, or
fir balsam, every night. The animal must
be kept comfortably warm.

SWINE, Diarrhoea in. — For the treat-
ment of this malady, see division Sheep,
Scours.

SWINE, Frenzy in. — This makes its
appearance suddenly. The animal, hay-
ing remained in a passive and stupid
state, suddenly appears much disturbed,
to such a degree that it makes irregular
movements, strikes its head against every-
thing it meets, scrapes with its feet, places
itself quite erect alongside of the sty,
bites anything in its way, and frequently
whirls itself round, after which it sudden-
ly becomes more tranquil.

SWINE, Itch in. — Itch may be cured
by anointing with equal parts of lard and
brimstone. Rubbing posts, and a running
stream to wallow in, are preventives.

SWINE, Kidney Worms in.— The kid-
ney worm is frequently fatal; and always
produces weakness of the loins and hind
legs, usually followed by entire prostra-
tion. A pig thus far gone is hardly
worth the trouble of recovering, even
where practicable.

SWINE, Preventives. — Preventives are
general thrift, a range in a good pasture,
and a dose of half a pint of wood ashes
every week or fortnight in their food. A
small quantity of saltpetre, spirits of tur-
pentine, or tar, will effect the same object.
When attacked, apply spirits of turpen-
tine to the loins, and administer calomel
carefully ; or give half a tablespoonful of
copperas daily for one or two weeks.

SWINE, Blind Staggers. — Blind stag-
gers is generally confined to pigs, and
manifests itself in foaming at the mouth,
rearing on their hind legs, champing and
grinding their teeth, and apparent blind-
ness. The proper remedies are bleeding

SWINE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

239

and purging freely, and these frequently
fail. Many nostrums have been suggest-
ed, but few are of any utility. It is im-
portant to keep the issues on the inside
of the fore legs, just below the knee,
thoroughly cleansed.

Give half an ounce of Rochelle salts,
in a pint of thoroughwort tea. If the
bowels are not moved in the course of
twelve hours, repeat the dose. A light
diet for a few days will generally com-
plete the cure.

SWINE, Jaundice in. — This disease is
recognized by the yellow tint of the con-
junctiva (white of the eye), loss of appe-
tite, etc. The remedy is : Powdered
golden seal, half an once; powdered sul-
phur, one-fourth of an ounce ; powdered
blue-flag, half an ounce ; flaxseed, one
pound ; mix, and divide into four parts,
and give one every night. The food
must be boiled, and a small quantity of
salt added to it.

SOWS, Near Farrowing, Treatment of. —
During the whole period of pregnancy
sows should be moderately well fed, but
not so much as to produce much fatness,
as this would be the means of reducing
the number of the litter, or risk them be-
ing smothered by their unwieldy dam ly-
ing down on them. As farrowing ap-
proaches, the food must be semi-liquid or
gently laxative, since costiveness at this

period generally fosters fever, and hence
sows devour their offspring. Gentle ex-
ercise is beneficial to all pregnant healthy
animals, and for this the pen should be
roomy. It is best to protect the sow
against injury from other pigs. The pen
should be airy and clean, and, until the
last day or two of pregnancy, comforta-
bly littered. As the time approaches, or
when uneasiness, or the piling of litter
for a bed, shows its near advent, clear
out the pen, and cover it with "a thin lit-
ter of chaff only. This is necessary to
prevent smothering the pigs, particularly
if the sow be large or fat. Soon remove
the pigs when they are brought forth,
helping them away until after the after-
birth. In all circumstances the after-
birth should be removed at once. How-
ever natural it may be for the wild ani-
mal to devour this, the practice, if allow-
ed among domesticated swine, develops
the propensity to devour their offspring, a
drink of milk gruel, or Indian or oatmeal
and hot water will be at once grateful
and supporting to the sow during and af-
ter parturition ; and as soon as the secre-
tion of milk is freely established, the diet
should be abundant, soft and laxative.
The pen should be kept clean. The litter
of chaff should be of a limited amount for
a week, until the pigs can be better able
to protect themselves.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS:

MEDICINES FOR.

HORSE, Alteratives. — This term is not
very scientific, but it is very general
use, and easily explains its own mean-
ing, though the modus operandi of
the drugs employed to carry it out is not
so clear. The object is to replace un-
healthy action by a healthy one, without
resorting to any of the distinctly defined
remedies, such as tonics, stomachics, etc.
As a general rule, this class of remedies
produce their effect by acting slowly but
steadily on the depuratory organs, as the
liver, kidneys and skin. The following
may be found useful :

1. Disordered States of the Skin —

Emetic Tartar .5 ounces.

Powdered Ginger 3 "

Opium i "

Syrup enough to form sixteen balls : one to be
given every night.

2. Simply Cooling —

Barbadoes Aloes I ounce.

Castile Soap! - 1^ "

Ginger -• -/^ **

Syrup enough to form six balls : one to be given
every morning.

3. Barbadoes Aloes i}i drachm.

Emetic Tartar ... . 2 "

Castile Soap 2 •*

Mix.

4. Alterative Ball for General- Use —

Black Sulphuret of Antimony. . 2 to 4 drachms

Sulphur 2 "

Nitre 2 "

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball.

5. For Generally Defective Secretions —

Flowers of Sulphur 6 ounces.

Emetic Tartar 5 to 8drachms.

Corrosive Sublimate 10 grains.

Linseed meal mixed with hot water, enough to
form six balls, one of which may be given two or
three times a week.

6. In Debility of Stomach —

Calomel I scruple.

Aloes - ...I drachm.

Cascarilla Bark, in powder I "

Gentian Root, " I "

Ginger, " I "

Castile Soap 3 "

Syrup enough to make a ball, which may be
given twice a week, or every other night.

HORSE, Anaesthetics. — Anaesthetics
produce insensibility to all external im-

pressions, and therefore to pain. They
resemble narcotics in their action, and,
when taken into the stomach, may be
considered purely as such. The most
certain and safe way of administering
them is by inhalation, and chloroform is
the drug now universally employed. The
modus operandi of the various kinds has
never yet been satisfactorily explained;
and when the comparison is made, as it
often is, to the action of intoxicating
fluids, we are no nearer to it than before.
With alcoholic fluids, however, the disor-
der of the mental functions is greater in
proportion to the insensibility to pain;,
and if they are taken in sufficient quanti-
ties to produce the latter effect, they
are dangerous to life itself. The ac-
tion of anaesthetics on the horse is very
similar to that on man.

HORSE/ Anodynes — Sometimes called
narcotics, when taken into the stomach,
pass at once into the blood, and there
act in a special manner on the nervous
centres. At first they exalt the nervous
force ; but they soon depress it, the sec-
ond stage coming on sooner according to
the increase of the dose. They are given
either to soothe the general nervous sys-
tem, or to stop diarrhoea; or sometimes
to relieve spasm, as in colic or tetanus.
Opium is the chief anodyne used in veter-
rinary medicine, and it may be employed
in very large doses:

1. Anodyne Drench for Colic —

Linseed oil I pint.

Oil of Turpentince 1 to 2 ounces.

Laudanum I to 2 ounces.

Mix, and give every hour till relief is afforded.

2. Anodyne Ball for Colic — (Only Useful in
Mild Cases. )

Powdered Opium j£ to 2 drachms.

Castile Soap 2 ."

Camphor 2 "

Ginger \]/z "

Make into a ball with Liquorice powder and

Trecale, and give every hour while the pain lasts.

It should be kept in a bottle or bladder.

(240)

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 241

3. Anodyne Ball (ordinary) —

Opium ]^ to I drachm.

Castile Soap 2 to 4 "

Ginger - I to 2 "

Powdered Aniseed % to I ounce.

Oil of Caraway Seeds yz drachm.

Syrup enough to form a ball, to be dissolved in
half pint of warm ale, and given as a drench.

4. Anodyne Drench in Superpurgation, or
Ordinary Diarrhcea —

Gum Arabic 2 ounces.

Boiling Water I pint.

Dissolve, and then add —

Oil of Peppermint 25 drops.

Laudanum ]/z to I ounce.

Mix and give night and morning, if necessary.

5. In Chronic Diarrhoxa —

Powdered Chalk and Gum Arabic of

each -- 1 ounce.

Laudanum % "

Peppermint Water IO "

Mix, and give night and morning.

HORSE, Antacids. — As the term im-
plies, these remedies are used to neutral-
ize acids, whether taken into the stomach
to an improper extent, or formed therein
as products of diseases. They are often
classed as alteratives, when used for the
latter purpose. They include the al-
kalies and alkaline earths, but are not
much used in veterinary medicine.

HORSE, Anthelmintics. — Drugs which
are used to destroy worms receive this
name in medical literature, when the
author is wedded to the Greek language.
The admirers of Latin call them vermi-
tuges, and in English they receive
the humble name of worm medicines.
Their action is partly by producing
a disagreeable or fatal impression on
the worm itself, and partly by irri-
tating the mucous lining of the bowels,
and thus causing them to expel their con-
tents. Failing, the following may be use-
ful:

1. Worm Ball (recommended by Mr. Gamgee)

Asafcetida --.2 drachms

Calomel I# "

Powdered Savin 1% "

Oil of Male Fern ..30 drops.

Treacle enough to make a balk which should

be given at night, and followed by a purge next

morning.

2. Mild Drench for Worms —

Linseed Oil I pint.

Spirit of Turpentine 2 drachms.

Mix and give every morning.
HORSE, Antispasmodics — Are medi-
cines which are intended to counteract
excessive muscular action, called spasm
or, in the limbs, cramp. This deranged
condition depends upon a variety of
16

causes, which are generally of an irritat-
ing nature ; and its successful treatment
will often depend upon the employment
of remedies calculated to remove the
cause, rather than directly to relieve the
effect. It therefore follows that, in many
cases, the medicines most successful in re-
moving spasm, will be derived from wide-
ly separated divisions of the materia med-
ica, such as aperients, anodynes, altera-
tives, stimulants and tonics. It is useless
to attempt to give many formulas for
their exhibition : but there are one or two
medicines Avhich exercise a peculiar con-
trol over spasm, and we shall give them
without attempting to analyze their mode
of operation.

1. In Colic —

Spirit of Turpentine.— 3^ ounces.

Laudanum... ... .... ...... \% "

Barbadoes Aloes I

Powder the Aloes, and dissolve in warm water;
then add the other ingredients, and give as a
drench.

2. Clyster in Colic —

Spirit of Turpentine 6 ounces.

Aloes - 2 drachms.

Dissolve in three quarts of warm water, and
stir the turpentine well into it.

3. Antispasmodic Drench —

Gin 4 to 6 ounces.

Tincture of Capsicum 2 drachms.

Laudanum 3 "

Warm Water i}4 pint.

Mix and give as a drench, when here is no in-
flammation.

HORSE, Aperients. — Aperients, or
purges, are those medicines which
quicken or increase the evacuations from
the bowels, varying, however, a good
deal in their mode of operation. Some-
act merely by exciting the muscular coat
of the bowels to contract; others cause
an immense watery discharge, which, as
it were, washes out the bowels ; whilst a
third set combine the action of the two..
The various purges also act upon differ-
ent parts of the canal, some stimulating
the small intestines, whilst others pass
through them without affecting them, and
only act upon the large bowels ; and oth-
ers, again, act upon the whole canal.
There is a third point of difference in
purges, depending upon their influencing
the liver in addition, which mercurial pur-
gatives certainly do, as well as rhubarb
and some others, and which effect is
partly due to their absorption into the cir-
culation, so that they may be made to
act, by injecting into the veins, as strong-

242

DOMESTIC ANIMALS— MEDICINES FOR.

ly as by actual swallowing, and their sub-
sequent passage into the bowels. Purga-
tives are likewise classed, according to
the degree of their effect, into laxatives
acting mildly, and drastic purges, or ca-
thartics, acting very severely.

i. Ordinary Physic Balls —

Barbadoes Aloes ...3 to 8 drachms.

Hard Soap 4 drachms.

Ginger ...I "

Dissolve in as small a quantity of boiling water
as will suffice ; then slowly evaporate to the prop-
er consistence, by which means griping is avoided.

2. A Warmer Physic Ball —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 8 drachms.

Carbonate of Soda % drachm.

Aromatic Powder 1 "

Oil of Caraway 12 drops.

Dissolve as above, and then add the oil.

3. Gently Laxative Ball —

Bardadoes Aloes 3 to 5 drachms.

Rhubarb Powder ito2 "

Ginger 2 "

Oil of Caraway 15 drops.

Mix and form into a ball, as in No. 1.

4. Stomachic Laxative Balls, for Washy
Horses —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 drachms.

Rhubarb 2 "

Ginger I "

Cascarilla Powder I "

Oil of Caraway 15 drops.

Carbonate of Soda \% drachms.

Dissolve the Aloes as in No. 1, and then add
the other ingredients. ,

5. Purging Balls, with Calomel —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 6 drachms.

Calomel >£tol "

Rhubarb . I to 2 "

Ginger J^toi "

Castile Soap 2 "

Mix as in No. I.

6. Laxative Drench —

Bardadoes Aloes ...3 to 4 drachms.

Canella Alba I to 2 "

Salt of Tartar 1 "

Mint Water 8 ounces.

Mix.

7. Another Laxative Drench —

Castor Oil 3 to 6 ounces.

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 5 drachms.

Carbonate of Soda 2 **

Mint Water 8 ounces.

Mix, by dissolving the Aloes in the Mint
Water by the aid of heat, and then adding the
other ingredients.

8. A Mild Opening Drench

Castor Oil ......4 ounces.

Epsom Salts 3 to 5 ounces.

Gruel 2 pints.

Mix.

9. A very Mild Laxative—

Castor Oil.... — 4 ounces.

Linseed Oil ......4 "

Warm Water or Gruel 1 pint.

Mix.

10. Used in the Staggers—

Barbadoes Aloes .4 to 6 drachms.

Common Salt 6ounces.

Flour of Mustard 1 ounce.

Water 2 pints.

Mix.

11. A Gently Cooling Drench in Slight
Attacks of Cold —

Epsom Salts 6 to 8 ounces.

Whey 2 pints.

Mix.

12. Purgative Clyster —

Common Salt 4 to 8 ounces.

Warm Water 8 to 16 pints.

HORSE, Astringents — Appear to pro-
duce contraction on all living animal tis-
sues with which they come in contact,
whether in the interior or on the exterior
of the body; and whether immediately
applied or by absorption into the circula-
tion. But great doubt exists as to the
exact mode in which they act ; and, as in
many other cases, we are obliged to con-
tent ourselves with their effects, and to
prescribe them empirically. They are di-
vided into astringents administered by
the mouth, and those applied locally to
external ulcerated or wounded surfaces.

1. For Bloody Urine —

Powdered Catechu % ounce.

Alum Yz "

Cascarilla Bark in Powder.. . I to 2 drachms.
Liquorice Powder and Treacle enough to form
a ball, to be given twice a day.

2. For Diabetes—

Opium % drachm.

Ginger powdered 2 "

Oak Bark powdered I ounce.

Alum As much as the Tea will dissolve.

Camomile Tea 1 pint.

Mix for a drench.

3. External Astringent Powders for Ul-
cerated Surfaces —

Powdered Alum 4 ounces.

Armenian Bole 1 "

Another —

White Vitriol 4 ounces.

Oxide of Zinc I "

Mix.

4. Astringent Lotion —

Goulard Extract 2 to 3 drachms.

Water yi pint.

Another —

Sulphate of Copper I to 2 drachms.

Water %, pint.

Mix.

5. Astringent Ointment for Sore Heels— r

Acetate of Lead 1 drachm.

Lard 1 ounce.

Mix.

6. Another for the Same —

Nitrate of Silvenpowdered % drachm.

Goulard Extract I "

Lard I ounce.

Mix, and use a very small portion every night.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 343

HORSE, Blisters, or Veticanti.— Blis-
ters are applications which inflame the
skin, and produce a secretion of serum
between the cutis and cuticle, by which
the latter is raised in the form of small
bladders ; but in consequence of the pres-
ence of the hair, these are very imperfect-
ly seen in the horse. They consist of two
kinds— one used for the sake of counter-
irritation, by which the original disease is
lessened, in consequence of the establish-
! ment of this irritation at a short distance
from it; the other, commonly called
•"sweating" in veterinary surgery, by
which a discharge is obtained from the
vessels of the part itself, which are in that
way relieved and unloaded ; there is also
a subsequent process of absorption in
consequence of the peculiar stimulus ap-
plied.

1. Mild Blister Ointment (Counter-irri-
tant)—

Hog's Lard 4 ounces.

Venice Turpentine I "

Powdered Cantharides 6 drachms.

Mix and spread.

2. Stronger Blister Ointment (Counter-ir-

ritant. )

Spirit of Turpentine I ounce.

Sulphuric Acid, by measure 2 drachms.

Mix carefully in an open place, and add —

Hog's Lard . .. . 4ounces.

Powdered Cantharides I "

Mix and spread.

3. Very Strong Blister Ointment, (Coun-
ter-Irritant,)—

Strong Mercurial Ointment 4 ounces.

Oil of Origanum j£ "

Finely-powdered Euphorbium.. .3 drachms.

Powdered Cantharides % ounce.

Mix and spread.

4. Rapidly Acting Blister Ointment (Coun-
ter-irritant)—

Best Flour of Mustard 8 ounces.

Made into a paste with water. Add—

Oil of Turpentine .... ....2 ounces.

Strong Liquor of Ammonia I "

This is to be well rubbed into the chest, belly
or back, in cases of acute inflammation.

5. Sweating Blister —

Strong Mercurial Ointment 2 ounces.

Oil ofOriganum 2 drachms.

Corrosive Sublimate ...2 "

Cantharides, powdered .--.3 "

Mix, and rub in with the hand.
•6. Strong Sweating Blister, for Splints,
Ring-Bones, Spavins, etc. —

Binoidide of Mercury 1 to \% drachm.

Lard I ounce.

To be well rubbed into the legs after cutting the
hair short ; and followed by the daily use of Ar-
nica, in the shape of a wash, as follows, which is
to be painted on with a brush:

Tincture of Arnica .....I ounce.

Water 12 to 15 ounces.

Mix.

7. Liquid Sweating Busters —

Cantharides 1 ounce.

Spirit of Turpentine 2 "

Methylated Spirit of Wine I pint.

Mix and digest for a fortnight Then strain.
Another —

Powdered Cantharides I ounce.

Commercial Pyroligneous Acid 1 pint.

Mix and digest for a fortnight. Then strain.

HORSE, Caustics or Cauteries. — Caus-
tics are substances which burn away tbe
living tissues of the body, by the decom-
position of their elements. They are of
two kinds — first, the actual cautery, con-
sisting in the application of the burning
iron, and called firing ; and secondly, the
potential cautery, by means of the pow-
ers of mineral caustics, such as potassa
fusa, lunar-caustic, corrosive sublimate,
etc.

Firing is described in the chapter on
operations.

The following are the ordinary chem-
ical applications used as potential cau-
teries :

1. Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it
runs about in all directions, and little used in
veterinary medicine.

2. Lunar Caustic, or Nitrate of Silver, very
valuable to the veterinary surgeon, and con-
stantly used to apply to profuse granulations.

3. Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful,
but not so strong as Lunar Caustic ; it may be
well rubbed in to all high granulations, as in
broken knees, and similar growths.

4. Corrosive Sublimate in powder, which acts
most energetically upon warty growths, but
should be used with great care and discretion.
It may safely be applied to small surfaces, but
not • vithout a regular practitioner, to large ones.
It should be washed off after remaining on a
few minutes. For the mode of applying it in
castration, see Horse, Castration.

5. Yellow Orpiment is not so strong as Cor-
rosive Sublimate, and may be used with more
freedom. It will generally remove warty
growths, by picking off their heads and rub-
bing it in.

6. Muriate of Antimony, called Butter of An-
timony; a strong but rather unmanageable
caustic, and used either by itself or mixed with
more or less water.

7. Chloride of Zinc is a most powerful caus-
tic It may be used in old sinuses in solution,
7 drachms in a pint of water.

Milder Caustics —

8. Verdigris, either in powder or mixed with
Lard as an ointment, in the proportion of 1
to 3.

9. Red Precipitate, ditto, ditto.

10. Burnt Alum, used dry.

11. Powdered White Sugar.
Mild Liquid Caustics —

12. Solution of Nitrate of Silver, 5 to 15 grains
to the ounce of distilled water.

244

DOMESTIC ANIMALS-MEDICINES FOR.

13. Solution of Blue Vitriol, of about double the
above strength.

14. Chloride of Zinc, I to 3 grains to the ounce
of water

HORSE, Charges — Are adhesive plas-
ters which are spread while hot on the
legs, and at once covered with short tow,
so as to form a strong and unyielding
support while the horse is at grass.

I. Ordinary Charges —

Burgundy Pitch 4 ounces.

Barbadoes Tar.... ...6 "

Beeswax 2 "

Red Lead 4 "

The three first are to be melted together, and
afterwards the Lead is to be added. The mixture
is to be kept constantly stirred until sufficiently
cold to be applied. If too stiff (which will de-
pend upon the weather), it may be softened by the
addition of a little Lard or Oil.
2. Arnica Charge —

Canada Balsam 2 ounces.

Powdered Arnica Leaves I ounce.

The Balsam to be melted and worked up with
the leaves, adding Spirits of Turpentine, if neces-
sary. When thoroughly mixed, to be well rubbed
into the whole leg, in a thin layer, and to be cov-
ered over with the Charge No. I, which will set
on its outside and act as a bandage, while the Ar-
nica is a restorative to the weakened vessels.
This is an excellent application.

HORSE, Clysters, or Enemata.— Clys-
ters are intended either to relieve obstruc-
tion or spasm of the bowels, and are of
great service when properly applied.
They may be made of warm water or
gruel, of which some quarts will be re-
quired in colic. They should be thrown
up with the proper syringe, provided with
valves and flexible tube.

For the turpentine clyster in colic, see
Antispasmodics.

Aperient clysters, see Aperients.
1. Anodyne Clyster in Diarrhoea —

Starch, made as for washing 1 quart.

Powdered Opium 2 drachms.

The Opium is to be boiled in water, and added
to the starch.

HORSE, Cordials — Are medicines which
act as temporary stimulants to the whole
system, and especially to the stomach.
They augment the strength and spirits
when depressed, as after over-exertion in
work.
1. Cordial Balls—

Powdered Caraway Seeds 6 drachms.

Ginger 2 "

Oil of Cloves 20 drops.

Treacle enough to make into a balL
Another —

Powdered Aniseed. . 6 drachms.

Powdered Cardamoms 2 "

Powdered Cassia - 1 "

Oil of Caraway. .........20 drops.

Mix with treacle into a ball.

2. Cordial Drench —

A quart of good ale warmed, and with plenty
of grated ginger.

3. Cordial and Expectorant —

Powdered Aniseed yz ounce.

Powdered Squill 1 drachm.

Powdered Myrrh .....1*4 drachm.

Balsam of Peru, enough to form a ball.
Another—

Liquorice Powder •-•}z ounce.

Gum Ammoniacum 3 drachms.

Balsam of Tolu ij^ drachms.

Powdered Squill I drachm.

Linseed meal and boiling water, enough to form
into a mass.

HORSE, Demulcents — Are used for the
purpose of soothing irritations of the
bowels, kidneys, or bladder, in the two
last cases by their effect upon the secre-
tion of urine.

1. Demulcent Drench —

Gum Arabic _j£ ounce.

Water 1 pint.

Dissolve and give as a drench night and morning,
or mixed with a mash.
Another —

Linseed 4 ounces.

Water I quart.

Simmer till a strong and thick decoction is ob-
tained, and give as above.

2. Marshmallow Drench —

Marshmallows A double handful.

Water I quart.

Simmer, as in the second part of No. 1, and ust
in the same way.

HORSE, Diaphoretics — Have a special
action on the skin, increasing the per-
spiration sometimes to an enormous ex-
tent.

1. Ordinary Diaphoretic Drench —

Solution of Acetate of Am-
monia — 3 to 4 ounces.

Laudanum.... I ounce.

Mix, and give at night. Or,
Another —

Solution of Acetate of Ammonia.. 2 ounces.

Spirits of Nitric ^Ether 2 ounces.

Mix, and give as above.

2. In Hide-Bound —

Emetic Tartar...... \]/z drachm.

Camphor........ ...... "% drachm.

Ginger.............. '.2 drachms.

Opium.... ........ ^ drachm.

Oil of Caraway 15 drops.

Linseed meal and boiling water, to form a ball,,
which is to be given twice or thrice a week.

3. In Hide-Bound (but not so efficacious) —

Antimonial Powder 2 drachms.

Ginger .... ...... .... I drachm.

Powdered Caraways 6 drachms.

Oil of Aniseed 20 drops:

Mix as above.

These remedies require moderate exer-
cise in clothing to bring out their effects,,
after which the horse should be wisped
till quite dry.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 245

HORSE, Digestives. — Digestives are
applications which promote suppuration,
and the healing of wounds or ulcers.

t. Digestive Ointment —

Red Precipitate . 2 ounces.

Venice Turpentine ......3 ounces.

Beeswax .....I ounce.

Hog's Lard ..... .4 ounces.

Melt the three last ingredients over a slow fire,
and when nearly cold stir in the powder.

HORSE, Diuretics. — Diuretics are
medicines which promote the secretion
and discharge of urine, the effect being
produced in a different manner by differ-
ent medicines ; some acting directly upon
the kidneys by sympathy with the stomach,
while others are taken up by the blood-
vessels, and in their elimination from the
blood, cause an extra secretion of the
urine. In either case their effect is to
diminish the watery part of the blood,
and thus promote the absorption of fluid
effused into any of the cavities, or into
the cellular membrane in the various
forms of dropsy.

1. Stimulating Diuretic Ball —

Powdered Resin 3 drachms.

Sal Prunelle 3 drachms.

Castile Soap . . . ......3 drachms.

Oil of Juniper 1 drachm.

Mix.

2. A More Cooling Diuretic Ball —

Powdered Nitre.. ~~*% to 1 ounce.

Camphor. ..... ......I drachm.

Juniper berries. I drachm.

Soap --• -3 drachms.

Mix, adding linseed meal enough to form a ball.

3. Diuretic Powder for a Mash —

Nitre... --••}& to jounce.

Resin.......... . % to jounce.

Mix.

4. Another More Active Powder —

Nitre ........... — ......6 drachms.

Camphor..... .......X% drachm.

Mix.

HORSE, Embrocations, — Embrocations
or liniments are stimulating or sedative
external applications, intended to reduce
the pain and inflammation of internal
parts, when rubbed into the skin with the
hand.

1. Mustard Embrocation —

Best Flour of Mustard.. ...... ..6 ounces.

Liquor of Ammonia.... 1% ounce.

Oil of Turpentine ...... 1^ ounce.

Mix with sufficient water to form a thin paste.

2. Stimulating Embrocation —

Camphor.......... ........ ..../£ ounce.

Oil of Turpentine.......... ....iX ounce.

Spirit of Wiae. ............. ...i# ounce.

Mix.

3. Sweating Embrocation for Wingalls,
Etc.—

Strong Mercurial Ointment ..2 ounces.

Camphor.... .... ...... .... ....^4 ounce.

Oil of Rosemary...... a drachms.

Oil of Turpentine ......1 ounce.

Mix.

4. Another, but Stronger —

Strong Mercurial Ointment 2 ounces.

Oil of Bay .........1 ounce.

Oil of Origanum jounce.

Powdered Cantharides •••%, ounce.

Mix.

5. A Most Active Sweating Embrocation —

Biniodide of Mercury % to 1 drachm.

Powdered Arnica Leaves .1 drachm.

Soap Liniment.. ...... .....2 ounces.

Mix.

HORSE, Emulsions. — When oily mat-
ters have their globules broken down by
friction with mucilaginous substances, such
as gum arabic or yolk of egg, they are
called emulsions, and are specially useful
in soothing irritation of the mucous mem-
brane, of the trachea, and bronchi.

1. Simple Emulsion —

Linseed Oil ...2 ounces.

Honey.. . ...... ... ... 3 ounces.

Soft Water 1 pint.

Subcarbonate of Potass 1 drachm.

Dissolve the honey and potass in the water ;
then add the linseed oil by degrees in a large mor-
tar, when it should assume a milky appearance.
It may be given night and morning.

2. Another More Active Emulsion —

Simple Emulsion, No. 1 7 ounces.

Camphor ........1 drachm.

Opium in Powder. -•••J4 drachm.

Oil of Aniseed 30 drops.

Rub the last three ingredients together in a
mortar with some white sugar; then add the
emulsion by degrees.

HORSE, Expectorants. — Expectorants
excite or promote a discharge of mucus
from the lining membrane of the bronchial
tubes, thereby relieving inflammation and
allaying cough.

1. Expectorant Ball in Ordinary Cough
without Inflammation —

Gum Ammoniacum.. .....^ ounce.

Powdered Squill ..........1 drachm.

Castile Soap ...2 drachm.

Honey enough to form a ball.

2. In Old Standing Cough (Stomach) —

Asafoetida ... .. ..3 drachms.

Galbanum... ................ 1 drachm.

Carbonate of Ammonia # drachm.

Ginger 1% drachms.

Honey enough to form a ball.

3. A Strong Expectorant Ball —

Emetic Tartar j£ drachm.

Calomel 15 grains.

Digitalis # drachm.

Powdered Squills % drachm.

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball.
which is not to be repeated without great care-

246

DOMESTIC ANIMALS— MEDICINES FOR.

HORSE, Febrifuges— Generally called
fever medicines, are given to allay the
arterial and nervous excitements which
accompany febrile action. They do this
partly by their agency on the heart and
arteries through the nervous system, and
partly by increasing the secretions of the
skin and kidneys.

1. Fever Ball—

Nitre. 4 drachms.

Camphor l% drachm.

Calomel and Opium, of each .... I scruple.
Linseed meal as above. Or,
Another —

Emetic Tartar i}£ to 2 drachms.

Compound Powder of Trag-

acanth 2 drachms.

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball.
Or,
Another—

Nitre.... 3 drachms.

Camphor 2 drachms.

Mix as above.

2. Cooling Powder for Mash —

Nitre 6 drachms to I ounce.

May be given in a bran mash.

3. Cooling Drench —

Nitre ....I ounce.

Sweet Spirit of Nitre 2 ounces.

Tincture of Digitalis 2 drachms.

Whey I pint.

HORSE, Lotions or Washes — Consist
in liquids applied to the external parts,
either to cool them or to produce a
healthy action in the vessels.

1. Cooling Solution for External Inflam-
mation—

Goulard Extract.... I ounce.

Vinegar ....... .2 ounces.

Spirits of Wine, or Gin 3 ounces.

Water \%. pint.

Mix, and apply with a calico bandage.

2. Another, Useful for Inflamed Legs, or
for Galled Shoulders or Back —

Sal Ammoniac..... I ounce.

Vinegar ..4 ounces.

Spirits of Wine. .............. .2 ounces.

Tincture of Arnica. ...... ......2 drachms.

Water . ...... ...... ...... *4 pint.

Mix.

3. Lotion for Foul Ulcers —

Sulphate of Copper . . . . 1 ounce.

Nitric Acid...... .... ......}£ ounce.

Water 8 to 12 ounces.

Mix.

4. Lotion for the Eyes—

Sulphate of Zinc 20 to 25 grains.

Water ........6 ounces.

Mix.

5. Very Strong One, and only to be drop-
fed in —

Nitrate of Silver..... 5 to 8 grains.

Distilled Water I ounce.

Mix, and use with a camel-hair brush.

HORSE) Narcotics. — A distinction is
sometimes made between anodynes and

narcotics, but in veterinary medicine there
is no necessity for separating them. (See
Anodynes.)

HORSE, Refrigerants — Lower the

animal heat by contact with the skin, the
ordinary ones being cold air, cold water,
ice, and evaporative lotions. (See Lo-
tions.)

HORSE, Sedatives — Depress the ac-
tion of the circulatory and nervous sys-
tems, without affecting the mental func-
tions. They are very powerful in their
effects ; and digitalis, which is the drug
commonly used for this purpose, has a
special quality known by the name of cu-
mulative ; that is to say, if repeated, small
doses are given at intervals for a certain
time, an effect is produced almost equal
to that which would follow the exhibition
of the whole quantity at once. Besides
digitalis, aconite is also sometimes used
to lower the action of the heart, and by
many it is supposed to be equal in poten-
cy to that drug, without the danger
which always attends its use.

HORSE, Stimulants. — By this term
is understood those substances which ex-
cite the action of the whole nervous and
vascular systems; almost all medicines
are stimulants to some part or other, asy
for instance, aperients, which stimulate
the lining of the bowels, but to the gener-
al system are lowering. On the other
hand, stimulants, so called par excellence,.
excite and raise the action of the brain
and heart.

Old Ale I quart.

Carbonate of Ammonia %. to 2 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger 4 drachms.

Mix and give as a drench.

For other stimulants, see Cordials.

HORSE, Stomachics. — Stomachics are
medicines given to improve the tone of
the stomach, when impaired by bad man-
agement or disease.

Stomachic Ball —

Powdered Gentian )& ounce.

Powdered Ginger. \%, drachms.

Carbonate of Soda. I drachm.

Treacle to form a ball ; or
Another —

Cascarilla, powdered. I ounce.

Myrrh. . — - — . 1% drachm.

Castile Soap.... ...I drachm.

Mix with syrup or treacle, into a ball ; or

Another —

Powdered Colombo /£ to 1 ounce.

Powdered Cassia ....I drachm.

Powdered Rhubarb . . 2 draclims.

Mix as in second part of No. t .

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 247

HORSE, Styptic*. — Styptics are reme-
dies which have a tendency to stop the
flow of blood either from internal or ex-
ternal surfaces. They are used either by
the mouth, or to the part itself in the
shape of lotions, etc.; or the actual cau-
tery, which is always the best in external
bleeding, may be employed. Sometimes,
however, the part cannot be reached with
the heated iron, and is yet within the in-
fluence of an injection, as in bleeding from
the nostrils, for which the following may
be employed :

Matico Leaves........... ^ ounce.

Boiling Water ........I pint.

Infuse, and when cold strain and inject into the
nostrils.

For internal styptics, see Astringents.

HORSE, Tonics — Augment the vigor
of the whole body permanently, whilst
stimulants only act for a short time.
They are chiefly useful after low fever.

Tonic Ball —

Sulphate of Iron...... ....... ...% ounce.

Extract of Camomile . ..1 ounce.

Mix and form into a ball, or
Another —

Arsenic .. ....10 grains.

Ginger. .. ...... ............I drachm.

Powdered Aniseed I ounce.

Compound Powder of Tragacanth..2 drachms.
Syrup enough to form a ball It is a very pow-
erful tonic.

HORSE, Vermifuges, or Worm Medi-
cines, are described under the head of
Anthelmintics, which see.
i. CATTLE. Drink, Cough and Fever —

Take Emetic Tartar I drachm.

Powdered Digitalis _j4 drachm.

Nitre ......3 drachms.

Mix and give in a quart of tolerably thick gruel.

2. CATTLE, Drink, Purging —

Take Epsom Salts I pound.

Powdered Caraway Seeds ...... ..^ ounce.

Dissolve in a quart of warm gruel and give.

3. CATTLE, Drink, Purging—

Take Emetic Tartar % drachm.

Nitre. ........2 drachms.

Powdered Gentian Root I drachm.

Powdered camomile flowers....! drachm.

Powdered ginger .........% drachm.

Pour upon them a pint of boiling ale, and give
the infusion when nearly cold.

4. CATTLE, Drink, Expectorant-
Take Liquorice Root 2 ounces.

Bruise and boil in a quart of water until the
fluid is reduced to a pint, then gradually and care-
fully add

Powdered Squills .....2 drachms.

Powdered Gum Guaiacum. ...... I drachm.

Tincture of Balsam of Lolu % ounce.

Honey 2 ounces.

Give it morning and night,

5. CATTLE, Drink, Turpentine for
Worms —

Take Oil of Turpentine 2 ounces.

Sweet Spirit of Nitre 1 ounce.

Laudanum........ ...... ...... ..^ ounce.

Linseed Oil 4 ounces.

Mix and give in a pint of gruel.

6. CATTLE, Drink, Stimulating-
Take Digitalis 1 scruple.

Emetic Tartar. ^ drachm.

Nitre — .. 3 drachms.

Powdered Squills 1 drachm.

Opium 1 scruple.

Mix, and give with a pint of gruel.

7. CATTLE, Drink, Sulphur Purging—
Take Sulphur........ ...... ...... ....8 ounces.

Ginger —}i ounce.

Mix with a quart of warm gruel.
The drink should be repeated every third day, if
the bowels appear to require it.

8. CATTLE, Drink, Rheumatic-
Take Nitre 2 drachms.

Tartarized Antimony. 1 drachm.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether I ounce.

Aniseed Powder \ ounce.

Mix with a pint of very thick gruel, and repeat
the dose morning and night, except when it is ne-
cessary to give the Sulphur Purging Drink,
No. 7.

9. CATTLE, Embrocation, Rheumatic —
Take Neatsfoot Oil 4 ounces.

Camphorated Oil, Spirit of Tur-
pentine and Laudanum, each. .. 1 ounce.

Oil of Origanum 1 drachm.

Mix.

10. CATTLE, Ointment, Healing, Cleans-
ing-
Take Lard...... •—**•........ ......2 pounds.

Resin J^pound.

Melt them together, and when nearly cold, stir
in calamine, very finely powdered, half a pound.

11. CATTLE, Camphorated Oil-
Take Camphor 2 ounces, and break into small

pieces ; put it into a pint of spermaceti, or com-
mon olive oil, and let the bottle, being closely
corked, and shaken every day, stand in a warm
place until the camphor is dissolved.

12. CATTLE, Drink, Cordial, Rheu-
matic—

Take rhododendron leaves, 4 drachms, boil it in a

quart of water until it is diminished to a pint ;

strain the decoction, and to half of the liquid,

warm, add

Gum Guaiacum, finely powdered.. 2 drachms.
Powdered Caraway Seeds .......2 drachms,

Powdered Aniseed 2 drachms.

Mixed with half a pint of warm ale.

13. CATTLE, Drink, Tonic-
Take Gentian Root, Powdered.. ...... y^ ounce.

Ginger, Powdered. ....... ......1 drachm.

Epsom Salts ... ..2 ounces.

Mix the whole with a pint of warm gruel, and
give it morning and night.

14. CATTLE, Drink for the Yellows-
Take of calomel and opium, a scruple ; mix and

suspend in a little thick gruel.

248

DOMESTIC ANIMALS— MEDICINES FOR.

15. CATTLE, Drink, Physic, a Strong —
Take Epsom or Glauber Salts j£ pound.

Kernel of Croton Nut . . . 10 grains.

Take off the shell of the Croton nut, and weigh
the proper quantity of the kernel, rub it down to
a fine powder, gradually mix it with half a pint of
thick gruel, and give it, and immediately after-
wards give the salts, dissolved in a pint and a half
of thinner gruel.

16. CATTLE, Ointment, Blister-
Take lard, 12 ounces; resin, 4 ounces; melt

them together, and when they are getting cold
add oil of turpentine, four ounces, powdered cau-
tharides, five ounces; stirring the whole to-
gether.

17. CATTLE, Drink, Astringent-
Take Prepared Chalk 2 ounces.

Oak Bark, Powdered 1 ounce.

Catechu, Powdered ^ ounce.

Opium, Powdered 2 scruples.

Ginger, Powdered ...2 drachms.

Mix, and give in a quart of warm gruel.

18. CATTLE, Drink, Astringent, with
Mutton Suet —

Take Mutton Suet I pound.

New Milk 2 quarts.

Boil them together until the suet is dissolved ;
then add —

Opium, powdered ^ drachm.

Ginger .. I •«

Having previously well mixed them with a
spoonful or two of fluid.

19. CATTLE, Whey, Alum-
Take Alum % ounce.

Water 2 quarts.

Boil them together for 10 minutes and strain.

20. CATTLE, Astringent, Stimulating —
Take Oil of Juniper 2 to 4 drachms.

Tincture of Opium 1 ounce.

Oil of Turpentine.. 1 "

Mix and give in a pint of Linseed Tea once or
twice a day.

21. CATTLE, Drink, Stimulating —
Take Epsom or Glauber Salts 1 pound.

Ginger yz ounce.

Carbonate of Ammonia - - - X "

Pour I quart of boiling water upon the ingredi-
ents ; stir them well and give when milk-warm.

22. CATTLE, Stimulating Drink, Mild-
Take Ginger I drachm.

Gentian 1 "

Spirit of nitrous Ether 1 ounce.

Mix and give in a pint of gruel.

33. CATTLE, Astringent, Mild-
Take Oak Bark, powdered ••-% ounce.

Catechu, powdered 2 drachms.

Opium, powdered «^ scruple.

Mix together in a pint of gruel or warm water.

24. CATTLE, Ointment, Mercurial Gar-
get-
Take Soft Soap ...1 pound.

Mercurial Ointment 2 Ounces.

Camphor, rubbed down with a lit-
tle Spirit of Wine iounce.

Rub them well together.

25. CATTLE, Ointment, Iodine —
Take Hydrate of Potash 1 drachm.

Lard 7 drachms.

Rub them well together.

26. CATTLE, Drink, Diuretic-
Take Powdered Nitre........ 1 ounce.

Powdered Resin ............ ..2 ounces.

Ginger 2 drachms.

Mix them well together in a little treacle, and
give them in a warm gruel.

27. CATTLE, Ointment for Sore Teats-
Take Elder Ointment 6 ounces.

Beeswax 2 "

Mix them together, and addd an ounce each of
sugar of lead and alum, in fine powder ; stir them
well together until cold. •

28. CATTLE, Drink, Stimulant, warm-
Take Ginger, powdered l/z ounce.

Caraway Seeds. 6 drachms.

Allspice ^ ounce.

Mix in a quart of warm water or mild ale.

29. CATTLE, Drink, Anodyne-
Take Powdered Opium % drachm.

Sweet Spirit of Nitre 2 ounces.

Rub them together, adding the fluid by small
quantities at a time, and give the mixture in a pint
of warm gruel.

30. CATTLE Drink, Purgative, strong —

Take Epsom or Glauber Salts 12 ounces.

Flour of Sulphur 4 "

Powdered Ginger 4 drachms.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 1 ounce.

To be dissolved in warm water.

31. CATTLE, Drink, Cordial-
Take Caraway Powder ...1 ounce.

Gentian, powdered . •-,& "

Essence of Peppermint 20 drops.

Mix.

32. CATTLE, Drink, Tonic-
Take Gentian 2 drachms.

Tartrate of Iron 1 drachm.

Ginger I "

Mix and give in a pint of gruel.

33. CATTLE, Drink, Tonic, Mildest-
Take Gentian -. 2 drachms.

Emetic Tartar yz drachm.

Nitre j^ ounce.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether % **

Give in gruel.

34. CATTLE, Lotion, Disinfectant —
Take Solutiou of Chloride of Lime, in

powder - % ounce.

Water 1 pint.

Mix.

45. CATTLE, Murrain, Drink for—

Take Sweet Spirit of Nitre }$ ounce.

Laudanum % **

Chloride of Lime, in powder 2 ounces.

Prepared Chalk Iounce.

Rub them well together, and give them with «
pint of warm gruel.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 249

36. CATTLE, Drink, Tonic, for Mur-
rain-
Take Columbia Root 2 drachms.

CanellaBark ..2 "

Ginger I drachm.

Sweet Spirit of Nitre j4 ounce.

Rub them together, and give in a pint of thick
grueL

37. CATTLE, Fumigation-
Take Common Salt 2 pounds.

Oil of Vitrol I pound.

38. CATTLE, Drink, Laxative-
Take Epsom Salts yz pound.

Sulphur 2 to 4 ounces.

Nitre ..% ounce.

Ginger 2 drachms.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 1 ounce.

Dissolve in warm water or gruel, and repeat
once a day for several days.

39. CATTLE, Liniment-
Take Alum and White Vitriol, of each.. }£ ounce.

Treacle .....I gill.

Dissolve in a pint of warm water.

40. CATTLE, Astringent Powder-
Take Blue Vitriol, powdered # ounce.

Powdered Alum % "

Prepared Chalk 2 "

Armenian Bole I "

Mix.

41. CATTLE, Tonic, Strong-
Take Powdered Ginger 1 drachm.

Powdered Caraway Seeds I "

Gentian, powdered 4 "

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 1 ounce.

To be mixed slowly with gruel.

42. CATTLE, Drink for Inflammation of
the Bladder —

Take Antimonial Powder 2 drachms.

Powdered Opium I scruple.

Rub well together with a small portion of very
thick gruel, and repeat the dose morning and
night.

43. CATTLE, Eye Lotion, Sedative (1)—

Take dried leaves of Fox Glove, powdered, \}i
ounce ; infuse them in a pint of Cape or Dry
Raisin Wine for a fortnight, and keep the infusion
for use.

44. CATTLE, Eye Lotion, Sedative (2)—
Take Extract of Goulard 2 drachms.

Spirituous Tincture of Digitalis,
(made in the same manner as
the Vinous in Receipt 43,

No. 1) 2 drachms.

Tincture of Opium 2 "

Water I pint.

This should also be introduced into the eye.
Two or three drops at a time will suffice.

45. CATTLE, Lotion for the Eye,
Strengthening —

Take White Vitriol I scruple.

Spirit of Wine X drachm.

Water. I pint.

Mix them together, and use the lotion in the
same manner as Nos. 43 and 44.

46. CATTLE, Drink, Cordial-
Take Caraway Seed in powder...... .. «^ ounce.

Aniseed, in powder y2 "

Ginger , >£ "

Mix with a pint of good ale, made hot.

47. CATTLE, Physic Drink, for Locked
Jaw, Strong —

Take Barbadoes Aloes I ^ ounces

Kernel of Croton Nut, powder'd. 10 grains.
Dissolve in as small quantity of boiling water
as possible, and give them when the liquid is suf-
ficiently cool.

48. CATTLE, Anodyne Drink for Lock-
ed Jaw —

Take Camphor '....I drachm.

Rub it down in an ounce of Spirits of Wine ;
to this add —

Powdered Opium I drachm.

And give the mixture in a small quantity of
thick gruel.

49. CATTLE, Embrocation for Bite of
Serpents —

Take Hartshorn and Olive Oil equal quantities.
Shake them well together, and rub the wound
and the neighboring parts well with the liniment
morning and night.

50. CATTLE, Lotion, Discutient —
Take Bay Salt 4ounces.

Vinegar 1 pint.

Water I quart.

Oil of Origanum I drachm.

Add the oil of salt first ; rub them well down
wi h a little water; then gradually add the bal-
ance of the water and vinegar.

51. CATTLE, Embrocation for Strains —
Take Bay Salt 4 ounces.

Oil of Origanum I drachm.

Rub them well together, until the salt is reduced
to a powder; then add —

Vinegar ^ pint.

Spirits of Wine 2 ounces.

Water I quart.

52. CATTLE, Embrocation for Strains,
Strongest —

Take Spirit of Turpentine l/z pint.

Oil of Origanum % ounce.

Olive Oil iji pint.

Cantharides I ounce.

Mix them together ; shake them often and keep
in a bottle for use.

53. CATTLE, Charge for Old Strains
and Lameness —

Take Burgundy Pitch 4 ounces.

Common Pitch 4 "

Yellow Wax 2 "

Barbadoes Tar.... .... ...... ....6 "

Melt them together in a ladle, and apply the

mixture to the parts when thoroughly warm and

liquid.

54. CATTLE, Mange Ointment-
Take Flour of Sulphur 1 pound.

Strong Mercurial Ointment 2 ounces.

Common Turpentine % pound.

Lard 1% pounds.

Melt the Turpentine and Lard together; stir
well in the Sulphur when these begin to cool ; *•■£
afterwards rub down the mercurial ointment o» »
marble slab with the other ingredients.

25°

DOMESTIC ANIMALS— MEDICINES FOR.

55. CATTLE, Diink, Alterative-
Take Flour of Sulphur. ............ ..2 ounces.

Black Sulphuret of Antimony....! "

^Ethiop's Mineral % "

Nitre 2 "

Mix and divide into four powders; give one

every second morning in a little thick gruel.

Turning into a salt marsh will be an excellent

auxiliary.

56. CATTLE, Vermin, Mercurial Oint-
ment for —

Take Strong Mercurial Ointment 1 ounce.

Lard 7 ounces.

Mix them well together, and rub the ointment
well on wherever the lice appear.

57. CATTLE, Vermin, Lotion for —
Take Corrosive Sublimate, 2 drachms; rub it

down in 2 ounces of Spirits of Wine, and add a
pint of water.

58. CATTLE, Tonic Powders, Altera-
tive—

Take Flower of Sulphur 4 ounces.

Black Sulphuret of Antimony. I ounce.

^Ethiop's Mineral % ounce.

Nitre ...2 ounces.

Powdered Gentian 2 ounces.

Powdered Ginger.... .....i ounce.

Mix, and divide into six powders, and give one
daily.

59. CATTLE, Bull Burnt, Lotion for—
Take Goulard's Extract ...1 ounce.

Spirit of Wine.... 2 ounces.

Water.... --•# pint.

Mix.

60. CATTLE, Cow-pox, Lotion for—
Take Sal Ammoniac .....j^ ounce.

White Wine Vinegar ---is pint.

Camphorated Spirit of Wine 2 ounces.

Goulard's Extract I ounce.

Mix, and keep it in a bottle for use.

61. CALVES, Drink Aperient for—
Take Epsom salts, from 1 to 2 ounces, accord-
ing to the size and age of the calf, and dissolve in
half a pint of gruel ; then add ginger, I scruple ;
essence of peppermint, 3 drops. Mix.

62. CALVES, Diarrhoea in—

Take Prepared Chalk 2 drachms.

Powdered Opium 10 grains.

Powdered Catechu. % drachm.

Ginger ...... ^5 drachm.

Essence of Peppermint 5 drops.

Mix, and give twice a day in half pint of gruel,

63. CALVES, Purging, to Stop-
Take Dover's Powder 2 scruples.

Starch or Arrow-root, in powder. 1 ounce.

Compound Cinnamon Powder 1 drachm.

Powdered Kino ...^drachm.

Boil the starch or arrow-root in a pint of water
until it becomes well thickened, and then gradually
.stir in the other ingredients.

64. CALVES, Hoove in—

Take Oil of Turpentine t ounce.

Linseed Oil ...3 or 4 ounces.

Ginger, Powdered 1 drachm.

Mix. To be repeated at the interval of a week,
as often as may be required.

65. SHEEP, Tonic Drink-
Take Gentian Root, powdered 1 drachm.

Caraway Powder X4 drachm.

Tincture of Caraway. 10 drops.

Give in a quarter of a pint of thick gruel.

66. SHEEP, Purging Drink for—

Take Epsom Salts 2 ounces.

Powdered Caraway ]^ ounce.

Warm thin gruel sufficient to dissolve the salts.

67. LAMBS, Astringent Drink for —

Take Compound Chalk Powder with

Opium 1 drachm.

Gentian 1 scruple.

Essence of Peppermint 3 drops.

Mix with a little thin starch, and give morning
and night.

68. SHEEP, Cooling Fever Drink-
Take Powdered Digitalis .. 1 scruple.

Emetic Tartar..... io grains.

Nitre 2 drachms.

Mix with thick gruel, and let it be given twice
each day.

69. SHEEP, Laxative Medicine —
Take Epsom Salts 1 ounce.

Ginger 1 scruple.

Gentian .........1 drachm.

Warm Water 2 ounces.

Linseed Oil ....1 ounce.

The above, may be given either alone or with
gruel, to a full-grown sheep : and from one-fourth
to one-half to a lamb, according to its age.

70. SHEEP, Strengthening Drink-
Take Prepared Chalk...... r......i ounce.

Catechu '. % drachm.

Opium 20 grains.

Spirit of Nitrous Ether.. 2 drachms.

. Gentian 1 drachm.

To be dissolved in gruel, and given twice a day
till the purging ceases; after which the last two
ingredients, with a drachm of nitre and ten grains
of tartarized antimony, should be given in gruel
once a day.

71. SHEEP, Physic for Blown-
Take Glauber salts, 1 ounce, and dissolve in

peppermint water, 4 ounces ; to this add tincture
of ginger, 1 drachm; tincture of gentian, I
drachm ; boiling water, I ounce. This should be
given every six hours until the bowels are opened,
and half the quantity on each of the four next
mornings.

72. SHEEP, General Tonic Drink-
Take Gentian 2 drachms.

Colombo ........ ..1 drachm.

Ginger # drachm.

Give in four ounces of warm gruel.

73. SHEEP, Mixture for the Rot-
Take Common Salt 8 ounces.

Powdered Gentian 2 ounces.

Ginger 1 ounce.

Tincture of Colombo 4 ounces.

Put the whole into a quart bottle so as to fill
the bottle.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 251

74. SHEEP, Second Mixture for the
Rot-
Take of the Receipt, Mixture for the Rot

(which see), one quart. To this add, spirits of
turpentine, 3 ounces. Shake them well together
when first mixed, and whenever the medicine is
given, two tablespoonsfuls are the usual dose.

75. SHEEP, Caustic Astringent Powder
for Foot- Rot —

Take Verdigris, Bole, Armenian, and Sugar of
Lead, equal parts. Rub them well together, until
they are reduced to a fine powder.

76. SHEEP, Arsenical Wash for Lice —
Take Arsensic 2 pounds.

Soft Soap 4 pounds.

Dissolve in 30 gallons of water.

77. SHEEP, Mercurial Wash for Lice —
Take Corrosive Sublimate, 1 ounce ; Spirits of

Wine, 2 ounces. Rub the Corrosive Sublimate in
ihe spirit until it is dissolved, and then add Cream
of Tartar, 1 ounce ; Bay Salt, 4 ounces. Dissolve
the whole in two quarts of water, and apply a
little of it with a small piece of sponge wherever
the lice appear.

78. SHEEP, Fly Powder for—

Take White Lead, two pounds ; Red Lead, one
pound, and mix them together.

79. SHEEP, Ointment for Sore Heads —
Take Black Pitch 2 pounds.

Tfcr ....I pound.

Flower of Sulphur I pound.

Melt them in an iron pot over a very slow fire,
stirring together the ingredients as they begin to
melt, but carefully watching the compound, and
removing the pot from the fire the moment the in-
gredients are well mixed, and before they begin to
boil, for they would then rapidly swell to an extra-
ordinary extent, and the whole mass would run
over into the fire.

80. SHEEP, Astringent Powder for —
Take Prepared Chalk ........}£ ounce.

Ginger ft drachm.

Catechu, Powdered ............ }4 drachm.

Powdered Opium....... 2 grains.

Give this in a little gruel, twice daily until the
purging abates.

81. SHEEP, Mild Laxative-
Take Linseed Oil 2 ounces.

Powdered Opium 2 grains.

To be mixed with linseed tea. Linseed and
oatmeal gruel should be given several times a day,
and the second day the Astringent Powder
for sheep should be given.

82. SHEEP, Tonic Drink for Debility-
Take Gentian and Powdered Caraway Seeds, of

each an ounce ; Columbo and Ginger, of each,
half an ounce. Pour a quart of boiling water
upon them, and let the infusion stand three days,
stirring it well every day. Then pour off the
clear liquid, and bottle it for use. Give a table-
spoonfui daily, in a little gruel, mixed with an
equal quantity of good ale.

83. SHEEP, Lotion for Cloudiness on
the Eyes —

Take Corrosive Sublimate, 4 grains ; rub it
down with Spirits of Wine, % ounce ; and add I
pint of water.

84. SHEEP, Mercurial Ointment for
Scab —

Take Crude Quicksilver I pound.

Venice Turpentine .......... % pound.

Spirits of Turpentine 2 ounces.

Mix.

85. SHEEP, Mild Ointment for Scab —

Take Flower of Sulphur I pound.

Venice Turpentine ..............4 ounces.

Rancid Lard ..2 pounds.

Strong Mercurial Ointment. .^ounces.

Rub them well together.

86. SHEEP, Powerful Ointment for
Scab-
Take White Hellebore ..--3 ounces.

Bichloride of Mercury......... 2 ounces.

Fish Oil 12 pounds.

Resin 6 ounces.

Tallow yi pound.

The two first ingredients to be mixed with a
portion of the oil, and then melt the other ingre-
dients and add.

87. SHEEP, Smearing Mixture for Scab
Take a gallon of Common Tar and 12 pounds

of any sweet grease. Melt them together, stir-
ring them well while they are cooling.

ZZ. SWINE, Fever Medicines for—
Take Digitalis..... 3 grains.

Antimonial Powder 6 grains.

Nitre y% drachm.

Mix and give in a little warm swill, or milk, or
mash.

89. SWINE, Alterative Powder for—
Take Flower of Sulphur % ounce.

^Ethiop's Mineral , 3 grains.

Nitre and Cream of Tartar ...... ^ drachm.

Mix and give daily in a little thickened gruel or
wash.

POULTRY-KEEPERS' GUIDE.

POULTRY, Management and Profit of.

- — Except among professional poultry-
breeders, and amateurs who can afford to
gratify their fancy without regard to pe-
cuniary remuneration, poultry has usually
been left to care for itself to a great ex-
tent. The real profit of poultry-keeping
is becoming better understood, however,
and the care of fowls, in regard to both
food and shelter, is increasing.

In the milder seasons of the year, do-
mestic fowls, left to their own free ways,
are almost invariably healthy. They se-
cure exercise, pure air, pure water, variety
of food, and access to fine, dry soil in
which to bathe. As health is the first
condition of success in poultry-keeping,
this fact presents the key to the whole
matter, of profitable management of
poultry on farms and in large numbers as
a specialty. If* fifty hens, kept in health,
can be made to produce a clear annual
profit of $50, a thousand in like condi-
tion may be made to yield a proportion-
ate profit. The chief difficulty experi-
enced is that of keeping large numbers
in good condition, and this difficulty
arises from failure to observe to the ex-
tent required the conditions which pro-
mote success with a few fowls. The pro-
portion of range necessary, of sheltered
space, of food, water, care, etc., must be
extended mathematically in proportion to
the number of fowls kept; and then,
other things being equal, the profit is as
certain with many hens as with a few.

Upon the farm, where a few fowls are
kept for the benefit of the family, and
have during much of the year free range,
most of the conditions of moderate suc-
cess are attained. With a little care and
expense, however, absolutely necessary at
some seasons of the year, better results
may always be secured ; and regular care
is necessary from those who in cities or
villages engage in poultry-keeping for
pleasure or profit, hoping for success.

It is obvious that poultry must have
room for exercise, and a place for rest,
laying, and brooding, and such places
should be fruitful, convenient, and health-
fully located. The best soil upon which
to keep poultry is a sandy one, resting
upon gravel, as it retains the least mois-
ture; stagnant moisture being a fruitful
source of disease. Any soil upon which
an inclosure for fowls is erected should be
well drained. The place should have a
southern or southeastern slope, preferably
the former, and be sheltered from the
north and east, thus securing warmth of
the sun and of location, and security
from cold winds. The hen-house should
afford proper shelter and warmth; perches
and nests should be kept clean and the
air pure, without permitting any percept-
ible draught. The floor should be hard
and perfectly dry, concrete or solidly
packed earth being the best material.
Whether composed of stone, brick, or
wood, the house must be suited to the
nature of its occupants. Success will be
diminished in proportion to the neglect
of any of these conditions.

A room eight to ten feet square is
large enough for a roosting and laying
house for twenty-five hens. If the walls
are plastered, the protection against ver-
min and cold will be greater than when
otherwise. The sunny side, except of the
nest-room, should be composed of glass,
commencing one foot above the ground
or floor, and if the glass is small there
will be less liability of breakage by the
fowls. The perches should be low, espe-
cially for the heavier breeds, unless there
is convenient access to them by means of
steps, so that the fowls may not injure
themselves in jumping to the floor. A
good arrangement is one in which one
perch is elevated above the other and
behind it, the perches being about two
feet apart and the lower one two feet
from the floor. Some prefer, however,

(2S2)

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

253

not to furnish perches for Cochins and
Brahmas, but to litter the floor with
straw each night for them to rest upon.
Perches for heavy fowls should be broad
enough to give good support to the
breast, or deformity of the breast-bone
will ensue. The ground beneath should
in all cases be strewed with sand or
ashes, and removed often enough to pre-
vent taint. Boxes for nests for sitting
should be movable, for convenience of
cleansing, secluded, and placed low.
Many place the nests upon the ground.
Chopped straw is a good material with
which to fill nest-boxes, and should be
clean. Where the fowls cannot have
perfect freedom, it is necessary for their
health that an inclosed yard should join
the hen-house, to which they may have
access. An eighth of an acre in grass is
the proper proportion of land for twenty-
five hens, but a smaller yard will answer
if kept perfectly clean, and if a sufficient
amount of vegetable food is supplied.
Feed and water troughs or boxes ot suffi-
cient capacity should be provided, and so
arranged for cleanliness and economy as
to prevent the fowls from having access
to them in any unnecessary way. If
more than one breed of fowls are to be
kept, the arrangements for their accomo-
dation, above suggested, should be du-
plicated. If a smaller number, the pro-
portions of house and yard may be di-
minished. These arrangements are such
as are suggested and approved by the
most experienced keepers, both in Eng-
land and America.

Large numbers of fowls may be profita-
bly kept by observing in due proportion
the conditions of success with a few.
They may be kept in large flocks, with ex-
tended conveniences, or divided into
small flocks of fifty or less. It is reason-
able to suppose that want of success with
large numbers of birds is most frequently
caused by neglect in the matter of clean-
liness and food, causing disease, or low
condition, destructive of profit, since it
has been demonstrated by years of expe-
rience, that thousands of fowls may be
kept together with large and certain re-
muneration. The editor of the Massa-
chusetts Ploughman remarks that he has
"frequently expressed the conviction that
with proper management a large number
of fowls will prove proportionately as

profitable as a small number," and re-
commends in substance as follows : That
an acre of land, at least, should be given
to every two hundred fowls ; wild, rocky
land covered with bushes being as good
as any; and that a flock of a thousand
should have six acres. It should be
fenced with boards or pickets, and houses
should be erected, according to plans ap-
proved for smaller numbers, large enough
to accommodate a hundred fowls with
shelter, roosts and nests. They should
face the south, and the fronts should be
partially or entirely glazed, the sashes
opening on hinges at the top, so as to be
opened in summer for free circulation of
air. There should also be provided a
number of low sheds about the grounds,
beneath which the fowls may take shelter
from the sun and storms. There should
be abundance of pure water, easily ac-
cessible. Fowls selected for breeding
should be kept separate from the others,
in flocks of twenty, with the proper com-
plement of male birds. This writer fur-
ther says :

With a large flock properly kept on
such a tract as we have described, there
is no question as to its profits. The poul-
terer embarking in an enterprise of this
kind should keep in view :

1. That the cheapest and most accessi-
ble land is the most desirable, always
provided that a near and sure market is at
command.

2. That the utmost economy consist-
ent with the safety, comfort, and health
of the poultry, should be exercised in the
erection of the buildings and fences.

3. That an abundance of pure water is
accessible or attainable.

4. That fowls over three years old are
not profitable, and a stock should be
thoroughly renewed every two years.

5. That only the largest, hardiest, and
best fowls should be used as breeders.

6. That a careful supervision of the
flock is necessary, and that it enjoy the
most perfect health and greatest comfort
in summer and winter.

These suggestions accord with the con-
ditions under which Mr. Warren Leland,
of New York, has successfully raised, for
many years, large numbers ot fowls, se-
curing abundance of eggs and poultry,
principally for use in the Metropolitan
Hotel, in the city of New. York. Mr.

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

Leland's method with fowls is reported in
the Transactions of the American Insti-
tute * a I from that work, and his letters
to Farmers' Club of that Institute

an i the Department of Agriculture, we
condense the following statement :

He devotes eighteen acres in one yard
of his "Highland Farm," at Rye, New
York, to his poultry, consisting of hens,
ducks, turkeys and geese. The broods
have another large lot, and the turkeys
have a half mile range. The eighteen-
acre lot is rough land, unsuited for tillage,
having in it rocks, bushes, grass, weeds,
and sandy places, and also a pond. It
is supplied with heaps of ashes, bones,
lime, and a portion is occasionally plowed
to furnish worms. The fowls have woods
and bushes to range in, the turkeys trees
to roost in, and the ducks and geese en-
joy the privileges of the pond. There
are natural and artificial shelters for all,
consisting of sheds, hillsides, bushes,
nooks and hiding places of all sorts for
hens with broods, and trees are cut and
bent down into the grounds for shelter
and roosts. The wings of none are
clipped, and the hens may scratch and
turkeys fly at pleasure, within the limits of
the grounds. After a trial of some years,
Mr. Leland has discarded coops, finding
that the greater freedom he allows, the
more healthful and profitable are his
fowls. The principal features of his sys-
tem are freedom, cleanliness, proper and
sufficient food during the year, and
change of cocks every spring. In sum-
mer, with the range they have, his fowls
secure a good supply of animal food from
the fields, in worms, grubs, bugs, grass-
hoppers, etc. They are also supplied at
all seasons with the refuse scraps from the
Metropolitan Hotel. Mr. Leland says:
"Egg-making is no easy work, and hens
will not do much of it without high feed.
They need just what a man who works
requires — wheat bread and meat." He
feeds wheat, even when it costs $2 per
bushel. No old nests are allowed. Af-
ter each brood is hatched the boxes are
taken out and whitewashed inside and
out, and after lying in the sun and rain
a few days, they are half filled with clean
straw and returned for use. The old
straw is burned. Each of the 250 to 300
hens on hand in the spring is permitted
to have one brood during the year. Four

or five will have broods the same day,
and to the hen which appears to be the
best mother, all the chickens are given.
The others are given a cold bath and
placed in confinement a few days, after
which they return to the flock and their
nests. Mr. Leland produces a great
many eggs, which pay for food and at-
tendance, and makes sales of poultry,
amounting to several thousand dollars
annually. If a hen comes off about the
1 st of April with ten chickens, by the
middle of June they will weigh twenty
pounds and be worth five dollars. He
asserts that he can produce a thousand
pounds of poultry cheaper than he can
produce the same weight of mutton, beef,
or pork. He finds as great profit from
turkeys as from hens, and greater with
more attention. One-year-old turkeys are
found to be the best mothers, and gob-
blers of that 'age are also preferred.
Three hatchings are put with one turkey
in a large coop, half hidden in tall grass.
as bare ground is fatal to the young.
The chicks do not require food until the
third day, when cracked wheat is given
them. They require great care during
the first two weeks, and must not be left
out in the rain or wet, but after that
age they grow without much care. Af-
ter the season of grasshoppers, they are
fed on corn, and late in September they
are ready for market. In the fall of 1875
Mr. Leland sold 450 turkeys, grown that
year, for $1,752 — nearly $4 each. He
also sold 320 ducks for $352, and over 80
geese at $1 80 each. No food is given
the geese after they are feathered; yet
Mr. L. says other poultry is better and
more profitable. He holds ducks — a cross
between pure -bred Muscovy and English,
which are hardy, hnest for meat and best
for eggs — in high esteem. The latter are
fed on corn. His young chickens in
1875 numbered about 3,000, and his stock
of all kinds of poultry about 4,000. It
was estimated to be worth $4,000 in
November of that year, when poultry
was higher than it has since been. Mr.
Leland prefers the large bronze turkeys,
Poland geese, which lay earliest, and
light Brahma hens. His cocks are of all
kinds, as he finds excellent results from
the crosses secured, and no old cocks arc
allowed on the place. When nine months
old his early spring pullets begin to lay,

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

255

and he gets 200 to 250 eggs daily
during the cold season. He prefers the
Brahmas because they mature early for
spring chickens, are handsome, hardy
good-layers, look well when dressed, and
are of large size. No other hens are
kept. The Black Spanish and White
Leghorn have been found better for eggs,
but they are undesirable for the table.
He feeds corn, wheat, chopped turnips,
refuse cabbage, and the waste bread and
meat scraps from his hotel, and sour milk
from his farm; also burnt bones, lime,
etc., for shell-making. During the past
ten years Mr. L. has annually raised about
3,000 chickens, 450 turkeys, and 500
ducks and geese, and he thinks that the
business might be made generally profita-
ble, especially in rocky neighborhoods,
and on a scale more extensive than his
own. He says :

The great secret of my success is in
keeping near the conditions of nature.
At the outset I became convinced that,
above all things, fowls must have space
and cleanliness; that they cannot be ex-
pected to do well if confined in cramped
and offensive quarters. With space and
cleanliness, I cannot understand why the
number need be limited.

He has never kept an account of his
poultry business, being satisfied with its
continuous success. He pays $250 per
year and board to one man to attend
his fowls, and buys about 200 bushels
of grain each year, which, with the veg-
etables and refuse from his hotel, inter-
est on land, and cost of buildings, make
up the regular expenses.

The committee of the American Insti-
tute Farmers' Club, appointed to visit
poultry yards and ascertain the best mode
of wintering poultry, reported through its
chairman, that Mr. Leland had the best
winter quarters for his hens, ducks, and
geese, they had ever seen. The follow-
ing description of his winter manage-
ment of poultry is taken partly from the
report of the committee, and in part
from statements given by Mr. Leland.
For the winter quarters of his flock —
which at that season is reduced to 300
early spring pullets, 30 cocks, 30 turkeys,
(sometimes many more), and a few geese
and ducks — he has a stone buildings 75
feet long and 25 feet wide, which faces
the South. The openings on the north

side are small and filled with window-
glass, and in some cases with double
sashes. Those on the south are much
larger, consisting of double doors, which
are opened on sunny days. In the mid-
dle of the north side is a wide, old-fash-
ioned fire-place. Nearly every day in
winter a fire is kept up with chunks,
knots, and logs that would otherwise be
useless. The walls being of stone and
the floor of earth or rock, the fire can
be left without danger. The chimney
can easily be closed, or the logs rolled
out into the middle of the building, and
feathers or sulphur be used for fumiga-
tion, which is done whenever hen lice
appear. Smoke is found to be better
than carbolic acid, or kerosene, or white-
wash, to drive away vermin. On cold
and wet days the fowls gather before the
fire, warm themselves and trim their
feathers ; and when the fire dies out they
wallow in the warm ashes. Lime and
plaster are freely used in the building to
absorb odors and compost droppings.
Roosts are made of oak slats an inch
thick and two and one-half inches wide,
fastened to the rafters near the ridge.
About two teet below the perches is a
scaffold of boards that fit closely. This
is covered with plaster and ashes from
time to time, which, with the accumu-
lated droppings of the hens, are frequent-
ly swept off, put into barrels with all re-
fuse filth, and used upon corn land. The
manure is valued at one dollar per year
from each hen, as the same amount of
fertilizing salts in bone-dust, which would
cost fifty dollars, is annually saved from
fifty hens. The wide perches used ena-
ble the hens to cover their feet entirely
with their warm feathers, and prevent
freezing in the coldest nights. The offal
of the farm and refuse from the kitchen
are thrown into this hen-house to be pick-
ed over; and besides this the poultry is
fed about a bushel of corn per day in
winter, and half a bushel in summer.
Mr. Leland raises excellent crops of corn,
having the best manure, and he feeds the
product of four acres in keeping and fat-
tening his poultry.

The use of fumigation for driving
away vermin may be successful in a build-
ing such as we have described, but can-
not be relied on as the best means under
all circumstances. Whitewash for walls,

256

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

perches, nests, etc., will always be found
useful; and probably the best for protec-
tion against insects is that in which an
ounce of carbolic acid is used with each
four quarts of lime water. This recipe, it
is claimed, is certain death to parasites.
A solution of one part of acid to sixty
parts of warm water may be used then
thoroughly wet with it on all parts of the
body, and afterwards as a wash for fowls,
the mixture being cooled before use, and
the fowls placed on dry, clean straw and
dried in the sun. A soap for washing
fowls, also, may be made by dissolving
four pounds of common bar-soap in hot
water, and adding one to two ounces of
carbolic acid, according to the desired
strength, and then letting it cool and be-
come hard again.

POULTRY, Breeds, the Most Popular—
The profits of poultry-keeping being
derived principally from two sources —
the sale of eggs and of poultry, mostly
chickens, in market, the question of breed
is an important one. For eggs, it would
seem that, with proper attention and care,
the non-sitters are preferable; but some
of the varieties of non-sitters are not
hardy, and the extra attention such fowls
require may be greater in cost than the
enhanced value of their production.
Fowls have been classified, not only in
respect to their qualities of flesh and as
layers, but also with a view to other
characteristics. The following classifica-
tion, based on the statement of an ex-
perienced poultry firm in New York, is
approved by Tegetmeier :

1. Hardiness. — Hardy; Brahmas,
Houdans, Hamburgs, Creve Cceurs, Span-
ish, and Leghorns. Delicate: La Fleche,
Polands, and Bantams.

2. Quietude. — Domestic and quiet:
Brahmas and Cochins. More vivacious ;
Spanish, Leghorns, and Dorkings. Active:
Hamburgs and Games.

3. Size of Birds. — Large: Brahmas,
Cochins, La Fleche, Houdans, Creve
Cceurs, and Dorkings. Medium: Polands,
Spanish, Leghorns, and Games. Small:
Hamburgs and Sultans. Diminutive:
Bantams and Silkies.

4. Size of Eggs. — Layers of large eggs,
averaging about 7 to a pound: La Fleche,
Houdans, Creve Coeurs, and Black Span-
ish. Layers of medium eggs, averaging 8
to 9 to a pound: Leghorns, Cochins,

Brahmas, Polands, Dorkings, Games, and
Sultans. Layers of small eggs, averaging
9 to 10 to a pound : Hamburgs.

5. Number of Eggs. — Great layers:
Hamburgs, Spanish, Leghorns, and Po-
lands.

6. Incubation. — Good sitters : Co-
chins, Brahmas, Dorkings, and Games.
Non-sitters ; Houdans, Creve Cceurs, La
Fleche, Spanish, Polands, Hamburgs, and
Leghorns.

7. Valuable for Flesh. — True table-
birds : La Fleche, Houdans, Creve Cceurs,
and Dorkings. Flesh less Juicy : Cochins
and Brahmas.

8. For Eggs and Chickens, which
are generally equally desired, from fowls
usually kept on farms, the testimony pre-
ponderates greatly in favor of the Brah-
mas; for, in addition to being good flesh
fowls, both as to weight and quality, they
are good winter, and may be considered
at least fair summer, layers; they are
quiet, hardy, and come early to maturity.
Other breeds, considered superior in
quality of flesh, or as egg producers, may
be found more desirable, being raised
with equal success in many localities.
Generally, however, the Brahman is con-
sidered the most profitable fowl for the
farmer.

POULTRY, Diseases of.— In this cli-
mate the diseases of our poultry are few
in number, and are generally controlled
by proper treatment. On this point, it is
said, with truth too, that "prevention is
better than cure ; " and when the former
cannot be altogether secured, the latter
must be attended to immediately, or all
attempts at a cure will prove fruitless.
Although poultry are no less liable to
disorders than cattle or other tame ani-
mals, but very little attention has been
paid to them, owing, no doubt, to the
small value of individual fowls compared
with sheep or horses ; and it is frequently
most economical to kill them at once.
These disorders, however, though few in
number, are far irom being devoid of in-
terest, not only as sometimes leading to
correct views of the diseases of other
animals, but so far as the saving of even
a few shillings, by curing them when that
is possible, or of rendering their eggs or
flesh more wholesome and palatable, as
well as the humane motive of adding

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

257

comfort to the creatures intrusted to our
care.

POULTRY, Apoplexy.— This disease is
very frequent among fowls, and makes its
attack, in most instances, without the
slightest warning. M. Flourens, of Paris,
says there are two degrees of apoplexy
among fowls— one deep-seated and the
other superficial — each having different
symptoms. Deep-seated apoplexy is char-
acterized by complete disorder of move-
ment, while superficial apoplexy is mani-
fested only by deficient muscular energy
and inability in walking. Deep-seated
apoplexy is accompanied by superficial
apoplexy; but as the latter is the pre-
cursor of the former, it ought to be care-
fully attended to, in order to prevent its
passing to what may be termed the second
stage, though both stages are capable of
being cured by a natural process, as an
individual case proves.

M. Flourens had brought to him in the
month of April a young fowl, whose gait
indicated that of a tipsy animal so much
that the peasants called it the " tipsy hen."
Whetherstanding, or walking, or running,
it reeled and staggered, advancing always
in a zigzag manner, frequently turning to
the right when it wished to turn to the left,
and to the left when it wished to turn to
the right, and instead of going forward it
went backward. Its legs also often bent
under it, so that it fell down ; above all,
when it flew high up to perch, it could
not govern nor regulate its movements,
but fell and rolled about on the ground a
long while without being able to get upon
its legs or recover its balance. These
movements so nearly resemble those
which had been produced by experiment,
that M. Flourens was impatient to ex-
amine the brain. He found the bone of
the skull to be covered with black carious
points. On penetrating the dura mater,
a quantity of clear water ran out, while
the cerebellum was yellowish, rust-colored
streaks on the surface, and in the centre
was a mass of purulent coagulated matter
as large as a horse-bean, contained in a
cavity perfectly isolated, and having its
sides very thin and smooth.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of apo-
plexy are plain and decisive. A fowl,
apparently in the most robust health, falls
down suddenly, and is found either dead,
or without sensation or the power of

*7

motion. These symptoms are occasioned
by the rupture of a small vessel (usually
at the base of the brain), and the con-
sequent effusion of blood, which, by its
pressure, produces the evil.

Causes. — Apoplexy is almost invari-
ably caused by a full habit of body ; it is
therefore frequent in overfed birds, and is
most common among laying hens, which
are sometimes found dead on the nest —
the expulsive efforts required in laying
being the immediate cause of the attack.
Unnatural and overstimulating food, as
greaves, hemp-seed, and a large propor-
tion of pea or corn meal, greatly predis-
poses to the disease.

This disorder is termed by some epi-
lepsy, megrims, or giddiness. Many
promising chickens are lost by this com-
plaint. Without any kind of warning,
they fall, roll on their backs, and struggle
for a minute or two, when they rise,
stupid and giddy, and slowly return to
their food. One fit having occurred, is
quickly followed by others, each more
violent than the preceding, until at length
the little animal staggers about, half un-
conscious, refusing to eat, rapidly wasting,
and soon dies convulsed. In some cases
it occurs when the fowl is poor and half-
starved ; but then the food has been im-
proper; it has been watery or disposed to-
fermentation; diarrhoea has followed, and
the fits are the consequence of intestinal
irritation. Other young fowls will have
occasional fits, from which, however, they
in most cases rapidly recover, and appear
to be little or nothing the worse for them.

Treatment. — In this disease much
may be done in the way of prevention —
little toward a cure in an actual attack ;.
the only hope consists in an instant and
copious bleeding. It has been said that
bleeding is out of the question ; for how
is a bird to be bled, and where ? We
would reply, it is not out of the question ;
for we have saved the lives of several
birds by its prompt employment. And
as to the mode of operating, it is the
same as in other animals — simply opening
a vein with a sharp-pointed pen-knife, or,
still better, a lancet. The largest of the
veins seen on the under side of the wing
should be selected, and opened in a longi-
tudinal direction, not cut across ; and so
long as the thumb is pressed on the vein,
at any point between the opening and the.

258

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

body, the blood will be found to flow
freely. If the bird recovers after the
operation, it should be kept quiet, and on
light and scanty food, and the affected
fowl should be confined in a rather dark
coop, and kept warm.

POULTRY, The Pip.— This may be
regarded as a token of derangement of
the mucous membrane of the alimentary
canal generally, and not as a local dis-
ease.

Cause. — This disease is generally at-
tributed to the want of water, or to bad
water, such as the drainings of dung-hills,
sinks, etc., which fowls will drink when
they can get no other.

Symptoms. — The occurrence of a dry,
horny scale upon the tongue is generally
regarded as characteristic of this disease,
which, however, is by some confounded
with gapes. We are quite assured that
the dry, scaly tongue is only a symptom
caused by some other disease, which
forces the fowl (which habitually breathes
through the nostrils), to respire through
the mouth ; in this case the constant
current of air dries the tongue, which
becomes hard at the point, and assumes
a very horny character. Thus, in any
inflammatory affection of the wind-pipe,
in gapes, catarrh, or roup, when the
nostrils are closed by the discharge, the
pip, as it is termed, makes its appearance.
It should be regarded, however, as a
symptom only, and not as the disease
itself. The beak becomes yellow at the
base, the plumage, becomes ruffled, the
bird mopes and pines, the appetite gradu-
ally declines to extinction, and at last it
dies, completely worn out by fever and
starvation.

Treatment. — The treatment varies
with the cause. In all cases the mouth
should be frequently moistened; and if
the scale of hardened membrane is
loose, it should be removed. The absurd
plan of nipping off the end ot the
tongue in chickens is still practiced in
some parts of the country ; it is almost
needless to say, that it is alike useless and
barbarous.

A cure may be effected by a low diet;
that is, in the case of common fowls, by
an allowance of fresh vegetable food, as
onions or parsley chopped and mixed
with potatoes and a little Indian or oat-
meal, granting at the same time a plenti-

ful supply of pure water. Give, also, a
teaspoonful of castor-oil or thereabouts,
according to the age or strength of the
fowl. Do not scrape the tongue, nor use
rough modes of cleaning it ; but apply a
little borax, dissolved in pure water, and
tincture of myrrh, by means of a camel-
hair brush, two or three times a day. *•

The following has been recommended.
Give three times a day, for two or three
days, a piece of garlic, the size of a pea ;
if garlic cannot be obtained, cnion,
shallot, or chive will answer; and if
neither of these be convenient, two grains
of black pepper, to be given in fresh
butter, may be substituted.

POULTRY, To Preserve in Winter. —
"About the 15th of November," said
the late Judge Buel, " I purchased a
quantity of poultry for winter use. The
insides were carefully drawn, their place
partially filled with charcoal, and the
poultry hung in an airy loft. It was used
through the winter, till about the first of
February, and although some were kept
seventy days, none of it was the least
affected with must or taint, the charcoal
having kept it sweet."

POULTRY, Vertigo. — Symptoms.—
Fowls affected with this disease may be
observed to run round in a circle, or to
flutter about with but partial control over
their muscular actions.

Cause. — The affection is one evidently
caused by an undue determination of
blood to the head, and is dependent on a
full-blooded state of the system.

Treatment. — We have always found
that holding the head under a stream of
cold water for a short time immediately
arrested the disease ; and a dose of any
aperient, such as calomel, jalap, or castor-
oil, removes the tendency to tne com-
plaint.

POULTRY, Giddiness.— See Voultry,
Epilepsy.

POULTRY, Paralysis. — Symptoms. —
An inability to move some of the limbs.
In fowls the legs are usually affected, and
are totally destitute of the power of
motion.

Causes. — Paralysis usually depends on
some affection of the spinal cord, and is
another result of overstimulating diet.

Treatment. — Nothing can be done
by way of cure ; the case may be re-
garded as hopeless, or nearly so.

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

259

POULTEY, Catarrh— Symptoms.— The
symptoms of catarrh in fowls are identical
with those so familiar in the human sub-
ject— namely, a watery or sticky discharge
from the nostrils, and a slight swelling of
the eyelids ; in worse cases the face is
swollen at the sides, and the disease has
the appearance, or seems to run on to
true roup.

Causes. — Exposure to cold and damp-
ness, such as a long continuance of cold
wet weather, or roosting in places which
are open to the north or west.

Treatment. — In simple cases, removal
to a dry, warm situation, and a supply of
food rather more nutritious and stimulat-
ing than usual, soon effect a cure. We
have found a little mashed boiled potatoes,
well dusted with black pepper, very ad-
vantageous. In severe cases, the disease
so closely resembles roup, that it may be
treated in the same manner.

POULTRY, Gapes. — Of all diseases, real
or presumed, to which our domestic fowls
are subjected, the most frequent is the
gapes, sometimes called pip. It is a very
common and troublesome disorder, and
often proves fatal. All domestic birds,
particularly young fowls, are peculiarly
liable to it, and generally in the hot
weather of July and August. By some it
is considered a catarrhal disease, similar
to the influenza in human beings, produc-
ing a thickened state of the membrane
lining the nostrils, mouth and tongue.

Causes. — This disease is supposed to
be produced from filthy, sour diet, and
drinking from dirty puddle water, infected
with putrid, decaying substances, ill-venti-
lated fowl-house confinement, or a spot
of ground tenanted year after year by
fowls, without attention to cleanliness, to
renovation of the soil, etc. At the same
time, let it be borne in mind that the
M gapes" is an epidemic disease.

The gapes is supposed by some to be
caused by a sort of internal worm infest-
ing the wind-pipe ; but though this may
have, in some instances, been observed,
it is by no means uniformly met with in
all the disorders accompanied with gaping.
Symptoms. — The name is sufficiently
expressive as to the symptoms of tnis dis-
ease ; gaping, coughing, and sneezing,
dullness, and inactivity, ruffled feathers,
and loss of appetite.

On the dissection of chickens dying

with this disease, it will be found that the
wind-pipe contains numerous small red
worms about the size of a small cambric
needle; on the first glance they would
likely be mistaken for blood-vessels. It
is supposed that these worms continue to
increase in size until the wind-pipe be-
comes completely filled up, and the
chicken suffocated. The disease first
shows itself when the chicken is between
three and four months old, and not gener-
ally after, by causing a sneezing or snuff-
ing through the nostrils, and a frequent
scratching of itself at the roots of the bill.
Treatment. — The plan formerly
adopted, of giving remedies internally to
remove the worms, is not a good one, as
the medicine has to be absorbed, pass into
the blood, and act powerfully upon the
body of the fowl, before its purpose can
J be accomplished; its direct application to
the worms is therefore preferable, This
is readily secured by stripping the vane
from a small quill feather, except half an
inch from its extremity ; this should then
be dipped in spirits of turpentine ; and,
the chicken being securely held by an
assistant, the feather so prepared is passed
neatly down through the small opening of
the wind-pipe, which is readily seen at the
base of the tongue, and giving it one or
two turns will generally bring up and de-
stroy the worms. The turpentine at once
kills the worms, and its application excites
a fit of coughing, during which those that
were left by the feather are expelled. This
mode of application requires some dex-
terity, and at times the irritation proves
fatal. We therefore suggest the shutting
up of the chicken in a box, with some
shavings dipped in spirits of turpentine,
when the vapor arising from the extended
surface produces, in most cases, an equally
beneficial result. Creosote, used in the
same manner, has been found most extra-
ordinarily efficacious.

Prevention. — We know a person, a
very large breeder of fowls, who always
gives his chickens, at six weeks old, wheat
steeped in turpentine. This is given them
once in the morning, when fasting, and
as a preventive against, instead of waiting
for the arrival of, the gapes. Let their
first food be coarse corn meal, almost dry ;
then give cracked corn. As soon as they
can swallow whole grains, let them have
them unbroken. All poultry-yards, o£

260

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

course, should be supplied with lime, and
the chickens should have free access to
pure water. After the gapes appear, the
cure is always doubtful; but crushed corn,
soaked in very strong alum-water, is also
a good remedy.

Or, pills of sulphur, turpentine, and
wheat flour.

Or, oil of turpentine, two drachms;
linseed oil, one ounce; or oil of turpentine,
two drachms, with flour enough to make
it into twenty pills. For twenty doses,
give every other day three or four pills,
allowing three hours to elapse between
each dose.

Or, tobacco smoke.

Or, gapes are not caused by lice, but
by parasitic worms, which exist in the
windpipe. They may be removed by
inserting a loop of horse-hair in the
throat, and withdrawing it with a twisting
motion, which detaches the worms and
brings them out. Gapes may be pre-
vented by changing the location of the
yards and ranges, and especially by
securing a supply of pure water.

POULTRY, Roup.— There are no dis-
eases to which poultry are subject from
which we have suffered more than from
roup, catarrh, or swelled head, which we
consider one and the same disease. The
term roup is very indefinite, being applied
to very dissimilar disorders of poultry,
such as the obstruction of the rump
gland, the pip, and gapes, already de-
scribed, and to almost every sort of
catarrh, to which gallinaceous fowls are
much subject. But the chief disease to
which chickens and fowls are liable,
originates in changes of weather and
variations of temperature ; and when the
malady becomes confirmed, with running
at the nostrils and other well-known
symptoms, they are termed roupy.

The word roup is supposed to be a
corruption of croup, to which children
are subject, and which often proves fatal.
It affects fowls of all ages, and is either
acute or chronic, beginning sometimes
suddenly and sometimes gradually, as
the result of neglected cords, stormy
weather, or damp lodgings.

Symptoms — The most prominent symp-
toms of roup are at first identical with
those of severe catarrh; as difficult and
noisy breathing, a cough, a kind of rat-
tling in the throat, beginning with what

is termed gapes. There is considerable
discharge from the nostril of fetid matter,
like the glanders in horses ; at first thin,
and limpid, but soon loses its transparent
character, becoming more or less opaque,
and of a very peculiar and offensive odor ; ;
froth appears in the inner corner of the
eye; the lids swell, and in severe cases
the eyeball is entirely concealed ; the nos-
trils are closed by the discharge drying
around them, and the eyelids are aggluti-
nated together; the diseased secretion
accumulating within the sides of the face, .
frequently swell to an extreme degree,
and the bird, unable to see or feed, suf-
fers from great depression, and sinks rap-
idly.

As secondary symptoms, the appetite is
all but gone, except for drink ; the crop
feels hard to the touch, and the feathers
are staring, ruffled, and without a healthy
gloss. The fowl sits moping and wast-
ing in corners, always apparently in great
pain. In this stage of the disease, it is
supposed to be infectious; and whether so >
or not, it is certainly proper, for cleanli-
ness' sake, if nothing else, to separate the
diseased from the healthy ones, to pre-
vent the disorder from spreading through,
the yard.

As fowls habitually breathe through,
the nose, the mouth being kept closed, it
follows that there is, even in the early
stages, some difficulty of breathing, and a.
distension of the loose skin below the
under jaw may be often noticed. The
frothy matter appearing at the corner of
the eye, results from the same cause ; the
air, stopped in its passage through the
nose, passes up the tear-duct, and pro-
duces the appearance of bubbles.

With respect to the communication of
this disease, our experiments prove that
it is exceedingly contagious. It is, we
are inclined to think, frequently commu-
nicated by fowls drinking out of the same
vessels, as the discharge from the nostrils
of the sick bird contaminates the water
as it drinks.

Treatment. — In general, we should
say, kill a roupy fowl at once, unless it is
valuable, as the risk of its contaminating
the whole yard is great. At all events,
let it be removed from the yard at once.
Combined with every remedy, cleanliness
is indispensable, as the first, the last, and
the best, without which all others are

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

261

vain, and worse than vain, as they may
be pernicious by feeding, instead of starv-
ing the disease.

Warm, dry lodging, and nutritious food,
are the first essentials to recovery; in ad-
dition, the frequent removal of the dried
discharge from around the eyes and nose,
by warm bathing the nostrils with Castile
soap-suds as often as necessary, and the
swollen eyes with warm milk and water.
In the way of internal medicine, we find
that nearly equal numbers recover under
various modes of treatment. We have
tried the following remedies, viz : A pep-
per-corn in a pill of dough the three fol-
lowing days, the patient being much
chilled. Afterward, bathe the swollen
parts with camphorated spirits, or brandy
and water.

"But facts are better than words," says
Boswell, and we have the following case
from a Middlesex farmer : A cock, about
four or five months old, apparently turn-
ed out by some one to die, came astray,
and was in the last stage of roup. The
discharge from his mouth and nostrils
was very considerable, and extremely
pungent and fetid, while his eyes appear-
ed to be affected with inflammation, as
bad as what surgeons term Egyptian
ophthalmia. The roup, it may be stated,
was somewhat prevalent at the time, and
a very fine cock had perished in a corner
hard by, of cold and hunger, from not
being able to eat. The roupy cock was
placed by the fireside, his mouth and nos-
trils washed with warm water and soap,
which made him expectorate and sneeze off
a quantity of the offensive obstructing mat-
ter. His eyes were washed with warm
milk and water, and the head gently
rubbed with a dry cloth. As he could
not see to eat, he was put into a rabbit-
hutch, with a warm bed of hay to squat
on. Some hours afterward, his head was
again washed, and as there was much in-
termittent fever, though the cold stage
prevailed, a stimulant plan was adopted.
Long pellets were formed of barley meal,
flour, mustard, and grated ginger, with
which he was crammed several times a
day, his head bathed, and warmth at-
tended to. He had milk-warm water,
sweetened with molasses, to drink, for the
purpose of counteracting the too heating
qualities of the stimulants. The fireside
always seemed to invigorate him ; yet he

still breathed with difficulty, and gaped,
and had a rattle in his throat. In three
days, the stimulants, warmth, and clean-
liness, improved him so much, that he
began to see a little, and in a week his
sight was nearly perfect. A little mus-
tard was still given him in his water, and
then some flour of sulphur. He had al-
so a pinch of calomel in some dough.
He was gradually brought so as to season
him to the cold, and, in a month, was in
high health and spirits. Having moulted
late, he caught a cold on the first frost,
and suffered a relapse, having cough,
gaping, ruffled feathers, and aguish shak-
ing; warm lodging, and occasionally a
lounge by the fireside, proved a speedy
remedy without medicine."

Dr. Bennett, in his "Poultry Book,"
remarks, "But for roup and all putrid af-
fections, I confidently prescribe the fol-
lowing, and consider it the only true treat-
ment : Take finely pulverized; fresh-burnt
charcoal, and new yeast, of each three
parts; pulverized sulphur, two parts;
flour, one part; water, quantity sufficient;
mix well, and make into boluses of the
size of a hazel-nut, and give one three
times a day. Cleanliness is no less ne-
cessary than warmth, and it will some-
times be desirable to bathe the eyes and
nostrils with warm milk and water, or
suds, as convenient."

Mr. Giles, who is excellent authority,
having had more than thirty years' ex-
perience with fowls, and being the owner
of an extensive collection of fowls, says,
"As soon as discovered, if in warm
weather, remove the infected ones to
some well ventilated apartment, or yard ;
then give a dessert-spoonful of castor oil ;
wash their heads with warm Castile soap-
suds, and let them remain until the next
morning, fasting. Scald for them Indian
meal, adding two and a half ounces of
Epsom salts for ten hens, or in propor-
tion for a less or larger number ; give it
warm, and repeat the dose in a day or
two, if they do not recover."

POULTRY, Consumption. — Notwith-
standing their warm covering of feathers,
from their peculiar structure, fowls are
exceedingly liable to cold and other ca-
tarrhal diseases, exhibiting themselves in
the symptoms of hoarseness, snorting and
sneezing. It must be considered, also,
that fowls are originally natives of a trop-

2C.

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

ical climate; and, though long natural-
ized, they still retain so much of their
original habits as to influence them in this
respect. Very wet or very dry weather,
or extremes of cold or of heat, are equal-
ly fatal; whereas, when the weather is
genial and equal, fowls always thrive best.
The old poultry, in the meanwhile, fre-
quently bear all changes of weather,
without showing any symptoms of roup.

Symptoms. — Consumption, which is
caused by the presence of scrofulous tu-
bercles in the lungs, may almost always
be induced in chickens by confining them
in cold, dark, unhealthy places ; we have
also found tubercles in other organs, of
the body. The symptoms of consump-
tion are not strongly marked in the early
stages ; in the more advanced state there
is wasting, cough, and expectoration of
matter. They are also affected, more or
less, by the circumstances in which they
are placed, spending a large portion of
their existence in coops and under shel-
ter, so that they are more liable to be af-
fected by exposure.

Treatment. — It is fortunate that con-
sumption can always be prevented by
wholesome, abundant diet, and good
housing, for in advanced stages it is quite
incurable; when it is suspected to be
commencing, cod-liver oil may be given,
mixed with barley meal ; but as the dis-
ease is hereditary, a fowl so preserved
would be worse than useless as a stock-
bird. Temperature is the dominant prin-
ciple, to which attention ought to be paid.

POULTRY, Crop-Bound. — Symptoms.
The crop, or membranous dilatation of
the gullet, whose office it is to receive
food as it is swallowed, and to retain it
until sufficiently softened by maceration,
is sometimes so overcharged, that it is
unable to expel its contents into the
stomach. From the emptiness of the
latter organ, the bird feels hungry, and
by continuing to eat, adds to the mis-
chief, until at last, by the contraction
of the crop and the swelling of the
grain, a hardened mass is formed, weigh-
ing, in some cases, nearly a pound,
and by the enormous protuberance it
causes, giving evident indications of its
presence. Sometimes the disease is oc-
casioned by a single object being swal-
lowed, whose size is too large to permit
i' to pass into the stomach. In this case

it serves as a nucleus for other matters,
and a mass is formed around it. " I
have," says Mr. Tegetmeier, " now lying
before me a piece of bone, one inch and
a half long by three-quarters of an inch
broad, which was imbedded in a mass of
horse-hair, oat-husk, and other vegetable
fibres, the whole forming an egg-shaped
solid, two and a half inches in the long
and one and a quarter in the short
diameter. This caused the death of the
Dorking in whose crop it was found."

Treatment. — The treatment of this
disorder is very simple. With a sharp
pen-knife an incision must be made
through the skin and upper part of the
crop; the impacted mass loosened by
some blunt-pointed instrument, and re-
moved. If it has remained many days,,
and is very offensive, the crop may then
be washed out by pouring in some warm
water. The incision, if small, may be
left; but if large, a stitch or two is ad-
visable. The bird should be fed on soft
food a day or two, and will rapidly
recover. Sometimes a dessert-spoonful
of gin will stimulate the crop sufficiently
to overcome the mass, and render the use
of the knife unnecessary.

POULTRY, Diarrhoea. — " There are
times when fowls dung more loosely than
at others, especially when they have been
fed on green or soft food; but this may
occur without the presence of disease.
But should this state deteriorate into a
confirmed and continued laxity, immedi-
ate attention is required to guard against
fatal effects." — Dr. Bennett.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of diar-
rhoea, or looseness, are so evident as to
render description hardly necessary. Las-
situde, emaciation, and, in very severe
cases, voiding of calcareous matter, white,
streaked with yellow, resembling the yolk
of a stale egg, and sticking to the feathers
near the vent. It becomes acrid, from
the presence of ammonia, and causes
inflammation, which extends speedily
through the intestines.

Causes. — Diarrhoea is generally pro-
duced by a too scanty supply of grain —
which necessitates an excess of green
food — dampness, undue acidity in the
bowels, and unwholesome diet of any
description.

Treatment. — The treatment is simple,
and of course depends upon the cause.

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

26$.

When the disease is brought on by a
diet of green or soft food, the diet must
be changed, and water given sparingly.
Five grains of powdered chalk, the same
quantity of rhubarb, and three of cayenne
pepper, may be administered ; and if the
relaxation is not speedily checked, a
grain of opium and one of powdered
ipecacuanha may be given ever" four or
six hours.

Dr. Bennett recommends, wnen it
arises from undue acidity, chalk mixed
with meal ; but rice-flour boluses are most
to be depended upon."

POULTRY, Feathers, Loss of.— This
disease, which is common to confined
fowls, is by no means to be confounded
with the natural process of moulting. In
the annual healthy moult, the fall of the
feathers is occasioned by the protrusion
of new feathers from the skin. In the
diseased state which we now consider,
where the feathers fall, no new ones come
to replace them, but the fowl is left bald
and naked. A sort of roughness appears
also on the skin.

The loss of feathers and the wants of
poultry in confinement, are clearly shown
by a correspondent of the Boston Medical
Journal, in the following amusing sketch:
" A most pleasing illustration," says he,
" was the want of lime, and the effects of
its presence, which came under my notice
on my voyage from South America to
France. We had omitted to procure
gravel for our poultry, and in a few days
after we were at sea, the poultry began to
droop, and wound up their afflictions with
the pip, or, as the sailors term it, the
scurvy. Their feathers fell from their
bodies, and it was perfectly ludicrous to
see the numerous unfeathered tribe in the
most profound misery, moping away their
time in an utter state of nudity. Amusing
myself one day by fishing up gulf-weed,
which floated in immense fields upon the
surface of the ocean, I took from it num-
erous small crabs, about the size of a pea.
The poultry, with one accord, aroused
themselves from their torpor, and seem-
ingly, as if by instinct, aware of the
therapeutic qualities of these interesting
animals, partook of them with greater
avidity than any invalid ever swallowed
the ' waters of the springs.' After a few
hours, the excellence of the remedy was
apparent ; the cocks began to crow, the

hens to strut and look saucy, and in a
few days all appeared in quite a holiday
suit of feathers, derived from the lime,
the constituent part of the crab-shells."

Symptoms. — A falling off in appetite,
moping, and inactivity; the feathers star-
ing and falling off till tke naked skin
appears.

Remedy. — This affection is supposed
by some to be constitutional rather than
local. External remedies, therefore, may
not always be sufficient. Stimulants, ap-
plied externally, may serve to assist the
operation of what medicine may be given.
Sulphur may be thus applied, mixed with
lard. Cayenne and sulphur, in the pro-
portion of one quarter each, mixed with
fresh butter, is good to be given inter-
nally, and will act as a powerful altera-
tive. The diet should be changed, and
cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable.

POULTRY, Feathers, Eating; their.—
Eating each other's feathers is a habit
which fowls often contract, when confined
in yards, but is not, perhaps, fully under-
stood. " It is a morbid appetite," says a
writer in the Cultivator, " apparently in-
duced in the outset by the impatience of
the fowls under confinement." It is well
known that fowls are very fond of blood :
and when moulting, the new feathers are
what is generally called blood-shot; that
is, the ends of the quills, when quite
young, have a drop or so of blood, which
induces the fowls to pluck for the blood
contained in them ; and we knew it to be
kept up till some individuals of the flock,
who were made special victims, were al-
most entirely denuded of their feathers,
and sometimes have even had their en-
trails torn out.

The best preventives are animal food,
such as bones (not burnt), oyster-shells,
charcoal, and fresh meat, with clean wa-
ter and clean apartments. Sometimes a
particular fowl shows a more inveterate
disposition to eat feathers than the rest
of the flock. It is best to kill or remove
such.

In a letter read before the British As-
sociation, from M. Sace, of Neufchatel,
Switzerland, giving an account of some
experiments in the feeding of domestic
fowls, he informs us that some hens, fed
upon barley alone, would not lay well,
and that they tore of? each other's feath-
He then mixed with the barley some feafh-

264

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

eis, chopped up, which they ate eagerly,
and digested freely. By adding milk to
the food, they began to lay, and ceased
plucking out each other's feathers. He
concludes, that this proceeding arose from
the desire of the hens for azote food.

POULTRY, White Comb "This dis-
ease," say the authors of the "Poultry
Book," "makes its first appearance in the
form of small white spots on one or both
sides of the comb of -the cock, which are
so thickly clustered together as to be
sometimes mistaken for a sprinkling of
meal or other white powder. It seems
to be of a scorbutic, or leprous nature —
a form of disease to which all animals
of eastern origin are particularly liable.
It is a disease to which the Shanghai is
constitutionally subject ; although we have
heard of its existence in birds exposed to
irregular diet and want of cleanliness.
The disease should be attacked as soon
as it makes its appearance. The conse-
quences of neglect are related in the fol-
lowing communication, with the appro-
priate remedy:

"The disease is not confined to the
combs only, but spreads itself down the
neck, both in front and back, and takes
off all the feathers as far as it goes, leav-
ing the stumps. I saw a bird very lately,
with his neck and breast entirely stripped
of feathers, but the stumps all left, so
that no hope of their return can be en-
tertained until the time of moulting.

"Now to the remaining question, 'How
can it be cured?' By applying cocoa nut
oil and turmeric. This simple remedy has*
been tried with perfect success. No oth-
er oil but that of the cocoa nut seems to
answer the purpose. The proportions
are about a quarter of an ounce of turme-
ric powder to one ounce of cocoa nut
oil. The latter, at an ordinary tempera-
ture, is solid, and very much resembles
spermaceti; but it easily blends with the
turmeric, and forms a yellow ointment.
Three or four applications, with a day's
interval between each, will usually be
found effectual."

M. Tegetmeier suggests the separation
of the sick bird, a plain, unstimulating,
wholesome diet — say of oatmeal and wa-
ter, with a supply of green vegetables —
and the administration of some altera-
tive medicine: as flour of sulphur ten
grains, and calomel one grain, given ev-

ery other night ; or a three-grain Plum-
mer's pill might be given instead. The
plumage will not often reappear until
next moulting time.

POULTRY, Vermin, Lice.— The whole
feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly lia-
ble to be infected with lice; and there
have been instances where fowls have
been so covered in this loathsome man-
ner, that the natural color of the feathers
has been undistinguishable.

Mascall says, "They get them in scrap-
ing abroad among foul straw, or on dung-
hills, or when they sit in nests not made
clean, or in the hen-house, by their dung
lying long there, which corrupts their
bodies and breeds lice and fleas."

The presence of vermin is not only an-
noying to poultry, but materially inter-
feres with their growth, and prevents their
fattening. In trifling cases, no particular
attention is requisite ; but when the cases
are bad, the fowls should be removed from
the rest.

A writer in the Cultivator recommends
mixing sulphur with Indian-meal and wa-
ter, and feed in the proportion of one
pound of sulphur to twenty-four fowls, in
two parcels, a few days apart. It is said
this will completely exterminate the lice,
and produce a remarkably healthy and
glossy appearance in the fowls. Strew
oil-meal about the floor, in the nests, and
against the rafters and sides of the build-
ings. Lining the nests infected with lice
with tobacco stems will expel them not
only from the nests but from the body of
the fowl. Another writer in the same
paper says, "Lice may be destroyed by
placing lard beneath the wing and on the
back of the chicken." Sulphur, thor-
oughly dusted into the roots of the feath-
ers, and spread over the entire skin, if
used twice or thrice at intervals of a few
days, is a certain cure. But the best
remedy we have ever found is cleanliness
in their roosting places and nests, which
should be often whitewashed with hot
lime-water, and to place plenty of slack-
ed lime, dry ashes and sand, well mixed,
where they can roll and bathe, by which
means they will soon free themselves of
the pests.

Hens, while hatching, are very apt to
become infested with lice; so much so
that they are often driven from the nest.
We have known the eggs covered, and

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT

*5

the nest alive with them. In such cases
■we would recommend removing the litter
and eggs, and cleansing the nest with
scalding water. Then line the nest with
tobacco stems.

A friend of the author was complain-
ing last spring of the difficulty of keeping
his hens on the nest in consequence of
the vermin infesting them. We recom-
mended the above, which was adopted
with perfect success, and he raised a
greater number of chickens than ever be-
fore. This year he raised 250, while last
year he raised not more than 20 or 30
from the same number of hens.

POULTRY, Rheumatism and Cramp.—
These diseases, though differing in their
nature, arise so constantly from the same
cause, and are so readily removed by the
same treatment, that we have placed
them together. A disinclination and in-
ability to move the limbs, evidently not
arising from mere weakness or a perma-
nently cramped condition of the toes, are
sufficiently characteristic.

Causes. — Both disorders are caused
by exposure to cold and wet, and the
tendency to them may be much counter-
acted by preventing the fowls, during
their chickenhood, from running among
wet grass early in the morning.

Treatment. — Local applications are
perfectly useless. Good food, and a
warm, dry habitation, are generally effec-
tual. When chickens are hatched at such
times as February and March, it must not
be expected that any treatment can
counteract perfectly the unnatural cir-
cumstances under which they are placed.
If exposed, they suffer from cold; and if
confined in close rooms, the want of
fresh air, natural green and insect food,
produce equally unfortunate results.

POULTRY, Eggs, Eating their— It is
well known that hens when kept shut up,
are very apt to eat their eggs. The best
preventive is to keep them well supplied
with lime and gravel, and with fresh
meat, in some form.

Another way is to break an egg and
dust the contents nicely with fine Cay-
enne pepper, afterwards turning the egg
round so as to get the pepper below the
yelk, it possible, and leave the egg in the
offender's nest ; or, if he catches her in
the act of eating an egg, let him drive
her away quietly, and place pepper in

the remainder of the egg, endeavoring,
as stated before, to get the pepper under-
neath. He will very soon see her running
furiously about with distended beak. If
one dose is not sufficient, administer
another a little stronger. If fowls are
well supplied with lime and gravel rubbish
and animal food (fresh meat) in some
form, hens will not eat their eggs. Arti-
ficial or china eggs should be used as
nest eggs.

POULTRY, Stomach, Inflammation of
the. — Symptoms. — When a fowl mopes
and refuses to eat, without any apparent
cause, or selects only soft food, rejecting
corn or grain, and, gradually pining, be-
comes excessively thin, inflammation of
the stomach may be suspected.

Causes. — Overstimulating food, espe-
cially peas, hemp-seed, etc., necessarily
make a greater call upon the digestive
organs than more simple and wholesome
diet. The amount of gastric juice must
be in proportion to the digestibility of the
food; and hence, under the use of peas,
corn, hemp-seed, etc., the organ is over-
worked and stimulated to such an extent
as to become inflamed. The secretion
of gastric juice then ceases, the food is
not digested, and consequently distends
the stomach to an enormous degree ; so
that, although not naturally larger than
the finger, we have seen it four or five
times the size of the gizzard.

Treatment. — The prevention of this
disease, by the use of wholesome and
natural diet, is easy ; the cure in advanced
cases very uncertain. The only treatment
to be relied on would be the immediate
employment of a plain dietary, consisting
of cooked soft food, so as to make the
least possible call on the digestive organs ;
and if to this regimen an occasional
grain of calomel, at intervals of several
days, be added, all is done that can be
likely to benefit the patient.

POULTRY, Swelled Head.— See Poul-
try, Roup.

POULTRY, Eggs, Color of.— Fowls to
which a portion of chalk is given with
their food, lay eggs, the shells of which
are remarkable for their whiteness. By
substituting for chalk a calcareous earth,
rich oxide of iron, the shells become of a
light cinnamon color.

POULTRY, Megrims. — See Poultry,
Apoplexy.

a66

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

POULTRY, Bones to Pulverize for.—

Put the bones in a stove and allow them
to burn white, when they can be easily
pulverized; then mix with corn meal,
and feed twice a day.

POULTRY, Woundi of. — Wounds
caused by fighting, or by accidents,
should be kept clean, and the parts
washed with Venice turpentine.

POULTRY, Ulcers in.— (See Poultry,
Wounds of.)

POULTRY, For Market, Killing and
Preparing. — If you wish to prepare your
poultry in the nicest manner for the mar-
ket, so that it will invariably secure the
best price, observe the following rules,
viz. : First, fat them well, and allow them
to remain in the pens twenty-four hours
without food previous to being killed.
Then, when you kill them, instead of
wringing their necks, cut their heads off
at a sing7e blow with a sharp axe or cleav-
er, and then hang them up by their legs
and allow them to bleed freely, and pick
them immediately, while warm. Some,
however, prefer to run a small pen-knife
into the jugular- vein by the side of the
neck, just under the joles. In this case,
let the heads remain on. In picking,
great care should be taken not to tear the
skin ; the wings should not be cut off, but
picked to the end. If the head should
be cut off, the skin of the neck should be
neatly tied over the end. Most persons
like to see the heads of fowls left on ; it
makes a better show. The heads of
ducks and geese should always be cut off.
No cut should be made in the breast ; all
the offal should be taken out behind, and
the opening should be made as small as
possible.

Some persons send their poultry to
market with their intestines in. This, to
say the least, is a dirty, slovenly practice,
doing great injury to the flesh, as it par-
takes of the flavor of the excrements
when suffered long to remain undressed,
and is otherwise impaired from the stag-
nant blood. After removing the intes-
tines, wipe out the blood with a dry cloth,
but no water should be used to cleanse
them. With a moist cloth take off the
blood that may be found upon the car-
cass, and hang them in a cool, dry room
until ready to carry to market, or other-
wise to be used. Do not remove the
gizzard from its place ; but, if the fowl be

very fat, make a larger hole, turn the
leaves out, and fasten them with a small
skewer. When prepared in this way,
your poultry will be much nicer, and en- .
titled to a better price than when butch-
ered and dressed in the ordinary way.

We have often noticed the careless,,
slovenly manner, and little attention paid
to external appearance of poultry offered
for sale in our markets; and we have no-
ticed the quick sale and higher price
when due regard was paid to have the
skin all sound and clean; the breast not
mutilated by a long cut, the shrinking
skin exposing the drying meat covered
with hay-seed or chaff, but well covered
all over with fat, of a rich, golden yellow.
Much of the poultry exposed for sale has
been through the process of scalding to
facilitate picking; this practice should
never be resorted to. It turns the rich
yellow of the fat into a tallowy hue, and
oftentimes starts the skin, so that it peels
off unless very carefully handled.

Much care and attention is required
after the poultry is dressed and cool. It
should be carefully packed in baskets or
boxes, and, above all, it should be kept
from the frost. A friend who was very
nice in these matters, used to bring his
turkeys to market in the finest order pos-
sible, and always obtained a ready sale
and the highest price. His method was
to pick them dry, while warm, and dress
them in the neatest manner; then take a
long, deep, narrow, tight box, with a
stick running from end to end of the box,
and hang the turkeys by the legs over the
stick, which prevents bruising or disfig-
uring them in the least.

Too much should not be exposed at a
time for sale, nor should they be hauled
over too often. Appearance is every-
thing with poultry, as well as other ar-
ticles, and has great influence on the
purchaser.

POULTRY, Age of.— Farmers usually
sell poultry alive. Poulterers in towns,
on the other hand, kill and pluck every
sort of fowl for sale, so that the purchaser
has it in his power to judge of the car-
cass; and if he buys an inferior article at a
high price it must be his own fault. It is-
easy to judge of a plucked fowl, whether
old or young, by the state of the legs. If
a hen's spur is hard, and the scales on the
legs rough, she is old, whether you see

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

:67

her head or not ; but the head will cor-
roborate your observation, if the under
bill is so stiff that you cannot bend it
down, and the comb thick and rough.
A young hen has only the rudiments of
spurs, the scales on the legs smooth,
glossy, and fresh colored, whatever the
color may be, the claws tender and short,
the under bill soft, and the comb thin
and smooth. An old hen turkey has
rough scales on the legs, callosities on
the soles of the feet, and long, strong
claws ; a young one, the reverse pf all
these marks. A young goose or duck is
distinguished by the tenderness of the
skin under the wings, the strength of the
joints of the legs, and the coarseness of
the skin.

POULTRY, Canker in.— This disease is
indicated by the mouth and throat be-
coming filled up with a cheesy substance
of very offensive odor, which causes in
some cases a stoppage of the windpipe,
and death by suffocation. It is to be
treated successfully as follows : i. If the
fowl is not worth a good deal cut its head
off. 2. If worth saving, with a small
spoon and pincers, take out all the cheesy
matter, and wipe out all the slimy mucus
from the mouth, nostrils, and eyes. 3.
Prepare a solution of chlorinated soda or
chloride of lime. If the chlorinated soda
(Labaraque's solution) is used, dilute it
with one or two parts of water. Wash
the head, eyes, nostrils, mouth and throat
out thoroughly, using a soft swab with
one of these solutions, and in twenty
minutes, give the fowl a good feed of
chopped meat, mixed with bread soaked
in ale or spirits and water, and well
sprinkled with Cayenne pepper. Give
some solution of iron in the water, and
keep up the diet indicated until well.
Put the whole flock on a similar diet for
a few days, especially those having colds.

POULTRY, Croup.— Try and remove
the croup membranes from the mouth
with a feather, and then touch the parts
with a feather dipped in a solution of
nitrate of silver, 10 grains to 1 ounce
of rain water. Feed no raw grain, but
well boiled oat meal or corn meal will be
excellent. Put half an ounce of carbonate
of soda in every quart of the water drank
by the chickens, and, if possible, change
their roosting-place to a new building.
If this last cannot be done, clean the

place thoroughly, and wash it over with a
solution at the rate of an ounce of car-
bolic acid to a quart of water.

POULTRY, Drooping Wings.— This, in
either turkeys or chickens, is caused by
vermin. To cure it, grease their heads,.
the under sides of their wings, and their
bodies under their wings, with lard or
fried meat fat, or any other grease. In
a few days their wings will be natural,
and their appetite and comfort will re-
turn.

POULTRY, Fattening.— The fowls de-
signed for being fattened should be well
and liberally fed from the time they are
hatched. It is a mistake to suppose that
they can be kept low when young, and
got up to a great size by liberal feeding
when put up to fatten. The fowls so-
treated are stunted in their growth, the
bony frame-work becomes set, and they
never afterward attain a large size;,
whereas with liberal feeding they become
fit for the fattening-coop at the age of
about four months in summer, and from
five to six in winter. It cannot be too
strongly impressed upon those who are
desirous of obtaining poultry of first-rate
quality, that fowls are only in perfection
for the table before they have attained
their complete development. The cock-
erels should be put up when "their tails
begin to turn" — namely, just when the
two long sickle feathers or streamers be-
gin to top the straight feathers of the
tail; and the pullets before they have
laid. They may be either confined with-
in a small space or placed in a coop, in a
warm and rather dark situation, and, of
course, under cover. The fowls should
be separated from each other by parti-
tions in the coop, and no more space
ought to be allowed them than is neces-
sary to make them comfortable, without
allowing room for exercise.

The fattening-coops should stand on
legs, in order to raise them to a conven-
ient height from the ground, so that the
dung may be removed daily; or each
may have a shallow drawer underneath,
being daily filled with fresh earth — an ad-
mirable plan — the fowls being very fond
of nestling in dry earth, and earth being
a deodorizer and disinfectant, it is most
conducive to their health. The most
scrupulous cleanliness must be observed,
in the case of fattening fowls; the troughs-

»63

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

in front of the coop must be removed
when the fowls have ceased eating, the
remains of food taken out, and the
troughs scalded and laid in the sun to
dry daily. Not a particle of food that
has become sour should be given to them;
indeed, they will eat better if fresh food,
and of a different kind, be given to them
at each meal. When first put into the
coop they should not have any thing
placed before them for some hours, till
they have recovered from their fright at
being caught, and have become accus-
tomed to their new residence. Afterwards
they should be fed with much regularity
three times each day, giving them at
each meal as much as they can eat, but
not leaving anything for them to pick up
in the intervals.

When first placed in the coop they
may be fed twice a day on boiled pota-
toes, mashed up with coarse oat meal,
and moistened with a little new milk.
The third meal may be Patna rice, well
boiled, with a little milk added. When
the fowls are nearly fat, the rice may be
given twice a day and the potatoes only
once; the rice makes the flesh white and
clear. A little vegetable, chopped fine,
may occasionally be given to vary the
character of the food; the earth in the
coop will supply the small stones neces-
sary for their digestion. The first meal
should be given early in the morning, the
second about mid-day, and the last at
dusk, when the other fowls are going to
roost.

On this system of feeding a fowl will
become perfectly fatted in from two to
three or four weeks at the outside. When
fat it should be immediately killed; for
not only is it unprofitable to keep it any
longer, but it deteriorates very rapidly, los-
ing weight and becoming hard and coarse
in the flesh. Before being killed the fowls
should be kept for fifteen or sixteen hours
without food or water. If this precau-
tion is not taken, (and it is unfortunately
often neglected,) the food in the crop and
intestines ferments. When this is the
case in summer, the fowl in a few hours
turns green, and is entirely unfit for the
table.

POULTRY, Costiveness.— " The exist-
ence of this disease," says Dr. Bennett,
" will become apparent by observing the
unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to

relieve itself. It frequently proceeds from
continued feeding ot dry diet, without
access to green vegetables. Indeed, with-
out the use of these, or some such substi-
tute, as boiled potatoes, costiveness is
sure to ensue. The want of a sufficient
supply of good water will also produce
the disease, on account of that peculiar
structure which has already been ex-
plained, by which fowls are unable to
void their urine except in connection with
the foeces of solid food, and through the
same channel."

Remedy. — Soaked bread, with warm
skim-milk, is a mild remedial agent, and
will usually suffice. Boiled carrots, or
cabbage, is more efficient. A meal of
earth-worms is sometimes advisable, and
hot potatoes, mixed with lard, are said to
be excellent.

POULTRY, Houses, to Fumigate— Fu-
migating poultry houses with sulphur,
thrown on glowing coals in an earthen
vessel, and keeping the house closed for
several hours, is said to be a perfect rem-
edy for insects of all kinds. The poultry
must of course be removed before the ex-
periment, and the person using it must
guard against being suffocated, and the
building from being fired.

POULTRY, Vermin, to Destroy in.—
Tobacco smoke, with good food and
cleanliness. If infested with lice, damp
the skin under the feathers with water,
then sprinkle a little sulphur on the skin.
If the bird be covered with insects or par-
asites, they will all disappear in the course
of twelve hours.

POTLTRY, Blindness, Remedy for.—
Foment with warm water, then drop a
few drops ot the following solution into
the eyes: Laudanum, one teaspoonful;
Water, a teaspoonful.

POULTRY, Dry Picking— The practice
of scalding poultry before plucking has
very properly been vetoed by the market
dealers. Fowls may be plucked with
equal facility and with better effect in
preserving the flesh immediately after
death, and before they have had time to
cool. The action of the market men is
to be commended, and those sending
dressed poultry to market will do well to
act in accordance with it.

POULTRY, Rump-Root or Inflamma-
tion of the Oil Vessel in. — Open the ttt'
mor and squeeze out the oil.

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

269

POULTRY, Caponiang. — Caponizing
has been practiced but little in this
country, the practice being now confined
mostly to Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
Mr. G. H. Leavitt, an experienced poul-
try breeder of New York, says that 95 per
cent, of the capons raised, are raised in
Pennsylvania, and that the same propor-
tion of experiments is successful. In most
parts of this country the practice is un-
known, even among those who breed fowls
for market. Both cockerels and pullets
may be caponized, the latter being called
in France poulardes. The effect of depriv-
ing them of reproductive powers is to
cause them to fatten more easily, with less
food ; it increases their size beyond what
would otherwise be attained, and makes
them more tender and more desirable for
the table. So much superior are capons
esteemed to be, that it is singular the
practice is so limited. The weight is in-
creased one-third, and the meat is much
finer and commands one-third more price
than other market fowls. Mr. Robert B.
Engle, of Masonville, New Jersey, who is
qualified to speak from experience, says :
" The operation is simple and easily per-
formed. An expert in the business can
castrate two hundred in a day, for which
we pay four cents each. The capons
fatten more readily than cocks, attain
greater weight, and their flesh is much
more tender and juicy, and is better flav-
ored, and consequently commands a
higher price, which in Philadeiphia and
New York, as compared with other prime
chickens, is as 35 cents per pound are to
25 cents in the Philadelphia market. The
difference in price ranges from six to ten
cents per pound, as to quality. . . I
believe that if all roosters that are to be
kept until full grown for market were
properly castrated it would enhance their
value from 30 to 40 per cent."

Instruments for making capons may be
purchased for $5 per set, and consist of a
spring, with which the incision, made by
a sharp knife, is kept open during the
operation ; nippers and hook, with which
to remove the covering of the testicles ; a
tube containing a silk-worm gut, with
which the connection of the testicle with
the bird is severed, and a spoon for re-
moving the severed parts. The opera-
tion may be performed with more simple
implements, however ; as a sharp pocket-

knife, a pair of forceps, a sharp-pointed'
hook, a horse-hair, and a teaspoon. The
operation is performed in the following
manner, as described by those familiar
with it : Confine the fowl to a table or
board, left side downward, by weights or
by straps which will securely fasten the
legs and wings, the latter being drawn well
over the back, and the legs extended back-
ward, the upper ohe drawn farthest out.
The head and neck should be left free.

Fig. 283.
The position of the confined fowl is de-
noted in the accompanying cut. Pluck
the feathers from a spot an inch and a.
half in diameter, near the hip joint, and
on a line from the hip to the shoulder
joint. Draw the skin back, so that when
left to itself again it will cover the wound
in the flesh and make an incision between
the last two ribs, commencing an inch
from the back-bone and extending obli-
quely downward. The incision should
be about an inch long, and only deep
enough to separate the ribs, not wounding
the intestines. The proper location for
the incision is indicated by the line
through the circle in the cut. The wound
is kept open by a spring or otherwise for
convenience of subsequent operations.
Cut open the membrane covering the in-
testines, with care, pushing them with the
spoon forward toward the breast-bone
first, if they are not sufficiently drawn up.
The testicles will then be exposed to view.
They are connected with the back and
sides by cords and covered with a thi»

270

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

seized with the forceps or nippers and
torn open with the hook, commencing
with the lower or left testicle, which is
generally nearer the rump than the right
one. Then introduce the tube containing
the silkworm gut, or the horse-hair, with
which to sever the connection of the
testicle, using the bowl of the spoon when
horse-hair is employed to facilitate the
operation, and with a sawing motion
sever the chords. A similar process is
repeated with the right testicle, and then
both, with the blood around the wounds,
are to be removed with the bowl of the
spoon. The left testicle should first be
removed to prevent the blood which may
issue from it from covering the right one
and rendering the operation more diffi-
cult. After the operation the skin must
be drawn over the wound and a few
stitches taken in it with fine linen thread,
after which the fowl may be released.

Caponizing should be performed during
a warm spell, and as soon as the sex of
the fowls can be discerned, and should
be preceded by fasting them twenty-
four hours and followed by feeding imme-
diately after the operation, and during
twenty-four hours, at least, on soft food.
The caponized fowls will eagerly partake
of food, and will be restored to health in
a few days if the operation has been care-
fully performed. In making poulardcs it
is sufficient merely to cut across the egg-
tube with a sharp knife.

HENS, To Make Lay.— The best food
for this purpose, fed each alternate day, is
the following: to 3 gallons of boiling
water, add ^ ounce of common salt, a
teaspoonful of Cayenne pepper, and 4
ounces of lard. Stir the mixture until
the pepper has imparted considerable of
its strength to the water. Meantime the
salt will have dissolved and the lard
melted. Then, while yet boiling, stir in
meal made of oats and corn, ground
together in equal parts, until a stiff mush
is formed. Set away to cool down to a
milk warmth. Before feeding, taste to see
that you have neither an overdose of salt
or pepper. In winter, on the days that
the above mixture is omitted, give the
hsns fresh meat, chopped fine, and at all
times plenty of pure water, grain, gravel
and lime.

HENS, Feeding Nettles to Laying.—
The Vienna Agricultural and Forest

Journal states that hens fed in the winter
with chopped and boiled nettle leaves, or
with the seeds, and kept in a warm place,
will continue to lay during the entire
winter. The experiment was first sug-
gested by noticing the eagerness with
which both domestic and wild fowl de-
vour the nettle leaves and seeds whenever
the opportunity is afforded. This pro-
clivity is believed to be the reason why,
with the enormous yield of seeds by the
nettle, comparatively so few plants are
produced. It is stated also that in Den-
mark the seeds and leaves of the nettle
are fed very carefully to horses, after
having been collected, dried and ground;
three times a week, morning and even-
ing, a handful of this nettle dust is mixed
with the oats, in consequence of which
the horses are said to become fleshy and
sleek, and their hair to grow unusually
long, and to assume a silky lustre, re-
markably beautiful.

HENS, Setting, How to Prevent.- Put
in a trough sufficient water to make a
depth of one inch ; place the hen therein,
and cover the top for about a day. The
trough should be deep enough to allow
the hen to stand up.

HEN, How to Choose a Good.— A hen
should have bright eyes, a pendant comb,
yellow or bluish legs, be of middling size,
and not over three or four years of age.

HENS' NESTS, Treatment of.— These
should be partly filled with wood-ashes,
pulverized charcoal, or soot. These being
slow conductors of heat, retain the
warmth longer than many substances,
and thus prevent the eggs from getting
chilled during the absence of the hen.
They are also an antidote to vermin, and
keep the hen otherwise in good health.

HEN HOUSES.— If you wish a hen
house that will keep your fowls safe from
their foes, winged or four-footed, elevate
it on posts two and a half or three feet
above the ground, with a hole under-
neath through the floor, for them to
enter. No animal will jump up into it,
or owl or hawk find the way into it.

HEN BOOSTS, To Destroy Vermin in.
Sprinkle kerosene on the roosts, and the
vermin will suddenly disappear. Fumigate
the building with sulphur, using four or
five pounds, and the next day the premises
will be clear.

POULTRY— CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

271

HENS, How to Hake Lay in Winter.

Give a portion of minced meat, mixed
with their other food, every day, or as
often as convenient, and see that they
have a plenty of gravel, old plastering,
or powdered egg-shells. The latter may
be mixed with their food. Without some
substance of this kind, which cannot be
obtained when the ground is frozen or
covered with snow, there will be nothing
to form the shell.

TURKEYS, To Rear.— Choose a quiet
hen for a sitter, and give her a quiet place
for her nest while sitting. This is im-
portant. The usual number of eggs that
a hen will cover is from 15 to 18; while
.sitting the hen should not be disturbed,
and should not be taken from the nest
after hatching for at least 24 hours, and
if she appears contented, allow her to
stay longer. The young chicks gain
strength very fast by being kept quiet for
a day or two at first. It is best to watch
the hatching process, and if a chick is
not likely to come out strong, the shell
may sometimes be broken, and the chick
saved. After the hen and her brood is
taken from the nest, give her a large,
airy coop, where the grass is closely
mown off, where the chicks can bask in
the sun at pleasure, and a chance to run
at pleasure, and the picking up of bugs
and insects.

The feed should be mostly curd, made
from sour milk heated, and the whey
drained off and seasoned with pepper.
After a few days, if they are strong
enough, they should have the range of
the farm for a few hours a day. They
should be housed at night, and not let
-out in the morning till the dew is off the
grass. Then by liberal feeding, whenever
they come near their roosting quarters,
they will be healthy and grow very fast,
especially if grasshoppers are plenty, as
they are some years in most sections of
the country. When it is the time for the
fattening seasons, they should then have
all the good food they can eat, of a
variety such as corn, buckwheat, boiled
potatoes, chopped cabbage, etc., and if
kept where they can get what they will
-eat when they want it, they will fatten
very fast.

An experienced farmer gives his ex-
perience as follows : Let the mother of
the new-born brood choose her own time

to leave the nest. Taking off is always
bad policy. As soon as the nest is left,
make a yard, twelve feet square, by set-
ting boards edgewise. Remove the turkey
and her brood into this little pen, wherein
they should be kept for at least six days,
after which they may be let out in the
middle of the day, and permitted the
range of an acre; but they must always
be gathered at least an hour before sun-
down into the pens to remain until the
dew is off the next morning, and all the
day, if there is the least appearance of a
storm. The time the mother leaves the
nest, wash the naked parts of her body
thoroughly with tobacco juice, to kill the
inevitable lice ; and at the same time dust
thoroughly the young with some vermin-
destroying powder. No one thing kills
as many young turkeys as these parasites.
As a preventive, sulphur and snuff, mixed
in equal quantities, and dusted on the
nest after the turkey has been sitting two
weeks, is recommended; but nothing
should prevent the Avashing of the
mother, or the dusting of the young, the
day the mother leaves the nest, and two
days after the young have left the shell.
Young turkeys require but little food, but
they need to be fed as often as once an
hour for the first week. Coarse-ground
Indian meal, mixed with sour milk curds,
and fine-chopped hard boiled eggs, is the
best feed for the first month. After that,
the eggs may be left out, the meal ground
a little coarser, and the curds, if you
have them, used in larger measure than
at the first. As soon as they can swallow
whole grain, give them that, and then all
trouble in this direction is at an end.
Until they are two months old, they must
be driven to some shelter every night,
and never be allowed to remain in the
fields through a long and heavy rain.
Even when one-quarter grown, they will
die from exhaustion, trying to follow the
vigorous and unreasoning mother, if wet
with but a very heavy dew. Three rules,
then, must be observed, if those who
attempt to raise turkeys would secure
success : First — Be sure to free both old
and young from lice immediately upon
the old ones leaving the nest. Second —
Feed frequently at the beginning with
strengthening food. Third — Never let
the young turkeys get wet, either with
dew or rain, until their feathers afford

272

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

their bodies, if not complete, at least
partial protection.

TURKEYS, Charcoal for.— A recent
experiment has been tried in feeding
charcoal for fattening turkeys. Two lots
of four each were treated alike, except
for one lot finely pulverized coal was
mixed with mashed potatoes and meal,
on which they were fed, and broken
pieces of coal also plentifully supplied.
The difference in weight was one and a
half pounds each in favor of the fowls
supplied with coal, and the flesh was
superior in tenderness and flavor. This
suggestion is well worth a fair trial from
those engaged in turkey-raising.

TURKEY CHICKS, Paste for Weak.—
Eggs boiled hard, nettles, and parsley, all
chopped up, and moistened with wine
and water.

TURKEY CHICKS, Chill in.— Give
ground malt and barley meal in equal
quantities, adding a little powdered cara-
way or coriander seed.

CHICKENS, Management of— After
emerging from the shell, the young chick-
en should not be removed from under the
hen. They are at first weakly and wet,
but in a few hours they become perfectly
dry, and they should be allowed to re-
main under the hen until their little quaint
heads peep from under the feathers.
Many persons imagine that the chickens
require feeding as soon as hatched, which
is an error. At the time of hatching, the
remains of the yolk are drawn into the
digestive canal of the chick, and this is
its first food. This will last them from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours, and then
the chicks are strong and active on the
legs, and ready to eat with avidity. As
regards the first food for the chicks, noth-
ing approaches in value to a mixture of
equal parts of grated bread, yolk of hard
boiled eggs, and oatmeal slightly mois-
tened with water. This is the best food
for the first two weeks, then gradually
add groats, hemp seed and green food,
such as cress, lettuce, cabbage, and leeks
chopped fine. If the weather is cold and
wet, add a little powdered pimento to the
food occasionally, also a little finely-cut
mince meat, as a substitute for worms
and insects, fresh curd and hard-boiled
eggs, mashed up with the shells. Feed
the chickens early in the morning, and
often during the day, giving but a small

quantity at a time; the water vessels
should be shallow, and frequently refill-
ed, and so arranged that the chickens can-
not get into them. Throw the food on
the ground to the chickens, they will then
pick up gravel with it, which is necessary
for the digestion of their food. Both
hen and chickens must be carefully and
warmly housed at night, and never al-
lowed out until the dew is quite off the
grass.

Chickens, Mites, Remedy for. — Take
common leaf tobacco, as much as the
user may think necessary, and make a
strong tea, letting it boil some time so as
to get all the strength from the tobacco ;
then sprinkle the tea all over and about,
the place where the mites are, and if the
first application is not sufficient, use in the
same manner a second time ; but the first
time is almost always effectual.

CHICKEN CHOLERA, Remedy for. —

Good rules for success in the management
of fowls :

1. Good dry houses, well ventilated,,
but avoiding drafts.

2. Keep your hen houses clean and
the floor covered with ashes.

3. Whitewash inside monthly from
March 1 to October 1.

4. Feed regularly, but never over-feed;
cease feeding when the fowls cease to
run for it.

5. Scatter the food on the ground
when the weather will permit.

6. Feed mixed grain, or alternate, as
corn one day, oats next, wheat next, etc

7. Allow adult fowls freedom as early
in the morning as they desire.

8. Keep hens with chicks in small
coops (well covered and dry), until the
chicks are three weeks old.

9. Feed chicks morning, noon and
late afternoon; cooked food morning,
and grain, as broken corn, wheat, etc..
noon and afternoon.

10. Mix ground black pepper with the
morning food for chicks twice a week,
one tablespoonful of pepper for every 20
chicks.

11. Grease the hen well under the
wings, breast, and fluff feathers as soon
as the chicks are taken off, with ointment
made of lard and carbolic acid; ten
drops of acid rto two tablespoonsful of
lard.

POULTRY—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

»73

CHICKENS, CatB Catching.— When a

cat is caught in the act of catching chick-
ens you can cure her effectually by tying
one around her neck, and making her
wear it for two or three days. She will
never again touch a chicken.

CHICKEN CHOLERA, to Cure.— The
following is a good cure :

Take of Alum 2 ounces.

Resin 2 '*

Copperas......... 2 "

Lac Sulphur.... 2 "

Cayenne Pepper 2 "

Pulverize, then mix three table-spoonfulls of
the powder with one quart corn meal, and damp-
en for use.

This quantity is sufficient for twelve
fowls, and may be used either as a pre-
ventive or cure. For the first it should
be given once or twice a week.

DUCKS, Convulsions. — Give to grown-
up ducks four grains of pepper, mixed
with fresh butter.

DUCKS, to Fatten.— Give them oats,
meal and barley. This feed puts on flesh
rapidly. Shut your ducks up in a good
coop, with no run-way. They must have
no exercise, for that gives health, not fat.
Feed them with bran, oats, oat-meal or
barley-meal, cooked; put in a shallow
vessel ; give gravel water, cabbage leaves
or a sod of grass. Some feed Indian
meal, and proceed with the cramming
process; but this is unnecessary, as young
ducks will eat all the food put before
them, and in that way cram themselves
without assistance. Let whatever food
you give them be cooked and fed warm.

EGOS, SofUShell.— This is caused from
deficient supply of lime and an excess of
soft and animal food. Give with the feed
more plaster, pounded oyster shells, grav-
el, rubbish, etc.

EGGS, Brooded, Cooling off — An inqui-
ry is made of the German Poultry Jour-
nal whether eggs brooded upon and al-
lowed to become cold can be hatched ;
in reply to which it is stated that, from
extensive observation, it has been shown
that eggs which have remained cold for
two days or more may even then be suc-
cessfully brooded, and that the nearer to
the period of the escape of the young, the
longer may this cooling last. It is, how-
ever, necessary that at least half of the
brooding period be passed, as, if eggs are
left too long in the first half of the pe-
riod, especially if this is repeated many
r8

times, the embryo will, in almost every
instance, die. In the second half of the
period the chick is already so far formed
that a prolonged cooling is not especially
injurious to it. It is also established
that eggs thus cooled require a longer-
time than usual to come to maturity.

EGGS, to Choose for Hatching. — In our-
experience we have found that we had
the best success by using eggs of a fair
average size, any unusually large or small
ones being rejected. Some hens lay very
large eggs and others very small ones. A
fat hen will in nearly all cases be found
to lay small eggs, which will produce
small and weakly chickens.

Absolute size in eggs is, therefore, of
but little importance. Round short eggs
are usually the best to select. It is said
that very large eggs, especially if much
pointed at the small end, are sure to breed
birds with awkwardness in style of car-
riage. Rough-shelled eggs should not.
be chosen, as they usually show some de-
rangement of the organs, and are often'
sterile. Smooth-shelled eggs alone are-
proper for hatching. Those who have
been close observers of the fact claim that
it is a farce to suppose that the sex of the
bird can be determined by the shape of
the egg.

EGGS, Sex of. — We have heard some
parties say that eggs containing the
germs of males can be told by having
wrinkles on the points or smaller ends,,
while female eggs are perfectly smooth at
both ends,

GUINEA FOWLS,— The best way to •
raise and keep this fowl is to procure
some eggs of a good stock, hatch them
under a small variety of fowl, such as
game foul or bantams ; when the chick
appears, fkeep them under cover wheie
they can have plenty of air and dry grav-
el; feed them frequently — at least once
in every three hours. Begin by giving,
them eggs and milk made into rather a.
dry custard ; toward the end of the first
month add to the food a little oat-meal
mixed with milk, and as they grow older j
give them boiled vegetables, small wheat
and potatoes.

GEESE, to Manage. — The goose lays
from ten to twenty eggs before sitting,,
and when she is well fed and attended
to she will lay and hatch three times in a
year. She begins to^ lay early in March,.

274

POULTRY— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

and even toward the end of February.
The period of laying may be perceived in
the circumstance that the goose at that
time carries about straws in its bill,
prompted by the development of the ma-
ternal instinct to prepare a nest. When
this practice is observed it will be found
prudent to confine the bird, providng her
with a nest for laying and hatching in,
which should be made of straw lined
with hay, and so formed that the eggs
will not readily fall out, especially when
the bird turns them. Fifteen eggs will be
sufficient to place under even a large bird.
The period of incubation is a month, but
some of the goslings may be hatched a
day or two before this time; it is desira-
ble, however, that all the young birds be
hatched about the same time, and to this
end as much care as is practicable should
be taken to have all the eggs equally
fresh. When the brood are hatched they
ought to be turned out into a sunny
place, sheltered alike from cold winds
and bad weather; but it is not only un-
necessary, but prejudicial, to feed them
for twelve hours or so. Their earliest
food ought to be bread soaked in milk,
curds, porridge, boiled greens, boiled po-
tatoes mixed with bran; and such food
ought to be given them at a moderate
temperature, so as to avoid the entrance
of heat or cold, and for a couple of days
at least after being hatched the goslings
ought not to be allowed access to cold
water, which often gives them cramp.

As a general rule, geese ought to be
confined as little as possible. If they are
allowed to run about the fields, ditches
and streams of water, they will forage for
themselves very successfully. Grass and
water are essential to their comfort and
well-being, such grass especially as may
be found on damp and swampy soil, and
which, however rank or coarse it may be,
is well adapted to them. In harvest time
the stubble fields are an excellent pas-
turage for them ; they can there pick up
no small supply of corn, and which would
otherwise be lost, and they obtain abund-
ance of young grass and other herbage.
The advantages of a stubble field, how-
ever, are not always to be had, but
where this occurs the kitchen garden may
be made available. In autumn the geese

may be turned into it without the danger
of their doing any serious damage; but
they ought to be fed occasionally on boil-
ed potatoes, bruised up with bran, or the
result of their foraging for themselves
will not be productive of any advantage.

Goslings in June and July will fatten
without any food beyond what they can
gather for themselves in the stubble
fields ; but if it be necessary to hasten the
process they must be supplied with addi-
tional nutriment for that purpose, such as
potatoes and turnips bruised with meal,
and they should thus be fed once a day.
There are various methods of fattening
geese, but the simplest and best is nutri-
tive food, and in abundance.

GEESE, Diseases of. — "Prevention is
better than cure;" so says the proverb.
Colds and fogs are extremely against
geese ; therefore, when young, care should
be taken not to let them out but in fair
weather, when they can go to their food
without a leader.

They are particularly subject to two
diseases; the first a looseness, or diar-
rhoea, for which Main recommends hot
wine, in which the parings of quinces,
acorns, or juniper berries are boiled. The
second is like a giddiness, which makes
them turn round for some time; they
then fall down and die, if they are not re-
lieved in time. The remedy recommend-
ed by Main, is to bleed the bird with a
pin or needle, piercing a very prominent
vein situated under the skin which sepa-
rates the claws.

Another scourge to goslings are little
insects which get into their ears and nos-
trils, which fatigue and exhaust them;
they then walk with their wings hanging
down, and shaking their head. The re-
lief proposed is to give them, on their re-
turn from the fields, some corn at the bot-
tom of a vessel filled with clear water;
in order to eat it, they are obliged to
plunge their heads in the water, which
compels the insects to fly and leave their
prey.

GEESE, Glanders, Roup and Gargle
in. — A saturated solution of common
salt; medium dose, half a teaspoonful.
Antimonial powder, one grain, with
sopped bread, twice a day.

DOGS AND THEIR DISEASES.

DOGS, Distemper in. — If the animal
is a watch dog (such are usually con-
fined in the daytime), the person
who is in the daily habit of feeding
him will first observe a loss of appetite ;
the animal will appear dull and lazy;
shortly after, there is a watery discharge
from the eyes and nose, resembling that
which accompanies catarrh. As the dfs-
ease advances, general debility super-
venes, accompanied with a weakness of
the hind extremities. The secretions are
morbid; for example, some are consti-
pated, and pass high-colored urine; oth-
ers are suddenly attacked with diarrhoea,
scanty urine, and vomiting. Fits are
not uncommon during the progress of
the disease.

If the animal is supposed to have
eaten any improper food, we commence
the treatment by giving an emetic:

Powdered Lobelia, (herb, ) . . I teaspoonful.

Warm Water I wine-glass.

Mix, and administer at a dose.

(A tablespoonful of common salt and
water will generally vomit a dog.)

If this dose does not provoke emesis,
it should not be repeated, for it may act
as a relaxant, and carry the morbid accu-
mulations off by the alimentary canal. If
the bowels are constipated, use injections
of soap-suds. If the symptoms are
complicated, the following medicines must
be prepared :

Powdered Mandrake ...I tablespoonful.

Powdered Sulphur I teaspoonful.

Powdered Charcoal 2 teaspoonfuls.

Powdered Marshmallows ....... I tablespoonful.

Mix.

Divide the mass into six parts, and ad-
minister one in honey, night and morn-
ing, for the first day; after which, a single
powder, daily, will suffice. The diet to
consist of mush, together with a drink
of thin arrowroot. If, however, the ani-
mal be in a state of plethora, very little
food should be given him.

If the strength fails, support it with
beef tea. Should a diarrhoea attend the

malady, give an occasional drink of hard-
hack tea.

DOGS, Fits. — Dogs are subject to epi-
leptic fits, which are often attended with
convulsions. They attack dogs of all
ages, and under every variety of man-
agement. Dogs that are apparently
healthy are often suddenly attacked. The
nervous system of the dog is very sus-
ceptible to external agents; hence what-
ever raises any strong passion in them
often produces fits. Pointers and setters
have often been known to suffer an attack
during the excitement of the chase. Fear
will also produce fits ; and bitches, while
suckling, if burdened with a number of
pups, and not having a sufficiency of nu-
triment to support the lacteal secretion,
often die in convulsive fits. Young
puppies, while teething, are subject to fits :
simply scarifying their gums will generally
give temporary relief. Lastly, fits may
be hereditary, or they may be caused by
derangement of the stomach. In all
cases of fits, it is very necessary, in order
to treat them with success, that we en-
deavor, as far as possible, to ascertain the
causes, and remove them as far as lies in
our power: this accomplished, the cure is
much easier.

Whenever the attack is sudden and
violent, and the animal is in good flesh,
plunge him into a tub of warm water,
and give an injection of the same, to
which a teaspoonful of salt may be added.
It is very difficult, in fact improper, to
give medicine during the fit ; but as soon
as it is over give

Manna ...I teaspoonful.

Common Salt half a teaspoonful.

Add a small quantity of water, and-give it at a
dose.

Another. — Make an infusion of mul-
lein leaves, and give to the amount of a
wine-glass every four hours. With a
view of preventing a recurrence of fits,
keep the animal on a vegetable diet. If
the bowels are constipated, give thirty
grains of extract of butternut, or, if that

(275)

276

DOGS— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

cannot be readily procured, substitute an
infusion of senna and manna, to which a
few caraways may be added.

If • the nervous system is deranged,
which may be known by the irritability
attending it, then give a teaspoonful of
the powdered nervine (lady's slipper).
The diet must consist of boiled articles,
and the animal must be allowed to take
exercise.

DOGS, Worms. — Worms may proceed
from various causes ; but they are seldom
found in healthy dogs. One of the prin-
cipal causes is debility in the digestive
organs.

Indications of Cure. — To tone up
the stomach and other organs — by which
means the food is prevented from running
into fermentation — and administer vermi-
fuges. The following are good examples:

Oil of Wormseed I teaspoonful.

Powdered Assaloetida 30 grains.

To be given every morning, fasting. Two
doses will generally suffice.

Another —

Powdered Mandrake ^ tablespoonful.

" Virginia Snakeroot I teaspoonful.

Divide into four doses, and give one every night
in honey.

Another —

Make an infusion of the sweet fern v camptonea
asplenifolia,) and give an occasional drink, fol-
lowed by an injection of the same.

Another —

Powdered Golden Seal yz tablespoonful.

Common Brown Soap 1 ounce.

Rub them well together in a mortar, and form
the mass into pills about the size of a hazle-nut,
and give one every night.

DOGS, Mange. — This disease is too well
known to need any description. The fol-
lowing are deemed the best cures :
External Application for Mange.

Powdered Charcoal yz tablespoonful.

" Sulphur I ounce.

Soft Soap sufficient to form an ointment.

To be applied externally for three suc-
cessive days; at the end of which time,
the animal is to be washed with castile
soap and warm water, and afterwards
wiped dry.

The internal remedies consist of equal
parts of sulphur and cream of tartar, half
a teaspoonful of which may be given
daily, in honey.

When the disease becomes obstinate,
and large, scabby eruptions appear on va-
rious parts of the body, take

Pyroligneous Acid 2 ounces.

Water I pint.

Wash the parts daily, and keep the animal on a
lifcht diet.

DOGS, Ear, Internal Abscess of the. —
In this complaint, the affeeted side is
generally turned downwards, and the do -
is continually shaking his head.

In the early stages, foment the part
twice a day with an infusion of marsh-
mallows. As soon as the abscess breaks,,
wash with an infusion of raspberry leaves,
and if a watery discharge continues, wash
with an infusion of white-oak bark.

DOGS, Ear, Ulceration ef the.— Exter-
nal ulcerations should be washed twice a
day with

Pyroligneous Acid..... .........2 ounces.

Water 8 "

Mix. As soon as the ulcerations assume a
healthy appearance touch them with Turlington's
balsam or tincture of gum catechu.

DOGS, Bowels, Inflammation of the. —

Whenever inflammation of the bowels
makes its appearance it is a sure sign that
there is a loss of equilibrium in the circu-
lation ; and this disturbance may arise
from a collapse of the external surface, or
from irritation produced by hardened ex-
crement on the mucous membrane of the
intestines. An attack is recognized by
acute pain in the abdominal region. The
dog gives signs, of suffering when moved,
and the bowels are generally constipated.
Endeavor to equalize the circulation by
putting the animal into a warm bath,,
where he should remain about five min-
utes. When taken out, the surface must
be rubbed dry. Then give the following
injection :

Linseed Oil 4 ounces.

Warm Water .1 gill.

Mix.

To allay the irritation 01 the bowels,
give the following :

Powdered Pleurisy Root I teaspoonful.

" Marshmallow Root I tablespoonful.

Mix and divide into three parts; one to be
given every four hours.

Should vomiting be a predominant
symptom, a small quantity of saleratus,
dissolved in spearmint tea, may be given.

Should not this treatment give relief,,
make a fomentation of hops and apply it
to the belly ;: and give half an ounce of
manna. The only articles of food and
drink should consist of barley gruel and
mush.. If, however, the dog betrays great,
heat, thirst, panting and restlessness, a
small quantity of cream tartar may be
added to the barley gruel. The bath and!
clysters may be repeated, if necessary.

DOGS—CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

277

DOGS, Asthma in. — Dogs that are shut
up in damp cellars, and deprived of pure
air and excercise, are frequently attacked
with asthma. Old dogs are more liable
to asthma than young ones.

Treatment. — Endeavor to ascertain
the cause, and remove it. Let the ani-
mal take exercise in the open air. The
diet to consist of cooked vegetables; a
small quantity of boiled meat may be
allowed; raw meat should not be given.

Powdered bloodroot. 1 teaspoonfuul.

" lobelia "

" marshmallOws I **

" licorice I "

Mix. Divide into twelve parts, and give one
night and morning. If they produce retching, re-
duce the quantity of lobelia. The object is not to
vomit, but to induce a state of nausea or relaxation.

DOGS, Piles in. — Piles are generally
brought on by confinement, over-feeding,
etc., and show themselves by a red, sore,
and protruded rectum. Dogs subject to
constipation are most likely to be at-
tacked.

Treatment. — Give the animal half a
teaspoonful of sulphur for two or three
mornings, and wash the parts with an in-
fusion of white oak bark. If they are
very painful, wash two or three times a
day with an infusion of hops, and keep
the animal on a light diet.

DOGS, Dropsy in. — Dropsy is generally
preceded by loss of appetite, cough, dim-
inution of natural discharge of urine, and
costiveness. The abdomen shortly after-
ward begins to enlarge.

Treatment. — It is sometimes nec-
essary to evacuate the fluid by puncturing
the abdomen ; but this will seldom avail
much,, unless the general health is im-
proved, and the suppressed secretions
restored. The following is the best rem-
edy we know of:

Powdered flagroot % ounce.

" male fern }£ "

Scraped horseradish .....I teaspoonful.

Mix. Divide into eight parts, and give one
night and morning. Good nutritious diet must
be allowed.

DOGS, Sore Throat in. — A strong de-
coction of mullein leaves applied to a sore
throat will seldom fail in curing it.

DOGS, Sore Ears in. — A dog's ears may
become sore and scabby from being torn
or otherwise injured. In such cases they
should be anointed with marshmallow
ointment. ,

DOGS, Sore Feet in. — If the feet be-

come sore from any disease between the
claws, apply a poultice composed of equal
parts of marshmallows and charcoal ; after
which the following wash will complete
the cure :

Pyroligneous acid 1 ounce.

Water ...6 "

Mix, and wash with a sponge twice a day.

DOGS, Wounds in. — Turlington's Bal-
sam is the best application for wounds.
Should a dog be bitten by one that is
mad, give him a teaspoonful of lobelia in
warm water, and bind some of the same
article on the wound.

DOGS, Sprains in. — For sprains of any
part of the muscular structure, use one of
the following prescriptions :

Oil of wormwood I ounce.

Tincture of lobelia 2 "

Infusion of hops I quart.

Mix. Bathe the part twice a day.

Another —

Wormwood I handful.

Thoroughwort .. .... ......I "

New England rum I quart.

Set them in a warm place for a few hours, then
bathe the part with the liquid, and bind some of
the herb on the part if practicable.

DOGS, Scalds in. — If a dog be acci-
dentally scalded, apply, with as little de-
lay as possible,

Lime water equal parts.

Linseed oil.......... .... "

DOGS, Ophthalmia in. — Ophthalmii is
supposed to be contagious; yet a mild
form may result from external injury, as
blows, bruises, or extraneous bodies in-
troduced under the eyelid. The eye is
such a delicate and tender organ that the
smallest particle of any foreign body
lodging on its surface will cause great
pain and swelling.

Treatment. — Take a teaspoonful of
finely-pulverized marshmallow root, add
sufficient hot water to make a thin muci-
lage, and with this wash the eye fre-
cpiently. Keep the animal in a dark
place on a light diet ; and if the eyes are
very red and tender, give a pill composed
of twenty-nine grains extract of butternut
and ten grains cream of tartar.

If a purulent discharge sets in, bathe
the eye with infusion of camomile or red
rose leaves, and give the following :

Powdered pleurisy root equal parts.

" bloodroot "

" sulphur "

Dose, half a tablespoonful daily. To be given
in honey. When the eyelids adhere together,
wash with warm milk.

278

DOGS— DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

DOGS, Weak Eyes in. — It often hap-
pens that after an acute attack the eyes
are left in a weak state, when there is a
copious secretion of fluid continually run-
ning from them. In such cases the eyes
may be washed, night and morning, with
pure cold water, and the general health
must be improved. For the latter pur-
pose, the following preparation is recom-
mended : •

Manna ...I ounce.

Powdered gentian ....I teaspoonful.

" mandrake % "t

Rub them together in a mortar, and give a pill,
about the size of a hazel-nut, every night. If the
manna is dry, a little honey will be necessary to
amalgamate the mass.

DOGS, Fleas and Vermin in. — Eleas
and vermin are very troublesome to dogs;
yet they may easily be got rid of by
bathing the dog with an infusion of lobelia
for two successive mornings, and after-
ward washing with water and castile
soap.

DOGS, Hydrophobia in. — Whenever
one is bitten by another, and the latter is
supposed to labor under this dreadful
malady, immediate steps should be taken
to arrest it; for a dog once bitten by
another, whatever may be the stage or
intensity of the disease, is never safe.
The disease may appear in a few days ;
in some instances it is prolonged for eight
months.

Symptoms. — Mr. Lawson tells us that
" the first symptom appears to be a slight
failure of the appetite, and a disposition
to quarrel with other dogs. A total loss
.of appetite generally succeeds. A mad
dog will not cry out on being struck, or
show any sign of fear on being threatened.
In the height of the disorder, he will bite
all other dogs, animals or men. When

not provoked, he usually attacks only such
as come in his way; but, having no fear,
it is very dangerous to strike or provoke
him. The eyes of mad dogs do not look
red or fierce, but dull, and have a pecu-
liar appearance not easy to describe. Mad
dogs seldom bark, but occasionally utter
a most dismal and plaintive howl, ex-
pressive of extreme distress, and which
they who have once heard can never for-
get. They do not froth at the mouth,
but their lips and tongue appear dry and
foul, or slimy. They cannot swallow
water." Mr. Lawson, and, indeed, many
veterinary practitioners, have come to
the conclusion that all remedies are fal-
lacious.

Treatment. — Let the suspected dog
be confined by himself, so that he cannot
do injury. Then take two ounces of
lobelia, and once ounce of sulphur, place
them in a common wash tub, and add
several gallons of boiling water. As soon
as it is sufficiently cool, plunge the dog
into it, and let him remain in it several
minutes. Then give an infusion of either
of the following articles : Yellow broom,
plantain, or Greek valerian, one ounce of
herb to a pint of water. An occasional
teaspoonful of the powdered plantain may
be allowed with the food, which must be
entirely vegetable. If the dog has been
bitten, wash the part with a strong infu-
sion of lobelia, and bind some of the herb
on the part. The treatment should be
continued for several days, or until the
animal recovers, and all danger is past.

DOGS, Bladder, Inflammation of the.
— See Dogs Inflammation of the
Bowels.

DOGS, Mad. — See Dogs, Hydro-
phobia IN.

Curing, Storing and Preserving.

APPLES, to Keep — The following is a
good plan : The apples should be placed
in glazed earthen vessels, each containing
about a gallon, and surrounding the fruit
with paper. The vessels being perfect
cylinders, about a foot each in height,
stand very conveniently upon each other,
and thus present the means of preserving
a large quantity of fruit in a very small
room. If the space between the top of
one vessel and the base of another be
filled with cement, composed of two
parts of the curd of skimmed milk and
one of lime, by which the air will be ex-
cluded, the latter kind of apples will be
preserved with little change in their ap-
pearance from October to March. A
dry and cold place in which there is little
change of temperature is the best.

APPLES, to Dry.— The most general
method adopted in drying apples is, after
they are pared, to cut them in slices, and
spread them on cloths, tables or boards,
and then dry them out-doors. In clear
and dry weather this is, perhaps, the most
expeditious and best way ; but in cloudy
and stormy weather this way is attended
with much inconvenience, and sometimes
loss, in consequence of the apples rotting
before they dry. To some extent they
may be dried in this way in the house,
though this is attended with much incon-
venience. The best method that we have
ever used to dry apples is to use frames.
These combine the most advantages with
the least inconvenience of any way, and
can be used with equal advantage either
in drying in the house or out in the sun.
In pleasant weather, the frames can be set
out-doors against the side of the building,
or any other support, and at night, or in
cloudy and stormy days, they can be
brought into the house, and set against
the side of the room near the stove or
fire-place. Frames are made in the fol-

lowing manner: Two strips of board, 7
feet long, 2 or 2*4 inches wide — two
strips 3 feet long, i*4 inches wide, the
whole 2^ °f an incn thick — nail the snort
strips across the ends of the long ones,
and it makes a frame 7 by 3 feet, which
is a convenient size for all purposes. On
one of the long strips nails are driven 3
inches apart, extending from the top to
the bottom. After the apples are pared
they are quartered and cored, and with a
needle and twine, or stout thread strung
into lengths long enough to reach twice
across the frame ; the ends of the twine
aie then tied together, and the strings
hung on the nails across the frame. The
apples will soon dry so that the strings can
be doubled on the nails, and fresh ones
put on or the whole of them removed,
and others put in their place. As fast as-
the apples become sufficiently dry, they
can be taken from the strings, and the
same strings used to dry more on. If
large apples are used to dry, they can be
cut in smaller pieces. Pears and quinces,
and other fruits that can be strung, may
be dried in this way.

APPLES, to Pack in Barrels. — When
the farmers find out that the manner of
packing apples in barrels greatly influ-
ences the price of the same, they will
take more care than they usually do. A
neatly packed barrel will bring from one
to two dollars more than one that the ap-
ples are thrown in without any effort to
make a good show. When you begin to
pack the barrel turn it upside down, the
head resting on the ground or floor, then
take the bottom out, leaving the head in.
Then choose about a peck of your pret-
tiest and finest apples : wipe them clean,
being certain that there are no spots on
them, or in any other manner disfigured ;
then place them in the barrel with their
stems down, first placing them around the

(279)

28o

CURING AND STORING.

rim of the barrel, entirely round the same,
after which make another ring, until the
whole is covered. Then throw in your
apples, and when your barrel is full,
press them down and put in the bottom,
after which turn them head upwards.
When the barrel is opened from the top,
your apples will be found in good con-
dition, even and nicely packed.

APPLE BUTTER.— Select two bushels
of sour apples, and peel, core and quar-
ter them. Take a barrel of good, sweet
apple cider, and boil it in a copper kettle
until all the impurities have risen to the
surface. After this is done, and the im-
purities skimmed off, take out two-thirds
of the cider. Then put in the apples,
and as the quantity boils down put in the
rest of the cider. After putting in the
apples the butter must be stirred without
interruption until it is taken off. It will
take about five hours boiling after the ap-
ples are put into the cider. It should be
boiled until the whole mass becomes
smooth and of the same consistency, and
•of a dark brown color. Spice with ground
•cloves and cinnamon to taste. The but-
ter can then be taken off and put into
vessels for use. Earthen crocks are best
for this purpose. Tie the vessels over
with heavy paper and set them away in a
•dry place. The butter will keep a year
if wanted.

BEANS, To Keep Fresh for Winter.—
Procure a wide-mouthed stone jar, lay on
the bottom of it some freshly-pulled
French beans, and over them put a layer
of salt; fill the jar up in this manner with
alternate layers of beans and salt. The
beans need not all be put in at the same
time, but they are better if the salt be
put on while they are quite fresh. They
will keep good all through the winter.
When going to use them, steep for some
hours in fresh cold water.

BEANS, String, Dried.— Dried string
beans are very excellent in winter. Cut
the beans up in the usual lengths, dry
them, put them in a bag. In winter,
soak them and cook them in the usual
way.

BEEF, Pickled.— Rub each piece of
beef very lightly with salt; let them lie
singly on a tray or board for twenty-four
hours, then wipe them very dry. Pack
them closely in a tub, taking care that it
is perfectly sweet and clean. Have the

pickle ready, made thus : Boil four gal-
lons of soft water with ten pounds of
coarse salt, four ounces of saltpetre, and
two pounds of coarse brown sugar ; let it
boil fifteen minutes, and skim it while
boiling very clean. When perfectly cold
pour it on the beef, laying a weight on
the top to keep the meat under the pickle.
This quantity is sufficient for ioo pounds
of beef if closely packed.

BUTTER, To Preserve. — i. The best
method to preserve butter from the air is
to fill the pot to within an inch of the
top, and to lay on it common coarse-
grained salt, to the depth of one-half an
inch or three-quarters of an inch, then
to cover the pot up with any flat arti-
cle that may be convenient. The salt
by long keeping will run to brine, and
form a layer on the top of the butter,
which will effectually keep out the air,
and may at any time be very easily re-
moved by turning the pot on one side.

2. Fresh butter, sixteen pounds ; salt,
one pound.

3. Fresh butter, eighteen pounds ; salt,
one pound ; saltpetre, one and one-fourth
ounces ; honey or fine brown sugar, two
ounces.

APPLE BUTTER, Pennsylvania, to
Make. — Let three bushels of fair sweet
apples be pared, quartered, and the cores
removed. Meanwhile let two barrels of
new cider be boiled down to one-half.
When this is done, commit the prepared
apples to the cider, and let the boiling go
on briskly and systematically, stirring the
contents without cessation, that they do
not become attached to the side of the
kettle and be burned. Let the stirring go
on till the amalgamated cider and ap-
ples become as thick as hasty-pudding,
then throw in pulverized allspice, when
it may be considered as finished, and
committed to pots for future use.

BUTTER, Packing and Preserving. —
Packing butter that is gathered up at
country stores is a nice operation, and
needs to be carefully performed. As it
is of all shades of color, from white to
pale yellow generally, a coloring may
be prepared by melting some of the but-
ter and dissolving in it the prepared anr
natto, which may be procured at any
drug store. This should be kept for use
as it is wanted. To use it, take a quan-
tity of the butter to be colored in the

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 281

mixing-bowl, cut it into gashes with the
butter ladle (don't touch it with the
hands), place a small portion of the col-
oring preparation in each of these gashes,
and mix until the color is evenly spread
and no streaks are to be seen. Then
gash it once more with the ladle, sprin-
kle one ounce of salt to the pound of
butter, and leave it twenty-four hours.
Then pour off any water collected on it,
and pack it in a new oak tub that has
been soaked with brine for a day and
night. Water should never be used for
working butter at any time.

BIRDS, To Preserve.— Birds may be
preserved in a fresh state for some time
by removing the intestines, wiping the
inside out quite dry with a towel, and
then flouring them. A piece of blotting
paper, on which one. or two drops of
creosote have been placed, is now to be
put inside them, and a similarly prepared
piece of paper tied around them. They
should then be hung up in a cool dry
place, and will be found to keep much
longer than without undergoing this pro-
cess.

CABBAGE, To Keep.— Gather them be-
fore the severe fall frosts. Let the coarse
outside leaves remain on them. Fix a
strong string around the stalk, and sus-
pend the cabbage from the timbers of the
ceiling, heads downward. The cellar
should be cool and dry. This will pre-
serve them with a certainty.

Another good method is to cut the cab-
bage from the stump, pack close in a
cask, taking care to fill up all the va-
cancies with dry chaff, or bran, and keep
in a dry cellar.

CAULIFLOWER, To Keep.- -They can
be kept in a cellar by covering the roots
and stalks with earth, till February. Or
they may be placed in a trench in the
garden, roots down, and covered with
earth, up close to the heads ; and then
cover with hay, or straw, four or five
inches thick, placing just enough soil on
the straw to keep it in its position. This
method does well in the latitude of New
York; but in colder climates a thicker
covering would be required.

CELERY, To Keep.— This may be kept
in good condition through the winter in a
cool, dry cellar, by having it set in earth.
When a small quantity only is wanted,
take a box and stand the celery up

in it, placing a little earth about the
roots. The farmers who raise quantities
of it often keep it in their old hot-beds,
standing it up, and protecting it from
frost. There is no vegetable more rel-
ished than this, and every person who
has a garden should raise enough for his
own use, if no more.

CIDER, How to Keep Sweet. — Use on-
ly sound apples. Make the cider when
the weather is almost cold enough to
freeze the apples. Expose the cider
during freezing weather, and stir it till
the whole of it is reduced as near the
freezing point as possible without freez-
ing. Then barrel it, bung up tight, and
place it in a cellar kept nearly down to
the freezing point. As long as you can
keep it cold enough it will not ferment,
and as long as it does not ferment it will
remain sweet.

CHERRIES, Dried.— Take the stems
and stones from ripe cherries ; spread
them on flat dishes, and dry them in the
hot sun or warm oven ; pour whatever
juice may have run from them, a little at
a time, over them ; stir them about, that
they may dry evenly. When they are
perfectly dry, line boxes or jars with
white paper, and pack them close in lay-
ers ; strew a little brown sugar, and fold
the paper over, and keep them in a dry
place ; or put them in muslin bags, and
hang them in an airy place.

EGGS, Storing.— Wright's illustrated
Book of Poultry says that a systematic
trial for two seasons has shown that, for
purposes of long keeping for eating or
breeding, eggs should be packed with
the large end downward, instead of plac-
ing them on the small end, as is common-
ly done. The longer the eggs are kept
the greater difference will be found in the
results of the two methods. Experiment
has proved that eggs placed as recom-
mended may be set and successfully
hatched, with remarkable uniformity, at
ages which with the usual method of stor-
ing would render success almost hopeless.
The practical philosophy of the case is
alleged to consist in delaying the spread
of the air-bubble and its detachment
from the membranous lining of the egg,
thus retarding alterations destructive to
vitality.

EGGS, to Dry. — The eggs are beaten to
uniform consistency, and spread out in

2«2

CURING AND STORING.

thin cakes on batter plates. This dries
them into a paste, which is to be packed
in close cans and sealed. When required
for use, the paste can be dissolved in
water and beaten to a foam like fresh
eggs. It is said that eggs can be pre-
served for years in this way, and retain
their flavor.

EGGS, Pickled.— The jar to be of mod-
erate size — wide-mouthed earthen jar,
sufficient to hold one dozen eggs ; let the
latter be boiled quite hard; when fully
done, place the same, after taking them
up, into a pan of cold water. Remove
the shells from them and deposit them
carefully in the jar. Have on the fire a
quart or more of good white vinegar, into
which put one ounce of raw ginger, two
or three blades of sweet mace, one ounce
of allspice, half an ounce of whole black
pepper and salt, half an ounce of mus-
tard seed, with four cloves of garlic.
When it has simmered down, take it up
and pour the contents into the jar, taking
care to observe that the eggs are wholly
covered. When quite cold, stopper it
down for use. It will be ready after a
month. When cut into quarters, they
serve as a garnish, and afford a nice relish
to cold meat of any kind.

EGGS, to Keep. — i. Parties in the egg
business in a large way build brick vats
made water-tight, in which is lime-water,
which is made by putting lime in water,
and when it is slacked and settled to the
bottom, drawing off the liquor. Into this
liquor the eggs are placed and kept be-
neath the surface. They are kept as cool
as possible. These are the limed eggs
with which the markets are supplied dur-
ing winter.

2. Another mode of keeping eggs, tested
by the Agricultural Department, is as fol-
lows: Rub the eggs with flaxseed (lin-
seed) oil, and place them, small end
downwards, in sand. Eggs so prepared
were found at the end of six months to
have the same taste and smell of perfect-
ly fresh eggs, and to have lost in weight
only three per cent. Greasing eggs with
lard or tallow has not been successful in
preserving them, except for short pe-
riods.

3. Take a thin board of any convenient
length and width and pierce it full of
holes (each one and a half inches in di-
ameter^ as you can. A board two feet

and six inches in length and one foot
wide, has five dozen holes in it, say
twelve rows of five each. Then take four
strips two inches broad, and nail them to-
gether edgewise into a rectangular frame
of the same size as your other board.
Nail this board upon a frame, and the
work is done, unless you choose to nail a
heading around the top. Put your eggs
in this board as they come from the poul-
try house, the small ends down, and they
will keep good for six months, if you
take the following precautions : Take care
that the eggs do not get wet, either in
the nest or afterwards. Keep them in a
cool room in summer, and out of the
reach of frost in winter. If two boards
be kept, one can be filling while the other
is emptying.

4. Eggs can easily be kept from Octo-
ber to March in the following manner:
A piece of lime, as large as a quart dip-
per, is put in five gallons of water, and
salt added until an egg will float. This
is strained and put into a clean keg, into
Avhich a loose head is made to fit easily ;
a knob is fitted to the head for a handle.
The eggs are put, as they are gathered,,
into the liquid, and the loose head placed
on them to keep them below . the surface.
The keg should be kept in a cool place
in the cellar. The liquor will not freeze
except at a lower temperature than freez-
ing point. Eggs thus preserved will sell
readily as limed eggs until fresh eggs
come, and are almost as good as fresh
ones.

5. Take one quart of unslacked lime>
pour to it water enough to make it the
consistency of whitewash, add one tea-
spoon of cream tartar: let this be in a
wooden or stone vessel, and put the eggs
into it.

6. Hang them by hooks in strong cab-
bage-nets, and every day hook them on a
fresh mesh, so as thereby to turn the
eggs.

7. Apply with a brush a solution of
gum arabic to the shells, or immerse the
eggs therein, let them dry, and afterwards
pack them in dry charcoal dust. This
prevents their being affected by altera-
tions of temperature.

8. Mix together in a tub, or vessel, one
bushel Winchester measure of quick-lime,
thirty-two ounces of salt, eight ounces of
cream of tartar, with as much water as

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 28?

will reduce the composition to a sufficient
consistence to float an egg. Then put
and keep the eggs therein, which will
preserve them perfectly sound for two
years at least.

9. Eggs can be preserved by keeping
them at a temperature of forty degrees or
less in a refrigerator. Eggs have been
tested when kept in this manner for two
years, and found to be perfectly good.

10. Dissolve three or four ounces of
beeswax in seven ounces of warm olive
oil; put in this the tip of your finger and
anoint the egg all over. Keep the eggs
in a cool place, and they will keep fresh
for five years.

FRUIT, Canning. — The principle
should be understood, in order to work in-
telligently. The fruit is preserved by
placing it in a vessel from which the exter-
nal air is entirely excluded. This is ef-
fected by surrounding the fruit by liquid,
and by the use of heat to rarefy and expel
the air that may be entangled in the fruit
or lodged in its pores. The preservation
does not depend upon sugar, though
enough of this is used in the liquid which
covers the fruit to make it palatable. The
heat answers another purpose ; it destroys
the ferment which fruits naturally contain,
and as long as they are kept from con-
tact with the external air they do not de-
compose.

The vessels in which fruits are pre-
served are tin, glass and earthenware.
Tin is used at the factories where large
quantities are put up for commerce, but is
seldom used in families, as more skill in
soldering is required than most persons
possess. Besides, the tins are not gener-
ally safe to use more than once. Glass is
the preferable material, as it is readily
cleaned and allows the interior to be fre-
quently inspected. Any kind of bottle
or jar that has a mouth wide enough to
admit the fruit and that can be securely
stopped, positively air-tight — which is
much closer than water-tight — will an-
swer. Jars of various patterns and
patents are made for the purpese,
and are sold at the crockery and
grocery stores. These have wide mouths,
and a glass or metallic cap which is made
to fit very tightly by an India-rubber ring
between the metal and the glass. The
devices for these caps are numerous, and
much ingenuity is displayed in inventing

them. We have used several patterns
without much difference in success, but
have found there was some difference in
the facility with which the jars could be
opend and closed. The best are those in
which atmospheric pressure helps the
sealing, and where the sole dependence is
not upon screws or clamps. To test a
jar, light a slip of paper and hold it with-
in it. The heat of the flame will expand
the air and drive out a portion of it. Now
put on the cap ; when the jar becomes
cool the air within will contract, and the
pressure of the external air should hold
the cover on so firmly that it cannot be
pulled off without first letting in air by
pressing aside the rubber or by such oth-
er means as is provided in the construc-
tion of the jar. When regular fruit jars
are not used, good corks and cement
must be provided.

Cement is made by melting 1 ^ ounce
of tallow with 1 pound of rosin. The
stiffness of the cement may be governed
by the use of more or less tallow. After
the jar is corked, tie a piece of stout
drilling over the mouth. Dip the cloth
on the mouth of the jar into the melted
cement, rub the cement on the cloth with
a stick to break up the bubbles, and leave
a close covering.

The Process. Everything should be
in readiness, the jars clean, the covers well
fitted, the fruit picked over or otherwise
prepared, and cement and corks, if these
are used, at hand. The bottles or jars,
are to receive a very hot liquid, and they
must be gradually wanned beforehand,
by placing warm water in them, to which
boiling water is gradually added. Com-
mence by making a syrup in the propor-
tion of a pound of white* sugar to a pint
of water, using less sugar if this quantity
will make the fruit too sweet. When the
syrup boils, add as much fruit as it will
cover, let the fruit heat in the syrup
gradually, and when it comes to a boil
ladle it into the jars or bottles which
have been warmed as above directed.
Put in as much fruit as possible, and then
add the syrup to fill up the interstices
among the fruit ; then put on the cover
or insert the stopper as soon as possible.
Have a cloth at hand dampened in hot
water to wipe the necks of the jars.
When one lot has been bottled, proceed
with more, adding more sugar and water

284

CURING AND STORING.

if more syrup is required. Juicy fruits
will diminish the syrup much less than
others. When the bottles are cold, put
them away in a cool, dry, and dark place.
Do not tamper with the covers in any
way. The bottles should be inspected
every day for a week or so, in order to
discover if any are imperfect. If fermen-
tation has commenced, bubbles will be
seen in the syrup, and the covers will be
loosened. If taken at once, the contents
may be saved by thoroughly reheating.
Another way is to prepare a syrup and
allow it to cool. Place the fruit in the
bottles, cover with the syrup and then set
the bottles nearly up to their rims in a
boiler of cold water. Some wooden slats
should be placed at the bottom of the
boiler to keep the bottles from contact
with it. The water in the boiler is then
heated and kept boiling until the fruit in
the bottles is thoroughly heated through,
when the covers are put on, and the
bottles allowed to cool. It is claimed
that the flavor of the fruit is better
preserved in this way than by the other.

What May Be Preserved. — All the
fruits that are used in their fresh state or
for pies, etc., and Rhubarb, or Pie-plant,
and tomatoes. Green peas, and corn,
cannot be readily preserved in families,
as they require special apparatus. Straw-
berries— hard-fleshed sour varieties, such
as the Wilson, are better than the more
delicate kinds.

Currants need more sugar than the
foregoing. Blackberries and huckleberries
are both very satisfactorily preserved,
and make capital pies. Cherries and
plums need only picking over. Peaches
need peeling and quartering. The skin
may be removed from ripe peaches by
scalding them in water or weak lye for a
few seconds, and then transferring them to
cold water. Some obtain a strong peach
flavor by boiling a few peach meats in
the syrup. We have had peaches keep
three years, and were then better than
those sold at the stores. Pears are pared
and halved, or quartered, and the core
removed. The best, high-flavored and
melting varieties only should be used.
Coarse baking pears are unsatisfactory.
Apples — very few put up these. Try
some high-flavored ones, and you will be
pleased with them. Quinces — there is
a great contrast between quinces pre-

served in this way and those done up in
the old way of pound for pound. They
do not become hard, and they remain of
a fine light color. Tomatoes require
cooking longer than the fruits proper.
Any intelligent person who understands
the principle upon which fruit is preserved
in this way, will soon find the mechanical
part easy of execution and the result^
satisfactory.

FRUIT, Dried, to Protect from Worms.
It is said that dried fruit put away with a
little bark sassafras (say a large handful
to the bushel) will save for years, unmo-
lested by those troublesome little insects,
which so often destroy hundreds of
bushels in a single season. The remedy
is cheap and simple, but we venture to
say a good one.

FRUIT, Canned, Keeping.— The pres-
ervation of canned fruits depends very
much on the place where they are stored.
If put in a cellar, unless it is exception-
ally dry, they will gather mold and lose
all the fine, fresh flavor it is so desirable
to retain. If kept in too warm a spot,
they will ferment and burst the cans, and
in that case, even if the fruit has not
been spilled over the shelves, it will have
been made so sour that no re-scalding,
etc., can make it good. Severe cold
does not injure it unless the weather is
below zero.

One stinging cold morning we entered
our milk-room to find long rows of grena-
diers in red coats, standing triumphantly
amid the fragments of numerous defeated
bottles. The tomatoes being preserved
entirely without sugar or spice, were
frozen to a solid red ice, but the fruits
put up with a small quantity of sugar
were only slightly frozen, and as we im-
mediately immersed the jars in cold
water until the frost was extracted, they
did not burst. The tomatoes were saved
by an immediate re-bottling.

A doubled-walled closet in a fireless
room on the second floor is one of the
best places for storing canned fruits in
the winter ; and in summer a cool milk-
room will be found safe.

GOOSEBERRIES, Dried. — To seven
pounds of red gooseberries add a pound
and a half of powdered sugar, which
must be stewed over them in the preserv-
ing-pan ; let them remain at a good heat
over a slow fire till they begin to break ;

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 285

then remove them. Repeat this process
for two or three days; then take the
gooseberries from the syrup, and spread
them out on sieves near the fire to dry.
This syrup may be used for other pres-
erves. When the gooseberries are quite
dry, store them in tin boxes or layers of
paper.

GOOSEBERRIES, Red, to Keep.— Pick
gooseberries when fully ripe, and for each
quart take a quarter of a pound of sugar
and a gill of water ; boil together until
quite a syrup ; then put in the fruit, and
continue to boil gently for fifteen min-
utes; then put them into small stone
jars ; when cold, cover them close ; keep
them for making tarts or pies.

GRAPES, To Keep.— 1. They must
not be too ripe. Take off any imperfect
grapes from the bunches. On the bottom
of a keg put a layer of bran that has
been well dried in an oven, or in the sun.
On the bran put a layer of grapes, with
bran between the bunches so that they
may not be in contact. Proceed in the
same way with alternate layers of grapes
and bran, till the keg is lull ; then close
the keg so that no air can enter. 2. In
a box first lay a paper, then a layer of
grapes, selecting the best bunches and
removing all imperfect grapes, then an-
other paper, then more grapes, and so
until the box is full ; then cover all with
several folds of paper or cloth. Nail on
the lid, and set in a cool room where it
will not freeze. We use small boxes, so
as not to disturb more than we want to
use in a week or so. Give each bunch
plenty of room so they will not crowd,
and do not use newspapers. Some seal
the stems with sealing wax and wrap
each bunch by itself, but we get along
without that trouble. The grapes should
be looked to several times during the
winter. Should any mold or decay, they
should be removed and the good ones
again repacked. By this means we have
had, with our pitcher of cider and basket
of apples, our plate of grapes daily,
besides distributing some among our
friends and the sick of the neighborhood.
3. {Chinese Method.) It consists in cutting
a circular piece out of a ripe pumpkin or
gourd, making an aperture large enough
to admit the hand. The interior is then
completely cleaned out, the ripe grapes
are placed inside, and the cover replaced

and pressed in firmly. The pumpkins
are then kept in a cool place — and the
grapes will be found to retain their fresh-
ness for a very long time. We are told
that a very careful selection must be
made of the pumpkin, the common field
pumpkin, however, being well adapted
for the purpose in question.

HAMS, to Cure. — The committee on
bacon hams of the Second Annual Exhi-
bition of the Frederick (Maryland) County
Agricultural Society awarded the first pre-
mium to Mrs. George M. Potts, and the
second to W. H. Lease, Esq., and ob-
served " that the hams were remarkable
for their excellent flavor, and were at the
same time juicy and tender." The fol-
lowing are the recipes :

Mrs. Potts' Recipe. — To each green;
ham of eighteen pounds, one dessert-
spoonful of saltpetre; one-fourth pound
of brown sugar applied to the fleshy side
of the ham and about the hock; cover
the fleshy side with fine salt half an inch
thick, and pack away in tubs ; to remain
from three to six weeks, according to
size. Before smoking rub off any salt
that may remain on the ham, and cover
well with ground pepper, particularly
about the bone and hock. Hang up and
drain for two days; smoke with green
wood for eight weeks, or until the rind
assumes a light chestnut color. The
pepper is an effectual preventive of the
fly. I never bag hams. This recipe took
the first premium.

Mr. Lease's Recipe. — When the-
hams were cool he salted them down in a
tight cask, putting a bushel of salt, well
mixed with six ounces of saltpetre, to
about one thousand pounds of pork; after
it had been salted down four or five days, .
he made a strong brine, sufficient to float an
egg, and cured the meat with it, and then
let it remain five weeks longer ; then hung
it up, dusting the fresh sides with black
pepper; then smoked with green wood.

Another. — After cutting out the pork, .
rub the skin-side with about half a tea-
spoonful of saltpetre, well rubbed in. Rub
the pieces all over with salt, leaving them
well covered on the fleshy side. Then
lay the hams in large, tight troughs, skin-
side down. Continue this process until
it is all salted down. Let them remain
in the troughs without touching or troub-
ling them for tour, or five weeks, accord-

286

CURING AND STORING.

ing to the size of the hog, no matter how
warm or changeable the weather is. Then
take them out of the trough, and string
tli em on white-oak splits ; wash all the
salt off with the brine, if sufficient ; if not,
with water; then rub them well and
thoroughly with wood ashes. Let them
hang up and remain twenty-four hours or
two or three days before you make the
(smoke under them, which must be made
of green chips, and not chunks. Make
the smoke under them every day, and
smoke them five or six weeks. After the
smoke stops, let the hams remain hang-
ing all the time. Shoulders cure in the
same manner. Always kill your hogs in
the morning, and let them remain from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours before cut-
ting them up.

HAMS (Smoked), to Keep. — Make sacks
of coarse cotton cloth, large enough to
hold one ham, and fill in with chopped
hay all around about two inches thick.
The hay prevents the grease from coming
in contact with the cloth, and keeps all
insects from the meat. Hang in the
smokehouse, or other dry, cool place, and
they will keep a long time.

HERBS, to Dry. —They should be
gathered in a dry season, cleansed from
discolored and rotten leaves, screened
from earth or dust, placed on handles
covered with blotting paper, and exposed
to the sun or the heat of a stove, in a dry,
airy place. The quicker they are dried
the better, as they have less time to fer-
ment or grow mouldy ; hence they should
be spread thin, and frequently turned;
when dried they should be shaken in a
large meshed sieve to get rid of the eggs
of any insects. Aromatic herbs ought to
be dried quickly with a moderate heat
that their odor may not be lost. Crucif-
erous plants should not be dried, as in
that case they lose much of their antiscor-
butic qualities. Some persons have pro-
posed to dry herbs in a water bath, but
this occasions them, as it were, to be half
boiled in their own water.

HONEY, to Keep. — After the honey is
passed from the comb, strain it through a
sieve, so as to get out all the wax; gently
boil it, and skim off the whitish foam
which rises to the surface, and then the
honey will become perfectly clear. The
vessel for boiling should be earthen, brass,

or tin. The honey should be put in jars
when cool, and tightly covered.

To keep honey in the comb, select
combs free from pollen, pack them edge-
wise in jars or cans, and pour in a suf-
ficient quantity of the boiled and strained
honey (as above) to cover the combs.
The jars or cans should be tightly tied
over with thick cloth or leather. These
processes have been in use for twenty
years with unvarying success.

HONEY, Artificial, to Make.— To ten
pounds of good brown sugar add four
pounds of water, gradually bring it to a
boil, skimming it well. When it has be-
come cooled, add two pounds of bees'
honey and eight drops of peppermint. A
better article can be made with white
sugar instead of common, with one pound
less of water and one pound more of
honey. To twenty pounds of coffee-
sugar add six pounds of water, four ounces
cream of tartar, four tablespoonfuls of
vinegar (strong), the white of two eggs,
well beaten, and one pound of bees'
honey, Lubin's extract of honeysuckle,
twenty drops. Place the water and sugar
in a kettle, and put it over a fire ; when
lukewarm add the cream of tartar, stir-
ring it at the time ; then add the egg, and
when the sugar is melted, put in the
honey and stir it well until it comes to a
boil; then take it off, let it stand five
minutes, then strain, adding the extract
last. Let it stand over night, and it is
ready for use.

HORSE-RADISH, to Keep. — Grate a
sufficient quantity during the season,
while it is green, put it in bottles, fill up
with strong vinegar, cork them tight, and
set them in a cool place.

LARD, to Keep from Molding. — It is
not likely to mold if properly tried and
kept in a cool, dry place ; earthen crocks
or pans well tinned are good to put lard
in for keeping. Lard made from intesti-
nal fat will not keep so long as leaf fat.
It should be soaked two or three days in
salted water, changed each day.

LARD, to Keep Sweet. — Even during
the warmest weather lard can be kept
sweet by the following plan : When ren-
dering (melting) it, throw into each kettle
a handful of fresh slippery elm bark. No
salt must be added to it at any time.
The jars in which the lard is to be kept
must be thoroughly cleansed.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 287

LARD, to Bleach. — Lard may be
bleached by applying a mixture of bichro-
mate of potassa and muriatic acid, in
minute proportions, to the fat.

LARD, to Try Out—This should be
done in the open air. Set a large kettle
over the fire, in some sheltered place, on
a still day. It will cook much quicker in
large quantities. Put into the kettle,
while the lard is cold, a little saleratus, say
one tablespoonful to every twenty pounds ;
stir almost constantly when nearly done
till the scraps are brown and crisp, or un-
til the steam ceases to rise ; then there is
no danger of its moulding; strain out
into pans, and the first will be ready to
empty into crocks when the last is
strained.

LARD, Making.— Cut the fat up into
pieces about two inches square; fill a
vessel holding about three gallons with
the pieces ; put in a pint of boiled lye,
made from oak and hickory ashes, and
strained before using; boil gently over a
slow fire, until the cracklings have turned
brown ; strain and set aside to cool. By
the above process you will get more lard,
a better article, and whiter than by any
other process.

MEAT, to Keep Fresh in Winter.— In
Minnesota, where winter thaws are not
much to be feared, it is quite common to
hang up a porker or a leg of venison or
beef, and cut from it as it hangs, week
after week. It seems to us that meat so
kept must greatly deteriorate in flavor.
We like best to cut the beef or veni-
son into good pieces for cooking in vari-
ous ways, and pack them down in snow.
Of course they feeze, but thawing a piece
brought in to cook is a simple matter.
Put frozen poultry or meat in cold water,
and all the frost will shortly leave it. A
coating of ice will be found on the out-
side, which will easily cleave oft*.

MEAT, to Protect from Fly.— An ef-
fectual way of excluding the fly is by
using a wire meat-safe, or by covering
the joints with a long loose gauze, or
some thin cloth, and hanging them from
the ceiling of a dry room. Pepper and
ginger should be sprinkled on the parts
likely to be attacked by the fly, but
should be washed off before the joint is
put to the fire.

MEAT, to Cure. — To one gallon of
water add one and a half pounds of salt,

half a pound of sugar, half an ounce ot
saltpetre, half an ounce of potash. In
this ratio the pickle to be increased to
any quantity desired. Let these be boiled
together until all the dirt from the sugar
rises to top and is skimmed off. Then
throw it into a tub to cool, and when cold
pour it over your beef or pork, to remain
the usual time, say four or five weeks.
The meat must be well covered with
pickle, and should not be put down for at
least two days after killing, during which
time it should be slightly sprinkled with
powdered saltpetre, which removes all
the surface blood, etc., leaving the meat
fresh and clean. Some omit boiling the
pickle, and find it to answer well ; though
the operation of boiling purifies the pickle
by throwing off the dirt always to be
found in salt and sugar. If this recipe
is properly tried it will never be aban-
doned. There is none that surpasses it,
if so good.

MEAT, Preserving in Cans. — A new
method of preserving meat in tin cans,
which is favorably commented upon, is
that of Mr. R. Jones, of London. In
this process the meat is first packed in
its raw state into tins of any desired size.
The lids are then soldered down, the top
of each lid having a small tin tube in-
serted into it, which communicates with
the interior of the tin. These tubes are
next inserted into the exhauster, which is
a receptacle connected with a machine
designated a "Torricellian vacuum," an ap-
paratus in which the air is exhausted by
the action of water. The tins are then
placed in the cooking-bath, and at the
proper juncture the vacuum is created and
the meat most thoroughly cooked, at a
temperature varying from 180 to 228 de-
grees. At this stage another feature of
the invention comes into play. The vac-
uum having been created, a supply of
gravy is turned on from a receptacle, and
the tins filled with a nutritious fluid. The
feed-pipes of the tins are then nipped and
the cases heremetically sealed. By thus
filling the tins with the gravy the difficul-
ty of collapse, which has always hitherto
prevented large tins from being used, is
obviated, while the whole space of the
package is utilized. Testimonials, from
captains of ships and others who have
used it, are furnished by the inventor, cer-
tifying to the excellent quality of the

288

CURING AND STORING.

meat. By this improved processs over-
cooking the meat is prevented, and as
now prepared, it would seem to merit
general approbation.
MEAT, Pickle. — Moist sugar, 2 pounds;
bay or common salt, 4 pounds ; saltpetre,
y2 pound; fresh ground allspice, 2
ounces; water, 6 to 8 quarts. Dissolve.
Used to pickle meat, to which it imparts
a fine red color and a superior flavor.

MILK, to Keep. — Milk may be pre-
served in stout, well-corked and wired
bottles by heating them to the boiling
point in a water-bath, by which the small
quantity of inclosed air becomes decom-
posed. Milk, or green gooseberries, or
peas, thus treated, will keep for two years.
Some persons add a few grains of calcin-
ed magnesia to each bottle of milk be-
fore corking it.

MEATS, Mince— Three pounds of
raisins, stoned; three pounds of currants;
three pounds of beef suet, chopped fine ;
one pound of bread crumbs ; thre-quar-
, ters of a pound of mixed candied peel ;
one and a half pounds of fillet of beef,
previously cooked. Salt, sugar, spices
and ginger to taste. Each ingredient to
be chopped up separately, and very fine.
Mix all well together, and take especial
care that the beef is well mixed with the
other ingredients. Moisten with a bottle
of brandy and stir occasionally.

Another. — Haifa pound of candied
peel, cut in delicate slices, then chopped;
two wineglassfuls of brandy. Mix well
together with a wooden spoon, and put
the mince meat, well pressed down, into
a covered jar, tied over very well. The
mince meat should be made some days
before it is wanted, and when about to
be used a little more brandy should be
stirred into it.

Another. — Quarter of an ounce of
fine salt ; half an ounce of mixed spice ;
three pounds of moist sugar ; three pounds
of well cleaned currants f two pounds of
stoned raisins, chopped; two and a half
pounds of beef suet, finely chopped ; the
thinnest peel of two lemons and their
juice; two pounds of apples, baked to a
pulp, and weighed when cold.

ONIONS, to Keep.— Gather in fall and
remove the tops; then spread upon a
barn floor or in any open shed, and allow
them to remain there until thoroughly
dry. Put into barrels or small bins or

boxes, and place in a cool place, and at
the approach of cold weather cover with
straw or chaff, if there is danger of very
severe freezing.

Onions are often injured in winter by
keeping them in too warm a place. They
will seldom be injured by frost if kept in
the dark, and in tight barrels or boxes,
where not subjected to frequent changes
of temperature. It is the alternate freez-
ings and thawings that destroy them, and
if placed in a position where they will re-
main frozen all winter, and then thawed
out slowly and in a dark place, no con-
siderable injury would result from this ap-
parently harsh treatment. Onions should
always be stored in the coolest part of the
cellar, or put in chaff and set in the barn
or some out-house.

PABSNIPS, To Keep. — The almost
universal practice among farmers is to
allow their parsnips to remain in the
ground through winter, just where they
were grown. We believe the quality of
this root is improved by being frozen, or
at least kept cool, but it is not necessary
to leave them in the open garden during
winter, where, if the ground remain frozeny
they cannot be got at until it thaws in
spring, and then used in a very few weeks
or not at all. If the roots are dug up late
in the fall, leaving all the tops on, then
carefully heeled in thickly together in
rows, after which cover with a little coarse
litter, they can be reached whenever
wanted during winter.

PEACHES, To Dry. — Never pare
peaches to dry. Let them get mellow
enough to be in good eating condition t
put them in boiling water for a moment
or two, and the skins will come off like a
charm. Let them be in the water long
enough, but no longer. The gain is at
least sixfold — saving of time in removing
the skin, great saving of the peach, the
part of the peach saved is the best part,
less time to stone the peaches, less time
to dry them, and better when dried. A
whole bushel can be done in a boiler at
once, and the water turned off.

PEACHES, To Can— Pare and halve
your peaches. Pack them as closely as
possible in the can without any sugar.
When the can is full, pour in sufficient
pure cold water to fill all the interstices
between the peaches, and reach the brim
of the can. Let stand long enough for

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 289

the water to soak into all the crevices —
say six hours — then pour in water to re-
place what has sunk away. Seal up the
can, and all is done. Canned in this way,
peaches retain all their freshness and
flavor.

There will not be enough water in them
to render them insipid. If preferred, a
cold syrup could be used instead of pure
water, but the peaches taste more natural
without any sweet.

PEAS, Green, to Preserve.— When full
grown, but not old, pick and shell the
peas. Lay them on dishes or tins in a
cool oven, or before a bright fire; do not
heap the peas on the dishes, but merely
cover them with peas, stir them frequent-
ly, and let them dry very gradually.
When hard, let them cool, then pack them
in stone jars, cover close, and keep them
in a very dry place. When required for
use, soak them for some hours in cold
water, till they look plump before boiling;
they are excellent for soup.

PICCALILLI, Indian Method. — This
consists of all kinds of pickles mixed and
put into one large jar — sliced cucumbers,
button onions, cauliflowers, broken in
pieces. Salt them, or put them in a large
hair sieve in the sun to dry for three days,
then scald them in vinegar a few minutes ;
when cold put them together. Cut a
large white cabbage in quarters, with the
outside leaves taken off and cut fine; salt
it, and put in the sun to dry three or four
days ; then scald it in vinegar, the same
as cauliflower ; carrots, three parts, boiled
in vinegar and a little bay salt. French
beans, radish, pods, and nasturtiums, all
go through the same process as capsicums,
etc. To 1 gallon of vinegar put 4 ounces
of ginger bruised, 2 ounces of whole white
pepper, 2 ounces of allspice, ^ ounce
chillies bruised, 4 ounces of turmeric, 1
pound of the best mustard, yz pound of
shallots, 1 ounce of garlic, and yi pound
oi bay salt. The vinegar, spice, and
other ingredients, except the mustard,
must boil half an hour; then strain it into
a oan, put the mustard into a large basin,
with a little vinegar ; mix it quite fine and
free from lumps, then add more. When
well mixed put it into the vinegar just
strained off, and when quite cold put the
pickles into a large pan, and the liquor
over them; stir them repeatedly, so as
to mix them all. Finally, put them into

*9

a jar, and tie them over first with a blad-
der, and afterwards with leather. The
capsicums want no preparation.

POTATOES, Storing. — Potatoes should
not be exposed to the sun and light any
more than is necessary to dry them after
digging them from the hill. Every ten
minutes of such exposure, especially in
the sun, injures their edible qualities. The
flesh is thus rendered soft, yellowish or
greenish, and injured in flavor. Dig them
when dry, and put them in a dark cellar
immediately and keep them there till
wanted for use, and there would not be so
much fault found about bad quality. This
is also a hint to those grocers and market-
men who keep their potatoes in barrels in
the sun — that is, if they wish to furnish
their customers with a good article.

POTATOES, To keep from sprouting.
— To keep potatoes intended for the use
of the table from sprouting until new pota-
toes grow, take boiling water, pour into a
tub, turn in as many potatoes as the water
will cover, then pour off all the water,
handle the potatoes carefully, laying up in
a dry place on boards, only one layer
deep, and see if you do not have good
potatoes the year round, without hard
strings and watery ends caused by growing.

PUMPKINS, Drying. — Take the ripe
pumpkins, pare, cut into small pieces,
stew soft, mash and strain through a col-
ander, as if for making pies. Spread this
pulp on plates in layers not quite an inch
thick ; dry it down in the stove oven, kept
at so low a temperature as not to scorch
it. In about a day it will become dry and
crisp. The sheets thus made can be
stowed away in a dry place, and they are
always ready for use for pies or sauce.
Soak the pieces over night in a little milk,,
and they will return to nice pulp, as deli-
cious as the fresh pumpkin. The quick,
drying after cooking prevents any portioa
from slightly souring, as is always the case
when the uncooked pieces are dried ; the
flavor is much better preserved, and the
after cooking is saved.

RAIN-WATER, To Keep Sweet.— -The
best way to keep rain-water sweet in a
cistern, is to first collect it in a tank, and
filter it into the cistern below the surface.
This will remove the organic matters,
and prevent fermentation. Care should
also be taken to prevent surface drainage,
into it.

290

CURING AND STORING.

ROSEBUDS, To Preserve.— A method
employed in Germany to keep rosebuds
iresh into the winter, consists in first
covering the end of the recently cut stem
with wax, and then placing each one in a
closed paper cap or cone, so that the
leaves do not touch the paper. The cap
is then coated with glue, to exclude air,
■dust, and moisture, and when dry it is
.stood up in a cool place. When wanted
for use, the bud is taken out of the cap
. and placed in water, after cutting of the
end, when the rose will bloom in a few
hours.

SWEET POTATOES, To Keep.— Sweet
potatoes can be kept by placing them in
bulk in a bin or box (the more the better)
without drying, and maintaining for them
a uniform temperature of 450 to 500. Put-
ting something between, among, or around
them may serve to keep them at the pro-
per temperature, but it is of no value
whatever aside from this ; and if it should
retain dampness, -it will be a positive in-
jury. After the sweat takes place, say in
three or four weeks, scatter over them a
light covering of dry loam or sand. In
this way it is easy to keep sweet potatoes
for table use or for seed, as well as "the
inferior and less nourishing Irish potato."
Another way is to pack in barrels, and pour
in kiln-dried sand until the intervals are
full ; or boxes of uniform size, piled up on
the side of a room where the temperature
never falls to the freezing point, which is
a condition of first importance. This
wall of boxes may be papered over, and
left undisturbed till spring, when the pota-
toes will command the highest prices.

SWEET POTATOES, In Bulk.— A
sweet potato grower in Sonthern Illinois
states that sweet potatoes will keep in
bulk. He has kept seven hundred
Ibushels in one pile. The potatoes should
Ibe dug before the vines are injured by
frost, sunned until dry, and then placed
in a cellar on a clay floor, putting fine hay
or flax straw between the potatoes and
the wall, and covering with the same
material. The deeper and larger the pile
the better. The hay or straw should be
covered with clay, a thickness of one or
two inches being sufficient for the climate
of that region. At the top should be left
one or more air-holes, according to the
;size of the pile, for the escape of steam.

In damp warm weather open a window
or door in the day-time.

SOAP, HARD, To Make.— After the raw
soda or barilla is ground or pounded, it is
placed in a vat in alternate layers with
unslacked lime, the bottom layer being
lime. Water is allowed to infiltrate
through those layers, and the lye is se-
cured as it trickles through a hole in the
bottom of the vat. The lime absorbs
the carbonic acid of the soda, making the
lye caustic or fit for the soap-kettle ; and
the quantity of lime applied must be in
proportion to the quantity of carbonic
acid in the soda. To every twenty
pounds of tallow add one gallon of weak
lye, and boil until the lye is spent. The
mass must then cool for one hour, the
spent lye drawn off, and another gallon of
strong lye added; the mixture again
boiled until the second dose of lye is
spent, and the same process must be re-
peated for several days, until the mixture,
if properly managed, is converted into
white tallow soap, which should be al-
lowed to cool gradually and settle, when
it is poured into molds, and when solid it
is cut into the bars which are found in our
markets. Twenty pounds of tallow ought
to make 30 pounds of first-quality hard
soap, allowing three pounds of soda-ash
for every 20 pounds of tallow. The bal-
ance of the weight is made up by the
large quantity of water which enters into
combination with the grease and alkali in
the course of saponification.

When yellow or resin soap is required,
the hard soap has to be made in the usual
manner, and at the last charge of lye, or
when the soapy mass ceases to absorb
any more lye, one-third the weight of
pounded resin is introduced, the mixture
constantly stirred, and the boil kept up
vigorouly until the resin has become in-
corporated with the soap. The whole
must stand until it settles, and the soap
then dipped out. Resin soap, when well
made, should be a fine, bright color.

SOAP, SOFT, To Make.^The principal
difference between hard and soft soaps is,
that three parts of fat afford, in general,
fully five parts of hard soda-soap; but
three parts of fat or oil will afford six or
seven parts of potash-soap of a moderate
consistence. From its cheapness, strength,
and superior solubility, potash-soap is pre-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 291

ferred for many purposes, particularly for
the scouring of woolens.

The lyes prepared for making soft soaps
should be made very strong, and of two
densities, as the process of making potash
cr soft soap differs materially from that of
making soda or hard soap. A portion of
the oil or fat being placed in the boiling-
pan and heated to near the boiling-point
of water, a certain portion of the weaker
lye is introduced and the fire kept up so
as to bring the mixture to the boiling-
point ; then some more oil and lye are
introduced alternately, until the pan is
filled. The boiling is continued gently,
strong lye being added until the saponifi-
cation is complete. The fire should then
be removed, and some good soap, pre-
viously made, added while cooling down,
to prevent any change by evaporation.
One pound of oil requires about one-third
of a pound of American potash, and will
make one and three-quarters to two
pounds of well-boiled soap, containing
about 40 per cent, of water. Sixty pounds
of lard will make 100 pounds of first-class
soft-soap by using one and a half cans of
concentrated lye, which is made from salt,
and is really a soda-lye.

BOOTS, To Keep— These are pre-
served in different ways, according to the
object in view. Tuberous roots, as those
of the dahlia, paeonia, tuberose, etc., in-
tended to be planted in the succeeding
spring, are preserved through the winter
in dry earth, in a temperature rather un-
der than above what is natural to them.
So may the bulbous roots of commerce,
as hyacinths, tulips, onions, etc., but for
convenience, these are kept either loose,
in cool dry shelves or lofts, or the finer
sorts in papers, till the season of planting.

Roots of all kinds may be preserved in
an ice house till the return of the natural
crop.

After stuffing the vacuities with straw,
and covering the surface of the ice with
the same material, place on it case boxes,
casks, baskets, etc., and fill them with tur-
nips, carrots, beet-roots, and in particular
potatoes. By the cold of the place veg-
etation is so much suspended that all
these articles may be thus kept fresh and
uninjured till they give place to another
crop in its natural season.

SAUERKRAUT, To Make.— In the
first place, let your "stand," holding from

half a barrel to a barrel, be thoroughly
scalded out; the cutter, the tub and the
stamper also well scalded. Take off all
the outer leaves of the cabbages, halve
them, remove the heart and proceed with
the cutting. Lay some clean leaves at
the bottom of the stand, sprinkle with a
handful of salt, fill in half a bushel of cut
cabbage, stamp gently until the juice just
makes its appearance, then add another
handful of salt, and so on until the stand
is full. Cover over with cabbage leaves,
place on top a clean board fitting the
space pretty well, and on top of that a
stone weighing twelve or fifteen pounds.
Stand away in a cool place, and when
hard freezing comes on remove to the
cellar. It will be ready for use in from
four to six weeks. The cabbage should
be cut tolerably coarse. The Savoy vari-
ety makes the best article, but it is only
half as productive as the Drumhead and
Flat Dutch.

SAUSAGE, Making and Keeping. — 1.
To make family sausage, the trimmings
and other lean and fat portions of pork
are used, taking care that there is about
twice as much lean as fat ; some consider
it an improvement to add about one-sixth
of the weight of lean beef. As to sea-
soning, that is a matter of taste. The
majority of people use salt, pepper, and
sage only, some use only salt and pep-
per, while others, in addition to the above,
put in thyme, mace, cloves and other
spices. There is something repulsive
about the intestines or "skins" used for
stuffing sausage, and the majority pre-
serve the meat in bulk. In cold weather
it will keep for a long lime, but if it is
desired to preserve it beyond cold weath-
er it needs some care. We have found
that muslin bags, made of a size to hold
a roll two and one-half or three inches in
diameter, keep the meat very satisfactori-
ly. These bags, when filled with sausage
meat, are dipped into melted lard, and
hung up in a dry, cool place. For sea-
soning, we use to one hundred pounds of
meat forty ounces salt, and from eight to
ten ounces each pepper and salt.

2. Take two-thirds ham and one-third
fat pork; season well with nine teaspoon-
fuls of pepper, and the same of salt, three
of powdered sage, and one of thyme or
summer savory to every pound of meat —
not heaping teaspoonfuls, remember;

292

CURING AND STORING.

warm the meat enough so that you can
mix it well with the hands; then pack in
jars. When needed make up in small
cakes and fry with a little butter, or sim-
ply alone. But they must not be covered
alone, or they will fall to pieces. Some
like a little cinnamon added. Keep
where it is cool but not damp.

SUET, To Keep.— Suet may be kept a
year, thus : Choose the firmest and most
free from skin or veins, remove all traces
of these, put the suet in the saucepan
at some distance from the fire, and let it
melt gradually ; when melted, pour it into
a pan of cold spring water ; when hard,
wipe it dry, fold it in white paper, put it
in a linen bag, and keep it in a cool, dry
place; when used, it must be scraped,
and it will make an excellent crust with
or without butter.

TOMATOES, Canning.— The most thor-
ough and reliable mode of canning to-
matoes is as follows: They are just suffi-
ciently steamed, not cooked, to scald or
loosen the skin, and are then poured up-
on tables and the skin removed, care be-
ing taken to preserve the tomato in as
solid a state as possible. After being
peeled, they are placed in large pans,
with false bottoms perforated with holes,
so as to strain off the liquid that ema-
nates from them. From these pans they
are carefully placed by hand into the
cans, which are filled as solidly as possi-
ble— in other words, all are put in that
the cans will hold. They are then put
through the usual process and hermeti-
cally sealed. The cans, when opened
for use, present the tomato not only like
the natural vegetable in taste and color,
but also in appearance; and moreover,
when thus sealed, they are warranted to
keep in any climate, and when opened,
will taste as naturally as when just
plucked from the vine.

TALLOW, To Clarify.— Dissolve one
pound of alum in one quart of water,
add to this 100 pounds of tallow in a
jacket kettle (a kettle set in a larger one,
and the intervening space filled with wa-
ter; this prevents burning the tallow.)
Boil three-quarters of an hour and skim.
Then add one pound of salt dissolved
in a quart of water. Boil and skim.
When well clarified the tallow should be
nearly the color of water.

TALLOW, To Harden.— We have used

the following mixture with success : To-
one pound of tallow take one-fourth of
a pound common rosin; melt them to-
gether, and mold them the usual way.
This will give a candle of superior light-
ing power, and as. hard as a wax can-
dle ; a vast improvement upon the com-
mon tallow candle, in all respects except,
color.

TOMATO CATSUP. — Take perfectly-
ripe tomatoes y2 bushel ; wash them clean
and break to pieces ; then put over the:
fire and let them come to a boil, and
remove from the fire; when they are
sufficiently cool to allow your hands in
them, rub through a wire sieve; and to
what goes through, add salt 2 tea-cups ;.
allspice and cloves, of each, ground, 1
tea-cup; best vinegar 1 quart. Put on
to the fire again and cook one hour,,
stirring with great care to avoid burning..
Bottle and seal for use. If too thick
when used, put in a little vinegar. If
they were very juicy they may need boil-
ing over an hour.

VEGETABLES, Keeping.— Sink a bar-
rel two-thirds of its depth into the
ground (a box or cask will answer a
better purpose); heap the earth around
the part projecting out of the ground,
with a slope on all sides ; place the vege-
tables that you desire to keep in the:
vessel ; cover the top with a water tight
cover; and when winter sets in, throw an
armful of straw, hay, or something of
that sort, on the barrel. If the bottom is
out of the cask or barrel, it will be better.
Cabbages, celery, and other vegetables,,
will keep in this way as fresh as when
taken from the ground. The celery should
stand nearly perpendicular, celery and
earth alternating. Freedom from frost,,
ease of access, and especially freshness,
and freedom from rot, are the advantages
claimed.

YEAST, To Keep. — Ordinary beer
yeast may be kept fresh and fit for use for
several months; by placing it in a close
canvas bag, and gently squeezing out the
moisture in a screw press, the remaining
matter becomes as stiff as clay, in which
state it must be preserved in close vessels.

YEAST CAKES, or Preserved Yeast.
Put a large handful of hops into two
quarts of boiling water. Boil three large
potatoes until they are tender. Mash
them and add them to two pounds of

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 293

flour. Pour the boiling hot water over
the flour through a sieve or colander, and
beat it until it is quite smooth. While it
is warm, add two tablespoonfuls of salt,
and half a teacupful of sugar. Before it
is quite cold, stir in a pint or more of
good yeast. After the yeast has become
quite light, stir in as much Indian meal as
it will take, roll it out in cakes, and place
.them on a cloth in a dry place, taking
care to turn them every day. At the end
of a week or ten days they may be put
into a bag, and should be kept in a dry
place. When used, take one of these
cakes, soak it in some milk- warm water,
mash it smooth, and use it as any other
kind of yeast.

VINEGAR, Cider.— 1. The most profit-
able return from such apples as are made
into cider is the further transformation of
the juice into vinegar. To do this, the
barrels should be completely filled, so
that all impurities that "working" — fer-
menting— throws off will be ejected
through the bung-hole. This process
should be completed before the barrel is
put in the cellar, and when this is done,
the purified juice should be drawn out
of the original cask and put into others
where there is a small amount of old
-vinegar, which will amazingly hasten the
desired result. If no vinegar can be
obtained to "start" the cider, it must
remain in a dry cellar six months, and
perhaps . a year (the longer the better),
before it will be fit for the table.

2. Save all your apple parings and slice
in with them all waste apples and other
fruits ; keep them in a cool place till you
get a pailful, then turn a large plate over
them, on which a light weight should be
placed, and pour on boiling water till it
oomes to the top. After they have stood
two or three days pour off the liquid,
which will be as good cider as much that
is offered for sale; strain and pour it into
a cask or some other convenient vessel
;( anything that can be closely covered will
do), and drop in a piece of " mother," or
vinegar plant, procured of some one that
has good vinegar. If set in a warm
place, the vinegar will be fit for use in
three or four weeks, when it can be drawn
off for use, and the cask filled with cider
made from time to time by this process.
The parings should be pressed compactly
into a tub or pail, and only water enough

poured over to come to their surface,
otherwise the cider would be so weak as
to require the addition of molasses. By
having two casks, one to contain the
vinegar already made, and the other to
fill into from time to time, one never need
be without good vinegar. The rinsings
of preserve kettles, sweetmeat jars, and
from honey, also stale beer and old cider,
should all be saved for the vinegar cask;
only caution should be used that there be
sufficient sweetness or body to whatever
is poured in, or the vinegar may die from
lack of strength.

3. A barrel or a cask of new sweet
cider, buried so as to be well covered
with fresh earth, will turn to sharp, clear,
delicious vinegar in three or four weeks,
as good as ever sought affinity with cab-
bage, pickles, or table sauce, and better
than is possible to make by any other
process.

PICKLES, Observations on. — The
strongest vinegar must be used for pick-
ling ; it must not be boiled, or the strength
of the vinegar and spices will be evapo-
rated. By parboiling the pickles in brine
they will be ready in much less time than
they are when done in the Usual maimer,
of soaking them in cold salt water for six
or eight days. When taken out of the
hot brine, let them get cold and quite dry<
before you put them into the pickle.

To assist the preservation of pickles, a
portion of salt is added, and for the same
purpose, and to give flavor, long pepper,
black pepper, allspice, ginger, cloves,
mace, eschalots, mustard, horse-radish
and capsicum.

The following is the best method of
preparing the pickle, as cheap as any, and
requires less care than any other way:
Bruise in a mortar four ounces of the
above spices, put them into a stone jar
with a quart of" the strongest vinegar, stop
the jar closely with a bung, cover that
with a bladder soaked with pickle, set it
on a trivet by the side of the fire for three
days, well shaking it up at least three
times in the day ; the pickle should be at
least three inches above the pickles. The
jar being well closed, and the infusion
being made with a mild heat, there is no
loss by evaporation.

To enable the articles pickled more
easily and speedily to imbibe the flavor of
the pickle they are immersed in, previ-

?94

CURING AND STORING.

ously to pouring it on them, run a larding-
pin through them in several places.

Pickles should be kept in a dry place
in unglazed earthenware or glass jars,
which are preferable, as you can, without
opening them, observe whether they want
filling up ; they must be carefully stopped
with well-fitted bungs, and tied over as
closely as possible with a bladder wetted
with the pickle; and if to be preserved a
long time after that is dry, it must be
dipped in bottle cement.

When the pickles are well used, boil up
the liquor with a little fresh spice.

To walnut liquor may be added a few
anchovies and eschalots ; let it stand till
it is quite clear, and bottle it ; thus you
may furnish your table with an excellent
savory-keeping sauce for hashes, made
dishes, fish, etc., at very small cost.

Jars should not be more than three
parts filled with the articles pickled, which
should be covered with pickle at least two
inches above their surface; the liquor
wastes, and all of the articles pickled that
are not covered are soon spoiled.

When they have been done about a
week, open the jars and fill them up with
pickle.

Tie a wooden spoon, full of holes,
round each jar, to take them out with.

If you wish to have gherkins, etc., very
green, this may be easily accomplished by
keeping them in vinegar, sufficiently hot,
till they become so.

If you wish cauliflowers, onions, etc.,
to be white, use distilled vinegar for them.

To entirely prevent the mischief arising
from the action of the acid upon the
metallic utensils usually employed to pre-
pare pickles, the whole of the process is
directed to be performed in unglazed stone
jars.

BEETS, Pickled. — Boil your beets till
tender, but not quite soft. To four large
beets, boil three eggs hard and remove
the shells ; when the beets are done, take
off the skin by laying them for a few min-
utes in cold water, and then stripping it
off; slice them a quarter of an inch thick,
put the eggs at the bottom, and then put
in the beets with a little salt. Pour on
cold vinegar enough to cover them. The
eggs imbibe the color of the beets and
look beautiful on the table.

BEET-ROOT, Pickled. — Simmer the
roots till three parts done (from one and

a half to two and a half hours) ; then take
them out, peel, and cut them in thin
slices. Put them into a jar, and pour on
sufficient cold spiced vinegar to cover
them.

CABBAGE, Pickled. — Choose a fine,
close cabbage for the purpose of pickling,
cut it as thin as possible, and throw some
salt upon it. Let it remain for three days,
when it will have turned a rich purple ;
drain from it the salt, and put it into a pan
with some strong vinegar, a few blades of
mace, and some white pepper-corns. Give
it a scald, and when cold, put it into the
jars, and tie it up close.

CUCUMBERS, Pickled— Make a brine
by putting one pint of rock salt into a pail
of boiling water, and pour it over the cu-
cumbers ; cover tight to keep in the steam,
and let them remain all night and part of
a day; make a second brine as above,
and let them remain in it the same length
of time ; then scald and skim the brine,
as it will answer for the third time, and
let them remain in it as above ; then rinse
and wipe them dry, and add boiling hot
vinegar ; throw in a lump of alum as large
as an oil-nut to every pail of pickles, and
you will have a fine, hard and green
pickle ; add spices if you like, and keep
the pickles under the vinegar. A brick
on the top of the cover, which keeps the
pickles under, has a tendency to collect
the scum to itself, which may arise.

CHERRIES, Pickled.— Take the largest
and ripest red cherries, remove the stems,
have ready a large glass jar, fill it two-
thirds full with cherries, and fill up to the
top with the best vinegar; keep it well
covered, and no boiling or spice is nec-
essary, as the cherry flavor will be retained,
and the cherries will not shrivel.

CHOPPED PICKLES.— What we call
chopped pickle goes also under the name
of chow-chow, picklette, higdum, etc. It
is liked by most persons, is readily made,
and admits of the use of a number of arti-
cles. There is no particular rule for
making it, and the basis may be of what-
ever pickle-making material is most abun-
dant. We have just put up our winter
stock, and this time made it as follows :
Green tomatoes furnished the largest
share ; then there were nearly ripe cucum-
bers with the seeds removed, cabbage,
onions, and green peppers. These were
chopped in a chopping-machine, and

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 295-

mixed, sprinkled freely with salt, and al-
lowed to stand until the next day. The
abundant juice was then thoroughly
drained off, and enough spiced vinegar
prepared to cover the material. No rule
can be given for the spice, which may be
according to taste. Whole pepper, cloves,
mustard-seed, broken cinnamon, or what-
ever spice is fancied, may be boiled in
the vinegar. We prefer it with the addi-
tion of sugar. Some mix up mustard and
add to the pickle when cold, and others
boil turmeric in the vinegar to give it a
uniform yellow color. It is a pickle that
can be made according to fancy rather
than according to rule. In winter, cab-
bage, celery, and onions, treated in the
same way make a very fine pickle. As
with other pickles, the vinegar should be
poured off and boiled, at intervals of a
few days, two or three times before it is
put away for the winter.

CAULIFLOWER AND BROCCOLI. —
These should be sliced, and salted for two
or three days, then drained, and spread
upon a dry cloth before the fire for twenty-
four hours ; then put into a jar and cov-
ered with spiced vinegar. Dr. Kitchener
says, that if vegetables are put into cold
salt and water (a quarter of a pound of
salt to a quart of water), and gradually
heated to boiling, it answers the same
purpose as letting them lie some days in
salt.

CRAB-APPLE, Sweet, Pickled.— Boil
the fruit in clear water until it becomes a
little soft; then drain them on a large
dish ; then to every pound of fruit add
one of sugar, and boil hard until they are
preserved.

To make the pickles, take one-half
syrup and one-half vinegar ; fill the jar
with the preserves, and pour on the syrup
and vinegar ; add spices to suit the taste.

GHERKINS, Pickled.— Steep them in
strong brine for a week, then pour it off,
heat it to a boiling point, and again pour
it on the gherkins ; in twenty-four hours
drain the fruit on a sieve, put it into wide-
mouthed bottles or jars, fill them up with
strong pickling vinegar, boiling hot, bung
down immediately, and tie over with a
bladder. When cold, dip the corks into
melted bottle wax. Spice is usually added
to the bottles, or else steeped in the
vinegar.

In a similar way are pickled : onions,

mushrooms, cucumbers, walnuts, sam-
phires, green gooseberries, cauliflowers,,
melons, barberries, peaches, lemons, to-
matoes, beans, radish pods, codlins, red
cabbage (without salt and with cold vine-
gar), beet-root (without salt), garlic, peas,,
etc., etc.; observing that the softer and
more delicate articles do not require so
long soaking in brine as the harder and
coarser kinds, and may be often advanta-
geously pickled by simply pouring very
strong pickling vinegar over them, with-
out applying heat.

GREEN-GINGER, Pickled. — Clean
and slice the ginger ; sprinkle with salt ;
let it remain a few hours ; then put it into-
a jar or bottle, and pour boiling vinegar
over it ; cork it up when cool.

LIMES, Pickled. — They should be
small, and with thin rinds. Rub them
with pieces of flannel, then slit them half
down in four quarters, but not through to
the pulp; fill the slits with salt, hard
pressed in ; set them upright in a pan for
four or five days until the salt melts ; turn
them three times a day in their own liquor
until tender; make a sufficient quantity
of pickle to cover them, of vinegar, the
brine of the lemons, pepper and ginger ;.
boil and skim it, and when cold put it to
the lemons, with two ounces of mustard-
seed, and two cloves of garlic to every
six lemons. In boiling the brine care-
should be taken to use a well-tinned cop-
per saucepan only, otherwise it will be
discolored.

MIXED PICCALILLI, Pickled. — To
each gallon of strong vinegar put four
ounces of curry powder, four ounces of
good flour mustard, three ounces of
bruised ginger, two ounces of turmeric,
eight ounces of skinned shallots, and two
ounces of garlic (the last two slightly
baked in a Dutch oven), one-fourth pound
of salt and two drachms of cayenne pep-
per. Digest these near the fire, as directed
above for spiced vinegar. Put into a jar,
gherkins, sliced cucumbers, sliced onions,
button onions, cauliflower, celery, broc-
coli, French beans, nasturtiums, capsi-
cums, large cucumbers, and small lemons.
All, except the capsicums, to be parboiled
in salt water, drained, and dried on a cloth
before the fire. Pour on them the above
pickle.

MUSHROOMS, Pickled.— To preserve
the flavor, buttons must be rubbed with a.

-296

CURING AND STORING.

piece of flannel and salt, and from the
larger ones take out the red inside, for
when they are black they will not do,
l>eing too old. Throw a little salt over,
and put them into a stewpan with some
mace and white pepper; as the liquor
■comes out, shake them well, and simmer
them over a gentle fire till all of it is dried
into them again ; then put as much vin-
egar into the pan as will cover them;
make it warm, and then put all into glass
jars or bottles, and tie down with a blad-
der. They will keep two years, and are
delicious.

MINCED PICKLES.— One large white
cabbage, beans, green tomatoes, gherkins
and green pepper (the veins to be cut
out), without regard to quantity ; chop
them up finely, and place in separate ves-
sels; salt them, and let them stand
twenty-four hours ; squeeze them through
a sieve, mix all together, and flavor with
mustard-seed, spice, cloves, black pepper
and horse-radish ; pour on scalding vin-
egar ; cut up two large onions and throw
in, and let them stand twenty-four hours ;
then pour off the vinegar, and fill up with
«:old.

ONIONS, Pickled. — Scald one gallon
•of small onions in salt water of the
-strength to bear an egg. Only just let
them boil, strain them off, and peel them
after they are scalded, place them in a jar,
and cover them with the best cold vin-
egar. The next day pour the vinegar off,
add two ounces of bruised ginger, one
ounce of white pepper, two ounces of
flour of mustard-seed, half an ounce chil-
lies ; boil them twenty minutes, turn all
together, boiling hot, to the onions ; let
them remain ten days, turn the vinegar
out again, boil as before, turn them hot
on the onions again. They will be ready
for use as soon as quite cold.

PEACH PICKLES.— Take any quantity
of fine peaches just before they are ripe,
stick into each five or six cloves ; make a
syrup of three pints of vinegar and three
pounds of peaches ; add cinnamon if you
like. Bring the syrup to a boil, and pour
hot over them ; repeat the process for
three days, or until they are shrunk on the
pit. After the last scald they should be
well covered and put away in a very cool
cellar until cold weather sets in. They
will be ready to use, however, in a few
days after they are pickled.

PICKLES, to Color Green.— A beautiful
green color, entirely destitute of any poi-
sonous qualities, may be made by dis-
solving five grains saffron in one-fourth
ounce distilled water, and in another ves-
sel dissolving four grains indigo carmine
in one-half ounce distilled water. After
shaking each up thoroughly they are al-
lowed to stand for twenty-four hours, and
on being mixed together at the expiration
of that time, a fine green solution is
obtained, capable of coloring five pounds
of sugar.

PEPPERS, Pickled.— Soak fresh, hard
peppers in salt and water for nine days in
a warm place, changing the brine every
day ; then put them into cold vinegar. If
the pickles are not required very hot, take
out the seeds from the greater portion of
the peppers.

PLUMS, Sweet, Pickled.— Take seven
pounds of fruit, put them in a jar with
three and one-half pounds of sugar, one
quart best vinegar, two ounces stick cin-
namon, two ounces cloves; the whole
boiled together and thrown over the fruit
three days.

ROOTS, Pickled. — Roots, such as car-
rots, salsify and beet-root, may be pickled
by being sliced, or cut into small pieces,
and slightly boiled in vinegar without
destroying their crispness, and adding the
common spices ; with beet-root, put but-
ton onions, or cut some Spanish onions in
slices, lay them alternately in a jar; boil
one quart of vinegar with one ounce ot
mixed pepper, half an ounce of ginger,
and some salt, and pour it cold over the
beet-root and onions.

PICKLES, Sweet. — For pickling all
kinds of fruit to keep good the year round,
the following rule is safe : To three pounds
of sugar add one pint of good vinegar,
spices to your taste; boil it together,
then let it cool ; fill the jars with clean
and sound fruit, such as peaches, pears,
plums, cherries and grapes (each kind in
a separate jar); then, when the vinegar is
cool, put it on the fruit ; let it stand all
night, then turn off the liquor, and boil it
down a little ; then let it cool, and pour it
in the jars ; cover them nicely, and put
them in a cool place. If, in time, you
discover a white scum on the top, skim it
off, turn off the vinegar, add a little sugar,
and boil it; when cool, pour it on the

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 297

fruit again, and you will have a delightful
pickle.

For peach mangoes, these are excellent.
Take sound, ripe, free-stone peaches;
wipe off the fur ; split them open ; take
out the pits ; have ready some fine chopped
tomatoes, cabbage, horse-radish, and mus-
tard-seed ; fill the vacancy in the peach ;
then place them together, and tie them
with a string ; fill your jars with prepared
vinegar.

TOMATOES, Pickled.— Always use those
which are thoroughly ripe. The small,
round ones are decidedly the best. Do
not prick them, as most recipe-books di-
rect. Let them lie in strong brine three
or four days, then put them down in layers
in your jars, mixing with them small onions
and pieces of horse-radish ; then pour on
l:he vinegar (cold),.which should be first
spiced as for peppers ; let there be a spice
'bag to throw into every pot. Cover
vthem carefully, and set them by in the
cellar for a full month before using.

TOMATOES, Green, Pickled.— To one
peck of tomatoes add a handful of salt,
and enough water to cover them. Let
them remain in this twenty-four hours.
Put them in a kettle (porcelain lined is
the best), fill up with vinegar, and set
upon the stove until the vinegar begins
to boil, and then set away to cool. When
cold, set the kettle again upon the stove,
and bring it to the boiling point. Then
skim the tomatoes, and put them into a
jar; fill up with some new, cold vinegar,
and flavor with mustard-seed, allspice,
cloves, etc.

The same vinegar first used will do to
scald more tomatoes in.

PRESERVING, Hints on.— A very
common discovery made by those who
preserve fruits, etc., is, that the preserve
either ferments, grows mouldy or becomes
candied.

These three effects arise from three sep-
arate causes. The first from insufficient
boiling; the second from being kept in a
damp place, assisted in some degree by
the first cause ; and the third from being
too quick and too long boiling.

Preserves of all kinds should be kept
entirely secluded from the air, and in a
dry place. In ranging them on the
shelves of a store-closet, they should not
be suffered to come in contacc with the
wall. Moisture in winter and spring ex-

udes from some of the driest walls, and
preserves invariably imbibe it, both in
dampness and taste. It is necessary oc-
casionally to look at them, and if they
have have been attacked by mould boil
them up gently again. To prevent all
risks it is always as well to lay a brandy
paper over the fruit before tying down.
This may be renewed in the spring.

Fruit jellies are made in the ratio of a
quart of fruit to two pounds of sugar.
They must not be boiled quick, nor very
long. Practice, and a general discretion,
will be found the best guide to regulate
the exact time, which must necessarily
be affected, more or less by local causes.

PRESERVE FRUITS, without Self-
Sealing Cans. — Prepare a cement of one
ounce resin, one ounce gum shellac, and
a cubic inch of beeswax ; put them in a
tin cup and melt slowly; too high or too
quick heat may cause it to scorch.

Place the jars where they will become
warm while the fruit is cooking. If they
are gradually heated there is no danger ot
breaking.

As soon as the fruit is thoroughly heat-
ed, and while boiling hot, fill the jars full,
letting the juice cover the fruit entirely.
Have ready some circular pieces of stout,
thick cotton or linen cloth, and spread
over with cement a piece sufficient to
cover the mouth and rim of the jar.
Wipe the rim perfectly dry, and apply the
cloth while warm, putting the cement side
down, bring the cover over the rim, and
secure it firmly with a string ; then spread
a coating of cement over the upper sur-
face. As the contents of the jar cool, the
pressure of the air will depress the cover,
and give positive proof that all is safe.

PRESERVE, Small Fruits without
Cooking.— Strawberries, raspberries, black-
berries, cherries and peaches can be pre-
served in this manner: Lay the ripe fruit
in broad dishes, and sprinkle over it the
same quantity of sugar used in cooking
it. Set it in the sun, or a moderately
heated oven, until the juice forms a thick
syrup with the sugar. Pack the fruit in
tumblers, and pour the syrup over it.
Paste writing paper over the glasses, and
set them in a cool, dry place. Peaches
must be pared and split, and cherries
stoned. Preserved in this manner, the
fruit retains much more of its natural fla-
vor and healthfulness than when cooked.

298

CURING AND STORING.

PRESERVE, Fruits without Sugar or
Vinegar. — Pick the fruit from the stalks ;
put them into the bottles. Put one
drachm of alum into four gallons of boil-
ing water ; let it stand till it is cold ; then
fill the bottles with this liquor, bung them
tight, put them into a copper of cold
water, and heat to 176 °; and then tie
them over with bladder and seal them.

FRUITS, Preserved, by Syrup without
Heat. — Many fruits when preserved by
boiling lose much of their peculiar and
delicate flavor, as for instance pineapples;
and this inconvenience may, in some
instances, be remedied by preserving them
without heat. Cut the fruit in slices,
about one-fifth of an inch thick; strew
powdered loaf-sugar an eighth of an inch
thick in the bottom of a jar, and put the
slices on it. Put more sugar on this, and
then another layer of the slices, and so
on, till the jar is full. Place the jar with
the fruit up to the neck in boiling water,
and .lr^ep it there till the sugar is com-
pletely dissolved, which may take half an
hour, removing the scum as it rises.
Lastly, tie a wet bladder over the mouth
of the jar, or cork and wax it.

APPLES, Preserved. — Pare and core
and cut them in halves or quarters ; take
as many pounds of the best brown sugar;
put a tea-cup of water to each pound.
When it is dissolved set it over the fire;
and when boiling hot put in the fruit and
let it boil gently until it is clear and the
syrup thick ; take the fruit with a skim-
mer on to flat dishes ; spread it to cool ;
then put it in pots or jars and pour the
jelly over. Lemons boiled tender in
water and sliced thin may be boiled with
the apples.

APPLES, Crab, Preserved. — Take
off the stem and core them with a sharp
knife without cutting them open ; weigh
a pound of white sugar for each pound
of apples ; put a tea-cup of water to each
pound of sugar, and then put it over a
slow fire. When the sugar is dissolved
and hot, put the apples in; let them boil
gently until they are clear, then skim
them, cut and spread them on flat dishes.
Boil the syrup until it is thick; put the
syrup in whatever they are to be kept,
and when the syrup is cold and settled,
pour it carefully over the fruit. Slices of
lemon boiled with the fruit is to some an
improvement ; one lemon is sufficient for

several pounds of fruit. Crab apples may
be preserved whole with three-quarters of
an inch of stem on ; three-quarters of a
pound of sugar for each pound of fruit.

APRICOTS, Preserved, Whole.— Take
the largest and cleanest apricots to be
got; pick out the stones with a silver
skewer, or slit them down the sides with
a silver knife; take nearly their weight in
good lump sugar; dip each lump in
water and put over the fire; let it just
boil; skim, and put by till cold; then
pour it over the fruit in the preserving-
pan, warm very gently and only allow
them to simmer; then put them by till
next day, and warm them again, continu-
ing this till they look clear; then take
the fruit from the syrup. The latter must
now be well boiled and skimmed, and
when cold poured over the fruit.

CITRON MELON, Preserved.— Pare,
core and cut into slices some fine citron
melons. Weigh them. To six pounds
of melon allow six pounds of refined
sugar, the juice and grated rind of four
large lemons, and a quarter pound of
root ginger. Boil the slices of melon
half an hour or more, till they look quite
clear and are so tender that a broom
straw will pierce them. Then drain
them, lay them in a pan of cold water,,
cover them, and let them stand all night.
In the morning tie the root ginger in a
thin muslin cloth, and boil it in three
pints of clear water till the water is high-
ly flavored; take out the bag of ginger
and pour the water over the pieces of su-
gar, which is previously broken and put
in a preserving kettle. When the sugar
is melted, set it over the fire, put in the
grated peel of the lemons and boil and
skim it till no more scum rises. Then
put in the sliced citrons and the juice of
the lemons ; boil them in the syrup till all
the slices are quite transparent, and so
soft that a straw will go through thenv
but do not break them. When done put
.the slices, still warm, into jars, and gently
pour over the syrup. This will be found
delicious.

CUCUMBERS, Preserved, To Imitate
Ginger. — Take small cucumbers, with the
flowers and stalks on them, and some
large ones gathered dry; put them in a
stone jar with salt and water enough to
cover them ; then put cabbage leaves on
the top to cover them close, and set them

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 299

in the chimney corner for a fortnight, un-
til they are turned yellow ; then drain the
water away and throw away the cabbage
leaves, which will smell very strong, al-
most to putrefaction; split the large ones,
take out the seed, put them in an earthen
pipkin over the fire with weak salt and
water; cover them close, and let them
green gently for ten hours, when they
will look a little green, and are very
clean ; take them off the fire and drain
them, and put them into cold water, shitt-
ing them twice a day for two days ; then
drain them and dry them in a fine cloth.
Have ready a thin syrup with a good
deal of whole ginger boiled in it, and
some lemon peel ; when it is cold put it
on the cucumber. Boil up the syrup ev-
ery day for a fortnight, and when it is
cold pour it on as before. Tie them
down with a bladder, and a leather and
paper under it, and keep them in a cool,
dry place. A pint of water to a pound
of sugar is a good proportion for the
syrup.

ORANGES, Seville, Preserve Whole.—
Cut a hole at the stem end of the oranges
the size of a half dime, take out all the
pulp, put the oranges into cold water for
two days, changing it twice a day ; boil
them rather more than an hour, but do
not cover them, as it will spoil the color ;
have ready a good syrup, into which put
the oranges, and boil them till they look
clear ; then take out the seeds, skins, etc.,
from the pulp first taken out of the
oranges, and add to it one of the
whole oranges previously boiled, with an
equal weight of sugar to it and the pulp ;
boil this together till it looks clear over a
slow fire, and, when cold, fill the oranges
with this marmalade, and put on the
tops; cover them with syrup, and put
brandy paper on the top of the jar. It is
better to take out the inside at first, to
preserve the fine flavor of the juice and
pulp, which would be injured by boiling
in the water.

GRAPES, Preserved in Bunches. — Take
out the stones from the grapes with a pin,
breaking them as little as possible ; boil
some clarified sugar nearly to candy
height ; then put in sufficient grapes to
cover the bottom of the preserving-pan,
without laying them on each other, and
boil for five minutes, merely to extract all
the juice; lay them in an earthen pan,

and pour the syrup over them; cover
with paper, and the next day boil the
syrup, skimming it well for five minutes ;
put in the grapes, let them boil a minute
or two ; put them in pots, and pour the
syrup over them, after which tie down.

GINGER, Preserved, Imitation of. —
Boil, as if for the table, small, tender,
white carrots; scrape them until free from
all spots, and take out the hearts. Steep
them in spring water, changing it every
day, until all vegetable flavor has left
them. To every pound of carrots so
prepared add one quart of water, two
pounds of loaf sugar, two ounces of
whole ginger, and a rind of lemon shred
fine. Boil for a quarter of an hour every
day, until the carrots clear, and when
nearly done, add red pepper to taste.
This will be found a good imitation of
West Indian preserved ginger,

MELON, Preserved Like Ginger.—
When the melon is nearly ripe, pare it
thin, and cut it into pieces about the size
of ginger ; cover it with salt water, chang-
ing every day for three days; then put
in clear spring water, changing it twice
a day for three days. Then make a thin
syrup, and boil it together with the mel-
on once every day for three days ; next
make a thick syrup, adding the rind of
one or more lemons, according to the
quantity of melon, cut into narrow strips,
and the juice squeezed in ; then add some
best white ginger, with the outside cut
off, so as to make the syrup strong of
the ginger. This should be boiled, and
when cold put to the melon.

CURRANTS, Preseryed.— Take ripe
currants, free from stems; weigh them,
and take the same weight of sugar; put
a tea-cup of sugar to each pound of it ;
boil the syrup until it is hot and clear;
then turn it over the fruit ; let it remain
one night ; then set it over the fire and
boil gently, until they are cooked and
clear; take them into the jars or pots
with a skimmer; boil the syrup until rich,
and thick; then pour it over the fruit.
Currants may be preserved with ten,
pounds of fruit to seven of sugar. Take
the stems from seven pounds of the cur-
rants, and crush and press the juice from
the remaining three pounds; put them
into the hot syrup and boil until thick
and rich ; put it in pots or jars, and the
next day secure as directed.

3°°

CURING AND STORING.

CHERRIES, Preserved. — Take fine
large cherries, not very ripe ; take off the
stems and take out the stones; save
whatever juice runs from them ; take an
•equal weight of white sugar; make the
syrup of a tea-cup of water for each
pound ; set it over the fire until it is dis-
solved and boiling hot ; then put in the
juice and cherries; boil them gently until
clear throughout; take them from the
syrup with a skimmer and spread them
•on flat dishes to cool; let the syrup boil
until it is rich and quite thick ; set it to
<;ool and settle; take the fruit into jars or
pots and pour the syrup carefully over;
let them remain open until the next day;
then cover as directed. Sweet cherries
are improved by the addition of a pint of
red currant juice and a half pound of
sugar to it, for four or five pounds of cher-
ries.

DAMSONS, Preserved.— Put a quart of
damsons into a jar with a pound of sugar
strewed between them; set the jar in a
warm oven, or put it into a kettle of cold
water and set it over the fire for an hour,
then take it out, set to become cold,
drain the juice off, boil it until it is thick,
then pour it over the plums ; when cold,
cover as directed for preserves.

DEWBERRIES, Preserved.— Pick your
berries early in the morning, weigh them,
then spread them on dishes, sprinkle them
with sugar in the due proportion assigned
them (pound for pound). When the
juice settles from them in the dishes, pour
it off, and with it moisten the remainder
of the sugar; simmer this over a slow
fire, and, while simmering, drop in a por-
tion of the berries; let them become clear,
and return them to the dishes to cool
while the remainder takes their place in the
kettle. When all are clear, and the syrup
boiled down to a rich consistency, pour it
over them, and when cool enough, trans-
fer them to glass jars.

GREENGAGES, Preserved. — Select
well-grown greengages, but not the least
ripe ; prick them with a fork to the stone,
and as soon as pricked, put them in water
in a preserving-pan. When they are all
done, put them over a slow fire to simmer
very gently, so as to make them tender
without breaking ; try them with a fork,
and when tender to the stone, put them in
•cold water, and as some will get soft before
others they must be watched carefully ;

let them lie in water a day and a night ;
strain then, and when well drained put
them in an earthen pan and pour over
them some boiling hot clarified sugar suf-
ficient to cover them ; put a paper over
them; the next day pour off the syrup
and boil it; if three quarts or therea-
bouts, boil for ten minutes, then pour it
over the fruit and again lay the paper
over them. Boil the syrup every other
day in the same manner, until it is about
the consistence of cream (in five or six
boilings). If the syrup shrinks, so as
not to keep the fruit well covered, add a
fresh supply. While boiling the syrup
the third time, put the greengages in, and
let them simmer gently for a short time,
Which will bring them green; and the
last time of boiling the syrup, let them
simmer a little in it.

GOOSEBERRIES, Preserved.— Take full
grown gooseberries before they are ripe,
pick them and put them in wide-mouthed
bottles; cork them gently with new, soft
corks, and put them in an oven from
which the bread has been drawn; let
them stand till they have shrunk nearly a
quarter, then take them out and beat the
corks in tight; cut them off level with the
bottle and resin them down close. Keep
in a dry place.

GRAPES, Preserved, in Vinegar,—
Grapes are preserved in vinegar by the
Persians after the following fashion : The
grapes are gathered when half ripe, and
put into bottles half filled with vinegar,
which so macerates them that they lose
their hardness, and yet do not become
too soft. The grapes have a sweet acid
taste, which is not unpalatable, and es-
pecially refreshing during the great heats.

HUCKLEBERRIES, Preserved. — The
huckleberries may be easily kept for win-
ter use by putting them in bottles or cans,
without adding anything to them and
without cooking. The mouths of the
cans should be tightly closed, and the
cans should be buried mouth downward,
in a box of sand. When taken out of the
sand for use in the winter the color of the
berries is slightly changed, but the shape
and flavor are preserved in perfection.
They make excellent pies.

GREEN GINGER, Preserved.— Scrape
and clean your green ginger well ; to each
pound of green ginger put a pint and a

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 30!

half of water; boil it down one-third;
skim carefully while boiling, then strain off
the liquid ; add a pound of sugar-candy,
and boil the ginger in it until quite ten-
der.

MUSHROOMS, To Preserve. — The
small open mushrooms suit best. Trim
and rub them clean, and put into a stew
pan a quart of the mushrooms, three
ounces of butter, two teaspoonfuls of
salt, and half a teaspoonful of Cayenne
pepper and mace mixed ; stew until the
mushrooms are tender; take them care-
fully out and drain them on a sloping
dish. When cold, press into small pots,
and pour clarified butter over them. Put
writing paper over the butter, and on that
pour melted suet, which will exclude the
air and preserve them for many weeks, if
kept in a dry, cool place.

MOCK GINGER, Preserved.— Cut off
the stalks of lettuce just going to seed,
and peel off the strings, cut them in
pieces two or three inches long, and
throw them into water; after washing
them, put them into sugar and water,
mixed in the proportion of one pound of
sugar to five pints of water, add to this
quantity two large spoonfuls of pounded
ginger. Boil the whole together for
twenty minutes, and set it by for two
days. Then boil it again for half an hour,
and renew this five or six times in the
same syrup. Then drain the stalks upon
a sieve, and wipe them dry ; have ready
a thick syrup boiled, and make strong
with whole ginger. Pour it upon the
stalks boiling hot, boil them in it twice or
thrice, or until they look clear, and taste
like the West India ginger.

ORANGE-PEEL, Preserved. — Clean
carefully ; cut in thin strips ; stew in water
until the bitterness is extracted ; drain off
the water, and stew again for half an hour
in a syrup of sugar and water, allowing a
half-pint of water and a pound of sugar to
each pound of peel. Put it aside in jars,
and keep it in a cool place. If desired,
a little cinnamon and ginger may be
stewed with the peel, but it is more deli-
cate cooked simply with sugar. Lemon-
peel may be prepared in the same man-
ner, either alone or mixed with orange-
peel. These form pleasant " relishes "
eaten with cake or bread, or if chopped
finely when prepared, they form excellent
flavoring for puddings and pies.

PEARS, Preserved. — Take six pounds
of pears to four pounds of sugar, boil the
parings in as much water as will cover
them, strain it through the colander, lay
some pears in the bottom of your kettle,,
put in some sugar, and so on, alternately;,
then pour the liquor off the pear-skins
over, boil them until they begin to look
transparent, then take them out, let the
juice cool, and clarify it ; put the pears in
again, and add some ginger, prepared as
in the above recipe; boil till done; let
the liquor boil after taking them out, until
it is reduced to a syrup.

PINE-APPLE, Preserved. — Choose
ripe but sound ones, and cut them in slices
about an inch in thickness, and cut off the
rind. Weigh the slices, and to every two
pounds of fruit put one pound and three-
quarters of sifted white sugar. Boil them
together in a preserving-pan for thirty
minutes, and if the slices are tender, take
them out carefully with a wooden spoon,
and place them on a wooden dish ; boil
the syrup for a short time longer, and then
pour it over the slices of pine-apple. This,
process must be repeated for three succes-
sive days, after which the preserves may
be put into jars and covered.

PURPLE-PLTJMS, Preserved. — Make
a syrup of clean brown sugar ; clarify it as
directed in these recipes ; when perfectly
clear and boiling hot, pour it over the
plums, having picked out all unsound
ones and stems ; let them remain in the-
syrup two days, then drain it off; make
it boiling hot, skim it, and pour it over
again; let them remain another day or
two, then put them in a preserving-kettle
over the fire, and simmer gently until the
syrup is reduced, and thick or rich. One
pound of sugar for each pound of plums.
Small damsons are very fine, preserved as
cherries or any other ripe fruit; clarify
the syrup, and when boiling hot put in
the plums ; let them boil very gently until
they are cooked, and the syrup rich. Put
them in pots or jars; the next day secure
as directed.

PEACHES, Preserved.— Take the peach-
es when ripe, pare them, and if you desire
to preserve them whole, throw them into
cold water as you pare them, so as to
prevent them losing color. When you
have everything ready, place the peaches
in a can, adding as much sugar to each,
layer as will make them palatable. Then,

302

CURING AND STORING.

set the can in a vessel containing hot
water, and allow it to remain in boiling
water until the fruit becomes heated
through. This will require, if a quart can
be used, from twenty to thirty minutes.
When heated sufficiently, seal at once by
heating the cover and pressing it at once
firmly into place, and allowing a weight
sufficient to keep down the cover to re-
main upon it until the cement hardens.
The proper temperature of the lid is easily
and conveniently ascertained by putting
a piece of resin, about the size of a small
pea, on the cover when it is put on the
stove; as soon as the resin melts, the
cover is ready to put in place. This pre-
caution is- necessary, as the solder with
which the parts of the lid are joined to-
gether easily melts. It is not absolutely
necessary to use sugar in this process, but
as it assists in the preservation of the
fruit, they can be sealed at a lower tem-
perature than if not used. As sugar is
used to render the fruits palatable, there
can be no objection to using it when pre-
paring the fruit for family use, as it will,
in any case, be necessary, and there is no
reason why the sugar should not be used
before the can is sealed.

If soft peaches are preferred, they
should be cut up as if intended to be eaten
with cream, and must not be placed in
water. When ready, they should be put
in cans and heated as described above.
It is not necessary to heat them in the
can, but a larger quantity may be more con-
veniently heated together and put into
the cans or jars while hot and sealed.
A flat stewpan, lined with porcelain, will
be found well adapted to this purpose.
It must not, of course, be placed directly
over the fire, but in a vessel of water
which is set directly on the fire. By this
means soft peaches may readily and cer-
tainly be preserved for winter use in such
condition as scarcely to differ at all from
the fresh peach. A most delicious des-
sert may thus be secured much more
readily and at less expense, and much
more palatable than the ordinary pre-
serve. This method of preserving fresh
peaches has been fully tested and may
be relied npon.

QUINCES, Preserved, Whole or Half.—
Into two quarts of boiling water, put a
quantity of the fairest golden pippins,
in slices not very thin, and not pared,

but wiped clean. Boil them very quickly,
close covered, till the water becomes
a thick jelly ; then scald the quinces. To
every pint of pippin jelly, put one pound
of the finest sugar; boil it and skim it
clear. Put those quinces that are to
be done whole into the syrup at once,
and let it boil very fast ; and those that
are to be in halves by themselves ; skim
it, and when the fruit is clear, put some
of the syrup into a glass to try whether it
jellies before taking it off the fire. The
quantity of quinces is to be one pound of
sugar and one pound of jelly, already
boiled with the sugar.

RHUBARB," Preserved. — Cut without
peeling or splitting, six pounds of ordin-
ary-sized rhubarb into pieces about an
inch long; put it in with the rind of a
lemon, into the stewpan, in which must
be about a tablespoonful of water to keep
it from burning; let it boil till tender,
then, with a strainer, take out the fruit,
and add to the juice five pounds of sugar;
boil this forty minutes, then again put in
the fruit and boil ten minutes. This is a
delicious preserve.

RASPBERRIES, Preserved. — These
may be preserved wet, bottled, or made
jam or marmalade of, the same as straw-
berries. Raspberries are very good dried
in the sun or in a warm oven. They are
very delicious stewed for table or tarts.

STRAWBERRIES, Preserved. — Use
ripe strawberries, but not soft. Make a
syrup of one pound of sugar to a pound
of berries. Sugar should be double-re-
fined (though refined sugar will answer),
as it makes the preserves have a more
brilliant color than simply refined sugar.
To each pound of sugar put a tea-cup of
water; set it over a gentle fire and stir it
until totally dissolved. When boiling
hot put in the fruit, having picked off
every hull and imperfect berry ; then boil
very gently in a covered kettle, until by
cutting one open, you find it cooked
through; that will be known by it having
the same color throughout. Take them
from the syrup with a skimmer and
spread them on flat dishes, and let them
remain till cold ; boil the syrup until quite
thick ; then let it cool and settle; put the
fruit into jars or pots, and strain or pour
the syrup carefully over, leaving the sedi-
ment which will be at the bottom of the
pitcher. The next day cover with several

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 303

papers wet with sugar boiled to candy;
set them in a cool, airy place. Straw-
berries keep perfectly well made with
seven pounds of sugar tp ten of fruit.
They should be done as directed above,
and the syrup cooked quite thick. A
pint of red currant juice and a pound of
sugar for it to three pounds of straw-
berries, make the syrup very beautiful.

TOMATOES, Preserved. — Scald the
tomatoes, take off the skins. Weigh the
tomatoes, which must be full grown and
ripe. Allow to every two pounds of
the best brown sugar, a large spoonful
of ground ginger and the juice and
rind of one large lemon. Mix the
tomatoes and sugar and white of one egg
together, and put in a porcelain kettle.
Boil slowly till the scum ceases to appear;
then add gradually the juice and grated
rind of the lemons and boil slowly for an
hour or more. The tomatoes must all
have burst by this time. When done
take them off, and when cool put them in
jars.

WALNUTS, Preserved. — Pierce your
nuts several times with a fork and boil
them in water until they begin to be
tender ; take them out of the water, and
when cold make a hole through every
one with a pretty large bodkin, and in-
troduce a piece of candied lemon or
citron. Make a syrup of brown sugar
and a little water (the sugar to the weight
of your nuts) and boil your nuts well
until the sugar has penetrated to the
centre; then put them into preserving
pots, filling them with a thick syrup, and
tie them up like jellies.

PEACHES, Canned, by the Cold Pro-
cess.— Pare and halve the peaches.
Pack them as closely as possible in
a can without any sugar. When the can
is full, pour in sufficient cold water to fill
all the crevices between the peaches, and
reach the top of the can. Let it stand
long enough for the water to soak into
all the crevices — say five hours — then
pour in water to replace what has sunk
away. Seal up the can, and all is done.
Peaches preserved in this way retain' all
their freshness and flavor. There will
not be enough water in them to render
them insipid. If preferred, a cold syrup
could be used instead of pure water, but
the peaches taste most natural without
.any sweetening.

FKUTX, in Brandy. — Gather your fruit
before it is quite ripe; prick them with a
pin on each side ; put them into a stew-
pan of fresh spring water, and stew them
gently until you can pass a pin with facil-
ity to the stone of the fruit, when take
them from the pan and put them to drain
on a sieve. Whilst draining, prepare a
syrup, which, when the fruit is nicely ar-
ranged in a tureen, should be thrown on
it boiling hot, and so left for twenty-four
hours, when the fruit is again put to a
drain, and the syrup boiled for one hour,
and poured boiling hot over the fruit
once more. On the third day arrange
the fruit in the preserving pots, and boil
the syrup to a proper consistency ; when
cool, mix it with brandy, in the propor-
tion of two-thirds syrup to one-third
brandy, and pour it over the fruit.

FBUIT, Bottled. — Cherries, strawber-
ries, sliced pine apples, plums, apricots,
gooseberries, etc., may be preserved in
the following manner, to be used as fresh
fruit : Gather the fruit before it is very
ripe; put it in wide-mouthed bottles
made for the purpose; fill them as full
as they will hold, and cork them tight ;
seal the corks; put some hay in a large
sauce-pan; set in the bottles with hay
between them to prevent their touching ;
then fill the sauce-pan with water to the
necks of the bottles, and set it on the
fire until the water is nearly boiling, then
take it off; let it stand until the bottles
are cold; then keep them in a cool place
until wanted, when the fruit will be found
equal to fresh.

FRUIT, To Keep Fresh in Jars.—
We advise the use of self-sealing glass
jars. Put the fruit in a porcelain-lined
preserving kettle, sufficient to fill four
quart jars; sprinkle on sugar, one-half
pound ; place over a slow fire and heat
through, not boiled. While the fruit is
being heated, keep the jars filled with
moderately hot water. As soon as the
fruit is ready, empty the water from the
jars, fill to the brim with fruit, and seal
immediately. As it cools a vacuum is
formed, which prevents bursting. In this
way every kind of fruit will retain its
flavor. Sometimes a thick, leathery mold
forms on the top — if so, all the better.
The plan of keeping the jars full of hot
water is merely to prevent the danger
of cracking when the hot fruit is insert-

3°4

CURING AND STORING.

ed. Some prefer to set the bottles full
of cool water in a boiler of water, and
heating all together gradually; but the
other way is much simpler and equally
effective.

JAM. — Let the jam be drawn on a
dry day; wipe the fruit clean, but do
not wash it; peel off the skin and coarse
fibres, and slice the fruit thin. To each
pound thus prepared allow a pound of
fine sugar in fine powder; put the fruit
in a pan, and stew a quarter of the su-
gar amongst it and over it ; let it stand
until the sugar is dissolved, when boil it
slowly to a smooth pulp; take it from the
fire, and stir in the remainder of the su-
gar by degrees; when it is dissolved, boil
the preserve quickly until it becomes
very thick, and leaves the bottom of the
pan visible when stirred. The time re-
quired for preserving this preserve will de-
pend on the kind of fruit used, and the
time of year it is made. It will vary
from an hour to two hours and a quarter.
The juice should be slowly drawn from it
first.

JAM, To be Put up while Hot.— It
is said that ordinary jam — fruit and sugar
which have been boiled together some
time — keeps better if the pots into which
it is poured are tied up while hot. If the
paper can act as a strainer, in the same
way as cotton wool, it must be as people
suppose. If one pot of jam be allowed
to cool before it is tied down, little germs
will fall upon it from the air, and they
will retain their vitality, because they fall
upon a cool substance; they will be shut
in by the paper, and will soon fall to
work decomposing the fruit. If another
pot, perfectly similar, be filled with a boil-
ing-hot mixture, and immediately covered
over, though, of course, some of the out-
side air must be shut in, and germs which
are floating in it will be scalded, and in
all probability destroyed, so that no de-
composition can take place.

JELLY. — To make a quart, soak one
ounce of gelatine in a pint of cold wa-
ter for twenty minutes, then add the same
quantity of boiling water, stir until dis-
solved; add the juice and peel of two
lemons, with enough sugar to sweeten;
have ready, well beaten, the white and
shell of one egg, stir these briskly into
the jelly, then boil for two minutes with-
out stirring it; remove it from the fire,

and allow it to stand twenty minutes,
then strain through a coarse flannel bag ;
this jelly may be flavored or colored ac-
cording to taste.

JELLY, Custard.— To one cupful of
any sort of jelly, add one egg, and beat
well together with three teaspoonfuls of
cream or milk. After mixing thoroughly >
bake in a good crust.

JELLY, Fruit in. — Put in a basin a
half pint of calf's-foot jelly ; and when
it has become stiff, lay in a bunch of
grapes, with the stalks upwards, or fruit
of any kind; over this put a few vine
leaves, and fill up the bowl with warm
jelly; let it stand till next day, and then
set the bowl in water up to the brim for
a moment; then turn out carefully. It
is an elegant looking dish.

JELLY, with Gelatine. — Take two
ounces and three-quarters of gelatine,
dissolved in about a quart of water, four
lemons, one pound of loaf sugar, nearly
half a bottle of raisin wine, or a little
brandy, and less of the wine, a little
white of egg is necessary to clear it, as
the egg takes from the stiffness of the
jelly. Boil together, strain through a
jelly-bag, and put into a mold.

JELLY, Isinglass. — Two ounces of
isinglass to a quart of water ; boil till it
is dissolved; strain it into a basin upon a
slice of lemon-peel pared very thin, six
cloves and three or four lumps of sugar;
let this stand by the fire for an hour ; take
out the lemon and cloves, and then add
four table spoonfuls of brandy.

JELLY, To Color.— To color jelly red,
boil fifteen grains of cochineal, in the
finest powder, with a drachm and a half
of cream of tartar, in half a pint of wa-
ter, very slowly half an hour. Add, in
boiling, a bit of* alum the size of a pea.

JELLIES, To Preserve from Mold. —
Cover the surface one-fourth of an inch
deep with fine pulverized loaf sugar.
When thus protected, the jellies will keep
for years in good condition, and free from
moldiness.

MARMALADE. — Pare and cut up the
fruit in small pieces, and to a pound of
fruit add a pound of sugar. When the
sugar is dissolved, set it over the fire,
and let it boil till it is a smooth paste.
Stir it all the time it is boiling. If you
wish to flavor, add any essence you de-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 305

sire. Put it in the jars while warm, and
paste them over the next day.

WINE, Apple. — Take pure cider made
from sound ripe apples as it runs from
the press; put sixty pounds of common
brown sugar into fifteen gallons of the ci-
der, and let it dissolve; then put the
mixture into a clean barrel, and fill the
barrel up to within two gallons of being
full, with clean cider; put the cask in a
cool place, leaving the bung out for forty-
eight hours ; then put in the bung, with
a small vent, until fermentation wholly
ceases, and bung up tight; and in one
year the «wine will be fit for use. This
wine requires no racking ; the longer it
stands upon the lees, the better.

WINE, Apricot. — Wipe clean and cut
twelve pounds of apricots; boil them in
two gallons of water till the water has
imbibed the flavor of the fruit, then strain
the liquor through a hair sieve, and to
each quart of it put six ounces of loaf
sugar; then boil it and add six pounds
sugar and one pound of sliced beet-root.
When fermented, put into the cask a quart
or more of brandy or flavorless whisky.

WINE, Blackberry. — Gather the ber-
ries when perfectly ripe, and in such a
manner as to avoid bruising. Empty
them, as fast as gathered, into a tub un-
til you have a quantity sufficient to fill,
with juice, the cask in which you pro-
pose to make the wine.

Have the utensils, etc., required in the
process, all ready before you pick — or at
least before you mash your berries. Ev-
erything must be scrupulously clean.
You want a keg, a beater of seasoned
hard wood, a pail, a large bowl, tureen or
other vessel into which to strain your
juice, a good thick strainer — two or three
folds of fine white flannel is the best ma-
terial— a couple of yards of Osnaburgs,
a spare tub or a bucket or two, and a tub
of soft spring water. Everything must
be perfectly clean and free from dirt or
odor of any kind.

Crush the berries thoroughly with the
beater, and then after straining the
liquor, which runs freely from the pulp
through the folded flannel, empty it into
the cask, measuring it as you put it in.
When the juice has been all drained from
the pulp, you proceed to press the pulp
dry. If the quantity is large, this had
best be done by a regular press, but if only

a few gallons are wanted, the Osna-
burg answers very well. Stretch out the
Osnaburg, put a gallon or a gallon and a
half of the pulp into the center, fold the
cloth over it on each side, and let a strong
hand at either end twist the cloth with all
their strength; when the juice is well
pressed out, remove and lay aside the
cake of pomace, and put in more pulp.
This process is apparently rough, but is
both rapid and effectual. The juice so
extracted is strained and measured into
the cask as before mentioned. The flan-
nel strainer and the Osnaburg may need
rinsing occasionally during the work.

When all the pulp is pressed, put the
hard cakes of pomace taken from the
cloth into a tub, and pour upon them a
little more soft spring water than you
have clear juice ; break up the balls and
wash them thoroughly in the water, so
as to obtain all the juice left in the mass,
and then strain it clear; measure out as
many gallons of this water as you have of
clear juice, say five gallons of the water
to five gallons of the juice, dissolve in
each gallon of the water six pounds of
sugar (brown or white, as you want a,
common or. first-rate wine,) and when,
thoroughly dissolved, add the juice (first
passing it again through the strainer),
and mix them. Then rinse out your
cask, put it where it can stand undisturbed
in a cellar; fill it perfectly full of the
mixture, and lay a cloth loosely over the
bung- hole. In two or three days fermen-
tation will commence, and the impurities
run over at the bung ; look at it every
day, and if it does not run over, with
some of the mixture which you have re- -
served in another vessel, fill it up to the
bung. In about three weeks fermenta-
tion will have ceased, and the wine be
still; fill it again, drive in the bung tight,,
nail a tin over it, and let it remain undis-
turbed until the following November, or
what is better, March. Then draw it off,
without shaking the cask, put it into bot-
tles or demijohns, cork tightly and seal
over.

For a ten-gallon cask, you will need
about 4}i gallons of juice, \Yi gallons of
water, and 26 pounds of sugar, and in the
same proportion for larger or smaller
quantities. Some persons add spirit to
the wine, but instead of doing good, it.
is only an injury.

306

CURING AND STORING.

Another process is, after pouring in the
mixture for a ten-gallon cask, to beat up
the whites of two or three eggs into a
froth, put them into the cask, and with a
long stick mix them thoroughly with the
wine. In five or six days, draw the now
clarified wine off by a spigot, and without
shaking the cask at all, into a clean cask,
bung up and tin, to be drawn off into
glass m November or March.

The more carefully your juice is strained,
the better the quality of sugar, and the
more scrupulously clean your utensils,
particularly your kegs, are, the purer and
better will be your wine.

The best quality, when you gather your
own fruit, and make it yourself, costs you
only the price of the white sugar, and
when bottled will cost you in money
about twelve and a half cents a bottle.

WINE, Currant. — The currants
should^ be fully ripe when picked; put
them into a large tub, in which they
should remain a day or two ; then crush
with the hands, unless you have a small
patent wine press, in which thev should
not be pressed too much, or the stems
will be bruised, and impart a disagreeable
taste to the juice. If the hands are used,
put the crushed fruit, after the juice is
poured off, in a cloth or sack and press
out the remaining juice. Put the juice
back into the tub after cleansing it, where
it should remain about three days, until
the first stages of fermentation are over,
-and removing once or twice a day the
scum copiously arising to the top. Then
put the juice in a vessel — a demijohn,
keg, or barrel — of a size to suit the
•quantity made, and to each quart add
.3 lbs. of the best yellow sugar, and soft
water sufficient to make a gallon.

Thus, ten quarts of juice and 30 lbs. of
sugar will give you 10 gals, of wine, and
so on in proportion. Those who do not
like sweet wine can reduce the quantity
of sugar to two and a half, or who wish
it very sweet, raise to three and a half
pounds per gallon.

The vessel must be full, and the bung
or stopper left off until fermentation
ceases, which will be in 12 or 15 days.
Meanwhile, the cask must be filled up
daily with currant juice leftover, as fer-
mentation throws out the impure matter.
When fermentation ceases, rack the wine
off carefully, either from the spiggot or

by a syphon, and keep running all the
time. Cleanse the cask thoroughly with
boiling water, then return the wine, bung
up tightly, and let it stand 4 or 5 months,
when it will be fit to drink, and can be
bottled if desired.

All the vessels, casks, etc., should be
perfectly sweet, and the whole operation
should be done with an eye to cleanli-
ness. In such event, every drop of
brandy or other spirituous liquors added
will detract from the flavor of the wine,
and will not, in the least degree, increase
its keeping qualities. Currant wine made
in this way will keep for an age.

WINE, Gooseberry. — Pick and
bruise the gooseberries, and to every
pound, put a quart of cold spring water,
and let it stand three days, stirring it twice
or thrice a day. Add to every gallon of
juice three pounds of loaf sugar ; fill the
barrel, and when it is done working, add
to every twenty quarts of liquor, one
quart of brandy, and a little isinglass. The
gooseberries must be picked when they
are just changing color. The liquor ought
to stand in the barrel six months. Taste
it occasionally, and bottle when the sweet-
ness has gone off.

WINE, Grape. — Take two quarts of
grape juice, two quarts of water, four
pounds of sugar. Extract the juice of
the grape in any simple way ; if only a
few quarts are desired, we do it with a
strainer and a pair of squeezers, if a larger
quantity is desired, put the grapes into a
cheese press made particularly clean,
putting on sufficient weight to extract the
juice of a full hoop of grapes, being care-
ful that none but perfect grapes are used,
perfectly ripe ^and free from blemish.
After the first pressing put a little water
with the pulp and press a second time,
using the juice of the second pressing
with the water to be mixed with the clear
grape juice. If only a few quarts are
made place the wine as soon as mixed
into bottles, filling them even full and
allow to stand in a warm place until it
ferments, which will take about thirty-six
hours usually ; then remove all the scum,
cool and put into a dark, cool place. If
a few gallons are desired place in a keg,
but the keg must be even full, and after
fermentation has taken place and the scum
removed, draw off and bottle, and cork
tight.

BEE-KEEPERS' GUIDE.

APIARY, Establishment of an.— The
proper time for this purpose is about Feb-
ruary, or the beginning ot* March, as the
stocks have then passed through the win-
ter iu safety; the combs are then empty
of broods, and light of honey, and may
be removed with safety and ease. Stocks
should be selected by a competent judge,
as the weight alone cannot always be
relied on ; such as weigh 1 2 lbs. and up-
wards, the number of Bees being also
observed, and that they are well combed
to near the bottom, may be safely chosen.
As soon as they are brought home they
should be set in the Bee-house, care being
taken to keep them dry and free from the
attacks of vermin. The best time for re-
moving stocks is in the evening. Swarms
should be brought home the same even-
ing they are purchased, for if delayed a
day or two, the combs will be worked, and
subject to be broken in removing.

BEE-KEEPING, Success in.— Success
in bee-keeping, as well as success in every-
thing else, depends so much upon taking
hold of it the right way and sticking to it
with a determination to succeed, that we
will offer a few suggestions, which may be
of use to the new beginner.

A person commencing bee-keeping, as
well as anything else, had better begin
moderately. Two or three, or perhaps
four hives, are as many as it would be safe
in a majority of cases to commence opera-
tions with. These may be purchased of
any bee-keeper who has them to spare ;
or what may be better, have hives made
such as you want, and engage some neigh-
bor who keeps bees to put his earliest
swarms in them. If the former plan is
adopted, March or April is a good time
to select and take them home. Choose
hives under five years old, and that are
strong in bees ; by rapping smartly on a
hive early in the morning, or any time in
a cold day, you can judge pretty well of
its strength ; if there is a vigorous buzzing
in answer to the raps, it is probably well

supplied with bees ; if the rap is but feebly
responded to, better try another. They
can be taken home any cool day, by shut-
ting them in the hive. If the most
approved system is to be adopted, the
movable comb hive will have to be pro-
cured. If common hives are to be used,
twelve inches square by fourteen high,
inside measurement, is a good size. No
one should commence bee-keeping with-
out profiting as much as possible by the
experience of others, as found in books
and agricultural papers. Lanstroth's
work on " The Hive and Honey Bee"
should be owned and *ead by every bee,
keeper. Many are afraid to commence
bee-keeping on account ' of the moth.
After learning its habits, any intelligent,
industrious person can keep as free from
it as he can keep his cornfield free from
weeds.

BEE, Pasturage.— The first of March
brings the blossoms of the white and sugar
maple, quaking asp , elm and some varieties
of the willow. April brings with it the
perfumed blossoms of the wild plum,
cherry and peach, followed by the rose-
scented apple blossoms of our tame
orchards, and the no less perfumed and
honey-yielding crab apple blossoms of
our groves and forests. With the floral
month of May come flowers innumerable,
that yield an enormous quantity of finely
flavored honey. Besides the flowers,
there is the honey-yielding blossoms of
the black and honey locusts, white haw,
wild black cherry, raspberry, blackberry
and box elder. In June we have, added
to the large number of wild flowers, the
honey-laden blossoms of our meadows
and pastures. The white and red clover
blossoms that grow not only in our
meadows and pastures, but which are
found covering all waysides and outlands,
yield an abundant harvest. During the
latter part of the month of July, all
sources of honey measurably fail, until
the fore part of August, which brings,

(307)

3°&

BEES— MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF.

among other sources, the snow-white
blossoms of buckwheat. This is raised to
a considerable extent here, and is the
richest harvest of the year. It usually
lasts till frost.

The meagre supply of honey from
flowers and blossoms during the latter
part of July might, to the casual observer,
be considered an injury to the honey bee
and its business of making honey ; but a
little further observation shows that it is
not the case. About this time the comb
is filled, and the honey that has already
been gathered is to be sealed over and
secured ; the brood of young ones is to
be nurtured and ma'tured to supply the
place of those which have gone forth in
swarms; pollen, or bee bread — that is
furnished principally, at this time, by
corn tassels — is to be laid up for the next
spring's brood, then to be reared, and the
industrious bee takes this opportunity to
gather and store it up. After the early
frosts there is not much honey to be col-
lected, except from the yellow blossoms
fall which now appear amid the faded ver-
dure of decaying nature. But now the
weather is too cold for gathering honey,
and the bee only struggles for a time with
the chilling winds of autumn, then ends
the campaign and returns to winter
quarters.

The following list comprises some of
the plants from which bees gather honey
and pollen during the feeding seasons :

Spring. — Willow, alder, aspen or pop-
lar, elm, maple, marsh-marigold, hepatica,
anemone, dandelion, erythronium, service
berry, currant, gooseberry, strawberry,
peach, cherry, apple, pear, China tree,
black gum, whortleberry, cottonwood,
cornel or dogwood, narcissus, honey-
suckle, oak, red bud, hazle, yellow jas-
mine, sweet myrtle, magnolia, hawthorn,
box-elder, locust, azalea.

Summer. — Red clover, white clover,
raspberry, blackberry, cockspur, thorn,
whortleberry, black-haw, self-heal, azalea,
sour-wood, cinquefoil, cucumber, narrow-
leaved plantain, horse chestnut, straw-
berry, pea, honey-kew, (on live oak,)
chincapin, persimmon, linden, bee-balm,
maize, sorghum, heliotrope, iron weed,
smart weed, butterfly weed, viper's bug-
loss, cotton plant, buckwheat, sumac,
catnip, Spanish needles, beggar's lice,
boneset, starwort, silk weed, thistle, sage,

cardinal flower, balsam, mountain mint,
sweet marjoram, lavender, spearmint,
peppermint, thyme, dandelion, duckweed,
pennyroyal, sweet clover, speedwell,
poppy, turnip, hollyhock, sunflower,
dahlia, phlox.

Autumn. — Aster, golden rod, dande-
lion, white clover, red clover, cinquefoil,
chickweed, pennyroyal, artichoke, phlox„
chrysanthemum.

BEES, Common or Black, vs. Italian. —
We are satisfied that the Italian bees are
superior to the common or black bees,,
first, in the prolificness of their queens ;;
this is marked. Italian hives will be
strong in spring, and throw off swarms
from one to two weeks before the com-
mon bees. The great preventive of the
ravages of the moth is to keep your hives,
strong; this very prolificness of the Italian
queen keeps the hives strong. Seldom
do we find moth worms in an Italian
hive. Second, in vigor and energy.
They commence work earlier in the morn-
ing; this is easily tested. Let a box with
comb be exposed to the bees, the first
bees that visit it in the morning, though
there may not be more than one hive of
Italians in twenty, will be the Italians,
and they will be the last to leave it at
night. This superior energy and vigor
enables them to store more honey than
the common bee. Third, in keenness of
scent. This is also marked. Few who
have kept the Italians have failed to
notice this peculiarity. Let a dish of
honey be exposed in a room with an open
door or window, during the scarcity of
honey, and the first bee that approaches
it is sure to be an Italian. And fourth, in
amiability of disposition. This has been
questioned, and we will acknowledge that
they are not always the quiet, gentle crea-
tures that some have represented them to
be. Excite their anger, and the same
vigor and energy that leads them to work
earlier and later than the common bee
will make them more furious and less
easily quieted, but my own experience is
that they are rather more peaceable than
the common bee. That they work on red
clover any more readily than the common
bee, we have not been able to see yet But.
to conclude, the Italianizing of an apiary
of common bees adds, in pur humble
opinion, fully one-third to its working
powers.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 309

BEES, Supplying with a Queen. —
Three weeks are required for supplying a
colony with a queen when lost. The
queen is very frequently lost when she
goes out for the purpose of being impreg-
nated, and as she has destroyed all the
unhatched queens, and there is no worker
brood, the loss must be repaired by the
owner. The loss is made sufficiently
plain, and when the young queens are a
week old, the hives should have attention
paid to them morning and evening. The
bees run about on the hive, fly away a
short distance and return, and for the
time being, all is confusion both within
and without the hive. The swarm should
now be given some worker brood from
some other hive, or, better still, a fertile
•queen. The best way to introduce the
queeri to a new colony is, to cover her
with honey water. If a queen survives
her second year, it is best to remove her,
to give place to a younger and more vig-
orous one. The keeper who allows his
stock to remain without queens, is too
careless to succeed.

BEES, Swarms Going to the Woods. —
They may be prevented from doing so by
keeping the hive shaded and cool, and
close to the bottom board, except about
an inch in front. If a difficult case, set in
the cellar from forty-eight to seventy-two
hours, and give them, perhaps, from a
pound to two pounds of honey.

BEES, Swarming to Prevent. — Imme-
diately after the issue of the first swarm,
open the hives, (you must have movable
frames for this,) destroy every royal cell
but one. If at the end of five days this
has not hatched, look over the combs
again, and destroy every royal cell that
may now appear, excepting the one saved
at first. But if the oldest of the young
queens is allowed to hatch and begin pip-
ing before anything is done, the fever of
swarming will rise to such a pitch, that you
cannot allay it, and the old hive may even
be left destitute. The best way is to make
the first swarm an artificial one, before or
soon after queen cells are started. Then
at the end of nine days, destroy all cells
but one, as above. To prevent first
swarms, clip the wings of the queen, and
put a "queen yard" in front of the hive —
a shallow box some two feet square, with
edges of tin projecting inward, so that no
bee can get out and away from the hive

without flying. This will, of course, pre-
vent the escape of the queen, and swarms
will return.

BEES, Enemies of the. — Domestic
fowls are destroyers of bees, and also some
birds, from whose attacks as they range
the fields at a distance from the hive they
cannot be protected. Among these is the
titmouse, or blue tomtit, which devours
the bees, and feeds his young with them ;
and in winter is said to endeavor to force
his way into the hive itself. Mice are
often very troublesome, and even rats
sometimes make their way into the hive.
Slugs and snails often occasion much
trouble; and especially in warm summer
evenings, the attacks of wasps and hornets
are a great annoyance to the bees. In
all these cases, care and vigilance can do
much. Wasps' nests ought to be destroy-
ed wherever met with ; insects of all kinds,
such as earwigs, woodlice, ants, etc.,
should be cleared away. In a word, the
hives and stands for them ought to be
kept as clean and neat as possible.

BEE MOTH or WAX WORM.— Large
hawk-moths sometimes enter a bee hive
for what honey they can get, and even
mice have been known to enter a hive ;
while several parasites live upon the bees
themselves. But by far the worst enemy
the bee-keeper has to contend with, is the
bee-moth. This insect is so well known
to bee men generally that it scarcely
needs a description. It suffices to say,
that the color of the moth is dusky gray,
the fore wings which are scallopped at
the end, being more or less sprinkled and
dotted with purple-brown. The female
is generally a good deal larger than the
male, though there is not so much differ-
ence between the sexes as some writers
have supposed. The worms which pro-
duce these moths are of an ash-gray
color above, and yellowish -white beneath.

The bee moth was first introduced into
this country from Europe about the com-
mencement of the present century, and it
was in all probability imported with the
common bee hive. There are two broods
of the moth each year, the first brood ap-
pearing in May and June, and the second,
which is the most numerous, in August.
During the day time these moths remain
quietly ensconced in some angle ot the
hive, but as night approaches they be-
come active, and the female uses her best

3io

BEES— MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF.

endeavors to get into the hive, her object
being to deposit her eggs in as favorable
place as possible. Wire-gauze contriv-
ances are of no avail to keep her out, as
she frequently commences flying before
all the bees have ceased their work. But
even if she were entirely prevented from
entering the hive, she could yet deposit
her eggs on the outside, or by means of
her extensile ovipositor, thrust them in
between the slightest joint or crack, and
the young worms hatching from them
would readily make their way into the
hive. The moment the worm is hatched
it commences spinning a silken tube for
its protection, and this tube is enlarged
as it increases in size. This worm cuts
its channels right through the comb, feed-
ing on the wax, and destroying the young
bees on its way. When full-grown, it
creeps into a corner of the hive or un-
der some ledge at the bottom, and forms
a tough white cocoon, of silk intermin-
gled with its own black excrement. In
due time the mouth emerges from this
cocoon.

A worm-infested hive may generally be
known by the discouraged aspect which
the bees present, and by the bottom-
board being covered with pieces of bee-
bread mixed with the black gunpowder-
like excrement of the worm. It must
not be forgotten, however, that in the
spring of the year pieces of bee-bread at
the bottom of a hive, when not . mixed
with the black excrement, is not necessa-
rily a sign of the presence of the worm,
but, on the contrary, may indicate indus-
try and thrift. If a hive is very badly
infested with the worm, it is better to
drive out the bees and secure what honey
and wax there may be left, than to pre-
serve it as a moth breeder to infest the
apiary. If put into a new hive, the bees
may do something, and if they do not,
there is no loss, as they would have per-
ished, finally, from the ravages of the
worm.

It should invariably be borne in mind
that a strong stock of bees is ever capa-
ble of resisting, to a great extent, the at-
tacks of the worm; while a starved or
queenless swarm is quite indifferent to its
attacks. In a common box hive, a good
way to entrap the worms after they are
once in the hive, is to raise the front upon
two small wooden blocks, and to put a

piece of woolen rag between the bottom
board and the back of the hive. The
worms find a cozy place under the rag, in
which they form their cocoons, and may
there may be found and killed, from time
to time. Much can be done in the way
of prevention, by killing every morning
the moths which may be found on the
outside of the hides. At this time of the
day they allow themselves to be crushed,,
with very good grace; and if two or
three be killed each morning, they would
form an important item at the end of the
year, especially when we recollect that
each female is capable of furnishing a
hive with at least 300 eggs. In conclu-
sion, we give it as our conviction that im-
munity from the ravages of this bee-
worm can only be guaranteed where a
thorough control is had of both hive and
bees; hence the importance of the mov-
able frame hive.

BEES, Swarming, Artificial vs. Natural.
— Which is the best ? It is probably well
known to all who have heard of the mov-
able comb hive that one of the advan-
tages claimed for it is that of being able
with it to divide your bees, or, in other
words, to swarm them artificially. Those
who are using the old box hives, nail
kegs, hollow logs, etc., sometimes ques-
tion whether an artificial swarm is as good
as a natural one. Actual trial of the two
modes, under equal circumstances, will
alone decide. Last year the writer tried
both thoroughly, and could see difference
in results. There are several things in
favor of artificial swarming. 1st. All
swarms can be made early, and it is well
known that an early swarm is worth far
more than a late one. 2d. Swarms can
be made at will — in other words, a per-
son does not have to watch his bees all
spring, and then have some of his best
hives fail of swarming, or lose their
swarms. This feature of the moveable
comb hive renders bee keeping more
pleasant and safe to the business man
who wishes to keep bee hives enough to
supply his family with honey. How
many have been deterred from keeping
bees by the trouble of watching them
during swarming time, and then of being
taken from their business to hive them
after they are swarmed? 3d. Artificial
swarms when made properly are more apt
to remain than natural swarms. 4th.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 31 r

They are more easily made, as a general
thing, than natural swarms are hived.
How often has the bee-keeper, while
getting ready to hive a swarm, been
troubled with having swarm after swarm
issue and persist in clustering together ?
We have had as many as four clusters to-
gether in one monstrous swarm. Then
the qustion is what to do with them ? To
hunt up even two queens and put them
in two hives is tedious business — to run
them into three or four hives at a venture
runs the risk of getting all the queens in
one hive, when the other bees will either
leave or join the hive with the queens.
There is considerable loss in hiving two
or three prime swarms together, unless
the honey season is short or the swarms
very small. Artificial swarming saves all
of this, makes a certainty of increase of
stocks, and having tew, if any, late
swarms. We say few, if any, because with
a large number of hives, occasionally a
hive that has been divided will throw
off a swarm, but the two cases are
so few that they are hardly worth men-
tioning.

BEES, Swarming, Artificial. — This
should be undertaken only when honey is
abundant in the fields and the nights
warm. To divide them, have a hive at
hand of the same size and pattern as
your others. Then from four hives take
each two frames and place them in the
new hive, supplying them in the old with
empty frames. Then move a hive which
you have not disturbed, arodor more away
to a new place, and place the new hive
where that one stood. This should be done
in the fields. These will come in loaded
to their old place, and find it strange; and
as it contains stores and young bees hatch-
ing, and eggs from which to rear another
queen, they will at once proceed to rear
one, and remain and work as contended
as ever. This process may be repeated
every two weeks until you have secured
sufficient increase. The hives from which
you take the combs, and the ones which
you move to a new place, will lose so
many bees that they will not think of
swarming, but will energetically make up
their loss, and be better than if nothing
had been taken from them. This is the
safest of all ways to divide bees, and can
be safely practiced by beginners.

BEES, Swarming of. — It is generally

supposed that a hive will not swarm until
most, if not all, of the cells are so filled
that the queen has no place to lay her
eggs, and as this is not apt to happen un-
less bees are gathering honey freely, it is
useless to look for swarms, particularly in
the spring, until warm, dry weather, as
either cold or wet weather is unfavorable
for the secretion of honey. Swarms sel-
dom or never issue until at least one
queen cell is capped over.

Those using the movable comb hive
can by examining the frames every few
days tell almost to a certainty when to
expect a swarm, though occasionally bees
will change their mind and permit the
queen to destroy the royal cells.

No rattling of pans or any other noise
is needed to make a swann settle; in
fact, I never was able to satisfy myself
that throwing dirt or water among the
bees ever had any tendency to make them
settle, though others think it will.

The sooner bees are hived after clus-
tering, the better the chances are of their
remaining with you.

Hives need no rubbing with leaves or
salt to induce bees to go into them ; be
sure they are clean, and free from cob-
webs.

There is another thing very necessary,
the lack of which has caused the loss of
many a swarm of bees, and that is a cooL
hive.

After hiving a swarm, put the hive on
a ventilating bottom board; it should
not be raised, as bees are more inclined
to remain in the hive if the ventilation is
from below, and the entrance the only
place they can get out. The hive should
be well shaded, and in very warm weather
sprinkling or syringing with water fre-
quently will help keep the hive cool, and,
of course, have a tendency to make the
bees satisfied with their new home.

Occasionally a swarm will leave a hive
when it seems as if all had been done
that could be to keep them. If a swarm
appears determined to "secede," put a
box of honey on it, shut it up on its ven-
tilating bottom board, and take it into
the cellar, keeping it there four or five
days ; it might be well to give water by
putting a dish full under the bottom board
and pressing it up to the wire screen,
then the bees can help themselves.

We never knew a swarm desert a hive

312

BEES— MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF.

after remaining in it four days (unless an
accident happened, such as melting down
the comb,) by that time there is brood
which bees will seldom leave.

It may be necessary to explain what a

bottom board is: it is simply a bottom

board with a six or eight inch square cut

out of the centre and a wire cloth tacked

/ over it.

BEE QTJEEN, Fertilization of the.— The
idea is just this — a young queen will be fer-
tilized in confinement if shut up about the
time she would have flown, providing, of
course, that a drone of the right sort is
confined with her.

It is necessary to make a fertilizer of
some kind large enough to allow the
queen and drones to fly around in. It is
best to make them of fine wire cloth, say
twelve inches long by seven inches in
diameter — size immaterial.

If coarse wire cloth is used in making
them, the queen will be apt to be caught
and held by the workers until she starves;
workers sometimes pull the wings and
legs from their own queen. We mention
this so that the necessity for using fine
wire cloth may be seen.

A wire cloth dish cover, ten inches in
■diameter, is just the thing for the purpose;
they cost but little and can be easily fixed
by fitting a piece of thin board in the
bottom, in which a door large enough to
put in one's hand should be made. Fas-
ten on the inside of the fertilizer a piece
of empty comb (drone comb is best) three
or four inches square, which, when required
for use, fill with honey and water — taking
pains not to drop any honey in the fer-
tilizer, or the queen and the drones will
become daubed up so as to prevent them
from flying.

From close observations it has been
discovered that in the spring and summer
young queens leave the hive to meet the
drones for impregnation, usually on the
fifth day ; in tire fall months they very
seldom leave until seven or eight days old.

On the morning of the day that a queen
is to leave the hive put her with four or
five drones into the fertilizer.

In selecting the drones to be put with
young queens, great care should be taken
to choose only those that are strong, vig-
orous and well marked, and they should
he caught as they are about to leave the

hive — those returning from a trip are
generally too tired to be serviceable.

Having got the queen and the drones
in the fertilizer and everything fixed, lay
it over the frames of the hive to which
the queen belongs, so that the heat from
the hive can get into it. If a dish cover
fertilizer is used, put the round side
downward.

Put on the cap, which should have an
opening in the side or top, covered with
glass to admit light.

Leave her there thirty-six or forty-
eight hours — a shorter time usually an-
swers ; when a dead drone is found, ex-
amine it, and if the generative organ is
gone, the queen can be released, when she
will go down into the hive and begin to
lay in a few days, or she can be intro-
duced to a nuclei hive, which can be done
in a minute by giving the bees in the nu-
clei a dose of smoke, where she can be
kept until wanted.

Fertilizers can be put on any hive, and
two or three can be put on at a time if
the space is large enough.

If any are in doubt about their queens
becoming fertile, they can easily prove
the matter by clipping the wings of the
queen ; or, better still, confining her with
all the bees until she begins to lay.

We had over one hundred queens
mated this season, in complying with the
above directions, twenty of which were
mated before our eyes.

Those that go to work and raise a large
batch of queens in nurseries, and expect
to have them fertilized by the wholesale,
need not be surprised to find out that
they have got a large sized elephant on
their shoulders, and that instead of ac-
complishing their object, they lose the
whole lot.

In our opinion, it is best to allow young
queens to run with the workers until four
days old, when the queen bees and all
can be confined until the queen is ready
to be put into a fertilizer, or she could be
caught and put into a queen cage until
six or seven days old, when there could
be some prospect of success.

We have endeavored to describe the
methods as minutely as possible, and in
as "come-at-able " way as we know how.

Those having an accurate and thor-
ough knowledge of the nature and habits
of the bee, will not only succeed with it,

UBOXB BEE.

QUEEN BEJI

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 313

but should try all the experiments within
their power to perfect the method for the
benefit of apiarians generally.

BEE MILLER, to Destroy.— To a quart
cf water, sweetened with honey or sugar,
add a gill of vinegar, and set in an open
vessel on the top or by the side of the
hive. When the miller comes in the
night he will fly into the mixture and be
drowned.

BEES, Different Kinds of.— There are
three kinds of bees in every hive — viz.,
the queen, the drones, and the workers.

The queen bee is the mother of all the
bees in the hive, and is the only perfect
female, and is readily distinguished from
all the others by her long body, short
wings, and yellow abdomen. There is
but one queen bee in a hive, and in case
she is lost, the industry of the hive is
stopped until preparations are completed
for hatching another. The queen leaves
.the hive when she is seven or eight days
old, for the purpose of meeting the male
bee, is impregnated, and then never leaves
the hive again, except with a swarm.
Queens are the only bees that live more
than one season, and they sometimes live
three years, and they have been known to
exist for five years. They are, if supplied
with good cells, capable of laying over one
hundred thousand eggs in a season. The
•queen always goes out with a swarm, and
if by accident she becomes lost, the bees
immediately return to the hive which
they left.

Drones are male bees. Large numbers
are reared in each hive, but are destroyed
after the honey season is over, and the
young queens have been impregnated.
They are the consumers, not the pro-
ducers— they do not labor, but are
4rones. They are somewhat larger and
more clumsy than the workers, and some-
times number as high as several thousand
to a hive.

The workers are the bees who do the
work of the colony. For two weeks after
they are hatched they work inside the hive;
•after that they go out to gather honey.
During the working season, a bee of this
class seldom lives over two months, so
that during a season a colony is several
times, with the exception of the queen,
changed. A good swarm should number
from twenty-five to thirty thousand bees,
and previous to swarming they often num-

ber from forty to fifty thousand. This
bee has a poisonous sting, which in self-
defence they will use, but if carefully
handled they will not sting. The work-
ers, when absent from their hives, will
not use their sting unless they cannot
escape without it, and especially when
swarming, they can be even brushed,
handled, shaken, and, unless likely to be
crushed, is this the case. When filled
with honey at any time they will not
sting, even in defence of their hives and
treasures. They are smaller than the
drone, and have a little sac for storing
honey, and little baskets on their legs for
pollen.

BEES, Wintering. — Bees require so little
care and attention at the very time other
stock require the most, that they are very
apt to be entirely neglected ; but we know
of no stock so much benefited by a little
labor rightly directed as bees. It is gen-
erally supposed that twenty-five pounds
of honey, after the first of November, is
sufficient to winter a hive of bees in this
latitude in the open air ; if the spring is
late and wet, thirty pounds is barely
enough. But our most successful apiari-
ans find that it pays to build a house for
wintering bees, or to partition off a room
in the cellar. We have a room eight by
ten feet, ceiled perfectly tight, with floor
cemented. Two ventilating tubes, one
from the bottom at one corner, the other
from the opposite corner at the top ; both
opening out doors with slides to regulate
ventilation. A thermometer hung to a
slide running through the door so as to
to be drawn out and examined without
opening the door, gives us the tempera-
ture without disturbing the bees ; we have
four tiers of shelves. The hives are taken
from their bottom boards, caps or boxes
taken off, and placed upon strips of laths
to raise them from the shelves so as to
give ventilation ; the holes in the top for
honey boxes are left open. The shelves
are movable so as to be taken down or
put up to facilitate operations. We win-
tered ninety-two hives in this room last
winter without the loss of one.

BEE, Hat. — This hat, which is very
useful to keepers of bees, is made by sew-
ing a strip of cloth to the edge of a com-
mon stiff brim hat, sufficiently long to
button under the coat. Over the face
sew in the cloth a piece of wire gauze.

3»4

BEES— MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF.

Let the gauze be coarse enough to keep
the bees from entering, and it will not
obstruct the sight.

BEE, Drones, in Swarming. — Mr.
Quimby, one of the best bee men in the
country, speaks thus in regard to drones :
"A strong colony of bees, with a fertile
queen, and abundance of honey on hand,
will rear drones at the commencement of
warm weather, usually in May. Yet but
few swarm then in this latitude. If honey
should become scarce between fruit blos-
soms and clover — it does sometimes — the
mature drones are destroyed, and even
the chrysalis is often dragged out and
sacrificed. When honey is again abun-
dant in the flowers, more eggs are de-
posited in the drone-cells. The swarm
may issue before the drone appears.
When a stock has too little honey to
afford to rear drones until the flowers
yield it, they will occasionally swarm be-
fore drones appear. The appearance of
drones is not a certain indication of
swarming. But when they are destroyed,
it indicates that honey is scarce, and no
swarms need be expected at such time.
If it occurs late in the season, they may
not swarm, although they may rear drones.
A hive that has not reared %any drones
until the flowers yield honey, is much
more likely to swarm than one that has
destroyed them once. The queen does
not lay drone eggs exclusively at any
time, but a number of both drone and
worker eggs daily for months in some sea-
sons. Drones do not appear to control
the swarming. We consider so many of
them a useless horde of consumers, and
take measures to prevent the bees from
rearing so many. We find that if the
queen lays her eggs in drone-cells they
hatch out drones ; if in worker cells, they
are workers. Acting on this hint, we cut
out all the combs from a box-hive, trans-
ferring them to movable frames, rejecting
drone-combs, and without them they can
raise no drones."

BEES, Feed for.— Should the weather
be favorable, every stock should be ex-
amined about the first of February.
Should any one be in want of food, it
should be supplied. If in a box or gum
hive, thin pieces of white sugar candy can
be slightly pushed between the combs
through an opening in the top. Honey
or good sugar syrup can be given by

means of a saturated sponge or comb,
filled with honey, placed at the opening
on top, being careful to cover with a boxv .
to keep out outside bees. In movable
frame-hives, frames of honey from other
hives having it to spare, is most conve-
nient, and any required quantity can be
given to the various feeders through the
honey board. This feeding should be
kept up, or food enough should be given
for the bees and their brood until honey
can be gathered from forage outside. As
soon as bees begin to fly freely, stimulat-
ing should begin, which may be accom-
plished as in feeding for stores, except the
feed should be given every day about sun-
down, and not more than three table-
spoonsful of honey or four of syrup should
be given at any one time. This should be
done, whether the bees have an abun-
dance of honey in their hives or not.
The bees getting a little every day, it
produces much the same effect as honey
gathered from the field, which stimulates
and promotes early brood.

Another important feed for bees is un-
bolted flour, or, what is better, rye-meal,
which supplies the want of pollen (bee
bread) for the larvae brood of the hive.

This meal is given to the bees on a
waiter, or wide plank having strips nailed
on the edges to prevent waste, and should
be placed in or near the apiary, out of
the wind, and in the sun as much as pos-
sible.

Should the bees be tardy in finding the
meal, put a piece of empty comb on the
meal, or a few drops of honey on the
plank, and when found the bees will pack
it on their legs and take it to their hives
every warm day with great avidity, until
they can get pollen from the blossoms.

The effect is to produce large and early
broods, strengthening weak stock, and
making all strong with young bees Iff good
time for the honey harvest, giving earlier
and larger swarms, and greatly increasing
the amount of surplus honey.

White clover, buckwheat, the linden-
tree, golden-rod, and aster furnish good
food. White clover and the linden-tree
yield the best honey. Alsike clover is
sown extensively for this purpose, and not
only supplies honey for the bees, but hay
and forage for the farm stock. It pro-
duces a great abundance of honey of fine
quality, yields two crops of hay a year,

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 315

and continues to bloom till the frost comes.
The Italian bee is said to prefer it to white
clover.

BEE HIVES, the Best. — Mr. M.
Quinby, the noted bee culturist, prefers
the movable-comb bee-hive on account
of its special fitness for removing the
honey, feeding the bees, and for artificial
swarming. Bees generally store much
more honey than their necessities require.
With this hive each sheet of comb may
be taken out when it is filled, and the
bees will restore it ; or the comb may be
emptied of its honey by means of a ma-
chine for that purpose, and the empty
combs replaced. In this case the bees
will need only to fill the old comb-cells.
This makes a great saving of labor for
the bees, as they will collect thirty
pounds of honey in the time it would
take to make one pound of comb. It is
estimated that a swarm of bees, when
supplied with the comb, as may be done
with the movable comb-hive, will store
more than two hundred pounds of honey
in a favorable season.

How to Make. — The shape of a box-
hive should be long from front to rear,
fifteen inches deep, twelve inches wide,
and the same in height. Inch boards un-
planed are the best, and the boards should
be well seasoned and carefully put to-
gether. The hive should set in a groove
in the bottom board and not be fastened
to it. Place two or three half-inch sticks,
crossing each way in the middle of the
hive, aids to support the combs. One-
quarter inch from the top of the hive, fas-
ten slats four to six inches in width of
one-half inch stuff", leaving cracks from
one-fourth to one-third inch in width be-
tween them. Over the top of the hive
place a cover projecting on every side,
and fasten the same to the hives by means
of small hooks, which not only gives you
a movable top and bottom board, but
also a honey board. This is as near a
movable comb hive as we can mention.

BEE HIVES, Position of.— So far as
our experience goes, it is better that the
hive should be near the ground. All of
our hives are on the ground, or separated
from it only by a board. The comb does
not mold. The weary and heavy laden
bee returning late at evening not seldom
misses the entrance, and falls to the
ground. Though chilled, they can still

crawl into the hive, whereas, if it were
high they would never reach it. Weeds
must not be allowed in front, nor high
grass. Neither is it very important in
what direction the hive faces. If it
fronts the south in the summer the heat
of the entrance is too great, and in win-
ter the bees are invited forth by the sun
in unsuitable times. If the west, the
high winds of summer and winter dash
them to the ground, and the setting sun
invites them forth when they should re-
main at home. If the north, they get to
work too late of a morning, and quit too
soon at night, besides other objections.
If the east, some think they get to work
too soon, and many are lost, chilled by
the morning dews. I think the east or
southeast less objectionable than any
other. It is the early bird that catches the
worm. Many plants, such as buckwheat,
and our yellow prairie flowers, are rich in
honey in the morning only ; whereas after
ten o'clock, unless the day is cloudy or
moist, the fount of honey is dry. Neither
would this aspect tempt them forth too
late in the evening. Many bees foraging;
after sundown are lost and never return.
My Italians have been found watering
three miles from home as a regular thing.
A neighbor found them at that distance,
and lined them home, supposing he had
found a wild Italian hive ; and yet there
was plently of water at all times within a
stone's throw of their home.

BEE HIVES, Common. — The common
box hive is the one most generally used.
It is usually made of one and a half inch
pine boards, though other materials are
used, according to the taste of the maker
or the cost of the material. The size of
the hive varies much, but generally con-
tains two hundred cubic inches, with
cross-bars placed in the center to aid in
supporting the combs. In general, they
are simple boxes. This form is varied at
times, however, by placing on the top of
the hive drawers or boxes for surplus
honey. In these hives the bees are left
to take care of themselves, as very little
can be done to aid them. The old-fash-
ioned basket or straw hive is seldom used,
and it will soon be wholly discarded, save
by a few bee-keepers, who may retain it
rather as a curiosity than for any practi-
cal use.

In the Southern States the favorite form.

3l6

BEES— MANAGEMENT AND CARE OF.

of hive is the "gum." This consists of a
hollow log, generally a portion of a cy-
press stump, about two feet in length and
a foot in diameter; upon the top of the
hollow is placed a board, and at the bot-
tom is cut a small notch for the entrance
of the bees, and the hive is complete.
Three-fourths of the hives in these States
are of this description. This form of hive
served the purpose before the appearance
of the moth or foul-brood, but no reli-
ance can now be placed upon it. If the
moth is gaining the upper hand, foul-
brood raging, honey supply low, or queen
lost, there is no remedy — the bees must
perish. The do-nothing system in bee-
keeping, as in other branches of agricul-
ture, will lead to the ruin of the bee-
keeper. Those apiarians who use the
movable-comb hive and a scientific meth-
od of bee-keeping have been the most
successful.

HONEY.— The color of the honey
shows whether it is fine or inferior. If it
be wanted to press some in the comb,
choose the fairest and those that have not
been broken ; wrap each comb in white
paper, such as lines the blue cover of loaf-
sugar. Set it edgewise as it stood in the
hive, and it may be preserved many
months. The combs meant to be drained
must be cut in slices. Lay them on a
hair-search, supported by a rack over the
jar, in which the honey is to remain ; for
the less it is stirred after drainage the
better it keeps.

Fill the jar to the brim, as a little scum
must be taken off when it has settled. A
bladder well washed in lukewarm water
ought to be laid over the double fold of
white paper with which it is covered.

HONEY, to Take, without Destroying
the Bees. — In the dusk of the evening,
when the bees are quietly lodged, ap-
proach the hive and turn it gently over.
Having steadily placed in it a small pit,
previously dug to receive it, with its bot-
tom upward, cover it with a clean, new
hive, which has been properly prepared,
with a few sticks across the inside of it,
and rubbed with aromatic herbs. Having
•carefully adjusted the mouth of each hive to
the other, so that no aperture remains be-
tween them, take a small stick and beat
gently around the sides of the lower hive
for about ten minutes or a quarter of an
hour, in which time the bees will leave

their cells in the lower hive, ascend and
adhere to the upper one. Then gently
lift the new hive, with all its little tenants,
and place it on the stand from which the
other was taken. This should be done
some time in the week preceding mid-
summer-day, that the bees may have time
before the summer flowers have faded to
lay in a new stock of honey, which they
will not fail to do for their subsistence
through winter.

BEES, Queen, Rearing of. — Premising
that you use movable frames, make a
number of small frames, as near 4 or 5
inches square as may be, to just fit inside
one of your large ones. Fill with clean
worker comb — that which has been frozen
is the best, because the eggs of the moth
will have been thus destroyed — and put
the large frame containing these small
ones in the middle of some stock with a
fertile queen from which you wish to
breed. Provide also some small boxes
on the plan of a simple movable frame
hive, with loose top and rabbeting for the
frames, and just the size to accommodate
three or four of them. When eggs have
been deposited in the combs, set up one
of your small boxes with them as a hive
in miniature, and confine in it between a
pint and quart of bees. They will imme-
diately construct queen cells, and may
then be opened. In this way any num-
ber of queens may be provided.

BEES, Foul-Brood Putrid foul-brood

is a disease which attacks the young
brood of the hive, showing itself fully
after the larvae have been sealed up. It
may be known by the viscous, gelatinous
and yeast-like appearance of the decom-
posing brood, the unpleasant odor arising
from the hive, and by the sunken covers
of the cells. The cause of foul-brood has
been, until recently, involved in doubt,
but late discoveries in Germany have
thrown much light upon its origin. Mr.
Lamprecht alleges that he has discovered
the cause of the disease. His theory is
this : " The chyme, which the workers
prepare from honey and pollen by partial
digestion, and with which the larvae are
fed, contains a nitrogenous, plastic, for-
mative substance, from which all the
organs and tissues of the larvae are de-
rived and composed ; . . . and precisely
because of this its complicated composi-
tion it is peculiarly susceptible of rapid

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 317

decomposition when exposed to air and
moisture; that is, to undergo fermenta-
tion and putrefaction. It is hence obvious
that pollen, even though having under-
gone only partial decomposition, must
affect the bodies of bees and larva? differ-
ently from what it did or would do in its
natural condition; and there is no longer
a doubt that it is from pollen, thus par-
tially decomposed, that the foul-brood
originates. That it can readily undergo
decomposition is manifest. Moisture,
emanating in part from unsealed honey,
and in part from the perspiration of the
bees, becomes condensed in the hive from
external cold, and in the fall and toward
spring it is frequently found hanging in
drops on the combs, just as we find it
condensed on the windows of our dwell-
ing-houses. If one of these drops falls
into a cell containing pollen, decomposi-
tion of the latter speedily commences,
and is then communicated by the bees to
the pollen in the other cells; and the
cause of foul-brood is hence abundantly
present in a hive thus circumstanced."

There is no cure for this disease when
it has once obtained headway. Destruc-
tion of the bees and honey and thorough
purification of the hive is the only remedy
to prevent the spread of the disease. As
a means of preventing the disease, Dr.
Preuss gives the following directions:
Feed no fermenting honey ; feed no meal,
especially when the hive is threatened
with disease ; destroy carefully every par-
ticle of dead and moldering matter : and
avoid weakening bees during the brood-
ing seasons, so that they will not be able
properly to maintain the heat necessary
for the development of the brood.

With the light now thrown upon the

nature of this disease by these recent dis-
coveries, bee-keepers may be able to
conquer the contagious malady whenever
it makes its appearance.

BEES, Ages of. — The queen passes the
period of about three days in the egg and
five as a worm; the workers then close
her cell, and she immediately begins to
spin her cocoon, which takes her from
twenty to twenty-four hours. On the
tenth and eleventh days, and perhaps a
part of the twelfth day, she seems to be
exhausted by her hard labor. She now
remains in almost complete repose; she
then passes four or five days as a nympha,
and on the fifteenth to the sixteenth day
a perfect queen is attained. Much de-
pends upon the strength of the colony
and the heat of the season, which will
vary it from one to two days.

The drone passes three days in the egg,
and about six in the worm, and changes,
into a perfect insect on the twenty-fourth
day after the egg is laid. Much depends
upon the strength and heat of the colony,
which should be about 700 Fahrenheit
tor their speedy development. They lie
in rather a dilatory state for several days
after they hatch before taking wing.

The working bee spins its cocoon in
about thirty-six hours. After passing
three days in the egg in this state of pre-
paration for a new life, it gradually under-
goes a great change, and becomes armed
with a firmer body, with scales of a brown-
ish color, and somewhat fringed with light
hairs. On its belly it has six rings or
scales. After it has reached the twenty-
first day of existence — reckoning from the
egg — it comes forth from the cell on the
twenty-first to the twenty-second day a.
perfect insect, and is termed an image.

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES,

AND

HOW TO MEET THEM.

As accidents are constantly liable to
occur, the importance of knowing how best
to meet the various emergencies that may-
arise can hardly be over-estimated. In all
cases, and under all circumstances, the
best help to assist a party in this trying
moment is presence of mind.

BITES.— See Wounds.

BITES, Harvest Bug.— The best reme-
dy is the use of benzine, which immedi-
ately kills the insect. A small drop ot
tincture of iodine has the same effect.

BITES and Stings of Insects — Such as
bees, wasps, hornets, etc., although gen-
erally painful, and ofttimes causing much
disturbance, yet are rarely attended with
fatal results. The pain and swelling may
generally be promptly arrested by bath-
ing freely with a strong solution of equal
parts of common salt and baking soda, in
warm water; or by the application of
spirits of hartshorn; or of volatile lini-
ment (one part of spirits of hartshorn and
two of olive oil). In the absence of the
other articles, warm oil may be used ; or,
if this is not at hand, apply a paste made
from fresh clay-earth. If the sting of the
insect is left in the wound, as is frequent-
the case, it should always be extracted.
If there is faintness, give some stimulant ;
as, a table-spoonful or two of brandy and
water, or brandy and ammonia.

BITES, Mad Dog.— i. Take immedi-
ately warm vinegar or tepid water ; wash
the wound clean therewith and then dry
it; pour upon the wound, then, ten or
twelve drops of muriatic acid. Mineral
acids destroy the poison of the saliva, by
which means the evil effects of the latter
are neutralized. 2. Many think that the
only sure preventive of evil following the
bite of a rabid dog is to suck the wound

immediately, before the poison has had
time to circulate with the blood. If the
person bit cannot get to the wound to
suck it, he must persuade or pay another
to do it for him. There is no fear of any
harm following this, for the poison enter-
ing by the stomach cannot hurt a person.
A spoonful of the poison might be swal-
lowed with impunity, but the person who
sucks the place should have no wound op
the lip or tongue, or it might be danger-
ous. The precaution alluded to is a most
important one, and should nevei be
omitted prior to an excision and the ap-
plication of lunar caustic in every part,
especially the interior and deep-seated
portions. No injury need be anticipated
if this treatment is adopted promptly and
effectively. The poison of hydrophobia
remains latent on an average six weeks;
the part heals over, but there is a pimple
or wound, more or less irritable ; it then
becomes painful, and the germ, whatever
it is, ripe for dissemination into the sys-
tem, and then all hope is gone. Never-
theless, between the time of the bite and
the activity of the wound previous to dis-
semination, the caustic of nitrate of silver
is a sure preventive; after that it is as
useless as all the other means. The best
mode of application of the nitrate of sil-
ver is by introducing it solidly into the
wound.

BITES, Serpents. — The poison inserted
by the stings and bites of many venomous
reptiles is so rapidly absorbed, and of so
fatal a description, as frequently to occa-
sion death before any remedy or antidote
can be applied; and they are rendered
yet more dangerous from the fact that
these wounds are inflicted in parts of the
country and world where precautionary

(3i8)

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 319

measures are seldom thought of, and
generally at times when people are least
prepared to meet them. 1. In absence
of any remedies, the first best plan to
.adopt on being bitten by any of the
poisonous snakes is to do as recommended
above in Mad Dog Bites — viz., to wash
■off the place immediately ; if possible,
get the mouth to the spot, and forcibly
suck out all the poison, first applying a
ligature above the wound as tightly as
can be borne. 2. A remedy promulgated
by the Smithsonian Institute is to take
30 grs. iodide potassium, 30 grs. iodine,
1 oz. water, to be applied externally to
the wound by saturating lint or batting —
the same to be kept moist with the anti-
dote until the cure be effected, which will
be in one hour, and sometimes instantly.
3. An Australian physician has tried and
recommends carbolic acid, diluted and
administered internally every few minutes
until recovery is certain. 4. Another
Australian physician, Professor Halford,
of Melbourne University, has discovered
that if a proper amount of dilute am-
monia be injected into the circulation of
a patient suffering from snake-bite, the
curative effect is usually sudden and start-
ling, so that, in many cases men have
thus been brought back, as it were, by
magic, from the very shadow of death.

BLEEDING OF WOUNDS. See Cuts.

BLEEDING AT THE NOSE.— 1. Roll
up a piece of paper, and press it under
the upper lip. 2. In obstinate cases blow
a little gum Arabic up the nostrils through
a quill, which will immediately stop the
discharge ; powdered alum is also good.
3. Pressure by the finger over the small
artery near the ala (wing) of the nose, on
the side where the blood is flowing, is
said to arrest the hemorrhage immedi-
ately.

BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS.— A
New York physician has related a case in
which inhalation of very dry persulphate
of iron, reduced to a palpable powder,
entirely arrested bleeding from the lungs,
after all the usual remedies, lead, opium,
etc., had failed. A small quantity was
administered by drawing into the lungs
every hour during part of the night and
following day.

BLEEDING FROM THE BOWELS.—
The most common cause of this, when
not a complication of some disease, is

hemorrhoids or piles. Should serious
hemorrhage occur, rest and quiet, and
cold water poured slowly over the lower
portion of the belly, or cloths wet with
cold water, or better, with ice water
applied over the belly and thighs, and to
the lower end of the bowels, will ordin-
arily arrest it. In some cases it may be
necessary to use injections of cold water,
or even put small pieces of ice in the
rectum.

BLEEDING FROM THE MOUTH.—
This is generally caused by some injury
to the cheeks, gums or tongue, but it
sometimes occurs without any direct cause
of this kind, and no small alarm may be
caused by mistaking it for bleeding from
the lungs. Except when an artery of
some size is injured, bleeding from the
mouth can generally be controlled by
gargling, and washing the mouth with
cold water, salt and water, or alum and
water, or some persulphate of iron may
be applied to the bleeding surface.
Sometimes obstinate or even alarming
bleeding may follow the pulling of a
tooth. The best remedy for this is to
plug the cavity with lint or cotton wet
with the solution of persulphate of iron,
and apply a compress which may be
kept in place by closing the teeth on it.

BLEEDING FROM THE STOMACH—
Vomiting blood. — Hemorrhage from the
stomach is seldom so serious as to en-
danger life ; but as it may be a symptom
of some dangerous affection it is always
best to consult a physician concerning it.
In the meantime, as in all other varieties
of hemorrhage, perfect quiet should be
preserved. A little salt, or vinegar, or
lemon juice, should be taken at intervals,
in a small glass of fresh cool water, or
ice-water, as ice may be swallowed in
small pieces, and cloths wet with ice-
water, or pounded ice applied over the
stomach.

BLEEDING FROM VARICOSE
VEINS. — Serious and even fatal hemor-
rhage may occur from the bursting of a
large varicose or " broken " vein. Should
such an accident occur, the bleeding may
be best controlled, until proper medical
aid can be procured, by a tight bandage,
or a " stick tourniquet," remembering that
the blood comes toward the heart in the
veins, and from it in the arteries. The
best thing to prevent the rupture of van-

3*o

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES.

cose or broken veins is to support the
limb by wearing elastic stockings, or a
carefully applied bandage.
BTJBNS and SCALDS.— There is no class

of accidents that cause such an amount
of agony, and none which are followed
with more disastrous results.

i. By putting the burned part under cold
water, milk, or other bland fluid, in-
stantaneous and perfect relief from all
pain will be experienced. On withdraw-
al, the burn should be perfectly covered
with half an inch or more of common
wheaten flour, put on with a dredging-
box, or in any other way, and allowed
to remain until a cure is effected, when
the dry, caked flour will fall off, or can
be softened with water, disclosing a beau-
tiful, new and healthy skin, in all cases
where the burns have been superficial.
2. Dissolve white lead in flaxseed oil to
the consistency of milk, and apply over
the entire burn or scald every five min-
utes. It can be applied with a soft feath-
er. This is said to give relief sooner, and
to be more permanent in its effects, than
any other application. 3. Make a satu-
rated solution of alum (four ounces to a
quart of hot water). Dip a cotton cloth
in this solution and apply immediately on
the burn. As soon as it becomes hot or
dry, replace it by another, and continue
doing so as often as the cloth dries,
which at first will be every lew minutes.
The pain will immediately cease, and af-
ter twenty-four hours of this treatment
the burn will be healed, especially if com-
menced before blisters are formed. The
astringent and drying qualities of the
alum will entirely prevent their formation.
4. Glycerine, five ounces ; white of egg,
four ounces; tincture of arnica, three
ounces. Mix the glycerine and white of
egg thoroughly in a mortar, and gradual-
ly add the arnica. Apply freely on linen
rags night and morning, washing pre-
viously with warm castile soap-suds. 5.
Take one drachm of finely powdered
alum, and mix thorougly with the white
of two eggs and one teacup of fresh lard;
spread on a cloth, and apply to the
parts burnt. It gives almost instant re-
lief from pain, and, by excluding the air,
prevents excessive inflammatory action.
The application should be changed at
least once a day. 6. M. Joel, of the
Children's Hospital, Lausanne, finds that

a tepid bath, containing a couple ot
pinches of sulphate of iron, gives imme-
diate relief to young children who have
been extensively burned. In a case of a
child four years old, a bath repeated
twice a day — twenty minutes each bath —
the suppuration decreased, lost its odor,,
and the little sufferer was soon convales-
cent. 7. For severe scalding, carbolic
acid has recently been used with marked
benefit. It is to be mixed with thirty
parts of the ordinary oil of lime water to
one part of the acid. Linen rags satu-
rated in the carbolic emulsion are to be
spread on the scalded parts, and kept
moist by frequently smearing with a
feather dipped in the liquid. Two ad-
vantages of this mode of treatment are,
the exclusion of air, and the rapid heal-
ing by a natural restorative action with-
out the formation of pus, thus preserving
unmarred the personal appearance of the
patient — a matter of no small importance
to some people.

CHOKING. — In case of choking, a vi-
olent slap with the open hand between
the shoulders of the sufferer will often
effect a dislodgment. In case the accident
occurs with a child, and the slapping
process does not afford instant relief, it
should be grasped by the feet, and placed
head downwards, and the slapping be-
tween the shoulders renewed; but in case
this induces violent suffocative paroxysms
it must not be repeated. If the substance,
whatever it may be, has entered the
wind-pipe, and the coughing and invert-
ing the body fails to dislodge it, it is prob-
able that nothing but cutting open the
wind-pipe will be of any avail ; and for
this the services of a surgeon should al-
ways be procured. If food has stuck in
the throat or gullet, the forefinger should
be immediately introduced ; and if lodged
at the entrance of the gullet, the sub-
stance may be reached and extracted,
possibly, with the forefinger alone, or
may be seized with a pair of pincers, if at
hand, or a curling tongs, or anything of
the kind. This procedure may be facili-
tated by directing the person to put the
tongue well out, in which position it may
be retained by the individual himself, or
a bystander by grasping it, covered with
a handkerchief or towel. Should this
fail, an effort should be made to excite
retching or vomiting by passing the fin-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE.

ger to the root of the tongue, in hopes
that the offending substance may in this
way be dislodged ; or it may possibly be
effected by suddenly and unexpectedly
dashing in the face a basin of cold water,
the shock suddenly relaxing the muscular
spasm present, and the involuntary gasp
at the same time may move it up or
down. If this cannot be done, as each
instant's delay is of vital importance to a
choking man, seize a fork, a spoon, a
pen-holder, pencil, quill, or anything
suitable at hand, and endeavor to push
the article down the throat. If it be low
down in the gullet, and other means fail,
its dislodgment may sometimes be effect-
ed by dashing cold water on the spine,
or vomiting may be induced by an emetic
of sulphate of zinc (twenty grains in a
couple of table-spoonfuls of warm water),
or of common salt and mustard in like
manner, or it may be pushed into the
stomach by extemporizing a probang, by
fastening a small sponge to the end ot a
stiff slip of whale-bone. If this cannot
be done, a surgical operation will be ne-
cessary. Fish bones or other sharp sub-
stances, when they cannot be removed by
the finger or forceps, may sometimes be
dislodged by swallowing some pulpy
mass, as masticated bread, etc. Irregu-
lar-shaped substances, a plate with artifi-
cial teeth for instance, can ordinarily on-
ly be removed by surgical interference.

COLIC. — Use a hot fomentation over the
abdomen, and a small quantity of gin-
ger, peppermint or common tea. If not
relieved in a few minutes, then give an
injection of a quart of warm water with
twenty or thirty drops of laudanum, and
repeat it if necessary. A half teaspoon-
ful of chloroform, in a table-spoonful of
sweetened water, with or without a few
drops of spirits of lavender or essence of
peppermint, will often give prompt relief.

CONVULSIONS.— In small children
convulsions frequently happen from teeth-
ing, sometimes from worms or from some
irritating substance within the stomach or
bowels, and sometimes from some affec-
tion of the brain.

When a child has convulsions place it
immediately in a warm or hot bath, and
sponge its head with cold water. Then
apply a hot mustard plaster to the wrists,
ankles and soles of the feet, or, in case a
plaster cannot be obtained, apply a cloth
21

wrung out of hot mustard water. Allow
these to remain until the skin reddens,
and use care that the same do not blister.
After the fit has subsided, use great care
against its return by attention to the
cause which gave rise to it.

Convulsions in adults must be treated
in accordance with the manner which
gave rise to them. During the attack
great care should be given that the party
does not injure himself, and the best pre-
ventive is a cork or a soft piece of wood,,
or other suitable substance, should be
placed between the teeth to prevent biting
the tongne and cheeks; tight clothing-
must be removed or loosened; mustard-
poultices should be applied to the ex-
tremities and over the abdomen ; abund-
ance of fresh air should be secured by
opening windows and doors, and prevent-
ing unnecessary crowding of persons
around; cold water may be dashed on
the face and chest ; and if there be ple-
thora, with full bounding pulse, with
evidence of cerebral or other internal
congestion, the abstraction of a few
ounces of blood may be beneficial.

CRAMP. — Spasmodic or involuntary
contractions of the muscles, generally of
the extremities, accompanied with great
pain. The muscles of the legs and feet
are those most commonly affected with-
cramp, especially after great exertion.
The best treatment is immediately to ■
stand upright, and to well rub the part
with the hand. The application of strong
stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of
anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been
recommended. When cramp occurs in
the stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile
in water, or a dram glassful of good
brandy, should be swallowed immediately.
When cramp comes on during cold bath-
ing, the limb should be thrown out as-
suddenly and violently as possible, which-'
will generally remove it, care being also*
taken not to become flurried nor fright-
ened, as presence of mind is very essen-
tial to personal safety on such an occasion.
A common cause of cramp is indigestion, ;
and the use of acescent liquors; these
should be avoided.

CUTS.— In case the flow of blood is
trifling, stop the bleeding by bringing the
edges of the wound together. If the
flow of blood is great, of a bright vermil-
lion color, and flows in spirts or with a^

322

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES.

jerk, an artery is severed, and at once
should pressure be made on the parts by
the finger (between the cut and the heart),
until a compress is arranged by a tight
ligature above the wounded part. Then
the finger may be taken off, and if the
blood still flows, tighten the handker-
chief, or other article that forms the
ligature, until it ceases. If at this point
ithe attendance of a physician or surgeon
cannot be secured, take strong silk thread,
or wax together three or four threads,
and cut them into lengths of about a foot
long. Wash the parts with warm water,
and then with a sharp hook or small pair
of pincers in your hand, fix your eye
steadfastly upon the wound, and directing
the ligature to be slightly released, you
will see the mouth of the artery from
which the blood springs. At once seize
it, draw it out a little, while an assistant
passes a ligature round it, and ties it up
tight with a double knot. In this way
take up in succession every bleeding
vessel you can see or get hold of. If the
wound is too high up in a limb to apply
the ligature, do not lose your presence of
mind. If it is the thigh, press firmly on
the groin; if in the arm, with the hand-
ed or ring of a common door-key make
pressure above the collar-bone, and about
its middle, against its first rib, which lies
under it. The pressure should be con-
tinued until assistance is procured and
the vessel tied up. If the wound is on
the face, or other place where pressure
•cannot effectually be made, place a piece
of ice directly over the wound, allowing
it to remain there until the blood coagu-
lates, when it may be removed, and a
■compress and bandage be applied.

After the bleeding is arrested the sur-
rounding blood should be cleared away,
as well as any extraneous matter; then
bring the sides of the wound into contact
throughout the whole depth, in order
that they may grow together as quickly
as possible, retaining them in their posi-
tion by strips of adhesive plaster. If the
•wound be deep and extensive, the wound
itself and the adjacent parts must be
supported by proper bandages. The
position of the patient should be such as
will relax the skin and muscles of the
wounded part. Rest, low and unstimu-
lating diet, will complete the requirements
necessary to a speedy recovery.

DEATH, How to Distinguish. — As *,
many instances occur of parties being I
buried alive, they being to all appearance (
dead, the great importance of knowing
how to distinguish real from imaginary 1
death need not be explained. The ap- [
pearances which mostly accompany death, '
are an entire stoppage of breathing, of
the heart's action ; the eye-lids are partly
closed, the eyes glassy, and the pupils
usually dilated; the jaws are clenched,
the fingers partially contracted, and the
lips and nostrils more or less covered
with frothy mucus, with increasing pallor
and coldness of surface, and the muscles
soon become rigid and the limbs fixed in
their positions. But as these same con-
ditions may also exist in certain other
cases of suspended animation, great care
should be observed, whenever there is
the least doubt concerning it, to prevent
the unnecessary crowding of the room in
which the corpse is in, or of parties
crowding around the body ; nor should
the body be allowed to remain lying on
the back without the tongue being so
secured as to prevent the glottis or orifice
of the windpipe being closed by it ; nor
should the face be closely covered ; nor
rough usage of any kind be allowed. In
case there is great doubt, the body
should not be allowed to be inclosed in
the coffin, and under no circumstances
should burial be allowed until there are
unmistakable signs of decomposition.

Of the numerous methods proposed as
signs for real death, we select the follow-
ing: i. So long as breathing continues,
the surface of a mirror held to the mouth
and nostrils will become dimmed with
moisture. 2. If a strong thread or small
cord be tied tightly around the finger of
a living person, the portion beyond the
cord or thread will become red and swol-
len— if dead, no change is produced. 3.
If the hand of a living person is held
before a strong light a portion of the mar-
gin or edges of the fingers is translucent
—if dead, every part of it is opaque. 4.
A coal of fire, a piece of hot iron, or the
flame of a candle, applied to the skin, if
life remains, will blister — if dead, it will
merely sear. 5. A bright steel needle
introduced and allowed to remain for half
an hour in living flesh will be still bright
— if dead, it will be tarnished by oxyda-
tion. 6. A few drops of a solution of

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE.

atropia (two grains to one-half ounce of
water) introduced into the eye, if the per-
son is alive, will cause the pupils to di-
late— if dead, no effect will be produced.
7. If the pupil is already dilated, and the
person is alive, a few drops of tincture of
the calabar bean will cause it 'to contract
— if dead, no effect will be produced.

DISLOCATIONS.— These injuries can
mostly be easily recognized: 1. By the
deformity that the dislocation gives rise
to by comparing the alteration in shape
with the other side of the body. 2. Loss
of some of the regular movements of the
joints. 3. In case of dislocation, surgical
aid should be procured at once. While
waiting the arrival of a physician the in-
jured portion should be placed in the po-
sition most comfortable to the patient,
and frequent cold bathing, or cloths
wrung out of cold water, applied to the
parts affected, so as to relieve suffering
and prevent inflammation.

DROWNED, to Restore Persons, Ap-
parently.— In the treatment of cases of
apparent death, either from drowning or
suffocation, no time is to be lost. Every
moment is precious, and what is done
must be done prompdy and energetically.

Send for blankets and dry clothing,
and instantly and on the spot proceed to
treat the patient, keeping off the crowd
which frequently surrounds in such cases,
and give the patient all the fresh air pos-
sible, exposing the face, neck and chest
to the wind, except in severe weather, re-
moving all clothing from the neck and
chest, and also the suspenders, if a man.
Remember the points to be aimed at are,
first and immediately, the restoration of
breathing, and secondly, when breathing
is restored, the promotion of warmth and
circulation. If you promote warmth and
■circulation beyond drying the skin and
removing the wet clothing before you re-
store the natural breathing, restoration of
life will be engendered.

To restore breathing, cleanse the mouth
and nostrils, place the patient gently on
the ground or floor with the face down-
ward for a moment, putting one of the
arms under his forehead, by which posi-
tion all fluids will more readily escape
from the mouth, and the tongue will fall
forward, leaving the entrance into the
wind-pipe free; draw forth the patient's
tongue and keep it forward by passing an

elastic band over the tongue and under
the chin, or a piece of string or tape may
be used for the same purpose ; assist this
operation by wiping and cleansing the
mouth. If satisfactory breathing should
now commence, use the treatment de-
scribed below to promote warmth and
circulation ; but if there should be only
slight breathing, or no breathing, or if
the breathing fail, then excite breathing
by turning the patient on one side, sup-
porting the head and exciting the nostrils
with snuff or hartshorn, if at hand, or
tickling the throat with a feather, etc.
Rub the face and chest warm, and dash
cold water, or better still, alternately
warm and cold water, on the face and
chest. If still no success follows, lose
not a moment, but instantly proceed to
imitate breathing. Replace the patient
on the face, raising and supporting the
chest well on a folded coat or other firm
pillow, letting one person attend solely
to the movements of the head, keeping
a hand under it; then turn the body
gently on the side and a little beyond,
and then on the face again, repeating
these movements cautiously, efficiently
and perseveringly, every four or five sec-
onds, occasionally varying the side. By
placing the body on the face, the weight
of it forces the air out, and when turned
on the side and the pressure removed, the
air is enabled to enter the chest. On
each occasion that the body is replaced
on the face, make uniform but efficient
pressure on the back, between and below .
the shoulder blades, but taking away the
pressure immediately the body is turned
on the side again. The result of this
treatment will be, if not too late, to pro-
duce natural breathing, and consequently
life. Whilst the above operations are be-
ing carried on, let the patient's hands and
feet be dried, and as soon as blankets or
dry clothing can be procured, strip the
body and cover with the blankets and
continue the operation as described, which
must continue steadily and uninterrupt-
edly.

If, however, these efforts should not
prove successful in from three to four
minutes, proceed to produce breathing in
the method recommended by Dr. Sylves-
ter, as follows : Place the patient on the
back on a flat surface, inclined a little
upward from the feet, supporting the head

;24

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES.

and shoulders on a small firm cushion, as
a folded coat, placed under the shoulder
blades. Keep the tongue still projecting
as before directed ; then let an operator
stand at the patient's head, grasp the
arms just above the elbows, and draw the
arms gently and steadily upwards until
they meet above the patient's head (this
is for the purpose of drawing air into the
lungs), and keep the arms in this position
for two seconds. Then turn down the pa-
tient's arms, and press them gently and
firmly for two seconds against the sides
of the chest ; repeat these measures alter-
nately, deliberately and perseveringly,
about fifteen times a minute, until a natu-
ral effort to breathe is perceived, when
you may immediately cease and proceed
at once to induce warmth and circulation.
Commence rubbing the limbs upwards,
with a firm, grasping pressure and ener-
gy, using handkerchiefs, flannels, etc.
Continue the friction under the blankets,
or even over the dry clothing, if that has
been put on. Promote the warmth of the
body with hot flannels or hot bricks, or
bottles filled with hot water and placed
under the arm-pits, between the thighs,
and at the soles of the feet. Be careful
not to expose the patient to any draught,
but let the room be well ventilated. On
restoration to life, a teaspoonful of warm
water should be given, and when power
of swallowing has returned, small quanti-
ties of wine, warm spirits and water, or
coffee should be administered. Keep the
patient in bed, and any disposition to
sleep should be encouraged. In carry-
ing out the above treatment, avoid rough
usage, be careful to keep the tongue out,
and do not desist in your treatment until
all hope and chance are gone, for persons
have been restored by the above treat-
ment after many hours' perseverance.

The following are the rules for .the re-
storation of persons apparently dead
from drowing, given by Dr. Benjamin
Howard, of New York city, and sanc-
tioned by the Metropolitan Board of
Health, of the city of New York:

i. Unless in danger of freezing, never
move the patient from the spot where
first rescued, nor allow bystanders to
screen off the fresh air, but instantly wipe
clean the mouth and nostrils, rip and re-
move all clothing to a little below the
waist, rapidly rub and dry the exposed

part, and give two quick, smarting slaps;
on the stomach with your open hand.
If this does not succeed immediately,,
proceed according to the following rules
to perform artificial breathing:

2. Turn the patient on his face, a
large bundle of tightly-rolled clothing
being placed beneath his stomach, and
press heavily over it upon the spine for
half a minute.

3. Turn the patient quickly again on
his back ; the roll of clothing being so
placed beneath it as to make the short-
ribs bulge prominently forward, and raise
them a little higher than the level of the
mouth. Let some bystanders hold the
tip of the tongue out of one corner of
the mouth with a dry handkerchief, and
hold both hands of the patient together,
the arms being stretched forcibly back
above the head.

4. Kneel astride the patient's hips, and
with your hands resting on his stomach,
spread out your fingers so that you can
grasp the waist about the short-ribs.
Now throw all your weight steadily for-
ward upon your hands, while you at the
same time squeeze the ribs deeply, as if
you wished to force everything in the
chest upwards out of the mouth. Con-
tinue this while you can slowly count —
one — two — three ; then suddenly let go,,
with a final push, which springs you back
to your first kneeling position. Remain
erect upon your knees while you can
count — one — two ; then throwyour weight
forward again as before, repeating the en-
tire motions — at first about four or five
times a minutes, increasing the rate grad-
ually to about fifteen times a minute, and
continuing with the same regularity of
time and motion as is observed in the
natural breathing which you are imitat-
ing.

5. Continue this treatment, though ap-
parently unsuccessful, for two hours, or
until the patient begins to breathe ; and
for a while after this, help him by well-
timed pressure to deepen his first gasps,
into full, deep breaths ; while the friction
of the limbs, which should, if possible,
have been kept up during the entire pro-
cess, is now further increased.

6. As soon as the breathing has be-
come perfectly natural, strip the patient
rapidly and completely. Wrap him in
blankets only. Put him in bed in a.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 32;

room comfortably warm, but with a free
circulation of fresh air, and, except for
the administration of internal treatment,
let him have perfect rest. Give him a
little hot brandy and water, or other
stimulant at hand, every ten or fifteen
minutes for the first hour, and as often
thereafter as may seem expedient.

EARS, Foreign Bodies in. — Great care
should be taken in removing foreign
bodies from the ear, as serious injury
may be inflicted. Most foreign bodies,
especially those of small size, can be
easily removed by the use of a syringe
with warm water, and in most cases no
other means should be used. Should the
first efforts fail, repeat the operation. A
syringe throwing a moderately small and
continuous stream is best adapted for the
purpose, and the removal may generally
be facilitated by inclining the ear down-
ward while using the syringe. Severe in-
flammation may be excited, and serious
injury done, by rash attempts to seize a
foreign body in the ear, with a forceps or
tweezers, or trying to pick it out with a
pin or needle, or with an ear-scoop.
Should it be necessary from any cause to
use instruments, great care should be ob-
served, and but very little force exerted.
It has lately been recommended, when
foreign bodies cannot be removed by sy-
ringing the ear, to introduce a small
brush or swab of frayed linen or muslin
cloth, or a bit of sponge, moistened with
a solution of glue, and keep it in contact
with the foreign body until the glue ad-
heres, when the body may be easily re-
moved.

EAR, Insects in the. — Insects in the
ear may be easily killed by pouring oil in
the ear, after which remove by syringing.
(See Ear, Foreign Bodies in.)

EAR, Wax, Hardened, to Remove. —
Hardened ear wax may be softened by
dropping into the ear some oil or glyc-
erine, and then syringing. (See Ear,
Foreign Bodies in.)

EYE, Foreign Bodies in. — To remove
small particles from the eye, .unless they
have penetrated the globe, or become
fixed in the conjunctiva, do as follows :

Grasp the upper lid between the thumb
and forefinger, lift it from the eyeball,
and having drawn it down as far as possi-
ble outside the lower lid, let it slide slowly
back to its place, resting upon the lower

lid as it goes back; and then wipe the
edges of the lids with a soft handkerchief
to remove the foreign subtance. This
may be repeated a number of times, if
necessary, without injury. Should this
means fail, evert the lids and remove the
foreign substance by touching it lightly
with a fold of the handkerchief, or with
the point of a roll of paper made like a
candle-lighter; or, if necessary, with a
small pair of forceps. A drop of sweet
oil instilled in the eye, while perfectly
harmless, provokes a flow of tears that
will frequently wash away any light sub-
stance.

Bits of metal, sharp pieces of sand, etc.,
sometimes penetrate the globe of the eye,
and, unless removed, may excite so much
inflammation as to destroy the eye. They
should be removed by a competent
surgeon.

FAINTING. — Lay the person who has
fainted in a current of air, or in such a
position that the air from an open win-
dow or door will have full play upon the
face. Do not allow parties to crowd
closely around, but give the sufferer plenty
of room. Recovery will take place in a
few minutes. The clothes also may be
opened, and cold water sprinkled upon
the face, hands and chest; and some
pungent substance, as smelling salts, cam-
phor, aromatic vinegar, etc., may be
applied to the nostrils ; and as soon as
able to swallow, a little fresh water, or
spirits and water, may be given. Persons
who faint easily should avoid crowded
rooms and places where the air is close.

FITS. — See Convulsions.

FIRE, Clothing on. — If a woman's
clothes catch on fire, let her instantly roll
herself over and over on the ground. In
case any one be present, let them throw
her down and do the like, and then wrap
her up in a table-cloth, rug, coat, or the
first woolen article that can be found.

FRACTURES. — As we can only give
general rules for treating the various frac-
tures, we would advise any one suffering
from such, to immediately apply to the
nearest surgeon, and not rely upon an
inexperienced party.

FROST-BITE. — Place the party suffer-
ing in a room without fire, and rub the
frozen or frosted parts with snow, or pour
ice-water over them until sensation be-
gins to return. As soon as a stinging

326

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES.

pain is felt, and a change of color appears,
then cease the rubbing, and apply cloths
wet with ice-water, and subsequently if
active inflammation follow, and suppura-
tion result, a solution of carbolic acid in
water, one part to thirty, should be ap-
plied. If mortification set in, amputation
is generally necessary.

Where persons suffer from the consti-
tutional effects of cold, hot stimulants
should be given internally, and the body
rubbed briskly with the hands -and warm
flannel.

GUNSHOT WOUNDS.— See Wounds.

HANGING, Apparent Death from. —
Persons found hanging should be cut
down immediately and the cord removed
from the neck, and similar means em-
ployed to re-establish breathing, as in
cases of drowning or suffocation from
other causes, except that the head should
be kept somewhat raised to assist in re-
lieving the congestion ot the brain and
its membranes which always results. (See
Asphyxia.)

INSECT BITES. — See Bites and
Stings.

POISONS, and their Antidotes.— When
a person has taken poison, the first thing
to do is to compel the patient to vomit,
and for that purpose give any emetic that
can be most readily and quickly obtained,
and which is prompt and energetic, but
safe in its action. For this purpose,
there is, perhaps, nothing better than a
large teaspoonful of ground mustard in a
tumblerful of warm water, and it has the
advantage of being almost always at hand.
If the dry mustard is not to be had, use
mixed mustard from the mustard pot. Its
operation may generally be facilitated by
the addition of a like quantity of com-
mon table-salt. If the mustard is not at
hand, give two or three teaspoonfuls of
powdered alum in syrup or molasses, and
give freely of warm water to drink; or
give ten to twenty grains of sulphate of
zinc (white vitriol), or twenty to thirty
grains of ipecac, with one or two grains
of tartar emetic, in a large cup of warm
water, and repeat every ten minutes until
three or four doses are given, unless free
vomiting is sooner produced.

After vomiting has taken place, large
draughts of warm water should be given
the patient, so that the vomiting will con-
tinue until the poisonous substances have

been thoroughly evacuated, and then suit-
able antidotes should be given. If vomit-
ing cannot be produced, the stomach-
pump should be used.

When it is known what particular kind
of poison has been swallowed, then the
proper antidote for that poison should be
given, but when this cannot be ascertain-
ed, as is often the case, give freely of
equal parts of calcined magnesia, pulver-
ized charcoal, and sesquioxide of iron, in
sufficient quantity of water. This is a
very harmless mixture, and is likely to be
of great benefit, as the ingredients, though
very simple, are antidotes for the most
common and active poisons.

In case this mixture cannot be obtain-
ed, the stomach should be soothed and
protected by the free administration of
demulcent, mucilaginous, or oleaginous
drinks, such as the whites of eggs, milk,
mucilage of gum arabic, or slippery elm
bark, flaxseed tea, starch, wheat flour, or
arrow-root mixed in water, linseed or
olive oil, or melted butter or lard. Sub-
sequently the bowels should be moved by
some gentle laxative, as a tablespoonful
or two of castor oil, or a teaspoonful of
calcined magnesia; and pain or other
evidence of inflammation must be relieved
by the administration of a few drops of
laudanum, and the repeated application
of hot poultices, fomentations and mustard
plasters.

The following are the names of the
articles that may give rise to poisoning,
most commonly used, and their antidote :

ACIDS, MINERAL— Sulphuric Acid
(Oil of Vitriol), Nitric Acid (Aquafortis),
Muriatic Acid (Spirits of Salts).

Symptoms. — Acid burning taste in the
mouth, acute pain in the throat, stomach,
and bowels; frequent vomiting, gen-
erally bloody, mouth and lips excoriated,
shrivelled, white or yellow; hiccough,
copious stools, more or less bloody, with
great tenderness in the abdomen; difficult
breathing, irregular pulse, excessive thirst,
while drink increases the pain and rarely
remains in the stomach; frequent but
vain efforts to urinate; cold sweats, alter-
ed countenance; convulsions generally
preceding death. Nitric acid causes yel-
low stains; sulphuric acid, black ones.

Treatment. — Mix calcined magnesia
in milk or water to the consistence of
cream, and give freely to drink a glass

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR. THE PEOPLE. 327

full every couple of minutes, if it can be
swallowed. Common soap (hard or soft),
chalk, whiting, or even mortar from the
wall mixed in water, may be given, until
magnesia can be obtained. Promote
vomiting by tickling the throat, if neces-
sary, and when the poison is got rid of,
flaxseed or elm tea, gruel, or other mild
drinks. The inflammation which always
follows wants good treatment to save the
patient's life.

ACIDS, VEGETABLE— Acetic, Citric,
Oxalic, Tartaric.

Symptoms. — Intense burning pain of
mouth, throat and stomach; vomiting
blood which is highly acid, violent purging,
collapse, stupor, death.

Oxalic Acid is frequently taken in mis-
take for Epsom salts, to which in shops it
often bears a strong resemblance.

Treatment. — Give chalk or mag-
nesia in a large quantity of water, or large
draughts of lime water. If these are not
at Viand, scrape the wall or ceiling, and
give the scrapings, mixed with water.

ACID.PRUSSIC, or HYDROCYANIC—
Laurel Water, Cyanide of Potassium, Bit-
ter Almond Oil, etc.

Symptoms. — In large doses almost in-
variably instantaneously fatal; when not
immediately fatal, sudden loss of sense
and control of the voluntary muscles ; the
odor of the poison generally susceptible
on the breath.

Treatment. — Chlorine, in the form of
chlorine water, in doses of from one to
four fluid drachms, diluted. Weak solu-
tion of chloride lime or soda; water of
ammonia (spirits of hartshorn) largely di-
luted may be given and the vapor of it
cautiously inhaled. Cold affusion, and
chloroform in half to teaspoonful doses in
glycerine or mucilage, repeated every few
minutes until the symptoms are amelior-
ated. Artificial respiration.

ACONITE— Monkshood, Wolfsbane.

Symptoms. — Numbness and tingling in
the mouth and throat, and afterwards in
other portions of the body, with sore
throat, pain over the stomach and vomit-
ing; dimness of vision, dizziness, great
prostration, loss of sensibility and de-
lirium.

Treatment. — An emetic and then
brandy in table-spoonful doses, in ice-
water, every half hour ; spirits of ammo-
nia in half teaspoonful doses in like man-

ner ; the cold douche over the head and
chest, warmth to the extremities, etc.

ALKALIES and their SALTS— Con-
centrated Lye, Woodash Lye, Caustic Pot-
ash, Ammonia, Hartshorn.

Symptoms. — Caustic, acrid taste, ex-
cessive heat in the throat, stomach, and
intestines; vomiting of bloody matter,
cold sweats, hiccough, purging of bloody
stools.

Treatment. — The common vegetable
acids. Common vinegar being always at
hand, is most frequently used. The fixed
oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond, and olive
oils form soaps with the alkalies, and thus
also destroy their caustic effect. They
should be given in large quantity.

ALCOHOL, BRANDY, and other Spirit-
uous Liquors.

Symptoms. — Confusion of thought, in-
ability to walk or stand, dizziness, stupor,
highly flushed or pale face, noisy breath-
ing.

Treatment. — After emptying the
stomach, pour cold water on the head
and back of the neck, rub or slap the
wrists and palm, and the ankles and soles
of the feet, and give strong, hot coffee, or
aromatic spirits of hartshorn, in teaspoon-
ful doses in water. The warmth of the
body must be sustained.

ANTIMONY and its Preparations —
Tartar Emetic, Antimonial Wine, Kerme's.
Mineral.

Symptoms. — Faintness and nausea,
soon followed by most painful and con-
tinued vomiting, severe diarrhoea, con-
striction and burning sensation in the
throat, cramps or spasmodic twitchings,
with symptoms of nervous derangement,
and great prostration of strength, often
terminating in death.

Treatment. — If vomiting has not been
produced, it should be effected by tickling
the fauces, and administering copious
draughts of warm water. Astringent in-
fusions, such as of gall, oak bark, Peruv-
ian bark, act as antidotes, and should be
given promptly. Powdered yellow bark
may be used until the infusion is prepared,
or very strong green tea should be given.
To stop the vomiting, should it con-
tinue, blister over the stomach by apply-
ing a cloth wet with strong spirits of
hartshorn, and then sprinkle on the one-
eighth to one-fourth of a grain of mor-
phia.

3*

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES.

ARSENIC and its Preparations— Eats-
bane, Powler's Solution, etc.

Symptoms. — Generally within an hour
pain and heat are felt in the stomach,
soon followed by vomiting, with a burn-
ing dryness of the throat and great thirst;
the matters vomited are generally colored,
either green, yellow, or brownish, and
sometimes bloody. Diarrhoea or dysen-
tery ensues, while the pulse becomes small
and rapid, yet irregular. Breathing much
oppressed; difficulty in vomiting may
occur, while cramps, convulsions, or even
paralysis often precede death, which some-
times takes place within five or six hours
after arsenic has been taken.

Treatment. — Give a prompt emetic,
and then hydrate of peroxide of iron (re-
cently prepared) in table-spoonful doses
every ten or fifteen minutes until the
urgent symptoms are relieved. In the
absence of this, or while it is being pre-
pared, give large draughts of new milk
and raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted
butter, magnesia in a large quantity of
water, or even if nothing else is at hand,
.flour and water, always, however, giving
.an emetic the first thing, or causing vomit-
ing by tickling the throat with a feather,
<tc. The inflammation of the stomach
-which follows must be treated by blisters,
hot fomentations, mucilaginous drinks,
etc. etc.

BELLADONNA or DEADLY NIGHT-
SHADE.

Symptoms. — Dryness of the mouth and
throat, great thirst, difficulty of swallow-
ing, nausea, dimness, confusion or loss of
vision, great enlargement of the pupils,
dizziness, delirium and coma.

Treatment. — There is no known anti-
dote. Give a prompt emetic and then
reliance must beplaced on continual stimu-
lation with brandy, whisky, etc., and to
necessary artificial respiration. Opium
and its preparations, as morphia, lauda-
num, etc., are thought by some, to coun-
teract the effect of belladonna, and may
be given in small and repeated doses, as
also strong black coffee and green tea.

BLUE VITRIOL, or Bine Stone.— See
Copperas.

CANTHARIDES (Spanish or Blistering
Ely) and Modern Potato Bug.

Symptoms. — Sickening odor of the
breath, sour taste, with burning heat in
the throat, stomach, and bowels; fre-

quent vomiting, often bloody ; copious
bloody stools, great pain in the stomach,
with burning sensation in the bladder and
difficulty to urinate, followed with terrible
convulsions, delirium and death.

Treatment. — Excite vomiting by
drinking plentifully of sweet oil or other
wholesome oils, sugar and water, milk, or
slippery elm tea; give injections of castor
oil and starch, or warm milk. The in-
flammatory symptoms which generally
follow must be treated by a medical man.
Camphorated oil or camphorated spirits
should be rubbed over the bowels, stom-
ach, and thighs.

CAUSTIC POTASH.— See Alkalies.

COBALT, or Fly Powder.

Symptoms. — Heat and pain in the
throat and stomach, violent retching and
vomiting, cold and clammy skin, small
and feeble pulse, hurried and difficult
breathing, diarrhoea, etc

Treatment. — An emetic, followed by
the free administration of milk, eggs,
wheat-flour and water, and mucilaginous
drinks.

COPPER— Bine Vitriol, Verdigris, or
Pickles or Food Cooked in Fonl Copper
Vessels.

Symptoms. — General inflammation of
the alimentary canal, suppression of urine,
hiccough, a disagreeable metallic taste,
vomiting, violent colic, excessive thirst,
sense of tightness of the throat, anxiety,
faintness, and giddiness, and cramps and
convulsions generally precede death.

Treatment. — Large doses of simple
syrup as warm as can be swallowed, until
the stomach rejects the amount it con-
tains. The whites of eggs and large
quantities of milk. Hydrated peroxide
of iron.

COPPERAS.— See Iron.

CREOSOTE— Carbolic Acid.

Symptoms. — Burning pain, acrid, pun-
gent taste, thirst, vomiting, purging, etc.

Treatment. — An emetic, and the free
administration of albumen, as the whites
of eggs, or in the absence of these, milk,
or flour and water.

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.— See Mer-
cury.

DEADLY NIGHT-SHADE.— See Bel-
ladonna.

FOX-GLOVE, or Digitalis.

Symptoms. — Loss of strength, feeble,
fluttering pulse, faintness, nausea, and

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 3*9

Tomiting and stupor; cold perspiration,
■dilated pupils, sighing, irregular breath-
ing, and sometimes convulsions.

Treatment. — After vomiting, give
trandy and ammonia in frequently re-
peated doses, apply warmth to the ex-
tremities, and if necessary resort to
artificial respiration.

GASES — Carbonic Acid, Chlorine, Cyan-
ogen, Hydrosulphuric Acid, etc.

Symptoms. — Great drowsiness, diffi-
cult respiration, features swollen, face
blue as in strangulation.

Treatment. — Artificial respirations,
•cold douche, frictions with stimulating
substances to the surface of the body.
Inhalation of steam containing prepara-
tions of ammonia. Cupping from nape
■of neck. Internal use of chloroform.

GREEN VITRIOL. See Iron.

HELLEBORE, or Indian Poke.

Symptoms. — Violent vomiting and
purging, bloody stools, great anxiety,
tremors, vertigo, fainting, sinking of the
pulse, cold sweats, and convulsions.

Treatment. — Excite speedy vomiting
by large draughts of warm water, molasses
and water, tickling the throat with the
iinger or a feather, and emetics; give
•oily and mucilaginous drinks, oily purga-
tives, and clysters, acids, strong coffee,
•camphor, and opium.

HEMLOCK (Coninm).

Symptoms. — Dryness of the throat,
tremors, dizziness, difficulty of swallowing,
prostration and faintness, limbs power-
less or paralyzed, pupils dilated, pulse
Tap id and feeble; insensibility and con-
vulsions sometimes precede death.

Treatment. — Empty the stomach and
give brandy in tablespoonful doses, with
half teaspoonful of spirits of ammonia,
frequently repeated, and if much pain
and vomiting, give bromide of ammonium
in five-grain doses every half hour. Arti-
■ficial respiration may be required.

HENBANE or HYOSCYAMUS.

Symptoms. — Muscular twitching, in-
ability to articulate plainly, dimness of
vision and stupor; later, vomiting and
purging, small, intermittent pulse, con-
vulsive movement of the extremities, and
•coma.

Treatment. — Similar to Opium Pois-
oning, which see.

IODINE.

Symptoms. — Burning pain in throat,

lacerating pain in the stomach, fruitless
effort to vomit, excessive tenderness of
the epigastrium.

Treatment. — Free emesis, prompt ad-
ministration of starch, wheat flour, or
arrowroot, beat up in water.

LEAD — Acetate of Lead, Sugar of
Lead, Dry White Lead, Red Lead, Lith-
arge, or Pickles, Wine, or Vinegar,
sweetened by Lead.

Symptoms. — When taken in large
doses, a sweet but astringent metallic
taste exists, with constriction in the
throat, pain in the region of the stomach,
painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody
vomitings, hiccough, convulsions or
spasms, and death. When taken in small
but long-continued doses, it produces
colic, called painter's colic; great pain,
obstinate constipation, and in extreme
cases paralytic symptoms, especially wrist-
drop, with a blue line along the edge of
the gums.

Treatment. — To counteract the
poison, give alum in water, one and a
half ounce to a quart; or, better still,
Epsom salts or Glauber salts, an ounce
of either in a quart of water; or dilute
sulphuric acid, a teaspoonful to a quart
of water. If a large quantity of sugar of
lead has been recently taken, empty the
stomach by an emetic of sulphate of
zinc (one drachm in a quart of water),
giving one-fourth to commence, and re-
peating smaller doses until free vomiting
is produced; castor oil should be given
to clear the bowels, and injections of oil
and starch freely administered. If the
body is cold, use the warm bath.

MEADOW SAFFRON.— See Bella-
donna.

LAUDANUM. — See Opium.

LUNAR CAUSTIC— See Silver.

LOBELIA, Indian Poke.

Symptoms. — Excessive vomiting and
purging, pains in the bowels, contraction
of the pupils, delirium, coma and convul-
sions.

Treatment. — Mustard over the stom-
ach, and brandy and ammonia.

MERCURY. — Corrosive Sublimate (bug
poisons frequently contain this poison),
Red Precipitate, Chinese or English Ver-
million.

Symptoms. — Acrid, metallic taste in
the mouth, immediate constriction and
burning in the throat, with anxiety and

33°

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES.

tearing pains in both stomach and bowels,
•sickness, and vomiting of various colored
fluids, and sometimes bloody and profuse
diarrhoea, with difficulty and pain in uri-
nating; pulse quick, small and hard;
faint sensations, great debility, difficult
breathing, cramps, cold sweats, syncope
nad convulsions.

Treatment. — If vomiting does not al-
ready exist, emetics must be given imme-
diately, albumen of eggs in continuous
large doses, and infusion of catechu af-
terwards, sweet milk, mixtures of flour
and water in successive cupfuls, and to
check excessive salivation put a half
ounce of chlorate of potash in a tumbler
of water, and use freely as a gargle, and
swallow a tablespoonful every hour or
two.

MONKSHOOD.— See Arnica.

MORPHINE.— See Opium.

NITRATE OF SILVER (Lunar Caustic.)

Symptoms. — Intense pain and vomit-
ing and purging of blood ; mucus and
sheds of mucous membranes; and if
these stand they become dark.

Treatment. — Give freely of a solution
of common salt in water, which decom-
poses the poison, and afterwards flax-
seed or elm bark tea, and after a while a
dose of castor oil.

NTJX VOMICA.— See Strychnine.

OPIUM and all its Preparations — Mor-
phine, Laudanum, Paregoric, etc.

Symptoms. — Giddiness, drowsiness, in-
creasing to stupor, and insensibility;
pulse usually, at first, quick and irregular,
and breathing hurried, and afterwards
pulse slow and feeble and respiration slow
and noisy ; the pupils are contracted, and
the eyes and face congested, and later, as
death approaches, the extremities become
cold, the surface is covered with cold,
clammy perspiration, and the sphincters
relax. The effects of opium and its prep-
arations, in poisonous doses, appear in
from a half to two hours from its admin-
istration.

Treatment. — Empty the stomach im-
mediately with an emetic or with the
stomach pump. Then give very strong
coffee without milk ; put mustard plasters
on the wrists and ankles; use the cold
douche to the head and chest, and if the
patient is cold and sinking give brandy,
or whisky and ammonia. Belladonna is
thought by many to counteract the poi-

sonous effects of opium, and may be
given in doses of half to a tea-spoonful
of the tincture, or two grains of the
extract, every twenty minutes, until some
effect is observed in causing the pupils to-
expand. Use warmth and friction, and
if possible prevent sleep for some hours,
for which purpose the patient should be
walked about between two persons, and if
necessary a bunch of switches may be
freely used. Finally, as a last resort, use
artificial respiration, and a persistence in
it will sometimes be rewarded with suc-
cess in apparently hopeless cases. Gal-
vanism should also be tried.

OXALIC ACID.— See Acids.

PHOSPORUS— Found in Lucifer Match-
es and some Rat Poisons.

Symptoms. — Symptoms of irritant poi-
soning; pain in the stomach and bowels;
vomiting ; diarrhoea ; tenderness and ten-
sion of the abdomen.

Treatment. — An emetic is to be
promptly given; copious draughts con-
taining magnesia in suspension; mucilag-
inous drinks. General treatment for in-
flammatory symptoms.

POISONOUS FISH.

Symptoms. — In an hour or two — often
in much shorter time — after the fish has
been eaten, a weight at the stomach
comes on, with slight vertigo and head-
ache ; sense of heat about the head and
eyes; considerable thirst, and often an
eruption of the skin.

Treatment. — After full vomiting, an
active purgative should be given to re-
move any of the noxious matter from the
intestines. Vinegar and water may be
drunk after the above remedies have op-
erated, and the body may be sponged
with the same. Water made very sweet
with sugar, with aromatic spirits of am-
monia added, may be drunk freely as a
corrective. A solution of chlorate of
potash, or of alkali, the latter weak, may
be given to obviate the effects of the poi-
son. If spasms ensue after evacuation,
laudanum in considerable doses is nec-
essary. If inflammation should occur,
combat in the usual way.

POISONOUS MUSHROOMS.

Symptoms. — Nausea, heat and pains in
the stomach and bowels; vomiting and
purging; thirst; convulsions and faint-
ings ; pulse small and frequent ; dilated
pupil and stupor ; cold sweaths and death..

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 331

Treatment — .The stomach and bow-
els are to be cleared by an emitic of
ground mustard or sulphate of zinc, follow-
ed by frequent doses of Glauber or Epsom
salts, and large stimulating clysters. Af-
ter the poison is evacuated, ether may be
given with small quantities of brandy and
water. But if inflammatory symptoms
manifest themselves, such stimuli should
should be avoided, and these symptoms
appropriately treated.

POTASH.— See Alkali.

PRUSSIC ACID, Hydrocyanic — See
Acids.

POISON IVY.

SYMPTOMs.-Contact with, and with many
persons the near approach to the vine gives
rise to violent erysipelatous inflammation,
especially of the face and hands, attend-
ed with itching, redness, burning and
swelling, with watery blisters.

Treatment. — Give saline laxatives,
and apply weak lead water and lauda-
num, or limewater and sweet oil, or
bathe the parts freely with spirits of nitre.
Anointing with oil will prevent poisoning
from it.

SALTPETRE, Nitrate of Potash.

Symptoms. — Only poisonous in large
quantities, and then causes nausea, pain-
ful vomiting, purging, convulsions, faint-
ness, feeble pulse, cold feet and hands,
with tearing pains in stomach and
bowels.

Treatment. — Treat just as is directed
for arsenic, for there is no antidote
known ; and emptying the stomach and
bowels with mild drinks must be relied
on.

SAVLNE.

Symptoms. — Sharp pains in the bowels,
hot skin, rapid pulse, violent vomiting
and sometimes purging, with great pros-
tration.

Treatment. — Mustard and hot fomen-
tations over the stomach and bowels, and
ice only allowed in the stomach until the
inflammation ceases. If prostration comes
on, food and stimulants must be given by
injection.

STRAMONIUM, Thorn-apple or James-
town Weed.

Symptoms. — Vertigo, headache, per-
version of vision, slight delirium, sense of
suffocation, disposition to sleep, bowels
relaxed and all secretions augmented.

Treatment. — Same as Belladonna.

STRYCHNINE and NUX VOMICA.

Symptoms. — Muscular twitchings, con-
striction of the throat, difficult breathing
and oppression of the chest; violent mus-
cular spasms then occur, continuous in
character like lock-jaw, with the body
bent backwards, sometimes like a bow.

Treatment. — Give, if obtainable, one
ounce or more of bone charcoal mixed
with water, and follow with an active
emetic; then give chloroform in teaspoon-
ful doses, in flour and water or glycerine,,
every few minutes while the spasms last,
and afterwards brandy and stimulants,
and warmth of the extremities if neces-
sary. Recoveries have followed the free
and prompt administration of oils or
melted butter or lard. In all cases empty
the stomach if possible.

SULPHATE of ZINC, White Vitrol.—
See Zinc.

TIN, Chloride of Tin, Solution of Tin,
(Used by Dyers), Oxide of Tin or Putty
Powder.

Symptoms. — Vomiting, pains in the-
stomach, anxiety, restlessness, frequent
pulse, delirium, etc.

Treatment. — Empty the stomach, and
give whites of eggs in water, milk in
large quantities, or flour beaten up in
water, with magnesia or chalk.

TARTAR EMETIC— See Antimony.

TOBACCO.

Symptoms. — Vertigo, stupor, fainting,
nausea, vomiting, sudden nervous debili-
ty, cold' sweat, tremors, and at times fatal
prostration.

Treatment. — After the stomach is.
empty apply mustard to the abdomen,
and to the extremities, and give strong
coffee with brandy and other stimulants,
with warmth to the extremities.

ZINC, Oxide of Zinc, Sulphate of Zinc,.
White Vitrol, Acetate of Zinc.

Symptoms. — Violent vomiting, astrin-
gent taste, burning pain in the stom-
ach, pale countenance, cold extremities,
dull eyes, fluttering pulse. Death sel-
dom ensues, in consequence of the emetic
effect.

Treatment. — The vomiting naay be
relieved by copious draughts of warm
water. Carbonate of soda, administered
in solution, will decompose the sulphate
of zinc. Milk and albumen also act as.
antidotes. General principles to be ob-
served in the subsequent treatment.

332

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES.

WOORARA.

Symptoms. — When taken into the
^rtomach it is inert; when absorbed through
a wound, it causes sudden stupor and in-
sensibility, frothing at the mouth and
speedy death.

Treatment. — Suck the wound imme-
diately, or cut it out and tie a cord
around the limb between the wound and
the heart. Apply iodine, or iodide of po-
tassium, and give it internally, and try
artificial respiration.

SCALDS. — See Burns and Scalds.

SPRAINS. — The portions most fre-
quently implicated are the wrist and an-
kle ; no matter which portion it may be
however, rest and quietness is a very im-
portant part of the treatment, and, when
possible, in an elevated position. If the
wrist is sprained, it should be carried in a
sling; if the ankle, it should be supported
on a couch or stool. Cold lotions (See
Bruises) should be freely applied, and
irrigation by pouring water from a pitcher
or tea-kettle resorted to several times a
day to prevent inflammation. Later,
frictiops with opedeldoc, or with some
stimulating liniment, and supporting the
parts by pressure made with a flannel
roller, or laced stocking when the ankle
is involved, will be useful to restore tone;
or strips of adhesive plaster properly ap-
plied will be useful for the same purpose.
Recovery from severe sprains is always
tedious. It is an old saying "that a bad
sprain is worse than a broken bone."

STINGS of BEES and WASPS.— See
Bites and Stings.

SUFFOCATION, from Noxious Gases,
Foul Air, Fire, Damp, Etc. — Remove to
fresh air and dash cold water over the

head, neck and chest; carefully apply
hartshorn, or smelling salts to the nos-
trils, and when the breathing is feeble or
has ceased, resort immediately to artifi-
cial respiration (See Asphyxia and
Drowning). Keep up the warmth ot
the body, and as soon as the patient can
swallow, give stimulants in small quanti-
ties.

SUNSTROKE, Heat Apoplexy.— This
is caused by long exposure in great heat,
especially when accompanied with great
fatigue and exhaustion. Though gen-
erally happening from exposure to the
sun's rays, yet precisely similar effects
may be and are produced from any un-
due exposure to great and exhaustive
heat, such as workmen are exposed to in
foundries, gas factories, bakeries, and
other similar employments. Its first
symptom is pain in the head and dizzi-
ness, quickly followed by loss of con-
sciousness, and resulting in complete
prostration ; sometimes, however, the at-
tack is sudden, as in apoplexy. The
head is generally burning hot, the face
dark and swollen, the breathing labored
and snoring, and the feet and hands
cold. Remove the patient at once to a
cool and shady place, and lay him down
with his head a little raised; apply ice
or iced water to the head and face; loosen
all cloths around the neck or waist ; bathe
the chest with cold water, apply mus-
tard plasters, or cloths wetted with tur-
pentine, to the calves and soles of the
feet, and as soon as the patient can swal-
low, give weak brandy or whisky and
water.

THROAT, Foreign Bodies in. — See
Choking.

HOME DOCTOR.

ASTHMA. — Take hyssop water and
poppy water, of each ten ounces; oxymel
of squills, six ounces; syrup of maiden
hair, two ounces. Take one spoonful
when you find any difficulty in breathing.

AGUE in the Breast. — Take one part
of gum camphor, two parts yellow bees-
wax, three parts clean lard ; let all melt
slowly, in any vessel [earthen best], on
stove. Use either cold or warm; spread
very thinly on cotton or linen cloths, cov-
ering those with flannel. No matter if
the breast is broken, it will cure if per-
severed in. Do not, no matter how pain-
ful, cease from drawing milk from the
breast that is affected.

AGUE, Mixture. — Mix twenty grains
quinine with one pint diluted gin or port
wine, and add ten grains subcarbonate of
iron. Dose, a wine-glass each hour until
the ague is broken, and then two or three
times a day until the whole has been used.

2. Take Peruvian bark, two ounces;
wild cherry tree bark, one ounce; cinna-
mon, one drachm; powdered capsicum,
one teaspoonful ; sulphur, one ounce ; port
wine, two quarts. Let it stand a day or
two. Dose, a wine glassful every two or
three hours until the disease is broken,
and then two or three times a day until
all is taken.

ANKLE, Sprained. — Wash the ankle
frequently with cold salt and water, which
is far better than warm vinegar or decoc-
tions of herbs. Keep your foot as cold
as possible to prevent inflammation, and
sit with it elevated on a cushion. Live
on very low diet, and take every day some
cooling medicine. By obeying these
directions only, a sprained ankle has been
cured in a few days.

APOPLEXY.— Occurs only in the cor-
pulent or obese, and the gross or high
livers. To treat, raise the head to a
nearly upright position ; unloose all tight
clothes, strings, etc., and apply cold water
to the head and waim water and warm

clothes to the feet. Have the apartment
cool and well ventilated. Give nothing
by the mouth until the breathing is
relieved, and then only draughts of cold
water.

BALDNESS, Preparation for the Cure
of. — Rum, one pint ; alchohol, one ounce;
distilled water, one ounce; tincture of"
cantharides, a half drachm ; carbonate of
potash, a half drachm ; carbonate of am-
monia, one drachm. Mix the liquids
after having dissolved the salts, and filter.
After the skin of the head has been wetted
with this preparation for several minutes,
it should be washed with water.

BILIOUS, Colic. — Mix two tablespoon-
fuls of Indian meal, in half a pint of cold
water ; drink it at two draughts.

BILIOUS, Complaints.— Take the root
and branch of dandelion, and steep it in
soft water a sufficient length of time to^
extract all the essence ; then strain the
liquor and simmer until it becomes quite
thick. Dose, from one to three glasses a
day may be taken with good effect.

BLACKBERRY CORDIAL.— To one
quart blackberry juice add one pound
white sugar, one tablespoonful each cloves,
allspice, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Boil to-
gether fifteen minutes, and add a wine
glass of whisky, brandy, or rum. Bottle
while hot, cork tight, and seal. Used in
diarrhea and dysentery. Dose, a wine-
glassful for an adult, half that quantity
for a child. It can be taken three or four
times a day, if the case is severe.

BLISTERS.— On the feet occasioned
by walking, are cured by drawing a
needleful of worsted thread through
them : clip it off at both ends, and leave it
till the skin peals off.

BLOOD, Raising. — Make a tea of white
oak bark, and drink freely during the
day ; or take half a pound of yellow dock
root, boil in new milk, say one quart ;
drink one gill three times a day ; and take
one pill of white pine pitch every day, to-

(333)

w

HOME DOCTOR.

BLOOD, How to Stop.— Take the fine
■dust of tea, or the scrapings of the inside
•of tanned leather. Bind it upon the
wound closely, and blood will soon cease
to flow.

BOLLS. — Make a poultice of ginger and
flour, and lay it on the boil. This will
soon draw it to a head.

BOWELS, Swelled, in Children.— Bathe
the stomach of the child with catnip
steeped, mixed with fresh butter and
sugar.

CHILBLAINS. — Mr. Fergus recom-
mends sulphurous acid in this affection.
It should be applied with a camel's hair
brush, or by means of a spray producer.
One application of this usually effects a
«ure. The acid should be used pure. A
good wash for hands or feet affected with
chilblains is sulphurous acid, three parts ;
glycerine, one part ; and water, one part.
The acid will be found particularly useful
in the irritating, tormenting stage of chil-
blains.

CHILBLAINS AND CHAFFED HANDS.
— When chilblains manifest themselves,
the best remedy not only for preventing
their ulcerating, but overcoming the ting-
ling, itching pain, and stimulating the cir-
culation of the part to healthy action, is
the liniment of belladonna, two drachms;
the liniment of aconite, one drachm ; car-
bolic acid, ten drops; collodion flexile,
one ounce; painted with a camel's hair
pencil over their surface. When the chil-
blains vesicate, ulcerate or slough, it is
better to omit the aconite and apply the
other components of the liniment without
it. The collodion flexile forms a coating
or protecting film, which excludes the air,
whilst the sedative liniments allay the
irritation, generally of no trivial nature.
For chapped hands we advise the free
use of glycerine and good olive oil, in the
proportion of two parts of the former to
four of the latter; after this has been well
rubbed into the hands and allowed to re-
main for a little time, and the hands sub-
sequently washed with Castile soap and
water, we recommend the belladonna and
collodion flexile to be painted on, and the
protective film allowed to remain perma-
nently. These complaints not unfre-
quently invade persons of languid circu-
lation and relaxed habit, who should be
put on a generous regimen, and treated
with ferruginous tonics. Obstinate cases

are occasionally met with which no local
application will remedy, unless some dis-
ordered state of the system is removed, or
the general condition of the patient's
health improved. Chapped lips are also
benefited by the stimulating form of ap-
plication we advocate, but the aconite
must not be allowed to get on the lips,
or a disagreeable tingling results.

CHILBLAIN BALM. — Boil together
ten fluid ounces olive oil, two fluid ounces
Venice turpentine, and one ounce yellow
wax; strain, and while still warm add,
constantly stirring, two and a half drachms
balsam of Peru, and ten grains camphor.

CHILBLAIN, Cure for.— Make a strong
lye by boiling wood ashes in water. Put
your feet in a small tub and cover them
with the lye as hot as you can bear it.
Gradually add more lye hotter and hotter.
Keep them in half an hour, bathing and
rubbing them continually, and being very
careful to keep the lye hot.

CHILBLAIN LOTION.— Dissolve one
ounce muriate of ammonia in one-half
pint cider vinegar, and apply frequently.
One-half pint alcohol may be added to
this lotion with good effects.

CHILBLAIN OINTMENT.— Take mut-
ton tallow and lard, of each three-fourths of
a pound avoirdupois ; melt in an iron ves-
sel, and add hydrated oxide of iron, two
ounces, stirring continually with an iron
spoon until the mass is of a uniform black
color; when nearly cool add Venice tur-
pentine, two ounces ; Armenian bole, one
ounce; oil of bergamot, one drachm;
rub up the bole with a little olive oil be-
fore putting it in. Apply several times
daily by putting it upon lint or linen. It
heals the worst cases in a few days.

CHILBLAINS, Russian Remedy for.—
Slices of the rind of fully ripe cucumbers,
dried with the soft parts attached. Pre-
vious to use they are softened by soaking
them in warm water, and are then bound
on the sore parts with the inner side next
them, and left on all night. This treat-
ment is said to be adopted for both
broken and unbroken chilblains.

CHILBLAINS, Itching, Lotion for. —
Take hydrochloric acid, one part, and
water, eight parts ; mix. Apply on going
to bed. This must not be used if the
skin is broken.

Sal ammoniac, two ounces ; rum, one
pint; camphor, two drachms. The af-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 335

fected part is wetted night and morning,
and when dry is touched with a little
simple ointment of any kind — cold cream
or pomatum.

Oil of turpentine, four ounces; cam-
phor, six drachms; oil of cajeput,- two
drachms. Apply with friction.

CHILBLAINS, Broken, Remedy for.—
Mix together four fluid ounces collodion,
one and a half fluid ounces Venice tur-
pentine, and one fluid ounce castor oil.

CORNS, Cure for.— Take equal parts of
mercurial and galbanum ointments ; mix
them well together, spread on a piece of
soft leather, and apply it to the corns
morning and evening. In a few days
benefit will be derived. Take two ounces
of gum ammoniac, two ounces of yellow
wax, and six ounces of verdigris; melt
them together, and spread the composi-
tion on soft leather ; cut away as much
of the corn as you can, then apply the
plaster, and renew it every fortnight till
the corn is away. Get four ounces of
white diachylon plaster, four ounces of
shomaker's Avax, and sixty drops of mu-
riatic acid or spirits of salt. Boil them
for a few minutes in an earthen pipkin,
and when cold roll the mass between the
hands, and apply it on a piece of white
leather. Soak the feet well in warm
water, then with a sharp instrument pare
off as much of the corn as can be done
without pain, and bind up the part with
.a piece of linen or muslin thoroughly sat-
urated with sperm oil, or, which is better,
the oil which floats upon the surface of
the herring or mackerel. After three or
four days the dressing may be removed
by scraping, when the new skin will be
found of a soft and healthy texture, and
less liable to the formation of a new corn
than before. Corns may be prevented
by wearing easy shoes. Bathe the feet
frequently in lukewarm water, with a little
salt or potashes dissolved in it. The
corn itself will be completely destroyed
by rubbing it often with a little caustic
solution of potash till the soft skin is
formed. Scrape to a pulp sufficient
Spanish garlic and bind on the corn over
night, after first soaking it well in warm
water, and scrape off as much as possible
of the hardened portion in the morning.
Repeat the application as required.

CORNS, Soft, a Cure for. — Scrape a
piece of common chalk, and put a pinch

to the soft corn, and bind a piece of linen
rag upon it.

CORNS, Tender. — A strong solution of
tannic acid is said to be an excellent ap-
plication to tender feet as well as a pre-
ventive of the offensive odor attendant
upon their profuse perspiration. To
those of our readers who live far away in
the country, we would suggest a strong
decoction of oak bark as a substitute.

CORNS, Caustic for. — Tincture of
iodine, four drachms; iodide of iron,
twelve grains ; chloride of antimony, four
drachms ; mix, and apply with a camel's
hair brush, after paring the corn. It is
said to cure in three times.

CORNS, to Relieve. — Bind them up at
night with a cloth wet with tincture of
arnica, to relieve the pain, and during
the day occasionally moisten the stocking
over the corn with arnica if the shoe is
not large enough to allow the corn being
bound up with a piece of linen rag.

CORNS, Remedy for. — 1. The pain
occasioned by corns may be greatly alle-
viated by the following preparation : Into
a one-ounce vial put two drachms of mu-
riatic acid and six drachms of rose-water.
With this mixture wet the corns night
and morning for three days. Soak the
feet every evening in warm water without
soap. Put one-third of the acid into the
water, and with a little picking the corn
will be dissolved. 2. Take a lemon, cut
off a small piece, then nick it so as let in
the toe with the corn, tie this on at night
so that it cannot move, and in the morn-
ing you will find that, with a blunt knife,
you may remove a considerable portion of
the corn. Make two or three applica-
tions, and great relief will be the result.

CORNS, Solvent. — Expose salt of tartar
(pearlash) in a wide-mouth vial in a damp
place until it fonns an oil-like liquid, and
apply to the corn.

CHOLERA, Remedy, Sure.— Take lau-
danum, tincture cayenne, compound tinc-
ture rhubarb, peppermint and camphor,
of each equal parts. Dose, ten to thirty
drops. In plain terms, take equal parts
tincture of opium, red pepper, rhubarb,
peppermint and camphor, and mix them
for use. In case of diarrhoea, take a dose
of ten to twenty drops in three or four
teaspoonfuls of water. No one who has
this by him, and takes it in time, will ever
have the cholera.

33<>

HOME DOCTOR.

CHILDREN, Disease in, Signs of.— In
the case of a baby not yet able to talk, it
must cry when it is ill The colic makes
a baby cry loud, long, and passionately,
and shed tears — stopping for a moment
and beginning again.

If the chest is affected, it gives one
sharp cry, breaking off immediately, as if
crying hurt it.

If the head is affected, it cries in
sharp, piercing shrieks, with low moans
and wails between. Or there may be
quiet dozing, and startings between.

It is easy enough to perceive, where a
child is attacked by disease, that there
has some change taken place ; for either
its skin will be dry and hot, its appetite
gone ; it is stupidly ' sleepy, or fretful or
crying ; it is thirsty, or pale and languid,
or in some way betrays that something is
wrong. When a child vomits, or has a
diarrhoea, or is costive and feverish, it is
owing to some derangement, and needs
attention. But these various symptoms
may continue for a day or two before the
nature of the disease can be determined.
A warm bath, warm drinks, etc., can do
no harm, and may help to determine the
case. On coming out of the bath, and
being well rubbed with the hand, the
skin will show symptoms of rash, if it is
a skin disease which has commenced.
By the appearance of the rash, the nature
of the disease can be learned. Measles
are in patches, dark red, and come out
first about the face. If scarlet fever is
impending, the skin will look a deep pink
all over the body, though most so about
the neck and face. Chicken-pox shows
fever, but not so much running at the
nose, and appearances of cold, as in
measles, nor is there as much of a cough.
Besides, the spots are smaller, and do
not run much together, and are more
diffused over the whole surface of the
skin ; and enlarge into blisters in a day or
two.

CONSUMPTION. — Take one table-
spoonful of tar, and the yolks of three
hen's eggs, beat them well together.
Dose, one tablespoonful morning, noon
and night.

CROUP, Remedy for in One Minute.—
This remedy is simply alum. Take a
knife or grater, and shave or grate off in
small particles about a teaspoonful of
alum ; mix it with about twice its quantity

of sugar, to make it palatable, and ad-
minister as quick as possible. Its effects
will be truly magical, as almost instan-
taneous relief will be afforded.

CHOLERA REMEDY, HARTS-
HORNE'S.— Take of chloroform, tincture
of opium, spirits of camphor, and spirits.
of aromatic ammonia, each one and one-
half fluid drachms ; creosote, three drops ;;
oil of cinnamon, eight drops; brandy,
two fluid drachms. Dilute a teaspoonful
with a wine-glass of water, and give two>
teaspoonfuls every five minutes, followed
by a lump of ice.

DANDRUFF, Cure for.— Good mild
soap is one of the safest remedies, and is
sufficient in ordinary cases ; carbonate of
potash or soda is too alkaline for the skin.
Every application removes a portion of
the cuticle, as you may observe by the
smoothness of the skin of your hands
after washing them with it. Borax is
recommended; but this is also soda com-
bined with a weak acid, boracic acid, and
may by protracted use also injuriously act.
on the scalp. Soap is also soda or potash
combined with the weak, fatty acids ;
and when the soap contains an excess of
the alkalies or is sharp, it is as injurious:
as the carbonate of potash. All that
injures the scalp injures the growth of the
hair. One of the best applications from
the vegetable kingdom is the mucilagin-
ous decoction of the root of the burdock,,
called bardane, in French (botanical
name, Lappa Minor). In the mineral
kingdom the best remedy is a solution of
flowers of sulphur in water, which may be
made by the addition of a very small
portion of sulphide of potassium, say ten
or twenty grains to the pint. This solu-
tion is shaken up with the sulphur, and
the clear liquid remaining on the top is
used. This recipe is founded on the
fact that sulphur is a poison for inferior
vegetable or animal growth, like dandruff,
itch, etc., and is not all a poison for the
superior animals like man.

DIPHTHERIA — A French physician ex-
presses his preference for lemon juice, as
a local application in diphtheria, to chlo-
rate of potash, nitrate of silver, perchlo-
ride of lime water. He uses it by dip-
ping a little plug of cottonwood, twisted
around a wire, in the juice, and pressing
it against the diseased surface four or five
times daily.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 337

BREATH, Bad.— Bad or foul breath
will be removed by taking a teaspoonful
of the following mixture after each meal:
One ounce liquor of potassa, one ounce
chloride of soda, one and one-half
ounces phosphate of soda, and three
ounces of water.

2. Chlorate of potash, three drachms;
rose-water, four ounces. Dose, a table-
spoonful four or five times daily.

BUNION, Cure for.— A bunion is a
swelling on the ball of the great toe, and
is the result of pressure and irritation by
friction. The treatment for corns ap-
plies also to bunions ; but in consequence
of the greater extension of the disease,
the cure is more tedious. When a bun-
ion is forming it may be stopped by poul-
ticing and carefully opening it with a
lancet.

BURNS, and Scalds, Cure for.— Take
half a pound of powdered alum, dissolve
it in a quart of water; bathe the burn or
scald with a linen rag, wetted with this
mixture, then bind the wet rag on it with
a strip of linen, and moisten the bandage
with the alum water frequently, without
removing it, during two or three days.

BURNS, Tea Leaves for.— Dr. Searles,
of Warsaw, Wis., reports the immediate
relief from pain in severe burns and scalds
by the application of a poultice of tea
leaves.

CANCER.— Boil down the inner bark
of red and white oak to the consistency
of molasses ; apply as a plaster, shifting
it once a week; or, burn red-oak bark to
ashes; sprinkle it on the sore till it is
eaten out; then apply a plaster of tar;
or, take garget berries and leaves of stra-
monium ; simmer them together in equal
parts of neatsfoot oil and the tops of
hemlock; mix well together, and apply it
to the parts affected ; at the same time
make a tea of winter-green (root and
branch); put a handful into two quarts
of water; add two ounces of sulphur and
drink of this tea freely during the day.

CASTOR Oil Mixture.— Castor oil, one
dessert spoonful; magnesia, one dessert
spoonful. Rub together into a paste.
By this combination, the taste of the oil
is almost entirely concealed, and children
take it without opposition.

CASTOR OH, to Disguise.— Rub up
two drops oil of cinnamon with an ounce
of glycerine and add an ounce of castor
22

oil. Children will take it as a luxury and
ask for more.

CASTOR OIL Emulsions.— Take castor
oil and syrup, each one ounce ; the yolk
of an egg, and orange flower water, one-
half ounce. Mix. This makes a very
pleasant emulsion, which is readily taken
by adults as well as children.

CATARRH.— Take the bark of sassa-
fras root, dry and pound it, use it as a
snuff, taking two or three pinches a day.

CHILBLAINS.— Wash the parts in
strong alum water, apply as hot as can be
borne.

COLD. — Take three cents' worth of
liquorice, three of rock candy, three of
gum arabic, and put them into a quart of
water; simmer them till thoroughly dis-
solved, then add three cents' worth pare-
goric, and a like quantity of antimonial
wine.

CORNS. — Boil tobacco down to an ex-
tract, then mix with it a quantity of
white pine pitch, and apply it to the corn;
renew it once a week until the corn dis-
appears.

COUGH Mixture. — Two ounces am-
monia mixture; five ounces camphor
mixture; one drachm tincture of digitalis
(foxglove) ; one-half ounce each of sweet
spirits of nitre and syrup of poppies; two-
drachms solution of sulphate of morphia.
A tablespoonful of this mixture is to be:
taken four times a day.

2. Tincture of blood-root, one ounce ;
sulphate of morphia, one and a half
grains; tinctureof digitalis, one-half ounce;
wine of antimony, one-half ounce; oil of
winter-green, ten drops. Mix. Dose
from twenty to forty drops twice or three
times a day. Excellent for a hard, dry
cough.

3. Common sweet cider, boiled down*
to one-half, makes a most excellent syrup
for colds or coughs for children, is pleas-
ant to the taste, and wil! keep for a year
in a cool cellar. In recovering from an
illness, the system has a craving for some
pleasant drink. This is found in cider,
which is placed on the fire as soon asf
made, and allowed to come to a boil,
then cooled, put in casks, and kept in a
cool cellar.

4. Roast a large lemon very carefully
without burning; when it is thoroughly
hot, cut and squeeze into a cup upon
three ounces of sugar candy, finely pow-

338

HOME DOCTOR.

dered; take a spoonful whenever your
cough troubles you. It is as good as it
is pleasant.

DEAFNESS. — Take ant's eggs and
onion juice. Mix and drop them into
the ear. Drop into the ear, at night, six
or eight drops of hot sweet oil.

DIARRHOEA, Remedies for.— i. Take
one teaspoonful of salt, the same of good
vinegar, and a tablespoonful of water;
mix and drink. It acts like a charm on
the system, and even one dose will gen-
erally cure obstinate cases of diarrhoea or
the first stages of cholera. If the first
does not bring complete relief, repeat the
dose, as it is quite harmless. 2. The
best rhubarb root, pulverized, 1 ounce ;
peppermint leaf, 1 ounce ; capsicum, }&
ounce; cover with boiling water and
steep thoroughly, strain, and add bi-car-
bonate of potash and essence of cinnamon,
of each, y^ ounce; with brandy (or good
whisky), equal in amount to the whole,
and loaf sugar, 4 ounces. Dose — For
an adult, 1 or 2 tablespoons ; for a child,
1 to 2 teaspoons, from 3 to 6 times per
day, until relief is obtained. 3. To half
a bushel of blackberries, well mashed,
add a quarter of a pound of allspice, 2
ounces of cinnamon, 2 ounces of cloves;
pulverize well, mix and boil slowly until
properly done ; then strain or squeeze the
juice through home-spun or flannel, and
add to each pint of the juice 1 pound of
loaf sugar, boil again for some time, take
it off, and, while cooling, add half a
gallon of the best Cognac brandy.

DIARRH(EA, Chronic— Rayer recom-
mends the association of cinchona, char-
coal and bismuth in the treatment of
chronic diarrhoea, in the fnllowing pro-
portions: Subnitrate of bismuth, one
drachm; cinchona, yellow, powdered,
one-half drachm; charcoal, vegetable, one
drachm. Make twenty powders and take
two or three a day during the intervals
between meals.

DYSENTERY, Cures for.— Tincture of
rhubarb, tincture of capsicum, tincture of
camphor, essence of ginger and lauda-
num, equal parts. Mix; shake well and
take from ten to twenty drops every thir-
ty minutes until relief is obtained. This
is a dose for an adult. Half the amount
for a child under twelve years of age. 2.
Take some butter off the churn, immedi-
ately after being churned, just as it is,

without being salted or washed ; clarify it
over the fire like honey. Skim off all the
milky particles when melted over a clear
fire. Let the patient (if an adult) take
two tablespoonfuls of the clarified remain-
der, twice or thrice within the day. This
has never failed to effect a cure, and in
many cases it has been almost instantane-
ous. 3. In diseases of this kind the In-
dians use the roots and leaves of the
blackberry bush — a decoction of which
in hot water, well boiled down, is taken
in doses of a gill before each meal, and
before retiring to bed. It is an almost
infallable cure. 4. Beat one egg in a tea-
cup ; add one tablespoonful of loaf sugar
and half a teaspoonful of ground spice ;
fill the cup with sweet milk. Give the
patient one tablespoonful once in ten
minutes until relieved. 5. Take one
tablespoonful of common salt, and mix
it with two tablespoonsful of vinegar and
pour upon it a half-pint of water, either
hot or cold (only let it be taken cool.)
A wine-glass full of this mixture in the
above proportions, taken every half-hour,
will be found quite efficacious in curing
dysentery. If the stomach be nauseated,
a wine-glass full taken every hour will
suffice. For a child, the quantity should
be a teaspoonful of salt and one of vin-
egar in a teacupful of water.

DROPSY.— Take the leaves of a cur-
rant bush and make into a tea.

DRUNKENNESS, Cure for.— The fol-
lowing singular means of curing habitual
drunkenness is employed by a Russian
physician, Dr. Schreiber, of Brzese Litew-
ski : It consists in confining the drunk-
ard in a room, and in furnishing him at
discretion with his favorite spirit diluted
with two-thirds of water; as much wine,
beer and coffee as he desires, but contain-
ing one-third of spirit ; all the food — the
bread meat and the legumes are steeped
in spirit and water. The poor devil is
continually drunk and dort. On the fifth
day of this regime he has an extreme
disgust for spirit; he earnestly requests
other diet; but his desire must not be
yielded to, until the poor wretch no longer
desires to eat or drink ; he is then cer-
tainly cured of his penchant for drunken-
ness. He acquires such a disgust for
brandy or other spirits that he is ready
to vomit at the very sight of it.

DYSPEPSIA.— 1. Take bark of white

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 339

poplar root, boil it thick and add a little
spirit, and then lay it on the stomach.

2. Take wintergreen and black cherry-
tree bark and yellow dock ; put into two
quarts of water; boil down to three
pints; take two or three glasses a day.

Here are two remedies for dyspepsia,
said by those who " have tried them " to
be infallable. 1. Eat onions. 2. Take
two parts of well-dried and pounded pods
of red pepper, mixed with one part of
ground .mustard, and sift it over every-
thing you eat or drink.

EAKACHE, Cure for.— Take a small
piece cf cotton batting or cotton wool,
make a depression in the center with the
finger, and then fill it up with as much
ground pepper as will rest on a five cent
piece ; gather it into a ball and tie it up ;
dip the ball into sweet oil and insert it in
the ear, covering the latter with cotton
wool, and use a bandage or cap to retain
it in its place. Almost instant relief will
be experienced ; and the application is so
gentle that an infant will not get in-
jured by it, but experience relief as well
as adults. Roast a piece of lean mutton,
squeeze out the juice and drop it into the
ear as hot as it can be borne. Roast an
onion and put into the ear as hot as it
can be borne.

ERYSIPELAS.— Dissolve five ounces
of salt in one pint of good brandy and
take two table-spoonfuls three times a
day.

EYES, Inflamed. — Pour boiling water
on alder flowers, and steep them like tea ;
when cold, put three or four drops of
laudanum into a small glass of the alder-
tea, and let the mixture run into the eyes
two or three times a day, and the eyes
will become perfectly strong in the course
of a week.

EYES, Weeping. — Wash the eyes in
chamomile tea night and morning.

EYES, Inflammation, Granular. — A
prominent oculist says that the contagious
Egyptian or granular inflammation of the
eyes is spreading throughout the country,
and that he has been able in many, and
indeed in a majority of cases, to trace
the disease to what are commonly called
rolling towels. Towels of this kind are
generally found in country hotels and the
dwellings of the working classes, and, be-
ing thus used by nearly every one, are
made the carriers of one of the most

troublesome diseases of the eye. This
being the case, it is urgently recommend-
ed that the use of these rolling towels be
discarded, and thus one of the special ve-
hicles for the spread of a most dangerous
disorder of the eyes — one by which thou-
sands of workingmen are annually de-
prived of their means of support — will no
longer exist.

EYE, Cure for Stye in. — Bathe fre-
quently with warm water. When the
stye bursts, use an ointment composed of
one part of citron ointment, and four of
spermaceti, well rubbed together, and
smear along the edge of the eye-lid.

FELONS, to Cure. — 1. Stir one-half
teaspoonful of water into an ounce of
Venice turpentine until the mixture ap-
pears like granulated honey. Wrap a
good coating of it around the finger with
a cloth. If the felon is only recent, the
pain will be removed in six hours.

2. As soon as the part begins to swell
wrap it with a cloth saturated thoroughly
with the tincture of lobelia. An old phy-
sician says, that he has known this to cure
scores of cases, and that it never fails
if applied in season.

FEVER AND AGUE.— Take of cloves
and cream of tartar each one-half ounce,
and one ounce of Peruvian bark. Mix
in a small quantity of tea, and take it on
well days, in such quantities as the
stomach will bear.

FEVER SORES.— Take of hoarhound,
balm, sarsaparilla, loaf sugar, aloes,
gum camphor, honey, spikenard, spirits
of turpentine, each two ounces. Dose,
one table-spoonful, three mornings, miss-
ing three ; and tor a wash, make a strong
tea of sumach, washing the affected
parts frequently, and keeping the ban-
dage well wet.

FITS.— Take of tincture of fox-glove,
ten drops at each time twice a day, and
increase one drop at each time as long as
the stomach will bear it, or it causes a
nauseous feeling.

GLEETS. — Make of turpentine a four-
grain pill, and take three a day.

GLYCERINE, CREAM.— Receipt for
chapped lips : Take of spermaceti, four
drachms; white wax, one drachm; oil
of almonds, two troy ounces; glycerine,
one troy ounce. Melt the spermaceti,
wax, and oil together, and when cooling
stir in the glycerine and perfume.

340

HOME DOCTOR.

GLYCERINE LOTION.— For softening
the skin of the face and hands, especially
during the commencement of cold weath-
er, and also for allaying the irritation
caused by the razor: Triturate, four and
a half grains of cochineal with one and
a half fluid ounces of boiling water, add-
ed gradually ; then add two and a half
fluid ounces of alcohol. Also make an
emulsion of eight drops of ottar of roses
with thirty grains of gum arabic and eight
fluid ounces of water j then add three
fluid ounces of glycerine, and ten fluid
drachms of quince mucilage. Mix the
two liquids.

GONORRHOEA, Treatment o£— Mr. Mc-
Donald recommends the following : Smear
a bougie with ointment of the nitrate of
silver (nitrate of silver, one drachm ; to
lard, one' ounce;) introduce it into the
urethra about three inches, and allow it to
remain two or three minutes. Two or
three applications have been found to
cure the disease.

GONORRHOEA.— Use internally in the
acute stage the following : Tincture vera-
trum, twenty drops; gelseminum, one
ounce ; water, four ounces. Dose, a tea-
spoonful every two hours. As an injec-
tion, use once or twice daily, as the acute
stage is passing away, carbolic acid, ten
grains ; tannic acid, fifteen grains ; water
four ounces.

GONORRHOEA, Injection (Ricord's).—
Mix fifteen grains each of sulphate of
zinc and acetate of lead, with six and a
halt ounces rose water. Inject three
times a day.

FLESHWORMS.— These specks, when
they exist in any number, are a cause of
much unsightliness. They are minute
corks, if we may use the term, of coagu-
lated lymph, which close the orifices of
some of the pores or exhalent vessels of
the skin. On the skin immediately ad-
jacent to them being pressed with the
finger nails, these bits of coagulated
lymph will come from it in a vermicular
form. They are vulgarly called "flesh-
worms," many persons fancying them to
be living creatures. These may be got
rid of and prevented from returning, by
washing with tepid water, by proper fric-
tion with a towel, and by the application
of a little cold cream. The longer these
little piles are permitted to remain in the
skin the more firmly they become fixed;

and after a time, when they lose their
moisture they are converted into lo»g
bony spines as dense as bristles, and hav-
ing much of that character. They are
known by the name of spotted achne.
With regard to local treatment, the fol-
lowing lotions are calculated to be ser-
viceable: i. Distilled rose water, i pint;
sulphate of zinc, 20 to 60 grains. Mix.

2. Sulphate of copper, 20 grains; rose-
water, 4 ounces; water, 12 ounces. Mix.

3. Oil of sweet almonds, 1 ounce ; fluid
potash, 1 drachm. Shake well together,
and then add rose-water, 1 ounce ; pure
water 6 ounces. Mix. The mode of
using these remedies is to rub the pim-
ples for some minutes with a rough tow-
el, and then dab them with the lotion.

4. Wash the face twice a day with warm
water, and rub dry with a coarse towel.
Then with a soft towel rub in a lotion
made of two ounces of white brandy,
one ounce of cologne, and one half ounce
of liquor potassa.

FRECKLES, Removal o£ — Freckles,
so persistently regular in their annual
return, have annoyed the fair sex from
time immemorial; and various means
have been devised to eradicate them,
although thus far with no decidedly sat-
isfactory results. The innumerable rem-
edies in use for the removal of these
vexatious intruders, are either simple and
harmless washes, such as parsley or horse-
radish water, solutions of borax, etc., or
injurious nostrums, consisting principally
of lead and mercury salts.

If the exact cause of freckles were
known, a remedy for them might be
found. A chemist in Moravia, observing
the bleaching effect of mercurial prepara-
tions, inferred that the growth of a lo-
cal parasitical fungus was the cause of
the discoloration of the skin, which ex-
tended and ripened its spores in the
warmer season. Knowing that sulpho-
carbolate of zinc is a deadly enemy to
all parasitic vegetation (itselr not being
otherwise injurious), he applied this salt
for the purpose of removing the freckles.
The compound consists of two parts of
sulpho-carbolate of zinc, twenty-five parts
of distilled glycerine, twenty- five parts
of rose-water, and five parts of scented
alcohol, and is to be applied twice daily
for from half an hour to an hour, then
washed off with cold water. Protection

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 341

against the sun by veiling and other
means is recommended, and in addition,
for persons of pale complexion, some
mild preparation of iron.

GRAVEL. — 1. Make a strong tea of
the low herb called heart's - ease, and
drink freely. 2. Make of Jacob's ladder
a strong tea, and drink freely. 3. Make
of bean leaves a strong tea, and drink
freely.

HAIR, Wash for. — Castile soap, finely
shaved, one teaspoonful ; spirits of harts-
horn, one drachm ; alcohol, five ounces ;
cologne water and bay rum, in equal
quantities enough to make eight ounces.
This should be poured on the head, fol-
lowed by warm water (soft water) ; the
result will be, on washing, a copious
lather and a smarting sensation to the
person operated on. Rub this well into
the hair. Finally, rinse with warm water,
and afterwards with cold water. If the
head is very much clogged with dirt, the
hair will come out plentifully, but the
scalp will become white and perfecly
clean.

HAIR, Restorative. — Take of castor
oil, six fluid ounces ; alcohol, twenty-six
fluid ounces. Dissolve. Then add tinc-
ture of cantharides (made with strong
alcohol), one fluid ounce; essence of jes-
samine (or other perfume) one and a half
fluid ounces.

HEARTBURN".— Sal volatile combined
with camphor is a splendid remedy.

HEADACHE, Sick.— Take a teaspoon-
ful of powdered charcoal in molasses every
morning, and wash it down with a little
tea, or drink half a glass of raw rum or
gin, and drink freely of Mayweed tea.

HEADACHE.— -Dr. Silvers, of Ohio, in
the Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Re-
porter, recommends ergot in headache,
especially the nervous or sick headache.
He says it will cure a larger proportion
of cases than any other remedy. His
theory of its action is that it lessens the
quantity of blood in the brain by contract-
ing the muscular fibres of the arterial
walls. He gives ten to twenty drops of
the fluid extract, repeated every half hour
till relief is obtained, or four or five doses
used. In other forms of disease, where
opium alone is contra- indicated, its bad
effects are moderated, he says, by com-
bining it with ergot.

HEADACHE DROPS.— For the cure of
nervous, sun, and sick headache, take two
quarts of alcohol, three ounces of Castile
soap, one ounce camphor, and two ounces
ammonia. Bathe forehead and temples.

HIVE SYRUP (Coxe's). — Put one
ounce each of squills and seneca snake-
root into one pint water; boil down to
one-half and strain. Then add one-half
pound of clarified honey containing twelve
grains tartrate of antimony. Dose for a
child, ten drops to one teaspoonful, ac-
cording to age. An excellent remedy for
croup.

HAIR, Cleaning the. — From the too
frequent use of oils in the hair, many
ladies destroy "^the tone and color of their
tresses. The Hindoos have a way of
remedying this. They take a hand basin
filled with [cold water, and have ready a
small quantity of pea flour. The hair is
in the first place submitted to the opera-
tion of being washed in cold water, a
handful of the pea flour is then applied to
the head and rubbed into the hair for ten
minutes at least, the servant adding fresh
water at short intervals, until it becomes
a perfect lather. The whole head is then
washed quite clean with copious supplies
of the aqueous fluid, combed, and after-
wards rubbed dry by means of coarse
towels. The hard and soft brush is then
resorted to, when the hair will be found
to be wholly free from all encumbering
oils and other impurities, and assume a
glossy softness, equal to the most delicate
silk. This process tends to preserve the
tone and natural color of the hair, which
is so frequently destroyed by the too con-
stant use of caustic cosmetics.

HANDS, to Soften. — After cleansing the
hands with soap, rub them well with oat-
meal while wet.

HANDS, to Remove Stains from. —
Damp the hands first in water, then rub
them with tartaric acid, or salt of lemons,
as you would with soap; rinse them and
rub them dry. Tartaric acid, or salt of
lemons, will quickly remove stains from
white muslin or linens. Put less than
half a teaspoonful of salt or acid into a
table-spoonful of water; wet the stain
with it, and lay it in the sun for an hour ;
wet it once or twice with cold water dur-
ing the time; if this does not quite re-
move it, repeat the acid water, and lay it
in the sun.

342

HOME DOCTOR.

HANDS, to Whiten.— i. Stir ^ of a
pound of Castile soap, and place it in a
jar near the fire, pour over it ^ pint of
alcohol; when the soap is dissolved and
mixed with the spirit, add i ounce of gly-
cerine, the same of oil of almonds, with a
few drops of essence of violets, or ottar of
roses, then pour it into moulds to cool for
use. 2. A wine glassful of eau-de-cologne,
and one of lemon-juice, two cakes of
brown Windsor soap, mixed well together,
when hard, will form an excellent sub-
stance.

HEAT), Scurf in. — A simple and
effectual remedy. Into a pint of water
drop a lump of fresh quick lime, the size
of a walnut ; let it stand all night, then
pour the water off clear from the sedi-
ment or deposit, add ^ of a pint of the
best vinegar, and wash the head with the
mixture. Perfectly harmless; only wet
the roots of the hair.

LIPS, Chapped. — Take 2 ounces of
white wax, 1 ounce of spermaceti, 4 ounces
of oil of almonds, 2 ounces of honey, J/
of an ounce of essence of bergamot, or
any other scent. Melt the wax and
spermaceti; then add the honey* and
melt all together, and when hot add the
almond oil by degrees,. stirring till cold.
2. Take oil of almonds 3 ounces ; sperma-
ceti, Yz ounce; virgin rice, y^ ounce.
Melt these together over a slow fire, mix-
ing with them a little powder of alkane
root to color it. Keep stirring till cold,
and then add a few drops of the oil of
rhodium. 3. Take oil of almonds, sperma-
ceti, white wax, and white sugar candy,
equal parts. These form a good, white
lip salve.

MOTH PATCHES, to Eemove.— Wash
the patches with solution of common bi-
carbonate of soda and water several times
during the day for two days, or until the
patches are removed, which will usually be
in forty-eight hours. After the process
wash with some nice toilet soap, and the
skin will be left nice, smooth and clear of
patches.

NAILS, the Care of— The nails should
be kept clean by the daily use of the nail
brush and soap and water. After wiping
the hands, but while they are still soft from
the action of the water, gently push back
the skin which is apt to grow over the
nails, which will not oniy preserve them
neatly rounded, but will prevent the skin

cracking around their roots (nail springs),
and becoming sore. The points of the
nails should be pared at least once a
week; biting them should be avoided.

HICCOUGH. — A convulsive motion of
the diaphragm and parts adjacent. The
common causes are flatulency, indigestion,
acidity, and worms. It may usually be
removed by the exhibition of warm car-
minatives, cordials, cold water, weak
spirits, camphor julep, or spirits of sal
volatile. A sudden fright or surprise will
often produce the like effect. An instance
is recorded of a delicate young lady that
was troubled with hiccough for some
months, and who was reduced to a state
of extreme debility from the loss of sleep
occasioned thereby, who was cured by a
fright, after medicines and topical appli-
cations had failed. A pinch of snuff, a
glass of cold soda-water, or an ice-cream,
will also frequently remove this com-
plaint.

HOARSENESS.— Make a strong tea of
horse-radish and yellow dock roots,
sweeten with honey and drink freely.

HOARSENESS, Remedies for.— Take
one drachm of freshly scraped horse-
radish root, to be infused with four ounces
of water in a close vessel for three hours,
and made into a syrup, with double its
quantity of vinegar. A teaspoonful has
often proved effectual.

HUMORS. — Take equal parts of saffron
and seneca snake root, make a strong
tea, drink one-half pint a day, and this
will drive out all humors from the system.

HYSTERICS.— Take the leaves of
motherwort and thoroughwort, and the
bark of poplar root, equal parts. Mix
them in molasses, and take four of them
when the first symptoms of disorder are
felt, and they will effectually check it.

ITCH, Barber's. — Moisten the parts
affected with saliva (spittle) and rub it
over thoroughly three times a day with
the ashes of a good Havana cigar. This
is a simple remedy, but yet it has cured
the most obstinate cases.

ITCH, Ointment. — 1. Take lard, one
pound ; suet, one pound ; sugar of lead,
eight ounces; vermillion, two ounces.
Mix. Scent with a little bergamot. 2.
Take bichloride of mereury, one ounce;
lard, one pound; suet, one pound; hydro-
chloride acid, one and a half ounces.
Melt and well mix, and when perfectly

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 343.

cold, stir in essence cf lemon, four
drachms; essence of bergamot, one
drachm. 3. Take powdered chloride of
lime, one ounce; lard, one pound. Mix
well, then add essence of lemon, two
drachms. 4. Take bichloride of mer-
cury, one part ; lard, fifteen parts. Mix
well together. 5. Take white precipitate,
one part; lard, twelve parts. Mix. A
portion of either of these ointments must
be well rubbed on the parts affected,
night and morning.

ITCH, Seven-year, to Cure. — u Use
plenty of Castile soap and water, and
then apply freely iodide of sulphur oint-
ment; or take any given quantity of
simple sulphur ointment and color it to a
light brown or chocolate color with the
subcarbonate of iron, and then perfume
it. Apply this freely, and if the case
should be a severe one, administer mild
alteratives in conjunction with the out-
ward application. 2. The sulphur bath
is a good remedy for itch or any other
kind of skin diseases. Leprosy (the most
obstinate of all) has been completely
cured by it, and the common itch only
requires two or three applications to com-
pletely eradicate it from the system. 3.
Benzine, it is said, will effect a complete
cure tor scabies in the course of half to
three-quarters of an hour, after which the
patient should take a warm bath from
twenty to thirty minutes.

JAUNDICE.— 1. Take the whites of
two hen's eggs, beat them up well in a
gill of water ; take of this a little every
morning; it will soon do good. It also
creates an appetite, and strengthens the
stomach. 2. Take of black cherry-tree
bark, two ouuces ; blood root and gold
thread, each half an ounce; put in a
pint of brandy. Dose, from a teaspoon-
ful to a tablespoonful morning and night.

JOINTS, Stiffened.— Take of the bark
of white oak and sweet apple trees, equal
parts; boil them down to a thick sub-
stance, and then add the same quantity
of goose-grease or oil, simmer all together,
and then rub it on the parts warm.

KIDNEYS, Diseases of.— Equal parts
of the oil of red cedar and the oil of
spearmint.

LAME BACK.— Take the berries of
red cedar and allow them to simmer in
neatsfoot oil. and use as an ointment.

LICE, To KilL— All kinds of lice and
their nits may be got rid of by washing
with a simple decoction of stavesacre
{Delphinium staphisagria), or with a lotion
made with the bruised seed in vinegar, or
with the tincture, or by rubbing in a-
salve made with the seeds and four times
their weight of lard very carefully beaten
together. The acetic solution and the
tincture are the cleanliest and most agree-
able preparations, but all are equally effi-
cacious in destroying both the creatures
and their eggs, and even in relieving the
intolerable itching which their casual
presence leaves behind on many sensitive
skins. The alkaloid delphinia may also
be employed, but possesses no advantage
except in the preparation of an ointment,
when from any reason that form of ap-
plication should be preferred.

LINIMENT, Rheumatic. — Olive oil,
spirits of camphor and chloroform, of
each two ounces ; sassafras oil, 1 drachm.
Add the oil of sassafras to the olive oil,
then the spirits of camphor, and shake
well before putting in the chloroform;
shake when used, and keep it corked, asj
the chloroform evaporates very fast if it
is left open. Apply three or four times
daily, rubbing in well, and always toward
the body.

LEIlJDXT, Sore Throat. — Gum cam-
phor, two ounces; castile soap, shaved
fine, one drachm ; oil of turpentine and
oil of origanum, each one-half ounce;
opium, one-fourth of an ounce ; alcohol,
one pint. In a week or ten days they
will be fit for use. Bathe the parts freely
two or three times daily until relief is ob-
tained.

LINIMENT, Wonderful. — Two ounces
oil of spike, two ounces origanum, two
ounces hemlock, two ounces wormwood,1
four ounces sweet oil, two ounces spirit
of ammonia, two ounces gum camphor,
two ounces spirits turpentine. Add one
quart strong alcohol. Mix well together,
and bottle tight. This is an unequaled
horse liniment, and of the best ever made
for human ailments such as rheumatism,
sprains, etc.

LIPS, SOKE— Wash the lips with a
strong tea, made from the bark of the
white oak.

LIVER COMPLAINT. — Make a strong
tea of syrup of burdock, wormwood and
dandelion, equal parts, and drink freely.

344

HOME DOCTOR.

LOCK-JAW.— It is said that the appli-
cation of warm lie, made of ashes as
strong as possible, to a wounded part,
will prevent a locked jaw ; if a foot or
hand, immersed in it ; if another part of
the body, bathe with flannels wrung out
of the warm lye. '^

MUMPS. — This disease, most common
among children, begins with soreness and
stiffness in the side of the neck. Soon a
swelling of the parotid gland takes place,
which is painful, and continues to in-
crease for four or five days, sometimes
making it difficult to swallow, or open the
mouth. The swelling sometimes comes
on one side at a time, but commonly upon
both. There is often heat and sometimes
fever, with a dry skin, quick pulse, furred
tongue, constipated bowels, and scanty
and high-colored urine. The disease is
contagious. The treatment is very sim-
ple— a mild diet, gentle laxative, occa-
sional hot fomentations, and wearing a
piece of flannel round the throat.

NAILS, to Prevent Growing into the
Toe. — If the nail of your toe be hard,
^.nd apt to grow round, and into the cor-
ners of your toe, take a piece of broken
glass and scrape the top very thin ; do this
whenever you cut your nails, and by con-
stant use, it makes the corners fly up and
grow flat, so that it is impossible they
ishould give you any pain.

NAILS, to Whiten.— The best wash for
whitening the nails is two drachms of di-
luted sulphuric acid, one drachm of tinc-
ture of myrrh, added to four, ounces of
spring water ; first cleanse the hands, and
then apply the wash.

NEUBALGIA, 'Jure for— i. Fill a
tight-top thimble with cotton wool, and
drop on it a few drops of strong spirits
of hartshorn. The open mouth of the
thimble is then applied over the seat of
pain for a minute or two, until the skin is
blistered The skin is then rubbed off,
and upon the denuded surface a small
quantity of morphia (one-fourth grain) is
applied This affords almost instant re-
lief. A second application of the mor-
phia, if required, is to be preceded by
first rubbing off the new formation that
has sprung ud over ^e former blistered
surface.

2. Dr. J. Knox Hodge recommends
the following as an application which
will relieve facial or any other neuralgia

almost instantaneously : Albumen of egg,
one drachm ; rhigolene, four ounces ; oil
of peppermint, two ounces; collodion
and chloroform, each one ounce. Mix.
Agitate occasionlly for twenty-four hours,
and by gelatinization a beautiful and
semi-solidified, opodeldoc-looking com-
pound results, which will retain its con-
sistency and hold the ingredients inti-
mately blended for months. Apply by
smart friction with the hand, or gently
with a soft brush or moo along the course
of the nerve involved.

3. Mix one and one-half drachms io-
dide of potash, fifteen grains of quinine,
one ounce ginger syrup, and two and a
half ounces water. Dose, a tablespoon-
ful every three hours.

4. Of the Stomach.— Take of distilled
water of cherry laurel, five parts ; muri-
ate of morphia, one-tenth part. Mix
and dissolve. One drop on a lump of
sugar immediately before meals.

OINTMENT, for Sore Nipples.— Glyce-
rine, rose-water and tannin, equal weights,
rubbed together into an ointment, is very
highly recommended for sore or cracked
nipples.

OINTMENT, Glycerine.— Melt togeth-
er spermaceti, two drachms ; white wax,
one-half drachm; oil of sweet almonds,
two ounces, and then add glycerine one
ounce and stir briskly until cool. An
admirable application for chanped hands,
etc.

OINTMENT, for Itch.— White precipi-
tate, fifteen grains; saltpetre, one-half
drachm; flour of sulphur, one drachm.
Mix well with lard, two ounces. Long
celebrated for the cure of itch.

OINTMENT, Sulphur.— Flour of sta-
phur, eight ounces ; oil of bergamot, two
drachms; lard, one pound. Rub freely
three times a day, for itch.

OINTMENT, for Piles.— Tannin, two
drachms; water, two fluid drachms;
triturate together, and add lard, one and
a half drachms. An excellent applica-
tion for piles.

OINTMENT, for Hemorrhoids.— Sul-
phate of morphia, three grains; extract
of stramonia, thirty grains ; olive oil, one
drachm ; carbonate of lead, sixty grains ;
lard, three drachms.

PAINS. — 1. Steep mangold in good
cider vinegar and frequently wash the

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 34S

affected parts. This will afford speedy
relief.

2. Take half a pound of tar and the
same quantity of tobacco, and boil them
down separately to a thick substance;
then simmer them together. Spread a
plaster and apply it to the affected
parts, and it will afford immediate relief.

PAINTERS' COLIC— Make of tartaric
acid a syrup similar to that of lemon
syrup ; add a sufficient quantity of water,
and drink two or three glasses a day.

PAIN-KILLER, Instantaneous. — An-
other and even more instant cure of
pain is made as follows: Take aqua-
ammonia, sulphuric ether, and alcohol,
equal parts, and apply over the pain.

PIMPLES. — Take a teaspoonful of the
tincture of gum guaiacum, and one tea-
spoonful of vinegar; mix well and apply
it to the affected parts.

PLASTER, Poor Man's.— Melt togeth-
er beeswax, "one ounce ; tar, three ounces ;
resin, three ounces ; and spread^ on paper
or muslin.

PLASTER, Rheumatic. — One-fourth
pound of resin, and one-fourth pound of
sulphur; melt by a slow fire, and add
one ounce of Cayenne pepper, and one-
fourth of an ounce of camphor gum;
stir well till mixed, and temper with neats-
foot oil.

PLASTER, Strengthening. — Litharge
plaster, twenty-four parts; white resin,
six parts; yellow wax and olive oil, of
■each three parts ; and red oxide of iron,
eight parts. Let the oxide be rubbed
with the oil, and the other ingredients
added melted, and mix the whole well
together. The plaster, after being spread
over the leather, should be cut into
strips two inches wide, and strapped firm-
ly around the joint.

PLASTERS, Mustard. — It is stated
that in making a mustard plaster, no
water whatever should be used, but the
mustard mixed with the white of an
egg; the result will be a plaster that
will "draw" perfectly, but will not pro-
duce a blister even upon the skin of an
infant, no matter how long it is allowed
to remain upon the part.

POULTICE, Bread and Milk.— Take stale
bread in crumbs, pour boiling sweet milk,
or milk and water over it, and simmer
till soft, stirring it well; then take it
from the fire, and gradually stir in a

little glycerine or sweet oil, so as to
render the poultice pliable when applied.

POULTICE, Linseed.— Take of linseed,
powdered, four ounces; hot water suffi-
cient, mix and stir well with a spoon,
until of suitable consistence. A little oil
should be added, and some smeared over
the surface as well, to prevent its get-
ting hard. A very excellent poultice,
suitable for many purposes.

POULTICE, Spice. — Powdered cinna-
mon, cloves and Cayenne pepper, of
each two ounces; rye meal, or flour,
spirits and honey, of each sufficient to
make of suitable consistence.

QUINSY. — This is an inflammation of
the tonsils, or common inflammatory
sore throat; commences with a slight
feverish attack, with considerable pain
and swelling of the tonsils, causing some
difficulty in swallowing; as the attack
advances these symptoms become more
intense, there is headache, thirst, a pain-
ful sense of tension, and acute darting
pains in the ears. The attack is generally
brought on by exposure to cold, and
lasts from five to seven days, when it
subsides naturally, or an abscess may
form in tonsil and burst, or the tonsil
may remain enlarged, the inflammation
subsiding.

Treatment. — The patient should re-
main in a warm room, the diet chiefly
milk and good broths, some cooling lax-
ative and diaphoretic medicine may be
given ; but the greatest relief will be found
in the frequent inhalation of the steam
of hot water through an inhaler, or in
the old-fashioned way through the spout
of a tea-pot.

RHEUMATISM, Other Remedies for.—

1. Bathe the parts affected with water in
which potatoes have been boiled, as hot
as can be borne, just before going to
bed; by the next morning it will be
much relieved, if not removed. One ap-
plication of this simple remedy has cured
the most obstinate of rheumatic pains.

2. Half an ounce of pulverized saltpetre
put in half a pint of sweet oil; bathe the
parts affected, and a sound cure will be
speedily effected. 3. Rheumatism has
frequently been cured by a persistent use
of lemon-juice, either undiluted or in the
form of lemonade. Suck half a lemon
every morning before breakfast, and oc-
casionally during the day, and partake

346

HOME DOCTOR.

of lemonade when thirsty in preference
to any other drink. If severely afflict-
ed, a physician should be consulted; but,
in all cases, lemon-juice will hasten the
cure. 4. By the valerian bath, made
simply by taking one pound of valerian
root, boiling it gently for about a quar-
ter of an hour in one gallon of water,
straining and adding the strained liquid
to about twenty gallons of water in an
ordinary bath. The temperature should
be about ninety-eight degrees, and the
time of immersion from twenty minutes
to half an hour. Pains must be taken
to dry the patient perfectly upon getting
out of the bath. If the inflammation re-
main refractory in any of the joints, lin-
seed meal poultices should be made with
a strong decoction of valerian root, and
applied.

RING-WORM, To Cure.— To one part
sulphuric acid, add sixteen to twenty
parts water. Use a brush and feather,
and apply it to the parts night and morn-
ing. A few dressings will generally cure.
If the solution is too strong and causes
pain, dilute it with water, and if the irri-
tation is excessive, rub on a little oil or
other softening application, but always
avoid the use of soap.

Or, wash the head with soft soap every
morning, and apply the following lotion
every night : One-half drachm of sub-
carbonate of soda dissolved in one gill of
vinegar.

SALVE, Healing. — Sweet oil, three
quarts; resin, three ounces; beeswax,
three ounces. Melt together ; then add
powdered red lead, two pounds ; heat all
these together and when nearly cold
add a piece of camphor as large as a
nutmeg. Good for burns, etc.

SALT RHEUM. — 1. Make a strong tea
of elm root bark ; drink the tea freely,
and wash the affected part in the same.
2. Take one ounce of blue flag root, steep
it in half a pint of gin ; take a teaspoon-
ful three times a day, morning, noon and
night, and wash with the same. 3. Take
one ounce of oil of tar, one drachm of
oil of checker berry; mix. Take from
five to twenty drops moining and night,
as the stomach will bear.

STOMACH, Bleeding of the.— Take a
teaspoonful of camomile tea every ten
minutes until the bleeding stops.

STOMACH, Sickness of.— Drink three

or four times a day of the steep made
from the bark of white poplar roots.

SUNBURN AND TAN.— 1. Take two-
drachms of borax, one drachm of Roman
alum, one drachm of camphor, half an
ounce of sugar candy, and a pound of
ox-gall. Mix, and stir well for ten
minutes or so, and repeat this stirring
three or four times a day for a fortnight,
till it appears clear and transparent.
Strain through blotting paper, and bottle
up for use. 2. Milk of almonds made
thus: Take of blanched bitter almonds
half an *©unce, soft water half a pint ;
make an emulsion by beating the almonds
and water together, strain through a
muslin cloth, and it is made. 3. A prep-
aration composed of equal parts of olive
oil and lime water is also an excellent
remedy for sunburn.

SWEAT, To Produce.— Take of nitre,
one-half drachm; snake's head (herb),
saffron, camphor, snake-root, seneca, bark
of sassafras root, each one ounce ; ipecac,
and opium, each one-half ounce ; put
the above in three quarts of Holland gin,
and take a tablespoonful in catnip tea
every few minutes, till a sweat is pro-
duced.

TEETHING.— Young children whilst
cutting their first set of teeth often suffer
severe constitutional disturbance. At first
there is restlessness and peevishness, with
slight fever, but not unfrequently these
are followed by convulsive fits, as they
are commonly called, which depend on
the brain becoming irritated ; and some-
times under this condition the child is
either cut off suddenly, or the foundation
of serious mischief to the brain is laid.
The remedy, or rather the safeguard,
against these frightful consequences is
trifling, safe, and almost certain, and con-
sists merely in lancing the gum covering
the tooth which is making its way
through. When teething is about it may
be known by the spittle constantly drivel-
ing from the mouth and wetting the frock.
The child has its fingers often in its
mouth, and bites hard any substance it
can get hold of. If the gums be carefully
looked at, the part where the tooth is
pressing up is swollen and redder than
usual ; and if the finger be pressed on it
the child shrinks and cries, showing that
the gum is tender. When these symptoms
occur, the gum should be lanced, and

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 347

sometimes the tooth comes through the
next day, if near the surface ; but if not
so far advanced the cut heals and a scar
forms, which is thought by some objec-
tionable, as rendering the passage of the
tooth more difficult. This, however, is
untrue, for the scar will give way much
more easily than the uncut gum. If the
tooth does not come through after two or
three days, the lancing may be repeated ;
and this is more especially needed if the
child be very fractious, and seem in much
pain. Lancing the gums is further ad-
vantageous, because it empties the in-
flamed part of its blood, and so relieves
the pain and inflammation. The relief
children experience in the course of two
or three hours from the operation is often
very remarkable, as they almost immedi-
ately become lively and cheerful.

TEETH AND GUMS, Wash for.— The
teeth should be washed night and morn-
ing, a moderately small and soft brush
being used; after the morning ablution
pour on a second tooth-brush, slighly
damped, a little of the following lotion:
Carbolic acid, 20 drops ; spirit of wine, 2
drachms; distilled water, 6 ounces. After
using this lotion for a short time the
gums become firmer and less tender, and
impurity of the breath (which is most
commonly caused by bad teeth), will be
removed. It is a great mistake to use
hard tooth-brushes, or to brush the teeth
until the gums bleed.

TETTER.— After a slight feverish at-
tack, lasting two or three days, clusters
of small, transparent pimples, filled some-
times with a colorless, sometimes with a
brownish lymph, appear on the cheeks or
forehead, or on the extremities, and at
times on the body. The pimples are
about the size of a pea, and break after a
few days, when a brown or yellow crust
is formed over them, which falls off about
the tenth day, leaving the skin red and
irritable. The eruption is attended with
heat, itching, tingling, fever and restless-
ness, especially at night. Ringworm is a
curious form of tetter, in which the
inflamed patches assume the form of a
ring.

Treatment — Should consist of light
diet, and gentle laxatives. If the patient
be advanced in life, and feeble, a tonic
will be desirable. For a wash, white
vitriol, one drachm; rose-water, three

ounces, mixed; or an ointment made of
alder-flower ointment, one ounce; oxide
of zinc, one drachm.

TAN, to Remove. — Tan may be re-
moved from the face by mixing magnesia
in soft water to the consistency of paste,
which should then be spread on the face
and allowed to remain a minute or two.
Then wash off with Castile soap suds, and
rinse with soft water.

TEETH, Care of.— The mouth has a
temperature of 980, warmer than is ever
experienced in the shade in the latitude
of New England. It is well known that
if beef, for example, be exposed in the
shade during the warmest of our summer
days, it will very soon decompose. If we
eat beef for dinner, the particles invari-
ably find their way into the spaces be-
tween the teeth. Now, if these particles
of beef are not removed, they will fre-
quently remain till they are softened by
decomposition. In most mouths this
process of decomposition is in constant
progress. Ought we to be surprised that
the gums and teeth against which these
decomposing or putrefying masses lie
should become subjects of disease ?

How shall our teeth be preserved ?
The answer is very simple — keep them
clean ! How shall they be kept clean ?
Answer — By a toothpick, rinsing with
water, and the daily use of a brush.

The toothpick should be a quill, not
because the metallic picks injure the
enamel, but because the quill pick is so
flexible it fits into all the irregularities be-
tween the teeth.

Always after using the toothpick the
mouth should be thoroughly rinsed. If
warm water be not at hand, cold may be
used, although the warm is much better.
Closing the lips, with a motion familiar to
all, everything may be thoroughly rinsed
from the mouth.

Every morning (on rising), and every
evening (on going to bed), the tooth-
brush should be used, and the teeth, both
outside and inside, thoroughly brushed.

Much has been said, pro and^w., upoa
the use of soap with the tooth-brush. My
own experience and the experience of
members of my family is highly favorable
to the regular morning and evening use or
soap. Castile or other good soap will
answer this purpese. (Whatever is good
for the hands and face is good for the

.348

HOME DOCTOR.

teeth.) The slightly unpleasant taste
which soap has when we begin to use it
will soon be unnoticed.

TOOTH POWDERS.— Many persons,
while laudably attentive to the preserva-
tion of their teeth, do them harm by too
much officiousness. They daily apply to
them some dentifrice powder, which they
rub so hard as not only to injure the enamel
by .excessive friction, but to hurt the gums
even more than by the abuse of the tooth-
pick. The quality of some of the denti-
frice powders advertised in newspapers is
•extremely suspicious, and there is reason
to think that they are not altogether free
from a corrosive ingredient. One of the
safest and best compositions for the pur-
pose is a mixture of two parts of prepared
chalk, one of Peruvian bark, and one of
hard soap, all finely powdered, which is
calculated not only to clean the teeth
without hurting them, but to preserve the
firmness of the gums.

Besides the advantage of sound teeth
for their use in mastication, a proper at-
tention to their treatment conduces not a
little to the sweetness of the breath. This
is, indeed, often affected by other causes
existing in the lungs, the stomach, and
sometimes even in the bowels, but a rot-
ten state of the teeth, both from the
putrid smell emitted by carious bones
and the impurities lodged in their cavi-
ties, never fails of aggravating an un-
pleasant breath wherever there is a tend-
ency of that kind.

TOOTHACHE, Remedies for.— i. One
drachm of alum reduced to an impalpa-
ble powder, three drachms of nitrous
spirit of ether — mix, and apply them to
the tooth on cotton. 2. Mix a little salt
and alum, equal portions, grind it fine,
wet a little lock of cotton, fill it with the
powder and put it in your tooth. One or
two applications seldom fail to cure. 3.
To one drachm oi collodion add two
drachms of Calvert's carbolic acid. A
gelatinous mass is precipitated, a small
portion of which, inserted in the cavity of
an aching tooth, invariably gives imme-
diate relief. 4. Saturate a small bit of
clean cotton wool with a strong solution
of ammonia, and apply it immediately to
the affected tooth. The pleasing con-
trast instantaneously produced in some
cases causes a fit of laughter, although a
moment previous extreme suffering and

anguish prevailed. 5. Sometimes a sound
tooth aches from sympathy of the nerves
of the face with other nerves. But when
toothache proceeds from a decayed tooth
either have it taken out, or put hot fo-
mentations upon the face, and hot drinks
into the mouth, such as tincture of cay-
enne.

WARTS, to Cure. — Warts are formed
by the small arteries, veins and nerves
united together, taking on a disposition
to grow by extending themselves upward,
carrying the scarf-skin along with them,
which, thickening forms a wart. Corns
are a similar growth, brougth about by the
friction of tight boots and shoes. 1. Take
a piece of diachylon plaster, cut a hole
in the centre the size of the wart, and
stick it on, the wart protruding through.
Then touch it daily with aquafortis, or ni-
trate of silver. They may be removed
by tying a string tightly around them. 2.
Take a blacksmith's punch, heat it red
hot and burn the warts with the end of
it. When the burn gets well the warts
will be gone forever. 3. Scrape down
enough dry cobwebs to make a ball large
enough to a little more than cover the
wart and not touch the flesh around the
same; lay it on top of the wart, ignite it,
and let it be until it is all burnt up. The
wart will turn white, and in a few days
come out. 4. Pass a pin through the
wart; apply one end of the pin to the
flame of a lamp ; hold it there until the
wart fries under the action of the heat.
A wart so treated will leave. 5. Dissolve
as much common washing soda as the
water will take up; wash the warts with
this for a minute or two, and let them
dry without wiping. Keep the water in
a bottle and repeat the washing often,
and it will take away the largest warts.
6. They may be cured surely by paring
them down until the blood comes slightly
and then rubbing them with lunar caustic.
It is needless to say this hurts a little, but
is a sure cure. The hydrochlorate of
lime applied in the same way will cure
after several applications and some pa-
tience; so will strong wood vinegar, and
so it is said will milk weed. The cures
founded upon superstitious practices, such
as muttering some phrases over the ex-
crescence, stealing a piece of beef, rub-
bing the wart therewith and then bury-
ing it under the leaves to await its decay,

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 349

etc., etc., are all the remnants of a past
state of ignorance and are of no use
whatever. Warts are generally only tem-
porary and disappear as their possessors
grow up.

WHITE SWELLING.— Draw a blister
on the inside of the leg below the knee;
keep it running with ointment made of
hen manure, by simmering it in hog's
lard with onions; rub the knee with the
following kind of ointment : Bits of pep-
permint, oil of sassafras, checkerberry,
juniper, one drachm each ; simmer in one-
half pint neatsfoot oil, and rub on the
knee three times a day.

WOUNDS. — Catnip steeped, mixed
with fresh butter and sugar.

WHOOPING-COUGH.— Take a quart
of spring water, put it in a large handful
of chin-cups that grow upon moss, a
large handful of unset hyssop ; boil it to
a pint, strain it off, and sweeten it with
sugar-candy. Let the child, as often as
it coughs, take two spoonsful at a time.

WORMS, in Children.— 1. Take one
ounce of powdered snake-head (herb),
and one drachm each of aloes and prick-
ly ash bark; powder these, and to one-
half teaspoonful of this powder add a
teaspoonful of boiling water, and a tea-
spoonful of molasses. Take this as a
dose, night or morning, more or less, as
the symptoms may require. 2. Take to-
bacco leaves, pound them up with honey,
and lay them on the belly of the child or
grown person, at the same time adminis-
tering a dose of some good physic. 3.
Take garden parsley, make it into a tea,

and let the patient drink freely of it. 4.
Take the scales that will fall around the
blacksmith s anvil, powder them fine, and
put them in some sweetened rum. Shake
when you take them, and give a tea-
spoonful three times a day.

URINE, Scalding of the. — Equal parts
of the oil of red cedar, and the oil of
spearmint.

URINARY OBSRUCTIONS. — Steep
pumpkin seeds in gin, and drink about
three glasses a day; or, administer half a
drachm uva ursi every morning, and a
dose of spearmint.

URINE, Free Passage of. — The leaves
of the currant bush made into a tea, and
taken as a common drink.

VENEREAL COMPLAINTS. — Equal
parts of the oil of red cedar, combined
with sarsaparilla, yellow dock and bur-
dock made into a syrup ; add to a pint of
this syrup an ounce of gum guiaicum-
Dose, from a tablespoonful to a wine
glass, as best you can bear.

THROAT, Sore, How to Cure.—" One
who has tried it " communicates the fol-
lowing sensible item about curing sore
throat : Let each one of your half million
readers buy at any drug store one ounce
of camphorated oil and five cents' worth
of chloride of potash. Whenever any
soreness appears in the throat, put the
potash in half a tumbler of water, and
with it gargle the throat thoroughly ; then
rub the neck thoroughly with the cam-
phorated oil at night before going to bed,
and also pin around the throat a small
strip of woolen flannel. This is a simple*
cheap and sure remedy.

HOUSEHOLD PESTS

ANTS, to Destroy.— Ants that frequent
houses or gardens may be destroyed by
taking flour of brimstone, half a pound,
and potash four ounces; set them in an
iron or earthen pan over the fire till dis-
solved and united; afterwards beat them
to a powder, and infuse a little of this
powder in water; and wherever you
sprinkle it the ants, will die or fly the
place.

ANTS, Black, to Destroy.— A few

leaves of green wormword, scattered
among the haunts of these troublesome
insects, is said to be effectual in dislodg-
ing them.

ANTS, Eed, to Destroy.— The best way
to get rid of ants, is to set a quantity of
cracked walnuts or shell-barks on plates,
and put them in the closet and places
where the ants congregate. They are
very fond of these, and will collect on
them in myriads. When they have col-
lected on them make a general auto-da-fe,
by turning nuts and ants together into the
fire and then replenishing the plates with
fresh nuts. After they have become so
thinned off as to cease collecting on
plates, powder some camphor and put in
the holes and crevices, whereupon the re-
mainder of them will speedily depart.
It may help the process of getting them
to assemble on the shell-barks, to remove
all edibles out of their way for the time.

BEE, Black, to Destroy.— Place two or
three shallow vessels — the larger kind of
flower-pot saucers will do — half filled
with water, on the floors where they
assemble, with strips of card-board run-
ning from the edge of the vessel to the
floor, at a gentle inclination; these the
unwelcome guests will eagerly ascend,
and so find a watery grave.

BED-BUGS, to Destroy.— i. When they
have made a lodgement in the wall, fill
all the apertures with a mixture of soft

soap and Scotch snuff. Take th<s bed-
stead to pieces, and treat that in the same
way. 2. A strong decoction of red pep-
per applied to bedsteads will either kill
the bugs or drive them away. 3. Put the
bedstead into a close room and set fire
to the following composition, placed in
an iron pot upon the hearth, having pre-
viously closed up the chimney, then shut
the door ; let them remain a day : Sul-
phur nine parts; saltpetre, powdered, one
part. Mix. Be sure to open the door of
the room five or six hours before you ven-
ture to go into it a second time. 4. Rub
the bedstead well with lamp-oil; this
alone is good, but to make it more effect-
ual, get a sixpence worth of quicksilver
and add to it. Put it into all the cracks
around the bed, and they will soon dis-
appear. The bedsteads should first be
scalded and wiped dry, then put on with
a feather. 5. Corrosive sublimate, one
ounce; muriatic acid, two ounces; water,
four ounces ; dissolve, then add turpen-
tine, one pint ; decoction of tobacco, one
pint. Mix. For the decoction of tobac-
co boil one ounce of tobacco in a y2 pint
of water. The mixture must be applied
with a paint brush. This wash is a dead-
ly poison. 6. Rub the bedsteads in the
joints with equal parts of spirits of tur-
pentine and kerosene oil, and the cracks
of the surbase in rooms where there are
many. Filling up all the cracks with
hard soap is an excellent remedy. March
and April are the months when bedsteads
should be examined to kill all the eggs.
7. Mix together two ounces of camphor,
four ounces spirits of turpentine, one
ounce corrosive sublimate, and one pint
alcohol. 8. Distilled vinegar, or diluted
wood vinegar, a pint; camphor, one-ha^
once; dissolve. 9. White arsenic, two
ounces; lard, thirteen ounces; corrosive
sublimate, one-fourth ounce; Venetian
red, one-fourth ounce. (Deadly poison.)

(350)

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 351

10. Strong mercurial ointment, one
•ounce; soft soap, one ounce; oil of
turpentine, a pint. 11. Gasoline and
coal oil are both excellent adjuncts, with
•cleanliness, in ridding a bed or house of
these pests.

CATERPILLARS, To Destroy.— Boil to-
gether a quantity of rue, wormwood, and
any cheap tobacco {equal parts), in com-
mon water. The liquid should be very
strong. Sprinkle it on the leaves and
young branches every morning and even-
ing during the time the fruit is ripening.

COCKROACHES AND BEETLES, to
Destroy. — 1. Strew the roots of black
hellebore, at night, in the places infested
by these vermin, and they will be found
in the morning dead, or dying. Black
hellebore grows in marshy grounds, and
may be had at the herb shops. 1. Put
about a quart of water sweetened with
molasses in a tin wash basin or smooth
glazed china bowls. Set it at evening in
a place frequented by the bugs. Around
the basin put an old piece of carpet that
the bugs can have easy access to the top.
They will go down in the water, and stay
till you come. 3. Take pulverized borax,
4 parts, flour 1 part, mix intimately and
distribute the mixture in cupboards which
are frequented by the roaches, or blow it,
by means of a bellows, into the holes or
cracks that are infested by them. 4. By
scattering a handful of fresh cucumber
parings about the house. 5. Take car-
bonic acid and powdered camphor in
equal parts ; put them in a bottle ; they
■will become fluid. With a painter's brush
of the size called a sash-tool, put the
mixture on the cracks or places where
the roaches hide ; they will come out at
once. Then kill. 6. Mix up a quantity
of fresh burned plaster of paris (gypsum,
such as is used for making molds and
ornaments), with wheat flour and a little
sugar, and distribute on shallow plates
and box boards, and place in the corners
of the kitchen and pantry, where they
frequent. In the darkness they will
feast themselves on it. Whether it inter-
feres with their digestion or not, is difficult
to ascertain, but after three or four nights
renewal of the preparation, no cock-
roaches will be found on the premises.

CRICKETS, To Destroy.— Sprinkle a
little quicklime near to the cracks through
which they enter the room. The lime

may be laid down over night, and swept
away in the morning. In a few days
they will most likely all be destroyed.
But care must be taken that the children
do not meddle with the lime, as a very
small portion ot it, getting into the eye,
would prove exceedingly hurtful. In case
of such an accident the best thing to do
would be to wash the eye with vinegar
and water.

FLEAS, To Get Bid o£ — Much of the
largest number of fleas are brought into
our family circles by pet dogs and cats.
The oil of pennyroyal will drive these
insects off; but a cheaper method, where
the herb flourishes, is to throw your cats
and dogs into a decoction of it once a
week. When the herb cannot be got,
the oil can be procured. In this case,
saturate strings with it and tie them round
the necks of dogs and cats. These ap-
plications should be repeated every twelve
or fifteen days. Mint, freshly cut, and
hung round a bedstead, or on the furni-
ture, will prevent annoyance from bed
insects; a few drops of essential oil of
lavender will be more efficacious.

FLIES, To Destroy. — 1. Take an infu-
sion of quassia, one pint; brown sugar,
four ounces ; ground pepper, two ounces.
To be well mixed together, and put in
small shallow dishes where required.
2. Black pepper (powdered), one drachm;
brown sugar, one drachm; milk or cream,
two drachms. Mix, and place it on a
plate or saucer where the flies are most
troublesome. 3. Pour a little simple
oxymel (an article to be obtained at the
druggists), into a common tumbler glass,
and place in the glass a piece of cap
paper, made into the shape of the upper
part of a funnel, with a hole at the
bottom to admit the flies. Attracted by
the smell, they readily enter the trap in
swarms, and by the thousands soon col-
lected prove that they have not the wit
or the disposition to return. 4. Take
some jars, mugs, or lumblers, fill them
half full with soapy water ; cover them as
jam-pots are covered, 'with a piece of
paper, either tied down or tucked under
the rim. Let this paper be rubbed inside
with wet sugar, molasses, honey, or jam,
or any thing sweet ; cut a small hole in
the centre, large enough for a fly to enter.
The flies settle on the top, attracted by
the smell of the bait ; they then crawl

3S2

HOUSEHOLD PESTS.

through the hole, to feed upon the sweet
beneath. Meanwhile the warmth of the
weather causes the soapy water to fer-
ment, and produces a gas which over-
powers the flies, and they drop down into
the vessel. Thousands may be destroyed
this way, and the traps last a long time.

PLY PAPER.— Melt resin, and add
thereto while soft sufficient sweet oil, lard,
or lamp oil to make it, when cold, about
the consistency of honey. Spread on
writing paper, and place in a convenient
spot. It will soon be filled with ants,
flies, and other vermin.

INSECTS, Expelling Them.— All in-
sects dread pennyroyal ; the smell of it
destroys some, and drives others away.
At the time that fresh pennyroyal cannot
be gathered, get oil of pennyroyal ; pour
some into a saucer, and steep in it small
pieces of wadding or raw cotton, and
place them in corners, closet-shelves,
bureau drawers, boxes, etc., and the cock-
roaches, ants, or other insects will soon
disappear. It is also well to place some
between the mattresses, and around the
bed. It is also a splendid thing for
brushing off that terrible little insect, the
seed tick.

MICE, To Destroy.— i. Use tartar
emetic mingled with some favorite food.
The mice will leave the premises.

2. Take one part calomel, five parts of
wheat flour, one part sugar, and one-tenth
of a part of ultramarine. Mix together
in a fine powder and place it in a dish.
This is a most efficient poison for mice.

3. Any one desirous of keeping seeds
from the depredations of mice can do so
by mixing pieces of camphor gum in with
the seeds. Camphor placed in drawers
or trunks will prevent mice from doing
them injury. The little animal objects
to the odor and keeps a good distance
from it He will seek food elsewhere.

4. Gather all kinds of mint and scat-
ter about your shelves, and they will
forsake the premises.

MOSQUITOES, To Drive Away.— 1. A
camphor bag hung up in an open case-
ment will prove an effectual barrier to
their entrance. Camphorated spirits ap-
plied as perfume to the face and hands
will prove an effectual preventive; but
when bitten by them, aromatic vinegar is
the best antidote.

2. A small amount of oil of penny-

royal sprinkled around the room will
drive away the mosquitoes. This is an
excellent recipe.

3. Take of gum camphor a piece about
half the size of an egg, and evaporate it
by placing it in a tin vessel and holding
it over a lamp or candle, taking care that
it does not ignite. The smoke will soon
fill the room and expel the mosquitoes.

MOTHS, To Preserve Clothing from.—
1. Procure shavings of cedar wood and
enclose in muslin bags, which should be
distributed freely among clothes. 2. Pro-
cure shavings of camphor wood, and
enclose in bags. 3. Sprinkle pimento
(allspice) berries among the clothes. 4.
Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the
musk plant. 5. An ounce of gum cam-
phor and one of the powdered shell of
red pepper are macerated in 8 ounces of
strong alcohol for several days, then
strained. With this tincture the furs or
cloths are sprinkled over, and rolled up
in sheets. 6. Carefully shake and brush
woollens early in the spring, so as to be
certain that no eggs are in them; then
sew them up in cotton or linen wrappers,
putting a piece of camphor gum, tied up
in a bit of muslin, into each bundle, or
into the chests and closets where the
articles are to lie. No moth will appxoah
while the smell of the camphor continues.
When the gum is evaporated, it must be
renewed. Enclose them in a moth-proof
box with camphor, no matter whether
made of white paper or white pine, before
any eggs are laid on them by early spring
moths. The notion of having a trunk
made of some particular kind of wood
for this purpose, is nonsense. Furs or
woollens, put away in spring time, before
moth eggs are laid, into boxes, trunks,
drawers, or closets even, where moths
cannot enter, will be safe from the rav-
ages of mothworms, provided none were
in them that were laid late in the autumn,
for they are not of spontaneous produc-
tion.

MOTHS IN CARPETS, To Kill-
Wring a coarse crash towel out of clear
water, spread it smoothly on the carpet,
iron it dry with a good hot iron, repeat-
ing the operation on all parts of the
carpet suspected of being infected with
moths. No need to press hard, and
neither the pile nor color of the carpet

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 353

will be injured, and the moths will be
destroyed by the heat and steam.

RATS, To Destroy. — 1. When a house
is infested with rats which refuse to be
caught by cheese and other baits, a few
drops of the highly-scented oil of rhodium
poured on the bottom of the cage will be
an attraction which they cannot refuse,
2. Place on the floor near where their
holes are supposed to be a thin layer of
moist caustic potash. When the rats
travel on this, it will cause their feet to
become sore, which they lick, and their
tongues become likewise sore. The con-
sequence is, that they shun this locality,
and seem to inform all the neighboring
rats about it, and the result is that they
soon abandon a house that has such mean
floors. 3. Cut some corks as thin as
wafers, and fry, roast, or stew them in
grease, and place the same in their track ;
or a dried sponge fried or dipped in
molasses or honey, with a small quantity
of bird lime or oil of rhodium, will fasten
to their fur and cause them to depart. 4.
If a live rat be caught and smeared over
with tar or 'train oil, and afterwards
allowed to escape in the holes of other
rats, he will cause all soon to take their
departure. 5. If a live rat be caught,
and a small bell be fastened around his
neck, and allowed to escape, all of his
brother rats as well as himself will very
soon go to some other neighbor's house.
6. Take a pan, about twelve inches deep,
and half fill it with water; then sprinkle
some bran on the water and set the pan
in a place where the rats most frequent.
In the morning you will find several rats
in the pan. 7. Flour, three parts; sugar,
one-half part; sulphur, two parts, and
phosphorus, two parts. Smear on meat,
and place near where the rats are most
troublesome. 8. Squills are an excellent
poison for rats. The powder should be
mixed with some fatty substance, and
spread upon slices of bread. The pulp
of onions is also very good. Rats are
very fond of either. 9. Take two ounces
of carbonate of barytes, and mix with one
pound of suet or tallow, place a portion
of this within their holes and about their
haunts. It is greedily eaten, produces
great thirst, and death ensues after drink-
ing. This is a very effectual poison,
because it is both tasteless and ordorless.
10. Take one ounce of finely powdered

23

arsenic, one ounce of lard ; mix these into
a paste with meal, put it about the haunts
of rats. They will eat of it greedily. 11.
Make a paste of one ounce of flour, one-
half gill of water, one drachm of phos-
phorus, and one ounce of flour. Or, one
ounce of flour, two ounces of powdered
cheese-crumbs, and one-half a drachm of
phosphorus; add to each of these mix-
tures a few drops of the oil of rhodium,
and spread this on thin pieces of bread
like butter; the rats will eat of this
greedily, and it is a sure poison. 12.
Mix some ground plaster of paris with
some sugar and Indian meal. Set it
about on plates, and leave beside each
plate a saucer of water. When the rats
have eaten the mixture they will drink
the water and die. To attract them
toward it, you may sprinkle on the edges-
of the plates a little of oil of rhodium.
Another method of getting rid of rats is,,
to strew pounded potash on their holes..
The potash gets into their coats and
irritates the skin, and the rats desert the
place. 13. The Dutch method: this is
said to be used successfully in Holland ;
we have, however, never tried it. A
number of rats are left together to them-
selves in a very large trap or cage, with
no food whatever; their craving hunger
will, at last, cause them to fight and the
weakest will be eaten by the others;
after a short time the fight is renewed,
and the next weakest is the victim, and so
it goes on till one strong rat is left.
When this one has eaten the last remains
of any of the others, it is set loose ; the
animal has now acquired such a taste for
rat-flesh that he is the terror of ratdom,
going round seeking what rat he may
devour. In an incredibly short time the
premises are abandoned by all other rats,
which will not come back before the
cannibal rat has left or has died. 14.
Catch a rat and smear him over with a
mixture of phosphorus and lard, and then
let him loose. The house will soon be
emptied of these pests.

VERMHr,in Water.— Go to the nearest
river or pond, and with a small net (a
piece of old mosquito bar will do) collect
a dozen or more of the small fishes known
as minnows, and put them in your cistern,
and in a short time you will have clear water,
the wiggle-tails and reddish-colored bugs
or lice being gobbled up by the fishes.

BUGS, AND OTHER INSECTS:

HOW TO KNOW THEM -HOW TO DESTROY THEM.

BABK-LICE OF THE APPLETBEE.

— There are two species of bark-lice that
attack the apple-tree in the United States.
The first, which is a native North
American insect, is now known as Harris'
Bark-louse. The color
'of the scale is dirty
white, and its form is
irregular, being usually-
egg-shaped; but, how-
ever variable in outline,
is always quite flat and
causes the infested tree
to wear the appearance
of Figure i ; while the
minute eggs which are
found under it in winter
time are invariably
blood-red or lake-red.
This species has scarce-
ly ever been known to
increase sufficiently to
Fig i. do material damage, for

'the reason doubtless that there have, hith-
erto, always been natural enemies and
parasites enough to keep it in due
bounds.

The second species, which is known as

.the Oyster-shell Bark-louse, is by no

means so harmless however, for it is one

vof the most pernicious and destructive

.insects which the apple-grower in the

Northern States has to contend with.

"This species may always be distinguished

from the former by having a very uniform

muscle-shaped scale, of an ash-gray color

(the identical color of the bark), and by

these scales containing, in the winter

time, not red, but pure white colored

eggs.

There is scarcely an apple- orchard in
■Northern Illinois, in Iowa, or in Wiscon-
sin, that has not suffered more or less from
its attacks, and many an one has been
slowly but surely bled to death by this tiny
sap-sucker. Its extension southward is un-

doubtedly limited, for though so abund-
ant in the northern half of Illinois, ob-
servation has clearly proved that it can-
not exist in the southern half of the same
State.

The oyster-shell bark-louse produces
but one brood annually, and these eggs,
therefore, remain under the scales for
more than nine months of the year, sub-
jected alike to the continuous warmth ot
the fall months, and to the severe frosts
of winter; freezing and thawing again
and again, without their vitality being in
in the least impaired.

Remedies. — These may be summed
up in a very few words, and consist for the
most part in prevention, and we again urge
a strict examination of every young tree
before it is planted. If an orchard is
once attacked before its owner is aware
of it, much could be done on young trees
by scraping the scales off in winter, but
on large trees, where it is difficult to reach
all the terminal twigs, this method be-
comes altogether impracticable, and it
will avail but little to cleanse the trunk
alone, as most of the scales containing
living eggs will be found on the terminal
branches. Alkaline washes, and all other
washes, except those of an oily nature,
such as petroleum or kerosine, are of no
avail when applied to the scales, for the
simple reason that they do not penetrate
and reach the eggs, which are so well pro-
tected by these scales; and it is very
doubtful whether any solution can be used
that is sufficiently oily to penetrate the
scales and kill the eggs without injuring
the tree, especially while the sap of the
tree is inactive. Hence, the bark-louse
can only be successfully fought at the
time the eggs are hatching, and the young
lice are crawling over the limbs. The
time of year in which this occurs has al-
ready been indicated, and the trees should

(354)

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 355

"be closely watched during the last days
of May and the first days ot June, for,
without close scrutiny, they will not be
observed, appearing simply like very min-
ute, white, moving specks. While the
young larva? are thus crawling over the
tree, they are so tender that they can
be readily destroyed by simply scrubbing
the limbs with a stiff brush. It is quite
■evident, however, that any remedy, to
become practicable on a large scale, so
as to rapidly and effectually reach every
limb of the tree, both large and small,
must be applied by a syringe or by means
of fumigation, and that whatever be ap-
plied, it must kill the lice without in-
juring the foliage or fruit, as the young
apples are generally as large as a good
sized pea by the time the lice hatch. Fu-

migation has not yet been sufficiently
tried to enable us to judge of its merits.

In short, we have abundant proof that
neither tobacco-water nor strong alkaline
washes have any effect on these young
lice, though a strong solution of soap
will kill them, and our experience the past
season, with cresylic acid soap in other
directions, leads us to strongly recom-
mend it for this purpose. It will some-
times be necessary to repeat the wash, as
the lice do not all hatch out the same
day, though the period of hatching sel-
dom extends over three days.

APPLE TREE BORER, Round Headed.
— It is a fact which has not been dis-
puted by any one whom we have queried
on the subject, that apples trees on our
, ridges are shorter lived than those grown

Fig.

on our lower lands. Hitherto no partic- ]
ular reason has been given for this oc-
-currence, but we think it is mainly attrib-
utable to the workings of the borer now
under consideration. We have invariably
found it more plentiful in tree growing on
high land than in those growing on low
land, and it has also been our experience
that it is worse in plowed orchards than
in those which are seeded down to grass.

It also attacks the quince, mountain
ash, hawthorn, pear and the June-berry.

At figure 2 this borer is represented in
its three stages of larva (a), pupa (£), and
perfect beetle (<r). The beetle may be
known by the popular name of the Two-
■striped Saperda, while its larva is best
known by the name of the Round-headed
apple-tree borer, in contradistinction to
the Flat-headed species.

The average length of the larva, when
full grown, is about one inch, and the
width of the first segment is not quite
one-fourth of an inch. Its color is light
yellow, with a tawny yellow spot of a more

horny consistency on the first segment
which, under a lens, is found to be formed
of a mass of light brown spots. The
head is chestnut brown, polished and
horny, and the jaws are deep black. The
pupa is of rather lighter color than the
larva, and has transverse rows of minute
teeth on the back, and a few at the ex-
tremity of the body ; and the perfect bee-
tle has two longitudinal white stripes be-
tween three of a light cinnamon-brown
color. The Two-striped Saperda makes
its appearance in the beetle state during
the months of May and June, and is sel-
dom seen by any but the entomologist
who makes a point of hunting for it —
from the fact that it remains quietly hid-
den by day and flies and moves only by
night. The female deposits her eggs
during the month of June, mostly at the
foot of the tree, and the young worms
hatch and commence boring into the
bark within a fortnight afterwards. These
young worms differ in no essential from
the full-grown specimens, except in their

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.r-REMEDIES FOR.

very minute size; and they invariably
live, for the first year of their lives, on the
sap-wood and inner bark, excavating
shallow, flat cavities which are found to
be stuffed full of their sawdust-like cast-
ings. The hole by which the newly-
hatched worm penetrated is so very min-
ute that it frequently fills up, though not
till a few grains of castings have fallen
from it; but the presence of the worms
may be generally detected, especially in
young trees, from the bark, under which
they lie, becoming darkened, and suffi-
ciently dry and dead to contract and
form cracks. Through these cracks some
of the castings of the worm generally
protrude, and fall to the ground in a little
heap, and this occurs more especially in
the spring of the year, when, with the
rising sap and frequent rains, such cast-
ings become swollen and augment in bulk.
As winter approaches, the young borer
descends as near the ground as its bur-
row will allow, and doubtless remains in-
active till the following spring. On ap-
proach of the second winter it is about
one-half grown, and still living on the
sap-wood; and it is at this time that
these borers do the most damage, for
where there are four or five in a single
tree, they almost completely girdle it. In
the course of the next summer when it
has become about three-fourths grown, it
generally commences to cut a cylindrical
passage upwards into the solid wood, and
before having finished its larval growth,
it invariably extends this passage right to
the bark, sometimes cutting entirely
through a tree to the opposite side from
which it commenced ; sometimes turning
back at different angles. It then stuffs
the upper end of the passage with saw-
dust-like powder, and the lower part with
curly fibres of wood, after which it rests
from its labors. It thus finishes its gnaw-
ing work during the commencement of
the third winter, but remains motionless
in the larval state till the following spring,
when it casts off its skin once more and
becomes a pupa. After resting three
weeks in the pupa state it becomes a bee-
tle, with all its members and parts at first
soft and weak. These gradually harden
and in a fortnight more it cuts its way
through its sawdust-like castings, and
issues from the tree through a perfectly
smooth and round hole.

Remedies— From this brief sketch of our
round-headed borer, it becomes apparent
that plugging the hole to keep him in, is on
a par with locking the stable door to keep
the horse in, after he is stolen ; even sup-
posing there were any philosophy in the
plugging system, which there is not. The
round smooth holes are an infalliable in-
dication that the borer has left, while the
plugging up cf any other holes or cracks:
where the castings are seen, will not affect
the intruder. This insect probably has;
some natural enemies belonging to its own
great class, and some of our wood-peck-
ers doubtless seek it out from its retreat
and devour it; but its enemies are cer-
tainly not sufficiently under our control,,
and to grow healthy apple trees we have
to fight it artificially. Here again pre-
vention will be found better than cure,
and a stitch in time will not only save
nine, but fully ninety-nine.

Experiments have amply proved that
alkaline washes are repulsive to this in-
sect, and the female beetle will not lay
her eggs on trees protected by such wash-
es. Keep the base of every tree in the
orchard free from weeds and trash, and
apply soap to them during the month of
May, and they will not likely be troubled
with borers. For this purpose soft soap
or common bar soap can be used. The
last is perhaps the most convenient and
the newer and softer it is, the better. This,
borer confines himself almost entirely to
the butt of the tree, though very rarely it is
found in the crotch. It is, therefore, only
necessary in soaping, to rub over the low-
er part of the trunk and the crotch, but
it is a very good plan to lay a chunk of
the soap in the principal crotch, so that it
may be washed down by the rains. In
case these precautions have been unheed-
ed, and the borer is already at work,
many of them may be killed by cutting
through the bark at the upper end of
their burrows, and gradually pouring hot
water into the cuts so that it will soak
through the castings and penetrate to the
insect. But even where the soap pre-
ventive is used in the month of May, it is
always advisable to examine the trees irt
the fall, at which time the young worms
that hatched through the summer may
be generally detected and easily cut out
without injury to the tree. Particular at-
tention should also be paid to any tree

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 357

that has been injured or sun-scalded, as
such trees are most liable to be attacked.

PEACH BORER,— The borer is the
•most troublesome enemy of the peach,
but if looked after in time it is easily sub-
dued, and need not seriously intertere
with cultivation. The eggs from which
this pest is produced are deposited by a
four-winged wasp-shaped insect, during
the summer, on the tender bark of the
tree, at the surface of the ground. As
the season advances the eggs hatch into
small white grubs or borers, about an
inch long and an eighth of an inch in di-
ameter, which penetrate the bark and
bore into the sap-wood, where they re-
main all winter. The next spring they
emerge in their perfect winged form, and
soon commence depositing eggs for an-
other generation. While in the tree they
devour voraciously the bark and sap-
wood, and one or two are sufficient to
destroy a young tree in a single season,
and four or five will destroy an old one.

Remedy. — A little experience will en-
able one to detect the borer. The most
certain and obvious sign is the gum at
the neck of the tree; that is, the tender
part which extends about an inch above
and two below the surface. When this is
discovered, the earth should be scraped
from the root, the gum and decayed wood
cut away, and a stiff wire or whalebone
thrust into the curving cavity, and the
worm be thus destroyed. Care must be
taken to kill all, as sometimes five or six
will be found in the same tree. The dead
and diseased wood should be carefully re-
moved, so that the new growth may cover
the old wood as soon as possible. Afterthe
operation the soil should be drawn up to
the neck of the tree again, to prevent the
evil effects ot the sun or dry winds in
summer, or the severe fosts in winter.
The application of boiling water, the
waste water from salt works, and oil dif-
fused in water have all been proposed as
remedies, but are all inferior to the punch-
ing operation with a wire or whalebone.
Sheathing the tree with strips of thick
paper, straw, or cloth, a foot wide, is a good
preventive, if kept on from the middle of
June till the middle of October. The
paper should extend two inches below
the surface, the dirt being scraped away
for the purpose. After adjusting the pa-

per properly, the dirt should be drawn
back and pressed down firmly.

Remedies. — We have had ample occa-
sion to witness the effects of the mound-
ing system during the summer in several
orchards, and are fully convinced that it
is the best practical method of preventing
the attacks of this insect, and that it mat-
ters little whether ashes or simple earth
be used for the mound.

CODLING MOTH OR APPLE-WORM.

The apple-worm we find to be quite

common in almost all parts of the civil-
ized world where apples are grown. Dr.
Trimble has devoted page after page to
the consideration of this little pest, and
yet its whole history and the means of
preventing its insidious work may be
given in a very few lines. The following fig-
ure represents it in all its states, and gives
at a glance its natural history : a repre-
sents a section of an apple which has
been attacked by the worm, showing the
burrowings and channel of exit to the
left; d, the point at which the egg was
laid and at which the young worm enter-
ed ; <?, the full grown worm ; hy its head

Fig. 3.

and first segment magnified; /, the co-
coon which it spins ; d, the chrysalis to
which it changes ; /, the moth which es-
capes from the chrysalis, as it appears
when at rest ; g, the same with wings ex-
panded. The worm when young is whit-
ish, with usually an entirely black head
and a black shield on the top of the first
segment. When full grown it acquires a
flesh colored or pinkish tint, especially on
the back, and the head and top of first

;ss

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

segment become more brown, being usu-
ally marked as at Figure 3. It is sparse-
ly covered with very minute hairs, which
take their rise from minute elevated
points, of which there are eight on each
segment.

The Codling moth is even more injuri-
ous than the Curculio.

In latitude thirty-eight degrees the
moths make their appearance about the
first of May, and the first worms begin to
leave the apples from the 5th to the 10th
of June and become moths again by the
fore part of July. While some of the
first worms are leaving the apples, others
are but just hatched from later deposited
eggs, and thus the two broods run into
each other; but the second brood of
worms (the progeny of the moths which
hatch out after the 1st of July), invarially
passes the winter in the worm or larval
state, either within the apple after it is
plucked, or within the cocoon. We have
had them spin up as early as the latter
part of August, and at different dates
subsequently till the middle of Novem-
ber, and in every instance, whether they
spun up early or late in the year, they
remained in the larval state till the mid-
dle of April, when they all changed to
chrysalids within a few days of each
other.

Though the Codling moth prefers the
apple to the pear, it nevertheless breeds
freely in the latter fruit, for we have our-
selves raised the moth from pear-boring
larvse, and the fact was recorded many
years ago by the German entomologist,
Kollar. It also inhabits the fruit of the
crab-apple and quince.

Remedies. — Though with some varie-
ties of the apple, the fruit remains on
the tree till after the worm has left it,
yet by far the greater portion of the in-
fested fruit falls, prematurely with the
worm, to the ground j hence much can
be done toward diminishing the num-
bers of this little pest by picking up and
destroying the fallen fruit as soon as it
touches the ground. For this purpose,
hogs will again be found quite valuable,
when circumstances allow of their being
turned into the orchard. Abundant tes-
timony might be given to prove this.

There is, however, a more infallible
remedy, and one which is always practi-
cable. It is that of entrapping the

worms. This can be done by hanging
an old cloth in the crotches of the tree,
or by what is known as Dr. Trimble's,
hay-band system, which consists of twist-
ing a hay-band twice or thrice around
the trunk of the tree.

Many of the worms of the second
brood yet remain in the apples even after
they are gathered for the market. These
wormy apples are barreled up with the
sound ones, and stored away in the cellar
or in the barn. From them the worms
continue to issue, and they generally find
plenty of convenient corners about the
barrels in which to form their cocoons.
Hundreds of these cocoons may some-
times be found around a single barrel,
and it therefore becomes obvious that,
no matter how thoroughly the hay-band
system had been carried out during the
summer, there would yet remain a suffi-
ciency in such situations to abundantly
continue the species another year. And
when we consider that every female moth
which escapes in the spring, lays from
two to three hundred eggs, and thus
spoils so many apples, the practical im-
portance of thoroughly examining, in the
spring of the year, all barrels or other
vessels in which apples have been stored
becomes at once apparent. It should,
therefore, also be made a rule to destroy
all the cocoons which are found on such
barrels or vessels either by burning them
up or by immersing them in scalding
hot water.

The philosophy of the hay-band sys-
tem is simply that the worms, in quit-
ting the fruit, whether while it is on
the tree or on the ground, in their search
for a cozy nook, in which to spin up,
find the shelter given by the hay-band
just the thing, and in ninety-nine cases
out of a hundred, they will accept of the
lure, if no other more enticing be in
their way. We have thoroughly tested
this remedy the past summer, and have
found it far more effectual than we had
anticipated, wherever the above rules-
were recognized. Under two hay-bands
which were kept around a single old iso-
lated tree, through the months of June,
July and August, we found every week
of the last two months an average of fifty
cocoons.

CUT-WORMS.— There are several dif-
ferent kinds of insects that are known by

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 359.

the popular name of cut-worm. Thus,
the White-grub, or larva of the common
May beetle, and the different species of
wire-worms, the larvae of our Click bee-
tles (Elater family) are all called cut-
worms in some part or other of the
United States. But we shall confine the
term to those caterpillars, which, for the
most part, have the habit of hiding just
under the surface of the earth during the
day, and feeding either on the roots,
stems or leaves of plants during the
night.

Most of these caterpillars have the
very destructive habit of cutting, or en-
tirely severing the plant on which they
feed just above or below the ground. On
this account they have received the name
of Cut-worms, and not because when cut
in two, each end will reproduce itself as
some people have supposed; for although
some polyps and other animals belonging
to the great class Radiata in the animal
kingdom, have this curious power of
multiplying by division, it is not possess-
ed by any insect, and after having muti-
lated one of these cut-worms, the farmer
need never fear that he has thereby in-
creased, instead of having decreased their
number. From this habit of cutting,
they prove a far greater nuisance than if
they were to satisfy their appetites in an
honest manner. In the latter case we
might feel like letting them go their own
way in peace, but as with the Baltimore
oriole, which abrades and ruins a hun-
dred grapes where it would require one
for food, we feel vexed at such wanton
destruction of our products, and would
gladly rid ourselves of such nuisances.

These caterpillars are called surface ca-
terpillars in England, in which country,
as well as on the continent of Europe,
they have long been known to do great
damage to vegetables, and especially to
the cabbage, mangel-wurzel and turnip.
There are many different species, and
they vary in size and detail of markings ;
but all of them are smooth, naked and
greasy-looking worms of some shade of
green, gray, brown or black, with a pol-
ished, scaly head, and a shield of the
same color on the top of the first and last
segments ; while most of them have sev-
eral minute shiny spots on the other seg-
ments, each spot giving rise to a minute
stiff hair. They also have the habit of

curling up in a ball when disturbed.
They produce moths of sombre colors'
which are known as Owlet or Rustic
moths, and the species that have so far'
been bred in this country, belong to one
or other of the four genera, Agrotis, Ha-
dena, Mamestra or Celaena. These
moths fly, for the most part, by night,,
though some lew of them may be seen
flying by day, especially in cloudy weath-
er. They frequently, even in large cities,
rush into a room, attracted by the light of
gas or candle, into which they heedlessly
plunge and singe themselves. They rest
with the wings closed more or less flatly
over the body, the upper ones entirely
covering the lower ones, and these upper
wings always have two more or less dis-
tinctly marked spots, the one round, the
other kidney-shaped.

The natural history of most of these
cut-worms may be thus briefly given.
The parent moth attaches her eggs to*
some substance near the ground, or de-
posits them on plants, mostly during the ■
latter part of summer, though occasion-
ally in the spring of the year. Those-
which are deposited during late summer, -
hatch early in the fall, and the young
worms, crawling into the ground, feed'
upon the tender roots and shoots of herb-
acious plants. At this time of the year,,
the worms being small and their foodplen-
tiful, the damage they do is seldom no-
ticed. On the approach of winter they
are usually about two-thirds grown, when
the descend deeper into the ground, and,
curling themselves up, remain in a torpid
state till the following spring. When
spring returns, they are quite ravenous,
and their cutting propensities having fully
developed, they ascend to the surface
and attack the first green succulent vege-
tation that comes in their way. When
once full grown they descend deeper into
the earth, and form for themselves oval
chambers in which they change to chry-
salids. In this state they remain from
two to four weeks, and finally come forth-
as moths, during the months of Juner
July and August, the chrysalis skin being
in most cases so thin that it is impossible
to preserve it. These moths in time
lay eggs, and their progeny goes through
the same cycle of changes. Some spe-
cies, however, as we shall presently show,
are most likely two-brooded, while others

360

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

pass through the winter in the chrysalis
state.

Remedies. — The climbing cut-worms
are easily headed off by a little vigilance.
From the orchard planted upon light,
warm soils they can be driven away en-
tirely by claying the ground about the
trees ; a wheelbarrow full is nigh enough
for each tree when spread around its base
and as far as the limbs extend. This is
the most thorough and lasting. A small
strip of tin, three inches wide, carefully
secured around the body of the tree, will
effectually prevent their ascension ; if the
tin is old and rusty it will require to be a
little wider. Each night, after the swell-
ing of the bud, an hour or two after mid-
night a slight jar of the tree will bring
every one on it down, when they can be
caught in a spread sheet and destroyed.
This will have to be followed up till the
bud has unfolded into the leaf, after which
there is no longer anything to be appre-
hended from the worm. The reasons
why the clay is so efficient are two-fold :
1. The worms seem to have an instinctive
"dislike to crawling over it. 2. In drop-
ping from the tree on the hard surface
they are frequently disabled, and whether
■disabled or not, they cannot immediately
burrow into it as in sand, and they are all
the more exposed to their numerous mid-
night enemies which are ever watching
for them.

For the common field cut-worms we
are convinced that there is no better rem-
edy, as a rule, than hunting and killing
them. It is generally believed that ashes
and lime used about plants will keep off
cut-worms, and we might fill pages with re-
corded experiments, going to prove the
good effects of these substances. The
experimenters generally forget, however,
that there is a period in the life of these
worms when they of themselves go down
in the earth and disappear, and anything
applied just before this happens is sure to
be heralded forth as a perfect remedy.
Experiments show, however, that when
placed in a box with separate quantities
of ashes, lime, salt and mold, they will
burrow and hide in all of them, but es-
pecially in the ashes and mold. Soot
seems to be more obnoxious to them, and,
although we have not yet had an opportu-
nity to give it a thorough test, we do not
*ish to discourage its trial. Fall plowing,

to be efficacious, must be done very late
in the fall, when the worms are numbed
with cold, and then we think it is of doubt-
ful utility further than it exposes them to
the attacks of enemies, including birds.

POTATO STALK-BORER.— This larva
(Fig. 4,) is of a livid hue when young,
with light stripes along the body, as shown
in the figure. When full grown it gener-
ally becomes lighter, with the longitudi-

nal
it

5-

3. 2

Fig. 4. — Potato Stalk-Borer.

lines broader, and at this time
more frequently resembles Figure
It commonly burrows in large stalks
of the potato;
but it is not pe-
culiar to that
plant, as it oc-
Fig 5.. curs also in the

stalks of the tomato, and in those of the
dahlia and aster and other garden flow-
ers. We have likewise found it boring
through the cob of growing Indian corn,
and strangely confining itself to that por-
tion of the ear : though it is likewise
found occasionally in the stem of that plant.
By way of compensation, it is particularly
partial to the stem of the common cock-
lebur {Xanthium strumarium) ; and if it
would only confine itself to such noxious
weeds as this, it might be considered as a
friend instead of any enemy.

Remedy — Prevention. — The careful
florist, by an occasional close inspection
of his plants about the beginning of July,
may detect the point at which the borer
entered, which is generally quite a dis-
tance from the ground, and can then cut
him out without injury to the plant. As
this is not feasible in a large potato field,
care should be taken to prevent his at-
tacks another year as far as possible to do
so, by hunting for him wherever a vine is
seen to suddenly wilt.

POTATO STALK-WEEVIL.— This insect
is more particularly a Southern species,
occurring abundantly in the Middle
States, but, according to Dr. Harris, be-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 361

ing totally unknown in New England.
The beetle (Fig. 7) is of a blueish or ash
gray color, distinguished, as its name im-
plies, by having three shiny black im-
pressed spots at the lower edge of the
thorax. The female deposits a single
egg in an oblong slit about one-eighth
inch long, which she has previously form-
ed with her beak in the stalk of the
potato. The larva subsequently hatches
out, and bores into the heart of the stalk,
always proceeding downward toward the
root. When full grown, it is a little over
one-fourth inch long (Fig. 6), and is a
soft, whitish, legless grub, with a scaly
head. Hence it can always be readily
•distinguished from the larva of the Stalk-

Fig. 6. — Potato Stalk-Weevil.

borer, which has invariably sixteen legs,
no matter how small it may be. Un-
like this last insect, it becomes a pupa
.(Fig. 6) within the potato stalk which it
inhabits ; and it comes out in the beetle
state about the last of August or the be-
ginning of September.

Remedy. — Same as with the foregoing
species. Burn all the vines which wilt
from its attacks — roots and all, for it al-
most always works below ground. The
stalk-borer must bo searched for, if one
will be sure of killing him as he leaves
the stalk to transform; but as this stalk-
weevil transforms within the vine, one
may be pretty sure of destroying it by
turning the vines when they first wilt.

POTATO or TOMATO WOEM.—This
-well-known insect, the larva of which is
usually called the potato worm, but it is
far commoner on the closely allied toma-
to, the foliage of which it often clears off
"very completely in particular spots in a
single night. Many persons are afraid
to handle this worm, from an absurd
idea that it has the power of stinging
with the horn on its tail. But this is a
vulgar error, and the worm is totally
incapable of doing any direct harm to
man, either with the conspicuous horn

on its tail, or with any hidden weapon
that it may have concealed about its
person. In fact, this dreadful looking
horn is not peculiar to the potato worm,
but is met with in almost all the larvae cf
the large and beautiful group to which it
belongs (Sphinx family.) It seems to
have no special use, but, like the bunch
of hair on the breast of the turkey cock,
to be a mere ornamental appendage.

When full-fed, which is usually about
the last of August, the Potato worm bur-
rows under ground and shortly after-
wards transforms into the pupa state.
The pupa is often dug up in the spring
from ground where tomatoes or pota-
toes were grown in the preceding sea-
son ; and most persons that meet with it .
suppose that the singular, jug-handled
appendage at one end of it is its tail.
In reality, however, it is the tongue-case,
and contains the long pliable tongue
which the future moth will employ in
lapping up the nectar of the flowers, be-
fore which, in the dusky gloom of some
warm, balmy summer's evening, it hangs
for a few moments suspended in the air,
like the glorified ghost of some departed
botanist.

The moth itself was formerly confound -
ed with the Tobacco- worm moth {Sphin x
Carolina, Linnaeus), which indeed it ve ry
closely resembles, having ' the same se-
ries of orange-colored spots on each side
of the abdomen. The gray and black
markings, however, of the wings differ
perceptibly in the two species ; and in
the Tobacco-worm moth there is always
a more or less faint white spot or dot
near the center of the front wing, which
is never met with in the other species. In
Connecticut and other northern States
where tobacco is grown, the Potato-
worm often feeds upon the leaves of the
tobacco plant, the true Tobacco-worm
being unknown in those latitudes. In
the more southerly States, on the other
hand, and in Mexico and in the West
Indies, the true Potato-worm is unknown,
and it is the Tobacco-worm that the to-
bacco growers have to fight. While in
the intermediate country both species
may frequently be captured on the wing
in the same garden and upon the same
evening. In other words, the Potato-
worm is a northern species, the Tobacco-
worm a southern species; but on the

362

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

confines of the two districts exclusively
inhabited by each, they intermingle in va-
rying proportions, according to the lati-
tude.

Remedies. — This insect is so large
and conspicuous that the most effectual
mode of destroying it is by hand-picking.
In destroying the worms in this manner
care should be taken to leave alone all
those specimens which one finds covered
with little white oval cocoons, as these
are the cocoons of little parasites which
materially assist us in its subjugation.

STRIPED BLISTER BEETLE.— The
Striped Blister Beetle is almost exclusive-
ly a southern species, occurring in partic-
ular years very abundantly on the potato
vine in Central and Southern Illinois, and
in Missouri, though, according to Dr.
Harris, it is also occasionally found even
in New England. In some specimens,
the broad outer black stripe on the wing
cases is divided lengthwise by a slender
yellow line, so that instead of" two there
are three black stripes on each wing-case ;
and in the same field all the intermediate
grades between the two varieties may be
met with.

This species (Fig. 7) is the one com-
monly found in the more northerly parts of
the Northern States, where it usually takes
the place of the Striped Blister-beetle fig-
ured above. It is of a uniform ash-gray col-
or; but this color is given it by the presence
upon its body of minute ash-gray scales
or short hairs, and whenever these are
rubbed off, which happens almost as
readily as on the wings of a butterfly, the
original black color of its hide appears.
It attacks not only potato vines, but also
honey-locusts, and
especially the Eng-
1 i s h or Windsor
bean, and we found
^_it quite abundant
on the Early Snap
bean. It also at-
tacks the foliage of
J-the apple tree, and
likewise gnaws in-

^1G' 7' to the young fruit.

BLACK BLISTER-BEETLE. — This
species is very similar in appearance to
the Black-rat Blister-beetle; the latter
being distinguishable from it only by
having four raised lines placed lengthwise
upon each wing-case and by the two first

joints of the antennae being greatly
dilated and lengthened in the males, as
shown at Figure c. The Black Blister-
beetle appears in August and September,
and is very common on the flowers of
the Golden-rod. As a general rule, it
makes its appearance too late in the
season to do great damage.

MARGINED BLISTER -BEETLE. —
This species may be at once recognized
by its general black color, and the narrow
ash-gray edging to its wing-cases. It
usually feeds on certain wild plants ; but
we found it quite abundant on potatoes
last summer, both in Missouri and in
Illinois. It appears not to attack the
Peach Blow variety.

Remedies. — The same remedies will
apply equally to all three of the blister-
beetles that have just been described.
Let it be remembered that during the
heat of the day, these beetles are ready
with their wings and may be driven from
the vines. Thus the most practical and
efficient mode of destroying them* is to
drive them into a windrow of hay or
straw, and kill them by setting fire to it.
As they all appear rather late in the
season, we should recommend the plant-
ing of early varieties, which will be more
likely to escape their attacks ; and espe-
cially of the Peach Blow variety, the
leaves of which seem to be more distaste-
ful to them than those of any other
variety.

THREE-LINED LEAF - BEETLE. —
The three first insects, described and
figured above as infesting the potato-

FlG. 8. Three-Lined Leaf-Beetle.,
plant, attack it only in the larva statev
The five next, namely the three Blister-
beetles, attack it exclusively in the perfect
state. The three that remain to be con-
sidered attack it both in the larva and in
the perfect state, but go underground to
pass into the pupa state, in which state —

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 365

like all other beetles, without exception —
they are quiescent, and eat nothing at
all.

The larva of the Three-Lined Leaf-
Beetle may be distinguished from all
other insects that prey upon the potato
by its habit of covering itself with its
own excrement. In figure 8, this larva
is shown in profile, both full and half
grown, covered with the soft, greenish
excrementitious matter which from time
to time it discharges. Figure 7 gives a
somewhat magnified view of the pupa;
and Figure 8 shows the last few joints
of the abdomen ot the larva, magnified,
and viewed, not in profile, but from
above. The vent of the larva, as will
be seen from this last figure, is situated
on the upper surface of the last joint, so
that its excrement naturally falls upon its
back, and by successive discharges is
pushed forward towards its head, till the
whole upper surface of the insect is
covered with it. In other insects, which
do not indulge in this singular practice,
the vent is situated either at the extreme
tip of the abdomen or on its lower
surface.

There are several other larvae, feeding
upon other plants, which commonly wear
cloaks of this strange material, among
which may be mentioned one which is
very common upon the Sumach, and
which produces a jumping, oval Leaf-
beetle, about a quarter of an inch long,
and of a yellow color, speckled with
brick-red. The larvae of certain Tortoise-
beetles, some of which feed on the
Morning Glory and the Sweet Potato
vines, adopt the same practice, but in
their case there is a forked process at the
tail which curves over their backs and
receives the requisite supply of excre-
ment.

There are two broods of this species
every year. The first brood of larvae
may be found on the potato vine toward
the latter end of June, and the second in
August. The first brood stays under-
ground about a fortnight before it emerges
in the perfect beetle state; and the
second brood stays there all winter, and
only emerges at the beginning of the
following June. The perfect beetle is of
a pale yellow color, with three black
stripes on its back, and bears a general
resemblance to the common Cucumber-

beetle. From this last species, however,
it may be readily distinguished by the
remarkable pinching in of the sides of
its thorax, so as to make quite a lady-like
waist there, or what naturalists call a
" constriction." It is also on the average
a somewhat larger insect, and differs in
other less obvious respects. As in the
case of the Colorado Potato-beetle, the
female, after coupling in the usual man-
ner, lays her yellow eggs (Fig. 8) on the
under surface of the leaves of the potato
plant. The larvae hatching from these
require about the same time to develop,
and when full grown descend in the same
manner into the ground, where they
transform to pupae (Fig. 8) within a small
oval chamber, from which in time the
perfect beetle comes forth.

The Three-lined Leaf-beetle, in certain
seasons, is a great pest in the Eastern
States ; but, it has never yet occurred in
the Valley of the Mississippi in such
numbers as to be materially injurious.

APPLE-BOOT PLANT-LOUSE.— The
roots of the apple tree are very often
found to rot, and thus cause the death of
the tree. Of these rots there appear to
be three distinct kinds. One kind is that
popularly known as "rotten root" in
Southern Illinois, and seems to be a
simple decomposition of the vegetable
tissue, analagous to the rotting of the
root of a cabbage, for instance. Its
cause is not clearly understood, though
it seems to be a consequence of certain
conditions of the soil. The other rot
was discovered during 1875, by Doctor
Hull, of Alton, Illinois, and is a fungoid
growth, which, after covering the root
with a thin layer of white fibrous sub-
stance, causes a sort of dry rot of the root,
and which is common to both the pear
and the apple. Some of the symptoms
of this rot are : a rather earlier develop-
ment or maturity of the branches ; an ex-
cess of fruit buds, and a shortening or
thickening of some twigs.

Although this insect usually confines
itself to the roots of the tree, yet a few
may occasionally be found on the suckers
that spring up round the butt of the
trunk, and even on the trunk and limbs,
especially in places where a branch has
been formerly amputated, and nature is
closing up the old wound by a circle of
new bark. Where it works upon the

364

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

naked trunk, it often causes a mass of
little granulations to sprout out, about the
size of cabbage seeds, thus producing on
a small scale, the same effects that it does
upon the roots. Wherever the insect
■works, small as it is, it may be easily re-
cognized by the peculiar blueish-white
cottony matter which it secretes from its
body, and which is never met with in the
case of the common Apple-tree Plant
louse that inhabits the leaves and the tips
of the twigs.

Fig. a, as represented below, fully
illustrates the Apple-root Plant louse. A

Fig. 9.
portion of a knotty root as it appears af-
ter the punctures of the lice is represent-
ed at a, the larva state at b, and the
winged state at c; while d represents the
leg, e the proboscis,/" the antenna of the
winged individual, and g that of the
larva, all highly magnified. The young
louse is of a deep flesh or pink color, and
the proboscis extends the whole length
of the body, while the older specimens
have a deeper, purplish hue.

Remedies. — The best mode to get rid
of the Apple-root Plant-louse is to drench
the roots of the infested tree with hot
water. But to render this process effect-
ual, the water must be applied in quan-
tities large enough to penetrate to every
part of the infested roots. There need
be no fear of any injurious result from
such an application of hot water; for it is
a very general rule that vegetable or-
ganisms can, for a short time, stand a
much higher temperature than animal
organisms, without any injury to their
tissues. In laying bare the roots for the
better application of the water, a sharp
eye should be kept for the friends above

described, and when espied they should
be tenderly laid aside till after the
slaughter of the enemy. Mulching
around the infested trees has been found,
by Mr. E. A. Riehl and others, of Alton,
Illinois, to have the effect of bringing the
lice to the surface of the ground, where
they can be more easily reached by the
hot water.

ELM TEEE BEETLE.— Many com-
plaints have been made about the elms in
cities being destroyed by a small worm,
where the trees have been planted in the
streets for shade and ornament, and have
attained a considerable size. We will
here give a condensed history of the bee-
tle and its habits: This insect is gener-
ally known as the elm-tree beetle, (Gal-
etuca calmariensis^) and is a small, striped
beetle, somewhat resembling the three-
lined leaf or striped cucumber beetle,
but much smaller, and of a dull, yellow-
ish-gray color, with only one dark line
and spot on each wing case. This
insect deposits its eggs in clusters up-
on the leaves, the worms or larva?
from which are hatched out in a few
days, and immediately commence to feed
upon the parenchyma, or soft pulpy sub-
stance of the leaf, at first making mere-
ly small blotches, but eventually, as they
increase in size, destroying the whole
leaf, leaving only the harder part, such
as the mid-ribs and network of veins,
untouched, thus causing the leaves to
turn brown and wither, until the whole
tree assumes the appearance of having
been scorched by fire. These worms,
when fully grown and ready to change
into pupae, not being able to descend by
means of a silken thread, like the real
caterpillars, crawl down the trunk to the
ground, and, soon casting their larva
skin, change into pupae on or near the
surface of the earth, at the foot of the
tree they have despoiled. Some of the
worms, however, conceal themselves in
fissures of the bark, where they undergo
their transformation into the perfect bee-
tle. These last, however, are few, and
bear no comparison with the multitudes
of pupae which will be found on the
damp ground, motionless, helpless, and
appearing like grains of wheat accident-
ally fallen near the tree. After becoming
pupae, in a few days the skin of the back
splits open, and the perfect insect crawls

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE.

>*S

forth, furnished with wings, by means of
which it is enabled to fly to other trees
and deposit its eggs, thus spreading the
nuisance to every elm in the neighbor-
hood ; or it may ascend the same tree
and lay the eggs for a second generation,
which destroys the second crop of leaves,
frequently so enfeebling the already ex-
hausted tree that it is unable to recover,
and eventually perishes. If the trees are
examined daily when the worms first ap-
pear on the foliage, which may be known
by the leaves exhibiting a somewhat
blotched appearance, it will be found that
in the course of two or three weeks mul-
titudes of worms have left the leaves, and
are slowly descending the trunk for the
purpose of undergoing their final trans-
formation on earth, under stones or moss,
near the collar of the tree, and in two or
three days the pupae may be killed by
crushing under foot, when lying heaped
up and incapable of locomotion. This is
the best time to destroy them, as the
worms are scattered over the whole tree,

and the perfect insect is much too nimble
to allow itself to be caught. Were the
base of each tree encased in a low, open
box, about a foot or eighteen inches ini
height, placed at the same distance from
the main trunk, having its lower part sunk
four or five inches below the surface of
the soil, the top capped with strips of
bright tin, sloping inwards, and projecting
on both sides like the eaves of a house,
and the upper half of the inside boards
painted every morning with coal tar or
some other viscid substance, the larvae
could not crawl out over it, the helpless
and motionless pupae would be found
collected in heaps within the enclosure,
and could be killed by thousands without
much trouble. It might be advisable to
cover the ground inside with cement or
mortar, so that the worms could not pos-
sibly burrow underneath the board fence
and escape. The same box might also-
succeed in keeping the female of the
canker worm from ascending the fruit
trees to deposit her eggs, but in that case.

Fig. io.

coal tar should be put on the outside of
the box, as these insects want to crawl
inside in order to climb up the trunk,
instead of descending and then scattering
themselves over the surface of the ground,
like the elm-tree beede. Such temporary
boxes might be made so as to be removed
when not required, and put into some
safe place to be used another season. If
stationary, the same tin gutters now so
extensively used in the Northern States to
obstruct the canker worm, and usually
placed around the tree itself, could be
put around the box at some distance from
the tree, and so prevent the oil, tar, or
whatever is in them from being spilled
and injuring the bark, and at the same
time answer the purpose just as well in
preventing the wingless female from
ascending the trunk to deposit her eggs.
NEW GRAPE-ROOT BORER. — The
larvae of this insect, in general appear-

ance, resemble those of the peach-tree
borer, and work in the same manner
under ground, but destroy the roots by
gnawing into them, and are sometimes,
said to be shielded from outward applica-
tions by a coating of the bark. It is,
evident that this pest is spreading, and
may in a short time prove as disastrous
to the vineyards as the peach-tree borer
is to the peach orchards. This insect
working underground, its ravages cannot
be seen until the vine becomes sickly.

Remedies. — It is absolutely necessary
for the grape-grower to examine the
roots of all unhealthy-looking grape-vines
in the vineyard, wherever the insect has;
effected a lodgment in the neighborhood,
at least twice a year, and any larvae or
pupae found should be cut out and de-
stroyed at once. The Scuppernong grape
alone is said to be exempt from the
attacks of the grape-vine borer. The

26G

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

pupse are formed in rough oval cocoons
of a gummy substance, covered outwardly
with particles of wood and dirt, and the
perfect insect makes its appearance from
June to September.

Little can be done in the way of
extirpating these underground borers,
when, as in the present instance,
,their presence is only indicated by the
'approaching death of the vine. Still,
every vineyardist should make it a rule to
search for them wherever they find vines
suddenly dying from any cause unknown
to them, and upon finding such a borer
should at once put an end to his exist-
ence. The beetle which may frequently
be found during the summer months,
should also be ruthlessly sacrificed where
ever met with. We should also advise
not to plant a vineyard on land covered
with old oak stumps, and not to use oak
stakes where those made of cedar can be
had as conveniently.

GRAPE-CANE GALL-CXTRCULIO—

The canes of the Concord vines are fre-
quently found to have galls on the last
year's growth, in the shape of an elon-
gated knot or swelling which is generally
situated above or below a joint. This
gall was formed the previous fall while
the tender cane was growing, and has
almost invariably a longitudinal slit or
depression on one side, dividing that side
into two cheeks, which generally have a
rosy tint. The gall is caused by a little
footless, white cylindrical larva which
measures 0.28 of an inch, and has a
yellowish head, and somewhat darker
tawny jaws. It is minutely wrinkled
transversely, and sparsely covered with
minute white bristles; the three segments
next to the head being prominently
swollen underneath and the bristles at-
tached to them look very much like legs,
and doubtless to some extent perform the
functions of legs. This larva indeed
bears a very close general resemblance to
that of the Potato Stalk- weevil, and when
taken out of its gall immediately curls up.
It is of a uniform light yellowish brown
without any markings whatever. It is
closely allied to the Potato Stalk-weevil,
but belongs to the genus Madams which
differs from Baridius in the peculiar un-
dulating appearance of the wing-cases,
and more especially in their being highly

polished, the word Madams meaning
glossy or polished.

Remedy. — If these gall-bearing canes
are cut off and burned during the winter
there need be little fear of this insect's
work, the more especially as it is not
secure from parasites, even in its snug
retreat, for we have bred a species of
Chalets fly from the galls, which had
evidently destroyed the true gall-maker.

GRAPE-VINE FIDIA.— One of the

worst foes to the grape-vine that we have
is the Grape-vine Fidia,
which is represented in the
annexed Figure n. It is
of a chestnut-brown color,
and is densely covered
with short and dense whit-
ish hairs which give it a
Fig. 11.— Grape hoary appearance. We
Vine Fidia. have found it very thick
in most of the vineyards which we visited,
and it is almost universally miscalled the
"Rose-bug," which is, however, a very
different insect. It is found in the woods
on the wild grape-vine, and also on the
leaves of the Cercis Canadensis ; but of
the tame vines it seems to prefer the
Norton's Virginia and Concord. It makes
its appearance during the month of June,
and by the end of July has generally dis-
appeared, from which fact we may infer
that there is but one brood each year.
The manner in which it injures the vine
is by cutting straight elongated holes of
about }i inch in diameter in the leaves,
and when numerous it so riddles the
leaves as to reduce them to mere shreds.
The preparatory stages of this beetle are
not yet known.

Remedies. — Luckily this beetle has the
same precautionary habit of dropping to
the ground, upon the slightest disturb-
ance, as has the Plum curculio, and this
habit enables us readily to keep it in
check. The most efficient way of doing
this is by the aid of chickens. Mr.
Peschell, of Hermann, on whose vines
this beetle had been exceedingly numer-
ous, raised a large brood of chickens, and
had them so well trained that all he had
to do was to start them in the vineyard
with a boy in front to shake the vines,
and he himself behind the chicks. They
picked up every beetle which fell to the
ground, and in this manner he kept his

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 36j

vines so clean that he could scarcely find
a single beetle the following year.

GRAPE CODLING.— Although the pre-
ceding insect has been so scarce, yet the
Grape has been worked upon in a some-
what similar manner, and even to a
greater extent, by the insect now under
consideration.

The larva of this Grape-codling may
at once be distinguished from that of the
Grape curculio, by its having six scaly
legs near the head, eight fleshy legs in
the middle, and two at the extremity of
the body, and by spinning a fine web, by
which it lets itself drop whenever handled.
It is also larger, of a darker color, and
bears a very close resemblance to that of
the Strawberry leaf-roller, to be hereafter
figured and described.

Its presence is soon indicated by a
reddish-brown color on that side of the
yet green grape which it enters. On
opening the grape, a winding channel is
seen in the pulp, and a minute white
worm with a dark head is seen at the
end of the channel. It continues to feed
upon the pulp of the fruit, and when it
reaches the seeds, eats out their interior.
As it matures it becomes darker, being
either of an olive-green or dark brown
color, with a honey-yellow head ; and if
one grape is not sufficient it fastens the
already ruined grape to an adjoining one
by means of silken threads, and proceeds
to burrow in it as it did in the first.
"When full grown it leaves the grape and
forms its cocoon on the leaves of the
vine. This operation is performed in a
manner essentially characteristic: the
worm cuts out a clean oval flap, leaving
it hinged on one side, and, rolling this
flap over, fastens it to the leaf, and thus
forms for itself a cozy little house which
it lines on the inside with silk.

Remedies, — This insect threatens to
become a grievous pest unless checked
by some unforeseen means, as was the
case with the Grape curculio. Luckily,
there is at least one parasite which attacks
it, in the shape of a yellowish, footless
maggot, with a green tint and fourteen
.segments. We obtained such maggots
from two of the caterpillars, one having
crawled out of its host before, and the
other after he had spun up. Mr. Read
says, the first brood of caterpillars feed
on the leaves, appearing in May (in Ohio)

or as soon as the leaves are grown. The
worms which appear in our grapes in
July are, therefore, the second brood, and
there is doubtless a third brood, for Mr.
Rathvon received them in October, and
we have taken the worm out of a grape
as late as the 2 2d of September. The
broods, in all probability, run into one
another, and the last passes the winter
within the cocoon, either in the larva or
pupa state. They should, therefore, be
searched for early in the season on the
leaves. The second brood of worms, or
those which infest grapes, can easily be
espied and destroyed in a healthy vine-
yard; but where a vineyard is affected
with what is designated as the " American
Grape-rot," the grapes attacked by the
Codling are not so easily distinguished,
as they bear a close resemblance to the
rotting ones. Care should be taken in
gathering the infested grapes, for the
worm being very active wriggles away
and easily escapes.

GRAPE-VINE PLUME.— During the
latter part of May and beginning of
June, the leaves of the grape-vine may
often be seen drawn together by silken
threads, and in the retreat thus made will
be found] a small hairy caterpillar, which
feeds on the tender leaves of the vine.
This caterpillar grows to the length of
about half an inch; the color of the body
is very pale green and has four elevated
white spots and two still smaller dots on
every segment, from which spring stiff
white hairs in all directions.

Remedies. — Whenever they become
numerous, the only remedy is hand-pick-
ing.

TREE-CRICKET. — The general color
is a delicate greenish, semi-transparent
white, though some specimens have a
blackish shade. From the fact that it is
known to devour plant-lice, and likewise
the eggs of some moths, we were formerly
in doubt whether it should be consideced
friend or foe, but the experience dur-
ing 1875 year settled the matter definitely,
for it proved very destructive to the
vine. The female deposits her eggs in
grape canes, raspberry and blackberry
canes, in the twigs of the peach, white
willow, and a variety of other trees. In
depositing, she makes a straight, longi-
tudinal, contiguous row of punctures,
each puncture about the size of that

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

which would be made by an ordinary pin.
From each of these holes, a narrow,
yellowish, elongate egg, runs slantingly
across the pith. The twigs or canes thus
punctured almost invariably die above
the punctured part, and the injury thus
caused to vines is sometimes consider-
able.

But by far the worst habit of the Tree-
cricket is that of severing grapes from the
bunches just as they are beginning to
ripen, and it sometimes cuts off an entire
bunch, or so thoroughly excoriates the
stem that it fails to ripen its berries.

Remedy. — The crickets themselves
should be crushed whenever met with,
while the vineyardist should make a
business of searching in the winter time
for all punctured twigs, and by burning
them, prevent their increase in future.

STRAWBERRY LEAF-ROLLER, and
Other Insects. — Insects are more injurious
to the strawberry than any disease that
has yet appeared.

12. — Strawberry Leaf-Roller.

The most destructive of these is proba-
bly the larva of the common May Beetle,
formerly called Melolontha, but now
placed in the genus Lachnosterna. The
grub (larva), when fully grown, is about
an inch and a half long, and three-eighths
thick, nearly white, with a brown head,
and commonly called the White Grub.

These grubs are usually more numer-
ous in old dry pastures and meadows
than elsewhere, because their principal
food is the roots of different kinds of
grass. The old sods afford protection
against the birds and worms which de-
vour them ; consequently they often be-
come very abundant in such places. If
these grass lands are plowed and planted
with the strawberry, the grubs will attack
the roots, and, if numerous, will destroy
every plant almost as soon as it is put in
the ground. In some sections of the
country the white grub has materially
checked the cultivation of the strawberry.
The only remedy with which we are ac-
quainted is, to occupy the ground with

some crop which requires considerable-
hoeing and cultivation, for two or three
years before planting with the straw-
berry.

The grub is said to be three or four
years in attaining its growth, and by
continually manipulating the soil they
are exposed to the attacks of birds, and
many are destroyed by crushing ; besides
this, the beetles will seldom deposit their
eggs in freshly disturbed soil.

Mr. Harris, in his "Insects Injurious to
Vegetation," says "that this white grub is
the larva of the May beetle, which is so
often seen flying about in the evening*
It is of a chestnut-brown color, smooth,,
but finely punctured — that is, covered
with little impressed dots, as if pricked
with the point of a needle, each wing-case-
has two or three slightly elevated, longi-
tudinal lines ; the breast is covered with
yellowish down. The grubs are greedily
devoured by birds; the crow being ex-
ceedingly fond of them.

Wire "Worm. —

The wire worm (lulus), which belongs
to the Myriapods or many-footed worms,
sometimes attacks the roots of the straw-
berry, but we have no accounts which
show that they have as yet been very de-
structive. Frequent plowing and thor-
ough cultivation are the most effective
means of destroying them.

Snail or Slug. —

The snail or slug, which is so abundant
and destructive to the strawberry and
other garden products of Europe, has
found its way to this country, and is
now quite plentiful in some gardens near
New York. These snails are great gour-
mands, and will destroy the strawberry
fruit in quantities if they become very
plentiful. Hand-picking, or destroying
them with lime, is a pretty sure way of
getting rid of this pest.

Plant Louse (Aphis). —

The Plant Louse (Aphis), or Green
Fly, as it is usually called, sometimes be-
comes quite numerous upon the roots of
the strawberry, particularly when the soil
is quite loose and open, so as to admit
them readily to the roots. Upon these
they congregate in immense numbers,
sucking the juices of the plant, and there-
by effectually checking its growth. A
liberal application of dry ashes or refuse

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 369

from a tobacco factory will usually de-
stroy them. The Aphis also attacks the
plants when grown under glass, but they
are more readily destroyed than the Red
Spider ( Telaris), which insect is very de-
structive when numerous.

The best preventive to the ravages of
the Red Spider is a moist atmosphere,
but when this cannot be allowed, flour of
sulphur should be freely scattered among
ihe plants or upon the soil near them.
The fumes of melted sulphur will make
quick work with them, but it requires
great care in its application, for should
the sulphur take fire and burn, the fumes
will destroy the plants as well.

WHITE-MARKED TUSSOCK MOTH.
—During the winter little bunches of
dead leaves are sometimes found to be
quite numerous on our apple trees. They
are generally fastened to the twigs, and

V ? 1 v

Fig. 13.

upon examination are found to contain
gray cocoons. The greater portion of
these cocoons have an egg-mass glued to
them, which is composed of numerous
round, cream-colored eggs, of about 0.03
diameter, and partly covered with glis-
tening white froth-like matter; while the
other proportion of these cocoons have
no such egg-mass.

This insect seems to occur more or less
over the whole country, and we have re-
peatedly received its egg-masses during
the past two winters. It is, however, as
wo might expect from its nature, often
confined, like the Canker-worm, to partic-
ular orchards in a particular neighbor-
hood. It feeds upon different kinds of
trees, such as the elm, maple, horse-chest-
nut and oak, but it seems to prefer the
apple, the plum, the rose and the pear.

REMEDIES."=-Dr. Fitch has described
two parasites, which attack this caterpil-
lar, and we are acquainted with seven
others, making in all nine distinct para-
sites, which prey upon this species.
24

In collecting the cocoons in the win-
ter in order to destroy them, none but
those which have the egg-masses on them
should be taken, as all the others, either
contain the empty male chrysalis or else
some friendly parasite. From the fact
that the female never travels beyond her
cocoon, it becomes obvious that, since
the insect can only travel in the caterpilr
lar state, it would require over a century
for it to spread even a hundred miles.
Hence we may rightly conclude that it
has been introduced into different parts
of the country in the egg-state on young
imported trees. How essential it is then
to examine every tree in planting out a
young orchard, and how easy it is, with
the proper precautions, to forever keep an
orchard free from its destructive work.
As already stated, the young worms let
themselves down upon slightly jarring the
tree, and though after the third moult
they lose this habit to a great extent, yet
they may always be brought down by a
good thorough shake, and where they
have once invaded an orchard, this will
be found the most feasible mode of kill
ingthem; though prevention, by destroy
ing the egg-masses in the winter when
they are easily discerned, is infinitely the
best, and surest remedy against its at-
tacks.

BAG-WORM, alias BASKET-WORM,
alias DROP-WORM. — Our shade and or-
namental trees are often defoliated by va-
rious insects, and we will give brief ac-
counts of three which have attracted our
attention during the past summer. Of
these, the insect whose transformations
are illustrated below, is by far the most
common and injurious. It apparently
flourishes better south of latitude 39 °
than north of that line. Year after year
shade trees are planted, and year after"
year a great proportion of them dwindle;
and die, until at last the opinion very gen-
erally prevails among land-owners that
it is of little use to try and grow them.
Consequently they are not as generally
planted as they should be.

Throughout the winter the weather-
beaten bags may be seen hanging from al-
most every kind of tree. Upon plucking
them many will be found empty, but the
greater proportion of them will, on being
cut open, present the appearance given at
Figure 14; they are in fact full of soft

37°

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC—REMEDIES FOR.

yellow eggs. Those which do not con-
tain eggs are the male bags, and his empty-
chrysalis skin is generally found protrud-
ing from the lower end. About the mid-
dle of next May these eggs will hatch
into active little worms, which, from the
first moment of their lives, commence to

form for themselves little bags. Thej
crawl on to a tender leaf, and, attached
to their anterior feet with their tails hoist-
ed in the air, they each spin around them-
selves a ring of silk, to which they soon fas-
ten bits of leaf. They continue adding to the
lower edge of the ring, pushing it up as ii

jrIG- ^ — Bag-Worm, alias Basket-Worm, alias Drop- Worm.

increases in width, till it reaches the tail
and forms a sort of cone, as represented
at Figure 14, g. As the worms grow,
they continue to increase their bags from
tha bottom, until the latter become so
large and heavy that the worms let them
hang instead of holding them upright, as
they did while they were young. By the
end of July they have become full grown,
when they present the appearance of
Figure 14, /. The worm on being
pulled out, appearing as at Figure 14, a.
"This full grown condition is not attained,
however, without critical periods. At
four different times during their growth
these worms close up the mouths of then-
bags and retire for two days to cast their
skins or moult, as is the nature of their
kind, and they push their old skins
through a passage which is always left
open at the extremity of the bag, and
which also allows the passage of the ex-
crement.

Remedies. — From the natural history
of this Bag-worm it becomes obvious,
that by plucking the cases in the winter
time, and burning them, you can effectu-
ally rid your trees of them, and we advise
all who desire healthy trees to do this
before the buds begin to burst in the
spring. Where this is not done the
^worms will continue to increase, and

partly defoliating the tree each yeai
slowly, but surely, sap its life.

SEED CORN WORM.— This maggc
greatly resembles the Onion maggots
which are known to attack the onion ii
this country, and its work on corn i
similar to that of this last-named maggc
on the onion , for it excoriates and gnaw
into the seed-corn, as shown at Figure 1 j
and finally causes such seed to rot.

After having become full fed, thes
maggots usually leave the kernels fo
the surroundin
earth,where the
contract int
smooth, hare
ligh t-browi
pupae, and ii
about a week al
terwardsthepei
feet fly pushes open a little cap at th
anterior end, and issues forth to the ligh
of day. In this state it is a two-wingei
fly belonging to the order Diptera, am
quite inconspicuous in its markings am
appearance.

Remedies. — It is difficult to suggest ;
remedy for this pest, as its presence i
not observed till the mischief is done
Hot water has been found effectual ii
killing the Onion maggot, without injur
ing the onions, and would doubtless prov

Fig.

15. — Seed Corn
Worm.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 371

a» effectual for this Corn maggot, where
a iew hills of some choice variety are
attacked, which it is very desirable to
•save. But its application in a large field,
•even if one knew where to apply it,
would be impracticable, and we can only
•suggest soaking the seed, before planting,
in gas-tar or copperas.

WHITE GRUB.— In its perfect state
this larva is called the May-bug or May-
beetle, and closely resembles the Euro-
pean cockchafer. In the latter part of
July and in August the grubs are very

Fig. 16. — White Grub.
numerous in old meadows and pastures.
Attention is drawn to them by spots of
sward becoming dead, as if killed by
•drought. On turning up some of the
dead turf the grass roots are found to be
eaten off an inch or two below the
surface, permitting the turf to be rolled
up like a carpet. They carefully reject
every root of clover. It is known, how-
ever, that they eat the roots of5 young
fruit trees, and sometimes do great injury
to strawberry plants, Indian corn, wheat,
and potatoes.

Remedy. — In all States they are preyed
upon by various animals. No doubt an
immense number might be destroyed by
turning hogs into the fields where the
grass has been killed. " Where the ground
has been overrun by the grubs it is fre-
quently advisable to plow it, and either
sow it to winter wheat or rye, or reseed it
to grass." As the larva of the insect, at
the approach of winter, descends into the
ground to a greater depth than can be
easily reached by the plow, it cannot be

thus turned up to be killed by the frost
late in the fall.

THE PLUM GOUGER— This name
was given by Mr. Walsh to another indi-
genous weevil. It is easily distinguished
from either ot the preceding weevils, by
its ochre-yellow thorax and legs, and its
darker wing-covers, which are dun-color-
ed, or brown with a leaden-gray tint, and
have no humps at all. Its snout is not
much longer than the thorax, but as in
the Apple Curculio, projects forwards, or
downwards, but cannot be bent under as
in the Plum Curculio.

The Plum Gouger seems to be un-
known in the Eastern States, or at least is
not common there; but it is very gener-
ally distributed throughout the Valley ot
the Mississippi. As a rule it is much less
common and does much less injury than
the little Turk, though in some few dis-
tricts it is found equally abundant.

The Plum Gouger is often found on
wild crab-trees, and may, like the Plum
Curculio, occasionally deposit and breed
in pip-fruit ; but it is partial to smooth-
skinned stone-fruit, such as prunes, plums
and nectarines, and it does not even
seem to relish the rough-skinned peach.
This beetle appears in the spring about
the same time as the Plum Curculio, but
as no eggs are deposited alter the stone
of the fruit becomes hard, and as its larva
requires a longer period to mature than
that of the latter, its time of depositing
is shorter, and the old beetles generally
die off and disappear before the new ones
eat their way out of the fruit, which they
do during August, September and Octo-
ber, according to the latitude.

Remedies. — This Plum Gouger is
about as hard to deal with as the Apple
Curculio. It drops almost as reluctantly,
and we, therefore, cannot do much by
the jarring process to diminish its num-
bers. Moreover, it takes wing much more
readily than the other weevils we have
mentioned ; and though fruit that is bad-
ly punctured for food, often falls prema-
turely to the ground, yet, according to
Mr. Walsh, that infested with the larva
generally hangs on the tree, until the
stone is hard and premature ripening sets
in. In all probability the stunted and
prematurely ripened fruit containing this
insect will jar down much more readily
than the healthy fruit.

372

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

PLUM CURCULIO, or Plum-WeeviL—
The plum-weevil, commonly known as
the " curculio," was said by Dr. Walsh to
be double-brooded, he stating that the
first brood at Rock Island, Illinois, ap-
pears from July 19 to August 4, and the
second brood from August 23 to Septem-
ber 28; but Mr. Riley states distinctly
that it is single-brooded, and that it hy-
bernates in the perfect or weevil state,
and not in the larval or pupal, as was
formerly imagined. The beetle also is
more nocturnal than diurnal in habit, and
is very active at night; but during the
daytime, especially in bright sunny weath-
er, rests among the leaves and branches,
or under some shelter. It was formerly
stated that the female first bored a cres-
cent-shaped cut or incision with her beak,
and then deposited an egg in the cut ;
but Dr. F. C. Hill, of Ohio, states that
the female first bores a round hole with
her snout, not straight in, but slanting
backward, so that the cavity is just below
the skin; she deposits her egg in the
hole, and then cuts the usual crescent-
shaped slit in front of it so as to under-
mine the egg, and leave it in a kind of
flap formed by the little piece of flesh of
the fruit which she has undermined, in
order to meet the piece around the egg,
and prevent the growing fruit from crush-
ing it. The insect in the perfect state is

Fig. 28.— Plum Curculio.
a, Larva; b, Pupa, into which the larva is
transformed within a little cavity underground
and of the perfect curculio (a).

said by Dr. Riley to gouge holes in
peaches and apples, and also to feed on
bark and tender twigs, and to gnaw holes
in the leaves. In regard to the new
remedy proposed during 1875 by Mr.
Ransom, of St. Joseph, Michigan, in the
Prairie Farmer and elsewhere, we quote
from Mr. Ransom himself: Some experi-

ments were made by laying pieces of
bark, etc., on the ground under the trees,
as a shelter under which the curculio*
could hide. The first night, about sun-
set, he prepared two hundred and fifty
trees, and in the morning went around,,
and in about three hours caught six hun-
dred and forty-seven curculios ; the next,
day having finished the orchard of four
hundred trees, he killed four thousand
one hundred and seventy-one curculios..
The total number of curculios killed by
him in one season was seventeen thou-
sand nine hundred and forty-five. The
Michigan Farmer, in commenting upon
this article, says that the State entomolo-
gist of Illinois, and the horticultural
editor of the Prairie Farmer, having
been at St. Joseph, examining into the
workings of the method proposed by Dr.
Ransom to destroy the plum curculio,.
stated that the traps were pieces of bark
three or four inches long, and about half
as wide. Before putting them down, the
ground was smoothed and the earth
pressed close to the trunks, so as to leave
no hiding place for the curculio to enter.
The pieces of bark were then laid close
around the trunks of the trees, three or
four pieces to a tree, and pressed down
in contact with the earth, so that only
very small openings should be left under
them. The pieces laid close to the
ground, with one edge touching the tree,
were generally selected by the insects,
whose object was to shelter themselves,,
while at rest, from observation and possi-
bly from the cold. On further inquiry,-
this method appears to have been only
partially effective, and the fruit-growers
near St. Joseph found that, though they
destroyed many insects by this trapping
method, more were destroyed by jarring
the trees. When the weather became
warm, the curculios were taken under the
trees in diminished numbers, while in
fact their numbers were rapidly augment-
ed in the trees. The conclusions arrived
at are briefly as follows: The trapping
system will help to thin out the curculio
before the season for stinging the fruit
commences ; that it will not do to dis-
pense with jarring the trees; and, fur-
thermore, that pieces of bark for a short
time, early in the season, when the days
are sometimes warm and the nights cold,
and before the peach blossoms have

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 373

■withered away, are useful for capturing
curculios, but that after the fruit is as
large as a hazel-nut this remedy is not
successful. It is recommended to place
the traps of bark under the trees as soon
as the frost is fairly out of the ground.

In small orchards it will be found most
profitable to drive a spike into the trunk
of each tree and to use two sheets
stretched on frames, which can both be
dragged or carried and placed in position
by one man, while a second person gent-
ly taps the iron spike with a mallet. To
bring the Curculio down, it requires a
light, sudden tap which jars, rather than
a blow which shakes, and if the frames
are each made so as to fold in the mid-
dle, it will facilitate disposing of those
which fall upon it.

In conclusion, the intelligent fruit-grow-
er can draw many a lesson from this ac-
count of the Curculio — already somewhat
lengthy. Thus in planting a new orchard
with timber surrounding, the less valua-
ble varieties should be planted on the
outside, and as the little rascals congre-
gate on them from the neighboring
woods in the early part of the season,
they should be fought persistently. It
will also pay to thin out all fruit that is
known to contain grubs, and that is with-
in easy reach ; while wherever it is prac-
ticable all rubbish and underbrush should
be burnt during the winter, whereby
many, yes very many, of them will be de-
stroyed in their winter quarters.

The old remedy of keeping hogs in a
plum, peach or apple orchard, to eat the
infested fruit as soon as it falls to the
ground, appears to be very successful
when practiced for two or three years,
^nd where there are no other orchards in
the vicinity.

THE CRANBERRY CUECULIO.— The
perfect insect of another small curculio,
Anthonomus guadrigibbus (Say), is accused
of eating round holes in apples, plums,
etc., both for food and as a place in
which to deposit her eggs. In the
American Entomologist, however, it is
stated that it never attacks stone
fruit, and goes into the ground to
change into the pupa state, but trans-
forms in the fruit itself. Another of this
genus Anthonomus suiuralis, (Lee.,) de-
scribed by Mr. W. C. Fish, in a report to
the Cape Cod Cranberry Grower's Asso-

ciation, is called the cranberry weevil.
The female deposits its eggs, about the
middle of May, in the buds of the cran-
berry. Selecting a bud not quite ready
to open, and clinging to it, she works her
snout deep into its center; an egg is then
deposited in the hole thus made; the
beetle climbs the stem, and cuts it off
near where it joins the bud, and the
shoot drops to the ground. The larva
feeds inside the bud, and the weevil, when
mature, eats its way out. The perfect in-
sect is also said to eat into the fruit. The
only remedy that could be suggested,
should the insect become troublesome, is
to flood the cranberry patch, if possible,
for a short time, provided it does not oc-
cur at a period when the future crop
might be injured by being under water.

AMERICAN MEROMYZA.— About the
middle of the month of June, 1875, in all
the wheat fields which we examined we
noticed that a great many of the ears had
prematurely ripened, had turned yellow
and were stunted and shorter than the
rest, and upon examination the kernels
proved to be withered and shrunken. In
most fields about one per cent, of the ears
were thus affected, but in two fields, from
three to four per cent were injured in this
manner. This appearance was variously
attributed to Hessian fly, Midge, etc.,
etc, no one seeming to know the true
cause. Upon examination
we found that the last or
ear-bearing joint could in-
variably be pulled out of its
sheath with but a slight ef-
I fort, and that it was perfect-
ly yellow and dry, while the
lower end bore an irregular
and gnawed appearance.
Upon splitting open the first
joint of the stalk, a space of
about a quarter of an inch
was found to be completely
corroded, so to speak, and
filled with excrementitious
matter, as shown in Fig. 17,
a. In this space would gen-
erally be found a pale watery-green mag-
got of the form of Fig. 17, b, attenuated
at one end and blunt at the other. We
took a number of infested stalks home,
and many of the maggots changed to
green pupae of the form and appearance
of Fig. 17, c. Before changing to pupa

Fig. 17.

374

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR

the maggot would sometimes crawl away
from the joint and get nearer the head,
between the stalk and the sheath. The
pupa state lasted from twelve to fourteen
days, and the first flies emerged during
the first week in July.

Remedies. — Much can be done in an
artificial way by cutting off and destroy-
ing all the infested stalks, which may
readily be recognized by the signs al-
ready described; but even if this plan
should faithfully be carried out, it is
doubtful whether it would pay in a coun-
try where labor is so scarce and de-
mands such high wages as in ours.
We therefore have to fall back on the
only practical means within our reach,
viz. : that of varying the culture by alter-
nate courses, and this style of cultivation
will have to be more generally adopted,
should this pigmy foe sufficiently increase
as to greatly diminish the yield of the
"staff of life." There is every reason to
believe, however, that nature has her
own means of keeping these flies within
due bounds, for they are known to be
preyed upon by parasitic Ichneumon
flies in Europe, and we noticed many
flies of this last description, of polished
hues and active movements, deftly darting
through, and resting upon the wheatplants
of the fields infested with the Meromyza.

CURRANT WORSE.— The imported
currant worm, or saw-fly, was very de-
structive during 1875. The insect is stated
to have been imported first in the neigh-
borhood of Rochester, and to have trav-
eled about twenty-five miles a year.
The perfect fly comes out of the ground
about April or May, and lays her eggs
along the principal veins on the under
side of the leaves. The lame have
twenty legs, black heads, and are of a
greenish color, spotted with black, but af-
ter the last molt they become entirely of
a green color, with large, dark, eye-like
spots on each side of the head. When
fully grown the larvae are about three-
fourths of an inch in length. They then
burrow into the earth, or hide under
dead leaves, and spin a thin oval cocoon
of brown silk, in which the pupa is
formed. The perfect insect appears about
June or July, and the second brood
does not come out until the following
spring. The native currant-worm, is said
not to be as injurious as its foreign rela-

tive, and differs from it by being, in the
larval state, always of a uniform green
color, without the black dottings always,
found on the imported species, except af-
ter the last molt. The cocoon is also-
spun among the twigs and leaves of the
bushes on which it feeds, and it does not
go under ground to form its cocoon.
The insects are only about three-fourths-
the size of the imported pest, and the
sexes are alike in coloration, while the
female of the imported species has the
body mostly of a bright honey-yellow,
the male being principally black; the
venation of the wings also varies. The
larvce of both feed upon the currant and
gooseberry, and some were said to have
been found feeding on the leaves of the
strawberry, planted around the currant
bushes. The best remedy is dusting the
bushes with pulverized white hellebore —
the root of the Veratrum album of Eu-
rope— which may be found at any drug-
gist's. The success of our native species,.
Veratrum viride, of Gray, the American
white hellebore, or Indian poke, has not
yet been reported on, but should be tried.
Syringing the plants with a strong de-
coction of hellebore is said to kill the in-
sect also, and although it is poisonous in
large quantities, the American Entomol-
ogist states that in minute doses there is.
no reason to be afraid of it. Dr. Fitch
states, as a proof of its innocuous proper-
ties, that it has long been in use as the.
basis of certain snuffs. It would be wellr
however, to wash the fruit before using it.

NEW YORK WEEVIL.— This large
gray beetle often does considerable
damage to fruit trees. It kills the twig
by gnawing off the tender bark, in the
early part of the season, before the buds
have put out, and later in the year it de-
stroys the tender shoots which start out
from old wood, by entirely devouring;
them. It eats out the buds, and will also
frequently gnaw off the leaves at the base
of the stem, after they have expanded.
It attacks, by preference, the tender
growth of the apple, though it will also
make free with that of peach, plum, pear
and cherry, and probably of other fruit as.
well as forest trees.

Remedy. — This insect is more active
at night than day, and is often jarred down
upon a sheet of curculio-cacher, for it falls
about as readily as the Plum Curculio.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 375

COTTOHT ARMY WORM.»The caterpil-
lar, or cotton army worm, appear in count-
less myriads, destroying millions of dollars'
worth of cotton, and in many instances
totally ruining the planters who relied
upon cotton alone as their main crop. It
is also to be feared, if effectual means are
not soon devised for their extermination,
that the planting of cotton must be aban-
doned, for a time at least, in the most
Southern States, where these insects par-
ticularly abound, and most probably orig-
inate. In the more northern cotton
States the cotton army worm is only an
occasional visitor, becoming rare as it ap-
proaches the north. In the extreme
south they appear every season in greater
or less numbers. As heavy frosts kill
caterpillar, chrysalis, and perfect moth, its
periodical appearance in certain districts
is most probably owing to climatic influ-
ences, the insect being exterminated for
the time whenever there has been cold
weather, and not appearing in that neigh-
borhood again until replaced by fresh mi-
grations of moths from more southern lo-
calities, where the frost had not reached.
An old cotton planter in South Carolina
states that the moth made its appearance
periodically every twenty-one years in his
district, having been very destructive in
the years 1804, 1825 and 1846. "More-
over, it had actually been foretold that in
the year 1867 the caterpillars might be
expected to destroy the crops."

As false alarms about the appearance
of the cotton worm in certain districts are
frequently inserted in the southern news-
papers by persons interested in the sale of
cotton when the worms seen in the field
are merely boll worms, grass worms, or
some other comparatively harmless cater-
pillar, we will mention some distinguish-
ing marks by which the cotton moth may
be recognized in either the egg, caterpil-
lar, chrysalis, or perfect state. In the first
place, the egg of the cotton worm is
round and very much flattened in form,
and of a green color, whereas the egg of
the boll worm moth is round, somewhat
bluntish, conical in shape, and of a yel-
low color. The egg of the cotton worm
is mostly deposited on the leaf or branch-
es, while the egg of the boll worm is usu-
ally placed in the so-called "ruffle" or en-
velope of the flower.

The catterpillarof the cotton worm has

six pectoral or front feet, two anal, and
eight ventral, the two foremost of the
ventral feet being very
small, apparently use-
less, and not employed
for grasping, like the
other six ; while in the
grass worm the legs are
perfectly formed and all
used when creeping
from leaf to leaf. Ow-
ing to this imperfection
in the formation in the
first pair of ventral teet,
the cotton caterpillar
always moves like the
span worm or looper,
Fig. 19. that is, by alternately

contracting and expanding its body, hold-
ing fast by means of its hind feet to the
object on which it rests, while the head
and fore feet are extended as far as possi-
ble, the stalk or leaf being securely grasp-
ed by the pectoral feet, the hinder part
and legs are suddenly brought up to them,
so that at every step the body assumes
the shape of an arch ; whereas the grass
worm glides along by moving its feet al-
ternately and gradually without raising
the middle of its body from the leaf. The
cotton worm has also a habit of doubling
itself up suddenly when disturbed, and
springing to a distance, but the grass,
worm merely rolls itself up somewhat
like a snake when coiled. The cotton
worm, when about to change, spins a very
loose web or cocoon among, or in the
leaves or branches of the cotton plant or
weeds infesting the field, at some distance
from the ground. The grass worm, on
the contrary, comes down from the plant
it has fed on and retires under stones,
loose earth, or buries itself in the ground
before forming its cocoon. The perfect
moth of the real cotton worm is much
more angular and graceful in form, with
the upper wings of a somewhat reddish
or claret colored brown, and there is al-
ways a darker spot having a light centre,
more or less defined in the middle of
these wings, while the under wings are of
a dark ash color. The grass worm moth
is much more clumsy in form, its upper
wings being clouded and barred with
dark and light grayish brown, while the
under wings are lighter colored.

Whether the cotton caterpillar feeds

.37^

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC—REMEDIES F0&

upon any other plants or not we are un-
able to say, never having found it eating
anything but cotton, and even when seen
on weeds in cotton fields the worm has
merely wandered away to find some suit-
able locality in which to spin its cocoon.
Several cotton worms, kept for the pur-
pose of experiment, constantly refused to
eat anything but cotton, although supplied
daily with iresh leaves of all the weeds or
plants in the neighborhood, and several
actually starved to death rather than
touch anything but cotton as a food.

As far as the habits of the cotton cater-
pillar are known, whenever they have
appeared in Georgia or South Carolina
they almost invariably came from the
southward, and committed great ravages
some twenty or thirty miles off, a fortnight
or three weeks before making their ap-
pearance in the localities named. The
second and third broods of moths still
traveling further north, spread destruction
and devastation wherever they deposited
their eggs, until providentially killed by
the frost. If this theory of their north-
ward migration is correct, it would be
well for the planters to give a small re-
ward to the discoverer of the first cotton
•caterpillars in their neighborhood, and
then combine to turn their hands en masse
on the infested plantation, to crush, burn,
and destroy the insect in all its forms, as
worm, chrysalis in cocoon, or fly, even if
they have to burn the field to get rid of
them, and to pay the proprietor for the
damage done ; for they may rest assured
that if allowed to become moths, and
multiply without any effort being made to
destroy them, the flies will undoubtedly
migrate to all the neighboring plantations,
and their own crop will eventually be de-
stroyed among the rest. Many remedies
have been proposed for their extermina-
tion. Fires built at twilight in and near
cotton fields would doubtless burn up a
great many moths, yet it is very question-
able if these fires will not also attract
moths from other plantations, which es-
caping the fire will found new colonies,
when they otherwise might have been
content to remain where they were as
long as there was any cotton foliage left
for their progeny to devour. Large
shallow plates or dishes filled with
molasses or syrup with vinegar, or some
.strong aromatic substance, have been

used in dry weather on a small scale with
success, epecially when the moth makes
its first appearance, as, being attracted by
the sweet scent, they crowd into the plate
and are drowned. Perhaps if a prepara-
tion of arsenic or some tasteless poison
were mixed with the syrup it would
answer better, as doubtless most ot the
moths visiting the plate, after satisfying
their appetite, escape being caught by
the viscid substance and fly off to the
neighboring plants. Hard wood boards
or shingles thickly coated on one side
with the poisoned preparation might be
used as a substitute for the plates, but in
this case the boards should either be
placed under temporary shelter, or in a
slanting position with the prepared side
underneath, so that heavy rains could not
wash off the poisoned mixture. Syrup
and rum painted or smeared on the
trunks of trees are extensively used by
continental entomologists to attract the
night-fly moths.

If poison, however, in any shape is
used for exterminating noxious insects,
the hands working on the plantation
should be warned of it, otherwise many
of the young negroes might mysteriously
disappear with the moths, and it should
on no account whatever be used where
there are bee-hives in the neighborhood.
This poisoning process has nevertheless
been found to answer very well in Mary-
land and Virginia, where tobacco is the
staple crop. The sweetened poison being
dropped into the flower of the Jamestown
weed {Stramonium), or the tobacco blos-
soms themselves after having been cut
from the plant, the moth is attracted by
the flower and perfume in the early twi-
light, inserts its large flexible trunk, and
after imbibing the poison dies before hav-
ing time to deposit its eggs. This plan
has been practiced with decided success
in Florida by the planters of tobacco.

The eggs of the cotton moth are fre-
quently destroyed by several species of
small ants, which are said to bite the egg
open when just deposited and to abstract
the substance. Many caterpillars, especi-
ally if weak or somewhat disabled, fall.
victims to the voracity of the restless
myriads of ants always abounding in the
fields, and feeding upon the honey dew
secreted by the cotton louse or aphis, and
the bodies of such other insects as they

CABBAGK wokm, ( B u 1 1 erfly, >
See pagM 377-60*.

0ABBA6E WORM LAKYA.

Sec pages 377-603.

GRAIN WBEYIL.

TLB* I.IOB,

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND PACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 377

■can overcome. The cotton caterpillar is
also destroyed by a small yellow and
black banded ichneumon fly, which de-
posits its eggs in the worm. This egg
hatching produces a footless grub, which
feeds in the oody of the caterpillar, at
first avoiding all the vital parts and de-
vouring merely the fatty matter, leaving
the larva with strength to spin its cocoon
and change into the chrysalis, with its
internal foe still in its body. The grub
then, after devouring the remainder of
interior, changes into a pupa, and finally
emerges from the dried chrysalis' skin as
•a full-formed four-winged fly, somewhat
resembling a very diminutive wasp.

PEAR SLUG. — The pear slug, a brown-
ish-green, slimy slug, feeding upon the
leaves of the pear tree, deposits its eggs
singly in June, in incisions made by the
piercer of the female under the skin of
the leaf. The larvae, hatching, eat the
substance of the leaf, leaving the veins
and under skin untouched. The pupa is
formed in oblong oval cavities under
ground. The insect appears in about
fifteen days after the slug has gone into
the ground, in June and August, and lays
its eggs for the second crop, which go in-
to the ground in September and October,
and remain until the following spring,
when the perfect flies come out to lay
their eggs on the foliage. Mr. Saun-
ders, of Canada, states that this insect
is readily destroyed by dusting the tree
with air-slacked lime. Coal oil will in-
jure the trees, and road-dust is of little
value when dusted over the trees. For
another insect of the same genus, Har-
ris recommends syringing with strong
soap-suds. The Rose Slug and other in-
jurious slug worms can be destroyed by
dusting the plants with the powdered hel-
lebore, or syringing with a strong decoc-
tion of the same root.

PLANT LICE.=~To destroy common
plant lice [Amp hides) and other insects in
the greenhouse and garden, the following
remedy has been recommended by M.
Cloetz, of the Jardin des Plantes, in
Paris : Three and one-half ounces quassia
chips, five drachms of stavesacre seeds,
powdered and placed in seven pints of
water, and boiled until reduced to five
pints.

Dr. Hull recommends dusting slacked
lime on the trees or bushes when the

foliage is wet ; syringing with soap-suds
or tobacco-water, or a strong decoction
of quassia with soap-suds; also, a weak
solution of chloride of lime is said by
Mr. Andrews to preserve plants from
insects if sprinkled over them. The fol-
lowing recipe is also highly recommended
in an English horticultural journal as
being almost infallible " for mildew, scale,
mealy bug, red spider, and thrips : " Two
ounces flour of sulphur worked into a
paste with water, two ounces washing
soda, one-half ounce common shag to-
bacco, and a piece of quicklime about
the size of a duck's egg. Pour them all
into a saucepan with one gallon of water,
boil and stir for a quarter of an hour, and
let the whole settle until it becomes cold
and clear. It should then be poured off,
leaving the sediment. In using it, add
water according to the strength or sub-
stance of the foliage. It will keep good
for a long time if kept closed.

CABBAG3 BUG.— The harlequin cab-
bage-bug, which appeared in 187 1, has
been much complained of the past year.
The perfect insect hybernates in sheltered
places, and the female deposits her eggs
in March and April, in two rows, cemented
together, mostly on the under-side of the
leaf, and generally ten to twelve in num-
ber. In about six days the first broods
make their appearance, the young larvae*
resembling the perfect insect, with the
exception of being wingless. About six-
teen to eighteen days elapse from the
deposition of the eggs to the development
of the perfect insect. A second brood
appears in July, which probably hyber-
nates (in North Carolina) in sheltered
places. It is said that fowls and birds
will not eat them, and the only remedy
recommended is handpicking, and as they
hybernate in the perfect state beneath
bark, under brush heaps or stones, like
the cotton red-bug, it would be well in
winter to search for them in such situa-
tions, and in spring to destroy them on
their first appearance upon the plants,
before they have had time to deposit
their eggs ; or if little heaps of rotting
vegetables were left as places of shelter,
here and there during the winter, so that
they might be induced to hybernate
under them, they might readily be de-
stroyed in spring by burning straw over
the heaps.

37»

INSECTS—DISEASES AND REMEDIES.

BOCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST.— These
insects appear in vast armies, devouring
every green thing, like the locusts men-
tioned in the Scriptures, and which may
be reckoned yet among the plagues of the
Eastern States.

The female locust, in the autumn, de-
posits her eggs in small holes or cells
made in the earth by means of her ovi-
positor. Most of these eggs remain
all winter uninjured by the frost, and
hatch the following spring, earlier or later,
according to the influences of climate.
Cold rains in the spring, however, are

fig. ooo.— Rocky Mountain Locust.
a, a, a, female in different positions, ovipositing; b, unripe red peppers.
«E£^xira^edfr™^ a remedy for the west

SHOW nf hOW th«» Peers arc opmbtoH • /• t fa-ur «»(Trrc Iwnd €

escape by a rapid and prolonged flight.
When young they feed near the place
where they were hatched, and upon what-
ever vegetation is growing in the vicinity.
When fully grown, with perfect wings,
they collect together, pair, and emigrate in
countless myriads to other places in search
of food and proper places in which to depos-
it their eggs for the next year's crop, after
doing which they soon die and disappear.
In the Practical Entomologist, Dr. Walsh
states that he does not think the hateful
grasshopper will ever cross the Mississippi
to pass onward to the Eastern States, and
recommends the authorities to offer
a bounty for every bushel of eggs.

The western grasshopper differs
from its eastern relative, the red-
legged locust, merely by having the
wings much more elongated, so as
to be adapted for long flights. In
habits they are much alike; the
red-legged locust feeds on grass,
leaves and vegetables, and is also
migratory. The red-legged locust,
2; in certain seasons, collects in great
g* numbers, and some years ago, in
p~ certain parts of New York, did con-
F" siderable damage, especially to gar-
den vegetables, not sparing even
A planter in

showing how the eggs are arranged ; c. a few eggs lying

loose on the gronnd; d, e, shows the earth partially re- ern locust or grasshopper, recom-
moved, to illustrate an egg-mass already in place, and one mends that : "As soon as the grass-
being placed ; /, shows where such a mass has been cov- hopper has laid its eggs the plan-
ters plow their fields and turn the

ered up.

said to destroy the young insects. The
grasshoppers when first hatched exactly
resemble the old insects in form, with the
exception that they have no wings or
wing cases. Rudimentary wings and
wing cases are developed when they cast
their skins, but they are as yet perfectly
incapable of flight, and can merely walk
or jump from plant to plant; and it is
only when they have shed their skins for
the last time that they acquire fully de-
veloped wings and are capable of any
flight whatsoever. This insect, from the
egg to the perfect state, is injurious, de-
vouring almost any vegetable substance,
(sorghum and osage orange alone being
excepted by some of our correspondents,)
and is most easily destroyed by wholesale
when young and unable to fly, as the per-
fect insect when disturbed can readily

soil over so that the eggs will be buried
under a layer of earth, which will crush
them and thus destroy the spring crop of
grasshoppers. This experiment has
been made in small spots of ground
where myriads of eggs were deposited,
and not a grasshopper came from under
the layer of soil that covered the eggs."

Besides the remedies already mention-
ed for destroying the eggs of the western
locust or grasshopper, crushing and killing
the young insects by means ot a large
roller, has been spoken of; the young
grasshopper, however, being exceedingly
agile, many doubtless would make their
escape. It has been proposed not to
burn the prairies in the autumn, as is
usually the practice, but to defer it until
spring, when the young grasshoppers are
yet wingless and the grass dry, then to-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 379

set fire to it in circles as much as possible,
so that the insects cannot escape from the
ring of fire, but be driven by the heat
and smoke into the centre, where they
will eventually perish in the flames. In
the Eastern States, where the red-legged
grasshopper abounds, the nets already
mentioned could be used with advantage,
and if the insects have been killed by im-
mersion in boiling water, they could be
given as food to poultry, etc., kept in en-
closures where they cannot find any in-
sects. The only trouble yet found with
this net is that it sometimes collects a
great deal of rubbish, such as leaves,
sticks, etc., and the centre opening is lia-
ble to become clogged with such sub-
stances if not examined and cleaned out
every few minutes.

THE QUINCE CURCULIO.— This in-
sect has been called the Quince Curculio
by Dr. Trimble, and though it breeds in
other fruits, the name is a good one, as it
will enable us to distinguish it at once
from our other fruit snout-beetles.

Though belonging to the same genus
as our Plum Curculio, and having very
much the same form, as may be seen by
referring to the figure, (Figure 19 a side
view; b back view), yet it differs remark-
ably in its habits
from both of the
preceding wee-
vils. It is, like
them, an indigen-
ous species, and
its original fruit
was evidently the
wild Haw, which
in the West it yet

Fig. 19.

seems to prefer to the cultivated fruits,
But in the East it has become very inju-
rious to the Quince, and, as we might
naturally expect, also attacks the Pear,
and especially the Lawrence and other
late varieties.

Remedies. — Very fortunately this in-
sect drops as readily when alarmed as
does the Plum Curculio, and the jarring
process will be found just as effectual in
catching it, with the additional advantage
that the jarring need only be carried on
for about ten weeks of the year, namely,
from about the first of June to the middle
of August in this latitude. Moreover, in
accordance with its late appearance, we

find that, according to Dr. Trimble,
whenever it attacks pears, it prefers the
late ripening varieties. Again, it is, like
the Plum Curculio, nocturnal in its hab-
its, and secretive during the day, so that
the Ransom process will undoubtedly
prove effectual with it, if used at the right
season. All fruit that falls should be de-
stroyed, and as we know that the larva
hibernates in the ground, many of them
will be injured and destroyed by late stir-
ring of the soil.

GRASS, OR ARMY-WORM. — The
grass or army-worm;, ihough it appears
every season, is not always troublesome.
The eggs are probabiy deposited at the
base of perennial grass-stalks, and the
larvae at times appear in immense multi-
tudes in the Northern, Middle and West-
ern States, where they destroy grass, grain
and other crops. Leaving one field, after
having eaten it out, they march or crawl
to those in the neighborhood in search of
food; hence the vulgar name of army
worm. The insect by day hides in
tufts of grass. When the larvae are
migratory, or on the march for food, their
march is stated to be at the rate of two
to six rods per hour. These pests are
said to multiply much faster in dry sea-
sons when the swamps are dry, and when
they are thus multiplied a wet season and
overflowing swamps drive the insects
from their lurking places in flocks, and
they alight here and there over the coun-
try. There is generally but one brood in
the Northern States in one season, but in
the South there are probably two, the
last of which hybernates as pupae. Sev-
eral remedies have been proposed for
their prevention and destruction, among
which may be mentioned burning over
the meadows in winter or very early in
spring, or plowing late in the fall or early
in spring, which will probably destroy all
their eggs. Judicious ditching will pre-
vent their migration from infested fields
to those as yet unjured, and these ditch-
es should be dug, if possible, with almost
perpendicular sides, or sloping inward
from the top on the side to be protected,
so that the caterpillars cannot readily
crawl out. When the ditches are filled,
with the struggling caterpillars, if dry
straw is scattered over them and fire ap-
plied it will kill them and clear the ditch,
for another lot.

.38°

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

WESTERN POTATO BUG, Colorado
bug, or ten-lined spearman, has been
very injurious to the potato crops during
the last few years in the Western States.
It appears to be rapidly spreading to-
wards the East, the rate of progress east-
ward assumed to be about fifty miles a

year. The habits of the western potato
beetle are as follows : The eggs are de-
posited by the female, to the number of
about seven hundred, at intervals during
forty days, on the leaves of the potato,
in somewhat regularly arranged loose
clusters. After the lapse of about six

Fig. 2i. — Colorado Potato-Beetle.

■•
Colorado Potato-Beetle: a, a eggs; b, b, b, larvae of different sizes; c, pu-
pa; d, d, beetle ; e, left wing-coyer magnified to show lines and punctures ;
f, leg, enlarged, Colors of egg, orangl ; of larvae, Venitian-red ; of
beetle, black and yellow.

'days they hatch into larva;, which feed
upon the foliage of the plant about sev-
enteen days; they then descend to the
ground, where they change into pupae at
the surface of the earth. The perfect
beetle appears about ten to fourteen days
after the pupa; is formed, begins to pair
in about seven days, and on the four-
teenth day commences to deposit her
•eggs, thus requiring about fifty days from
egg to egg again. This period may,
however, vary somewhat according to
the state of the weather, and the abun-
dance or paucity of food when in the
larva state. There is another insect al-
most exactly similar in color, size, and
form to this potato beetle, found in the
Middle and Southern States, which is men-
tioned in Melsheimer's catalogue as a
synonym under he name of Doryphora.
This insect merely differs from the decim
iineata by having the second and third
stripes always united behind, and the
edges of all the stripes with a single row
of punctures ; the legs also have a black
spot in the middle of all the thighs.
This insect (the D. juncta) we found in

South Carolina upon the horse nettle, and
several specimens in Alabama, where
they fed upon potatoes and egg plants,
being reported as especially injurious to
the latter.

Fig. 22.— Bogus Colorado Potato-Beetle.

a> eggs, b, b, larva, c, Beetle, d, left wing-
cover enlarged, retaining marks and punctures ;
e, leg enlarged; colors of egg, pale yellow; of
larva, cream yellow ; of beetle, black, yellow
and brown.

A remedy we propose is " a weak lime
sprinkled over the plants between sun-
down and dark, three applications to be
made at different times," and adds in a
postscript, " this remedy was tried in the
year 1867, and proved effectual." *If
brine is used, however, great care should

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 381

be taken not to have too strong or too
much of it, else the remedy would be as
bad as the disease, and both potato bee-
tles and plants would be killed at the
same time. Straw placed loosely over
the plants will protect them somewhat
from the insect, but would cost too much
when spread over a large field. If the
larvae and perfect beetles are beaten off
the plants into pans, as is frequently
done, it would be advantageous to have
the vessels, which are to receive them
when they fall from the plants, made of
smooth tin, shaped somewhat like a spit-
toon but much deeper, with the slope in-
wards to the central hole in the top, or a
much greater inclination so that the in-
sects would readily slide down and fall
into the main case, where, once in, they
could not possibly escape. This top
might also be made much larger, and
shallow, funnel-shaped, if desired, to cov-
er more space, and be attached to a bag.
The same vessels might be used for the
rose beetle and other insects which fall to
the ground when disturbed. When open
mouth bags or sweeping nets are used to
sweep them off the foliage, this plan
might be modified by using a net or bag
and somewhat like the fish-baskets in rivers
and creeks — that is, with a double net or
bag attached to a hoop, the outer one being
very long, conical, and with an opening
at the lower end, which can be closed by
means of a string, and through which
the insects captured can be shaken into
hot water ; the inner net to be also coni-
cal but shallower, with a smooth round
hole in the centre, through which the
beetles are swept when the net is forced
over or under the plants. This orifice
might be made of tin and closed with a
cork when the net is nearly full, or when
not in use. Such a net could be made
of any size or shape, and would un-
doubtedly be of much utility, as the in-
sects, once swept into the inner part,
could not possibly escape, as is frequently
the case when open-mouthed sweeping
nets are used. The ring of the net by
which the mouth is kept open can readily
be made of common telegraph wire ; any
straight and strong stick will answer for
a handle, and the bags may be made of
canvas or strong muslin. The edges ot
the hoop to which the net is fastened
ought to be protected by a covering ot

leather or some such material, as the
muslin is subject to be worn away by
friction when beating the plants. Pow-
dered hellebore is reported to have been
used with effect as a means of destroying
both the Colorado potato bug and the
gooseberry or currant worms, if dusted
over and under the foliage when the
plants are wet with dew. Hellebore,
however, is a somewhat dangerous reme-
dy, on account of its poisonous qualities.

The true remedy consists in preventing
them from becoming numerous so late in
the season. Watch for the beetles in
early spring, when the vines are just peep-
ing out of the ground. Ensnare as many
of them as you can before they get a
chance to pair, by making a few small
heaps of potatoes in the field planted; to
these the beetles will be attracted for food,
and you can easily kill them in the morn-
ing. Keep an eagle eye for the eggs which
are first deposited. Cultivate well by fre-
quently stirring the soil. Plant early varie-
ties in preference to iate ones, because the
bugs are always more numerous late in
the season than they are during the spring
and early summer. Give the preference
to the peach-blow, early rose and such
other varieties as have been found most
exempt from attack, and surround your
fields on the outside by rows of such ten-
der-leaved varieties as the Mercer,
Shaker, Russet, Pinkeye and early Good-
rich ; but, above all, isolate your potato
field as much as possible, either by using
land surrounded with timber, or by plant-
ing in the centre of a cornfield. Carry
out these suggestions thoroughly and you
will not have much use for Paris green,
and still less for the scorching remedy.

THE APPLE CUCTJLIO.— The Apple,
or Four-Humped Curculio, (Fig. 23,
a natural size; b, side view; c, back
view,) is a smaller insect with a snout
which sticks out more or less hori-
zontally and cannot be folded under, and
which in the male is about half as long,
and in the female is fully as long as the
whole body. This insect has narrow-
shoulders and broadens behind, where it
is furnished with four very conspicuous
humps, from which it takes its name. It
has neither the polished black elevations
nor the pale band of the Plum Curculio.
In short, it differs generically, and never
attacks stone fruit.

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

The size varies from i-2oth to nearly
i-i ?th of an inch, but the colors are quite
uniform, the body being ferruginous or
rusty-brown, often with the thorax and
anterior third of the wing-covers ash-gray
— the thorax having three more or less
distinct pale lines.

Remedies and Preventive Meas-
ures.— Notwithstanding we have had re-
ports, published in the columns of our ag-
ricultural papers, of the relative number
of Apple and Plum Curculios captured
from peach trees by jarring with the Cur-
culio-catcher, we are fully convinced that

Fig. 23.
such reports were not based on facts, and
that we may never expect to subdue this
insect by the jarring process. It is not as
timid or as much inclined to drop as the
Plum Curculio, and though it can occa-
sionally be brought down, it generally re-
mains defiantly on the fruit or on the
bough, through the gentlest as well as the
severest jarring of the tree. Indeed, its
habit of transforming in the fruit places it
in a great measure beyond our control,
and we fear that this is one of the few in-
sects with which we can do but little by
artificial means. But we have only just
commenced to understand this foe, and
there is much yet to learn about it. We
sincerely hope that the few facts which
have been here given will increase the
reader's interest in this insect and enable
him to carry on future observations and
experiments with a better understanding ;
so that they will at last result in making
us masters of this rather difficult situa-
tion. Mr. H. Lewelling, of High Hill,
Montgomery county, Missouri, who has
had much of his fruit injured by this in-
sect, informs me that Tallman's Sweet is
preferred by it to all other varieties, and
our observations should, as much as pos-
sible, tend in the direction of deciding
which varieties are most subject to, and

which most exempt from its attacks ; and
which varieties fall most readily when in-
fested by it.

THE PEA-WEEVIL.— The pea-weevil,
or pea-bug, does not deposit its eggs in
the flowers of the pea within the pod, as
is sometimes taught, but on the surface of
the young pods, without special reference
to particular parts. They are attracted
to the outside of the pod by a " viscid'
fluid which dries white, and glistens like
silk. As soon as the eggs are hatched,
the larvae bore directly through the pod,
one entering each pea and making a
puncture smaller than a pin-hole. As the
pea and pod enlarge, the puncture closes
up, and the larva excavates a small cavi-
ty in one side of the pea, leaving its out-
er coating whole. In this cavity it
assumes the pupa state, and comes out a
perfect beetle the next year, usually about
the time the young peas are in bloom.
If the weevils are in the peas when sown,
they remain in the ground till the proper
time to come out and deposit their eggs.

Remedy. — Inclose the peas, after they
are perfectly dry, in a tight cask, and
keep them over to the second year before
sowing, which will kill the weevils; to
put them into water just before sowing,
when the sound ones will mostly sink,
and those containing the weevil will rise
to the surface. Also immerse them in
hot water for one or two minutes, by
which most all the weevils will be killed
and the sprouting of the peas not in-
jured.

All peas intended for seed should be
examined, and it can very soon be de-
termined whether or not they are infested.
The thin covering over the hole of the
peas that contain weevils and which
may be called the eye-spot, is generally
somewhat discolored, and by this eye-
spot those peas which ought not to
be planted can soon be distinguished.
Where this covering is off there is little
danger, for in that case the weevil has
either left, or, if still within the pea, is
usually dead. It would, of course, be
tedious to carefully examine a large lot of
peas, one by one, in order to separate
those that are buggy, and the most expe-
ditious way of separating the sound from
the unsound, is to throw them into wa-
ter, when the sound ones will mostly sink
and the unsound swim.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 383

Choice lots of seed, if found to be in-
fested when received from the seedsman,
may be thrown into hot water for a min-
ute or two, and the sprouting of the
peas will be quickened, and most of the
weevils, but not all, be killed. But what-
ever plan be adopted to obtain sound
seed, it should be every man's aim, in
duty to himself and to his neighbors, to
plant none but bugless peas.

GRAPE LEAF-FOLDER.— The subject
of this sketch has long been known to
depredate on the leaves of the grape-vine
in many widely separated parts of North

America. It is not uncommon in Canada
West, and is found in the extreme south-
ern parts of Georgia. It appears to be
far more injurious, however, in the inter-
mediate country, or between latitude
thirty-five and forty degrees, than in any
other sections, and in Southern Illinois
and Central Missouri proves more or less
injurious every year.

The moth of the Grape Leaf-folder is
a very pretty little thing, expanding on
an average almost an inch, with a length
of body of about one-third of an inch.
It is conspicuously marked, and the sexes

Fig. 25.

•differ sufficiently to have given rise to two
names, the female having been named
Botys bicolor. The color is black with an
•opalescent reflection, and the under sur-
face differs only from the upper in being
less bright; all the wings are bordered
with white. The front wings of both
sexes are each furnished with two white
spots; but while in the male (Fig. 25, 4),
there is but one large spot on the hind
-wings, in the female (Fig. 25,5) this spot
is invariably more or less constricted in
the middle, especially above, and is often
•entirely divided into two distinct spots.
The body of the male has but one dis-
tinct transverse band, and a longitudinal
white dash at its extremity superiorly,
while that of the female has two white
bands. The antennae, as already stated,
are still more characteristic, those of the
male being elbowed and thickened near
the middle, while those of the female are
•simple and thread-like.

There are two broods — and probably
three — during the year; the first moths
appearing in June, the second in August,
and the worms produced from these last
hibernating in the chrysalis state. The
eggs are scattered in small patches over
the vines, and the worms are found of all
sizes at the same time. These last change

to chrysalids in twenty-four to thirty days
from hatching, and give one-fourth the
moths in about a week afterwards.

The worm (Fig. 25, 1) folds rather
than rolls the leaf, by fastening two por-
tions together by its silken threads ; and
for this reason, in contradistinction to
the many leaf-rollers, may be popularly
known as the " Grape Leaf-folder." It
is of a glass-green color, and very active,
wriggling, jumping and jerking either
way at every touch. The head and tho-
racic segments are marked as at Figure
25, 2. If let alone, these worms will
soon defoliate a vine, and the best meth-
od of destroying them is by crushing sud-
denly within the fold of the leaf, with
both hands. To prevent their appear-
ance, however, requires far less trouble.
The chrysalis is formed within the fold
of the leaf, and by going over the vine-
yard in October, or any time before the
leaves fall, and carefully plucking and
destroying all those that are folded and
crumpled, the supply for the following
year will be cut off. This should be done
collectively to be positively effectual, for
the utmost vigilance will avail but little if
one is surrounded with slovenly neigh-
bors.

COMMON YELLOW BEAR.— This is

3*4

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC— REMEDIES FOR.

one of the most common North American
insects. The moth (Figure 26), which is
very generally dubbed "The Miller,"
frequently flies into our rooms at night;
and there are quite a number of our
farmers who, somehow or other, have got
the idea that this " Miller " is the insect

Fig. 26 — Common Yellow Bear.
that infests their beehives— that it is. in
short, the Bee-moth.

Though the moth is so common, how
few persons ever think of it as the parent
of that most troublesome of caterpillars,
which Harris has so aptly termed the
Yellow Bear (Figure 26.) These cater-
pillars are quite frequently found on the
Grape-vine.

The Yellow Bear is found of all sizes
from June to October; and though quite
fond of the vine, is by no means confined
to that plant. It is, in fact, a very general
feeder, being found on a great variety of
herbaceous plants, both wild and culti-
vated, as butternut, lilac, beans, peas,
convolvulus, corn, currant, gooseberry,
cotton, sunflower, plantain, smart-weed,
verbenas, geraniums, and almost any
plant with soft, tender leaves. These
caterpillars are indeed so indifferent as to
their diet, that we have actually known
one to subsist entirely, from the time it
cast its last skin till it spun u on dead
bodies of the Camel Cricket.

The best time to destroy these worms
is soon after they hatch from their little
round yellow eggs, which are deposited
in clusters; for, as already intimated,
they then feed together.

SQUASH BUG.— The common squash
bug has been extremely injurious to the
squash family in many parts of the
Middle States, injuring the plants in
larva, pupa, and perfect states, by con-

gregating in great numbers around the
stem near the ground, or on the leaves,
and sucking out the sap by means of their
strong beaks. The eggs of this insect
are deposited in little patches fastened to
the under side of the leaves in June and
July. It is stated, however, that all the
eggs are not deposited at the same time.
The young insects live in families, punc-
turing the leaves and stem, and draining
the sap from the plant. The perfect
insects hybernate in crevices of walls
andfences,and have been found in Ma-
ryland in midwinter under the bark of
rotting trees, from whence they come out
in summer to deposit their eggs for the
first generation. One of the remedies
recommended is to remove all the earth
from the roots as far as they will bear,
and fill up with a mixture of dry ashes
and salt, which will prevent the insects
from burrowing near the root. Another
remedy is to trim off the under leaves
early in the season, laying them in the
evening under and close to the plant;
the insects hiding under them can be
found and destroyed in the morning. It
has been suggested to lay pieces of boards
along the rows, a little raised from the
ground by small stones. During the
night the insects will congregate under
the trap; the boards and leaves, however,
should be examined very early in the
morning, for as soon as warmed by the
sun the insects will disperse over the
vines.

CUCUMBER MOTH.— The larva of
cucumber moth was taken several
years ago in Florida boring holes in
the fruit of the squash and feeding on
the flesh inside. Last year the larva of
this insect was reported as very injurious
to melons and cucumbers in Missouri, by
eating holes in the fruit, from July to the
end of September, as many as four being
sometimes found in one cucumber. The
pupae are formed in slight cocoons of
white silk on leaves near the ground, and
the perfect moth appears in eight to ten
days, and probably hybernates as a perfect
insect. This larva is said also by Guenc
to feed on potatoes. To destroy this pest
it has been recommended to examine the
cucumbers and melons early in the season,
and to destroy the first worms that appear
and also all infested fruit. The upper
wings of the moth are of a yellowish-

t* be

9 =»

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 385

brown color, with a semi-transparent, ir-
regular, yellow spot, while the hind wings
are ot the same semi-transparent yellow
color, with a broad dark border.

PYRAMIDAL GRAPE-VINE WORM.
Another worm, never hitherto mentioned

Fig. 27 — Pyramidal Grape- Vine Worm.

as injurious to the Grape-vine, is often
found resting upon it in the posture
shown in Figure 27, and may be at once
distinguished from all others that are
known to attack it, by having a pyramidal
hump near the end of its body. This
worm we have also found upon the Red
Bud, Raspberry and the Poplar, but it is
only as a vine-feeder that it can be con-
sidered injurious. It is of the form
shown in the figure and of a delicate
green color, marked with pale yellow or
cream-colored lines and spots, as there
indicated. It is found on the vines dur-
ing the month of May with us, and during
the forepart ot June descends to the sur-
face of the ground, where it spins a loose
cocoon of whitish silk, generally con-
structed between some fallen leaves.
Within this cocoon it remains some time
in the larva state, but eventually becomes
a shiny mahogany-brown chrysalis from
which emerges a moth with the front
wings bark brown and glossy and marked
with dark brown and pale grayish-brown
as in the cut ; and with the hind wings
of a lustrous copper color, from which
character it may be called in popular
language the American Copper Under-
wing.

Remedies. — The worm is easily kept
in check by hand-picking, and though its
moth is attracted by sweets, it has never
been numerous enough in the past to
warrant this mode of capturing it. We
have no good description of this insect
in the English language.

ONION FLY.— The larvae of a small
fly, or the Onion Fly, somewhat resem-
bling a miniature house fly, are very de-
structive to the onion crop in the Eastern
States. The eggs of this fly are laid on
the leaves close to the earth, and the lar-
vae destroy the root, and cause the plant

25

to turn yellow, wither and die. The larva
state lasts about two weeks, the pupa is
formed in the bulb itself, or in, the earth
near it, and the fly appears in two or three
weeks afterward, and it is stated that
there are sometimes as many as three
generations in one season. The insect
was imported about forty years ago. A
dressing of sand and spirits of tar is said
to be effective in preventing the ravages
of Psila Hosae, a. small fly of somewhat
similar habits, which attacks carrots, etc.r
in Europe, and might be used, perhaps,,
with advantage with our onion flies, or pe-
troleum, coal tar, or oil might probably
be used with sand in a similar manner.
In order to create a bad smell to drive
away this insect and similar flies injuring
onions, carrots, turnips, radishes, etc., it
has been recommended to water near the
plants with a mixture of one gallon of
soap suds to four quarts of gas water, or
two quarts of tar. This is said to keep the
flies away from the plants, so that they
do not deposit their eggs on them ; but it
is doubtful, unless it is constantly re-
newed, especially after rains, and even
then might injure the young plants if it
came in contact with them. Dr. Harris,
suggests sowing the seed on ground
where a quantity of straw has been
burned. Tar and water, wood-ashes,,
lime, powdered charcoal, flour of sulphur, .
lime-water and soot, etc,, etc., have all
been highly spoken of as remedies. Mr.
Sanborn recommends petroleum sprinkled
along the rows, and watering with soap-
suds, soot, or pyroligneous acid. Curtis
recommends lime and salt to destroy the
maggots ; boiling hot water poured over
the root is highly recommended by many,
and is said to destroy the maggots with-
out injuring the plants. The eggs of
this fly are said to be destroyed by the
larva of a Chrysopa (a neuroperous;
insect).

For another species of Onion fly„
Ortalis flexa, found in the Western States,
it is said that a pound of copperas dis-
solved in a pailful of soft soap, when
thinned with water, and applied to the
onions, is good to keep off the maggots,
and also to promote the growth of the
plant. A preventive is suggested in Mr..
Packard's last report, which is to sow the
seeds deeper than usual, so that the fly
cannot so readily get at it to lay its eggs;..

336

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

it is, however, especially recommended
that all yellow or diseased onions (or
other bulbs and roots) should be at once
removed from the beds, with as much of
the roots and fibres as possible, and burnt
or otherwise destroyed immediately.
GRAPE-ROOT BORER. —The most

Fig.

Male Grape Root Borer.

known as THE Grape-root Borer. It
bears a very close resemblance to the
•common Peach Borer, both in habit, and
in the size and general appearance of
the larva, but it is a somewhat larger
•insect and the moths differ materially.

Unlike the Peach Borer which makes
its abode quite near the surface, this borer
lives exclusively under ground, and unlike
the Gigantic root-borers which hollow out
. and bore up along the heart of the roots,
it confines itself almost entirely to bark
^and sap-wood, and the effects of its work
. are consequently more fatal to the vine.
Roots attacked by it look "as if a drunk-
en carpenter had been diligently scoop-
ing away the sap-wood with a quarter-
inch gouge.".

Remedies. — It has been ascertained by

• observation and experiment that the Scup-
pernong grape-vine — which, according to
^Gray, is a cultivated variety of the South-

• ern Fox Grape (vitis vulpind) — is never
; attacked by this borer, and consequently
that other varieties grafted on to the
'•Scuppernong share its immunity from at-
tack. This is a very easy mode of pre-
venting its ravages in the more Southern
States where the Scuppernong flourishes ;
and if this borer should ever become very
numerous with us, it may be deemed ad-
visable to introduce that stock here. At
present we have no other pi eventive than
mounding, and the insect is so compara-
tively scarce that we have not yet had an
•opportunity ot testing whether such
•mounding would work as well as it does
with the Peach Borer. When it is once

common root-borers of the Grape-vine in
the West are those which we have termed
Gigantic Root-borers, namely, the larva?
of two large beetles (Prionus laticollis and
P. imbricornis). The insect now under
consideration is a moth and not a beetle,
and has for a number of years been

Fig. 29. — Female Grape Root Borer.

ascertained that the borers are at work on
a vine, they may be destroyed by clear-
ing away the earth and applying hot
water to the roots.

COTTON LOUSE.— The cotton louse
and the rust are also prone to attack the
plant in its infancy. Brisk cultivation and
a top dressing of ashes and plaster of
Paris are the best remedies for both. Rust
is generally the worst in soils of moderate
depth, which have been planted in cotton
for a number of successive years. Rota-
tion of crops, and a liberal application of
manures, especially those that are rich in
potash and phosphoric acid, will, in nine
cases out of ten, relieve the cotton field
of this malady. It is not until the plant
has nearly reached its growth, and in
many cases begun to whiten for the har-
vest, that cotton is liable to the onset of
its three most destructive enemies. These
are the boll-worm, the cotton-worm or
caterpillar, and the army-worm.

BEAN WEEVIL. — A weevil which
appeared about ten years ago in Rhode
Island, and is now found in some parts
of New York, Illinois, and Missouri. It
infests beans in the same manner as the
pea-weevil infests peas, except that sev-
eral larvse usually enter the same bean.
It is about half as large as the pea-weevil,
and of a tawny gray color. It is re-
garded as indigenous to this country,
and as likely, if not checked, to extend
itself through the country, and prove as
destructive to beans as the pea-weevil has
to peas. The same preventives may be
used as for destroying the pea- weevil.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 387

THE GRAPE-VINE FLEA-BEETLE.—

The Grape- Vine Flea-Beetle (Fig. 31, d,)
■often goes by the cognomen of "Steel-Blue
Beetle," and is even dubbed "Thrips" by
some vineyardists. The latter term, how-
ever, is entirely inapplicable. The former
.name is not sufficiently characteristic, be-

Fig. 31.
•C&use the color varies from steel-blue to
metallic green and purple, and because
there are many other flea-beetles to which
it would equally apply.

The Grape- Vine Flea-Beetle is found in
all parts of the United States and in the
Canadas, and it habitually feeds on the
Alder as well as upon the wild and cul-
tivated grape-vine.

They are generally found on the up-
per surface of the leaf, which they so
riddle and devour as to give it the ap-
pearance represented in Figure 31, a.

Remedy. — The larva can be more
easily destroyed by an application of
dry lime, used with a common sand-
blower or bellows. This has been found
to be more effectual than either lye or
soap-suds, and is withal the safest, as lye,
if used to strong, will injure the leaves.

TOBACCO WORM. — The tobacco
hawk-moth, or "horn-blower" of Mary-
land, is a large moth, the caterpillar of
which, commonly known as the tobacco
worm in the Middle States, is very des-
tructive to the leaf of the tobacco plant,
when the worm is young, by eating holes
in the leaves, thus spoiling them for use
as wrappers for cigars, and when old by

devouring the whole of the leaf itself.
These worms appear of all sizes, during
late summer and autumn, in the tobacco
fields in Maryland, the first brood of eggs
hatching in May or June. The egg is de-
posited singly on the leaf of the tobacco
or tomato plant, and the young worm,
when first hatched out by the heat of the
sun, commences to eat holes in the leaf of
the plant, and sheds its skin several times
before attainfhg its full size ; it then goes
into the earth, and the pupae is formed in
a subterranean cell, the late broods re-
maining as pupae all winter, and coming
out as the perfect fly the following spring.
The insect appears from June and July
until late fall. It hovers in the twilight
like a humming bird over flowers, es-
pecially honeysuckle and Jamestown
weed, sucking the nectar by means of its
long, flexible tongue, which, when the in-
sect is at rest, is coiled up like a watch-
spring under the head. The tongue when
unrolled measures four to six inches in
length; and the caterpillar feeds also on
the potato, red-pepper and tomato, as
well as the tobacco. This insect is al-
most exactly like the northern so-called
potato- worm in all the states of larva, pupae
and insect, and can scarcely be distinguish-
ed from it by young entomologists ; but in
the "tobacco-worm" the anal horn on the
tail of the caterpillar is reddish instead of
bluish ; it also has no longitudinal white
stripe, the pectoral feet are ringed with
black, the body is more hirsute, and the
insect itself is more indistinctly marked,
and always has a white mark at the base of
its wings and partly on the thorax, which
the moth of the potato-worm has not.

The potato-worm is also found feeding
on the tobacco in Maryland, and frequently
a black or nearly black variety of the
worm is taken, especially towards the end
of the season. The potato or tomato
worm has also been accused of being poi-
sonous, but this is entirely erroneous, as the
horn on the tail of the caterpillar is inca-
pable of inflicting any serious wound, and
has no poisonous properties whatever.
The potato-worm is the northern species,
and in Maryland the two species meet, and
and are found indiscriminately together in
the tobacco fields, yet never mixing, but
remainining perfectly distinct, although so
nearly allied in appearance, habits and
food.

3&&

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

Remedies. — There are several para-
sites, and one in particular, that is very
useful in destroying the potato and tobac-
co worm. It is a minute, four-winged
fly, {Microgaster congregata,) which depos-
its its eggs in the caterpillar, and eventu-
ally kills it. The eggs of this parasite, to
the number of one hundred or more, are
deposited in the back and sides of the
caterpillar, in small punctures made by
the ovipositor of the fly. The larvae,
when hatched, feed upon the fatty sub-
stance, and when fully grown eat a hole
in the skin, and each maggot spins for it-
self a small white oval cocoon, one end
of which is fastened to the skin of the
worm, and the caterpillar appears as if
covered with small oval white eggs.
Eighty-four flies were obtained from one
caterpillar by Say, and Fitch counted one
hundred and twenty-four cocoons on an-
other worm, so that these insects must
destroy a great number of worms. The
parasite, however, is said to be destroyed
by another hymenopterous insect, (Plero-
malus tobacum,) which deposits its eggs
in the cocoons of the microgaster. An-
other species, forming an immense mass
of loose woolly cocoons, is also said to kill
the caterpillar of the potato-sphinx, and
most probably attacks also that of the to-
bacco-worm in a similar manner. It is,
theretore, of great consequence when de-
stroying the caterpillars by hand-picking,
to avoid crushing or injuring any cater-
pillars which appear to have either white
floss or egg-like cases on their backs or
sides, as these are the cocoons of a very
useful insect, which, if left undisturbed,
would produce multitude of flies, which
would destroy an immense number of
these injurious worms.

The hornets, and an orange-colored
wasp, devour the caterpillar when young
and small. The best remedy against
these insects, however, is to poison the
fly which produces either the potato or
tomato worm, by dropping a mixture of
"blue stone" of the druggists, or crude
black arsenic, into the flower of the
Jamestown weed, or stramonium, in the
evening, when the fly will come and in-
sert its long proboscis into the flower, sip
up the poisonous mixture, and die before
depositing its eggs.

A tobacco planter in Tennessee finds
it advantageous to cultivate a few plants

of the Jamestown weed among his tobac-
co, and then to poison the blossoms, as
they appear, with the above mentioned
liquid, every evening, and has thereby
saved a great part of his crop ininjurecL
In Maryland some tobacco-growers util-
ize young turkeys by driving them into
the tobacco-field, where they pick the
worms from the leaves. Some planters
also pay a small premium to children for
the dead millers or flies, which are readily
killed with a piece of shingle or board as.
they hover over the flowers in the even-
ing twilight.

FLEAS. — Fleas, although not men-
tioned by Loew or Ostensacken among
the diptera, by many other entomologists
are classed with them, and Professor
Verrill regards them as " degraded dip-
tera in which the wings are represented
only by two pairs of stiff scales, which
have little or no power of motion."
These insects are very abundant in the
neighborhood of hog-sties, etc., and may
be driven away by scattering quicklime
about their haunts. The principal remedy
against them is cleanliness, and should
the house dogs be permitted to sleep on
the door-mats or rugs, these should be
scalded every week or two to destroy the
living inmates as well as their eggs and
larvae, which are in the form of small
footless white maggots, and live upon de-
caying vegetable and animal matter found
in the dirt and rubbish. When dogs are
kept in kennels, the straw or shavings
upon which they sleep should be carefully
burned every few weeks, as door-mats
and old refuse straw are perfect nurseries
for these insects. When the animals,
themselves are very much infested with
fleas, a thorough washing in strong soap-
suds or a decoction of tobacco will drive
many of them away. Professor Verrill
says, " to remove fleas from the animals
themselves, a wash containing six to ten
per cent, of petroleum, naphtha, or ben-
zine, well shaken together, may be used ;
a weak solution of carbolic acid, about
two or three parts to one hundred parts
of water, will also be efficacious." A
mixture of ten parts benzine, five parts
soap, and eighty-five parts water has been
recommended. Great care should, how-
ever, be taken not to make any of these
mixtures too strong, as otherwise they are
very apt to injure the animals to which they

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 389

are applied. Camomile flowers are said
to be very obnoxious to fleas, and to drive
them away. Persian insect powder, which
is the powdered flowers of Pyrethrum
roseum, or caucasicum, rubbed in among
the hair, will drive off the fleas, but the
animals, when operated upon with it,
should be taken out of doors, as a small
portion of this powder paralyzes the fleas
only, and if they fall on the carpet they
are apt to revive in a few hours. The
animal, after an application of the Persian
powder, should be well washed with soap
and water. The flowers of feverfew,
camomile, and even of ox-eye dairy have
a somewhat similar effect, but much
slighter, and when applied to common
liouse-flies appear partially to paralyze
them.

THE SPOTTED PELIDNOTA.— This is
the largest and most conspicuous beetle
that attacks the foliage of the grape-vine,
and in the beetle state it seems to subsist
entirely on the leaves of this plant, and
of the closely allied Virginia Creeper.
Though some years it becomes so abund-

Fig. 31. — The Spotted Pelidnota.

ant as to badly riddle the foliage of our
vineyards, yet such instances are excep-
tional; and it usually occurs in such
small numbers, and is so large and clum •
sy, that it can not be considered a very
redoubtable enemy.

Its larva has, for a number of years,
been known to feed on the decaying roots
of different trees, and is a large, clumsy
grub (Fig. 31 a) bearing a close resem-
blance to the common White Grub of our
meadows, and it differs from that species
principally in being less wrinkled, and in

having the chitinous covering (or skin, so
called,) more polished and of a pure
white color, and in the distinct heart-
shaped swelling above the anus (Fig 31
d). Towards the latter part of June we
have found this larva in abundance, in
company with the pupa (Fib. 31 d), in
rotten stumps and roots of the Pear. In pre-
paring for the pupa state, the larva forms
a rather unsubstantial cocoon of its own
excrement, mixed with the surrounding
wood. The pupa state lasts but from
eight to ten days, and the beetle (Fig. 31
c) is found on our vines during the months
of July, August and September. It is not
yet known how long a time is required
tor the development of the larva, but
from analogy we may infer that the insect
lives in that state upwards of three years.

Remedy. — It is easily kept in check by
hand-picking.

HESSIAN FLY.— The > eggs of the
Hessian Fly are deposited in longitudinal
creases in the blade of the plant of wheat,
barley, rye, etc., in autumn and spring.
These eggs hatch in from four to twenty
days, according to the state of the weath-
er. The larvae or grubs crawl down,
working their way between the leaf and
main stalk till they come to a joint, where
they remain and suck the sap. They at-
tain their full growth in from four to six
weeks. The pupa is formed in the same
place, its outer covering or puparium re-
sembling a flaxseed. The winged insects
appear in April and May, and lay their
eggs in wheat and other cereals. Curtis
says that feeding the wheat off with sheep
in winter might possibly save the crop
from the Hessian Fly. Dr. Harris rec-
ommends the same as a partial remedy.
Mr. Herrick states that the stouter varie-
ties, of wheat should be chosen, and the
land kept in good condition. If fall
wheat is sown late some eggs will be
avoided, but the risk of winter-killing will
be incurred. Great numbers of the pupae
may be destroyed by burning the stubble
immediately after harvest, and then plow-
ing and harrowing the land. Steeping
the grain and rolling it in plaster or lime
tends to promote a vigorous growth, and
is, therefore, beneficial. Quicklime strew-
ed over the field immediately after the
grain is cut would doubtless destroy many
of the pupce.

39°

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR

CORN "WORM, alias Boll Worn. — ,
This is a Avorm Avhich is every year more
or less destructive to our corn in the ear,
and Avhcse ravages are increasing Avith
every successive year.

This glutton is not even satisfied Avith
ravaging these tAvo great staples of the

Fig. 32.

country— cotton and corn — but, as Ave dis-
covered in 1875, it voraciously attacks the
tomato, eating into the green fruit (Fig.
32), and thereby causing such fruit to rot.
In this manner it often causes serious loss
to the tomato-grower, and it may justly
be considered the worst enemy to the to-
mato in that section of the country. Mr.

deeply.

Fig. 33.

Glover also found it feeding in a young
pumpkin, and it has been ascertained by
Mrs. Mary Treat, of Vineland, New
Jersey, not only to feed upon the unde-
veloped tassels of corn, and upon green
peas, but to bore into the stems of the

garden flower known as Gladiolus, and.
in confinement to eat ripe tomatoes..
Last summer it Avas also found by Miss M.
E. Murtfeldt in common string beans,,
around KirkAvood, Mo., and in Europe
it is recorded by M. Ch. Goureau a*
not only infesting the ears of Indian corn,
but as devouring the heads ot
hemp, and leaves of tobacco, and
of lucern. The fact of its attack-
ing a kind of pea, namely, the
chick pea or coffee-pea, has also
been recorded by M. J. Fallou in
certain parts of France, the young
worms feeding on the leaves, but
the larger individuals boring
through the pods and devouring
the peas.
> But for the present Ave will con-
sider this insect only in the two
roles of Boll-Avorm and Corn-
worm, because it is as such that
it interests the practical man most
The egg from which the Avorm
hatches (Fig. 35, a, side vieAv; b, top view
magnified) is ribbed in a someAvhat simi-
lar manner to that of the Cotton-worm,
but may be readily distinguished by being
less flattened, and of a pale straAV color
instead of green. It is usually deposited
singly on the outside of the involucel or
outer calyx of the flower or young
boll, and each female moth is capable
of thus consigning to their proper
places, upwards of five hundred eggs.
Mr. Glover, in his account of the Boll-
worm, says : " Some eggs of the Boll-
worm moth hatched in three or four
days, after being brought in from the
field, the enclosed worms gnawing a
hole through the shell of the egg and
then escaping. They soon commenced
feeding upon the tender fleshy sub-
stance of the calyx, near the place,
where the egg had been deposited.
When they had gained strength, some
of the worms pierced through the calyx,
and others through the petals of the
closed flower -bud, or even pene-
trated into the young and tender
boll itself. The pistils and stamens,
of the open flower, are frequently
found to be distorted and injured without
any apparent cause. This has been done:
by the young Boll-worm ; when hidden in
the unopened bud, it has eaten one side
only of the pistils and stamens, so that
Avhen the flower is open the parts injured

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 39r

are distorted and maimed) and very fre
quently the flower falls without forming
any boll whatever. In many cases, how-
ever, the young worm bores through the
bottom of the flower into the immature
boll before the old flower falls, thus leav-
ing the boll and involucel or envelope
still adhering to the foot-stalk, with the
worm safely lodged in the growing boll.
The number of buds destroyed by this
worm is very great, as they fall off when
quite small, and are scarcely observed as
they lie brown and withering on the
ground beneath the plant. The instinct
of the Boll-worm, however, teaches it to
forsake a bud or boll about to fall, and
either to seek another healthy boll, or to
fasten itself to a leaf, on which it remains'
until at length it acquires size and strength
sufficient to enable it to bore into the
nearly matured bolls, the interior of which
is nearly destroyed by its attacks, as,
should it not be completely devoured,
rain penetrates through the hole made by
the worm, and the cotton soon becomes
rotten and will not ripen. . . . One
thing is worthy of observation, and that
is, whenever a young boll or bud is seen
Avith the involucel spread open, and of a
sickly yellow color, it may be safefy con-
cluded that it has been attacked by the
Boll-worm, and will soon perish and fall
to the ground. . . . The buds in-
jured by the worms may be readily dis-
tinguished by a minute hole where it has
entered, and which, when cut open, will
be found partially rilled with small black
grains, something like coarse gunpowder,
which is nothing but the digested food
after having passed through the body of
the worm."

This insect is very variable in the larva
state, the young worms varying in color
from pale green to dark brown. When
full grown there is more uniformity in this
respect, though the difference is often
sufficiently great to cause them to look
like distinct insects. Yet the same pat-
tern is observable, no matter what may
be the general color; the body being
marked as in the above figures with
longitudinal light and dark lines, and
covered with black spots which give rise
to soft hairs. Those worms which Mrs.
Treat found in green peas and upon corn
tassels had these lines and dots so ob-
scurely represented that they seemed to be

of a uniform green or brown color, and:
the specimens which we sometimes see
in string beans are of a dark, glass-
green color with the spots inconspicuous,
but with the stripe below the breathing
pores quite conspicuous and yellow. The
head, however, remains quite constant
and characteristic. Figure 32 may be
taken as a specimen of the light variety,.
and Figure $5 as illustrating the dark
variety. When full grown, the worm
descends into the ground, and there forms,
an oval cocoon of earth interwoven with
silk, wherein it changes to a bright chest •
nut-brown chrysalis (Figure 33), with four
thorns at the extremity of its body, the
two middle ones being stouter than the
others. After remaining in the chrysalis
state from three to four weeks, the moth
makes its escape. In this last and per-
fect stage, the insect is also quite variable
in depth of shading, but the more com-
mon color of the front wings is pale clay-
yellow, with a faint greenish tint, and
they are marked and variegated with pale
olive and rufous, as in Figure 33, e show-
ing the wings expanded, and /represent-
ing them closed, a dark spot near the
middle of each wing being very conspicu-
ous. The hind wings are paler than the
front wings, and invariably have along
the outer margin a dark brown band,,
interrupted about the middle by a large,
pale spot.

Mr. Glover says that there are at least,
three broods each year in Georgia, the
last brood issuing as moths as late as
November. With us there are usually
but two, though, as already hinted, there
may be exceptionally three. Most of
the moths issue in the fall, and hibernate
as such, but some of them pass the
winter in the chrysalis state and do not
issue till the following spring. We have
known them to issue, in this latitude,,
after the 1st of November, when no frost
had previously occurred.

Remedies. — It is the general experi-
ence that this worm does more injury t&
very early and very late corn than to that
which ripens intermediately, for though
the broods connect by late individuals of
the first and early individuals of the
second, there is nevertheless a period
about the time the bulk of our corn is
ripening, when the worms are quite
scarce. We have never yet observed

392

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC —REMEDIES FOR.

their work on the green tassel, as it has
been observed in New Jersey, and do
not believe that they do so work with us.
Consequently it would avail nothing as a
preventive measure, to break off and
destroy the tassel, and the only remedy
when they infest corn is to kill them by
hand. By going over a field when the
ears are in silk, the presence of the worms
can be detected by the silk being prema-
turely dry or by its being partially eaten.

In the South various plans have been
adopted to head off the Boll-worm, but
we believe none have proved very suc-
cessful. The following experiment with
vinegar and molasses was made by B.
A. Sorsby, of Columbus, Ga., as quoted
by Mr. Glover:

" We procured eighteen common-sized
dinner plates, into each of which we put
.a gill of vinegar and molasses, previously
prepared in the proportion of four parts
of the former to one of the latter. These
plates were set on small stakes or poles
• driven into the ground in the cotton
field, one to about each three acres, and
reaching a little above the cotton plant,
with a six-inch square board tacked on
the top to receive the plate. These
arrangements were made in the evening,
: soon after the flies had made their appear-
ance; the next morning we found
eighteen to thirty-five moths to each
plate. The experiment was continued
lor five or six days, distributing the plates
overthe entire field; each day's success
increasing until the numbers were reduced
to two or three moths to each plate, when
it was abandoned as being no longer
worthy of the trouble. The crop that
year was but very little injured by the
Boll-worm. The flies were caught in
their eagerness to feed upon the mixture
by alighting in it and being unable to
<escape."

FALL WEBB WORN.— The Tent-
caterpillar of the Forest and the com-
mon Orchard Tent-caterpillar are often
confounded with another, which in re-
ality has nothing in common with them,
except that it spins a web. The insect
we refer to is known by the appropriate
name of Fall Web- worm, and whenever
we hear accounts of the Tent-caterpillars
taking possession of trees and doing great
injury in the fall of the year (and we do
.hear such accounts quite often), we may

rest assured that the Fall Web-worm is
the culprit, and has been mistaken for the
Tent-caterpillars, which never appear at
that season of the year.

We do not know how injurious this in-
sect is in the more Southern States, but
he who travels in the fall of the year, with
an eye to the beauties of the landscape,
through any of the Northern and Middle
States, especially towards the Atlantic
sea-board, will find the beauty fearfully
marred by the innumerable webs or nests
of this worm. The Web-worm is found

Fig. 34.— Fall Webb Worm.
on a great many kinds of trees, though
on some more abundantly than others ;
but with the exception of the different
grape-vines, the evergreens, the sumachs
and the Ailanthus, scarcely any tree or
shrub seems to come amiss to its vora-
cious appetite.

Remedies. — As, therefore, nothing can
be done to materially affect this insect
during the winter, we must do all the fight-
ing when the worms first hatch. Their web
soon betrays them, and the twig or branch
containing it may be pruned off in the
same manner described for the Tent- Cat-
erpillars. As the worms are always un-
der the tent, the operation in this case
can be performed at any time of the day
without the risk of missing any wan-
derers.

TENT-CATERPILLAR of the FOR-
EST.—The Tent-caterpillar of the Forest
differs from the common Orchard Tent-
caterpillar principally in its egg-mass be-
ing docked off squarely, instead of being
rounded at each end; in its larva having
a row of spots along the back, instead of
a continuous narrow line, and in its moth
having the color between the oblique
lines on the front wings as dark, or else
darker, instead of lighter than the rest of
the wing. It feeds on a variety of both

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 393

forest and orchard trees; makes a web
which, from its being usually fastened
•close to the tree, is often overlooked; is
often very destructive, and is most easily
fought in the egg state.

Remedies. — From the time they are
born till after the third moult these
worms will drop and suspend themselves
in mid air, if the branch upon which they
are feeding be suddenly jarred. There-
fore when they have been allowed to
multiply in an orchard this habit will
suggest various modes of destroying
them. Again, as already stated, they
can often be slaughtered en masse when
collected on the trunks during the last
moulting period. They will more gen-
erally be found on the leeward side of the
tree if the wind has been blowing in the
same direction for a few days. The co-
coons may also be searched for, and
many of the moths caught by attracting
them towards the light. But pre-emi-
nently the most effective artificial mode
of preventing this insect's injuries is to
search for and destroy the egg-masses in
the winter time when the trees are leaf-
less. Not only is this course the more
efficient because it is more easily pur-
sued, and nips the evil in the bud, but
for the reason that, in destroying the
eggs only, we in a great measure evade
killing, and consequently co-operate with,
the natural parasites presently to be men-
tioned, which infest the worms them-
selves. A pair of pruning shears attached
to the end of a pole, and operated by
a cord, will be found very useful in clip-
ping off the eggs ; or, as recommended
by Mr. Ferris, a more simple instrument
may be made by fastening a piece of an
old scythe to a pole. If the scythe is
kept sharp, the twigs may very handily
be clipped with this instrument. Tarred
bandages, or any of the many remedies
used to prevent the female Canker worm
from ascending trees, can only be useful
with he Forest Tent-caterpillar when it
is intended to temporarily protect an un-
infested tree from the straggling worms
which may travel from surrounding trees.

BLUE SPANGLED PEACH WORM.—

In examining peach orchards about the
first week of May a large number of the
young twigs of the trees are observed to
be killed at the extreme point or end for

a distance of one to two and a half inch-
es, and the terminal buds entirely destroy-
ed. On cutting open these dying twigs,
the injury is found to be caused by a very
minute caterpillar, which, entering the
twig near a bud, entirely eats out the pith \
and interior, leaving only its "frass" and |
the exuded gum to mark the spot where
it had entered. When confined in a glass
case, after about a couple, of weeks, seve-
ral of the larva? left the injured twigs and
formed very loose cocoons on the sides
of the box, or among the rubbish and old
leaves lying scattered on the earth, and

35. — Blue Spangled Peach Worm.

in about six to ten days the perfect moth
appeared. The tail of the pupa is at-
tached to a little button of silk, in an ex-
ceedingly slight cocoon. There was
scarcely a single young tree in the peach
orchard examined that was not more or
less injured. by this little pest, and at least
as many as twenty to fifty injured twigs
were found on some very young trees.
After the insect leaves the twig the injur-
ed part dries up and breaks off. This in-
sect was also seen though in much small-
er numbers, in Maryland and Virginia,
and apple trees are also frequently ob-
served injured in a similar manner in Ma-
ryland, and it is probable that the dam-
age is done by the same worm.

Remedy. — The only way to destroy
them is to go around the peach orchard
in May and June and cut off such ter-
minal shoots as appear to be withering or
drying up, and then burn them with the
caterpillars inside. This at least would
prevent their multiplying to such an ex-
tent as to be very injurious at present.
When not so very numerous, they appear
only to serve to somewhat prune the
trees, as they take off merely the tips of
the branches.

394

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

FALL ARMY WORM.— A new worm
has for the past few years made its ap-
pearance in the West, somewhat resem-
bling the Army Worm. Fig. 34 is the
true Army Worm, while Fig. 35, is what
is called the Fall Army Worm. By exam-
ining the two worms, many characteristic
differences appear, as will be seen by com-
paring Fig. 34, which represents the true
Army Worm, with Fig. 35, which repre-
sents at a the Fall Army
I Worm, natural size,at£
its head magnified, at
c a magnified dorsal
view of one of the joints,
and at d a magnified
view of the same.

It commences its de-
predations in August,
and devours wheat,
oats, corn, turnips,
buckwheat, grass, to-
matoes, etc. It travels
in immense numbers,
and destroys whole
Fig. 34. fields of grain or grass

in a very short time. A gentleman who
bred the insects, found that they pro-
duced at least two broods in a year, some-
times three or four. As preventives of its
ravages, he recommends to plow ground,
intended for fall
wheat, early in
the season, and
to keep it clear
from all vege-
tation till the
wheat is sown ;
also to plow late
in the season
land on which
worms have
been numerous,
in order to kill
the pupae and
Fig. 35. larvae which

have entered the ground to spend the
winter. When they are infesting grain-
fields and covering the ground in large
numbers, to roll the land with a heavy
roller, which will kill the worms but not
injure the grain.

APPLE TREE TENT-CATERPILLAR,
or AMERICAN LACKEY MOTH— What
orchardist in the older States of the Union
is not familiar with the white web-nests of
this caterpillar ? As they glisten in the

sun, before the trees have put on their full
summer dress, these nests, which are then
small, speak volumes of the negligence
and slovenliness of the owner of the
orchard, and tell more truly than almost
anything else why it is that he fails and
has bad luck with his apple crop. Where
ever these nests abound one feels morally
certain that the borers, the Codling-moth,
and many other enemies of the good old
apple tree, have full play to do as they
please, unmolested and unnoticed by him
whom they are ruining; and when we pass
through an orchard with two, three or
more "tents" on every tree, we never
pity the owner, because there is no insect
more easily kept in check.

The small, bright and glistening web,
if unmolested, is soon enlarged until it
spreads over whole branches, and the cat-
erpillars which were the architects, in time
become moths, and lay their eggs for an
increased supply of nests another year.

This insect, in all probability, extends
wherever the wild blackberry (Cerasus
serotina) is found, as it prefers this tree to
all others; and this is probably the reason
why the young so often hatch out before
the apple buds burst, because, as is well
known, the cherry leafs out much earlier.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACT.S. £OR THE PEOPLE. 395

Besides the Cherry and'Apple,- both wild
and cultivated, the Apple-tree tent-cater-,
pillar will feed upon Plum, Thorn, Rose,
and perhaps on most plants belonging to
the Rose family, though the Peach is
not congenial to it, and it never attacks
the Pear, upon which, according to Dr.
Trimble, it will starve. It does well on
Willow and Poplar, and even on White
Oak, according to Fitch, who also found
it on White Hazel and Beech.

Remedies. — Cut off and burn the egg-
clusters during winter, and examine the
trees carefully in the spring for the nests
from such clusters that may have eluded
the winter search. The eggs are best cut
off in the manner presently to be de-
scribed for the Tent-caterpillar of the
Forest. Though to kill the caterpillars
numerous methods have been resorted to,
such as burning, and swabbing with oil,
soap-suds, lye, etc, they are all unneces-
sary, for the nests should not be allowed
to get large, and if taken when small are
most easily and effectually destroyed by
going over the orchard with the fruit-
ladder, and by the use of gloved hands.
As the caterpillars feed about twice each
day, once in the forenoon and once in
the afternoon, and as they are almost
always in their nests till after nine
a. M., and late in the evening, the early
and late hours of the day are the best in
which to perform the operation. As a
means of facilitating this operation, it
v.-ould be a good plan, as Dr. Fitch has
iv.ggested, to plant a few wild cherry
trees in the vicinity of the orchard, and
as the moths will mostly be attracted to
such trees to deposit their eggs, and as a
hundred clusters on a single tree are de-
stroyed more easily than if they were
scattered over a hundred trees, these trees
will well repay the trouble wherever the
Tent-caterpillar is known to be a grievous
pest

TURNIP FLEA BEETLE.— The tur-
nip is exposed to numerous depredators,
of which the turnip flea-beetle is the most
inveterate. It attacks the plant as soon
as the first leaves expand, and often de-
stroys two or three successive sowings.
The black caterpillar, slugs, wire- worms,
and numerous other insects, grubs and
aphides prey upon and greatly diminish
the crop.

Remedies have been tried to an al~
most indefinite extent, but none hitherto*
with more, than very partial success-
Liberal sowing and rapid growth best in-
sure the plant from injury ; and to effect
this, the seed thould be plentifully sown
in a rich soil, and if possible, when the
ground is moist. Before sowing the seed
should be steeped in some preparation,
which experience has shown will the
most quickly develop the germ. Solu-
tions of nitrates or sulphates, urine, soot-
water, liquid guano, or currier's oil, im-
pregnate the first leaves with substances
distasteful to their early enemies, and
thus a short respite from their attacks will
be secured. Gypsum, ashes, bone-dust
and poudrette drilled in with the seed,.
are excellent forcers for the young roots.
Charcoal dust, applied in the same way,
has been found to increase the early
growth from four to tenfold. When the
fly or bug is discovered, the application
of lime, ashes or soot, or all combined,
should be made upon the leaves, while
the dew or a slight moisture is on them.
This leads the young plant along, and
kills such enemies as it reaches, Stale
urine, diluted sulphuric acid (oil of vitrol),
and other liquid manures will have the
same effect. Ducks, chickens, young
turkeys and birds will devour innumera-
ble quantities, and their presence should
always be encouraged, not only on this,,
but on most of the fields. Dragging the
surface with fine, light brush, will lessen
the slugs and insects. The ground should
be plowed just before winter sets in,
which exposes the worms and the larvae
of insects to the frost, when they are un-
able to work themselves into a place of
safety. The seed should not be planted
on ground recently occupied by any of
the order of plants crucifera, (cabbage,
radish, mustard, charlock and water-
cress), as they all afford food for the ene-
mies of turnips, and thereby tend to their
multiplication.

LOCUST BORER, To Destroy.— To de-
stroy the well-known locust borer, a beau-
tiful variegated black and yellow beetle,
it has been recommended to apply soft
soap to the trunks of very young trees
every summer, about the first of August,,
or earlier.

GOOSEBERRY WORMS.— See Cur-
rant Worm.

39$

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

THE CHINCH BUG. — Few farmers in
this section of the country need an intro-
duction to this insect; but lest there be those
who are so blessed as not to know the
gentleman by sight, we annex his portrait.
He subsists by sucking
with his sharp-pointed
beak the grasses and
cereals, thereby caus-
ing them to shrink,
wilt and wither,andnot
by biting their sub-
. stance as many persons
suppose. Like the other
species of its suborder,
•it undergoes no very
sudden transforma-

Fig 39.-CHINCH BuG.tions- Bom ■■ a little
Hair line underneath pale, yellow Six-legged
showing natural size, atom, scarcely visible
to the naked eye, and with a tinge of red
near the middle of the body, it goes
through four molts before acquiring wings.
It is bright red, with a pale band across
the middle of the body after the first;
somewhat darker, with the merest rudi-
ments of wing-pads after the second, and
quite brown, with distinct wing-pads, but
with the pale transverse band still visible,
after the third, in which it assumes the
pupa state, and from which, in the fourth
molt, it escapes as a winged bug.

The chinch bug injures by suction, not
by biting. It winters in the perfect winged
state, mostly dormant, principally in the
old rubbish, such as dead leaves, corn-
shucks, corn-stalks, and under weeds and
prostrate fence rails and boards that gen-
erally surround grain fields ; also, in what-
ever other sheltered situation it can get in
adjacent woods; hence the importance of
fighting the pest in the winter time, either
by trapping it under boards laid for the
purpose, or by burning it with its afore-
mentioned shelter. Such burning will not
destroy all the dormant hosts, but will
practically render the species harmless,
especially where whole communities com-
bine to practice it. It issues from its win-
ter quarters during the first balmy days of
spring, when those females which were
impregnated the previous fall, and which
are most apt to survive the winter, com-
mence ovipositing at once, if suitable con-
ditions are at hand. Others take readily
to wing and scatter over our fields, at-
tracted by preference to grain growing in

loose and dry soil, into which they pene-
trate to consign their eggs. The eggs are
deposited on the roots, and the young
bugs, which are red, remain under ground,
sucking the roots during the early part of
their lives, or until they are forced from
necessity to travel from one plant to
another. These spring-hatched bugs, con-
stituting the first brood, do not, as a rule,
acquire wings till after wheat is cut. It is,
therefore, during and just after wheat har-
vest, that they congregate and travel in
such immense swarms as to attract atten-
tion. In July, as these acquire wings,
they scatter over grass, late grain and
corn-fields, where they lay their eggs; but
the second brood, hatching from these
eggs, generally attracts less attention and
does less injury than did the first, because
of its more scattered nature and the greater
maturity and resisting power of the plants.
Anything that will prevent the mother
bug from getting at the roots of the grain,
will prevent the injury of her progeny.
Hence the importance in this connection
of fall plowing and using the roller upon
land that is loose and friable ; and hence,
if old corn ground is sufficiently clean, it
is a good plan to harrow in a crop of
small grain upon it without plowing at
all. The earlier also, that wheat gets well
started and matures, the less it will suffer;
because it may be harvested before the
bugs acquire their greatest growth and
power for harm. Hence, and from the
greater compactness of the ground, winter
wheat suffers less than spring wheat.
Heavy rains are destructive to the chinch
bug. Hence, if such occur in the fall, the
farmer may plant with little fear of injury
the following year, while if they occur in
May, he need suffer no anxiety, so far as
chinch bugs are concerned ; hence, also,
where irrigation is practicable, the pest
may at all times be overcome. It injures
no other plants than grasses and cereals.
In its migrations from field to field it may
be checked by a line of tar poured on the
ground, or by deep furrows or trenches,
but the tar must be kept soft and the sur-
face of the furrows friable and pulverized.
THE FLAT-HEADED APPLE-TREE
BORER. — This insect, owing to the en-
teebled condition of many fruit and shade
trees — a condition superinduced in part
by excessive drouth, in part by defolia-
tion, in the country ravaged by locusts —

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 397

has been exceedingly injurious all over
the country.

Considering the fatality of its work and
the number of valuable fruit and shade
trees which it attacks, few insects are more
to be dreaded than this same Flat-headed
Apple-tree Borer. The Oak, Mountain
Ash, Linden, Box -elder, Beech, Plum,
Pear, Cherry and Peach alike succumb
to its attacks. We have reared the beetle
from Oak, Apple, Mountain Ash, Box-
elder, Peach and Pear, and found the
larva;, judged to be the same after critical
comparison, in the other trees mentioned.
While the Apple is so subject to its
injuries that no man who does not under-
stand this enemy and is not willing to
give some little time to mastering it, can
hope to succeed in growing apple trees ;
and in reality the time and money spent
in planting young apple orchards,
especially in the West, is generally wasted
for the want of the necessary precautions
against this insect.

Remedies. — In treating of the means
to be employed against this Flat-headed
borer, one important fact should be borne
in mind. The natural breeding place of
the insect is undoubtedly in the old de-
caying oaks of our woods, and we have
know it to swarm in old post-oak stumps
from which the tops had been felled for a
number of years. In fact, it prefers par-
tially dead or injured trees to those which
are thrifty and vigorous, and partly for
this reason, and partly because rough,
cracked bark forms a better nidus for the
female to lay her eggs, the species is
more abundantly found on the south-
west side of young apple trees where
they are most apt to get injured by sun-
scald. Sickliness in the tree, injury from
the whiffletree or other cause, therefore,
predispose to its attacks. It is for this
reason that transplanted trees, checked as
they are in growth, usually fare badly.
But there is yet one other predisposing
cause which few people suspect, and that
is reckless and careless pruning, especially
of the larger branches. Many a fine
orchard tree, and many more city shade
trees receive their death shock from the
reckless sawing off of limbs without effort
being made to heal the wounds by coat-
ing with grafting wax, clay or other pro-
tecting substances. Around such an un-
protected sawed limb, as around the frus-

tum of a felled tree, the rain and other
atmospheric influences soon begin their
work ot causing decay between the bark
and the solid wood ; and this is but the>
forerunner of greater injury by insects
which are attracted to the spot, and which,.
though hidden meanwhile from view, soon
carry the destruction from the injured to
the non-injured parts. Among the in-
sects thus attracted, Chrysobothris plays
no mean part, where, had the wounded
limb been properly protected, its presence
would never have been known. It thus
becomes of the first importance, in treat-
ing this insect, to keep the young trees
vigorous and healthy, and the bark as
smooth and as free from injury as possi-
ble. Thus in planting a young orchard
in this part of the country, where the sun
(whether indirectly or directly is for the
vegetable pathologist to determine) is apt
to injure the bark on the southwest side,
it will prove labor well spent to protect
them on that side by old paling or lath.
Young trees are far more liable to be
attacked than old ones, and consequently
require greater care.

As a preventive against the insect's
attacks there is nothing better than coat-
ing the trunks and larger branches with
soap at least twice a year — once towards
the end of May and again in July or
August. The soap is not only obnoxious
to the beetle, but it tends to keep the bark
clean and smooth, so as to offer no at-
traction to the female, and is, withal,,
beneficial to the tree.

But whatever preventive measures be-
taken, trees should be carefully examined
late in the Fall. At this season, or even
in the Winter time, the young borers
which have just commenced work, are'
easily detected and destroyed by a knife
before they have done much harm. Trees
presenting those conditions which we have-
already stated to be attractive to the in-
sect, should be especially watched, and
any tree that is suddenly checked in
growth should be attended to, as it will
probably be found to contain the borer,,
though the outward signs of its presence
may not at first be so manifest. There is
a very general impression, also, among
orchardists, that this insect is more in-
jurious on low lands than on high lands,
and orchards on Ioav lands should be more,
particularly watched.

39S

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

- The presence of the young borer is
usually indicated by a discolored spot, a
cracking of the bark, or the presence of
saw-dust like excrement. It will pay to
look over the trees even before Fall, for as
early as the latter part of June, the newly
hatched worm may sometimes be found
just entering, when its presence is fre-
quently indicated by an exuding drop of
moisture on the bark, and when it may
be destroyed by cleanly cutting out a
small slice of bark.

It is useless to spend time in trying to
reach such borers as have already pene-
trated into the solid wood. They are with
difficulty attained.

FLIES, House. — The common house-
fly, and some other insects, are said some-
times to be dangerous to mankind by
conveying infectious disease from house
to house, and several cases have been re-
ported where the bite of an apparently
common fly had caused dangerous fester-
ing sores. In such cases, however, it
was presumed that the fly had previously
been feeding on decaying carrion, and had
inoculated the wound with putrid virus.
There is a small fly, resembling in general
appearance the common house-fly, which
stings mankind, horses, and cattle very
severely. They are sometimes very
abundant, especially before rain in dwell-
ing houses, and more especially when in
the vicinity of stables. Horses may be
protected from their attacks by rubbing
or washing the animals with a strong de-
coction of tobacco leaves, of smart-weed,
or the leaves of the English walnut, and
doubtless a weak solution of carbolic acid
would answer the same purpose.

GRAPE-VINE HOPPER.— The grape-
vine hopper is a very small insect, about
0.13 inch in length, of a pale yellow
color, with two blood-red bands, and a
third dusky band across the wing-covers.
It is supposed by most entomologists that
these insects pass the winter in the per-
fect state, hybernating under bark, dead
leaves, and rubbish. It therefore appears
probable that some of the early broods
may be produced from eggs laid by the
parent insect the previous autumn, either
on the stem of the vine itself or on foliage.
The first perfect grape-leaf hopper in
1875 was found in April, and had prob-
ably hybernated on the stem of the vine,
under the bark, as before mentioned.

The insects, as soon as hatched, com-
mence to suck the sap of the plant, and
change their skin several times before
attaining their full size ; and these cast-off
white skins may be seen in the autumn in
multitudes, adhering to the under side of
the leaves, each of them with a slit down
the back, through which the perfect insect
has escaped.

As larvae, or when very young, they do
not possess any wings, and it is only in
the adult state that the perfect wings are
acquired. The leaves injured by these
insects appear at first flecked and spotted
with whitish marks, showing where the
sap has been drawn out by the leaf-
hopper. They then assume a sickly ap-
pearance, and if the insects are very
numerous the foliage will finally turn
brown and fall to the ground. Some
varieties of vines suffer more from this
pest than others, and the Clinton, Dela-
ware, and other thin-leaved grapes are
said to suffer the most.

Remedies. — The remedies already pro-
posed for the destruction of these insects
are syringing the vines with strong to-
bacco-water or soap-suds. A very weak
mixture of carbolic acid and water has
also been recommended, but when made
too strong the leaves are apt to be injured.
Dusting the vines with lime, wood-ashes,
lime and sulphur, is said to be beneficial,
and fumigation with strong tobacco, when
under glass, will destroy many of them.
Mr. Saunders, of Canada, states that a
lighted torch carried through a vineyard
at night will destroy multitudes, as they
fly to the light and are burnt. This
should be repeated several times at short
intervals. He also says that constant
stirring the earth in the immediate vicinity
of the vines in spring and autumn will
probably operate to disturb the perfect
insect and eggs by exposing them to the
frost. As lights also attract these insects
at night, if a lantern were placed immedi-
ately over a pail or tub nearly filled with
water, on the surface of which a little oil
had been poured, whenever the vines
were disturbed the insects would immedi-
ately fly toward the light and fall into the
vessel below and perish by hundreds.
The same plan would also answer if
lights were placed before or on boards
painted with a thick syrup, or any adhesive
substance like the celebrated fly-paper

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 399

CANKER-WORMS.— In illustration of
the remarks on the two species of Canker-
Worm which have very generally been
considered mere varieties of one species,
and about which there has been no little
confusion, we have prepared figures of
each, which, in connection with a few ex-
planatory remarks, will enable their ready
distinction.

The Spring Canker-Worm. — This spe-
cies, which, from the fact that the great
bulk of the moths issue from the ground
in early spring, may be distinguished from
the other by the popular name here given,
is the true Can-
ker-Worm orig-
inally described.
This is undoubt-
edly the species
for the most
part spoken of
FlG- 41- in the agricul-

Spring Canker-Worm.— tural journals of
a, full grown larva; 6, egg. the countrV and
enlarged, the natural size ^e country , ana
shown in the small mass at 'he species best
side; c, an enlarged joint, side known in the
view; d, do., back view, Mississippi Val-
showing the markings. ^ This Spring

Canker-Worm is distinguished, in the
light of recent careful discriminations, by
the characters following, viz.: by each of
the first seven joints of the abdomen in
both sexes bearing two transverse rows of
stiff, red, or reddish-brown, posteriorly di-
rected spines ; by the front wings in the
male having three transverse, dusky lines,
and a somewhat broader, jagged, pale
submarginal line ; and by the whole body
in the female, as also the legs and anten-
nae, being pubescent with pale and dusky
hairs — the color being rabbit-gray, or
speckled black and white, the abdomen
having a medio-dorsal black stripe. The
•dusky stripes on the front wings of the
male, except at costa, and the black stripe
•on the abdomen, except at each end, are
usually more or less obsolete, and indeed
the ornamentation of the wings is ex-
tremely variable. In many specimens the
middle portion of the front wings, within
the three dusky lines, is quite pale and
mottled with grayish-green, while the ba-
sal and terminal portions are marked with
brown, thus making the contrast greater.'
Others again are absolutely without marks
whatever, even when fresh from the chrys-
alis; while captured specimens always

have the marks more or less effaced on
account of the looseness of the scales.
The moths rise from the ground, for the
most part, early in Spring, and only rarely
the previous Fall. They are crepuscular
in habit, and are most active soon after
dark in the evening. The female, by
means of a horny and extensile ovipositor,
thrusts her eggs, to the number of from 50
to 150, under the loose scales of bark or in
any crevice or sheltered place, and is very
fond of availing herself for this purpose
of the empty cases of the Rascal Leaf-
crumpler. The eggs are but slightly
glued together, and have the form of a
rather elongate hen's egg, the shell being
very delicate and smooth, though often
appearing roughened by transverse and
longitudinal, irregular depressions. The
larva has but four prolegs, is variable in
color, and one of its distinguishing char-
acters, is the mottled head and two pale
narrow lines along the middle of the
back, the space between them usually
dark and occupied on the anterior edge
and middle of joints by black marks
somewhat in form of X; these marks be-
ing represented by dots on the other
joints. There are two rather prominent
tubercles on top of the eleventh joint,
preceded by two white spots. The chrys-
alis, so far as our comparisons have ena-
bled us to judge, does not differ materi-
ally from that of the other species, so that
the two species could hardly be distin-
guished in this state. This is the species
which so injuriously affects our apple or-
chards.

The Fall Canker-Worm. — This in-
sect is easily distinguished from the pre-

Fig. 42. — Fall Canker-Worm.
a, b, egg, side and top views; c, d, joints of
larva, side and top views, showing markings — en-
larged ; e, batch of eggs ; /, full-grown larva ; g,
female chrysalis — natural size; h, top view of
anal tubercle of chrysalis, enlarged.

ceding, when critically examined. It is,
on the average, somewhat larger and

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

more glossy ; the front wings of the
male have a distinct white spot on the
front edge, and are crossed by two pale,
jagged bands, along the sides of which
there are several blackish dots. The
hind wings also have a pale, curved line,
more or less distinct, across their middle.
The female is uniformly dark ash-gray
above, paler beneath, with the antennae na-
ked, and the legs and abdomen smooth and
glistening, and with no extensive oviposi-
tor. Thus it lacks the characteristic
spines ot vernata, the dusky marks across
the front wings, and the pubescence in
the female, together with many other
minor differences.

The moths rise mostly late in the fall,
but also during the warm weather of win-
ter, even to spring. The eggs are tough,
with a flattened crown of a purplish color,
and having a dimple in the centre, and a
brown ring near the edge; they are not
secreted or hidden under scales, but are
laid in regular and compact batches, of
from ioo to upwards of 200, on the sur-
face of twigs or of the trunk, being fas-
tened by a strong glue, and covered with
a slight coating of grayish varnish. The
larva is distinguished from that of the
Spring Canker-worm by having a dark
brown back, and three conspicuous broad,
pale yellow lines each side, as well as by
having a third pair of prolegs, shorter
than the others, on the eighth joint. It
develops very rapidly, entering the
ground, with favorable weather, within
three weeks after hatching; and, singu-
larly enough, suffers but two molts, ex-
clusive of that which takes place under
ground in transforming to the chrysalis.
It is found principally, on the Elm. The
female chrysalis is stout, and has a little,
decurved, bifid thorn on the tip of the
body superiorly. It has perfect wing-
sheaths, though the moth is wingless.
The color is light brown with darker
wing-sheaths.

Remedy. — In the case of the Spring
species, the scraping of loose bark from
the tree, and otherwise cleansing it of
dead leaves, coccons, larva-cases, etc., a
short time before the hatching of the
worms, or before the buds of the tree
commenced to open, will prove an effectual
preventive measure ; as thereby many of
the eggs will be destroyed. Moreover, a
tree kept clean of loose bark will be less

subject to its attacks. The same argu-
ment will not apply to the fall species,
which attaches its eggs in any exposed
position. It would seem, also, that the
mode of trapping the moths will have to
be somewhat modified, according to the
species to be dealt with; for while Dr.
LeBarron found the tin and rope trap so
effectual with the Spring Canker-worm^
it does not appear to afford any barrier ta
the fall species.

CLOVER-HAY WOBM.— This is a very
widely distributed little insect, for it

Fig. 42.— Asopia Costalis.

1, 2, larva; 3, cocoon; 4, chrysalis; 5, 6, moth
with wings expanded and closed ; 7, worm, cov-
ered with silken web.

occurs in many parts of Europe and
Canada, and is quite generally found
throughout the Eastern and Middle
States, and in the Mississippi Valley.

For many years grievous complaints
were made in this country of a worm
which infests clover, both in the stack and
mow, and spoiled it for feeding purposes
by interweaving and covering it with
abundant white silken web and black
excrement, much resembling coarse gun-
powder. Frequently the silken matting
is so dense that the hay looks moldy,
and it is not improbable that much of
the " clotting " and " burning " clover, so
often referred to in our agricultural
journals, may be, in reality, the work of
this worm.

Remedies. — From what we now know
of the habits of this insect (and there is
much yet, in detail, to learn), the only
way to defeat its attack is by adopting
certain preventive measures : First, as the
worms feed solely on dry clover, it follows

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 401

that during summer they must be confined
to such unfed hay as remains over from
the previous year's making. Therefore,
new hay should never be stacked in con-
tact with old. In confinement, the worms
show a tendency to work their way to the
bottom of whatever they are confined in,
and we may conclude that this tendency
is natural. It will account for their being
found so generally at the bottom of a
stack. Yet, aside from this tendency, it
follows that wherever clover is stacked for
successive years on the same foundation,
the bottom, coming in contact as it does
with the infested leavings of the previous
year, will necessarily suffer most. Sec-
ondly, as the worms show a preference
for the moister and more compact por-
tions of a stack, it will be well to build
on a good log or rail foundation. This
gives an air passage underneath, and is,
besides, a commendable practice. Third-
ly, we should recommend salting the hay,
especially the two or three feet near the
bottom ; for while it is a good practice
as a preventive of moldiness, it may also
prove an antidote to the worm nuisance.

LEGGED MAPLE BORER. — Vieing
with the Flat-headed Borer, in destructive-
ness, but generally following in its trail
and rendering more conspicuous the
damage which that species does to our
shade maples, the insect under consider-
eration deserves notice. It may be called
the Legged Maple Borer, because the
possession of sixteen legs at once dis-
tinguishes it from the Flat-headed Borer.
It is, indeed, in structure similar to, and
belongs to the same family as the common
Peach-tree Borer, and the more common
Currant Borer.

The worm (Figure 43), burrows under
the bark of our soft maples, feeding on
the inner bark and sap-wood and never
penetrating deeply into the more solid
heart-wood. It is so numerous at times
that it completely girdles, and thus kills
outright, trees of considerable size ; while
smaller trees are weakened, and rendered
liable to be broken by wind, even where
the worms are less numerous.

Remedy. — We have always found the
worms in such trees as had been injured,
either by the work of the Flat-headed
Borer, the rubbing of the tree against a
post or board, or in some other way.
Where the bark is kept smooth, they
26

never seem to trouble it, the parent evi-
dently preferring to consign her eggs to
cracked or roughened parts. For this
reason the worm is not found in the
smoother branches, but solely in the main
trunk. Whether the soap application
will prevent the moth from depositing
her eggs, is not known : judging from
analogy, probably not. Yet it will tend

Fig. 43. — ^Egeria Acerni.

a, a, larva, dorsal and lateral views; b, 6, it.
cocoons exposed by detachment of bark ; c, moth;
d, chrysalis skin as it is often left remaining in the ■
hole of exit

to keep the bark smoother, and, in being
used to shield the tree from the other
borer, it will indirectly shield it from this
one.

Mr. Grannadius recommends white-
washing the trunks, and filling up all
holes and fissures with mortar, so as to'
render the bark as smooth as possible.

MICE, Field. — Field mice, which are-
sometimes so destructive to apple trees;
and the bulbs of herd grass, may be
trapped and destroyed by digging a few
holes in the form of a post-hole in the
fields infested by them. Having occa-
sion to build a post-fence on one side of/
an orchard not long since, about a dozen
of the post-holes were left unfilled for a
couple of days, and on going to set the
posts from one to eight mice were found
in each hole, having fallen in and being
unable to climb the smooth sides of the^
hole.

4'02

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

GRAPE PHYLLOXERA. — Not the

least interesting feature in the economy
of our Phylloxera, are the different phases
or forms under which it presents itself.
Among these forms are two constant types,
which have led many to suppose that we
have to do with two species. The one
<type,which we have, for convenience, called
gallacola, lives in galls on the leaves; the
.other, which we have called radicicola, on
.swellings of the roots.

Type Gallfflcola or Gall-inhabiting. —

'The gall or excresence produced by this

insect is simply a fleshy swelling of the

: under side of the leaf, more or less

wrinkled and hairy, Avith a corresponding

, depression of the upper side, the margin

of the cup being fuzzy, and drawn to-

• gether so as to form a fimbriated mouth.

It is usually cup-shaped, but sometimes

greatly elongated or purse-shaped.

Soon after the first vine leaves that put
,^out in the spring have fully expanded, a
few scattering galls may be found, mostly
on the lower leaves, nearest the ground.
These vernal galls are usually large (of
- the size of an ordinary pea), and the
normal green is often blushed with rose
where exposed to the light of the sun.
On carefully opening one of them (Fig.
43) we shall find the mother-louse dili-

- Fig. 43. — Under Side of Leaf Covered
with Galls.

gently at work surrounding herself with
pale-yellow eggs of an elongate oval form,
scarcely .01 inch long, and not quite half
as thick (Fig. 44). She is about .04 inch
long, generally spherical in shape, of a dull
.orange color and looks not unlike an im-

mature seed of the common purslane. At
times, by the elongation of the abdomen,
the shape assumes, more or less perfectly,
the pyriform. Her members are all dusky,
and so short, compared to her swollen
body, that she appears very clumsy, and
undoubtedly would be outside of her gall,
which she never has occasion to quit, and
which serves her alike as dwelling-house
and coffin. More carefully examined,
her skin is seen to be shagreened or mi-
nutely granulated, and furnished with
rows of minute hairs, which which more
particularly described elsewhere. The
eggs begin to hatch when six or eight
days old, into active, little, oval, hexapod
beings, which differ from their mother in
their brighter yellow color and more per-
fect legs and antennae, the tarsi being fur-
nished with long, pliant hairs, terminating
in a more or less distinct globule. These
hairs were called digituli by Dr. Shinier,
and they lose their globular tips and be-
come more or less worn with age. In
hatching, the egg splits longitudinally
from the anterior end, and the young
louse, whose pale yellow is in strong con-
trast with the more dusky color of the egg-
shell, escapes in the course of two minutes.
Issuing from the mouth of the gall, these
young lice scatter over the vine, most of
them finding their way to the tender ter-
minal leaves, where they settle in the
downy bed which the tomentose nature
of these leaves affords, and commence
pumping up and appropriating the sap.
The tongue-sheath is blunt and heavy,
but the tongue proper — consisting of
three brown, elastic, and wiry filaments,
which, united, make so fine a thread as
scarcely to be visible with the strongest
microscope — is sharp, and easily run un-
der the parenchyma of the leaf. Its punc-
ture causes a curious change in the tissues
of the leaf, the growth being so stimulated
that the under side bulges and thickens,
while the down on the upper side in-
creases in a circle around the louse, and
finally hides and covers it as it recedes
more and more within the deepening
cavity. Sometimes the lice are so crowd-
ed that two occupy the same gall. If,
from the premature death of the louse, or
other cause, the gall becomes abortive
before being completed, then the circle of
thickened down or fuzz enlarges with the
expansion of the leaf, and remains (Fig.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 403

44, c) to tell the tale of the futile effort.
Otherwise, in a few days the gall if formed,
and the inheld louse, which while eating
its way into house and home, was also
growing apace, begins a parthenogenetic
maternity by the deposition of fertile eggs,
as her immediate parent had done before.
She increases in bulk with pregnancy,
and one egg follows another in quick
succession, until the gall is crowded.
The mother dies and shrivels, and the
young, as they hatch, issue and found
new galls. This process continues
during the summer until the fifth or
sixth generation. Every egg brings
forth a fertile female, which soon be-
comes wonderfully prolific. The
number of eggs found in a single gall
averages about 200; yet it will some-
times reach as many as 500, and, if
Dr. Shimer's observations can be re-
lied on, it may even reach 5,000. As
summer advances, they do frequently
become prodigiously multiplied, com-
pletely covering the leaves with their

all species of the grape-vine cultivated in
the Eastern and Middle States, and on
the wild cordifolia ; but it flourishes only
on the river-bank grape, and more espe-
cially on the Clinton and Taylor, with
their close allies.
As already indicated, the autumnal in-

f ^ ' & h

Fig. 44. — Type Galuecola.
b, newly-hatched larva, ventral and dorsal view ;

x .. J , °. , . a, 6, newly-hatched larva, ventral and dorsal view ; c,

galls, and Settling on the tendrils, egg ; d, section of gall; e, swelling of tendril; f,g, h,
leaf- stalks, and tender branches, mother gall-louse— lateral, dorsal and ventral views ; i,
where they also form knots and her antenna ; J, her two-jointed tarsus. Natural sizes in-
rounded excresences Fig. 44), much dM*ted at sides-
resembling those made on the roots. In dividuals of galltzcola descend to the roots,

and there hibernate. There is every rea-
son to believe also that, throughout the

such a case, the vine loses its leaf prema-
turely. Usually, however, the natural
enemies of the louse seriously reduce
its numbers by the time the vine
ceases its growth in the fall, and the
few remaining lice, finding no more
succulent and suitable leaves, seek
the roots. Thus, by the end of Sep-
tember, the galls are mostly deserted,
and those which are left are almost
always infested with mildew (Bottytis
viticola, Berkely), and eventually turn
brown and decay. On the roots, the
young lice attach themselves singly
or in little groups, and thus hibernate.
The male gall-louse has never been
seen, and there is every reason to be-
lieve he has no existence. Nor does
the female ever acquire wings. In-
deed, we cannot lay too much stress
on the fact that gallxcola occurs only

Fig. 45. — Type Radicicola.

a, roots of Clinton vine, showing relation of swellings
v»* "»v- wv* m»vi»»«-n'»u. uv-vuij vui; to leaf-galls, and power of resisting decomposition; b,
as an agamic ana apterous lemaie larva as it appears when hibernating ; c, d, antenna and
form. It is but a transient summer leg of same; e,f,g, forms of more mature lice; £, gran-
State, not at all essential to the per- ulations of skin; *', tubercle; /, transverse folds at bor-

petuation of the species, and does, der of Joints '> *> simple eyes.

compared with the other type, but trifling 1 summer, some of the young lice hatched

damage. We have found it occasionally on | in the galls are passing on to the roots;

404

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

as, considering their size, they are great
travelers, and show a strong predisposi-
tion to drop, their natural lightness, as in
the case of the young Cicada, and of other
insects which hatch above, but live under
ground, enabling them thus to reach the
earth with ease and safety. At all events,
we know, from experiment, that the young
gallcecola, if confined to vines on which
they do not normally, and perhaps can
not, form galls, will, in the middle of sum-
mer, make themselves perfectly at home
on the roots.

Type Radicicola, or Root-inhabiting. —
We have seen that, in all probability, gal-
lcecola exists only in the apterous, sha-
greened non-tubercled, fecund female
form. Radicicola, however, presents itself
in two principal forms. The newly-
hatched larvae of this type are undis-
tinguishable, in all essential characters,
from those hatched in the galls ; but in
due time they shed the smooth larval
skin, and acquire raised warts or tubercles
which at once distinguish them from gal-
Icecola. In the development from this
point the two forms are separable with
sufficient ease : one (a) of a more dingy
greenish yellow, with more swollen fore-
body, and more tapering abdomen; the
other, (b) of a brighter yellow, with the
lateral outline more perfectly oval, and
with the abdomen more truncated at tip.

The first, or mother form, (Fig. 45, f,
g), is the analogue of galcecola, as it never
acquires wings, and is occupied, from
adolescence till death, with the laying of
eggs, which are less numerous and some-
what larger than those found in the galls.
We have counted in the spring as many as
two hundred and sixty-five eggs in a clus-
ter, and all evidently from one mother,
who was yet very plump and still occu-
pied in laying. As a rule, however, they
are less numerous. With pregnancy this
form becomes quite tumid and more or
less pyriform, and is content to remain
with scarcely any motion in the more se-
cluded parts of the roots, such as the
creases, sutures, and depressions which
the knots afford. The skin is distinctly
shagreened (Fig. 45, h) as in gallcecola.
The warts, though usually quite visible
with a good lens, are at other times more
or less obsolete, especially on the ab-
domen. The eyes, which were quite per-
fect in the larva, become more simple

with each molt, until they consist, as in
gallcecola, of but triple eyelets (Fig. 45, k)r
and in the general structure this form be-
comes more degraded with maturity,,
wherein it shows the affinity of the species
to the Coccidm, the females of which, as
they mature, generally lose all trace of the
members they possessed when born.

The second or more oval form (Fig.
45, e) is destined to become winged. Its
tubercles, when once acquired, are always
conspicuous; it is more active than the
latter, and its eyes increase rather than
diminish in complexity with age. From
the time it is one-third grown, the little
dusky wing-pads may be discovered,,
though less conspicuous than in the pupa
state, which is soon after assumed. The
pupae (Fig. 48, <?,/,) are still more active,
and, after feeding a short time, they make
their way to the light of day, crawl over
the ground and over the vines, and finally
shed their last skin and assume the winged
state. In this last molt the tubercled skin
splits on the back, and is soon worked off,
the body in the winged insect having
neither tubercles nor granulations.

In the great majority of insects the
wings in the pupa are simply compressed
and thickened without being folded, and
in the imago they expand without mate-
rial change in form. Those of our Phyl-
loxera are rolled up both from the sides
and the end, and, in expanding, they un-
roll; the whole operation requiring but
about five minutes. At first, and for some
time after the molt, the color of the body
of the new-fledged Phylloxera is of a uni-
form bright, deep yellow, with the wings
white and rather opaque, and the eyes
brown. The dark thoracic band and
more diaphanous and smoky nature of
the wings are gradually acquired in the
course of a day, and the insect finally
presents the appearance of Fig. 48, g, h..
The wings when highly magnified are
seen to be thickly covered with minute
hooks.

These winged insects are most abund-
ant in August and September, but may
be found as early as the first of July, and
until the vines cease growing in the fall.
The majority of them are females, with
the abdomen large, and more or less
elongate. The veins of the front wing
are not connected, and, by virtue of the
large abdomen, the body appears some:

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 4oS

■what constricted behind the thorax.
From two to five eggs may invariably be
found in the abdomen of these, and are
easily seen when the insect is held be-
tween the light, or mounted in balsam
or glycerine. A certain proportion have
an entirely different shaped and smaller
body, the abdomen being short, con-

Fig. 48. — Type Radicicola.

play such an important part in the disease
as was at first supposed, may be controlled
with sufficient ease by a little care in de-
stroying the first galls which appear, and
in pruning and destroying the terminal
growth of infested vines later in the sea-
son. The root-lice are not so easily
reached. As the effort will be according
to the exigency, we may very nat-
urally look to France for a direct
remedy, if ever one be discovered.
But of all the innumerable plans,
patented or non -patented, that
have been proposed — of all the
many substances that have been
experimented with under the stimu-
lus of a large national reward, no
remedy has yet been discovered
which gives entire satisfaction or is
applicable to all conditions of soil.
Nor is it likely that such a remedy
ever will be discovered. A large
majority of the remedies proposed,
such as the planting of Madia sat-
iva among the vines to catch the
insect by its viscous property, or
inoculating the vines with the es-
sence of Eucalyptus globulus, are,
upon their face, unworthy of prac-
tical consideration, or absurd.
These we will pass by, and briefly
mention only those which have
been more or less productive of
good.

Submersion, where practicable,
and where it is total and suffi-
ciently prolonged, is a perfect

a, shows a healthy root; 6, one on which the lice are . Th- • , . th

working, representing the knots and swellings caused byr<fmeay- ,ims ™ ™&t even ™e
their punctures ; c, a root that has been deserted by them, closest Student might expect, as he
and where the rootlets have commenced to decay; d, d, d, finds that excessive moisture is very
show how the lice are found on the larger roots ; e, female disastrous to the lice M Louis
pupa dorsal view; / same, ventral view; g winged fe-j. f Graveson "(Bouche du

male, dorsal view ; h, same, ventral view ; t, .magnified at- 1,? \l -r? ^ r^°_j V ■"" , .
tenna of winged insect; /, side view of the wingless female, Rhone)) .France, has ■ abundantly
laying eggs on roots; k, shows how the punctures of the proved its efficacy, and has, by
lice cause the larger roots to rot. means of it, totally annihilated the

tracted, and terminating in a fleshy and insect in his vineyard, which was suffering

dusky penis-like protuberance ; the limbs
stouter, and the wings proportionately
larger and stouter, with their veins con-
necting. This shorter form never has eggs
in the abdomen, but, instead, a number of
vesicles containing granulations in sacs.
These granulations have much the appear-
ance of spermatozoa, and seem to have a
Brownian movement, but are without
tails.

Remedies. — The leaf-lice, which do not

from it four years ago. From his experi-
ence we may draw the following conclu-
sions :

1. The best season to submerge is in
autumn (September and October), when
the lice are yet active and the vines have
ceased growing. Submergence for 25 to
30 days, at this season, will generally rout
the lice. 2. A submergence of 40 to 50
days, in winter, is required. 3. A vine-
yard should never be inundated for a

406

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FOR.

longer period than two days in summer,
or during growth ; and though these brief
inundations at that season affect only a
few lice near the surface, and are by no
means essential, they are nevertheless im-
portant auxiliaries to the more thorough
fall or winter submersion, as they destroy
the few lice which are always invading a
vineyard in infested districts. These
summer inundations will be necessary
only after the winged insects begin to ap-
pear ; and three or four, each lasting less
than two days, made between the middle
of July and the fall of the leaf, will ef-
fect the end desired. 4. An embankment
should be made around the vineyard in
order that the water may evaporate and
permeate the earth, but not run off and
carry away any nutritive properties ot the
soil.

On our best hilly vine land, thorough
submersion is impracticable; but on our
bottom lands some of the grapes which
fail now may be made to succeed by its
means.

Carbolic acid, added to water at the
rate of about one per cent., applied by
pouring into deep holes made by a crow-
bar or auger, has given satisfactory re-
sults ; and a thorough application of soot
has also been strongly advocated by
those who have tried it. In the experi-
ments that we have been. able to make in
a small way, a thorough mixing with the
soil of a cheap carbolic powder, has given
good results.

The advantages of grafting are too
well recognized to need enforcing. By
its means, healthy, vigorous vines, which
do not fruit well, may soon be made
abundant bearers ; new varieties and seed-
lings be quickly tested, and a less desira-
ble variety replaced by one more desira-
ble. Our knowledge of the Grape Phyl-
loxera has of late pointed out other co-
gent advantages that may be derived from
grafting.

BLACKBERRY BUSH BORER. — The
Blackberry bush borer, is occasionally
found eating out the pith of the young
canes of the Raspberry and Blackberry,
but it is not common. The beetle, which
is the parent of the borer, is about a half
inch long, black, rusty yellow on the
breast, and on top of the thorax. It lays
it eggs early in August on the stems of
the Blackberry and Raspberry, generally

at the base of a leaf. The grub pene-
trates the stem, eating out the pith,,
causing the young canes to wither. A
{cw of our Blackberry bushes were
attacked by this insect the past season.

Remedy. — The infested canes should
be pruned offin the Fall and buried. In
Europe there is a beetle which deposits
its eggs in the flower of the Raspberry,
which produce small white maggots by
the time the fruit is ripe. A similar
worm is quite common upon our Wild
Red Raspberry, but whether it is the
same as the European species, or one of
the Ortalidians (some of which are
known to deposit the eggs in the Rasp-
berry), we are unable to say, as they are
seldom seen upon the cultivated varieties.

GOOSEBERRY MIDGE.— The berries
turning red prematurely and becoming
putrid, having in them small, bright
yellow maggots, of an oblong-oval form,
and slightly divided into segments by fine
impressed transverse lines; changing to
pupae in the berries, and in the latter part
of July giving out a small, two-winged fly,
resembling a musquito,. of beeswax yellow
color.

Remedy. — The berries should be gath-
ered so soon as they show signs of prema-
ture ripening, and fed to hogs, or
otherwise destroyed.

QUINCE BORER — "Should the borer
by any means steal in, ferret them out
carefully with a piece of wire. Should
they, however, get the advantage of you,,
and your trees become honey-combed,
set out again young trees, so that by the
time the old ones are gone the young
ones will be finely in bearing. We have
raised these quinces in perfection, but not
caring for the fruit, they were removed
when they were about to die from the
operations of the worm."

THE JUMPING SUMACH BEETLE.
— As soon as vegetation starts in the
Spring, the beetles, (Fig. 4&jf), whichi
had passed the winter, as such, in shel-
tered situations, may be seen upon their
foot-plants, sometimes in great numbers,,
and generally coupled. Though not as;
shy and active as many of the smaller
flea-beetles, they yet jump with alacrity
by means of their thickened hind thighs
— a fact which has been doubted by some
entomologists, but certainly by none who
have known the insect in life. The wing-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 407-

covers are of a bright mahogany-brown,
marked, as in the illustration (/), with
white, and the head and thorax are of a
bright shining green. In cabinet speci-
mens these colors fade, and the general
tint is more yellowish or rust-colored.
Very soon after the appearance of the
beetle the stems and branches of the
plants named, if carefully examined, will
be found more or less covered with little
elongate pellets of excrement, (b, b),

s

Fig. 48. — Blepharida Rhois.

a' egg > ^> ^> egg masses covered with excre-
ment ; c , c, c, c, larvae ; d, cocoon ; e, pupa ; /,
beetle : g, h, i, j, k, I, mouth parts of larvae.

dark when fresh, but becoming paler and
grayish-brown when dry. These pellets
are sometimes so numerous as to form one
large mass, completely covering the stem
or branch; at other times, especially
when on the leaf or leaf-stem, they are
single. If more critically examined, they
will each be found to contain five or six
pale yellow eggs (a), mostly laid side by
side, and separated from the excrement by
a thin papery layer of a whitish, opaque
substance. These eggs give birth, in a
very few days, to little dark yellow worms
with a conspicuous black head, and shiny
plate on the first joint, six long, black,
thoracic legs, and a pale anal proleg.
Remedies.— The Smoke-tree may be

protected from the injuries of this insect
by jarring the beetles, in early spring,
into pans of water, or by strewing the
ground lightly with straw, then starting a
ring of fire on the outside, and jarring
the beetles into it. If the worms have
been allowed to hatch, the Paris-green
mixture will soon dispose of them.

OAK PRUNER.— This is a long-
horned brownish beetle which cuts
off the branches of oak, apple,,
peach, hickory, and chesnut. This
beetle, which is known as the "oak-
pruner," does not make the incision from
the outside of the branch, like the twig-
girdler, but the larva cuts the twig from
the inside. The egg is deposited in
July, on a twig near the extremity or
a branch. The larva when hatched pene-
trates into the wood, and forms a cylindri-
cal burrow several inches in length in the
interior of the branch, and, when full
grown, eats away parts of the wood
of the branch in which it resides,
from the inside, leaving only the
bark untouched, so that these branches '
are broken off in autumn by the first
strong wind, and fall to the earth with
the larvae yet in them. Professor Peck
considered that this was done in order
that the branch might retain sufficient
moisture from lying on the damp ground
to enable the pupa and insect to be per-
fectly developed.

Remedy. — If this insect should fn-
crease so as to become very injurious, it
may readily be destroyed by gathering up
all fallen branches under the trees in win-
ter or spring, before the perfect beetle is
developed, and burning them immediately.
If such fallen branches are examined in
early spring, they will be found to con-
tain either pupa? or perfect beetles, which
if not destroyed, would, next season^
deposit eggs on the neighboring trees.

APPLE TWIG BORER— These in-
sects measure from .25 to .35 of an inch
in length, and are small, dark chesnut-
colored beetles, of a cylindrical form,,
having the front part of the thorax
roughened with elevated points, the male
having two little horns, and the tip of
the wing covers above provided with two
prickle-like points curving inward. At-
tacks apple, pear, hickory, and cherry
trees, and also grape vines, by boring
into the twigs and young branches. It is.

408

BUGS, INSECTS, ETC.— REMEDIES FO]

in the perfect beetle state that the insect
does the injury to our fruit and forest
trees, boring into the twig just above the
bud, working down sometimes to the
depth of two or more inches through the
pith, thus finding in the branch both food
and protection. Even in mid- winter both
male and female beetles may sometimes
be found hiding in the cylindrical burrows,
and always with the head directed down-
ward. The insects are plentiful in the
Western States.

Remedy. — The only remedy that can
be suggested, when the insects attack
twigs and branches, is to cut them off
some distance below the place injured
and to burn them immediately, with the
beetles inside, as it is not likely that any
preparation could be applied to the trees
that would prevent their attacks.

TWIG -GIRDLER.— The beetle that
thus girdles the twigs is the perfect insect
of the so-called " twig-girdler," medium-
sized, long-horned beetle, of a chesnut-
brown color, and having a broad, lighter
colored band across the wing-covers.
The female beetle first makes a perfora-
tion in a branch, generally just below a
bud; she then deposits an egg in this per-
foration, in one case even making as many
as six perforations, in which eggs were
■ deposited below the buds in a single
branch, not more than a foot in length.

After the insect has deposited her eggs,
she proceeds to gnaw all around the
branch, thus forming a circular cut or
incision, about one-eighth to one-tenth of
an inch in width, below the place where
the eggs are deposited, so that the exte-
rior part or end dies ; the larva, when
hatched, feeds on the dead wood, which
sort of food appears to be essential to its
growth. The principal injury is said to be
done in August and September. They have
also been found to injure walnut and ap-
ple trees as well as those above men-
tioned.

Remedy. — The best way to eradicate
this insect is to cut off all such branches
and twigs as have the least appearance of
having been girdled, and to gather up all
fallen branches and burn them immedi-
ately, as the eggs or larvae of the next
year's generation are contained in these
twigs, and, if allowed to remain undis-
turbed, would produce a race of beetles

next season which would girdle all the
trees in the neighborhood. The best
time to prune off the infested
branches is after the leaves have fallen
from the trees, as the injury can be more
plainly seen than when the tree is full of
leaves.

PEACH - BORER, Remedy for. —

Take a five pound can of car-
bolic soap, called "carbolic plant-
protector," (costing two dollars,) dis-
solve it in ten or twelve gallons of hot
water by stirring or letting stand over
night, then add twenty gallons of cold
water, and apply this liquid, with a paint-
brush, to the base of each tree, for eight
or ten inches in height first clearing
away any weeds or loose dirt with a hoe,
and taking pains to have the liquor enter
the crevices of the bark where the insect
deposits her eggs. An active man or lad
will go over, in this way, five hundred
trees in a day. If the orchard is in clean
condition the above quantity of liquid
will serve for a thousand trees, so that
the expense is not over half a cent per
treee. Apply from the first to the middle
of July.

INSECT INJURIES, to Fruit Trees, and
their Remedies. — Insects rarely attack the
most healthy and vigorous trees ; hence
the importance of effort to keep fruit trees
in the most thriving state. The black
louse, imbedded in the bark, lays her
eggs, and covers them till hatched, then
removes them to another place and re-
peats the process. The grain lice are
attended by ants which seem to milk
them, living on the sweet substance
exuding from them. They are often
killed by another insect which breeds
within them, and is their constant enemy
and our friend and helper.

CURRANT BORERS. — To destroy
these borers, the plants should be exam-
ined every fall or during winter, and
every shoot that has a borer in it will
usually be of a brown color, or slightly
wilted ; sometimes, when the shoots are
very vigorous, no difference can be ob-
served, but by close inspection the small
hole where the worm entered can be
found. All shoots containing worms
should be cut out, and the worm destroy-
ed. In this way they may be checked, if
not entirely eradicated.

SBAPKBKBBY MOTH.

GBAPEBEBBT
MOTH.

CUTWOBM MOTH.

OBTWOBM PUPA,

SOOBKKKiUiY OB CUBBAMT WOBM LABTA.

«OOBKBBBBT OB OUBBANT
MOTH,

OOTWOBH LABVa,

MECHANICAL.

BLADDERS, to Prepare. — Soak them
for twenty-four hours in water, to which
.a little chloride of lime or potash has been
.added, then remove the extraneous mem-
branes, wash them well in clean water and
dry them.

BRICK OVENS, How to Make. — A
brick oven built in the old style, out of
doors, entirely separated from the dwell-
ing-house, is more desirable and more
safe, so far as danger from fire was con-
cerned, than if built by the side of the
fireplace in the house. A good brick
oven for baking bread, pies and cakes is
worth all the ranges and cook-stoves that
•one could store in his kitchen. In such
an oven everything will be baked just
right, above and below, through and
through. After a foundation has been
prepared, let two courses of hard bricks
be laid for the bottom of the oven. Then
build the mouth and part of the sides,
until it is desirable to begin to draw the
sides inward, when sand or mellow earth
may be placed on the foundation, and the
surface smoothed off and pressed down to
the desired form of the oven. Now let
the brick work be built over this form of
sand. Let two courses of hard bricks be
laid over the form with the best mortar.
After the last bricks have been laid the
sand may be removed. The bricks should
be soaked for several hours previous to
being laid, so that they will not absorb
the moisture of the mortar until it has set.
Such an oven will cost but a few dollars.
Many people can collect a sufficient num-
ber of loose bricks and pieces around
their dwellings to build a brick oven. Be-
sides this, any intelligent man, though
only half a mechanic, can build such an
oven about as well as a mason.

CEMENT, for China, Glass, Crockery,
Metals and "Wood. — i. An excellent ce-
ment for mending china may be made as
follows : Take the white of an egg and a
Hittle flour, which make into a light paste ;

clear the parts to be joined from all dust
and dirt; spread some of the paste on
each piece and press them together ; while
wet, wipe off the exuding portions, both
inside and out; then let it remain until
quite dry. 2. The following recipe we
know from experience to be a good one,
and, being nearly colorless, it possesses
advantages which liquid glue and other
cements do not : Dissolve y2 an ounce of
gum acacia in a wine-glass of boiling
water; add plaster of Paris sufficient to
form a thick paste, and apply it with a
brush to the parts to be cemented to-
gether. For Mending Broken China,
Glass, etc. — 3. Take 1 pound white
shellac, pulverized; 2 oz. clean gum mas-
tic ; put these into a bottle, and then add
half a pound pure sulphuric ether. Let
it stand for half an hour, and then add
half a gallon 90 per cent, alcohol. Shake
occasionally till it is dissolved. Heat the
edges of the article to be mended, and
apply the cement with a pencil brush ;
hold the article together until the cement
cools. This makes a transparent cement.
4. An Indian Cement for Glass and
Metals. — Dissolve 5 or 6 pieces of gum
mastic, each about the size of a large pea,
in just as much spirit as will render it
liquid. Soften some isinglass by steeping
it in water ; having dried it, dissolve as
much of it in good brandy as will fill a
two-ounce phial ; add 2 small bits of gum
ammoniacum, previously rubbing them
until they are dissolved. Mix the two
solutions ; keep in a close phial, and when
it is to be used set the phial in boiling
water. 5. Take a thick mucilage of gum
arabic and stir into it plaster of Paris —
the broken images are best — made very
fine, to form a thick paste, and apply to
the edges with a brush, and press firmly
together and confine there two or three
days. I have pulled over 30 pounds with
a wine-glass, the stem of which had been
broken and mended with the cement.

(4°9)

4io

MECHANICAL.

6. Dissolve i ounce common salt in i
quart of water; bring to a boil, and put
in i}( pounds gum shellac. When it
shall be dissolved, pour into cold water
and work like wax. Make into small
sticks. This will make crockery as good
as new. 7. Steep Russian isinglass 24
hours in white brandy ; gently boil and
stir the mixture until it is well compound-
ed, and a drop of it, cooled, will become
a very thick jelly; then strain it through
a linen cloth, and cork it up closely. A
gentle heat will dissolve it into a colorless
fluid. Broken dishes, united with it, will
break elsewhere, rather than separate in
the old fracture. To apply it, rub the
edges, place them together, and hold them
2 or 3 minutes. 8. A desirable cement is
made by burning oyster shells, and pul-
verizing the lime from them very fine ;
then mixing it with white of egg to a
thick paste, and applying it to the china
or glass, and securing the pieces together
until dry. Take 4 pounds of white glue,
i)4 pounds of dry white lead, j4 a pound
of isinglass, 1 gallon of soft water, 1
quart of alcohol, and y2 a pint of white
varnish. Dissolve the glue and isinglass
in the water by gentle heat, if preferred ;
stir in the lead, put the alcohol in the var-
nish, and mix the whole together. 10.
A cement that will mend marble, china
and ornamental ware is made by taking wa-
ter 1 gallon, nice glue 3 pounds, white lead
4 ounces, alcohol 1 quart. Mix. Direc-
tions— If it is cold weather, warm the
bottle until the cement is dissolved ; then
with the finger or a brush, rub it on the
broken parts (both edges), put together,
and retain in their places until dry. 11.
A cement withstanding both heat and
moisture is simply pure white lead or zinc
white, ground in oil, and used very thick.
It is excellent for mending broken crock-
eryware, but it takes a very long time to
harden sufficiently. The best plan is to
place the mended object in some store-
room, and not to look after it for several
weeks, or even months. After that time
it will be found so firmly united that, if
ever again broken, it will not part on the
former fracture.

CEMENT, Egg.— White of egg, thick-
ened with finely-powdered quick-lime.
Used to mend earthenware, glass, china,
marble, alabaster, spar ornaments, etc. It
does not resist moisture.

CEMENT, for Leather. — To 10 parts,
bisulphide carbon and 1 part spirits tur-
pentine add enough gutta-percha to make
a tough, thickly-flowing liquid. The sur-
faces to be joined must be perfectly free
from grease, which is accomplished by
laying a cloth upon them and apply-
ing a hot iron for a time. The coat
is appled to both surfaces, and pressure
made till the joints are dry.

CORN CRIBS, Rat-Proof, to Make.—
Let the four corner posts be eight inches
square, frame the sills which support the
floor of the corn cribs into posts, a dis-
tance of two feet from the lower end.
Before putting the frame together, taper
the lower ends of the posts for the dis-
tance of two feet, so that at the very
base the posts shall only be four inches
square. Now, when the frame is set upr,
let the posts also stand on tapered rocks.
If the crib needs more than these four
posts to bear up the corn that will be put.
in it, make the legs like the lower portion,
of these posts, and set these legs under
the sills. Now lay the joists or sleepers
on the sills, and put on the floor, making
tight, and about three feet from the.
ground. Having the door made tight,.
keep it shut, and no rats will get into<
your crib.

DEER SKINS, to Dress. — Put the skin;
into the liquid while warm, viz. : eight
quarts rain water, to one pint soft soap.
Warm it. Then punch the hide, or work
it with a soft stick and let it lie one day.
It is then to be taken out and wrung —
rolled between two logs — or even a wring-
ing machine will be better. Then stretch
it until it is dry, in the sun is best, or by
a hot fire. Then oil it thoroughly with
any oil convenient. It should then be
treated to the same bath of suds (heated
quite warm), and lie another day. Then
pull it out and dry as before. Any oil
will do, but good fresh butter is better
than anything else. When the skin is
dry rub it with ochre, which will give it a
splendid yellow color.

FURNITURE, Varnished.— This may
be finished so as to look equal to the best
French polished wood, in the following
manner: Take two ounces of tripoli,
powdered; put it into an earthen pot,
with just enough water to cover it ; then
take a piece of white flannel, lay it over
a piece of cork or rubber, and proceed

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 41 r

to polish the varnish, always wetting it
with the tripoli water. It will be known
when the process is finished by wiping a
part of the work with a sponge, and ob-
serving whether there is a fair, even gloss.
When this is the case, take a bit of mut-
ton suet and fine flour, and clean the
work.

HIDES (Green) to Cure.— A great
many butchers do not use proper care in
this branch, and the consequence is that
the hides will not pass city inspection,
owing entirely to the ignorance and care-
lessness of persons preparing them for
market. The proper way to salt hides is
to lay them flat, flesh side up, and form a
nearly square bed, say 12 by 15 feet, fold-
ing in the edges so as to make them as
nearly solid as possible. Split the ear m the
cords that run up the ear in each one, so
as to make them lie out flat. Sprinkle
the hide with two or three shovelfuls of
coarse salt, as the size may require — say
for a sixty or eighty pound hide, from ten
to fifteen pounds of salt. At any rate
cover the hide well, as it need not be
wasted; then let them lie in this from 12
to 20 days, after which take them up,
shake the salt out and use it again.

CISTERNS, How to Build.— The cis-
tern that is designed to supply the family
with water for drinking and cooking
should be sixteen to twenty feet deep and
eight to ten feet in diameter. It should
be walled up with brick or stone ; brick is
the best — takes up less room and allows a
good arch to be made at the top. If the
earth is clay, sufficiently retentive to hold
water, the cistern wall need not be plas-
tered, but should be laid up in cement
mortar. It is quite common to wall up
cisterns in retentive clay without- any
mortar, but this makes them liable to the
same objection we have stated against
common wells — they will drain the sur-
face to the distance of twenty or thirty
feet, as we know from trial.

The cistern for family use should be
provided with a filter. This may be made
by building a four-inch brick wall across
the cistern from bottom to top, laid in
cement, curving to the side which is to
receive the water, and which should be
about two-thirds the entire capacity of
the cistern. The water will filter through
the bricks of the partition, and may be
drawn pure from the small compartment.

Another good method, and probably the
best, all things considered, is to dig a
small cistern adjoining the main one,
about five feet wide by six feet deep, con-
nected about a foot above the bottom
with the large one by a pipe. Fill this
two-thirds full with sand and gravel, and
let the water from the roof be discharged
into it and filter through into the main
cistern. The advantage of this method
is that when the filtering materials become
old or too impure, they may be taken out
and renewed without disturbing or losing
the water in the main reservoir. Very
good cisterns of small capacity are fre-
quently made in clay soil by cementing
on the earth. A large, deep and sub-
stantial cistern with a good filter, for
family use, is invaluable for its supply of
pure water.

HOUSES, Choice of Color for.— The
choice of color for country houses requires
the exercise of taste, judgment, and an
eye for harmonious combinations. It is
laid down as a rule by Calvert Vaux, that
every building requires four tints to make
it a pleasant object in the way of color.
" The main walls," he remarks, " should
be of some agreeable shade of color, the
roof-trimmings, veranMas, and other wood
work, being either of a different color, or
of a different shade of the same color, so»
that a contrast, but not a sharp one, may
be established — a third and fourth color,,
not widely different from the other wood
work, should be applied to the windows,,
blinds, etc."

The greatest defect in the generality of
country buildings is the too frequent use
of white. Another most decidedly ob-
jectionable color is unmodified red, or
those brown-stone tints, approaching to
chocolate color, which are so frequently
used in the construction of town dwell-
ings.

The simplest practical rule in the paint-
ing of houses, is to choose paint of some
neutral tint that is quiet and satisfactory,,
and let the facings of the windows, cor-,
nices, etc., be painted several shades,
darker of the same color.

ICE-HOUSE, Extemporaneous. — Ant
ice-house can be extemporized, without,
making a tenon or sawing a board. Con-,
struct a pen near the pond or stream
where the ice is to be gathered, choosing
if possible, a gravel bank where there

■412

MECHANICAL.

will be good drainage. The pen may be
made of rails twelve feet long, or of any
desired length. The larger the pen, the
better the ice will keep. Lay up two
rails upon each of the four sides. Make
the botton level, and cover it a foot or
•more with straw, sea-weed, or any con-
venient refuse vegetable matter. Sawdust
is better than straw, if it can be had.
Spent tan-bark is a good material for this
foundation. Cut the cakes of ice in the
usual manner, and pack them closely,
filling the interstices with pounded ice,
and if the weather is freezing pour on a
little water to make it solid. Pack the
outside with a foot of straw, sawdust, or
other material, and put up the fence as
the pile of ice rises. The pile can be
-conveniently made about eight feet high.
Cover the top with at least eighteen
inches of sawdust, or two feet of straw
trodden down closely. Make a roof of
boards or slabs slanting to the north,
sufficiently steep to shed water, and fasten
with a few nails. Such a pile of ice as
this can be secured by a couple of men
and a team in a day. A cheap ice-box
made with double sides and packed with
sawdust will be wanted. The inner
chamber should be about two feet long,
two feet deep, and eighteen inches wide.
This will hold a single cake of ice weigh-
ing a hundred pounds or more, and leave
room on top to keep milk, fresh meats,
fruit, and other matters. It will last from
four days to a week, according to the
quantity that is used in the drinking-
water. If the extemporaneous ice-house
is not disturbed more than once a week,
it will probably supply the family through
the summer with abundance of ice.

LIGHTNING BODS, How to Erect.—
i. The rod should consist of round iron
of about one inch in diameter ; its parts,
throughout its whole length, should be in
perfect metallic continuity, by being se-
cured together by coupling ferrules. 2.
To secure it from rust the rod should be
•coated with black paint, itself a good
conductor. 3. It should terminate in a
single platinum point. 4. The shorter
and more direct the course of the rod to
the earth the better ; bcndings should be
rounded, and not formed in acute angles.
3. It should be fastened to the building
by iron eyes, and may be insulated from
those by cylinders of glass (We do not,

however, consider the latter of much im-
portance.) 6. The rod should be con-
nected with the earth in the most perfect
manner possible, and nothing is better
for this purpose than to place it in metal-
lic contact with the gas-pipes, or, better,
the water-pipes of the city. This con-
nection may be made by a ribbon of
copper or iron soldered to the end of the
rod at one of its extremities, and wrapped
around the pipe at the other. If a con-
nection of this kind is impracticable, the
rod should be continued horizontally to
the nearest well, and then turned verti-
cally downward until the end enters the
water as deep as its lowest level. The
horizontal part of the rod may be buried
in a stratum of powdered charcoal and
ashes. The rod should be placed, in
preference, on the west side of the build-
ing. A rod of this kind may be put up
by an ordinary blacksmith. The rod in
question is in accordance with our latest
knowledge of all the facts of electricity.
Attempted improvements on it are worth-
less, and, as a general thing, are proposed
by those who are but slightly acquainted
with the subject.

MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS' AND
TILERS' WORK.— In these articles, the
contents of a roof are found by multiply-
ing the length of the ridge by the girts
over from eaves to eaves; making
allowance in this girt for the double
row of slates at the bottom, or, for how
much one row of slates or tiles is laid
over one another. When the roof is of
a true pitch — that is, forming a right an-
gle at the top, then the breadth of the
building, with its half added, is the girt
over both sides, nearly. In angles formed
in a roof, running from the edge to the
eaves, when the angle bends inward, it is
called a valley ; but when outward, it is
called a hip. Deductions are made for
chimney shafts or window holes.

MEASUREMENT, GLAZIERS' WORK
— Glaziers take their dimensions either in
feet, inches and parts, or feet, tenths and
hundredth, and they complete their work
in square feet. In taking the length and
breadth of a window, the cross bars
between the squares are included. Also
windows of round or oval forms "^e
measured as squares ; measuring them v
their greatest length and breadth, on ac-
count of the waste in cutting the glass.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 413:

MEASURE, Board.— The unit of Board
Measure is a square foot one inch thick.
Hence, to measure boards, if one inch
thick, multiply the length in feet by the
breadth in inches, and divide by 12. If
the board taper, multiply by half the width
of both ends added. Sawed lumber, like
foists, plank and scantling, are now bought
and sold by board measure. Hence, to
measure them, multiply the width in inch-
es by the thickness in inches ; multiply
the product by the length in feet, and di-
vide by 12. The number of feet, board
measure, which can be sawn from a given
log, can only be approximately determin-
ed from general tables. The following
table is the standard commonly adopted
for logs 10 feet in length, and of diame-
ters indicated, measured under the bark at
the smaller end.

Ft. Diam. Ft.

225 36 640

250 37 681

375 38 723

302 39 765

330 40 810

360 41 850

391 42 903

422 43 952

456 44 1000

490 45 1051

526 46 1 103

562 47 1 1 56

601 48 1210

Diam. Ft. Diam,

10 23 23

11 31 24

12 40 25

13 50 26

14 62 27

15 75 28

16 90 29

17 105 30

18 122 31

19 140 32

20 160 33

21 180 34

22 202 35

To find the contents in board measure
of a log of any length, look for its diam-
eter in the table, take the corresponding
number of feet, point of one place, and
multiply by the length of the log.

MEASURING, the Height of Trees.—
It is often desirable to determine the
height of a tree, if not with mathematical
correctness, with something approaching
to accuracy. There are instruments made
for the purpose of measuring with great
precision, but there are several methods
by which the height can be ascertained
without expensive appliances. By meas-
uring the shadow of a rod or other ob-
ject ot a known length and the shadow
of the tree, a simple sum will give the
height. Suppose that we measure the
shadow of aperpendicular rod six feet long,
or that of a man of the same height, and
find it to measure eight feet, and then
measure the shadow of the tree and find
it to be one hundred and thirty-two feet;
then

as S ft. : 6 feet. : 133 feet. : 99 ft.

The Gardeners' Chronicle figures a sim-
ple quadrant for tree-measuring, which
we here explain. A quarter of a circle is.
made of some light wood, and a small
plumb-bob is suspended from what would
be the centre of the circle, and a mark
made just half way of the curved side of"
the quadrant. Two small eyes for sights
attached to one of the straight edges
makes the implement complete. The
quadrant is held by the operator, moving
backward or forward until he can see the
top of the tree through both sights, the
plumb-line at the same time hanging over
the mark. The distance of the observer
from the tree, when he can see the top of
it in this manner will be the height of the
tree. Allowance must be made for the-
height of the eye from the ground, and
for any difference in the lever of the-
ground between the tree and the ob-
server.

Another Mode. — In his tale of Mon-
sieur Violet, Captain Marryat tells us, as
an instance of the great aptitude for ap-
plying simple rules possessed by the Shos-
nonee Indians, that when they desired to
measure the height of a tree at any time-
when its shadow is cast on the ground,
they used to place a stick at a given
length into the ground, and then, calcu-
lating the difference between the length
of its shadow and its actual height, and
applying the same to the shadow of the-
tree, they ascertained its correct height,,
thus unknowingly working out a sum in
the rule of three. Any person, however-
ill-informed, might easily get at the exact
height of a tree when the sun shines, or
during bright moonlight, by marking two
lines on the ground three feet apart, and
then placing in the ground on the line
nearest to the sun a stick that shall stand
exactly three feet out of the soil. When
the end of the shadow of the stick exact-
ly touches the farther line, then also the
shadow of the tree will be exactly in
length the same measurement as its-
height. Of course in such a case the sun
will be at an exact angle of 45 ° . Meas-
urements of this character could be best
effected in the summer when the sun is,
powerful, has reached to a good height in
the heavens, and when ' the trees are-
clothed with living green, so as to cast
a dense shadow. To many to whom this
idea might not have occurred it might be.

4U

MECHANICAL.

mr.de annually a matter of interest thus
on warm summer days to take the height
of prominent trees, and so to compare
notes of growth from year to year.

MEASURING TIMBER IN THE
TREE. — A simple method, and one that
can be put in practice at any time and
place, when one has only a measuring
rod, and has the experience of the writer,
'as follows : A stick of timber is desired,
gay fifty feet long. Select your tree,
measure fifty feet in a direct line from the
foot of the tree on as near level ground as
possible; now cut a stick the exact
heighth of the observer, and stick it in
the ground exactly perpendicular; now
let the observer lie flat on his back, his
feet against the stick and head in line of
tree and stick, and look directly over the
top of the stick, and where the line of
vision strikes the tree will be the length
of stick (fifty feet) desired. If the
ground is not level the measure will not
be exact, but allowance must be made.

MEASURING, OR GAUGING.— Gaug-
ing is measuring the capacity of casks
and other round vessels. When a round
vessel has the same diameter throughout,
it is said to be cylindrical, or like a cylin-
der. The area of a cylinder is equal the
square of the diameter X.7854X heighth.
Hence, if we take the dimensions of di-
ameter and heighth in inches, to find the
number of gallons, we must divide the
product by 231, the number of inches in
a gallon. But '%&£ = .0034. Hence,
to find how many gallons a cylindrical
vessel will contain, multiply by .0034 the
product of the square of the diameter in
inches by the heighth in inches. To find
how many gallons a cask will contain,
multiply by .0034 the product of the
square of half the sum of the diameter,
at head and bung, by the length. To
find the capacity of a box or bin in bush-
els, multiply together the length, breadth
and heighth in feet, and the product by
I or .8. To find the size of a bin neces-
sary to hold a given number of bushels,
increase the number of bushels by one-
fourth, and resolve into three factors.
These will be the length, breadth and
heighth required.

MEASURE, Heaped, to Estimate.—
Corn on the cob, apples, potatoes,
etc., are sold by heaped measure. A
heaped bushel contains 2509 inches;

hence a cubic foot is ±l~ § or about .63 of
a heaped bushel. To estimate the num-
ber of bushels of corn, potatoes, apples,
etc., therefore, it is only necessary to find
the number of cubic feet and multiply by
.63. Some convenient rules for ascer-
taining cubical contents are here given.
Boxes, or Rectangular Bins, etc., multiply
together the length, the breadth and the
heighth. Cribs, flared — that is, smaller
at the bottom than at the top — add to-
gether the widths of the upper level of
the corn, and at the bottom, and divide
by two. Then multiply the quotient by
the length of the crib, and the product
by the depth of the corn. Heaps — If the
bottom of the heap be square or rectan-
gular, multiply the length by the breadth,
and the product by one-third the heighth.
If the bottom be circular, multiply the
square of the diameter by .7854, and the
product by one-third the heighth. For
ordinary purposes .7854 may be consid-
ered y^. Hence, to estimate the heaped
bushels in a round heap, square the di-
ameter, divide by 6 and multiply by the
heighth. Thus, a heap of apples 2 feet
in heighth and 6 feet in diameter would
contain 3g6 x 4 = 24 bushels.

MEASURING GRINDSTONES— Which

are sold by the stone, a cylinder, 24 inch-
es in diameter and 4 inches thick, multi-
ply together, in inches, half the diam-
eter, once and a half the diameter, and
the thickness. Then divide by 1728.

MEASUREMENT OF PLUMBERS'
WORK. — Plumbers' work is rated at so
much per pound. Sheet lead, used in
roofing, guttering, etc., is from 6 to 10
pounds to the square foot, and a pipe of
an inch bore is usually 12 to 13 to the
yard in length, as seen below :

Thickness Pounds to a Bore of Pounds

of Lead. Square Ft. Leaden Pipe. Per Yard.

1

5-899

>A

IO

\

6-545

1

12

1

5

7-373

*U

16

1

2

8.427

iH

18

I

9.831

*u

21

1

11.797

2

24

STOVES, To Mend Cracks in.— Take
equal parts of wood ashes and common
salt, and mix them to a proper con-
sistence with water; with this fill the
cracks.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 415

MEASURE, HAY, Weight to be Esti-
mated. — Hay is sold by the ton, but on
account of ifs bulk it is often inconveni-
ent to weigh it. As general estimates,
these relations of weight to bulk are reli-
able.

Cubic Yds. to the ton.

New moan hay •••25

Loaded and stored hay. 20

Well settled hay 15

Baled hay 10

It remains to estimate the number of
cubic yards. If the stack or mow be
square or rectangular, multiply together
the length, breadth, and half the height
in yards. If the stack be long and tri-
angular, multiply together the length and
half the height in yards. If the stack be
circular, multiply together the square of
the circumference by .04 of the height in
yards. To calculate the price of a given
number of pounds of hay, multiply the
number of pounds by one-half the number
dollars per ton, and point off three places.
Thus at $30 per ton, 400 pounds are worth,
480X15=7-20. To estimate the num-
ber of acres in a certain field, remember
that an acre equals 160 rods, or 4,840
yards, or 43,560 feet. Hence measure
the length and breadth of the field in rods,
divide by 16, and point off one place; or
measure it in yards or paces, multiply
length by breadth, and divide success-
ively by 11, 11 and 4.

MEASURE, LIVE CATTLE, to Estimate
Weight — The superficial feet of animals
are estimated by multiplying the feet of
girth just behind the shoulder-blade by
the feet of length of back from tail to fore
part of the shoulder-blade. Thus an ox,
whose girth is 8 feet 6 inches, and length
6 feet, would measure 8^X6=56 super-
ficial feet. This assumes the shape of the
body to be cylindrical, and is, of" course,
only an approximation. For ordinary
estimates, the following may be regarded
as the weight per superficial foot :

Pounds.

Girth less than 3 feet 11

M from 3 to 5 feet. -.-- 16

" from 5 to 7 feet 23

" from 7 to 9 feet 31

Thus, an ox alluded to would weigh
about, 51X31=1,581 pounds.

MEASURING EXCAVATIONS.— This

branch of work is measured by the cubic
yard or 27 cubic feet.

If the ground is irregular, two, three or

more dimensions are to be taken to ob-
tain the mean or average depth of dig-
ging, this multiplied by the length or
breadth of the superfices will be the cubic
contents in feet, the result divided by 27
will give the number of cubic yards.

In loose, loamy or sandy soil, where
digging with the spade only is necessary,
a man may throw up a cubic yard in an
hour ; but in clay or gravel, where pick-
ing is necessary, it will require two men ;
and in very strong gravel three men will
be required to throw up the same quantity.

Where wheeling oft on barrows is nec-
essary, three men will remove 30 cubic
yards in a day to the distance of 20
yards — that is, two filling and one wheel-
ing.

When the stuff is to be carted away, a
man with a horse and cart can, with the
assistance of a man to fill, remove 12
loads per day to the distance of a mile.

When earth is left to protect an adjoin-
ing wall, the same is to be charged extra
per cubic foot when required to be re-
moved.

Note. — 24 cubic feet of sand, or 18
cubic feet of earth, or 17 cubic feet of
clay, make a ton.

Digging wells and cisterns is valued at
so much per foot in depth.

MEASURING MASON'S WORK — In
preparing the foundation for any building,
there are two sources of failure which
must be carefully guarded against — viz.,
inequality of settlement, and lateral escape
of the supporting material ; and if these
radical defects can be guarded against,
there is scarcely any situation in which a
good foundation may not be obtained.

The best foundations are rock, gravel
and very stiff, dry clay. Where the
ground in its natural state is too soft to
bear the weight of the proposed structure,
recourse must be had to artificial means
of support ; this is best obtained by a
thick layer of concrete, which is composed
of fresh burnt lime, brought directly from
the kiln, slaked with all possible speed
and immediately mixed up with clean,
coarse gravel, or broken rock, and let fall
into the bottom of the trenches to such
depth as may be deemed necessary. This
must be allowed to set (which may re-
quire two or three days) before the rub-
ble masonry is commenced thereon. As
this composition sets quickly, and, like

416

MECHANICAL.

plaster of Paris, possesses the property of
swelling as it sets, it acts with considera-
ble force against the sides of the trenches
— forming a solid, compact mass as hard
as stone, and more firmly fixed in the
trench than the foundation could be if
built with any other material.

In the lower course of footings to walls,
it is advantageous to have a great portion
of the stones — all, indeed, if the stone
will allow of it — running right through
the thickness of the wall ; at all events,
if these cannot be procured, it will be
proper to alternate the headers and
stretches, on both faces of the wall, so
that it may be well united in the direc-
tion of its thickness.

Joints down the centre of a wall should,
as much as possible, be avoided.

Rubble masonry is measured accord-
ing to custom, by the perch of 22 cubic
feet.

Projections from the face of a wall of
12 inches, and under, are measured by
taking the face, and one return, for the
length. This multiplied by the height,
and this last quotient multiplied by the
thickness or projection will give the con-
tents in cubic feet, which, divided by 22,
will be the number of perches.

Projections exceeding 12 inches meas-
ure as follows : Take the solid contents
of the blank space, and add the face, and
the return, or one foot, and proceed as
above to find the number of perches.

This measurement is given for the
trouble of squaring and plumbing the
angles.

Square isolated piers, 3 feet 6 inches by
3 feet 6 inches, and under, double meas-
urement.

From 3 feet 6 inches up to 5 feet, one
and a half.

From 5 feet up to 7 feet, one and one-
fourth.

Over 7 feet, single or actual contents.

No deductions are made for openings ;
but, if such openings exceed 6 feet in
width, the same to be deducted and the
jambs measured.

For area steps, enclosed by walls, the
steps built in and set by the stone-mason,
measure the enclosing walls as walls, and
girt the steps and risers for the length of
sloping back, multiplied by the length of
the steps in the clear, and by one foot 6
inches for the thickness, will be the con-

tents in cubic feet, and divide by 22 for
the number of perches.

Circular work, double measurement.

Range work is measured by the fool
superficial, and all openings deducted.

Arches are charged at so much each.

Note. — A perch of stone or masonry
is 16^ feet long, 1^ feet wide, and 1
foot high, or 24^ cubic feet.

MEASTJEING BRICK.— Brick may be
used for nearly all the purposes to which
stone is applicable — for when carefullj
made, its strength, hardness and durabili-
ty are but little inferior to the more ordi-
nary kinds of building stone. It remains
unchanged under the extremes of tem-
perature ; resists the action of water ; set:
firmly and promptly with mortar; anc
being both cheaper and lighter thar
stone, is preferable to it for many kind:
of structures — as arches, the walls o
houses, etc.

Brick of good quality exhibits a fine
compact, uniform texture when broker
across, gives a clear ringing sound wher
struck, and is of a cherry red or brownisr
color. Three varieties are found in the
kiln : Those which form the arches, call
ed arch brick, are always vitrified in part
and present a grayish, glassy appearance
at one end; they are very hard, but brit
tie, and of inferior strength, and set badl]
with mortar. Those from the interior o
the kiln, usually called red and hare
brick, are of the best quality. Those
from near the top and sides are gener
ally under burnt, and are called salmor
brick; they have neither sufficien
strenght nor durability for heavy work
nor the outside courses of walls whicl
are exposed to the weather.

The bricks in general use are Stock
Red and Hard, and Merchantable bricl
— this latter being part salmon and par
red brick.

Brick presents great diversity in it:
strength, arising principally from its great
er or less density; the densest made o
the same earth being uniformly the
strongest.

It was found on experiment that gooc
brick, having the specific gravity of 2,168
required 1,200 pounds on a square incl
to crush it.

Machinery is now coming into use
in this country for moulding brick
it is superior to manual labor, not onl]

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 417

from the labor saved, but from its yielding
a better quality of brick, by giving it
greater density, which adds to its strength.

Fire brick is used for the facing of
ovens, furnaces, fire-places, etc., where a
very high degree of temperature is to be
sustained. It is composed of a very re-
fractory species of clay, that will remain
unimpaired by a degree of heat which
would vitrify and completely destroy or-
dinary brick.

Bond, as it is technically called in brick
walling, is the form of connection of the
bricks with each other. There are two
modes employed.

English bond, is that disposition of
bricks in a wall in which (except at the
quoins) the courses are alternately com-
posed of headers and stretchers. This
method gives the greatest strength that
can be obtained with rectangular bricks.

Flemish bond, is that wherein the same
course consists alternately of headers and
stretchers, which, in appearance, is supe-
rior to English bond. It is defective,
however, in strength, particularly at the
angles; hence, good mortar is essential
where this kind of bond is used.

If the surface of a brick be coated with
loose sand or dust when it is laid, the
mortar will not adhere to it ; hence, all
such dust or sand should be removed by
washing j and it is further desirable to
have the bricks well wetted before laying
them in dry weather.

Measuring and estimating the value of
brick work is generally done at per thou-
sand of bricks laid, including labor, mor-
tar and scaffolding.

In measuring walls faced with stock or
pressed bricks, take the area of such
facing as for common work, and add 8
inches in breadth and 4 inches in height
on each opening, and 4 inches at each
quoin, for the workmanship only, and
deduct the openings. When the open-
ings are without frames, and have the
jambs faced through the full thickness of
the wall, both jambs to be measured and
4 inches on each return on the inside to
be allowed.

A superficial foot of facing to fronts will
take 7 bricks.

In walls, take the whole length by the
height and thickness and deduct the
openings.

In measuring for the length of party
27

walls, take the dimensions clear of the
front and rear walls.

No deductions to be made for plates,
bond timbers, sills, lintels, etc.; but 2
inches in height to be allowed for bed-
ding plates where no brick work is over
them.

Chimneys are measured solid to allow
for the trouble of forming and pargetting
the flues.

In chimney breasts, take the width ot
the face on each floor, and multiply by
the height and by the thickness project-
ing into the room. The fire-places not
deducted.

In chimney tops, take the width and
multiply by the height above the roof,
and by the thickness or number of bricks
thick ; when projections on the top exceed
two courses of brick, two courses to be
added to the height.

All chimney stacks, whether with square,
circular or octagon shafts, to measure
solid.

In measuring isolated piers, take the
face and one return for the width, and
multiply by the height and thickness or
number of bricks thick.

To measure brick cornices, take the
height and length, and that portion which
does not exceed 4^ inches projection
from face of wall, allow half brick thick;
over 4^ inches projection, and not ex-
ceeding 9 inches, allow one brick thick.

Fire-walls, when carried up lor metallic
or composition roofing of the usual flat
pitch, add two courses of brick in height
for cutting the brick and waste thereon.

Recesses in outside walls measured the
same as other openings; but the jambs to
be deducted from the opening.

Recesses in inside walls of 3 feet and
over, to be deducted in toto.

Recesses at window backs not de-
ducted.

Gauged arches are sometimes deducted
and charged separately — sometimes not;
but whether deducted or not does not
signify, as the extra price must be allowed I
in the latter case, and the whole price in
the former.

Rubbed and gauged arches, of what-
ever form, should be measured and
charged by the superficial foot.

Semi-circular openings, when under 6
feet diameter, to measure solid; when.

4U

MECHANICAL.

over 6 feet diameter, one-half the open-
ing to be deducted.

For openings without frames, measure
to the springing for the height by the
width, deducting one jamb.

For arches of vaults, sewers, etc., take
the outside circumference by the length
and thickness.

Ovens, coppers, boilers, etc., are meas-
^ured as solid work, deducting only the
ash-holes; but all the fire-brick, tiles, etc.,
although measured alone, are not deduct-
ed out of the brick- work.

Paving is measured by the superficial
yard, or 9 square feet, which will require
41 bricks when laid flat, and about twice
that amount when laid on edge.

A 9 inch wall will require 14 bricks.

A 13 inch wall will require 21 bricks.

A cubic foot of brick-work weighs from
120 to 125 pounds, avoirdupois.

One bushel hydraulic cement will,
where mixed with two bushels sharp
.sand, serve to lay 150 bricks.

Mortar when made up should not be
•disturbed for several days, and during
the period of its consumption should be
broken down and "tempered" in no
larger quantities than may be required for
use from day to day.

Pointing to fronts is measured by the
foot superficial.

Stone sewer-pipes are measured and
valued by the foot run, according to size
of bore, from 3 to 18 inches diameter,
.and are made in 2 feet lengths.

Note. — All openings and irregulars,
add 50 per cent, apiece more.

MEASURING TIMBER.— All rectan-
gular and square lumber and timber, as
plank, joists, beams, etc, are measured by
what is called board measure. The
board being considered 1 inch thick, and
estimated by the square or superficial foot
of 144 inches, or the cubic foot of 1728.
The calculations are performed by duo-
decimals— that is, the foot or inch, etc.,
divided into 12 parts, thus:

12 fourths make 1 third.

12 thirds make...... ...... 1 second.

12 seconds make..... 1 inch.

12 inches make 1 foot.

And the several values arising are :
Feet multiplied by feet give feet.
Feet multiplied by inches give inches.
Feet multiplied by seconds give seconds.
Inches multiplied by inches give seconds.
Inches multiplied by seconds give thirds, etc.

This rule is commonly called cross mul-
tiplication, on account of commencing
with the left hand figure of the multiplier.
Example i. — Required the superficial
contents of a board of 12 feet 6 inches
long and 1 foot 3^ inches broad.
f. 1.
12.6
Multipled by 1.3.6

12.6

6-3

Feet, 1 6. 1.9

When the two ends of a board are of
different breadths, add the two breadths
together, and multiply the length by half
the same.

Example 2. — A board that is 1 foot 3
inches broad at one end, n^ inches
broad at the other, and 18 feet 9 inches
long, what is the superficial contents ?
15 X 11^ = 26^ =13^ inches.

2.

F. I.

Then 18.9
Multipled by 13^ = 1.1.3

18.9
1.6.9

4.8.3

Feet, 20.8.5.3

To find the contents 01 joists, beams,
etc. :

Rule. — Multiply the depth, taken in
inches, by the thickness, and this product
by the length in feet, and the quotient is
the contents in feet.

Example. — Required the cubic con-
tents of a joist 10 inches wide and 12
feet 6 inches long ?

F. I.
12.6

Multiplied by 1.8

12.6

8.4.0

Feet, 20.10.0
To find the contents ot solid timber :
The solid contents of timber (accord
ing to custom) is found by multiplying
the length by the square of the }( girth.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 419

Example. — Required the contents of a
round stick of timber in cubic feet whose
girth in the middle is 84 inches and length
25 feet 6 inches:

84-^-4 = 21 inches }£ girth.
f. 1.
And 21 inches = 1.9
Multiplied by 1.9

1.9
'♦3-9

= 3.0.9

F. I.

Then 25.6
Multiplied by 3.0.9

Feet, 78. 1. 1.6
But a more expeditious method is ob-
tained by means of the following table :

tea

a

<

a 0

<

5 .

si

J*""

J*

•* .

6

.250

12*

1.042

x9 .

2.506

6%

.272

12^

1.085

*9X

2.640

6*

.294

I2#

1. 129

20

2.777

6%

•317

'3 ,

1. 1 74

20^

2.917

7

.340

»3*

1. 219

21

3.062

rx

.364 •

13S

1.265

21^

3.209

VA

•390

'3^

1-313

22

3.362

1%

.417

"4

1.361

22^

3-516

s

•444

'4*

1.410

23

3-673

iK

.472

'4#

1.460

23K

3835

*%

.501

'4#

1.511

24

4.000

&X

•531

15 :

1.562

24X

4.168

9 f

.562

i$}C

1.615

25

4-340

9%

•594

iS'A

1.668

25^

4516

9%

.626

iSX

1.722

26

4.694

9U

.659

[6

1.777

26^

4.876

10

.694

16%

1.833

27

5.062

v>%

•73°

m

1.890

3*

5.252

*°lA

.766

16%

1.948

5-444

™K

.803

'7

2.006

28^

5.640

11

.840

<7#

2.066

29

5.840

»tf

.878

ivA

2.128

29lA

6.044

uA

.918

17X

2.187

30

6.250

i\%

•959

[8

2.250

12

1000

18K

2.376

Rule. — Multiply the area correspond-
ing to the ^ girth in inches by the length
of the timber in feet, and the product is
the solid contents in feet and decimal
parts.

Example. — A piece of timber 18 feet
long and 14 inches square, what are the
cubic contents in feet ?

1. 36 1 X 18 = 24.498 cubic feet.

PLASTEEEES' WORK, MEASURING.

— Plain plastering is measured by the
superficial yard — that is, 3 feet multiplied
by 3 feet= 9 feet.

^ In measuring ceilings, take the dimen-
sions from wall to wall.

In measuring walls and partitions, take
the girt around the room for a length,
and from floor to ceiling for the height,
deducting one half of the openings, such
as doors, windows, &c.

All cornices and mouldings, and all
work where the running mould is used,
are measured from the nose of the mould-
ing to the wall; and we speak of a
moulding as being so many inches ac-
cording to girt ; the length is taken
on the wall line, and one foot lineal is
allowed to each metre. Take all plain or
moulded cornices under 12 inches girt by
the running foot, and all above that girt
by the superficial foot. The plain parts
of ornamental cornices should first be
taken as plain, and the several enrich-
ments therein taken per foot run, at their
separate values,, which added to the price
of the plain moulding, will give the cor-
rect value per foot run of the whole
cornice complete.

Mouldings encircling centres, to be
measured as mouldings.

All circular work, double measurement.

All inclined or raking ceilings under an
angle of 22 degrees with the horizon, to
be measured as level; over 22 degrees,
one and a half measurement.

Closets and presses under 4 feet by 8
feet, double measurement.

Privies, double measurement.

Furring, regulating or striping on all
lath work at per square.

Whitening and coloring are measured
in the same manner as plastering.

Niches and arches are valued at so
much each.

Cast and enriched centres to ceilings
fixed, &c, complete, so much each,
according to diameter.

All circular enrichments to be twice
the price of straight of the same
description.

When enrichments are modeled from
original designs, the expense of modeling
to be paid for extra.

Outside work done with cement or
mastic, measured same as plastering ; but
no openings deducted.

420

MECHANICAL.

CARPENTER'S WORK AND MEASU-
RING.—What is called Naked Flooring
in carpentry are the joists which support
the flooring boards and ceiling of a room.
There are different kinds, but they may
all be comprised in the three following —
viz. : Single joisted floors, double floors,
and framed floors.

A single joisted floor consists of only
one series of" joists, sometimes every third
or fourth joist is made deeper, with ceil-
ing joists nailed across at right angles.
This is a good method, as the ceilings
stand much better than when the laths
are nailed to the joists alone.

A double floor consists of binding,
bridging and ceiling joists; the binding
joists are the chief support of the floor,
and the bridging joists are nailed upon
the upper side of them; the ceiling joists
are either notched to the under side or
framed between. with chased mortices.
The best method is to notch them.

Framed floors differ from double floors
only in having the binding joists framed
into large pieces of timber, called girders.

Single joisted floors, when the bearing
exceeds 10 feet, should be cross-bridged
between the joists, to prevent them from
turning or twisting side ways, and also to
stiffen the floor ; when the bearing exceeds
15 feet, two rows will be necessary, and
so on, adding another row for each in-
crease of 5 feet bearing.

Single joisting may be used to any ex-
tent for which timber can be got deep
enough ; but where it is desirable to have
a perfect ceiling, the bearing should not
exceed 18 feet, nor the distance from cen-
tre to centre be more than 16 inches;
otherwise the bearing for the laths be-
come too long to produce good work.

To find the depth of a joist, the length
of bearing and thickness being given —

Rule. — Divide the square of the length
in feet by the thickness in inches, and the
cube root of the quotient multiplied by
2.2 for pine, or 2.3 for oak, will be the
depth in inches.

Example. — Suppose a joist whose bear-
ing is 10 feet, and the thickness 2 inches,
what will be the depth ?

Here 10X10=100, divided by 2, the
thickness, =50, the cube root of which is
3,684X2.2=8.1048=8 inches, the depth.

To find the scantlings of joists for dif-
ferent bearings from 5 to 20 feet, at sev-

eral thicknesses, refer to the following
table :

V< fl CO • 00 * CD 03* CD

0**"* ■*•'•*.•• •'to *vrfl **»

iffl S

■5 -S
•2 S

F *

co

h *

11

3 1

o a

5 ]

Si o

£ a

■o a o

a -a

5

6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14

!2

17
18

19

20

6%

V

4%

&A
&A
VA

S

AA
4#

4

4lA

1*

$%

5

b%

5A

s¥

b%

6

m

7

b%

*>%

r/z

7

tu

8

7%

7%

8ji

8

7%

9

8%

8

9%

8*

8%

9%

9M

w

™%

9%

9%

10%

10

9Vx

Mji

io#

10

"X

«>*

10X

9H ^lA

9% 9

10 9%
io'A 9%

11 ioiA

12 uk

12^ "#

13 12

Girders are the chief support of a
framed floor, and their depth is often lim-
ited by the size of the timber; therefore,,
the method of finding the scantling may
be divided in two cases —

Case i. — To find the depth of a girder
when the length of bearing and thickness
of the girder are given.

Rule. — Divide the square of the length
in feet by the thickness in inches, and the
cube root of the quotient multiplied by
4.2 for pine, or by 4.34 for oak, will give
the depth required in inches.

Case 2. — To find the thickness when
the length of bearing and depth are given.

Rule. — Divide the square of the length
in feet by the cube of the depth in inches,
and the quotient multiplied by 74 for pine,
or by 82 for oak, will give the thickness
in inches.

In these rules the girders are supposed
to be 10 feet apart, and this distance
should never be exceeded; but should
the distance apart be more or less than 10
feet, the thickness should be made pro-
portionate thereto.

When the breadth of girders is consid-
erable, it is an excellent method to saw
them down the middle and bolt them to-
gether, with the sawn sides outward. This
not only gives an opportunity of examin-
ing the centre of the log, but also re-
duces the timber to a smaller scantling

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 421

by which means it dries sooner and is less
liable to rot. The slips put between the
halves or flitches should be thick enough
to allow the air to circulate freely between
them.

Ceiling Joists. — If 2 inches be fixed
upon for the thickness of ceiling joists,
the rule for finding the depth becomes
very easy; for half the length in ieet
gives the depth in inches — that is, if the
length be 10 feet, the depth should be 5
inches; if 12 feet, the depth will be 6
inches, and so on for any other length.

Wall plates should be made stronger
as the span becomes longer.

The following proportions may serve
for general purposes :
For a 20 feet bearing 4^ by 3 inches.

* 30 " 6 by 4 "

" 40 " 7Kb7 5 "

Construction of Roofs. — The height of
roofs is seldom above one-third of the
span, and should never be less than one-
sixth, except for metal or composition.

The usual pitch is that when the height
is one-fourth of the span, or at an angle
of 26^ degrees with the horizon, this
inclination is adapted to the covering
with slates or shingles.

For roofs whose spans are between 20
and 50 feet, no more than a truss with a
king-post and struts will be necessary, in
which case the scantlings here-under
given will be sufficient, viz. :

In. In.
For a span of 20 feet, the beams

to be - - - - 9 by 4
The king-posts, - - r 4 by 4
Principal rafters, - - - 4 by 4

Struts, 4 by 3

For a span of 25 feet, the tie

beams, - - - - 10 by 5
The king-posts, - - - 5 by 5

Principal rafters, - - - 5 by 4
Struts, - - - - "5 by 3
For a span of 30 feet, the tie

beams, - - - -n by 6
The king-posts, - - - 6 by 6
Principal rafters, - - - 6 by 4
Struts, - - - - - 6 by 3

For roofs whose spans are between 30
and 33 feet, a truss with two queen-posts
and struts will be required, and a straining
piece between the queen-posts. Thus :

For a span of 35 feet, the tie beams to
be 1 1 inches by 5 inches ; queen-posts, 4
inches by 4 inches; principals, 5 inches

by 4 inches ; straining piece, 7 inches by

4 inches; struts, 4 inches by 2 inches.
For a span of 40 feet, the tie beams to

be 12 inches by 5 inches; queen-posts, 5
inches by 5 inches; principals, 5 inches
by 5 inches ; straining piece, 7 inches by

5 inches; struts, 5 inches by 2)4 inches.
For a span of 45 feet, the tie beams to

be 13 inches by 6 inches; queen-posts, 6
inches by 6 inches; principals, 6 inches
by 5 inches ; straining piece, 7 inches by

6 inches ; struts, 5 inches by 3 inches.
For roofs whose spans are between 45

and 60 feet, two sets of queen-posts are
required, and a straining piece between
them; struts from the larger to the smaller
queen-posts, and struts again from the
latter.

For a span of 50 feet, tie beams, 13
inches by 8 inches ; queen-posts, 8 inches
by 8 inches ; small queens, 8 inches by 4
inches ; principals, 8 inches by 6 inches ;
straining piece, 9 inches by 6 inches;
struts, 5 inches by 3 inches.

For a span of 55 feet, tie beams, 14
inches by 9 inches ; queen-posts, 9 inches
by 8 inches ; small queens, 9 inches by 4
inches ; principals, 8 inches by 7 inches ;
straining piece, 10 inches by 6 inches ;
struts, $)4 inches by 3 inches.

For a span of 60 feet, tie beams, 15
inches by 10 inches; queen-posts, 10
inches by 8 inches; small queens, 10
inches by 4 inches; principals, 8 inches
by 8 inches; straining piece, n inches
by 6 inches; struts, 6 inches by 3 inches.

The scantlings of purlins are regulated
principally by their bearing, which ought
not to exceed 10 feet.
For a bearing of 6 ft., the scant-
ling should be - - - 6 by 4
For a bearing of 8 ft., the scant-
ling should be - - 7 by 5
For a bearing of 10 ft, the scant-
ling should be - - - 8 by 6

For common rafters the scantlings are
as follows :

12 feet should be the maximum ot
bearing.

For a bearing of 8 ft., the scant-
ling should be - - 4 by 2
For a bearing of 10 ft., the scant-
ling should be - - - 5 by 2
For a bearing of 12 ft., the scant-
ling should be - - 6 by 2

In measuring carpenters' work it would
be impossible to specify all the methods

4^2

MECHANICAL

required to ascertain the value of each
kind of work, within the limits of this
volume. They must be learned by ob-
servation and experience. All that we
have to do is with the principles on
which measuring and estimating is con-
ducted.

Before laying the floors, or lathing the
work to receive the plastering, the timbers
should be measured, so that the scantlings
may be examined and proved correct
according to the specification; and in
this, as a general rule, it is to be remem-
bered that all pieces having tenons are
measured to their extremities, and that
the ends of joists, girders, etc., lie in the
walls at least yi of the wall's thickness.
In large measures, where the quantity of
materials and workmanship is uniform,
the articles are usually measured by the
square — that is, 10 feet by 10 feet = ioo
feet.

Partitions are measured, if uniform in
materials, etc., by the square; but if
trussed, add a larger price than for the
common studs, on account of the trouble
of fitting the ends of the uprights to the
bracings and forming the abutments.

Furring of walls, measured by the
square.

In measuring bond timber and wall
plates, the laps must be added to the net
lengths.

All the timbers in the principals of a
trussed roof to be reduced to board
measure, and classed according to the
difficulty of execution, or the waste that
occurs in performing the work.

Common rafters, as respects labor, are
rated much the same as joists or stud-
ding.

Purlins, which require trouble in fitting,
are worth more, because on them are
notched down the common rafters, the
joggles, including the tenons at the ends
oi struts ; morticing tie beams and prin-
cipal rafters, preparing king and queen-
posts, and the strapping and bolting are
all to be separately considered to arrive
accurately at the true value.

Ribbed ceilings are taken by the
quantity of timber they contain, making
due allowance for the waste of stuff, which
is often considerable.

Plain centering is measured by the
square; but the ribs and boarding, being
different qualities of work, should be

taken separately. The dimensions are
obtained by girting round the arch and
multiplying by the length. Where groins.
occur, besides the measurement as above,
the angles must be measured by the foot
run — that is, the ribs and boards are
measured separately, according to the
exact superficial contents of each, and
the angles by the lineal foot for the labor
in fitting the ribs and boards, and waste
of wood.

All circular timbers, of flat sweep, one
and a half times; quick sweep, twice;
elliptical, twice and a half; and circular,
four times the price of straight of the
same denomination.

Bracketing, including plugging, meas-
ured by the foot superficial.

For every angle bracket, add one foot
of the cornice. If circular on plan, one
and a half times the price of straight.

MEASURING JOINERS' WORK.—
This branch of work is measured and
estimated by the foot superficial.

Floors are measured by the square of
ioo feet.

Boarders to hearths, mitred, at per foot
lineal.

The value of every kind of framing
must depend on the thickness of the stuff,,
whether it is plain or molded, and upon
the number of panels in a given height
and breadth, and also on the form of the
plan.

Wainscotting, window linings, as backs
and elbows; door linings, such as jambs
and soffits ; back linings, partitions, doors,,
shutters, and the like, are all measured
and valued by the foot superficial.

Sashes, frames, blinds, doors, etc., are
made at the several planing mills, and
may be obtained of any size.

Sashes, by the pair, according to thick-
ness and size of glass.

Frames, whether solid or box frames,,
each. If with segment or circular heads,
so much additional.

Blinds, with stationary slats, or rolling,
according to thickness, at per pair.

Skylights, the prices whereof depend
on their plans and elevations, are meas-
ured by the foot superficial.

Framed grounds, by the foot run.

In the measurement of stair-cases, the
risers, treads, carriages, etc., are, after
being classed together, measured by the
foot superficial, and the string board is

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 42J

sometimes included. The value varies,
as the steps may be straight, or winders,
or circular.

Stairs circular on the plan, measure
double; stairs oval, and for the quick
part, three times. Some kind of elliptical
work should be valued at six times ; and
dome or globe work at nine times that
of the straight.

The balusters, housings to steps and
risers, common cut brackets, square and
circular on the plan, together with the
preparing and fixing, are all valued by
the piece; returned nosings are some-
times valued by the pieee, and if circular
on the plan, double the price of the
straight ones.

Handrails, by the foot run, measured in
the centre on the top, and three inches
beyond the springing of the sweep.

Mouldings are measured by the foot
run, their value depending on the number
of quirks.

All horizontal moldings on a circular
plan are three or four times the value of
those on a straight plan, the trouble
being increased as the radius of the circle
upon which they are formed diminishes.

Circular heads of shutters to store
fronts, to be measured square from the
springing three times that of the straight.
Among the articles which are to be
measured by the lineal foot, are beads,
fillets, bead or O. G. capping, astragals,
reeds, etc.

Rule joints, cantilevers, trusses, and
cut brackets for shelves, are charged by
the piece.

Shingles. — White pine sawed, shaved
and star shingles, average 16 inches long
and 4 inches wide. A square will require
1000 laid 4^ inches to the weather,
allowing for waste.

Cedar shingles average 30 inches long
by 7 inches wide.

A square will require 248 laid 8 in. to
the weather.

A square will require 220 laid 9 in. to
the weather.

Hardware, such as nails, screws, sash
pulleys, bolts, hinges, locks, etc., are
charged for with the work to which they
are attached, the joiner being allowed a
percentage on the prime cost.

MEASURING COMPOSITION ROOF-
ING— Is measured by the square of 100

feet— that is, 10 feet multiplied by 10-
feet.

It is denominated 2 ply, 3 ply or 4 ply.

The paper is generally 26 inches wide.
With a two inch lap and 2 ply, n inches
will be exposed to the weather ; for 3 ply
and 2 inch lap, 8 inches will be exposed ;
and for 4 ply, also 2 inch lap, 6 inches
will be exposed to the weather.

The price, of course, regulated accord-
ingly.

Plastic slate roofing is measured the
same way, and deductions made in either
case when the openings exceed one

square.

PAINTERS' WORK, Measur-
ing of, and Hints on. — There is no de-
partment in the art of building on
which greater attention ought to
be bestowed than house painting;
not only for the protection it gives
the material to which it is applied,,
but the superior elegance of which the
plainest finished house may be made sus-
ceptible by its judicious and tasteful
application.

In painting new work, the knots must,,
first, be properly killed, as the painters-
term it. The best way of effecting this is-
by laying upon those knots which retain
any turpentine a considerable substance-
of lime immediately after it is slacked,.
This process dries and burns out the
turpentine which the knots contain ; or,
by coating them over with size composed
of pure shellac and alcohol. If any
doubts exist of their still remaining un-
killed and should appear after priming,
they should be covered with silver or gold
leaf.

When the knotting is completed the
priming color is laid on. The priming
color is composed of white and a little
red lead, mixed thin with linseed oil.
One pound of it will cover from 18 to 20
yards.

The second coat, if intended for white
finish, half oil and half turpentine; if
four coat work, the third coat should be
about Yi oil and ft turpentine; fourth
coat, all turpentine.

Where the work is to be grained, the
coats, after priming, should be composed
of about half and half. Before laying on
the third coat the work should be rubbed
down with fine sand paper, and stopped
with oil putty where necessary.

424

MECHANICAL.

In respect to outside work, the use of
turpentine is to be avoided, for turpen-
tine is more susceptible to water than oil,
and, hence, not so well calculated to
preserve work exposed to the weather.

The process of sanding is frequently
adopted for outside work. It is per-
formed with fine sand thrown on the last
coat of paint while wet.

The method of gilding is either through
a medium of oil or water, the former
being that most used in gilding the
decorations of houses.

The gold of various thicknesses is
furnished by the gold-beater in books of
26 leaves; each leaf being 3^6 x 3 inches
or, in the book, 1 foot 6 inches and 6-8th
of an inch superficial.

The art of imitating the grain of the
more expensive woods is now brought to
so great a degree of perfection that it is
often almost impossible to determine,
without feeling the surface, whether we
are looking upon the wood or an
imitation of it. Mahogany, satin
wood, rosewood, maple and some others,
are frequently imitated; and it is but
seldom that a good house is finished
without the introduction of some grain-
ing. Delicate parti-colors are often pre-
ferred for parlors and other apartments.

Painting is measured wherever the
brush goes; and all wainscotting, walls,
doors, shutters, jamb-linings, architraves
and all other places over 9 inches girth,
is taken at per yard superficial. On all
articles under 9 inches girth, at per foot
run. On all frame work the net length is
taken one way and the dimensions girted
over the mouldings, panels, &c, the other
way.

The following rules for measuring
painters' work can be relied on :

Mouldings, one inch is to be allowed.

Beads, ^ inch is to be allowed.

Cutting edges, 1 inch is to be allowed.

Brick work, measured solid and y$ of
openings deducted.

Frame houses, same as brick. Blinds,
one and a half measurement. Lattice
work, from one and a half to three times.

Old painted work, outside or inside, if
1 foot or under to girth; 1 foot, if over
1 foot to girth, according to measure-
ment.

Plain cornices, to measure 1^; but if

block and dentil, or otherwise orna-
mented, from i}i to 5 measurement.

Sashes to measure solid if of 1 color;
but if 2 colors, \]/2 up to glass 24 inches
by 30 inches, and all above. Muntins to
be measured and 1 inch allowed for cut-
ting edges.

Edges to shelves, three times.

Base, if of 1 color and under 1 foot to
girth, 1 foot; if 2 colors girth, 1 foot six
inches ; if over 1 foot, 6 inches ; if over
1 foot and one color to girth, 1 foot
6 inches; but if 2 colors to girth, 2 feet;
if higher, to measure according to
measurement.

Down spouts to girth, from 1 to 3
feet.

Balusters, ij£ to 3 measurements.

Iron railing for porches, fences and
verandahs, to measure from 1^ to 4
measurements.

Door and window caps, if of 1 color
to girth, from 1 to 3 feet ; but if 2 colors,
double measurement.

Fluted columns, 1% times the flutes
to be measured.

Caps and bases to columns, from 2 to
5 measurements.

Quoins and corner stones, 1^ to 2
measurements.

Paling fences, 1^ to 3 measurements.

Mantles, measured solid, from 2 to 3
measurements.

Stair strings, 2 measurements when
plain; but if bracketed or otherwise
ornamented, 3 measurements.

For cleaning off new work, add 3 per
cent, to whole bill.

A liberal deduction to be made on all
work that is not done in a good and
workman-like manner, to be assessed by
arbitrators appointed by the parties or
by the measurer.

PAIirr, (Cheap), for Fences, etc.— 1.
Take a bushel of well burnt lime, white
and unslacked; 20 pounds of Spanish
whiting, 17 pounds of rock salt, and 12
pounds of brown sugar. Slake the lime
and sift out any coarse lumps and mix it
into a good whitewash with about 40
gallons of water, and then add the other
ingredients, and stir the whole together
thoroughly, and put on two or three coats
with a common brush. This is a cheap
paint. Five dollars' worth ought to make
the building look a hundred dollars'
worth better. This makes a coat that

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 425

•does not wash off, or easily rub off, and it
looks well, while it will go far to preserve
the wood. It is, therefore, especially
adapted to the outside of buildings that
are exposed to the weather. Three coats
are needed on brick and two on wood.
If you want to get a fine cream color,
.add three pounds of yellow ochre to the
above. If you prefer a brown color, add
four pounds of umber, one pound of In-
dian red, and one pound of lampblack.
If you want a gray or stone color, add
four pounds of raw umber and two
pounds of lampblack. This will be more
durable than common whitewash.

PAINTING.— The value of paints pre-
pared from oxides of iron is very generally
overlooked by architects. These paints
:some men of experience pronounce to be
superior to those prepared from the
oxides of lead; at any rate, they answer
equally well, and the cost is considerably
less. But we propose to allude to the
value of these paints, especially for use
upon iron. It has been acknowledged for
years that the oxides of lead, or copper,
if put upon iron, will eat into it, and pro-
mote corrosion, and yet how frequently
do we meet with the requirement that
iron work shall have a coat of red-lead
before leaving the foundry: a worse pro-
vision could hardly be made, unless it be
to specify verdigris, a preparation from
•copper; this also is sometimes used,
though it eats holes into the iron in a
very short time. Very shortly after iron-
work is painted, the iron will be observed
corroded, and the remark be upon every
body's tongue, "This ought not to be
going so soon; ought not to want painting
so soon," The fact is, lead has been put
upon it, and nothing else could be ex-
pected. The reason red or white lead
causes metal to corrode so quickly is ex-
plained thus: directly the air gets to the
metal, not only does natural corrosion
take place, but a chemical action sets in
between the lead and the iron, and in-
creases the corrosion. No harm can re-
sult from painting iron with red or white
lead, so long as the oxygen of the air, or
water, does not get to the metal; but as
it is almost sure to do so, it is best not to
run the risk. The same quantity of paint,
made from the oxide of iron, will cover a
surface of twice the area as that of paint
prepared from lead, though the price is

much less. Aqua fortis, one of the
strongest acids, if poured upon red or
white lead, will fuse it instantly, but has
no effect upon paint prepared from the
oxide of iron. With regard to the numer-
ous anti-corrosive paints in existence, we
may say, in one word, it is of no use try-
ing to cheat nature; anti-corrosive paints
will not answer the purpose their names
imply: all paints must yield eventually to
the action of the oxygen, and the work be
repainted, and for many reasons it is well
that all work should be repainted at
proper intervals. All that can be done
to attain the objects of such paints is to
to pick and form the stuff as to reduce
the power of the elements to affect it to a
minimum. This is found best secured
when the composition forming the paint
is granular, not so finely powdered as
ordinarily. The finer the powder of the
mixture, the greater the tendency for air-
holes to form, as the paint is being laid
on; paint that is more gritty, or granular,
affords a better opportunity for the air to
escape, and therefore reduces the liabili-
ty of corrosion to the utmost limit. The
coating of oil is the best preservative,
and not the paint mixtures; and there-
fore those mixtures which, like lamp-black,
go a long way in mixing with oil, answer
better than those that require more of the
mixture to form the paint. For covering
urinals or other work exposed to the in-
fluence of strong acid, black varnish is
the best article to use; it should be fre-
quently applied, and is inexpensive.
Woodwork before painting ought to be
well soaked with good priming, principal-
ly turpentine; this keeps damp out of the
wood; a coat of paint has not the same
power, as it forms a skin on the wood,
instead of soaking into it. The priming
should pass over all the woodwork, where
exposed; otherwise damp may come into
contact with the portion not primed, and
it will find its way down the wood, and
cause blisters in the paint, where we have
thought them unlikely ; blistering is often
a result of insufficient priming. Painters,
as a rule, neglect to prime the tops of out-
side doors; damp gets down the wood,
and blistering results. Knots will some-
times show through paint-work, and lead
to the inference that no knotting has
been used, whereas the effect may be
merely the result of using inferior stuff.

4.26

MECHANICAL.

It is of great importance that knotting of
good quality be used; it may be pur-
chased at half the cost of the well known
patent knotting, but will answer no pur-
pose. The best driers are prepared from
sugar of lead; the lighter the driers the
better their quality. The quantity of
. driers required depends upon the time ot
the year the paint is used, and the charac-
ter of the oil. There is a great deal of
bad oil in use now, distilled, or by other
means prepared from resin ; this will not
dry properly, do what you will with it,
and it should be condemned for paint-
work at once. It does not cost half so
much as linseed oil, and there is, there-
fore, at all times danger of it getting into
our work. When fresh, and sometimes
when of long standing, it may be killed
by an application of petroleum spirit, or
potash; but generally, when this oil
proves to be in the paint, the best course
is to scrape the whole off with salaman-
cas, or hot irons, in the usual way. No
oil will answer so well as linseed oil, well
boiled or raw, when there is not the
necessity for so much driers; raw oil may
be used in summer weather, and should
always be used for white paints, as the
boiled oil discolors them; driers in this
latter case must be added. Often when
we specify the best copal varnish, we get
nothing but common oak, though the
difference in cost may be from seven
shillings to twenty-one per gallon. The
best proceeding for the architect is to
price the varnish, and take special means
for obtaining it. For ordinary purposes,
where we usually specify common oak var-
nish, copal varnish diluted with oil answers
better, and in practice is often adopted.

PAINT, Mixing Oil Colors. — In mixing
different colored paints to produce any
desired tint, it is best to have the princi-
pal ingredient thick, and add to it the
other paints thinner. In the following
list of the combinations of colors required
to produce a required tint, the first named
color is the principal ingredient, and the
others follow in the order of their im-
portance. Thus, in mixing a limestone
tint, white is the principal ingredient, and
red the color of which least is needed,
etc. The exact proportions of each de-
pending on the shade of color required.

List of compound colors, showing the
simple colors which produce them.

Buff, white, yellow ochre, red.

Chestnut, red, black, yellow.

Chocolate, raw umber, red, black.

Claret, red, umber, black.

Copper, red, yellow, black.

Dove, white, vermillion, blue, yellow.

Drab, white, yellow ochre, red, black.

Fawn, white, yellow, red.

Flesh, white, yellow ochre, vermillion.

Freestone, red, black, yellow ochre,
white.

French Gray, white, Prussian blue, lake.

Gray, white lead, black.

Gold, white, stone ochre, red.

Green Bronze, chrome, green, black,
yellow.

Green Pea, white, chrome green.

Lemon, white, chrome yellow.

Limestone, white, yellow ochre, black,
red.

Olive, yellow, blue, black, white.

Orange, yellow, red.

Peach, white, vermillion.

Pearl, white, black, blue.

Pink, white, vermillion, lake.

Purple, violet, with more red and white.

Rose, white, madder lake.

Sandstone, white, yellow ochre, black,
red.

Snuff, yellow, Vandyke brown.

Violet, red, blue, white.

LAND, Measuring. — Land measuring
is the art by which we ascertain the su-
perficial contents of any tract of ground.

There are various methods of obtain-
ing the measurement — some of them re-
quiring familiar acquaintance with mathe-
matical treatises more intricate and com-
prehensive than the present work ; whilst
others need nothing beyond a knowledge
of the simplest principles of mensuration.

As the present work addresses itself
entirely to practical men, we shall confine
our remarks to the popular method ordi-
narily employed.

Land is commonly measured with
what is called Gunter's chain. This chain
is divided into ioo links, having at the
end of every ten links a piece of brass
fixed with notches denoting the number
of tens, so that the number of links may
be readily ascertained. The English
chain is 22 yards or 66 feet in length, and
each link 6.92 inches,

In taking measurements in the field,,
the various distances are set down in

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 427

links, which are afterward reduced to
acres, roods, poles, etc.

The field requisites for a land-measurer
are the chain just mentioned, a bundle of
arrows, a cross-staff and a number of sig-
nals. The arrows are usually ten in
number and two feet in length, each has
a piece of red cloth affixed to the head,
by which it is easily distinguishable at a
considerable distance when stuck in the
ground. The use of the [arrows is to in-
dicate the number of chains in any line
of the survey. The cross-staff is a pole
10 links long, shod at one end with iron
and pointed, that it may be thrust into
the earth as occasion requires. A small
block of wood, about 6 inches square,
having grooves cut round its margin at
right angles to each other, is fitted on the
pole, and slides up and down, according
to the height of the eye ; its use is for ob-
taining a perpendicular from the base
line of any triangle to the angular point.
The signals are more or less numerous,
according to the extent of the field or
tract to be surveyed ; their use is to mark
definitely the various points and bearings ;
they are usually slight poles, from six to
eight feet in length, with a small, red
flag attached to each.

Land measuring is divided into three
distinct operations — first, the actual meas-
urements in the field ; second, the plot-
ting or laying down on paper all the lines
and angles of the field, according to a
scale fixed on ; third, the reducing the
measurements of the various triangles,
and thence obtaining the total .superficial
contents ofthe whole survey.

We shall take each division in order —

1. The land-measurer requires an as-
sistant in the field, who is called the
leader, as it is his business to lead or
carry out the chain under the direction
of the surveyor, who, for the sake of dis-
tinction, is named the follower. The
leader is first directed to fix the signals at
the angular points of the field; he then
takes the end of the chain in one hand,
and the ring of arrows and the cross-staff
in the other, and proceeds in the meas-
urement of the longest or base line, under
the guidance of the follower, who holds
the other end of the chain, and has his
field-book ready to note down the various
measurements taken. The leader fixes
an arrow when he has extended the chain

to its full length, and proceeds onward
till the follower reaches this arrow, when
the chain is again drawn tight, the leader
leaving another arrow, and the follower
taking up the one first left. The entire
line is thus passed over, the leader leav-
ing his arrows as the chain runs out, and
the follower gathering them up as the
data of the measurement. The follower
must be careful to observe that the leader
keeps in the line between him and the
signal toward which they are measuring;
and he must also direct him to give in-
formation when he arrives at any point
on the line whence a perpendicular may
be raised to the angles on either side.
When the leader intimates his arrival at
any such point, both he and the follower
stop, draw the chain tight and leave it
extended on the ground. The follower
does not remove the last arrow for the
present, but leaves it standing and lays
those he has gathered up beside it ; he
then proceeds to the place where the
leader has stopped, and, taking the cross-
staff, ascertains the precise point whence the
perpendicular can be raised to the angle.
This is done in a very simple manner —
the cross-staff is planted close to the
chain, and one of the grooves made to
coincide with it; or, in other words, on
looking through the groove in opposite
directions, the measurer must see the
point whence he set out, and the point
to which he is tending; then looking
along one of the grooves at right angles
(without disturbing the position of the
cross-staft), he must see whether it bears
directly on the angular point; if it do
not, the cross-staff must be moved back-
ward or forward along the chain till the
precise point is determined ; its position
on the line of measurement is then noted
on the field-book, an arrow is planted at
the spot, and the leader and follower,
taking their respective places, proceed
with the measurement of the remainder
of the line; which having completed, the
various perpendiculars are measured from
the points indicated by the arrows.

If the subject of the survey be a tri-
angular or quadrilateral field, with straight
sides, the field work is completed when
the longest line (that is, the base in the
triangle and the diagonal in the quadri-
lateral) and the perpendiculars are meas-
ured. If the field is contained under a

.428

MECHANICAL.

greater number of sides than four, it will
be necessary to intersect it with two or
more lines, from each of which perpen-
diculars must be erected to the angular
points along the boundary. Very fre-
quently, also, there will be what is termed
offsets, or the irregularities of a crooked
boundary. In this case it is necessary to
take a straight line between two angles of
the field where these occur and measure
offsets or perpendiculars from that line
toward every bend or angle in the boun-
dary, by which means a number of small
triangles or trapezoids are obtained, to be
included in or deducted from the total
area, according as they are within or
without the boundary line.

By the aid of a single diagram we
shall endeavor to give a few illustrative
examples of field work, which will remove
•all misapprehension and difficulty.

Let it be required to find the contents
of the triangular field ABC. The field
measurements will be the line A B = 900
links, or, rather, A F = 300 and F B =

=600, and the perpendicular F C = 480 ;
from these the subsequent operations of
plotting and estimating the contents can
readily be performed, as will presently be
shown.

We may here remark that the plan
observed in keeping the field-book is by
no means uniform, nearly every surveyor
having his own peculiar method ; and so
long as there is method, and the memo-
randa be arranged in a way that the
measurer can himself fully comprehend
them when he leaves the field, it is of
small consequence what plan may be
adopted. Usually, however, the page of
the field-book is divided into three

columns ; the centre one is occupied by
the measurements of the principal lines,
and in the right and left hand columns
are entered the perpendiculars and offsets
from those lines.

Let us suppose that it is required to
find the measurement of a quadrilateral
field A B C D. The data to be obtained
in the field are these — the diagonal A B,
900 links, and the perpendicular F C,
480, as formerly, A E, 300 links, and the
perpendicular, D E, 510. Again, we will
suppose one side of the field has the
crooked and irregular boundary, D d e f
B; in this case, in addition to those
already mentioned, the field measure-
ments will be the line, D B, 750 links,
distinguished into D a, 150, a b, 270, b c,
150, and e B, 180, and the perpendicular
offsets, a d, 150, b e, 90, and cf, 180.

Offsets are usually measured, unless
they be of great length, with the cross-
staff, which is made 10 links long for this
purpose. If, however, these perpendicu-
lars exceed two or three lengths of the
staff, it is better to use the chain. These
offsets, it is also to be noticed, are to be
measured in the course of ascertaining
the line, D B.

In simple surveys, such as the pre-
ceding examples refer to, it is usual to
sketch the form of the field on a page of
the book, and enter all the measurements
and remarks on the corresponding parts
of the sketch. This is an excellent plan,
and should always be adopted where the
case will admit of it.

2. We come now to the plotting, or
laying down the true figure of the field
on paper, according to some determinate
scale ; and this operation is no less simple
than that of taking the field measure-
ments. The surveyor requires to be pro-
vided with a case of drawing instruments,
containing compasses, steel pen, parallel
ruler, etc.; and, also, a plotting scale,
graduated into chains and parts of a
chain. The paper on which the plotting
is to be made should be dampened on
the back and fastened down by pasting
the edges on a drawing-board of suitable
dimensions. When dry, the paper thus
prepared presents a smooth and uniform
surface; whilst the board on which it is
laid prevents the points of the compasses
from piercing deeply into it and making
unsighdy holes.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 429:

We will begin by plotting the field, A
B C, the measurement of which forms the
first example in the preceding section.

Draw an indefinite line and set off
from the plotting scale the base A B, =
900 links, marking with the point of a
pencil the termination, A and B; set off
on A B the distance, A F, = 300 links,
from the point F raise an indefinite per-
pendicular and set off on it F C, = 480
links ; draw lines connecting the points,
A B, B C, A C, and the field is correctly
plotted. The field, A B C D, it will be
obvious, merely requires the erection of
the perpendicular, D E, = 510 links,
and drawing lines connecting the points,
A D, D B, in addition to the foregoing
operation.

In the third example, where the boun-
dary, D d e f B, is irregular, on the line
D B set off a, = 150 links, a b = 270
links, be — 150 links and c B = 180
links, and from the points, a b c, raise the
perpendiculars, a d, = 150 links, b e =
90 links, and c /= 180 links, draw lines
connecting the points, D d, d e, e f, f B,
which finishes the plotting of the whole
field, ACB/^D.

It is usual to place the north side of
the plan uppermost with a flower-de-luce
to indicate the north point, and in a
vacant place to insert a scale of equal
parts or chains and the title of the plan.

3. The next thing to be done is the
computing the contents of the various
triangles and trapezoids, and bringing
out the total area of the whole survey,
which is equally simple with the preced-
ing operations.

We cannot be expected in the limits of
this work to give a comprehensive treatise
on Mensuration and Superficies ; we shall,
therefore, confine ourselves to mentioning
two or three things, a knowledge of
which is indispensably necessary in the
calculation of almost every survey :

1. The base and perpendicular of any
triangle multiplied into each other gives
twice the area of such triangle; or the
base multiplied by half the perpendicular
is equal to the area of the triangle.

2. The sum of the parallel sides of any
trapezoid (that is, a four-sided figure
having two of its sides parallel) multiplied
by the perpendicular distance between

them, gives twice the area of such trapez-
oid ; or, half the sum of the parallel sides;
multiplied by the perpendicular is equal
to the trapezoid.

3. The number of square links in an?
acre, 100,000. Hence this rule — square-
links are reduced to acres by cutting off
five figures to the right, as a remainder,
which is to be multiplied successively by
4 for roods, 40 for poles, 30^ for yards,,
and 9 for feet, at each multiplication^
cutting off 5 figures to the right; the
numbers on the left of the point being,
acres, roods, poles, yards and feet.

The following calculation will suffi-
ciently illustrate the computing of sur-
veys.

Required the area of the field, A C R
f e d D—

LINKS.

Triangle, A B C, = A B, 900,

X C E, 480, = 432000

Triangle, A B D, = A B, 900,

X D E, 510,= --. 459000-

OFFSETS.

Triangle, D a d,= D a, 150, X

a dy 150 = - - - - 22500.
Trapezoid, a d e b,-=. ad, 150 +

b e, 90, X a b, 270,= - 64800
Trapezoid, b e J c, = b e, 90, -f-

c f, 180, X be, 150,= - 40500.
Triangle, c fB,=c /, 180, X c

B, 180, =- ... 32400

According to Rule, divide by 2)1051200

Square links, - 5.25600

4

1.02400
40

.9608

28.80000
24000

29.04000
9

.36000
* Contents of the field, 5 acres, 1 rood,
29 yards and about j4 of a foot.

43°

MECHANICAL.

BRICK-MAKING, Hints on.— The art
of brick-making is a distinct branch of
the useful arts, and does not properly
belong to that of the builder; but as he is
frequently obliged to prepare this
material, the following outline of the
process may prove of service.

The best brick-earth is composed of a
mixture of pure clay and sand, deprived
of pebbles of every kind, but particu-
larly of those that contain lime and
pyritous, or other metallic substances ; as
these, when in large quantities, and in
the form of pebbles, act as fluxes, destroy
the shape of the brick, and weaken it, by
causing cavities and cracks; but when
present in small quantities and equally
diffused throughout the earth, they assist
the vitrification and give it a more uni-
form character.

Good brick-earth is frequently found in
a natural state, and requires no other
preparation for the purpose of the brick-
maker.

When he is obliged to prepare the
earth by mixing the pure clay and sand,
direct experiments should be made in all
cases to ascertain the proper proportions
of the two. If the clay is in excess, the
temperature required to semi-vitrify it
will cause it to warp, shrink and crack ;
and if there is an excess of sand, com-
plete vitrification will ensue under similar
circumstances.

The quality of the brick depends as
much on the care bestowed on its manu-
facture as on the quality of the earth.

The first stage of the process is to free
the earth from pebbles, which is most
effectually done by digging it out early
in the fall, and exposing it in small heaps
to the weather during the winter. In the
spring the heaps are carefully riddled if
necessary, and the earth is then in a
proper state to be kneaded or tempered.

The quantity of water required in
tempering will depend on the quality of
the earth ; no more should be used than
will be sufficient to make the earth so
plastic as to admit of its being easily
moulded by the moulder.

About half a cubic foot of water to one
of the earth is, in most cases, a good pro-

portion. If too much water be used,
the brick will not only be very slow in
drying, but it will, in most cases, crack,
owing to the surface becoming complete-
ly dry before the moisture of the interior
has had time to escape ; the consequence
of which will be that the brick when
burnt will be entirely unfit for use, or very
weak.

Great attention is requisite in drying
the brick before it is burned. It should
be placed for this purpose in a dry ex-
posure, and be sheltered from the direct
action of the wind and sun, in order that
the moisture may be carried off slowly
and uniformly from the entire surface.
When this precaution is not taken, the
brick will generally crack from the un-
equal shrinking, arising from one part
drying more rapidly than the rest.

Too large a proportion of sand will
render the brick brittle under this process;
while too large a proportion of clayey
matter will be indicated by the brick
shrinking and cracking.

The burning and cooling should be
done with equal care. A very moderate
fire should be applied under the arches of
the kiln for about 24 hours, to expel any
remaining moisture from the raw brick.
This is known to be completely effected
when the smoke from the kiln is no longer
white. The fire is then increased until
the bricks of the arches attain a white
heat ; it is then allowed to abate in some
degree, in order to prevent complete
vitrification ; and is alternately raised and
lowered in this way until the burning is
complete, which may be ascertained by
examining the bricks at the top of the
kiln.

The cooling should be slowly effected ;
otherwise the bricks will not withstand
the effects of the weather. This is done
by closing the mouths of the arches and
the tops and sides of the kiln, in the most
effectual manner with moist clay and
burnt brick, and allowing the kiln to
remain in this state until the warmth is
perfectly subsided.

A kiln 13 feet long, 10 feet 6 inches
wide and 12 feet high, the walls being
perpendicular on the inside, and piled
full, deducting the arch openings, will con-
tain about 25,000 bricks.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 431

WEIGHTS AND LINE Required for
Common Sized Windows.

EACH WEIGHT.

8 X IO
8 X 12
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X

9
9

9

9

9

9

10
10
10
10 x
10 X
10
10
II
II
II
II

12
12
12
12
12

II
12
13
14

15
16

12

13
14

15
16

17

18

iS

16

17
18

14

15
16

18

20

1% inch.

4 lbs.

4^ "
4^ "

5 ,"

5^ "

6 "
6 "

l}4 inch.

s lbs

5

«

5H

SV2

«

\%

«<

6

«

6*

«

ey2

M

6

M

6^

««

6^

<«

7

K

7#

(«

7^

«

8

«

7^

«

VA

M

8

««

8^

««

7^

«

8

M

■■2

Line for each
weight.

a# ft.

2% -

3 M

3j< "

3^ "

3# "

4 ■

3 , :

3* "

38 -

2^ "

4 "

4^ "

4^ "

3^ "

4 "

*X "

4JA "

3lA "

3K "

4 "

4^ "
5

Each Hank contains 75 feet of Line.
NAILS, Size of. — The following table
will show at a glance the length of the
various sizes and the number of nails in
a pound. They are rated "3-penny" up
to " 20-penny." The first column gives
the number, the second the length in
inches, and the third the number per
pound — that is :
2 -penny 1 inch,

4- "

XH

5- "

*H

6- "

2

7- "

*X

8- "

zy*

10- "

2%

12- "

3

20- "

z%

Spikes

4

4^

s

6

557

nails

per lb.

353

«

232

a

167

««

141

«

101

.(

68

M

54

M

34

.1

15

m

12

a

10

M

7

(«

5

««

.7 "

From this table an estimate of quantity

and suitable sizes for any job of work can
be made.
MEASURING, Paper-Hanging. —The

various sorts of paper used for lining walls
it would be useless to describe.

We have only to mention that English
papers are printed in pieces of 12 yards
in length, and 1 foot 8 inches wide;
hence, 1 yard in length contains 5 feet
superficial ; therefore, any number of su-
perficial feet divided by 60 (the length
36 feet X 1 foot 8 inches) will give the
number of pieces wanted for the work.

American papers are 8 yards long, and
1 foot 6 inches wide; therefore, if the
number of feet contained in a room be
divided by 4.6, it will show the number
of yards, or, by 36, it will show the
number of pieces of paper required.

French papers are 1 foot 6 inches
wide, and contain 9 yards; therefore, if
the number of feet requred to be covered
be known, divide by 4.6 for the number
of yards, and by 41.6 for the number of
pieces.

ROOFING, A Cheap.— First cover the
roof with ordinary tongued and grooved
floor-boards, the same as you would lay
a floor; then take roofing-paper, to be
obtained in any large town or city, and
cover the boards with that, to be laid on
as shingles are laid, to lap over each
sheet about an inch, and fastened down
with large tacks. Over the paper spread
raw tar. Raw tar is that which is not
heated to render it thicker. It can be
spread with a trowel made of a shingle,
about the sixteenth of an inch deep. Next
take a sieve, fill it with sand, and
sprinkle as much over the tar as it will
absorb, sifting on the sand as each course
of tar is laid on, beginning on the upper
side of the roof, about half an inch
thick.

Such a roof should have a slight
descent — say 1 foot in twelve, more or
less; and the tar should be laid on when
the heat of the sun will not cause it to
run out of its place before the sand is
put on it

A mortar made of tar and sand, like a
thick paste, will stop any leaks in roofs,
especially around chimneys, that can be
covered by it.

SAW, To Put in Order. — First, the saw
should be set; this may be done by laying
the blade flat upon a piece of heavy
plank or scantling, and bending the teeth
with a hammer and punch. The set, or
punch, can be made of a three-cornered
saw file, broken of at each end, and the
smallest end ground square. Set the

432

MECHANICAL.

punch square upon the tooth, but inclined
from you, so that it rests mainly upon
the point of the tooth, and hit it a light
blow with the hammer. Every tooth
should be bent in this manner, then the
saw turned over, and the operation
repeated. The set already in the saw will
be the guide as to the direction the tooth
is to be bent, if the saw, previous to
setting, is inclined to catch and jump, one
of three things is the matter : the set is
uneven ; a few teeth are longer than the
rest, or the teeth have been filed hooking.
Either of these troubles can be easily de-
tected and remedied. If by looking
along the teeth from end to end, an un-
evenness is seen, lay the blade upon the
head of an axe, or something of that
kind, and strike gently upon the sides of
the teeth with a hammer until all of the
set is removed; then set the saw as
above directed. If after the saw is
properly set, some of the teeth should be
longer than others, put the blade be-
tween two thin boards, three or four
inches wide, and as long as the saw,
screw them firmly in a vise, the same as
for filing, and run a flat saw-mill file
lengthwise along the teeth until they are
brought level. The saw is now ready for
filing. The file should be placed between
the teeth in a diagonal direction, but held
level. Every other space should be filed
from the small end to the handle ; then
the remaining spaces filed by holding the
file at an opposite angle. After this
operation is completed, then look across
the teeth again, and if the channel be-
tween the rows of teeth terminates in the
centre, the filing is good ; if it terminates
at one side of the center, the full side
needs more filing. If the saw catches
and jumps after jointing up, it will be
owing to the teeth having been filed too
hooking, or, in other words, the points in-
clined too much toward 'the narrow end of
the saw. This can be remedied by refiling
and taking off from the lower side of the
teeth enough to make them stand upright
on the blade. Always file where there is
sufficient light to enable you to see points
distinctly. Be exceedingly careful to
stop filing as soon as the tooth
is filed to a perfect point. One
thrust with a file after a tooth
has been brought to a complete
edge, will shorten it, and put the saw out

of order just in proportion as the point is
filed off. Let the points be set uniformly,,
and only a little. Go over the teeth with
an old file, and give them a more per-
fect cutting-edge. Then lay the blade
flatly on a smooth board, and pass a fine-
gritted whetstone along the sides of the
points, to remove the wiry edge, and to
give the teeth as fine a cutting-edge as
practicable.

SHEEP-SKINS, To prepare for Mats.
— Make a strong lather with hot water,
and let it stand till cold ; wash the fresh
skin in it, carefully squeezing out all the
dirt from the wool ; wash it in cold water
till all the soap is taken out. Dissolve a
pound each of salt and alum in two
gallons of hot water, and put the skin
into a tub sufficient to cover it; let it soak
for twelve hours, and hang it over a pole
to drain. When well drained, stretch it.
carefully on a board to dry, and stretch
several times while drying. Before it is
quite dry, sprinkle on the flesh side one
ounce each of fine pulverized alum and
saltpetre, rubbing it in well Try if the
wool be firm on the skin; if not, let it
remain a day or two, then rub again with
alum; fold the flesh sides together and
hang in the shade for two or three days,,
turning them over each day till quite
dry. Scrape the flesh side with a blunt
knife, and rub it with pumice or rotten
stone,

SKINS (Small), Stretching and Curing.
— The market value of a skin is greatly
affected by the care taken in removing it
from the animal, and in drying it. The
common way is to tack the skin to the
barn door and let it remain stretched
until quite dry. The trapper in the
woods, having no such convenience as
the barn-door at hand, is obliged to
resort to other methods. One plan is to
dry the skin on a hoop. A skin to be
dried in this manner must not be ripped
down the belly, but it is cut from the
lower jaw of the animal to just below its
forelegs; the lips, eyes, and ears being cut
around, the skin is stripped off, leaving
the fur side inward. The hoop consists of
a branch of hickory or other elastic wood,
an inch through at the butt. This is
bent and pushed into the skin, which is
drawn tight, and fastened in place by
notches in the bow, drawing the skin of
the lip, into these notches. A much

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 433

neater way, and one generally preferred,
is to use stretchers of thin wood. As
these have to be carried by the trapper,
they are made of light wood and very
thin. They are three-sixteenths of an
inch thick, 20 inches long, 6 inches wide
at the larger end, and slightly tapering.
They are rounded to a blunt point at the
lower end, and the edges chamfered.
The skin is drawn over the board, and
secured with tacks. Skins stretched by
these methods should not be dried in the
sun nor by a fire, but in a cool place
where they will be sheltered from the
rain. No salt or other preservative is
used upon skins intended for the market.

OX- YOKE, How to Make.— To make
this yoke it is necessary to have a stick
of light and strong timber, such as but-
ternut, walnut, sycamore, basswood, soft
maple, or wild cherry, each of which is
excellent material. The size of the stick
necessary is ten by sixteen inches, and
five feet long. This should be sawed
in two, cutting out two inches of the
heart, making two pieces ten by seven.
One side and edge of the piece should
be dressed square ; the center found, the
first bow-hole is then bored twelve inches
from this center; the second bow-
hole twelve inches from the first. To
make the holes accurate, they should
be marked, and bored from each side,
meeting in the center. The auger
should be two inches diameter. Af-
ter the holes are bored, they should
be burned with a hot iron and made
smooth. The yoke is then laid out three
and a half inches thick in the center be-
tween the bow-holes, and six and a half
inches thick in the center between the
two bows, where the ring is placed ; the
ends are beveled off, and lines of proper
curvature laid out between the points
marked. The yoke may be fashioned
either with a jig or band saw or foot adz,
and should then be finished up square
and true from the face-side with a draw-
ing-knife. It should then be laid upon
its back and four and one-half inches
marked off at the center for the width,
cutting off about one and one-fourth inch
on each side. The ends are then tapered
off, and where previously beveled, are now
rounded.

The bottom or inside of the yoke is
now to be rounded, by first taking off a

28

broad chamfer, and then rounding up
smooth, the top to be left flat and square,
except a broad chamfer around the edge
of the yoke. The bows are twenty-eight
to thirty inches in length and two inches
in diameter. No staple is to be used,
but a board strap, which goes round the
yoke, having screws cut on the end, and
a plate held down by nuts screwed over
it, to clasp the yoke and strengthen it.
In the bottom of the strap is placed two
pieces of cast-iron, which have a flange
upon the edge and four slight projections
upon the top, for which small holes are-
bored in the yoke. The two pieces are
so formed that when they are placed to-
gether they have a hole in the middle -
in which the ring is inserted ; the strap is
placed around them and put upon the
yoke, and the nuts upon the top screwed
tight. Such a yoke is much stronger and
better than when a staple passes through
it.

BTJCKSKTffS, To Tan.— Take a skinr
either green or well soaked, and flesh it
with a dull knife; spread the skin on a
smooth log and grain it by scraping with
a sharp instrument ; rub nearly dry over
the oval end of a board held upright.
Take the brains of a deer or a calf, dry
by the fire gently, put them into a cloth
and boil until soft, cool off the liquid
until blood-warm, with water sufficient to
soak the skin in, and soak until quite soft
and pliable, and then wring out as dry as
possible; wash in strong soap-suds and
rub dry, and smoke well with wood'
smoke. Instead of brains, oil or lard
may be used, and the skin soaked therein,
six hours. This is called Indian tad.

FXJE SKEINS, Any Kind, to Tan. —
After you have cut off the useless parts,,
and softened the skins by soaking in
warm water, take away the fatty part
from the inside, after which, soak the-
skins in tepid water for two hours. Next,,
mix equal parts of borax, saltpetre, and
glauber salts (sulphate of soda), in the
proportion of about one-third ounce of
each for each skin, with sufficient water ,
to make a thin paste ; spread this with a
brush over the inside of the skin, applying
more on the thicker parts than the thin-
ner; double the skin together, flesh side
inwards, and place it in a cool place.
After standing twenty-four hours, wash
the skin clean, and apply in the same.

434

MECHANICAL.

manner as before, a mixture of one ounce
sal soda, one-third ounce borax, and two
ounces hard white soap, melted slowly-
together without being allowed to boil;
fold together again and put away in a
warm place for twenty-four hours. After
this, dissolve three ounces alum, seven
ounces salt, and one and one-half ounces
saleratus, in sufficient hot rain-water to
saturate the skin ; when cool enough not
to scald the hands, soak the skin in it for
twelve hours ; then wring out and hang it
up to dry. When dry repeat this soaking
and drying two or three times, till the
skin is sufficiently softly. Lastly, smooth
the inside with fine sandpaper and pumice-
stone.

LEATHER, Tanning.— It is often a
matter of both convenience and economy
in the household or on the farm to be
able to do a little tanning; so we give
here an approved recipe which may prove
useful: Soak the skin or hide eight or
nine days in water, then put it in lime;
lake it out, and remove the hair by rub-
bing it, and soak it in clear water until the
lime is entirely out. Put one pound of
alum to three of salt; dissolve in a vessel
.sufficiently large to hold the hide ; soak
the hide in it three or four days, then
take it out, let it get half dry, and then
beat or rub it until it becomes pliable.
Leather prepared by this process will not
do well for shoes, but answers for ham-
strings, backhands, and various other
purposes on the farm.

MUSKRAT SKINS, Tanning with the
Fur on. — To do this successfully, first
give the skins a good wash in warm
water, after which remove all fatty and
fleshy matter. Then place the skins in a
liquor to soak, prepared as follows:

To five gallons of cold soft water add
four quarts of wheat bran, one-fourth
pint old soap, one-half ounce borax; by
.adding one ounce sulphuric acid the
soaking may be-done in one-half the
time. If the hides have not been salted,
add one-half pint salt. Green hides
should not be soaked more than eight or
ten hours. Dry ones should soak till
very soft. For tan liquor, to five gallons
warm soft water, add one-fourth bushel
ibran ; stir well and let stand in a warm
room till it ferments. Then add slowly
.one pound sulphuric acid; stir all the
while. Muskrat hides should remain in

about four hours ; then take out and rub
with a fleshing knife — (an old chopping
knife with the edge taken off will do).
Then work it over a beam until entirely
dry.

RABBIT SKINS, To Cure.— First lay
the skin on a smooth board, placing the
iur side under, and fasten the skin to the
board with tinned tacks. Wash it over
with a solution of salt ; then dissolve one
and one-fourth ounces alum in one-half
pint of warm water, and with a sponge
dipped in this solution, moisten the sur-
face all over; repeat this every now and
then for three days; when the skin is
quite dry, take out the tacks, and rolling
it loosely the wrong way, the hair inside,
draw it quickly backwards and forwards
through a large smooth ring, until it is
quite soft, then roll it in the contrary way
of the skin, and repeat the operation.
Skins prepared thus are useful for many
domestic purposes.

SHEEP-SKINS, To Cure with the
Wool on. — Take a spoonful of alum and
two of saltpetre ; pulverize and mix well
together, then sprinkle the powder on the
flesh side of the skin, and lay the two
flesh sides together, leaving the wool
outside. Then fold up the skin as tight
as you can, and hang it in a dry place.
In two or three days, or as soon as it is
dry, take it down and scrape it with a
blunt knife, till clean and supple. This
completes the process, and makes you a
most excellent saddle cover. If, when
you kill your mutton, you treat the skins
this way, you can get more for them from
the saddler than you can get for the
wool and skin separately disposed other-
wise.

Other skins which you desire to cure
with the fur or hair on, may be treated in
the same way.

SMALL SKINS, To Tan.— When taken
from the animal, let the skins be nailed
in the shape of an oblong square on a
board to dry, fur side down. Before
taking them from the board, clean off all
the fat or oily matter with a dull knife.
Be careful not to cut the skins. When
you wish to tan them, soak thoroughly in
cold water until soft; then squeeze out
the water, and take of soft water three
quarts, salt half a pint, and best oil of
vitrol, one ounce. Stir well with a stick,
and put in the skins quickly, and leave

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 435

thwrti in thirty minutes. Then take them
in your hand and squeeze (not wring)
them out, and hang in the shade, fur side
down, to dry. If you get the quantity
of liquor proportioned to the skin, they
will need no rubbing to make them soft ;
and, tanned in this way, the moths will
never disturb them.

SKINS, To Tan with the Hair on.—
Stretch the skin tightly and smoothly
upon a board, hair side down, and tack
it by the edges to its place. Scrape off
the loose flesh and fat with a blunt knife,
and work in chalk freely, with plenty of
hard rubbing. When the chalk begins to
powder and fall off, remove the skin from
the board, rub in plenty of powdered
alum, wrap up closely, and keep it in a
dry place for a few days. By this means
it will be made pliable, and will retain
the hair.

Another. — Take of soft water, ten gal-
lons ; wheat bran, one-half bushel ; salt,
seven pounds; sulphuric acid, two and
one-half pounds. Dissolve altogether and
place the skins in the solution, and allow
them to remain twelve hours ; then re-
move and clean them well, and again
immerse twelve hours, or longer if neces-
sary. The skins may then be taken out,
well washed, and dried. They can be
beaten soft if desired.

Another. — Saltpetre, two parts ; alum,
one part. Mix. Sprinkle uniformly on
the flesh side, roll up and lay in a cool
place. Spread it out to dry. Scrape off
the fat and rub till pliable.

VARNISH BRUSHES, Care of.— Brush-
es used for applying finishing varnishes
should be cared for with the utmost pains,
as good work depends much upon the
good condition of the brushes. A good
way to keep them is to suspend them by
the handles in a covered can, keeping
the points at least half an inch from the
bottom, and apart from each other. The
can should be filled with slow-drying var-
nish up to a line about a sixteenth of an
inch above the bristles or hair. The can
should then be kept in a close cupboard,
or in a box fitted for the purpose. As
wiping a brush on a sharp edge of tin will
gradually split the bristles, cause them to
turn backward, and eventually ruin the
brush, the top of the can should have a
wire soldered along the edge of the tin
turned over, in order to prevent injury.

Finishing brushes should not be cleansed
in turpentine, except in extreme cases.
When taken from the can, prepare them
for use by working them out in varnish,
and before replacing them cleanse the
handles and binding with turpentine.

VARNISHES, Cautions Respecting the
Making of. — As heat in many cases is
necessary to dissolve the gums used in
making varnish, the best way, when prac-
ticable, is to use what the chemists call a
sand bath, which is simply placing the
vessel in which the varnish is in another
filled with sand and placed on the fire.
This will generally be sufficient to prevent
the spirits catching fire; but to avoid
such an accident (which not unfrequently
happens), it will be best to take a vessel
sufficiently large that there shall be little
danger of spilling its contents ; indeed,
the vessel should never be more than two-
thirds filled. However, a piece of board
sufficiently large to cover the top of
the vessel should always be at hand
in case the spirits should take fire; as
also a wet wrapper, in case it should
be spilt, as water icself thrown on would
only increase the mischief. The person
who attends the varnish-pot should have
his hands covered with gloves, and, if
they are made of leather and rather
damp, it will eventually prevent injury.
These cautionc should be well observed,
or shocking personal injury may result
from their neglect.

VARNISH, Amber. — a. Amber, one
pound ; pale boiled oil, ten ounces ; tur-
pentine, one pint. Render the amber,
placed in an iron pot, semi-liquid by
heat; then add the oil, mix, remove it
from the fire, and when cooled a little
stir in the turpentine, b. To the amber,
melted as above, add two ounces of
shellac, and proceed as before.

This varnish is rather dark, but re-
markably tough. The first form is the
best. It is used for the same purposes
as copal varnish, and forms an excellent
article for covering wood, or any other
substance not of a white or pale color.
It dries well, and is very hard and dur-
able.

VARNISH, Amber Black.— Amber, one
pound; boiled oil, one-half pint; pow-
dered asphaltum, six ounces ; oil of tur-
pentine, one pint. Melt the amber, as
before described, then add the asphal-

43*

MECHANICAL.

turn, previously mixed with the cold oil,
and afterwards heated very hot; mix well,
remove the vessel from the fire, and when
cooled a little add the turpentine, also
made warm.

Each of the above varnishes should be
reduced to a proper consistence with
more turpentine if required. The last
form produces the beautiful black varnish
used by the coach-makers. Some man-
ufacturers omit the whole or part of the
asphaltum, and use the same quantity
of clear black resin instead, in which
case the color is brought up by lampblack
reduced to an impalpable powder, or pre-
viously ground very fine with a little
boiled oil. The varnish made in this
way, lacks, however, that richness, bril-
liancy, and depth of blackness imparted
by asphaltum.

VARNISH, Amber, Pale.— a. Amber
pale and transparent, six pounds; fuse,
add hot clarified linseed oil, two gallons ;
boil till it strings strongly, cool a little,
and add oil of turpentine four gallons.
Pale as copal varnish; soon becomes
very hard, and is the most durable of
oil varnishes; but requires time before
it is fit for polishing. When wanted to
dry and harden quickly, drying oil may
be substituted for linseed, or "driers"
may be added during the boiling.

b. Amber, one pound ; melt, add Scio
turpentine, one-half pound; transparent
white resin, two ounces ; hot linseed oil,
one pint, and afterwards oil of turpen-
tine as much as sufficient, as above. Very
tough.

c. Hard — Melted amber, four ounces;
hot boiled oil, one quart, as before.

d. Fale — Very pale and transparent
amber, four ounces ; clarified linseed oil
and oil of turpentine, of each one pint, as
before.

Amber varnish is suited for all pur-
poses, where a very hard and durable
oil varnish is required. The paler kind
is superior to copal varnish, and is often
mixed with the latter to increase its hard-
ness and durability.

VARNISH, Black, for Iron-Work.—
Asphaltum, forty-eight pounds ; fuse, add
boiled oil, ten gallons ; red lead and li-
tharge, of each seven pounds ; dried and
powdered white copperas, three pounds;
boil for two hours, then add dark-gum
amber (fused), eight pounds ; hot linseed

oil, two gallons ; boil for two hours lon-
ger, or till a little of the mass, when cool-
ed, may be rolled into pills, then with-
draw the heat, and afterwards thin down
with oil of turpentine, thirty gallons.
Used for the iron work of carriages, and
other nice purposes.

VARNISH, Black.— Heat to boiling
linseed oil varnish, ten parts, with burnt
umber, two parts, and powdered asphal-
tum, one part, and when cool dilute with
spirits of turpentine to the required con-
sistence.

VARNISH, Black, for Wood.— There
are two kinds of black varnish :

a. The ordinary black varnish foi dif-
ferent kinds of wood.

b. The black ebony varnish for certain
woods which approach nearest to ebony
in hardness and weight.

The ordinary black wood varnish is ob-
tained by boiling together blue Brazil
wood, powdered gall apples and alum, in
rain or river water, until it becomes
black. This liquid is then filtered through
a fine organzine, and the objects painted
with a new brush before the decoction
has cooled, and this is repeated until the
wood appears of a fine black color. It is
then coated with the following varnish :
a mixture of iron filings, vitriol and vine-
gar is heated (without boiling), and left a
few days to settle. If the wood is black
enough, yet for the sake of durability, it
must be coated with a solution of alum
and nitric acid, mixed with a little verdi-
gris ; then a decoction of gall apples and
logwood dyes is used to give it a deep
black. A decoction may be made of
brown Brazil wood with alum in rain wa-
ter, without gall apples ; the wood is left
standing in it for some days in a moder-
ately warm place, and to it merely iron
filings in strong vinegar are added, and
both are boiled with the wood over a
gentle fire. For this purpose soft pear
wood is chosen, which is preferable to alL
others for black varnishing.

For the fine black ebony varnish, ap-
ple, pear, and hazlewood are recommend-
ed in preference for this; especially
when these kinds of wood have no
projecting veins, they may be success-
fully coated with black varnish, and
are then most complete imitation of
the natural ebony. For this varnish :
fourteen ounces of gall apples, three and

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 437

a half ounces of rasped logwood, one and
three-fourths ounces of vitriol, and one
and three-fourths ounces of distilled ver-
digris are boiled together with water in a
well-glazed pot, the de6oction filtered
while it is warm, and the wood coated
with repeated hot layers of it.

For a second coating a mixture of
three and a half ounces of pure iron
filings, dissolved in three-fourths ot liter
of strong wine vinegar, is warmed, and
when cool the wood already blackened is
coated two or three times with it, allow-
ing each coat to dry between.

For articles which are to be thoroughly
saturated, a mixture of three-fourths ounce
of sal ammoniac, with a sufficient quanti-
ty of steel-filings, is to be placed in a suit-
able vessel, strong vinegar poured upon
it, and left for fourteen days in a gently
heated oven. A strong lye is now put
into a good pot, to which is added coarse-
ly bruised gall apples and blue Brazil
shavings, and exposed for the same time
as the iormer, to a gentle heat of an oven,
which will then yield a good varnish.
The pear wood articles are now laid in
the first-named varnish, boiled for a few
hours, and left in for three days longer;
they are then placed in the second var-
nish and treated as in the first. If the
articles are not then thoroughly saturated
they may be once more placed in the
first bath and then in the second.

VARNISH, For Basket Ware.— The
following varnish for basket work is said
to dry rapidly, to possess sufficient elas-
ticity, and to be applicable with or with-
out admixture of color: Heat 375 grains
of good linseed oil on a sand-bath until it
becomes stringy, and a drop placed upon
a cold, inclined surface does not run;
then add gradually 7,500 grains of copal
oil varnish, or any other oil varnish. As
considerable effervescence takes place, a
large vessel is necessary. The desired
consistency is given to it, when cold, by
addition of oil of turpentine.

VARNISH, Coachmakers'.— The fine
black varnish of the coachmakers is said
to be prepared by melting sixteen ounces
of amber in an iron pot, adding to it
half a pint of drying linseed oil, boiling
hot, of powdered resin and asphaltum,
three ounces each. When the materials
are well united, by stirring over the fire,
they are to be removed, and after cooling

for some time, a pint of warm oil of tur-
pentine is to be introduced.

VARNISH, Colorless.— Dissolve two
ounces and a half of shellac in a pint of
rectified spirits of wine ; boil for a fevr
minutes with five ounces of well-burned
and recently-heated animal charcoal. A
small portion of the solution should then
be filtered, and if not colorless, more
charcoal must be added. When all color
is removed, press the liquor through a
piece of silk, and afterward filter through
fine blotting paper. This kind of varnish
should be used in a room of at least sixty
degrees Fahr., perfectly free from dust.
It dries in a few minutes, and is not liable
afterward to chill or bloom. It is partic-
ularly applicable to drawings and prints
that have been sized, and may be used
for gilding.

VARNISH, Copal Blue.— Indigo, Prus-
sian blue, blue verditer, or ultra-marine.
All these substances must be powdered
fine.

VARNISH, ForjCardwork,— Before var-
nishing cardwork it must receive two or
three coats of size to prevent the absorp-
tion of the varnish and any injury to the
design. Size may be made by dissolving
a little isinglass in hot water, or by boil-
ing some parchment cuttings until dis-
solved. In either case the solution must
be strained through a piece of thin mus-
lin, and for very nice purposes should be
clarified with a little white of egg. A
small clean brush, called by painters a
sash tool, is the best for applying the
size as well as the varnish. Touch light-
ly, especially for first coat, lest the ink or
colors be started or smothered.

VARNISH, Chinese. — Mastic, two
ounces ; sandarach, two ounces ; rectified
spirit, a pint. Close the matrass with
bladder, with a pin-hole for the escape of
vapor ; heat to boiling in a sand or water
bath, and when dissolved strain through
linen.

VARNISH, Pale Carriage.— Take co-
pal, thirty-two parts; pale oil, eighty
parts; fuse and boil until stringy, then
add dried white copperas, one part ; li-
tharge, one part. Boil again, then cool a
little, and mix in spirits of turpentine, one
hundred and fifty parts. Strain.

While making the above — Take gum
anime, thirty-two parts ; pale oil, eighty
parts ; dried sugar of lead, one part ; li-

43«

MECHANICAL.

tharge, one part ; spirits of turpentine, one
hundred and seventy parts. Pursue the
same treatment as before, and mix the
two varnishes while hot.

VARNISH, Crystal — Picked mastic,
four ounces ; rectified spirit, a pint ; ani-
mal charcoal, one ounce. Digest and
filter.

VARNISH FOR CHROMOS. —The
best varnish tor chromos is made of gum
mastic dissolved in spirits of turpentine.
It should be of such thickness as to
spread easily and evenly with a common
varnishing brush. If a chromo is not
oil-colors, two coats of size (isinglass
dissolved in water) should be first given
to it. When the size is dry the varnish
may be laid on. Two or three coats may
be needed to get a good surface, which
should be perfectly free from cracks.
This varnish may be cleaned with a soft
sponge and soap and water. It is equally
serviceable for maps and drawings as for
chromos or paintings.

VARNISH, Copal, to dissolve in Alco-
hol.— Copal, which is called gum copal,
but which is not strictly either a gum or
a resin, is the hardest and least change-
able of all substances adapted to form var-
nishes, by their dissolution in spirit, or
essentials, or fat oils. It therefore forms the
most valuable varnishes; though we shall
give several receipts where it is not
employed, which form cheaper varnishes,
sufficiently good for many purposes,
adding only the general rule, that no
varnish must be expected to be
harder than the substance from which it
is made.

To dissolve copal in alcohol, dissolve
half an ounce of camphor in a pint of
alcohol; put it into a circulating glass, and
add four ounces of copal in small pieces ;
set it in a sand-heat, so regulated that
the bubbles may be counted as they
rise from the bottom, and continue the
same heat till the solution is completed.

The process above mentioned will dis-
solve more copal than the menstruum
will retain when cold. The most economi-
cal method will therefore be to set the
vessel which contains the solution by for
a few days, and when it is perfectly set-
tied, pour off the clear varnish and leave
the residue for future operation.

The solution of copal thus obtained is
very bright. It is an excellent varnish

for pictures, and would doubtless be an
improvement in japanning, where the
stoves used for drying the varnished
articles would drive off the camphor and
leave the copal clear and colorless in the
work.

VARNISH, Copal, to Dissolve in
Spirits of Turpentine. — Reduce two
dunces of copal to small pieces and put
them into a proper vessel. Mix a pint of
the best spirits of turpentine with one-
eighth of spirits of sal ammoniac; shake
them well together, put them to the
copal, cork the glass and tie it over with
a string of wire, making a small hole
through the cork. Set the glass in a
sand-heat so regulated as to make the
contents boil as quickly as possible, but
so gently that the bubbles may be counted
as they rise from the bottom. The same
heat must be kept up exactly till the solu-
tion is complete.

It requires the most accurate attention
to succeed in this operation. After the
spirits are mixed they should be put to
the copal and the necessary degree of
heat be given as soon as possible, and
maintained with the utmost regularity.
If the heat abates or the spirits boil
quicker than is directed, the solution
will immediately stop, and it will after-
ward be in vain to proceed with the same
materials; but if properly managed, the
spirit of sal ammoniac will be seen grad-
ually to descend from the mixture and
attack the copal, which swells and dis-
solves, excepting a very small quantity
which remains undissolved.

It is of much consequence that the
vessel should not be opened till some time
after it has been perfectly cold, for if it
contain the least warmth when opened
the whole contents will be blown out of
the vessel.

Whatever quantity is to be dissolved
should be put into a glass vessel] capable
at least of containing four times as much,
and it should be high in proportion to its
width.

This varnish is of a deep rich color
when viewed in the bottle, but seems to
give no color to the pictures upon which
it is laid. If it be left in the damp it
remains racky, as it is called, a long time;
but if kept in a warm room or placed in
the sun it dries as well as and other tur-
pentine varnish, and when dried, appears

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE.

. *

439*

to be as durable as any other solution of
copal.

Copal may also be dissolved in spirits
of turpentine by the assistance of
camphor.

Turpentine varnishes dry more slowly
than those made with alcohol, and are
less hard ; but they are not so liable to
crack.

VARNISH, Copal.— a. Oil of turpen-
tine one pint, set the bottle in a water
bath and add in small portions at a time
three ounces of powdered copal that has
been previously melted by a gentle heat
and dropped into water; in a few days
decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is
very pale and durable. Used for pic-
tures, etc .

b. Pale hard copal two pounds; fuse,
add hot drying oil one pint, boil as be-
fore directed, and thin with oil of turpen-
tine, three pints, or as much as sufficient.
Very pale. Dries hard in twelve to
twenty-four hours.

c. Clearest and palest African copal
eight pounds; fuse, add hot and pale dry-
ing oil two gallons, boil till it strings
strongly, cool a little, and thin with hot
rectified oil of turpentine, three gallons,
and immediately strain into the store can.
Very fine. Both the above are used for
pictures.

d. Coarsely powdered copal and glass,
of each four ounces; alcohol of ninety
per cent., one pint; camphor, one-half
ounce; heat it in a water bath so that the
bubbles may be counted as they rise, ob-
serving frequently to stir the mixture;
when cold, decant the clear. Used for
pictures.

e. Copal melted and dropped into
water, three ounces; gum sandarach, six
ounces; mastic and Chio turpentine, of
each two and one-half ounces ; powdered
glass, four ounces; alcohol of eighty-five
per cent, one quart ; dissolve by a gentle
heat. Used for metal, chairs, etc.

All copal varnishes are hard and durable,
though less so than those made of amber,
but they have the advantage over the
latter of being paler. They are applied
on coaches, pictures, polished metal,
wood, and other objects requiring good
durable varnish.

/ Hard copal, three hundred parts;
drying linseed or nut oil, from one hun-
dred and twenty-five to two hundred

and fifty parts; oil of turpentine, five
hundred parts; these three substances are
to be put in three separate vessels; the
copal is to be fused by a somewhat sud-
den application of heat; the drying oil is-
to be heated to a temperature a little un-
der ebullition and is to be added by small
portions at a time to the melted copal.
When the combination is made and the
heat a little abated, the essence of tur-
pentine, likewise previously heated, is to
be intioduced by degrees; some of the
volatile oil will be dissipated at first, but
more being added, the union will take-
place. Great care must be taken to pre-
vent the turpentine vapor from catching
fire, which might occasion serious acci-
dent to the operator. When the varnish
is made and cooled down to about 130^
of Fahrenheit, it may be strained through
a filter, to separate the impurities and un-
dissolved copal. Almost all varnish
makers think it indispensable to combine
the drying oil with the copal before
adding the oil of turpentine, but in this
they are mistaken. Boiling oil of turpen-
tine combines very readily with fused
copal; and, in some cases, it will prob-
able be preferable to commence the
operation with it, adding it in successive
small quantities. Indeed, the whitest,
copal varnish can be made only in this-
way; for if the drying oil has been?
heated to nearly its boiling point it be-
comes colored and darkens the varnish,,

This varnish improves in clearness by
keeping. Its consistence may be varied
by varying the proportion of the in-
gredients within moderate limits. Good
varnish, applied in summer, should be-
come so dry in twenty-four hours that
the dust would not stick to it or re-
ceive an impression from the fingers. To-
render it sufficiently dry and hard for
polishing, it must be subjected for several
days to the heat of a stove.

g. Melt in an iron pan at a slow heat
copal gum powdered, eight parts, and add
balsam copavia, previously warmed, two*
parts. Then remove from the fire and
add spirits of turpentine, also warmed be-
forehand, ten parts, to give the necessary
consistence.

h. Prepared gum copal, ten parts;
gum mastic two parts, finely powdered,
are mixed with white turpentine and
boiled linseed oil, of each one part, at a.

44°

MECHANICAL.

slow heat, and with spirits of turpentine,
twenty parts.

i. Prepared gum copal, ten parts;
white turpentine, two parts; dissolve in
spirits of turpentine.

Gum copal is prepared and made more
soluble in spirits of turpentine by melting
the powdered crude gum, afterwards
again powdering and allowing to stand
for some time loosely covered.

VARNISH, Dammar. — Gum dammar,
ten parts; gum sandarach, five parts;
gum mastic, one part; digest at a low
heat, occasionally shaking, with spirits of
turpentine, twenty parts. Finally add
more spirits of turpentine, to give the
consistency of syrup.

VARNISH, for Engravings, Maps, etc.
— Digest gum sandarach, twenty parts;
gum mastic, eight parts; camphor, one
part, with alcohol forty eight parts. The
map or engraving must previously re-
ceive one or two coats of gelatine.

VARNISH, Engraver's Stopping-out. —
"Take lampblack and turpentine to make
a paste.

VARNISH, for Engraving on Glass.—
a. Wax, one ounce; mastic one-half
ounce; asphaltum, one-fourth ounce;
turpentine, one-half drachm.

b. Mastic, fifteen parts; turpentine,
•seven parts; oil of spike, four parts.

VARNISH, Etching.— a. White wax,
two ounces ; black and Burgundy pitch,
of each, one half ounce; melt together,
add by degrees powdered asphaltum two
•ounces, and boil till a drop taken out
on a plate will break when cold by being
cent double two or three times between
the fingers ; it must then be poured into
warm water and made into small balls for
use.

b. Hard Varnish — Linseed oil and
mastic, of each four ounces; melt
together.

c. Soft Varnish — Soft linseed oil, four
ounces; gun benzoin and white wax, of
each one half ounce; boil to two-thirds.

VARNISH, Furniture.— White wax,
fifteen ounces ; yellow resin, one ounce,
powdered; spirits of turpentine, one
quart. Digest until dissolved. Lay it
on with a brush or cloth, and well polish
with clean pieces of woolen.

The simplest, and perhaps the best is
the solution of shellac only, but may add
_gum sandarach, mastic, copal, arabic,

benjamin, etc, from the idea that they
contribute to the effect. Gum arabic is
certainly never requred if the solvent be
pure, because it is insoluble in either
rectified spirit or rectified wood naphtha,
the menstrua employed in dissolving the
gums. As spirit is seldom used on ac-
count of its expense, most of the follow-
ing are mentioned as solutions in naphtha,
but spirits can be substituted when
thought proper:

a. Shellac, one and one-half pounds;
naphtha, one gallon ; dissolve and it is
ready without filtering.

b. Shellac, twelve ounces ; copal, three
Ounces (or an equivalent of varnish) ;
dissolve in one gallon of naphtha.

c. Shellac, one and a half pounds, seed-
lac and sandarach, each four ounces;
mastic two ounces; rectified spirit, one
gallon, dissolve.

d. Shellac, two pounds, benzoin, four
ounces; spirit, one gallon.

e. Shellac, ten ounces; seed-lac, sanda-
rach, and copal varnish, of each six
ounces; benzoin, three ounces; naphtha
one gallon.

To darken polish, benzoin and dragon's
blood are used; tumeric, and other
coloring matters are also added; and to
make it lighter it is necessary to use
bleach lac, though some endeavor to give
this effect by adding oxalic acid to the
ingredients; it, like gum arabic, is insolu-
ble in good spirt or naphtha. For all
ordinary purposes the first form is best
and least troublesome, while its appear-
ance is equal to any other.

VARNISH, for Frames for Hot-Beds.
— Mix four ounces of pulverized white
cheese, two ounces of slacked lime, and
four ounces of boiled linseed oil. Mix,
and add four ounces each of whites and
yolks of eggs, and liquefy the mixture by
heat. This curious mixture is said to
produce a pliable and transparent varnish.

VARNISH, Gold. — a. Tumeric, one
drachm; gamboge, one drachm; oil of
turpentine, two pints; shellac, five
ounces; sandarach, five ounces; drag-
on's blood, seven drachms ; thin mastic
varnish, eight ounces. Digest, with oc-
casional agitation, for tourteen days in a
warm place, then set it aside to fine, and
pour off the clear.

b. Dutch leaf, one part; gamboge, four
parts; gum dragoon, four parts; proof

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 441

spirit, eighteen parts. Macerate for twelve
hours, then grind on a stone slab.

VAENISH, Glass.— This is a solution
of soluble glass, and should be thus
made : Fuse together fifteen parts of pow-
dered quartz (or of fine sand), ten parts
of potash and one of charcoal. Pulver-
ize the mass, and expose it for some days
to the air; treat the whole with cold
water, which removes the foreign salts,
etc. Boil the residue in five parts of water
until it dissolves. It is permanent in the
air, and not dissolved by cold water.
Used to protect wood, etc., from fire.

VAENISH, Ground Glass, to Imitate.—
To make a varnish to imitate ground glass,
dissolve ninety grains of sandarach and
twenty of mastic in two ounces of wash-
ed methylated ether ; add, in small quan-
tities, a sufficiency of benzine to make it
dry with a suitable grain — too little mak-
ing the varnish too transparent, and ex-
cess making it carpy. It is important to
use washed ether, free from spirit.

VARNISH, Green CopaL —Verdigris,
crystallized verdigris, compound green (a
mixture of yellow and blue). The first
two require a mixture of white in proper
proportions, from a fourth to two-thirds,
according to the tint to be given. The
white used for this purpose is ceruse, or
the white oxide of lead, or Spanish white.
Proceed as before.

VARNISH, Pearl Grey CopaL— White
and black ; white and blue ; for example,
ceruse and lampblack, ceruse and indigo;
mix them with the varnish, according to
tint required.

VARNISH, Black, for Harness.— Di-
gest shellac, twelve parts ; white turpen-
tine, five parts; gum sandarach, two
parts; lampblack, one part; with spirits
of turpentine, four parts ; alcohol, ninety-
six parts.

VARNISH, for Harness. — One-half
pound India-rubber, one gallon of spirits
of turpentine ; dissolve by a little heat to
make it into a jelly, then take equal quan-
tities of hot linseed oil and above mix-
ture, and incorporate them well on a slow
fire. .

VARNISHES, India-Rubber. — a. Cut
up one pound of India-rubber into small
pieces, and diffuse in half pound of sul-
phuric ether, which is done by digesting
in a glass flask on a sand bath. Then
add one pound pale linseed oil varnish,

previously heated, and, after settling, one
pound of oil of turpentine, also heated
beforehand. Filter, while yet warm, into
bottles. Dries slowly.

b. Two ounces of India-rubber finely
divided and digested in the same way with
a quarter of a pound of camphene, and
half an ounce of naphtha or benzole.
When dissolved, add one ounce of copal
varnish, which renders it more durable.
Principally for gilding.

c. In a wide-mouthed glass bottle, di-
gest two ounces of India-rubber in fine
shavings, with one pound of oil of tur-
pentine, during two days without shaking,
then stir up with a wooden spatula. Add
another pound of oil of turpentine, and
digest, with frequent agitation, until all is
dissolved. Then mix a pound and a half
of this solution with two pounds of very
white copal oil varnish, and a pound and
a half of well boiled linseed oil, shake and
digest in a sand bath, until they have
united into a good varnish. For moroc-
co leather.

d. Four ounces India-rubber in fine
shavings are dissolved in a covered jar by
means of a sand bath, in two pounds of
crude benzole, and then mixed with four
pounds of hot linseed oil varnish, and a
half pound of oil of turpentine. Dries
very well.

e. Flexible Varnish. — Melt one pound
of rosin, and add gradually half a pound
of India rubber in very fine shavings, and
stir until cold. Then heat again, slowly,
add one pound linseed oil varnish, heat-
ed, and filter.

f. Another. — Dissolve one pound of gum
dammar, and half a pound of India rub-
ber, in very small pieces, in one pound of
oil of turpentine, by means of a water
bath. Add one pound of hot oil varnish
and filter.

g. India rubber in small pieces, washed
and dried, are fused for three hours in a
close vessel, on a gradually heated sand
bath. On removing from the sand bath,
open the vessel, and stir for ten minutes,
then close again, and repeat the fusion on
the following day, until some globules ap-
pear on the surface. Strain through a
wire sieve.

h. Varnish for Water-proof Goods. —
Let a quarter of a pound of India rubber,
in small pieces, soften in a half pound of
oil of turpentine, then add two pounds of

442

MECHANICAL.

boiled oil, and let the whole boil for two
hours over a slow coal fire. When dis-
solved, add again six pounds of boiled
linseed oil, and one pound of litharge,
and boil until an even liquid is obtained.
It is applied warm.

i. Gutta-Percha Varnish. — Clean a
quarter of a pound of gutta-percha in
warm water from adhering impurities, dry
well, dissolve in one pound of rectified
resin oil, and add two pounds of linseed
oil varnish, boiling hot. Very suitable to
prevent metals from oxidation.

VARNISH, Hair. — Dissolve one part
of clippings of pig's bristles, or of horse-
hair, in ten parts of drying linseed oil by
heat. Fibrous materials (cotton, flax,
silk, etc.), imbued with the varnish and
dried, are used as a substitute for hair-
cloth.

VARNISH, for Iron.— Take oil of tur-
pentine, add to it drop by drop, and while
stirring, strong sulphuric acid,, until a
syrupy precipitate is quite formed, and no
more of it is produced on further addi-
tion of a drop of acid. The liquid is
now repeatedly washed with water, every
time refreshed after a good stirring, until
the water does not exhibit any more acid
reaction on being tested with blue litmus
paper. The precipitate is next brought
upon a cloth filter, and, after all the water
has run off, the syrupy mass is fit for use.
This thickish magma is painted over the
iron with a brush ; if it happens to be too
stiff, it is previously diluted with some oil
of turpentine. Immediately after the
iron has been so painted, the paint is
burnt by a gentle heat, and, after cooling,
the black surface is rubbed over with a
piece of woolen stuff, dipped in and
moistened with linseed oil.

According to the author, this varnish is
not a simple covering of the surface, but
it is chemically combined with the metal,
and does not, therefore, wear off or peel
off, as other paints or varnishes do from
iron.

VARNISH, Japan, Black.— Bitumen,
2 ounces; lampblack, i ounce; Tur-
key umber, one-half ounce; acetate
of lead, one-half ounce ; Venice turpen-
tine, one-half ounce; boiled oil, twelve
ounces. Melt the turpentine and oil to-
gether, carefully stirring in the rest of
the ingredients, previously powdered.
Simmer all together for ten minutes.

VARNISH, Mahogany. — Sorted gum
anime eight pounds, clarified oil three
gallons, litharge and powdered dried
sugar of lead, of each one-fourth ot
pound; boil till it strings well, then cool
a little, thin with oil of turpentine five
and one half gallons, and strain.

VARNISH, for Oil Paintings.— Digest
at a slow heat gum sandarach, two parts \
gum mastic, four parts; balsam copaiva,.
two parts; white turpentine, three parts j
with spirits of turpentine, four parts \
alcohol (ninety-five per cent.) fifty-six
parts.

VARNISH, for Paintings and Pictures.
— Honey, one pint; the whites of two
dozen fresh eggs; one ounce of good
clean isinglass; twenty grains of hydrate
of potassium; one-half-ounce of chloride
ot sodium; mix together over a gentle
heat of eighty or ninety degrees Fah.
Be careful not to let the mixture remain
long enough to coagulate the albumen ot
the eggs; stir the mixture thoroughly,
then bottle. It is to be applied as fol-
lows: one tablespoonful of varnish
added to one-half-tablespoonful of good
oil of turpentine, then spread on the pic-
tures as soon as mixed.

VARNISH, Oak.— a. Clear pale resin,
three and a half pounds; oil of turpen-
tine, one gallon; dissolve.

b. Clear Venice turpentine, four pounds \,
oil of turpentine, five pounds; mix. Both
are good common varnishes.

VARNISH, Red Copal.— a. Vermilion,
red oxide of lead (minnium), red orchre,
or Prussian red, etc., and proceed as
before.

b. Dragon's blood, brick red, or Vene-
tian red, etc., and proceed as before.

VARNISH, for Straw Hats.— Take
either red or black sealing wax ; to every
two ounces of sealing wax, add one ounce
of rectified spirits of wine; pound the
wax fine, then sift it through a fine lawn
sieve, till you have made it extremely
fine; put it into a large phial with the
spirits of wine; shake it; let it stand
near the fire forty-eight hours, shaking it
often ; then with a brush (a hog's bristle
brush) lay it all over the hat (or basket).
Let it dry and then repeat the operation.

VARNISH, for Stoves.— Melt half a
pound of asphaltum, and add to it a
quarter of a pint of linseed oil, and one
pint of turpentine. This quantity will be

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 443

enough for four grates. If it be found
too thick, as it gets towards the bottom of
the bottle, add a little more turpentine.
It is for the black stoves, which must be
washed clean of dirt and black lead, and,
when dry, apply the varnish with a
brush.

VARNISH, for Shoes.— Put one-half
pound gum shellac, broken up in small
pieces, into a quart bottle or jug, cover it
with alcohol, cork it tight, and put it on
a shelf in a warm place; shake it well
several times a day, then add a piece of
camphor as large as an egg, shake it well,
and in a few hours shake it again, and
add one ounce of lamp-black. If the
alcohol is good it will be dissolved in two
days; then shake and use. If it gets
too thick, add alcohol, pour out two or
three teaspoonfuls in a saucer, and apply
it with a small paint brush. If the
materials are all good it will dry in about
five minutes, giving a gloss equal to
patent leather, and will be removed only
by wearing it off. The advantage of this
preparation over others is, it does not
strike into the leather and make it hard,
but remains on the surface, and yet ex-
cludes the water almost perfectly. The
same preparation is admirable for harness,
and does not soil when touched, as is
usually the case with lamp-black prepara-
tions.

VARNISH, Purple Copal.— Prussian
blue or vermillion, or any other blue and
red, then proceed as before.

VARNISH, Tar.— Tar, two gallons ; tal-
low, one pound. Melt, then add ground
ochre, seven pounds; spirits of turpen-
tine, six pounds. Mix well. By regulat-
ing the quantity of the ochre, a very
excellent chocolate paint for rough out-
door work will be produced.

VARNISH, Turpentine. — Resin, one
part; boiled oil, one part. Melt, then
add turpentine, two parts. Mix well.

VARNISH, Transfer. — Mastic in tears,
six and a half ounces ; resin, twelve and
a half ounces; pale Venice turpentine
(genuine) and sandarach, of each twenty-
five ounces ; alcohol, five pints ; dissolve
as before. Used for fixing engravings or
lithographs on wood, and for gilding,
silvering, etc.

VARNISH, Violet Copal.— Vermillion,
blue, white, in proportion as required to
color the varnish.

VARNISH, for Water Color Drawings.
Take Canada balsam, one part; oil of
turpentine, two parts; mix; size the
drawing before you apply the varnish.

VARNISH, to Make White Copal.—
White oxide of lead, ceruse, Spanish
white, white clay. Such of these sub-
stances as are preferred ought to be care-
fully dried. Ceruse and clay obstinately
retain a great deal of humidity, which
would oppose their adhesion to drying oil
or varnish. The cement then crumbles
under the fingers, and does not assume a
body.

Another. — On sixteen ounces of melted
copal, pour four, six or eight ounces of
linseed oil boiled, and quite free from
grease. When well mixed by repeated
stirrings, and after they are pretty cool,
pour in sixteen ounces of the essence ot
Venice turpentine. Pass the varnish
through a cloth.

VARNISH, Yellow Copal. — Yellow
oxide of lead of Naples and Montpellier,
both reduced to impalpable powder.
These yellows are hurt by the contact of
iron and steel ; in mixing them up, there-
fore, a horn spatula with a glass mortar
and pestle must be employed. Gum
guttse, yellow ochre, or Dutch pink,
according to the nature and tone of the
color to be imitated.

VARNISH, Transparent Green. — A
beautiful transparent green varnish is
made by taking a small quantity of
Chinese blue, with about twice the
amount of finely powdered chromate of
potash, and stirring these in copal varnish
thinned with turpentine. A thorough
grinding ot this mixture must be made
for the purpose of intimately incorporating
the ingredients, as otherwise it will not be
transparent. A preponderance of chro-
mate of potash gives a yellowish shade
to the green, and a deficiency increases
the amount of blue. This varnish, thus
colored, produces a very striking effect in
japanned goods, paper-hangings, etc,,
and can be made very cheaply.

KALSOMINE.— Ten pounds whiting,
dissolved in hot or boiling water, quarter
of a pound of glue, should be put to soak
over night in one pint of water ; it may
now be melted on a stove, stirring it fre-
quently; two ounces of ultramarine blue;
one ounce of Venetian red ; mix separately
with cold or soft water, and strain through.

-444

MECHANICAL.

-a stocking or thin cloth — each in separate
vessels. The whiting may now be stirred
well ; if too thick, add more hot water
and strain through a sieve into a good
sized pot Add some of the blue and red
alternately until you get the shade re-
quired. When your color is determined
pour in the glue, and after mixing well
apply the wash hot to the wall. Should
the second coat not be put on until the
next day, heat the mixture, as the glue
will not mix with the other ingredients
unless pretty warm.

WAX, for Canning Fruits. — Resin,
one pound; lard, tallow, and beeswax,
each one ounce. Melt, and stir well
together.

MECHANICS, Farmers should be. — On
every farm there should be a shop-room,
with work-benches and a kit of tools,
comprising all such as may be required
for any ordinary repairs of buildings or
wooden farm implements, and every
farmer should have skill to use them.
Having them, many repairs and necessary
jobs can be done, in less time than would
be required to carry the job to a regular
mechanic, and often in a better manner;
while no more time will be lost, and some
money will be saved. With a soldering
copper, rosin, and solder, with a few
minutes' practice, much inconvenience
and expense can be saved by repairing
tin-ware, water-pipes, etc., in odd mo-
ments and on rainy days.

BUILDINGS and GROUNDS, Choosing
a Location for. — In choosing a location,
one of the first considerations is that of
access to and egress from a city, and if
daily intercourse is contemplated, it be-
comes a question of speciaj interest. The
time, trouble, and expense of travel on
bad roads are a severe tax upon coun-
try pleasures. A drive of half an hour
on a hard road, during a fine summer
evening, is a recreative pleasure which
may be not appreciated when an hour and
a half are spent on the same distance dur-
ing a stormy winter morning. A good
road in dry weather may become very
indifferent after rains, and be impassable
for three-fourths of the year.

In these days of railroads and steam-
boats it is difficult to indicate what might
be considered a convenient distance from
a city. Upon a well managed railroad
a distance of twenty miles may be more

accessible than two miles upon a com-
mon road. Proximity to a railroad sta-
tion will always secure a certainty of con-
venient transit, even allowing the dis-
tance to be within an easy carriage drive.
This facility should not be overlooked
when it can be secured.

Healthiness of locality is of paramount
importance. Low, flat lands are gen-
erally damp and cold, and should never
be selected for the habitation either of
man or beast, if there is any choice in
the matter. Valleys, or even slight de-
pressions, are equally unsuitable. The
air after sunset is always dense in such
places, dews are heavier and more fre-
quent; and, as a consequence, frosts are
more prevalent than on elevations. Fogs
are most frequent on low lands. The
extremes of temperature are also greater,
especially if surrounded by forests, which
prevent the free circulation and equaliz-
ing influence of winds. Wide and long
valleys between uniform hills are fre-
quently subjected to sweeping blasts.
Even the vicinity of such localities ought
to be avoided. A person may drain,
cultivate, plant, and otherwise improve
his own property, and still be subjected
to the injurious influences of unimproved
lands over which he has no control.

An elevated situation is generally
healthy. The extent of prospect it se-
cures is also an advantage; yet it is not
well to place too great a value on
distant views. For permanent residence
the exposure of elevations is a disadvant-
age. Though cool, airy, and agreeable
in summer, they may be bleak, chilly, and
exceedingly uncomfortable during winter.
The tender and delicate varieties of flowers
and shrubbery, as well as fruits and culi-
nary products, are less likely to flourish
when fully exposed to cold and unbroken
winds.

BUILDING SITE, Selecting a.— This
is too commonly settled by selecting the
highest point of the ground, but not al-
ways wisely. A modern house set up on
a sharp knoll has an isolated appearance
which is not readily altered or improved
by trees, and it is with difficulty ap-
proached by roads, if the grounds slope
suddenly from it.

A somewhat level plateau, partially
surrounded by higher ground, forms a
good position for a dwelling house. The

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 445

ground should fall from it in all direc-
tions, more rapidly in front than back,
where the descent may be merely suffi-
cient for drainage. Back of the house,
positions should be selected for the veg-
etable garden, stables, and other build-
ings, such as greenhouses and graperies,
all of which will be sheltered and pro-
tected by the higher ground beyond.

The nature of the soil should receive
attention in selecting a spot for a house.
Clay soils are retentive of water; and,
even when artificially drained, the sur-
face is disagreeable after rains. Clay,
in contact with foundation walls, keeps
them damp and cold. The expansion of
clay when wet, and shrinkage when dry,
unfit it for a safe foundation. If every
other condition is secured in a site, art
can do much towards ameliorating the
physical qualities of the soil; but, for
all the purposes of human comfort and
enjoyment, in the immediate vicinity of
a house, a light, open, porous soil is de-
cidedly the best.

It is always desirable to secure the
beauty and utility of a natural planta-
tion; but, to select a site for a mansion
in the center of a grove of old trees, with
the intention of making them a nucleus
for future landscape effect, will generally
prove unsatisfactory. In natural forests
the trees grow closely together; their
trunks are long, slender, and destitute of
branches; and, if thinning is attempted,
those that are left seldom flourish for any
length of time. If the thinning out is
gradual, and the best of the remaining
trees are judiciously pruned, they may
ultimately recover, and make a satisfac-
tory appearance.

Where old trees abound, it is difficult to
prepare or keep a good lawn, or to introduce
new shrubs or flowers. The roots of the
trees prevent thorough renovation of the
soil, and the shade of the branches in-
terferes with the growth of plants. There
is a steady antagonism between the old
and the new, both with regard to indi-
vidual growth and landscape effect, until
either the one or the other predominates.
It is no matter of doubt or uncertainty,
but a settled question with all who have
any experience in remodeling or adapting
old woods or groves to modern improve-
ments, that it is immeasurably better to
commence on a treeless, naked field ; as

a judicious selection and intermixture of
fast-growing trees, properly planted in good
soil, will, in a very few years, serve all useful'
purposes, produce such effects as are con-
templated, and give far more satisfaction-
than can be derived from the accidental
position and growth of natural forests, at
least so far as relates to improvements in
the immediate vicinity of a rural resi-
dence.

OUTBUILDINGS, STABLES, ETC.,
Arrangement of. — The selection of sites-
for the various buildings required near a-
country or suburban residence is second
in importance only to the selection of a
site for the mansion. Convenience dic-
tates that these buildings should be as
near the house as is practically consistent
with their objects and character. The-
dwelling-house will, of course, occupy
the best and most advantageous position,
and its superior size and style of architec-
ture will always be such as to render all
other necessary structures of secondary
and subordinate appearance. Such build-
ings as stables and' ice-houses are so-
obviously necessary to domestic comfort
that their presence is not only expected,
but their absence conveys an impression
of poverty or incompleteness altogether
inconsistent with our ideas of what &
country home should be.

Instead, therefore, of endeavoring to
entirely conceal these offices by planta-
tions and by other expedients, as is fre-
quently advised, they should be located
on the most eligible sites, and display, in'
their architectural details and ornaments,
an expression of the purposes for which
they are intended, and be judiciously
exposed to view without rendering con-
spicuous the operations necessarily con-
nected with the structure.

The best location for these buildings^
will be governed, to some extent, by
local circumstances; but, where there
are no grades, views, or other exceptional
features to interfere with the selection, a
point in a northeast direction from the
house will combine the greatest number
of advantages.

When the stables and other farm build-
ings should not be entirely hidden from
view at certain points, at the same time
it will be obvious that a due amount of
privacy in and about the buildings them-
selves, as well as in the line of view from.

446

MECHANICAL.

the dwelling-house, will be essential, and
can readily be effected by the introduction
of trees and shrubs at the points indi-
cated.

EOADS AND WALKS, Laying Out.—
The guiding principle in designing the
position of roads and walks is utility.
Nature forms no road. They are the
works of men and animals, and would
undoubtedly always proceed in straight
lines from point to point, if obstructions
of various kinds did not interfere and
cause deviations. Necessity will there-
fore suggest where and how they should
be introduced. So far as regards ap-
proaches and walks to and from buildings,
the object of their introduction is suffi-
ciently apparent; but, in laying out
pleasure grounds and lawn fronts, it is a
common practice to introduce walks for
the mere purpose of variety. This is a
very questionable reason at the best, and
not always successfully accomplished;
but even in cases of this kind, they should
appear to aim for some definite object, or
lead to points of sufficient importance to
suggest their utility.

Unnecessary roads and walks should
be carefully avoided. They are expensive
in their construction, if properly made,
and require constant attention to keep
them clean and in repair. Nothing looks
so woe-begone and poverty-stricken as a
weedy, neglected road to a house, or
walks through pleasure grounds or gar-
den. They detract much from the beauty
of the surroundings, no matter how
elaborate or intrinsically worthy they may
be. An over-supply of roads and walks
is always a serious infliction.

The bearty of curved lines sometimes
prompts to a deviation from the more
available direct course; and, where it can
be done without too great sacrifice of
utility, it is not objectionable. But no
walk should be turned from its obvious
direct course without an apparently suffi-
cient reason. A change of level in the
ground, a tree, or a group of plants, or
other similar obstruction, will induce, and
seemingly demand, a change of line.

There are many locations where the
straight line should be preferred as a
matter of taste in design. As a connect-
ing link between the strictly horizontal
and the perpendicular lines of a building,
and the irregular surfaces surrounding it,

a perfectly straight walk is in the best
taste and adds greatly to the effect of the
architecture, while a frequently curving
walk detracts from it. So also a walk
along the side of a straight boundary
fence should not curve if both lines are
visible at the same time. Most persons
are aware of the great beauty of straight
walks and avenues of trees; and for pub-
lic parks of lesser order, inclosed by
formal outlines, they can always be intro-
duced with great effect, as well as con-
venience, where curving walks would be
the reverse. In this case beauty depends
upon harmony rather than contrast, and
more than either upon utility.

When roads or walks are carried over
irregular surfaces, the natural turns and
windings necessary to follow an easy or
uniform grade, and keep as near the
original surface of the ground as possible,
will usually develop pleasing curves. A
little studied attention in this matter of
the course of a road will not only increase
the beauty of curves by adding to them
the grace of utility, but also deep and
expensive cuttings, as well as heavy em-
bankments, will be avoided, and easy
grades and economical construction be
more certainly secured.

When it is necessary to branch a sec-
ondary road from the main line, it should
leave the latter at as nearly a right angle
as convenient, and at the same time be
somewhat narrower, so that its appear-
ance may convey the proper idea of its
being subordinate, and so avoid con-
fusion and mistake ; otherwise the roads
leading to the stable, ice-house, or gar-
den, may be mistaken for the road to the
mansion. Under no circumstances should
walks be made conspicuous in views of
natural scenery. If it is essentially neces-
sary that a walk should cross a lawn
where it would interrupt a continuity of
view, and destroy breadth of effect, it
should be sunk beneath the line of vision,
by placing it in a slight excavation, which
may be further assisted by throwing up a
small mound on the side nearest the
point of view. These expedients, as also
that of planting thick groups of low-
growing shrubs, will be effective and
satisfactory if properly executed.

In laying out curving roads it is not
advisable to closely follow geometrical
rules, or to set the curves out to any

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 447

regular radius. This plan may occasion-
ally prove perfectly satisfactory on a
strictly level surface, but it will have quite
-an opposite effect where the ground is
greatly undulating. The curves, to be
pleasing, must be "eye-sweet" — not too
sudden or abrupt — and properly blended
at their points of junctions.

EOADS AM) WALKS, Construction
of. — Very much of personal comfort and
pleasure in rural residences depends upon
good roads. A smooth, firm, dry road is
one of the greatest conveniences and
enjoyments; while a rough, soft, muddy
road is one of the greatest drawbacks and
annoyances of country life. Bad roads
form the greatest obstacles to progress
and permanent improvements in all the
neighborhoods that are blasted with their
presence ; they have a demoralizing effect
upon the inhabitants, and are a sure sign
•either of poverty cr mismanagement, or
both.

Water is the worst enemy to good
roads. It is, therefore, a leading principle
in road-making so to construct them that
they may be kept dry. In absence of a
timely recognition of this principle, many
•costly roads have proved to be failures ;
but where it has had prominent recogni-
tion and its value has been properly
appreciated, good roads have been made
at a trifling expense.

After locating the road and marking
out its course, the sides should be brought
to the proper grade and finished by a
layer of sod as a guide to further opera-
tions. In crossing a sloping surface it is
not necessary to have both sides perfectly
level, but the nearer this can be secured,
with due regard to getting rid of surface
water, the better it will admit of a neat
iinish and the more easily will it be kept
in repair.

The road bed is then formed by ex-
cavating and removing the soil to a depth
ol six inches at the sides, curving slightly
higher in the centre, and made perfectly
smooth by rolling, producing a uniform
surface upon which the material of the
road is to be placed.

The best stone for road metal is tough
granite. Hard brittle stone is more readily
reduced by pressure, but in a well-kept
road this difference is not important. It
is, however, all important that the stones
should be broken small. The largest

should easily pass through a two-inch
ring, and if one-half of them are small
enough to pass through a ring of only
one inch diameter, the road will ultimately
become all the more compact.

The road bed should be filled with this
broken stone to a level with the sides,
increasing in depth toward the centre at
the rate of one inch to the yard. Thus,
a road sixteen feet in width would have a
depth of about nine inches in the centre.
The utmost care should be applied to
regulating the surface, and the smaller
stones should be used on top, in order to
secure an even, compact, carefully-molded
grade, which should be compressed by
repeatedly passing a heavy roller over it,
wedging every stone, and making the
surface almost as smooth and solid as a
pavement. A thin layer, not more than
one inch in thickness, of fine clayey
gravel should then be evenly distributed
over the stones, and the roller again
applied until the surface becomes homo-
geneous, firm, and close.

The surface of the road will thus be
higher than the sodded edges, water will
therefore pass readily from it, and one of
the main points of keeping a good road
will be secured. This will iorm a first-
class road for ordinary carriage drives, or
for all purposes required in public parks
or private grounds ; and, if kept in good
surface by frequent rolling, so as to pre-
vent the forming of ruts while it is
settling; and, if a facing of gravel is
applied when necessary, it will perma-
nently fulfill all requirements of a good
road.

The quality of gravel deserves notice.
"Wash gravel, consisting only of sand
and rounded pebbles, should never be
used. No amount of pressure will render
it firm, and it is the most disagreeable
material to walk upon. The best gravel
is that to be found in banks composed of
pebbles mixed with reddish clay; and
the stones must be small. No detail in
road-making is of so much importance
as this. If a wagon wheel or the foot of
a horse press on one extremity of a stone
the other end of it will probably be
slightly raised, allowing small particles of
sand to fall into the crevice, when the
stone is loosened, and will roll on the
surface ; hence the necessity of using only
very finely divided stones on top, so that

448

MECHANICAL.

they will be smaller than the pressing
point, and not become disarranged from
leverage or compound action.

Where stone cannot conveniently be
obtained, the road bed may be filled with
refuse matters of many kinds, such as
coal ashes, clinkers from furnaces, and
shells. Oyster shells are plentiful in many
places near the seaboard, and form an ad-
mirable road; but the permanency, as
well as efficiency of these materials in a
road bed, will depend altogether upon
the care of surfacing with proper gravel.
Where it is impracticable to procure, or
deemed inexpedient to use, any of the
foregoing materials, an earth road may be
rendered very serviceable by proper at-
tention to the leading principle — that is,
to keep it dry. In this case, instead of
excavating a road bed, slight excavations
should be made at the sides and the ma-
terial spread over the center ; and that
surface water may pass to the sides more
rapidly and thoroughly, a greater con-
vexity may be given to the curve. In
some sections of the country good roads
are kept up in this manner, but they are
carefully repaired whenever necessary,
and all ruts and tracks are filled up as
soon as they are formed. The same general
principles apply to the formation of
walks and foot-paths. The depth of ma-
terial, however, need not exceed a few
inches. It is certain that much unneces-
sary expense is frequentiy laid out upon
mere foot-walks. A porous, gravelly, or
sandy soil is in itself a good walk if prop-
erly shaped. Such walks admit of great-
er convexity than carriage roads, which
is equivalent to a saving of material.
Walks should be well filled up. There is
no more disagreeable object, or one that
conveys so meagre an expression, as
deep, raw edgings to a walk, looking as
if they had been trimmed with a plow.
Walks in this condition may be servicea-
ble as water courses, but they are not
comfortable foot-paths.

LAWNS, Formation and Management
of. — A fine lawn is the most beautiful of
external ornaments. Soft, velvety, elastic
turf, smoothly shorn and of fine color, is
always pleasing, but not always attained.
Formerly the emerald lawns of European
pleasure grounds were considered to be
unequalled; and it was thought that
nothing approaching to their beauty

could be realized in this climate of scorch-
ing suns and summer droughts; but it
has been demonstrated beyond any doubt
that lawns may be produced and main-
tained here, as fine as those to be found
in any country.

The primary requisite is thorough pre-
paration of the soil. Without this, fail-
ure is probable, -but if properly done at
the outset, success is certain, with subse-
quent intelligent management. First of
all, a good foundation ' must be laid by
draining and subsoiling, trenching, man-
uring, or otherwise loosening or enrich-
ing the soil. With limited lawns, spade-
trenching will be at once thorough and
permanent ; but, where a plow and other
implements can be used, the work may
be executed much more economically,
and, by using the subsoil plow in connec-
tion with the common surface turning, a
depth of eighteen inches will be reached,
which, on ordinarily good corn-producing
lands, will be ample preparation for sl
good lawn. Previous to the final plow-
ing a heavy dressing of manure should
be applied. This should be well decom-
posed, more especially if the soil is par-
tially of a gravelly or sandy character.

The surface must be rendered smooth
and regular. Careful plowing can ac-
complish much toward making a smooth
surface ; but whatever the expense may
be, the finish should be made perfect be-
fore sowing the grasses. There are two
seasons for sowing — autumn and spring,
either of them appropriate; and the
choice will depend upon circumstances,
and is of secondary consideration, com-
pared to the preparation of the land. To
get rid of weeds and clean the ground
before laying it down to grass, it is a
commendable practice to plant it with
early potatoes. These, if cultivated with
ordinary care, will soon cover the surface
with their leaves, and prevent the growth
of weeds ; and the operation of digging
up and removing the crop tends to pul-
verize and loosen the soil. The potatoes
can be removed and grass seed sown by
the middle of August to the middle of
September, and the grasses will vegetate
and cover the surface before frosts. A
top dressing of thinly sprinkled manure
will protect the young plants during the
winter, and a good thick set lawn will be
secured early in the following summer.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 449

In hard, clayey loams, where a suffi-
ciently comminuted surface is not so
easily obtained, the ground should be
prepared in the latter portion of the year,
and plowed over, so as to leave a rough
surface to be acted upon by frosts during
the winter. This will insure a friability
not easily attainable by mechanical means
on tenacious soils. The seeds should be
sown as early as can be done in the
spring, but not until the ground is dry.
Working a clayey soil when it is wet is
ruinous to the future crop.

In the immediate preparation of the
ground before seeding, the surface should
be pulverized by the harrow and roller if
necessary. The seed will be sufficiently
covered by passing a light harrow or
roller over the ground. The former is
best in clayey or baking soils, and the
roller on light and sandy soil.

The best grasses for permanent lawns
are red top (Agrostis vulgaris,) and June
grass (Poa pratensis.) The following
proportions have been used in the lawns
of the Department, with great satisfac-
tion: one bushel red top, two bushels
June grass, one quart timothy, and two
pounds white clover, to each acre of
land. These should be thoroughly mixed
before sowing. This is heavy seeding,
but experiments demonstrate that a good
lawn can be secured only by seeding
heavily, when sown in the spring; autumn
sowing may be thinner, but the thick
seeding will be the most satisfactory.
There is no grass equal to the June grass
for fine lawns ; this is also known as
green grass, and Kentucky blue grass.
The red top also forms a good sward
where the soil is good, and the summers
comparatively cool and moist; but dur-
ing dry, warm weather it becomes hard
and wiry. The timothy grass vegetates
quickly, and greatly assists the growth of
the others. The clover is also valuable,
in rapidly producing a thick, close sod.

The practice of sowing oats, barley, or
other grains with the grasses, under the
impression that they will protect the
young plants from sun and drought, is
altogether wrong, as it practically does
much more harm than good. The larger
growing plants rob the soil of its moisture,
to the destruction of the tender and more
feebly rooting grass plants. No such
protection is necessary, even were it pos-
29

sible to supply it without injury. With
fair preparation of ground, and seed put
in as soon as practicable in the spring,
the lawn will be fit to mow in June at
latest.

A very successful improver, especially
in the making of lawns, sows down in
August and adds about two pounds of
turnip seed to the acre. The gradual
growth of the turnip foliage forms a con-
genial damp shade for the vegetation and
spread of the young grass plants. The
larger [leaves of the vegetable also pro-
tect the grass against injury from the-
early frosts. Their gradual decay and
ultimate removal are effected before the
grasses are so far advanced as to be hurt
by continuous shade, and a thick sward
is secured before winter. A slight cov-
ering of strawy manure will be of ad-
vantage to autumn-sown lawns, particu-
larly so if the soil inclines to be wet, and
therefore liable to have the young plants
thrown to the surface by the alternate
action of freezing and thawing. A heavy
roller should be passed over it as early in
the spring as the firmness of the soil will'
admit, in order to tighten the earth,
around the roots, and press down such
plants as have been loosened during the
winter.

While it is true that a fine lawn can-
not be produced without good prepara-
tion, it is equally true that a fine lawn
cannot be maintained without frequent
mowing. The recent improvements in
lawn mowers leave but little to be desired
so far as mowing facilities are concerned.
They also roll the lawn at the same time
that it is cut, which is essential to the
most perfect keeping. That which was
formerly regarded as a formidable opera-
tion is now one of the easiest, and the :
lawn is kept in good order at less cost
than any other portion of the pleasure?
grounds. One of the best points in the.-
lawn mower is its incapacity for cutting
long grass, thus compelling frequent
mowing, which is the great secret in keep-
ing a superior lawn. Mow early and of-
ten is the rule. Even on newly seeded
lawns the mower should be at work as
soon as the grass is high enough to cut ;
indeed much injury results from procras-
tination at this time; weeds will gain the
ascendancy, and unequal growths follow.
A lawn sown down in April was cut six.

15°

MECHANICAL.

times before the first of August, and had
the appearance of an old thickset sod.

Neither in the preparation and forma-
tion of a lawn, nor in its keeping in this
climate, are there any half-way com-
promises. The work must be done thor-
oughly to begin with, and then timely at-
tention to cutting all through the grow-
ing season will insure a satisfactory result.
Neither soil nor climate can justly be
blamed for poor lawns, although it is a
convenient mode of shifting responsi-
bility, and one frequently adopted.

As already remarked, lawn mowing
machines will not operate to any good
purpose where the grass is long ; hence
it has been recommended to leave the
cut grass as a mulch. During the first
year this course may be followed with
advantage ; but experience shows that a
long continuance of the practice injures
the lawn very materially, particularly dur-
ing early spring, or late in the season.
In the hottest portion of summer the cut
grass dries up so thoroughly as to be but
.of slight influence either way.

The lawn will be benefited by a top
dressing once in three or four years; not,
however, by throwing over it an unsightly
covering of rough, strawy litter, which,
however beneficial, is not commendable
in neatly kept grounds. A compost made
up of fresh stable manure and any ordina-
rily good surface soil, thrown together in
layers, and intermixed and pulverized by
frequent turnings during the summer, will
be in condition for application any time
in early winter. This should be evenly
.distributed, broken up, and raked in
.among the roots, taking advantage of
frost to assist in the work of disintegra-
tion, and removing the rougher portions
altogether before rolling the lawn in the
•.spring.

FENCES and HEDGES.— Some sort of
Ifence is usually necessary to guard against
intruders, or to designate ownership, and
the kind of fence used will generally be
governed by necessity.

Whatever materials may be used for
outside fences, they should be strong and
substantial. Inside fences for such pur-
poses as that of separating the lawn from
the vegetable garden may be of lighter
.construction ; especially if a fence crosses
a lawn, as seen from the house with an
dopen view beyond, it should be as light

and elegant as is consistent with strength
and durability. In such cases it is often
desired to conceal the fence, as an intru-
sive object in the landscape, by adopting
the sunken fence. This maybe described
as a ditch-like excavation four or five feet
in depth, finished by a perpendicular wall
on the lawn side, and the ground flatly
sloped on the opposite.

The propriety of persistently conceal-
ing the fence in such positions may be
questioned. Utility is a strong element
of the beautiful, and if no visible barrier
intervenes between the pleasure ground
and a grazing field, we at once condemn
the incongruity. We cannot distinguish
where the flower garden ends or the graz-
ing meadow begins, and must suppose
that the cattle can perambulate the flow-
er garden if they choose ; we can imagine
the result, and we feel that a fence be-
comes a necessity to separate objects that
cannot well be united without injury to one
or both. Wire fences are well adapted to
this purpose, as they are so light as not
materially to interrupt the view; and if
properly constructed, are sufficiently
strong and permanent.

Even in those happy communities
where cattle are not permitted to run at
large, some kind of fence will be neces-
sary to designate boundary lines of prop-
erty. It has been claimed that the high-
est degree of rural beauty is a village
without fences, or any other distinctive
marks to properties. As well might it be
claimed that the best arrangement in a
picture gallery will be produced by taking
the paintings out of the frames and nail-
ing the canvas to the walls. The love of
exclusive possession is a mainstay of
society. Well-defined boundary lines to
property greatly enhance its enjoyment,
especially when applied to lawns and gar-
dens.

For this purpose the live fence is by
far the most appropriate, and that formed
of evergreen plants the most permanent-
ly beautiful. The Siberian arbor vitae,
Nootka cypress, and hemlock spruce are
among the best for northern climates.
In the South the Chinese arbor vitae, Ja-
pan euonymus, and other evergreen
shrubs may be added to the list. If de-
ciduous plants are preferred, a selection
may be made from the following list:
Japan quince, buckthorn, elseagnus, Ta-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 451

pan privet ; and, if a somewhat formida-
ble fence is desired, the Osage orange
and honey locust will answer that pur-
pose.

Hedges are also useful as shelter to
gardens, rendering them earlier, more
productive, and greatly exempt from
casualties of climate and locality. In
the growth of all kinds of small fruits, as
well as those of larger orchard growth,
•shelter is always of the greatest benefit.
Many of the diseases of our fruit trees
and imperfections in the products can be
effaced by sheltering hedges and planta-
tions— facts that are now being fully ap-
preciated by fruit-growers.

In grounds of very limited dimensions,
where the boundary lines are at no great
distance from the house, an evergreen
hedge set inside the fence will afford
great relief to the eye and form a back-
ground, as it were, to the shrubbery and
flower borders. The stiff line of the
hedge can be modified in appearance by
planting small, diversified groups of
shrubs, or low-growing evergreens along
its front. A continuous border varying
in width and of curving outline, running
in a direction parallel with the hedge,
and thickly planted with flowering shrubs
of variety, interspersed with such flower-
ing herbaceous perennials as hollyhocks,
phloxes, chrysanthemums, delphinums,
etc., is one of the best modes of treating a
.small pleasure garden and lawn.

WATER, Lakes. — When appropriately
introduced, the effect of water in pleasure
grounds is always pleasing; frequently it is
strikingly beautiful; and, of all the ma-
terials that enter into the composition of
natural scenery, there are none that pro-
duce a greater amount of varied interest
and beauty. It is, therefore, eagerly de-
sired as an adjunct to the more artificial
improvements of private residences, public
institutions, and city parks, and is always
a valuable acquisition where it can be
:ecired.

To form an artificial lake, the first
requisite is an ample supply of water at
all seasons. There cannot well be a more
unsatisfactory object in artificial grounds
than a lake where the supply of water is
insufficient to keep it properly filled, and
where natural facilities for a constant sup-
ply do not exist its construction should

not be attempted. The surface water, or
casual supply derived from rains and
snows, may be sufficient during winter
and spring, but entirely inadequate to
meet the evaporation during summer;
and lakes that are dependent upon this
source, and become partially empty and
stagnant during the warm season, are as
injurious to health as they are opposed to
all correct ideas of beauty.

Water for ponds is sometimes procured
from the discharges of underground
drains; and where the drained area is
extensive enough to furnish all the water
necessary, which can be ascertained by
observations during summer, a pond may
be excavated at the lowest point, allow-
ing the surface of the water to- be on a
level with the discharge pipes of the
drains. The excavated soil can be used
in forming the banks of varied heights
and configurations. The outline of the
pond, like that of a belt of trees or shrub-
bery border skirting a lawn, should be
varied and irregular, with bold points and
deep indentations, and these should be
a level lawn, surrounded by curved out-
lines of shrubbery, and that of a smooth
sheet of water in a pond or small lake,
with jutting banks and retiring bays, is
very close, so far as relates to their artistic
treatment in ornamental planting.

The most natural position for a sheet of
water is in a hollow or low ground, oc-
cupied by a constantly running stream.
It frequently occurs that small streams
are so situated that by skillfully throwing
a dam across the valley hollow through
which the water runs a large surface may
be flooded and the water permanently
ret lined. The water level on the sur-
rounding ground will probably show a
beautifully varied outline which may be
increased or rendered more definite by
deepening bay-like recesses and adding
to prominent or jutting points. This, to-
gether with the effects that may be pro-
duced by planting, will give variety to
otherwise monotonous outlines.

In geometrically arranged flower gar-
dens simple basins of water may be in-
troduced with good effect, either with
fountains or without them. In these
situations the marginal finish or connec-
tion between the grass and water should
be of an architectural description. Any
attempt made toward a rugged, or what

452

MECHANICAL.

is usually termed a natural looking finish,
will certainly prove unsatisfactory.
GATES AND CARRIAGE TURNS.—

First impressions are strongly influencing,
and oftentimes prove to be the founda-
tion of lasting prejudices. A neatly de-
signed and tastefully arranged gateway
at the entrance of a property creates the
favorable expectation of finding these
characteristics pervading other improve-
ments. An imposing entrance way,
therefore, becomes an important feature ;
but it should always bear a close relation
to the general style and scale of the situa-
tion ; and, if it is architectural in design,
should harmonize with the style of the
mansion to which it is an adjunct; at the
same time it may be more highly orna-
mented, keeping strictly in mind that no
amount of mere decoration will compen-
sate for any appearance of insufficient
strength or utility.

Iron gates appear to greatest advantage
when they are hung to stone posts or at-
tached to pillars of masonry. A single
block of granite, fashioned into a post,
forms a very satisfactory support for an
ordinary iron gate. Large, heavy, and
elaborately constructed iron gates demand
heavier and more massive supporting
pillars, ornamented to correspond with
the style and finish of the gate. The
main or principal entrance gate to any
place, even of the most humble descrip-
tion, should be placed on a line receding
more or less from the line of the outside
or public road, being connected with the
latter by a curved line of fence. The
extent of this recess will vary with the
extent of the place, facilities of position,
and size and style of the gate; but ten to
thirty feet may be given as a range.
Even in places of quite limited extent,
the former distance will be sufficient to
give a decided effect, without encroach-
ing too severely on the grounds, and will
establish a largeness of expression to the
whole surroundings. In placing posts
for gates the mistake is frequently made
of setting them parallel to the public road
instead of having them at a right angle
to the road to which they properly be-
long. When the private road leaves the
public one at right angles, and continues
in a straight line for some distance, the
gate will, of course, be properly placed in
a line parallel to the public road : but

where the front lawn is small in extent
and it becomes a necessity to branch the
road suddenly to right or left, the import-
ance of adhering strictly to the rule of
placing the gate at a right angle to the
carriage road will appear very conspicu-
ous ; for if the posts are set parallel with
the public road, it will be found to be a
matter of much nicety to drive a carriage
through the gateway without either com-
ing in contact with the post or allowing
the horses to walk on the grass or road
edging. Examples of this may be seen
in most suburban districts.

The greater the inequality of the re-
spective distances between the posts and
the line of the outside or public road the
more difference will there be in the length,
of the curved lines connecting them with
the fence. One will be much shorter
and have a different radius from the
other; but this will not destroy the
symmetry of composition which a gate-
way should possess, since the apparent
utility of the arrangement will convey a
strong reason for its adoption, which can
be further increased by the judicious
planting of trees; besides, it should be
remembered that an expression of symme-
try can be obtained without having a.
strict adherence to uniformity in details.

A space sufficiently large for allowing
a carriage to turn is a necessary conveni-
ence to a house, and as near to the main
entrance as practicable. In the front of
very large buildings, a gravel space wide
enough for this purpose is sometimes
provided ; but when the house is one of
ordinary dimensions, and the grounds of
only moderate extent, a large gravel space"
will very materially abridge the breadth
of the front. The reflection of heat from-
gravel is not pleasant, neither is it so-
agreeable to the eye as the grassy lawn.
Some of the objections to an bpert gravel
space are removed by forming a circular
carriage-way, directly in front of the
house, inclosing a bed for shrubbery or a
grass plot. The amount of roadway is,
by this mode, somewhat reduced, but the
evil of breaking up the front still exists;
nor does it provide all the requirements,
of a carriage turn, as there is no alterna-
tive but to perambulate the circle when
retiring; and the annoyance of having
vehicles and animals obstructing the
views from the principal windows of the

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 453

house is also a great objection to this
arrangement. The best position for a
carriage-turn is beyond the house, so that
a vehicle, after approaching the main
entrance, can proceed onward, turn, and
•approach the house again in the opposite
direction. The turn in this case can be
partially screened from the house by
planting shrubbery; and arrangements
for tying horses can be made in unobjec-
tionable positions where they will not
present annoying features as seen from
the house. This allows the grass or lawn
to be carried closer to the building, the
roadway only intervening, and the side
grouping of plants can be executed much
more effectively. The curve of the road,
entering into the grounds on one side,
will be balanced by a similar curve on
the other side, toward, the turn. In this
proximity to a building, the walks, as
well as artificial plantings, should be
symmetrical in their tendencies, and in
keeping with the formal style of treat-
ment which such a position demands.
The central view from the building will
■be open, and impart an expression of
freedom and apparent extent of lawn,
"which is always pleasing, particularly in
limited areas.

ROADS and AVENUES, Planting.—
In the planting of straight roads and
avenues it is essential to preserve regu-
larity of line, as also uniformity in the
color and shape of the trees. The nearest
approach to the sublime in landscape
gardening is in effects produced by ex-
tended uniform lines of trees. Continuity
of line and uniformity of object, when
-combined with great extension, produce
sublimity. Objects are sublime which
.possess quantity and simplicity in con-
junction. It is not on a small rivulet,
however transparent or beautifully wind-
ing it may be ; it is not on a narrow
valley, though variegated with flowers of
a thousand hues ; it is not on small eleva-
tions, though they are clothed with the
most delightful verdure, that we bestow
the epithet sublime; but it is upon
Niagara, the Mississippi, the Andes, the
ocean, the wide expause of the firma-
ment, or die immensity of space uniformly
extended, without limit and without,
termination. To produce this effect it is, j
therefore, imperative that only one variety
of tree should be used. Anything that

tends to break up the uniform continuity
will at once destroy it. A straight
avenue, planted with a variety of trees of
varied forms, some broad and spreading,
others tall, pointed, and spiry, is as much
at variance with good taste as would be a
Grecian facade, furnished with columns
embracing all the different orders of
architecture. Among the best trees for
planting wide avenues are the tulip tree,
the sugar and the silver maple, lindens,
sycamores, walnuts, oaks, and chestnuts.
For narrower roads, those from sixteen to
twenty feet in width, the Norway maple,
the black and the white ash, the horse
chestnut, and those of kindred habit, will
be more suitable.

On wide and long avenues, in positions
where a side view of the lines is promi-
nent, the wall-like effect may be very
much softened and toned down, by set-
ting a double or even a triple row of
trees, and this will be still further in-
creased by planting each opposite row,
respectively, with a distinct kind. An
avenue of tulip trees will, in this arrange-
ment, be well supported by an outside
line of red maples ; their forms will blend
pleasingly, and the contrast of their spring
verdure, and autumn colorings will be
agreeable. In a similar disposition the
sugar maple, sweet gum, and ash-leaved
maple may be used. Such combinations
may be indefinitely varied and adapted
to the embellishment of avenues, as their
extent and importance may demand or
require.

In planting curving roads, the disposi-
tion of the trees will obviously be deter-
mined by the general character of the
grounds through which the road passes.

In places of six to ten acres in extent,
and in form nearly of a square or paral-
lelogram, with the mansion placed one
hundred yards back of the front line, the
entrance gate may be judiciously set near
one of the corners, and the road gradually
curve to the building. A single continu-
ous row of trees on one side of this road
would have a monotonous effect, and a
row on each side would destroy and
completely break up any attempt at
breadth of view. The road should rather
appear to curve round and pass through
masses of trees and shrubbery plantations.
While attention may be given to partially
shading the road, by planting suitable

454

MECHANICAL.

trees mainly on the south and west sides,
yet these shade trees should form only a
portion of groups, with an occasional iso-
lated single specimen tree; or, what is
still better, two trees of the same kind set
six to ten feet apart, so that when they
grow up they will give a distant appear-
ance as of a single tree, with the addi-
tional variety of aspect when closely
viewed. The paintings or groups should
be more extensive and massive on the in-
ner circle, around which the road will
curve, with frequent open vistas, looking
in upon the lawn. The width and length
of the road and extent of lawn will desig-
nate the size of the groups, and also sug-
gest the particular kinds of trees and
shrubs of which they are to be composed.
Shade trees may be thus introduced in
sufficient quantities, even on winding
roads, to answer the combined purposes
of shade and garniture, without produc-
ing an appearance of strained effort to
secure it.

Where the road is wholly on the south-
ern side of the dwelling, deciduous trees
should be used in front or near the build-
ing. If the entrance and road are north
of the house, a straight avenue of ever-
green trees will form an admirable feature,
if ample space is allowed for both road
and trees. The Norway spruce is, per-
haps, the first choice of tree for such
planting. The hemlock spruce is the
more graceful, and the best adapted to
short roads or narrow grounds. The
Austrian, the Scotch, and the white pine
may be used where the grounds are ex-
tensive. Even when the Norway spruce
is used the parallel lines should be fifty
leet apart, not only to admit of sun and
winds to act directly on the roadway,
but also to give ample room for the
spread of the lower branches of the trees;
and in no case should they be planted
nearer than sixteen feet from the edge of
the road ; and when the larger and more
widely spreading pines are used, a space
of at least twenty feet should be given.
A very meagre effect will result from
planting close to roadways, narrowing
them into mere strips, which for at least
one-half of the year are seldom dry.

BUILDINGS, Planting near.— A mis-
chievous error, and one too frequently
perpetrated, is that of placing trees close
to buildings. Although trees and shrubs

are the chief decorative ornaments of a
place, they become not only disagreeable
but positively injurious to animal life,,
when closely massed around a habitation,
by shutting out light, and preventing the
rays of the sun and drying action of
winds from exerting their salutary influ-
ence on the walls, which, in consequence,
are constantly damp and unhealthy.
Where large trees are allowed to spread
and overhang the roofs, choking gutters
and water leaders, and causing a deposit,
of mold and other fungoid growths as far
as their influence extends, it is impossible
for the house to be dry, comfortable, or
healthy for human beings. Many of the
older houses throughout the -country are
rendered almost uninhabitable by the
dense surroundings of trees and shrub-
bery, and the evil is greatly aggravated
when the trees are of evergreen species.
Ventilation is produced by heat, and a
building shaded from the rays of the sun
by lofty trees, and sheltered from currents
of air by thickets of shrubbery, is de-
prived of the influences most conducive
to health, and is a fitting subject for the
attention of a sanitary commission.

Plantings of the finer species of dwarf
flowering shrubs may be placed in mod-
erately large masses on the lawn near the
house, without any great injury, if not
too frequently repeated; but even the
smaller growing shrubbery, if planted in
continuous thickets near the building, in
any except a northerly direction, will
sensibly exclude the genial cool breezes
so grateful during summer. A house
nestling on the sunny side of an evergreen
plantation is suggestive of comfort, and
presents a cheerful, sheltered appearance
during winter. It is as economical as it
is attractive, as many persons can testify
who have had the foresight to plant
sheltering borders of evergreens in bleak
and treeless situations, and in consequence
are realizing a higher thermometric tem-
perature ; but even these, to be of great-
est benefit, should not approach within
one hundred feet of the house, at least
not in mass. Isolated specimens of rare,,
or otherwise specially interesting trees,
may be planted nearer, but only on the
northern sides of the house.

A certain amount of shade is very
desirable in connection with a house,
especially in climates where, during a

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 455;

great portion of the time, it is more agree-
able out doors than it is in rooms; yet
it had better be secured by covered
verandas than by trees. It is also more
conducive to health to sit under a covered
roof. Exposure to evening dews is a
well-known fruitful source of sickness,
and the partial protection afforded by
the overhanging branches of trees is not
sufficient when dew is falling.

Trees of the large-growing species
should not be planted nearer than sixty
feet to the walls of a dwelling-house.
Such trees are the sugar and the silver
maple, the sycamore, elm, linden, ash,
chestnut, and poplar. Trees of medium
growth, such as the Norway and the
English maple, and others of this class,
that do not attain a height of more than
thirty feet, may be planted thirty to lorty
feet from the building.

Another disadvantage resulting from
surrounding the building with a thicket
of foliage is, that it shuts out the views
of immediate and distant scenery, as seen
from the house, at the same time the
house, as an object of the local landscape,
is completely hidden from view. If the
architecture of the structure has received
any study as a work of artistic design,
it should in itself form a picture which, to
be properly appreciated, must be seen
and viewed as a whole, so that its pro-
portions, outlines, elevations, and orna-
mental details may be taken in at one
view. Even beds of low shrubbery, if
abundantly introduced near the base of
a building, will foreshorten the elevation,
obstruct the view of the horizontal base
line, and seemingly destroy architectural
proportions. Many of the finest struc-
tures, both public and private, are ruin-
ously shorn of their beauty by careless or
ignorant planters, who, in their endeavors
to beautify a building, succeed only in
concealing those salient lines and projec-
tions that give it character and distinctive-
ness.

A proper connection of the house with

its surroundings is the first point to which
attention should be given in laying out
grounds, as it is the most prominent and
leading detail of improvements. A house
should not appear to have risen out of
the green lawn like a tree. It is necessary
that some evidence should be apparent
of suitable preparation having been made
for the building j at least, a level platform
of more or less width should project from
the base line. The ground line should
be level, and all walks should correspond
with the lines of the ground plan. Zigzag
and curving walks close to the straight
lines of a large, or even the most humble
building, are directly opposed to beauty
or propriety; they are sure evidence of
unskilled labor.

The principal front of a building
should show a terrace, either architectur-
ally treated, or at least with architectural
appendages. The level line of terrace
will furnish a uniform base to the build-
ing, and masses of low- growing plants
may be introduced below the terrace
where they will not interfere with the
view of the structure. A few trees may
be planted at the ends or in the rearr
which will serve to connect the house
with the grounds and their scenery, and
this can be done without either hiding or
overshadowing the building.

It has long been laid down as a gen-
eral principal that round-headed trees-
contrast best with the prevailing perpen-
dicular lines of Gothic architecture, and'
those of a pointed or conic shape with
the horizontal of the Grecian. It may
be questioned whether either of these
rules is sufficiently accurate to be worthy
ot consideration ; certain it is that there
may be found compositions of expressive
beauty, where the arrangements are the
reverse of those proposed in the general
principle. It is perhaps nearer the facts
to state that, in the arrangement of formsr
harmony will prove more pleasing than
contrast; but when applied to colors,,
contrast will develop the most distinct
and expressive compositions.

L A W;

OR,

EVERT MAN HJS OWN LAWYER.

ASSIGNMENT, General.— .(Indorsed

ON THE ASSIGNED INSTRUMENT.) KnOW

all men by these presents, that I,
the within A. L., in consideration
of $25 to me paid by B. C, have
assigned to the said B. C, and all
assigns, all my interest in, and to the
within instrument, and every part or par-
cel thereof, and all the rights and interests
therein, and thereby conveyed, and I do
hereby constitute the said B. C., my true
and lawful attorney in my name, but at his
own costs and charges, to take all legal
measures, which may be necessary to en-
force the stipulations and agreement
herein contained, or to recover the
•moneys due or to grow due thereon.
Witness my hand and seal this — of — 18 —
A. L. [l. s.J

LEASE, Assignment of a. — Know all
amen by these presents, that I, B. C, the
within named lessee, for and in considera-
tion of $50 to me in hand paid by A. L.,
of the town of county of , at and
fbefore the sealing and delivery hereof,
'the receipt whereof I do hereby acknowl-
edge, have granted, assigned, and set over,
and by these presents, do grant, assign
.and set over, unto the said A. L., his
<executors, administrators and assigns, the
•within indenture of lease, and all that
house and farm [or describe the property
to be assigned] therein described, with the
appurtenances ; also all my estate, right,
title, term of years yet to come, claim and
demand whatsoever of, in, to, or out of
the same. To have and to hold the said
house and farm, and the appurtenances
thereof, unto the said A. L., his executors,
administrators, and assigns, for the residue
of the term within mentioned, under the
yearly rent and covenants within reserved
and contained on my part and behalf to
be done, kept and performed.
Witness my hand and seal this — of — 18 —

B. C. [l. s]

PATENT EIGHT, Assignment of a.—
Whereas, letters patent, bearing date

the the day of 18 — , were granted

and issued by the Government of the
United States, under the seal thereof, to
Edwin Hough, of the town of Hornells-
ville, of the State of New York, for [here
state the nature of the invention as in the
patent] a more particular and full descrip-
tion whereof is annexed to the said letters
patent in a schedule, by which letters
patent the full and exclusive right and
liberty of making and using the said in-
vention, and of vending the same to
others to be used, was granted to the said
Edwin Hough, his heirs, executors,
administrators or assigns, for the term of
seventeen years, from the same date.

Now, know all men by these presents,
that I, the said Edwin Hough, for and in
consideration of the sum of $1000, to me
in hand paid, the receipt whereof is hereby
acknowledged, have granted, assigned,
and set over, and by these presents do
grant, assign and set over unto William
A. Dean, of the said town of Hornells-
ville, his executors, administrators, and
assigns, forever, the said letters patent,
and all my right, title and interest in and
to the said invention, so granted unto me ;
to have and to hold the said letters patent
and invention, with all benefit, profit and
advantage thereof, unto the said
William A. Dean, his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, in as full, ample and
beneficial manner, to all intents and pur-
poses, as I, the said Edwin Hough, by
virtue of the said letters patent, may or
might have, or hold the same, for and
during all the rest and residue of the said
term of seventeen years.

In witness wnereof, I have hereto

affixed my hand and seal, this day

of 18

Edwin Hough, [l. s.]

In presence of

Ben. Wiley,

D. R. Shafer.

This assignment should be recorded in

er. )

(456)

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 45;

the office of the Commissioner of Patents,

at Washington.

ASSIGNMENT OF A JUDGMENT.

Court, County of

A.. B. ) Recovery

\. B. )
2. D. )

i|X3x J4

Costs

. 3°
$1,161

3 h. p. M,

Pin's Att'y,

Roll filed May 10th, 1876,
J. B. W.,

In consideration of $1,162, to me
paid, I do hereby assign and transfer to
G. H., the judgment above mentioned,
for his use and benefit, hereby athorizing
him to collect and enforce judgment
thereof in my name, or otherwise, but at
his own costs and charges, and covenant-
ing that the sum of $1,161.39 wim tfte
interest from the 10th day of May,
1876, is due thereon.

Witness my hand and seal this 1st day
of January, 1876. A. B. [l. s.]

Assignment of Bond and Mortgage. —
Mortgage dated the 3d day of January,
1 876, executed by A. B. and wife to C.

D.; recorded in the County Clerk's

office, in Book No. — of Mortgages,
page — &c, bond bearing date the day
aforesaid, executed by A. B. to C. D.,
.aforesaid, in the penal sum of $1,000,
conditioned for the payment of $500 in
Ave years from the date thereof, with
interest semi-annually.

In consideration of $500 to me paid
by E. F., I do hereby sell, assign, transfer
and set over, unto the said E. F., the
bond and mortgage above described,
hereby authorizing him to collect and
enforce payment thereof, in my name
or otherwise, but at his own cost and
charges ; and I hereby covenant that the
sum of $500, with interest, from the 3d
•day of January, 1876, is now due and
owing on the said bond and mortgage,
and that I have a good right to sell the
same. *

Witnesss my hand and seal this 10th
day of January,i876. C. D. [l. s.J

Have the assignment acknowledged
before the proper officers and recorded.

Assignment of Bond and Mortgage as
Collateral Security. — The same as in pre-
ceding form (see Assignment of Bond
and Mortgage); where the star is affixed
add the following:

But this assignment is, nevertheless,

made on this express condition, that, if
the said C. D., his heirs, executors or ad-
ministrators, shall well and truly pay, or
cause to be paid, unto the said E. F., his
heirs, executors, administrators or assigns,
the sum of $500 and interest thereon, on
or before the 3d day of January, i88i,this
assignment shall be void and of no effect,
this indenture being made for the purpose
of securing the payment of the said sum
of $500, with interest as aforesaid, and
for no other purpose whatever. And in
case the said E. F., his heirs, executors,
administrators or assigns, shall collect
or receive the money due on the said
mortgage hereby assigned, he shall, after
retaining the sum of $500 and interest
thereon, and his reasonable costs and
charges in that behalf expended, pay
the surplus, if any, to the said C. D., his
heirs, executors, administrators or assigns.

In witness whereof, the said parties
have hereto respectively set their hands
and seals, this 10th day of January,
1876. C. D. [l. s.l

E. F. [ls.J

Have the same acknowledged before
a proper officer and recorded.

BOOT), for Payment of Money at differ-
ent times. — (The same as in last form to
the * then let the Bond read as follows :
The condition of this obligation is such,
that if the above-bound A. B., his heirs,
executors, and administrators, or any of
them, shall well and truly pay, or cause
to be paid, unto the above-named C. D.,
his executors, administrators, or assigns,
the just and full sum of $1000, lawful
money as aforesaid, in manner following,

to- wit, $300, part thereof, on the

day of next ensuing the date there-
of; $300 more thereof on the day

of , the next following ; and $400,

the residue, and in full payment thereof,

on the ■ — day of which will be

in the year of our Lord, 18 — ; then this
obligation to be void ; but if default be
made in payment of any or either of said
sums on the days and times hereinbefore
mentioned and appointed for payment
thereof respectively, then this bond shall
remain in full force and virtue.

A. B. [l. s.]

CONVEYANCES. — See Deeds and
Mortgages.

CONTRACTS.— See Agreements.

458

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

Bill of Exchange.

$500 New York, 18

Fifteen days after sight (or as many
days as may be agreed upon), pay to the
order of Mr. B. B. five hundred dollars,
and charge the same to the account of

To L. M., St. Louis, Mo. C. D.
NOTE, Prommissory.
$200. Baltimore, 18

Thirty days after date I promise to pay
B. B. or order (or bearer), two hundred
dollars, for value received. B. F.
NOTE, Joint Promissory.
$1,050. Memphis 18

Sixty days after date we jointly promise
to pay C. D., or order, (or bearer), one
thousand and fifty dollars, for value re-
ceived. A. C.

B. H.
NOTE, Payable on Demand.
$100. Mobile, 18.

On demand, for value received, I
promise to pay H. B., or order (or bear-
er), one hundred dollars (with interest).

C. C.
NOTE, Payable at Bank.
$300. St. Louis, 18

Thirty days after date, for value re-
ceived, I promise to pay C. D. A., or
order (or bearer), three hundred dollars,
at the Bremen Savings Bank.

D. R. S.

NOTE, not Negotiable,

$100. Madison, Ga., tf8

Two months after date I promise to pay
J. H., one hundred dollars, for value re-
ceived. B. B.
DUE BILL.
$50. Cincinnati, 18

Due A. W., fifty dollars, with interest
from this date. M. A.
NOTE, with Surety,
$75. Columbus, Miss., 18

Six moths from date I promise to pay
E. G., or order (or bearer), seventy-five
dollars, for value received. B. B.

X. X.
Note Payable by Instalments.
$500. Albany, 18

For value received, I promise to pay
A. C, or order (or bearer), five hundred
dollars, in the following manner: One
hundred dollars in three months, two
hundred dollars in nine months, one hun-
dred dollars in twelve months, and one
hundred dollars in fifteen months, from

date, with interest on the several sums as
they may become due. W. Z.

DRAFT at Sight.

$100. Chicago, 18

At sight, pay J. C, or order, one hun- .
dred dollars, and charge the same to my
account. C. E. B.

To A. X.

BILL OF SALE.— Know all men by
these presents, that I., E. D., of the town

of , county of , State of ,

of the first part, for, and in consideration
of, the sum of one hundred dollars, lawful
money of the United States, to me in
hand paid, at or before the ensealing and
delivery of these presents, by C. B., of the
second part, the receipt wherof is hereby
acknowledged, have bargained, sold,
granted and conveyed, and by these pre-
sents do bargain, sell, grant and convey
unto the said party of the second part,
his executors, administrators and assigns
[here set out the articles sold], to have
and to hold the same unto the said party
of the second part, his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, forever. And I do
for myself, my heirs, executors and ad-
ministrators, covenant and agree to and
with the said party of the second part, to
warrant and defend the said described
goods hereby sold unto the said party of
the second part, his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, against all and every
person and persons whatsoever.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set

my hand and seal the day of 18 —

E. D. [l. s.]
Signed, sealed and delivered, )
in the presence of B. B. J
CHATTEL MORTGAGE to Secure a
Money Demand. — To all to whom these
presents shall come — greeting : Know ye,

that I, A. C.,of the town of , county

of , State of , party of the first

part, for securing the payment of the sum
of one dollar, to me in hand paid, at or
before the ensealing and delivery of these
presents, by B. H., of the same place,
party of the second part, the receipt
whereof is hereby acknowledged, have
granted, bargained, and sold, and by
these presents do grant, bargain, and sell
unto the said party of the second part, all
that [here mention the articles] and all
other goods and chattels whatsoever,
mentioned and expressed in the schedule
hereunto annexed, now remaining and

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 459

being in the possession Of the said A. C.
To have and to hold all and singular the
goods and chattels above bargained and
sold, or intended so to be, unto the said
party of the second part, his executors,
administrators, and assigns forever. And
the said party of the first part, for himself,
his heirs, executors, and administrators,
all and singular, the said goods and
chattels above bargained and sold unto
the said party of the second part, his
executors, administrators and assigns,
against the said party of the first part,
and against all and every person and
persons whomsoever, shall and will war-
rant, and by these presents forever de-
fend.* Upon condition, that if the said
party of the first part, shall well and
truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the
said party of the second part, his execu-
tors, administrators or assigns, the sum

of $ , and interest thereon, on the

— day of next, then these presents

and everything herein contained, shall
cease and be void.t And the said party
of the first part, for himself, his executors,
administrators and asigns, does covenant
and agree to and with the said party of
the second part, his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, to make punctual
payment of the money hereby secured;
and in case default shall be made in pay-
ment of the said sum above mentioned,
it shall and may be lawful for, and the
said party of the first part does hereby
authorize and empower the said party of
the second part, his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, with the aid and
assistance of any person or persons, to
enter and come into and upon the
dwelling-house or premises of the said
party of the first part, and in such other
place or places as the said goods and
chattels are or may be held or placed,
and take and carry away the said goods
and chattels, to sell and dispose of the
same for the best price they can obtain,
and out of the money to retain the said
sum above mentioned, with the interest
and all expenses thereon, rendering the
overplus (if any) unto the said party of
the first part, his executors, administrators
and assigns. And until default be made
in the payment of the aforesaid sum of
money, the said party of the first part to
remain and continue in quiet and peace-
able possession of the said goods and

chattels, and the full and free enjoyment
of the same, unless the said party of the
second part, his executors, administrators
or assigns, shall sooner choose to demand
the same; and until such demand be
made, the possession of the said party of
the first part shall be deemed the posses-
sion of an agent or servant, for the sole
benefit and advantage of his principal,,
the said party of the second part.

In witness whereof, the said party c
the first part has hereunto set his hand

and seal, this day of 18 — .

A. C. [l. s.]

Sealed and delivered in )

the presence of )

When the list of goods are not all
embraced in the body of mortgage, they
may be embraced in the schedule, which,
shall be signed by the mortgagor.

ASSIGNMENT OF BOND AND MORT-
GAGE— Indorsed on the Instrument. —
In consideration of $500, to me paid by
A. B., I hereby sell, assign, transfer and
set over to A. B., the within mortgage
and the bond accompanying the same,
and authorize him to collect and dis-
charge the same. L. M. [l. s.]

New York, January 10, 1876.

CHATTEL MORTGAGE, to Secure a*
Note. — (In the foregoing form where the
* is inserted, in place of the sentence
from the * to the t insert the following :)

Upon condition that the said party of
the first part shall well and truly pay at
maturity the full amount, principal and
interest, of a certain promissory note
executed by the said party of the first

part for $ , dated — day of 18 — ,

payable to the order of said B. H., -
months after date, then these presents,
and everything herein contained, shall
cease and be void.

BOND, Common. — Know all men by
these presents, that I, A. B., of the town
of , county of , and State of

, am held and firmly bound unto

the said C. D., of the same place, in the
sum of $1000 [this amount is called the
penal sum, and is usually double the
amount of the real debt, in order to>
cover interest, costs and other contin-
gencies], good and lawful money of the
United States, to be paid the said C. D.^
his executors, administrators and assigns ;
to which payment, well and truly to be
made, I do bind myself, my heirs, execu-

46o

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

itors, administrators and assigns; to
which payments, well and truly to be
made, and I do bind myself, my heirs,
•executors and administrators, and every
of them, firmly by these presents. Sealed
with my seal, dated the day of

, A. D., 18— *

The condition of this obligation is such
that if the above bound A. B., his execu-
tors, and administrators, or any of them,
shall and do well and truly pay, or cause
to be paid, unto the above-named C. D.,
his executors, administrators and assigns,
the just and full sum of $500 lawful
money aforesaid, with legal interest for the
same, on or before the day of

-, in the year of our Lord 18 — ,
without fraud or further delay, then this
obligation to be void and of no effect, or
else to remain and be in full force and
virtue.

In witness whereof I have hereunto
affixed my hand and seal, the day and
year first above written.

A. B. [l. s.]

BOND, to Execute a Conveyance. —
(The same as in Bond, Common, to the
*, then let the Bond read as follows:)
The condition of this bond is such, that

if the said A. B., on or before the

day of next ensuing the date hereof,

or, in case of his death before that
time, if the heirs of the said A. B.,
within months next after his de-
cease, if such heirs shall be then of full
age, or, if within age, then within the
months after such heirs shall be of full
age, shall and do, upon the reasonable
request of, and at the charges of C. D.,
his heirs or assigns, make, execute and
acknowledge, or cause so to be, all and
•every such deed or deeds, conveyance
or conveyances whatsoever, which shall
be needful for conveying and confirming
unto the said C. D., his heirs and assigns,
a good, absolute and indefeasible estate
of inheritance in fee simple, clear of all
incumbrances, of and in a certain mes-
suage (hear describe] with the appur-
tenances; and if, in the meantime, and
while and until the same deed or deeds
shall be executed, the said A. B., his
heirs and assigns, shall and do permit
and suffer the said C. D., his heirs and
assigns, peaceably and quietly to have,
hold and enjoy the same messuage and
tract of land; then the above obligation

to be void; otherwise it shall be and remain
in full force and virtue. A. B. [l. s.]

AGREEMENT, for the Sale and Pur.
chase of Land. — Articles of Agreement

made and concluded this day of ,

A. D., 18 — , by and between A. B. and
C. D., of , in the State of

First. — The said A. B. in considera-
tion of the sum of $1,000 to him paid by
the said C. D., the receipt whereof is
hereby acknowledged; and in further
consideration of the promise of the said
C. D., hereinafter contained, dothjhereby
promise and agree, to and with the said

C. D., that he will, on or before the

day of next, make and deliver to

the said C. D. a good a sufficient deed,
with the usual covenants of warranty,
release of dower, etc., of all that tract of
land situate, lying, and being in the town

of , in the county of , and

State ot , known as the , etc.,

[or bounded and described as follows : — ]

Second. — In consideration whereof,
the said C. D. doth hereby promise and
agree, to and with the said A. B., that he
will, on such a deed being tendered to
him by the said A. B. on or before the

day of next, pay to the said A. B.

the further sum of dollars, in addition

to the payment already made, being the
balance of the purchase money hereby
agreed upon for the said tract of land.

And to the true and faithful perform-
ance of all the agreement, herein con-
tained on the part of the said A. B. and
C. D., each of them binds himself, his
heirs, executors and administrators, to
the other, and his heirs, executors and
administrators.

In testimony whereof, we have here-
unto set our hands, on the day and
year first above written.

A.
C.

Executed and delivered ) E. F.

in presence of ) G. H.

AGREEMENT, to Build a House Ac-
cording to a Plan and Specifications
Annexed. — Be it remembered, that on

this day of A. D., 18 — , it is

agreed by and between A. B., of , and

C. D., of , in manner and form follow-
ing, viz. :

The said C. D., for the considerations
hereinafter mentioned, both for him-
self, his executors and administrators,
promise and agree to and with the said

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 461

A. B., his executors, administrators and
assigns, that he, the said C. D., or his
assigns, shall and will, within the space of

of months next after the date hereof,

in good and workmanlike manner and
according to the best of his art and skill,

at well and substantially erect, build,

set up, and finish, one house or messuage,
according to the draught or scheme and
specifications hereunto annexed, of the
dimensions as following, viz. : [here insert
specifications, &c.,] and to compose the
same with such stone, bricks, and other
materials as the said A. B., or his assigns,
shall find or provide for the same. In
consideration whereof, the said A. B. doth,
for himself, his executors and administra-
tors, promise and agree to, and with the
said C. D., his executors, administrators
and assigns, well and truly to pay, or
cause to be paid, unto the said C. D., or

his assigns, the sum of dollars, in

manner following : that is to say, the sum
of dollars, part thereof, at the begin-
ning of said work; the sum of dol-
lars more, another part thereof, when the
the same shall be completely finished;
and, also, that he, the said A. B., his ex-
ecutors, administrators, or assigns, shall
and will, at his and their own proper ex-
pense, find and provide all the stone,
brick, tile, timber and other materials
necessary for making and building the
said house ; and for the performance of
all and every the articles and agreements
above mentioned, the said A. B. and
C. D. do hereby bind themselves, their
executors, &c, each to the other, in the
penal sum of $500, firmly by these
presents.

In witness whereof, we have hereunto
set our hands and seals, this day of

, A. D., 18— A. B. [l. s.

C. D.Tl. s.
CONTRACT OF COPARTNERSHIP.—
Articles of co-partnership made this

day of , 18 , by and between

A. A. and B. B., both of the town of

county of witnesseth:

That the said parties hereby agree to
form, and do, form a co-partnership, for the
purpose of carrying on the general
(kind of business here insert) business on
the following terms and articles of agree-
ment, to the faithful performance of
which they mutually engage and bind
themselves, each to the other.

The name and style of the co-partner-
ship shall be (here insert whatever name
the firm is to be known by), and shall com-
mence on the day of , 18 — , and

continue for the period of years.

Each of the parties agree to contribute to
the funds of the partnership the sum of"
$ in cash, which shall be paid in, on

or before the— —day of- , 18 — ; and

each of said parties shall devote and give
all his time and attention to the business,
and to the care and superintendence of
the same.

All profits which may accrue to the said
partnership shall be divided equally, and
all losses happening to the said firm,
from bad debts, depreciation of goods, or
any other cause or accident, and all ex-
penses of the business, shall be borne by
the said parties equally.

All the purchases, sales, transactions
and accounts of the said firm shall be
kept in regular books, which shall always
be opened to the inspection of both par-
ties and their legal representatives respec-
tively.

An account of stock shall be taken,
and an account between the parties shall
be settled as often as once a year, and as
much oftener as either partner may de-
sire and in writing request.

Neither of said parties shall subscribe
any bond, sign or indorse any note of
hand, accept, sign or indorse any draft or
bill of exchange, or assume any other
liability, verbal or written, either in his
own name or the name of the firm, for
the accommodation of any other person
or persons whatsoever, without the con-
sent in writing of the other party; nor
shall either party lend any of the funds of"
the co-partneship without such consent
of the other partner.

No large purchases shall be made, (if
desired a limited amount can be named),
nor any transactions out of the usual course
ot the business shall be undertaken by eith-
er of the partners, without previous consul-
tation with and approbation of the other
partner; neither shall withdraw from the
joint stock, at any time, more than his
share of the profits of the business then
earned, (if desired, an amount can be
named), nor shall either party be entitled
to interest on his share of the capital ;
but if, at the expiration of the year, a
balance of profits be found due to either

4&3

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

partner, he shall be at liberty to withdraw
the said balance, or to leave it in the
business, provided the other partner con-
sent thereto, and in that case he shall be
allowed interest on said balance.

At the expiration of the aforesaid term,
or earlier, dissolution. of this co-partner-
ship, if the said parties, or their legal
representatives cannot agree in the divi-
sion of the stock then on hand, the
whole co-partnership effects, except the
debts due the firm, shall be sold at public
auction, at which both parties shall be at
liberty to bid and purchase like individ-
uals, and the proceeds shall be divided,
after payment of the debts of the firm, in
the proportions aforesaid.

For the purpose of securing the per-
formance of the foregoing agreements, it
is agreed that either party, in case of any
violation of them, or either of them, by
the other, shall have the right to dissolve
this co-partnership forthwith, on his
becoming informed of such violation.

In witness whereof, we, the said A.
A. and B. B., have hereto set our hands,
the day and year first above written.

[A. A.
Executed and delivered in ) B. B.

presence of I

C. C.

D. D.

AGREEMENT, to Continue a Partner-
ship.— Endorse the following on the
original articles : Whereas, the partnership
evidenced by the within written articles,
has this day expired by limitations con-
tained herein (or will expire on the

day of 18 — ,) it is hereby mutually

agreed that the same shall be continued,
on the same terms and with all the pro-
visions and restrictions herein contained,

for the further term of years from

this date (or from the day of

18— .)

In witness whereof, we have hereto set
our hands this day of 18 — .

A. A.

B. B.
AGREEMENT, to Sell and Deliver

Wood. — Memorandum of agreement
made this day of 18 — , by

and between A, A., of the town of-

and B. B., of the village of , wit-

nesseth: That the said A. A., for the
sum of $ — per cord, hereby agrees to
sell and deliver to the said B. B.,

cords of good sound (name kind) wood,
and to securely and properly pile the
same (name place) on the lot of the said
B. B. Said wood is to be cut during the
month (this can be left out) to be cut four
feet long, and properly piled on said lot,

on or before the day of next.

Said wood when piled as aforesaid, is to
be measured by D. F., and the said B.
B. agrees to pay the said A. A. the sum
of $ — for each and every cord so de-
livered ; payment to be made by install-
ments on each cords as they are
delivered, whenever, and as soon as the
said A. A. shall furnish to the said B. B.
the certificate of the said D. F., that such
■cords or additional of wood have

been delivered and properly piled on
said lot.

Witness our hands, the day and year
first above written. A. A.

B. B.

QUIT CLAIM DEED.— Know all men
by these presents, that I, A. B., of the

town of county of , for divers

good causes and considerations thereunto

moving, especially for $ received to

my full satisfaction, having remised,
released, and forever quit-claimed, and
by these presents do for myself, my heirs,
executors and administrators, justly and
absolutely remise, release and forever
quit-claim unto the said C. D., and to his
heirs and assigns forever, all such right
and title, as I, the said A. B., have or
ought , to have, in or to all that (insert
here description of premises), to have
and to hold the above released premises,
unto the said C. D., his heirs and assigns,
to his and their only proper wse and
behoof forever ; so that neither I, }the
said A. B., or any other person in my
name and behalf, shall or will hereafter
claim or demand any right or title to the
premises, or any part thereof; but they,
and every of them, shall by these pres-
ents be excluded and forever barred.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto
set my hand and seal, the day of

in the year of our Lord, 18-
A. B. \l. s.]
Signed, sealed and delivered ) S. M.
in the presence of ) P. P.

"WARRANTY DEED.— This indenture,

made the day of , in the year

of our Lord, 18 — , between A. B., of the
town of , county of , State

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 463

of , and S. B., his wife, parties of

the first part, and C. D., of the same
place, party of the second part, witness-
-eth, that the said parties of the first part,
for and in consideration of the sum of

$ , lawful money of the United States

of America, to them in hand paid, by the
said party of the second part, the receipt
whereof is hereby confessed and acknowl-
edged, have granted, aliened, remised,
released, enfeoffed and confirmed, and by
these presents do alien, remise, release,
enfeoff and confirm unto the said party
of the second part, and unto his heirs
and assigns forever, all (insert descrip-
tion), together with all and singular, the
hereditaments and appurtenances there-
unto, belonging, or in anywise appertain-
ing, and the reversion and reversions,
remainder and remainders, rents, issues
add profits thereof, and all the estate,
right, title, interest, claim and demand
whatsoever, of the said parties of the
first part, either in law or equity, of, in
.and to the above granted premises, with
the said hereditament and appurtenances;
to have and to hold the above mentioned
and described premises, with the appur-
tenances, and every part and parcel
thereof, to the said party of the second
part, his heirs and assigns forever ; and
the said A. B., for himself, his heirs,
-executors and administrators, does cove-
nant, grant, bargain, promise and agree,
to and with said party of the second
part, his heirs and assigns, to warrant and
forever to defend the above granted
premises, and • every part and parcel
thereof, now being in the quiet and
peaceable possession of the said party of
the second part, against the said parties
of the first part, their heirs, executors,
administrators and assigns, and against
all and every other person or persons
-claiming or to claim the said premises, or
any part thereof.

In witness whereof, the said parties of

the first part have hereunto set their

hands and seals, the day and year first

above written. A. B. [l. s.

S. B. [l. s.'

Sealed and delivered in ) D. D.

the presence of J X. X.

MORTGAGE, with Covenant to Insure.
This indenture, made the day of

, 18 — , between A. B., of the

town of , and S. B., his wife, parties

of the first part, and C. D., of the town

of , party of the second part, wit-

nesseth, that the said parties of the first

part, in consideration of $ to them

duly paid, have sold, and by these pres-
ents do grant and convey to the said
party of the second part, and to his heirs
and assigns forever, all (insert description)
with the appurtenances, and all the
estate, title and interest of the said party
of the first part therein. And the said A.
B. covenants with the said party of the
second part, and his assigns, to keep the
building now standing, or hereafter to be
erected on the above described premises,
insured in some solvent insurance com-
pany in this State, to the amount of at

least $ , and keep the policy of such

insurance assigned to the said party of
the second part and his heirs and assigns;
and in case of any failure in this cove-
nant, the party of the second part, or his
assigns, may effect an insurance to the
amount aforesaid, and the premium and
expense of such insurance may be added
to, and may be deemed part of the
money hereby secured.* This grant is
intended as a security for the payment of

$ , and interest thereon, as follows:

$ in one year from the date hereof;

and the balance in years from the

date hereof; interest being per cent.

per annum, payable semi-annually, on all
sums unpaid, according to the condition
of a certain bond or writing obligatory,
bearing even date herewith, executed by
the said A. B., to the said party of the
second part, as a collateral security, which
payments, together with all the premiums
and expenses for policies of insurance, if
duly made, will render this conveyance
void. And if default shall be made in
payment of the principal or interest above
mentioned, or in keeping said premises
insured, and the policy assigned as herein
covenanted for, then the said party of
the second part, and his assigns are
hereby authorized, pursuant to statute, to
sell the premises above granted, or so
much thereof as will be necessary to
satisfy the amount hereby secured, with
the costs and expenses allowed by law;
rendering the overplus, if any there may
be, to the said parties of the first part,
their heirs and executors, administrators
or assigns.

In witness whereof, the said parties of

4^4

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

the first part, have hereunto set their
hands and seals, the day and year first
above written. A. B. [l. s.l

S. B. [l. s.j

Sealed and delivered in the ) S. D.
presence of ) B. D,

MORTGAGE, for Purchase Money. —
Insert immediately after the description
in the foregoing mortgage, the following:

Being the same premises this day con-
veyed by the said C. D. to the said A. B.,
and these presents are given to secure the
the payment of (part of) the considera-
tion money of the said premises.

[When the mortgage is given for the
purchase money, or a part of the pur-
chase, it is not necessary that the wife
join in the mortgagej

MORTGAGE to Secure Notes.— The
same as Mortgage with Covenant to
Insure. At * insert the following, in
place of the remaining portion :

This conveyance is intended to secure
the payment of a certain promissory
note, or any notes given in renewals
thereof; said note was given by the
said party of the first part to the
said party of the second part, for

the sum of $ , bearing date , 18 — ,

and payable one year after date thereof,
with interest; and if the amount of said
note, principal and interest, and all notes
given in renewal thereof, shall be paid at
maturity, then these presents shall become
void ; but if default shall be made in the
payment of the said note, or notes, given
in renewal thereof, or any part thereof,
(or in keeping said premises insured,
and the policy assigned, as herein
covenanted for), then the party of
the second part, and his assigns, are
hereby authorized, pursuant to stat-
ute, to sell the premises above granted, or
so much thereof as will be necessary
to satisy the amount hereby secured,
with costs, and expenses allowed by law ;
rendering the surplus, if any there be, to
the said parties of the first part, their
heirs and executors, administrators or
assigns.

EXEMPTION, Waiver of.— Whereas, I
have become indebted to C. D. in the
sum of $ , and have confessed judg-
ment to him for that amount, to secure
his indebtedness, (or he has obtained judg-
ment against me for that amount) ; now,
to secure and make safe the said C. I).,

and in consideration of $1 to me paid, I
do hereby release and waive any and alii
benefit or advantage by me obtained by
virtue of my certificate recorded (or, the-
cause inserted in my deed,) under and in
accordance with the provisions of an act
entitled, "An Act to exempt from sale or
execution the homestead of a householder
having a family," {or whatever the act

may be), passed , 18 — , so that

said property, so held by me as
exempt by said statute and said certificate
(or clause in said deed), may be levied
upon and sold on execution issued
against me for a demand owing by me
to the said C. D.

Witness my hand and seal, this ,.

18— N. W. [l. s.]

County of , State of , s. s. :

On this day of , 18 — , before

me came the above named N. W., to
me known to be the person described in,,
and who executed the foregoing {or the
within) instrument , and acknowledged
the execution thereof.

M. O., Commissioner of Deeds.

LEASE OF A HOUSE.— This indenture,

made this day of , 18 — , between

A. B., of the one part, and C. D., of
the other part, witnesseth, that the said
A. B., for and in consideration of the
rent, covenants and agreements herein-
after in and by these presents mentioned,,
reserved and contained on the part and
behalf of the said C. D., his executors,
administrators and assigns, to be paid,
observed, done, and performed, have
granted, demised, leased and to farm let,,
and by these presents doth grant, lease, and
to farm let unto the said C. D., his execu-
tors, administrators and assigns, all that
brick (mention kind, if not a brick,)
house, messuage, or tenement, with all
and singular, its appurtenances, situate,
standing, and being in a certain street or
place, called (name place, or street,)
together with all and singular its appur-
tences whatsoever, to the said brick house,
(or whatever kind it may be,) messuage,
tenement, and premises belonging, or in
any wise appertaining, and therewith
heretofore held, used, occupied and enjoyed
by F. G., late occupier thereof. (In case of
a new house, the portion in italics to be
left out.) To have and to hold said
(name kind) house, messuage and tene-
ment, and all and singular other the

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 465

premises therein, before granted and
demised, or mentioned, or intended to be,
with the appurtenances, unto the said CD.,
his exeeutors, administrators and assigns,

from the day of , next ensuing,

the day of the date of these presents, for
and during, and until the full end of the

term of years from thence next

ensuing, and fully to be complete and
ended; yielding and paying therefor
yearly, and every year during the said
term, unto the said A. B., his heirs, or

assigns, the yearly rent of $ , on the

day of , 18 — , in every year; the

first payment thereof to begin, and to be
made, &c, next ensuing the date of
these presents. Provided, always, never-
theless, and it is the true intent and mean-
ing of these presents, and of the said
parties hereunto, that if it should happen
that the said yearly rent of $ , here-
by reserved, or any part thereof, be be-
hind and unpaid by the space of-

next over, or after any of the said days,
whereon the same ought to be paid as
aforesaid; that then, and from thence-
forth, it shall, and may be lawful to, and
for the said A. B., his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, into and upon the
said demised premises, and every or any
part or parcel thereof, with their appur-
tenances, in the name of the whole, to
re-enter, and the same to have again, re-
possess, and enjoy, as in his, or their
first or former estate, or estates ; and him,
the said C. D., his executors, adminis-
trators, and assigns, and all and every
other, the occupier or occupiers of the
said demised premises, from thence utterly
expel, remove and put out, anything in
these presents contained to the contrary
thereof in any wise notwithstanding.
And the said C. D., for himself, his execu-
tors, administrators, and assigns, doth
covenant and grant, to and with the said
A. B., his heirs, and assigns, by these
presents, in manner following; that is to
say: that he, the said C. D., his execu-
tors, administrators and assigns, shall,
and will, well and truly pay, or cause to
be paid, unto the said A. B., his heirs or
assigns, the above yearly rent, above
reserved, according to the true intent of
these presents, clear of, and over and
above all taxes and reprises whatsoever.
And the said C. D., his executors, ad-
ministrators and assigns, shall and will,

3°

from time to time, and at all times here-
after, during the said term hereinbefore
granted, at his and their own proper
costs and charges, well, and sufficiently
keep in repair, the said demised premises,
with their appurtenances, and all the
glass, windows, pavements, privies, sinks
and gutters (here name any other special
objects) belonging to the same, in, by,,
and with all manner of needful and
necessary reparations and amendments
whatsoever, when, and as soon as the ■
damage shall require (damages by fire'
only excepted); and the same premises, -
with all and singular their appurtenances, ■
being in and by all things so well and
sufficiently repaired and kept (except as •
before excepted,) at the end, expiration,,
or other sooner determination of the said
terms hereby granted, shall and will-
quietly and peaceably leave and sur-
render, and yield up unto the said A. B.r
his executors, administrators and assigns,
in good and sufficient repair and con-
dition (reasonable use and wearing there-
of, and damage by fire, as aforesaid,
only excepted); that he, the said C. D.,
will, from time to time, and at all times;
hereafter, during the said time hereby
granted, pay and discharge all taxes,,
charges, and impositions, which shall be-
taxed, charged, imposed, or assessed
upon the said messuage or tenement, or"
premises, or any part thereof.

In witness whereof, the said parties-
have hereunto set their hands and seals, .
the day and year first above written.

A. B. [s. s.j
C. D. [s. s.J

RECEIPT, for Money Paid by Another

Person. — Boston, 18 — . Received1

of M. B., at the hands of XX, seventeen?
dollars, in full payment for a horse, by
me sold and delivered to the said M. B.
$17. D. S.

STRAY, Notice of, for the Town Clerk;-
— To all persons whom it may concern ::

Take notice, that on the day of

■, 18 — , one yoke of working oxen,

of a red color, with a white spot in the
forehead of each, and the left hind foot
of each one white, and having on brass
buttons, strayed upon my enclosed lands,
in the town ot Lenox, where I reside, (or
give as near description as possible) and
now remain there. B. B-.

Lenox, , 18 — .

L66

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

LEASE, Farm. — This indenture, made

this day of , in the year of our

Lord 18 — , between A. B., of the town cf

, county of , State of , party

of the first part, and C. D., of the same
place, party of the second part, witness-
eth : that the said party of the first part,
in consideration of the rents, covenants
and agreements hereinafter mentioned, re-
served and contained on the part of said
party of the second part, his executors,
administrators and assigns, to be paid,
kept and performed, has demised, and to
farm let, unto the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators and as-
signs, all (here insert description) with the
appurtenances, unto the said party of the
second part, his executors, administrators

and assigns, from the day of ,

1 8 — , for the full term of years,

then next ensuing, yielding and paying
therefor, unto the said party of the first
part, his heirs or assigns, yearly and
-every year during the said term hereby
granted, the yearly rent or sum of

$ in equal half yearly payments,

to-wit: on the day of , and

in each year and every year; pro-
vided that if the yearly rent above
reserved or any part theeof, shall be
unpaid on any day of payment where-
in the same ought to be paid, as afore-
. said ; or if default shall be made in any
of the covenants or agreements herein
- contained, on the part of the said party
of the second part, then and from thence-
forth it shall be lawful for the said party
• of the first part, his heirs or assigns, to re-
enter upon said demised premises, and
the same to have again, as in their first
. and former estate. And the said party of
.the second part does covenant and agree
with the said party of the first part, his
heirs and assigns, that he, the said party
•of the second part, his executors, admin-
istrators or assigns, will pay yearly, or every
year during the said term, unto the said
party of the first part, his heirs or assigns,
the yearly rent above reserved, on the
days and in the manner limited and pre-
scribed as aforesaid, for the payment
thereof, without any deduction or delay.
And that the said party of the second
part, his executors, administrators or
.assigns, will, at his own proper costs and
.charges, bear, pay and discharge all taxes,
•duties and assessments as may, during the

said term hereby granted, be charged,
assessed or imposed upon the said de-
mised premises. And that on the deter-
mination of the estate hereby granted, the
said party of the second part, his execu-
tors, administrators or assigns, shall and
will leave and surrender unto the said
party of the second part, his executors,
administrators or assigns, shall and will
leave and surrender unto the said party
of the first part, his heirs or assigns, the
said demised premises in as good state
and condition as they are now in, ordina-
ry wear and damages by the elements ex-
cepted. And the said party of the first
part does covenant and agree with the
said party of the second part, his execu-
tors, administrators and assigns, paying
the said yearly rent above reserved, and
performing the covenants and agreements
aforesaid on his part, the said party of
the second part, his executors, adminis-
trators and assigns, shall, and may, at all
times during the said term hereby grant-
ed, peaceably have, hold and enjoy the
said demised prtmise* without any man-
ner of trouble or hindrance of, or from,
the said party of the first part, his heirs
or assigns, or any other person or per-
sons whomsoever.

In Witness Whereof, the parties to these
presents have hereunto set their hands
and seals. A. B. [l. s.

C. D. [l. s.
Sealed and delivered in )
the presence of )

E. F.

G. H.

LEASE, Assignment of, Indorsed —
Know all men by these presents, that I,

A. B., in consideration of $ to me in

hand paid by C. D., the receipt whereof
I do hereby acknowledge, have bargain-
ed, sold, assigned and set over, and by
these presents do bargain, sell, assign and
set over unto the said C. D., his execu-
tors, administrators and assigns [or, if a
durable lease, say his heirs or assigns] as
well the within written indenture, as also
all the term and interest in all and singu-
lar the lands, tenements, hereditaments
and premises within mentioned, yet re-
maining under and by virtue of the said
indenture, and likewise all my estate,
right, title, interest, claim, property and
demand of, in, or to the same lands, ten-
ements, hereditaments and premises,

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 467

-within indenture, or likewise howsoever;
subject, nevertheless, to the rents and
covenants in the said indenture con-
tained.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto

set my hand and seal, this day of

, 18 . A. B. [l. s.]

LIEN, Mechanics' — Contractors'. — To
Miles Hawley [or insert the name of the
officer, town and county,] Town Clerk, of
the town of Hornellsville, in the county of
Steuben.

Take notice, that I, a resident of said
town, have, or claim to have, a lien upon
the building herein described and the ap-
purtenances, and the lot upon which the
same stands, as security for the amount
due me, in pursuance of the statute made
and provided. The said building is

known as No. , on street, in

Hornellsville, or stands on the lot bound-
ed and described as follows: [insert
description] and said house and lot is

owned by *. That the claim against

said lot, or the owner thereof, is for work,
labor and sendees as carpenter and join-
er [if any other trade, mention it in place
of carpenter and joiner,] and for materi-
als, furnished by me as the contractor
with the said for the building, alter-
ing or repairing said house, under and in
pursuance of an agreement made with

; that days have not elapsed

since the performance and completion of
such labor [or the furnishing of the ma-
terials.] Yours, etc., D. R. S.

Hornellsville, 18 — .

LIEN, Mechanics' — Workman or Other
Person. — (The same as foregoing to the*
after which insert the following instead.)

That the claim against said is for

work by me performed as a carpenter and
joiner [or whatever trade it may be] for

months, labor performed by me on

said building, in pursuance of an agree-
ment with A. B., the contractor, amount-
ing to $ [or is for a large quantity of

lumber and building materials furnished
for and used in the erection of said house,
in pursuance of an agreement with said

A. B., amounting to the sum of $ ),

and that days have not elapsed since

the performance and completion of said
labor [or since the said materials were
furnished.] Yours truly,

D. R. S.

Hornellsville, N. K, 18—.

PARTNERSHIP.— See Agreements.

ATTORNEY, Power of— Common Law.
Know by all these presents, that I, M. B.,

of the town of , county of ,

State of , have made, constituted

and appointed, and by these presents do
make, constitute and appoint C. D., of

, my true and lawful attorney for me,

and in my name, place and stead [here
insert the general power given, and if
necessary the limit to same;] giving and
granting unto my said attorney full power
and authority to do and perform all and
every act and thing whatsoever requisite
and necessary to be done in and about
the premises, as fully, to all intents and
purposes, as I might or could do if per-
sonally present, with full power of substi-
tution and revocation, hereby ratifying
and confirming all that my said attorney
or his substitute shall lawfully do or cause
to be done by virtue thereof.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set

my hand and seal, the day of ,

in the year of our Lord 18 — .

M. B. [l. s.]

Sealed and delivered in the presence
of H. H.

ATTORNEY, Power of. — Revocation.
Know all men by these presents : That
whereas I, M. B., did, in and by my let-
ter of attorney dated , 18 — , consti-
tute C. D. my true and lawful attorney,
for me and in my name to [here insert
the power given in the original letter of
attorney,] as by the said letter of attorney
appears : Now, therefore, the said M. B.,
by these presents, do hereby revoke,
countermand, annul and make void the

said letter of attorney, dated 18 — ,

and all power therein and thereby, or in
any manner given or intended to be given
the said C. D.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set

my hand and seal, this day of ,

18—. M. B.

RECEIPT, a General. — Baltimore ,

18 — . Received of O. P. the sum of one
thousand dollars, in full of all demands
against him. D. S.

$1,000.

RECEIPT, for Rent.— New York ,

18 — . Received of M. P. one hundred
dollars, being one month's rent, due this
day for my dwelling house [if stores, in-
sert it in place of dwelling house,] and

468

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

street, now occupied by
D. S.

estate, No. -
said M. P.
$100.

EECEIPT, on Account. — Syracuse, ,

1 8 — . Received of M. B., fifty dollars on
account. D. S.

$50.

RELEASE, of all Demands. — Know all
men by these presents, that I., A. B., for
and in consideration of the sum of thirty
dollars and seventy-five cents, to me paid
by the said C. D., (the receipt whereof I
do hereby acknowledge) have remised,
released and forever discharged, and I
do hereby, for myself, my heirs, executors,
administrators, and assigns, remise, re-
lease, and forever discharge, the said C.
D., his heirs, executors, and administra-
tors, of and from all debts, demands, ac-
tions, and causes of action, which I now
have, or which may result from the exist-
ing state of things, from any and all
contracts, liabilities, doings, and omis-
sions, from the beginning of the world to
this day.

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto

set my hand and seal, this day of

, 18—. A. B. [l. s.]

STRAY, Not Redeemed, Notice of Sale,

— Take notice, that whereas, on the

day of last, there strayed on to my

enclosed land, in the town of Lenox,
(here describe property) and the same
not having been redeemed by the owner
thereof, now, in pursuance of the statute
in such cases made and provided, I shall
expose the same for sale at public auc-
tion, to the highest bidder, on the

day of next or instant, at —

o'clock, (a. m. or p. m.) in front of the
town house, in said town of Lenox.

B. B.

Dated the day of 18 — .

WILLS, Common Form.— I, A. G., of

-, county of -

State of-

widow of the late J. G., mindful of the
uncertainties ot human life, do make,
publish and declare this my last will and
testament, in manner following :

First. — After the payment of my just
debts and funeral expenses, I give, de-
vise and bequeath to my daughter, J. W.,
wife of A. W., the sum of $1,000.

Second. — I give and devise and be-
queath to my daughter L. P., wife of E.
P., the sum of $100.

Third. — I give, devise, and bequeath to

my daughter, E. D., wife of H. D., the:
sum of $400.

Fourth. — All the rest, residue and re-
mainder of all my estates, both real and
personal, I give, devise and bequeath to
myson, S. G., and to my daughters, J. W.,,
L. P. and E. D., to be equally divided
between them and their heirs, share and
share alike, the child or children of a
deceased child taking that which his, her
or their parents would have taken if
living.

Fifth. — In case there should not be
sufficient of my property to fully comply
with the first, second and third provisions,
of this, my will, then I direct that my
estate be divided into fourteen equal
shares or portions, and that five ot the
said shares or portions be given to my
said daughter, J. W., and that six of the
said shares or portions be given to my
daughter, E. D., and the remaining three
shares or portions be given to my daugh-
ter, L. P., the child or children of a de-
ceased daughter to have the shares or
portions which his, her or their parent
would have taken if living.

Sixth. — I hereby nominate and appoint
my son-in-law, H. D., the executor of
this, my last will and testament, and
hereby authorize and empower him, the-
said H. D., to compound, compromise
and settle any claim or demand which
may be against or in favor of my said
estate. In witness whereof I have here-
unto set my hand and seal, this day

of , 18—. A. G. [l. s.]

Signed, published and declared by the
said testatrix, to be her last will and tes-
tament in the presence of us, who have
signed our names at her request, as wit-
nesses in her presence and in the presence:
of each other.

B. B., of the village of .

C. C., of the village of -.

WILL, Codicil to a.— I, A. G., of the

town of , county of , State

of , do make this codicil to my

last will, in words as follows :

Whereas, in and by my last will and

testament, dated on or about ,

18 — , by the first item thereof, give, de-
vise and bequeath to my daughter, J..
W., the wife of A. W., thesum of $1,000,
and whereas, I loaned to the said A. W.,
in his lifetime, the sum of $1000, and for
which sum he was indebted to me at the

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 469

time of his decease, and his estate is still
indebted to me for that amount now, I
hereby revoke said bequest of $1,000, so
.given by said first item of my will, and
in lieu and instead thereof, give to my
said daughter, J. W., the claim which I
have against the estate of the said A. W.,
and authorize my executor to assign the
said claim to my said daughter, J. W.,
but should it happen that the said claim
•of $1,000 should be paid to me previous
to my decease, then I direct that the sum
of $1,000 to be paid my said daughter,
J. W., in the same manner, as if this
codicil to my will had not been executed.

In witness whereof I have hereunto

set my hand and seal, this day of

, 18—. A. G. [l. s.]

Published and declared by the said A.
*G. to be the codicil to her last will and
testament, in the presence of us, who
.have signed the same as witnesses, in her
presence, at her request, and in the pres-
ence of each other.

L. B., merchant of-

J. R., of the village of-

WILL, Devise of an Estate for Life, in
Xieu of Dower, Remainder to His Chil-
dren.— Item. I give and devise unto
my said wife, all that in said messuage or
tenement, with the appurtenances, situate
.(here describe) with the lands and heredi-
taments thereunto belonging, and the
rents, issues and profits thereof, for and
during the term of her natural life; and
from and after the decease of my said
wife, I give and bequeath the said mes-
suage or tenements, lands and heredita-
ments, unto such child or children as I
shall leave or have living at the time of
■my decease, and to their heirs and as-
signs forever, and if I shall have no such
child or children, then I give and devise
the said legacy to my said wife aforesaid,
and I hereby declare the said gift is in-
tended to be, and is so given to her, in
full satisfaction and recompense of, and
for her dower and thirds, which she may,
or can in any wise, claim or demand out
of my estate.

WILL, Proviso that Sums Advanced to
Children Shall be Taken as Part of Por-
tion.— Item. Provided always, and I do
hereby declare that in case I shall, in my
lifetime, advance and pay to any of my
children, either sons or daughters, any
sum or sums of money, for his or their

benefit or advancement in the world or
otherwise, and shall signify the same in
writing under my hand, then if any such
sum or sums shall be equal to the share
or shares of such child or children re-
spectively, of and in the premises (here
described), by me hereby devised or be-
queathed for their respective benefits,
such sum or sums so paid or advanced
shall in that case be accounted in full
satisfaction of the share or shares of
such child or children respectively in the
said estate and premises, but if such
advanced sum or sums shall be less than
the share or shares of such child or
children respectively, of and in the said
premises (here describe), then such sum
or sums shall be accounted as part only
of the share or shares of such child or
children therein, and in that case such
child or children shall not receive, or
be entitled to any share or interest of, or
in such parts of the said premises, etc.,
which shall have been paid or advanced
to him, her or them, for the purpose
aforesaid, until the other or others of
such child or children shall have re-
ceived as much of the said premises (here
describe) as shall make his, her or their
share or shares thereof equal to what
shall have been so paid or advanced to
or for the benefit, advantage, or prefer-
ment of such child or children respect-
ively, to the end and intent that the said
premises may be equally divided among
all such children, share and share alike.

WILL, Guardian, Appointment of. — "
And I hereby commit the guardianship'
of all my children, until they shall re-
spectively attain the age of twenty-one
years, unto my said wife, during her
life, if she shall so long continue my
widow; and from and after her decease
or second marriage, unto my trusty and
much esteemed friend A. B., his executors
and assigns, (and do hereby declare that
the expenses of the maintenance and ed-
ucation of my said children, until they
shall attain the age aforesaid, or become
entitled to the sum or sums of money
hereby provided for their benefits respect-
ively, shall be paid and borne by my said
wife, by and out of the moneys and
estate given and bequeathed to her in
and by this, my will.

WILL, Power of Executors to Convey
Real Estate. — I will and ordain that the

47°

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

executor of this, my last will and testa-
ment, shall, with all convenient speed af-
ter my decease, bargain sell and alien, in
fee simple, all my lands, for the doing,
executing and perfect finishing whereof,
I do by these presents give to my said
executor full power and authority to
grant, alien, bargain, sell, convey and
assure all the same lands to any person
or persons, and their heirs forever, in fee
simple, by all and every such lawful ways
and means in the law as to my said ex-
ecutor, or to his counsel learned in law,
shall seem fit or necessary.

LAWS, FENCE, for Each State.— In the
older States the laws regulating fences are
substantially alike. As to height, a legal
fence is generally four and a half feet, if
constructed of rails or timber. Ditches,
brook, ponds, creeks, rivers, &c, sufficient
to turn stock, are deemed equivalents for a
fence. In case a stream or other body of
water is considered inadequate to the
turning of stock, the facts are investigated
by officers known as fence viewers, who
will designate the side of the water upon
which a fence shall be erected, if the
fence be deemed necessary, the cost to be
equally borne by the parties whose lands
are divided. Occupants of adjoining
lands which are being improved are
required to maintain partition fences in
equal shares. Neglect to build or to
keep in repair such fences subjects the
negligent party to damages, as well as
double, and in some States treble, the
cost of building or repairing, to the
aggrieved party. A persbn ceasing to
improve land cannot remove his fence
unless others interested refuse to purchase
within reasonable time. A provision in
the laws of several of these States, which
is well calculated to serve the interests of
neighbors, saving the expense of fence
building, is one permitting persons owning
adjoining lots or lands to fence them in one
common field, and for the greater ad-
vantage of all, allowing them to form an
association, and to adopt binding rules
and regulations for the management of
their common concerns, and such equit-
able modes of improvement as are
required by their common interest; but
in all other respects each proprietor may,
a{iis own expense, inclose, manage and im-
prove his land as he thinks best, maintain-
ing his proportion of the general inclosure.

Maine, Massachusetts, Vermont, New
Hampshire, and Connecticut. — The laws
regulating fences in the New England-
States differ only in a few particulars.
The required height of a fence in Maine,
Massachusetts, and New Hampshire,
is four feet; in Vermont, four and a half
feet; in Rhode Island, and Connecti-
cut, a hedge, with a ditch, is required to
be three feet high upon the bank of the
ditch, well staked, at the distance of two
and a half feet, bound together at the
top, and sufficiently filled to prevent
small stock from creeping through, and
the bank of the ditch not to be less than
one foot above the surface of the ground.
A hedge without a ditch to be four feet
high, staked, bound, and filled; post-and
rail fence on the bank of a ditch to be
four rails high, each well set in post, and
not less than four and a half feet high.
A stone wall fence is required to be four
feet high, with a flat stone over the top,
or surmounted by a good rail or pole ; a
stone wall withont such flat stone, rail, or
post on top to be four and a half feet high.
In each of the New England States
there are plain provisions in regard to
keeping up division fences on equal
shares, and penalties for refusal to build
them, and when built for neglect to keep
them in repair. Fence-viewers in the
respective towns settle all disputes as to
division fences. Owners of adjoin-
ing fields are allowed to make their own
rules and regulations concerning their
management as commons. No one not
choosing to enclose uncultivated land can
be compelled to bear any of the expense
of a division fence, but afterward elect-
ing to cultivate, he must pay for one-half
the fence erected on his line.

New York and New Jersey. — Similar
provisions for the maintenance of division
fences exist in New York; whenever a
division has been injured by a flood or
other casualty, each party interested is
required to replace or repair his propor-
tion within ten days after notification.
When electors in any town have made
rules or regulations prescribing what
shall be deemed a sufficient fence, per-
sons neglecting to comply are precluded
from recovering compansation for dam-
ages done by stock lawfully going at.
large on the highways, that may enter on
their lands. The sufficiency of a fence

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 47 r

is presumed until the contrary is estab-
lished; assessors and commissioners of
highways perform the duties of fence-
viewers.

Pennsylvania. — In Pensylvania towns
and counties secure special legislation as
to the running of stock or other cattle at
large. Fences in New Jersey are required
to be four feet and two inches in height,
if of post and rails, timber, boards,
brick or stone ; other fences must be four
and a half feet, and close and strong
enough to prevent horses and neat cattle
from going through or under. Partition
fences most be proof against sheep*
Ditches and drains made in or through
salt marshes and meadows for fencing
and draining the same, being five feet
wide and three feet deep, and all ditches
or drains made through other meadows
being nine feet wide at the surface and
four and a half feet wide at the bottom,
three feet deep, and lying on mud or
miry bottom, are considered lawful fences.
Division fences must be equally main-
tained. If one party ceases improving
he cannot take away his fence without
first having given twelve months' notice.
Hedge growing is encouraged by law.

Delaware. — In Newcastle and Kent
Counties, Delaware, a good structure of
wood or stone, or well-set thorn four and
a half feet high, or four feet with a ditch
within two feet is a lawful fence; in
Sussex County four feet is the height
required. Fence-viewers are appointed by
the court of general sessions in each
••hundred." Partition fences are provided
for the same as in other States.

Maryland, Virginia, "West Virginia,
and North Carolina — There is no general
law in Maryland regulating fences, the
law being local and applicable to par-
ticular counties. In Virginia a lawful
fence is five feet in height, including the
mound to the bottom of the ditch, if the
fence is built on a mound. Certain
water courses are specified as equivalent
to fences. Four feet is the height of a
legal fence in West Virginia, and five
feet in North Carolina. In the latter
State persons neglecting to keep their
fences in order during the season ot
crops are deemed guilty of misdemeanor,
and are also liable to damages. Certain
rivers are declared sufficient fences.

South Carolina. — In South Carolina

fences are required to be six feet high
around "provisions." All fences strongly
and closely made of rails, boards, post
and rails, or an embankment of earth
capped with rails or timber of any sort,
or live hedges five feet in height, measured
from the level or surface of the earth, are
deemed lawful; and every planter is
bound to keep up such lawful fence
around his cultivated grounds, except
where a navigable stream or deep water-
course may be a boundary. No stakes or
canes that might injure horses or cattle:
are allowed in an inclosure.

Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Missis-
sippi. — The laws of Georgia provide that
all fences, or inclosures commonly called
worm fences, shall be five feet high, and
from the ground to the height of three
feet the rails must not be more than four
inches apart. All paling fences are
required to be five feet from the ground,
and the poles not more than two inches-
apart. Any inclosure made by means
of a ditch or trench must be three feet
wide and two feet deep, and if made of
both fence and ditch, the latter must be
four feet wide and the fence five feet high
from the bottom of the ditch. All water-
courses that are or have been navigable are-
deemed legal fences as far up the stream,
as navigation has ever extended, when-
ever, by reason of freshets or otherwise,,
fences cannot be kept, and are subject to-
the rules applicable to other fences. The
fences in Florida are required to be five
feet in height, but where there is a ditch
four feet wide the five feet may be
measured from the bottom of the ditch.
If the fence is not strictly according to law,
no action for tresspass or damages by
stock will lie. In Alabama all inclos-
ures or fences must be at least five feet
high, and, if made of rails, be well staked
and ridered, or otherwise sufficiently
locked; and from the ground to the
height of three feet the rails must not be
more than four inches apart; if made ot
palings, the poles must be not more than
three inches apart; or if made with »
ditch, four feet wide at the top; the fence,
of whatever materials composed, must be
five feet high from the bottom of the
ditch and three feet from the top of the
bank, and close enough to prevent stock
of any kind from getting through. No
suit for damages can be maintained if the

■47 2

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER-

fence is not a legal one. For placing in
..an inclosure any stakes, pits, poison, or
.anything which may kill or injure stock,
a penalty of $50 is provided. Partition
fences must be equally maintained. Fences
in Mississippi are required to be five feet
high, substantially and closely built with
plank, pickets, hedges, or other substan-
tial materials, or by raising the ground
into a ridge two and a half feet high and
erecting thereon a fence of common rails
or other materials two and a half feet in
height. Owners of adjoining lands, or
lessees thereof for more than two years,
are required to contribute equally to the
erection of fences, if the lands are in
cultivation are used for pasturing. No
owner is bound to contribute to the
.erection of a dividing fence when pre-
pared to erect a fence of his own, and to
leave a lane on his own land be-
tween himself and the adjoining own-
<er; but the failure to erect such fence
for sixty days is deemed an abandon-
ment of the intention to do so,
.and determination to adopt the fence
..already built.

Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky,
Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. — In
Texas every gardener, farmer, or planter
is required to maintain a fence around
his cultivated lands at least five feet high
and sufficiently close to prevent hogs
from passing through it, not leaving a
space of more than six inches in any one
place within three feet of the ground.
Fences in Arkansas must be five feet
high. In all disputed cases the sufficiency
.of a fence is to be determined by three
disinterested householders, appointed by
a justice of the peace. Division fences
are provided for as in the majority of the
■other States. In Tennessee every
planter is required to make a fence around
Jus cultivated land at least five feet high.
When any trespass occurs a justice of
the peace will appoint two freeholders to
view the fence as to its sufficiency, and to
ascertain damages. If a person, whose
fence is insufficient, should injure any
animal which may have come upon his
lands, he is responsible in damages. In
case of dispute between the parties as
to a division fence, a justice of the peace
will appoint three disinterested free-
holders to determine the proportion to
l5vs maintained by each. No owner,

whose fence is exclusively on his own
land, can be compelled to allow his
neighbor to join it. In Kentucky all
sound and strong fences of rails, plank, or
iron, five feet high, and so close that
cattle and other stock cannot creep
through, or made of stone or brick four
and a half feet high, are deemed legal
fences. Division fences cannot be
removed without consent of the party on
adjoining land, except between November
1 and March 1 in any year, six months'
notice having been given. In Missouri
all fields must be inclosed by hedge or
fence. Hedges must be five feet high;
fences of posts and rails, posts and
palings posts and plank, or palisades, four
and a half feet; turf, four feet, with
trenches on either side three feet wide at
top and three feet deep ; worm fence at
least five feet high to top of rider, or, if
not ridered, five feet to top rail, and
corner locked with strong poles rails or
stakes. Double damage may be recov-
ered from any person maiming or killing
animals within his inclosure if adjudged
insufficient. In Illinois fences must be
five feet high. The laws regulating
division fences are similar to those of the
New England States. In cases of dis-
pute three disinterested householders
decide as to the sufficiency of any fence.
Proprietors of commons may make their
own regulations. Line fenoes are pro-
tected on public highways. In Indiana
any structure or hedge, or ditch, in the
nature of a fence, used for purposes of
inclosure, which shall, on the testimony
of skillful men, appear to be sufficient, is
a lawful fence.

Ohio and Wisconsin. — The laws of
Ohio provide that whenever a fence is
erected by any person on the line of his
land, and the person owning the land ad-
joining shall make an enclosure on the
opposite side, the latter shall pay one-
half the value of the fence as far as it an-
swers the purpose of a division fence, to
be adjudged by the township trustees.
A legal fence in Wisconsin is four and a
half feet high if of rails, timber, boards,
or stone walls or their combinations, or
other things which shall be deemed equiv-
lent thereto in the judgment of the fence-
viewers. While adjoining parties culti-
vate lands they must keep up fences in
equal shares ; double value of building or

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 473

repairing may be recovered from delin-
quents. The law regulating division
fences is similar in most particulars to
those of the New England States and
Illinois. Overseers of highways perform
the duties of fence-viewers.

Michigan. — Fences in Michigan
must be four and a half feet high, and in
good repair; consisting of rails, timber,
boards, or stone walls, or any combina-
tion of these materials. Rivers, brooks,
ponds, ditches, hedges, etc., deemed by
the fence-viewers equivalent to a ience,
are held to be legal inclosures. No dam-
ages for trespass are recoverable if the
fence is not ot the required height. Par-
tition fences must be equally maintained
as long as parties improve their lands.
When lands owned in severalty have
been < occupied in common, any occupants
may have lands divided. Fences extend-
ing into the water must be made in equal
shares, unless otherwise agreed by par-
ties interested. If any person determines
not to improve any portion of his lands
adjoining a partition fence, he must give
six months' notice to all the adjoining oc-
cupants, after which he will not be re-
quired to keep up any part of the fence.
Overseers of highways act as fence-
viewers.

Minnesota. — In Minnesota four and
.a half feet is the legal height. Partition
fences are to be kept in good repair in
equal shares. In case of neglect, com-
plaint may be made by the aggrieved
party to the town supervisors, who will
proceed to examine the matter, and if
they determine that the fence is insuffi-
cient, notice will be given to delinquent
occupant of land ; and if he fails to build
or repair within a reasonable time, the
complainant may build or repair, and may
recover double the expense, with interest
at the rate of one per cent, per month, in
a civil action. No part of a division
fence can be removed if the owner or oc-
cupant of adjoining land will, within two
months, pay the appraised value. When
any uninclosed grounds are afterward in-
closed, the owner or occupant is required
to pay for one-half of each partition
fence ; the value thereof to be determined
by a majority of the town supervisors.
If a party to a division fence discontinues
the improvement of his land, and gives
six months' notice thereof to the occu-

pants of adjoining lands, he is not re-
quired to keep up any part of such fence
during the time his lands are unimproved,
and he may remove his portion if the ad-
joining owner or occupant will not pay
therefor. County commissioners are the
fence- viewers in counties not divided into
towns.

Iowa. — A legal fence in Iowa is four
and half feet high, constructed of strong
materials, put up in a good, substantial
manner. In all counties where, by a vote
of the legal voters, or by an act of the
general assembly, it is determined that
hogs and sheep shall not run at large, a
fence made of" three rails of good, sub-
stantial material, or three boards not less
than six inches wide and three-fourths of
an inch thick, such rails or boards to be
fastened in or to good, substantial posts,
not more than ten feet apart where rails
are used; or any other fence which, in
the opinion of the fence viewers, shall be
equivalent thereto, is deemed a lawful
fence, provided that the lowest or bottom
rail shall not be more than twenty nor
less than sixteen inches from the ground,
and that the fence shall be fifty-four
inches in height. The respective owners
of enclosed lands must keep up fences \
equally as long as they improve. In
case of neglect to repair or rebuild, the
adjoining owner may do so; and the
work being adjudged sufficient by the
fence-viewers, and the value determined,
the complainant may recover the amount,
with interest at the rate of one per cent,
per month. If an owner desires to throw
his field open, he shall give the adjoin-
ing parties six months' notice, or such
shorter notice as may be directed by the
fence-viewers.

Kansas and Nebraska. — In Kansas
and Nebraska fences may be of posts and
rails, posts and palings, or posts and
planks, at least four and a half feet high ;
of turf, four feet, and staked and ridered,
with a ditch on either side at least three
feet wide at top and three feet deep ; a
worm fence must be at least four and a
half feet high to top of rider, or if not
ridered, four and a half feet to top rail,
the corners to be locked with strong
rails, posts, or stakes. The bottom rail,
board or plank in any fence must not
be more than two feet from the ground
in any township, and in those town

474

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

ships where hogs are not prohibited from
running at large it must not be more
than six inches from the ground. All
such fences must be substantially built
and sufficiently close to prevent stock
from going through. Stone fences are
required to be four feet high, eighteen
inches wide at the bottom, and twelve at
top. All hedges must be of sufficient
height and thickness to protect the field
or enclosure. A wire fence must con-
sist of posts of ordinary size for fencing
purposes, set in the ground at least two
feet deep, and not more than twelve feet
apart, with holes through posts, or sta-
ples on the side, not more than fifteen
inches apart, and four separate lines of
fence wire, not smaller than. No. 9, to be
provided with rollers and levers at suita-
ble distances, to strain and hold the wires
straight and firm. Owners of adjoining
lands must maintain fences equally. In
case ot neglect of one party to build or
repair, another party may do so and re-
cover the amount expended, with interest
at the rate of one per cent, per month.
A person not improving his land is not
required to keep up any portion of a di-
vision fence. The trustee, clerk, and
treasurer of each township act as fence-
viewers, to adjust all disputes concerning
fences. A legal fence in Nebraska is de-
scribed as any structure, or hedge, or
ditch in the nature of a fence, used for
the purposes of enclosure, which is such
as good husbandmen generally keep.
Division fences must be equally main-
tained. A party may remove his portion
of a division fence by giving sixty days'
notice. If removed without such notice
the party so doing is liable lor full dam-
ages. Where a fence is injured or de-
stroyed by fire or flood it must be repair-
ed within ten days after notice by inter-
ested persons. Justices of the peace are
ex officio fence-viewers.

California. — Legal fences in Califor-
nia are described with great particular-
ity. Wire fences must consist of posts
not less than twelve inches in circumfer-
ence, set in the ground not less than
eighteen inches, and not less than eight
feet apart, with not less than three hori-
zontal wires, each one-fourth of an inch
in diameter, the first to be eighteen inches
from the ground, the other two above at
intervals of one foot, all well stretched

and securely fastened from post to post,
with one rail, slat, pole, or plank, of suita-
ble size and strength, securely fastened
to the post, not less than four and a half
feet from the ground. Post and rail
fence must be made with posts of the
same size and at the same distances apart
and the same depth in the ground as.
above required, with three rails, slats, or
planks of suitable size and strength, the
top one to be four and a half feet from
the ground, the other two at equal dis-
tances between the first and the ground,
all securely fastened to the post. Picket
fences must be of the same height as
above, made of pickets not less than six
inches in circumference, placed not more
than six inches apart, driven in the
ground not less than ten inches, all well
secured at the top by slats or caps.
Ditch and pole fence : the ditch must not
be less than four feet wide on the top and
three feet deep, with embankment thrown
on inside of ditch, with substantial posts
set in the embankment not more than
eight feet apart, and a plank, pole, rail, or
slat securely fastened to posts at least five
feet high from the bottom of the ditch.
Pole fence must be four and a half feet
high, with stakes not less than three
inches in diameter, set in the ground not
less than eighteen inches, and when the
stakes are placed seven feet apart there
must not be less than six horizontal poles
well secured to the stakes; if the stakes
are six feet apart, five poles; if three or
four feet, four poles ; if two feet apart
three poles, and the stakes need not be
less than two inches in diameter; if one
foot apart, one pole, and the stakes need
not be more than two inches in diameter.
The above is a lawful fence so long as the
stakes and poles are securely fastened and
in a fair state of preservation. Hedge
fence is considered lawful when by relia-
ble evidence it shall be proved equal in
strength and as well suited to the protec-
tion of inclosed lands as the other fences
described. Brush fence must be four and
a half feet high and at least twelve inches
wide, with stakes not less than two inches
in diameter, set in the ground not less
than eighteen inches, and on each side,
every eight feet, tied together at the top,,
with horizontal pole tied to the outside
stake five feet from the ground. In the
case of partition fences, if one party re-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 475

fuse or neglect to build or maintain his
share the other may do so and recover
the value. Three days' notice to repair
is sufficient. The sufficiency of a fence is
to be determined by three disinterested
householders.

LAWS, STOCK, for Each State.— In a
majority of the States there are general
laws prohibiting cattle and other stock
from running at large ; in some instances,
however, authority is delegated to coun-
ties or towns to make by-laws upon the
subject, or there is special legislation for
particular counties or districts. The law
cf estrays differs in the various States in
no essential particulars. If a beast is
found running at large, in violation of
law, it may be taken up and impounded,
where public pounds have been provided ;
or it may be held by the person so taking
up on his own premises. If the owner is
known, notice must be given to him at
once ; if unknown, the animal must be
advertised for a specified time; and no
owner claiming it, must be sold to the
highest bidder. The person taking up
the estray is entitled to a reasonable com-
pensation for maintaining the beast. In
some States, after a certain time, the
estray becomes the property of the per-
son taking it up, the prescribed legal no-
tice having been given. When an ani-
mal is found doing damage on the land
of another, the fences being constructed
according to law, it may be held as secu-
rity for damages. In all cases where the
owner is known, he must be notified of
the facts, and a reasonable time allowed
him to leclaim and to inspect damages.
In the majority of the States, also, owners
of stock are required to adopt certain ear-
marks, marks, or brands, and to make a
record of them.

Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont.
— In Maine and New Hampshire, towns
may make by-laws concerning the run-
ning of animals at large. The laws of
Maine provide that persons injured by
beasts may sue for damages, and distrain
the animal. New Hampshire allows
the owners of stock impounded for doing
damage four days to respond to notice of
the fact; and if he fails to answer, the
animals may be sold and the amount of
the damages deducted from the proceeds.
In Vermont, twenty days are allowed
for redemption. Ungelded animals are

not allowed to run at large. Rams must
be restrained from August i to Decem-
ber i, and be marked with the initials of
the owner's name ; and if found at large,
a forfeit of $5 is due for each one taken
up to the person so taking up. The
owner of such animals is responsible for
all damages done by them. Sheep in-
fected with foot rot or scab must be dili-
gently restrained, and for all damages re-
sulting from neglect of this provision the
owner is responsible, and is also subject to
a fine of $10. Any person finding such
diseased animals at large, may take them
as forfeit, and no action at law or in
equity will lie for their recovery. Any
person who shall drive, or in any manner
bring, into the State any neat cattle,
knowing them, or any of them, to have
the pleuro-pneumonia, or of having been
exposed to that disease, is liable to a for-
feit of a sum not over $500, or to im-
prisonment in a county jail for not more
than twelve months, nor less than one
month. Towns may establish regula-
tions, appoint officers or agents, and raise
and appropriate money for the purpose of
preventing and arresting the spread of
pleuro-pneumonia. » ■

Massachusetts. — The laws of Massa-'
chusetts provide that when a person is
injured in his crops or other property by
sheep, swine, horses, mules, or neat cat-
tle, he may recover damages in an action
of tort against the owner of the beasts, or
by distraining the beasts doing the dam-
age ; but if the beasts were lawfully on
the adjoining lands, and escaped there-
from in consequence of the neglect of the
person who suffered the damage to main-
tain his part of the division fence, the
owner of the beasts shall not be liable for
such damages. The selectmen of towns-
and the mayor and aldermen of cities, in
case of the existence of pleuro-pneumonia.
or any other contagious disease among
cattle, shall cause the infected animals or
those exposed to infection to be secured
in some suitable place or places, and
kept isolated, the expense of keeping to
be paid, one-fifth by city or town, and
four-fifths by the State. They may pro-
hibit the departure of cattle trom any in-
closure, or exclude them therefrom; may
make rules in writing to regulate or pro-
hibit the passage of any neat cattle to or
through their respective cities or towns,.

-476

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

or from place to place, and arrest and
detain them at the cost of the owners.
They are authorized to brand infected
animals, or those exposed to infection,
with the letter "P"on the rump. For
selling an animal so branded, there is lia-
bility to fine not exceeding $500, or im-
prisonment not exceeding one year. No-
tice of any suspicion of the existence of
contagious disease must be given, with a
penalty for neglect or refusal. A board
-of commissioners is appointed for the
State, with authority to use any measure
to control the introduction of diseased
cattle into the State, or the spread of
disease. The rules and regulations made
by this board supersede those of the se-
lectmen of towns, and mayor and alder-
men of cities. The moving of cattle into
other States without permission is pro-
hibited. The law of 1867 provides that
no cattle diseased, or suspected of being
-diseased, shall be killed, except by order
of the governor. The owners of cattle
ordered to be killed are indemnified.

Rhode Island. — In Rhode Island,
animals trespassing on lands are held a
year and a day; and, if a horse, must
have a withe kept about his neck during
that time. Each town is required to
•erect and maintain at its own charge one
or more public pounds, and it is lawful
for any freeholder or qualified elector or
field driver, and it is made the duty of
•every surveyor of highways, to take up
and impound any horse, neat cattle,
sheep, or hog found at large in any high-
way or common. Provisions of the act
extend also to goats and geese. In i860,
in view of the dangerous disease which
had become prevalent in other States,
the general assembly enacted that neat
•cattle might only be brought into the
•State from places west of the Connecticut
River, upon thoroughfares leading into
the western and southern portions of the
State, under regulations established by a
■board of commissioners, until they should
prohibit importations from any of said
places. For a violation of the provisions
of the act, a penalty was provided, not
exceeding $300 for each offence, and
liability to indictment, and, on conviction,
imprisonment not exceeding one year.
In case of the introduction of a number
-of diseased cattle at the same time, the
introduction of each animal is to be

deemed a separate and distinct offense.
Town councils are empowered to take all
necessary measures to prevent the break-
ing out or spreading of any infectious
diseases among the neat cattle in their re-
spective towns, and to prescribe penalties
in money, not exceeding $500. A board
of commissioners is provided for, to be
appointed by the governor, consisting of
one person from each county, to see that
the law is faithfully executed. It is made
the especial duty of the board to endeavor
to obtain full information in relation to
the disease known as pleuro-pneumonia,
and to publish and circulate the same, at
their discretion ; and in case the disease
should break out, or there should be a
reasonable suspicion of its existence in
any town, they are required to examine
the several cases and publish the result of
their examination, in order that the public
may have correct information. If satis-
fied of its existence in any town, they
must give public notice of the fact in
printed handbills, posted up; and, there-
after, any incorporated company or per-
son who may drive, carry, or transport
any neat cattle out of the town into any
other town in the State, is liable to the
penalties above stated. Any person who
sells or offers to sell any cattle known to
be infected with pleuro-pneumonia, or
with any disease dangerous to public
health, is liable to indictment, and, on
conviction, to punishment by fine not ex-
ceeding $1,000, or imprisonment not ex-
ceeding two years. The act of March
26, 1864, provides that any person know-
ingly bringing into the State any neat cattle
or other animals suffering from any infec-
tious disease, or who knowingly exposes
such cattle or other animals to other cattle
and animals not infected with such dis-
ease, shall, upon conviction, pay a fine of
not less than $100, and not exceeding
$500.

Connecticut. — The laws of Connecti-
cut allow owners of sheep to keep flocks
in common, and to make their own rules
and regulations concerning their care and
safety. No horses, asses, mules, neat
cattle, sheep, swine, or geese are allowed
to go at large in any highway or com-
mon, or to roam at large for the purpose
of being kept or pastured on the highway
or common, either with or without a
keeper. Any person may seize and take

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 477

into his custody and possession any ani-
mal which may be trespassing upon his
premises, provided the animal enter from
the highway, or through a fence belong-
ing to the owner of the animal, or
through a lawful fence belonging to any
other person. He must give immediate
notice to the owner, if known, and may
demand for every horse, mule, ass, ox,
cow, or calf, 25 cents; and for every
sheep, goat, goose, or swine, 10 cents;
together with just damages for injuries
occasioned by such animals, if applied
for within twenty-four hours after such
notice shall have been given. If the
owner is not known, the animal shall be
sold by the town clerk, after due public
notice.

New York. — The cattle laws of New
York allow any person to seize and take
into his custody any animal which may
be in any public highway, and opposite
to land owned or occupied by him, or
which may be trespassing upon his prem-
ises. Notice must be given to a justice
of the peace, or a commissioner of high-
ways of the town in which the seizure
has been made, who shall post up notices
in six public places that the animal will
be sold in not less than fifteen nor more
than thirty days. The surplus money,
after payment of all charges, is subject to
the order of the owner for one year. The
owner, before sale, may pay all charges
and take the animal. If the animal has
been trespassing by the willful act of
another than the owner to effect that
object, the owner is entitled to the ani-
mal upon making demand, after paying
the compensation fixed by the justice or
commissioner, but no other costs; and
the person committing such willful act
will be held liable to a penalty ot $20.

New Jersey. — In New Jersey town
committees, upon notice of the existence
of any disease supposed to be contagious,
are required personally to examine the
cause, and if the symptoms which char-
acterize contagious diseases are exhibited,
shall cause such animals to be removed
and kept separate and apart from other
cattle and stock, five hundred feet distant
from any highway, and the same distance
from any and all neighbors. If any die
of the disease, or are killed, they must be
buried immediately, five hundred feet
distant, etc., as above. No cattle that

have been sick, and have recovered from
any supposed contagious or infectious,
disease, shall mix with other cattle, or be
removed, unless permission has been
given by the town committee. Any per-
son knowingly storing a hide, or any
other portion of a diseased animal, is
subject to a fine. The town committee
are authorized to prohibit the importation
or passage of cattle from other places
into or through their respective towns.
After notice of prohibition, owners are
liable to a fine of $100 for every animal,
driven into a township. A fine of $100
is imposed for every animal sold and
known to be diseased. The act of 1866
authorizes the Agricultural Society of the
State to take measures for preventing the.
introduction or increase of rinderpest,
and any' other disease among cattle, at
their discretion. In this State, animals
affected with glanders are authorized to
be killed. Cattle must not be marked
by chopping both ears; nor must either
ear be cropped more than one inch.

Pennsylvania. — The running of cattle
at large is controlled in Pennsylvania
by towns and counties, through special
legislation. The sale of cattle or sheep
affected with pleuro-pneumonia, or any
other contagious disease, is punished by
fine not exceeding $500, or imprisonment
not exceeding six months. Animals must
not be sold alive from, or slaughtered on,
premises where disease is known to exist, ,
nor for a period of two months after dis-
ease shall have disappeared from the
premises. Cattle and sheep are not
allowed to run at large where any con-
tagious disease prevails. Constables of
townships are required to take up and
confine any animals so found, until all
costs are paid.

Delaware. — In Delaware, by act of
general assembly, cattle are forbidden to
run at large in certain districts. Stallions
over eighteen months old are not per-
mitted to be at large.

Maryland. — The laws of Maryland-
provide that any person aggrieved by
trespass upon his premises of any cattle,
hogs, or sheep in the possession or care
of a non-resident, may impound them,
and have the damages sustained by the
trespass valued on oath by two disinter-
ested citizens of his county, and the-

478

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

animals may be sold for the damages and
costs.

Virginia. — The laws of Virginia pro-
vide that if any horses, cattle, hogs,
sheep, or goats enter into any grounds
inclosed by a lawful fence, the owner or
manager shall be liable to the owner of
the ground for all damages; and for
every succeeding trespass by such animals,
the owner shall be liable for double dam-
ages ; and, after having given at least five
days' notice to the owner of the animals
of the fact of two previous trespasses, the
aggrieved party shall be entitled to the
animals if again found trespassing on the
same lands. Horses diseased and un-
altered, are not allowed to be at large.
Every person shall so restrain his dis-
tempered cattle, or such as are under his
care, that they may not go at large off the
land to which they belong; and no per-
son shall drive any distempered cattle
into or through the State, or from one
part of it to another, unless it be to
remove them from one piece of ground to
another of the same owner; and when
any such cattle die, the owner thereof, or
person having them in charge, shall cause
them to be buried (with their hides on)
four feet deep. Any justice, upon proof
before him that any cattle are going at
large, or are driven in or through his
county or corporation, in violation of
law, may direct the owner to impound
them ; and if he fail to do so, or suffer
them to escape before obtaining a certifi-
cate that they may be removed with
safety, they shall, by order of the justice,
be killed and buried four feet deep, with
their hides on, but so cut that no one
may be tempted to dig them up. For
the protection of sheep special laws have
been passed taxing dogs in certain coun-
ties, and for their restraint in those coun-
ties.

North Carolina.— In North Carolina,
if cattle are driven from one part of the
State to another, they must be certified to
be healthy, sound, and free from any
infectious distemper; the granting of such
certificate by any justice, without affi-
davit, is a misdemeanor in office. Stallions
and mules over two years old are not
allowed to go at large, under a penalty of
$10. Damages for injury done by tres-
passing animals are recoverable as in
other States,

South Carolina. — In South Carolina
horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, or goats break-
ing into any field having a crop of any
kind growing or ungathered, with a law-
ful fence, may be seized and kept con-
fined until notice is given to the owner,
Within twenty-four hours of the seizure,
who shall be bound to pay the owner of
such field 50 cents a head for each horse
or mule, and 25 cents for every head of
cattle, hogs, etc., before he is entitled to
have the animal delivered up to him.
For the second breaking, within one
month after the first, the owner is liable
to the person injured for all damages
sustained, in addition to the fine. Full
satisfaction lies for injuring any animal
found in any field where the fence is not
a lawful one.

Georgia.— In the State of Georgia, if
any trespass or damage is committed by
stock on any lands not protected by law-
ful fences, the owner of the animal is not
liable to answer for trespass ; and if the
owner of the premises should kill or
injure the animal in any manner he is
liable in three times the damages. When
fences are made pursuant to law, and any
animal breaks in, the owner of the in-
closure shall not kill or injure him for the
first breaking, and not until after notice
is given to the agent or owner, if possi-
ble, but the owner shall be liable for
double the damage done by his stock.

Florida. — In Florida there can be no
trespass or damage if the fence is not a
lawful one ; nor in such case can stakes,
canes, or other devices to maim or kill
cattle, sheep, swine, etc., be used, under
a penalty of $10 for each offence and
damages. Marks upon stock are required.

Alabama. — Any person is allowed in
Alabama to take up any horse, mare,
jack, neat cattle, hog, or sheep found
running at large, if the owner is unknown.
If any stallion or jackass over two years
of age is found at large it must be taken
before a justice who shall cause it to be
advertised. The taker up is entitled to
$5 from the owner, and reasonable com-
pensation for keeping. If such stallion
or jackass is not claimed within three
months it may be gelded.

Mississippi. — The laws of Mississippi
provide that every owner of cattle, horses,
mules, hogs, sheep, or goats shall be liable
for all injuries and trespasses committed

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 479

"by breaking into grounds inclosed by-
legal fence. If any person whose fence
is not a lawful one, shall hurt, wound,
lame, or kill, by shooting, or hunting with
dogs, or otherwise, any cattle, etc., that
may have broken into his inclosure, he
shall pay the owner double damages. A
ranger is elected in each county to attend
specially to estrays, of which he is re-
quired to keep a record. When any per-
son finds horses, mules, jacks, cattle, sheep,
or hogs straying upon his land he may
take them up and forthwith send them to
the owner, if known; if unknown, he
must give notice to the ranger, or some
justice of the peace. The owner of all
estrays appraised at $10 and not exceed-
ing $20 is allowed six months, and if less
than $10, three months, from the date of
certificate of appraisement to claim and
prove his property. It is not lawful for
any drover or other person to drive any
horses, mules, cattle, hogs, or sheep of
another from the range to which they
belong; but it is made his duty if any
such stock join his, to halt immediately at
the nearest pen, or some other convenient
place, and separate such stock as does
not belong to him, or to the person by
whom he may be employed. For neglect
a forfeit of $20 for every offence is pro-
vided, and liability to all damages. Any
person may confine and geld any stallion
above the age of two years found running
at large, at the risk of the owner, but
this will not apply to stallions usually
kept up, but to those which accidentally
escape. Any animal addicted to fence
breaking may be taken up by owner of
land, who may recover 75 cents a day for
keeping, provided owner has been noti-
fied, if known; but condition of fence
may be shown in mitigation of damages.
Double damages may be recovered for
injury to animals where fence is not a
lawful one. Defacing or altering marks
of animals subjects to a penalty of im-
prisonment in the penitentiary for not
more than three years, or fine of not
more than $500, and imprisonment in
•county jail for not more than one year,
or both.

Texas. — No neat cattle belonging to
non-residents are allowed to be taken into
Texas for grazing or herding purposes,
under pain of forfeiture to the county into
which they shall have been so taken.

Severe penalties for altering the brands
are provided in this State.

Arkansas. — In Arkansas, if any horse,
cattle, or other stock break into any in-
closure, the fence being of the required
height and sufficiency, the owner of the
animal shall, for the first offence, make
reparation for true damages ; for the sec-
ond offence, double damages ; and for the
third the party injured may kill the tres-
passing beasts, without being answerable.
If any stallion or jack over two years old
is found running at large, the owner may
be fined $2 for the first offence, and $10
for each subsequent offence, and is liable
for all damages that may be sustained.
Any person may take up such animal,
and, if not claimed within two days, may
castrate, and recover $3 for doing so;
but the life of the animal must not be en-
dangered. If any such animal cannot be
taken up, he may be killed, if notice be
first put up at the court-house, and at
three other of the most public places in
the county for ten days, accurately describ-
ing the animal.

Tennessee. — In Tennessee stallions
and jackasses over fifteen days old are
not allowed to run at large under a pen-
nalty to the owner of not less than $5 or
more than $25. The animal may be
taken before the nearest justice of the
peace who shall give public notice. If
not claimed within three months the ani-
mal may be gelded at the risk and ex-
pense of the owner. The party taking
him up is entitled to $5 and reasonable
expenses for keeping.

West Virginia. — There is no law in
force in West Virginia to prevent cattle
from running at large ; but if they break
into an inclosure and destroy any grain
or crops, the owner is liable, provided the
the fence is a lawful one. A law exists to
prevent diseased sheep from traveling on
the highway.

Kentucky. — In Kentucky breechy and
mischievous bulls may be taken up and
altered ; a jack or stallion may be gelded
if found at large, allowing the owner, ii
known, at the rate of twenty-five miles a
day to reach the place where the animal
is held, and recover the animal; when
the owner is not known, the animal is
dealt with as an estray, and may be or-
dered by a justice to be gelded. If the
owner of any distempered cattle permits

480

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

them to run at large, or drives them
through any part of the State, he is liable
to a fine of $10 tor each head; and if any
die the owner must cause them to be
buried, subject to a penalty of $5 for neg-
lect in each case.

Missouri. — The State of Missouri has
created a board of cattle inspectors to
prevent the spread of the Texas or Span-
ish fever. The county court of each
county is authorized to appoint three
competent persons to act as a board for
the inspection of cattle supposed to be
distempered or affected with the disease
known as the Texas or Spanish fever.
They may stop any drove of cattle. If
they adjudge cattle to be diseased or dis-
tempered, and in a condition to communi-
cate any contagious or infectious disease,
they are required to order the cattle to be
removed from the county without delay,
upon the same route upon which they
came in, if practicable. If the owners
comply with the order they will not be
further liable ; but if they, or the persons
having the cattle in charge, wilfully delay
or neglect to do so, the president of the
board will direct the sheriff to drive the
cattle out by the route they came in, or to
kill them, if the board think it necessary
in order to prevent the spread of the dis-
ease. The parties owning or in charge of
the cattle ordered to be removed or killed
are liable for all the costs that may accrue
in case of examination, removal, or kill-
ing. The act to prevent the introduction
of diseased cattle into the State provides
that no Texas, Mexican, or Indian cattle
shall be driven or otherwise conveyed into
any county in the State between the first
day of March and the first day of Decem-
ber in each year, but this does not apply
to any cattle which have been kept the
entire previous winter in the State. Cattle
may be carried through the State by rail-
road or steamboat, provided they are not
unloaded, but the railroad company or
owners of the steamboat are responsible
for all damages which may result from the
Spanish or Texas fever, should the same
occur along the line of transportation;
and the existence of such disease along
the route shall be prima facie evidence
that the disease has been communicated
by such transportation. For every head
of cattle brought into the State contrary
to law a fine ot $20 may be recovered, or

the party may be imprisoned in the county
jail not less than three nor more than
twelve months, or may be subjected to-
both fine and imprisonment. It is lawful
for any three or more householders to*
stop any cattle which they may have
good reason to believe are passing
through any county in violation of the
act.

Illinois. — In Illinois the owner of
animals breaking through a legal fence is
liable to full damages for the first trespass,
and to double damages for any subse-
quent trespass. Where the fence is insuf-
ficient, and the landowner injures or des-
troys animals, he is answerable in dam-
ages. Stallions over one year old are not
permitted to run at large ; but if so found
may be gelded, if the owner does not re-
claim them, one day for every fifteen^
miles' distance of the animal from home
being allowed, after notice. Diseased
horses, mules, and asses must be kept
within the owner's inclosure, under pen-
alty of $20 damages. Estray hogs must
be sold between Nov. 1 and March 1.
To convey any Texas or Cherokee cattle
into the State between the first day of
October and the first day of March ren-
ders the party so doing liable to a fine
not exceeding $2,000 nor less than $500,,
and imprisonment at the discretion of the
court. Any and all fines are paid into the
county treasury, subject to the order of
the board of supervisors or county court,
for the purpose of being divided pro rata
among persons who may have suffered
damage or loss on account of any such
Texas or Cherokee cattle. All persons or
corporations are liable to injured parties
for any damage arising from the introduc-
tion, by any of them, of any diseased cat-
tle. It is made the duty of any circuit
or county judge, or justice of the peace,
.upon oath of any householder, setting
forth that Texas or Cherokee cattle are
spreading disease among the native cattle,
to forthwith issue a warrant to any sheriff
or constable of the county, commanding
him to arrest and impound such cattle,
and keep them by themselves until the
first day of October following. "Texas
and Cherokee cattle" are defined to mean
a class or kind of cattle, without reference
to the place from which they may have
come.

Indiana. — In Indiana the laws regu-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 48*

lating the running at large of cattle and
other stock are local in their application,
county boards designating what animals
may or may not run at large. However
when any animal is found at large con-
trary to the local law, and has been taken
up, the owner may reclaim it within ten
days, after which time the animal may be
sold.

Ohio. — It is unlawful in the State of
Ohio for any one to sell, barter, or dis-
pose of, or permit to run at large, any
horse, cattle, sheep, or other domestic
animal, knowing them to be infected with
contagious or infectious disease, or to
have been recently exposed thereto, un-
less he first duly informs the party to
whom he may sell as to the facts. The
fine for so doing is not less than $20 nor
more than $200, with costs, or confine-
ment in the county jail not more than
thirty days. For allowing infected ani-
mals to come in contact with animals
belonging to another, a fine is provided
of not less than $50 nor more than $500,
with costs of prosecution, or confinement
in the county jail not less than ten nor
more than fifty days. If any horse, mule,
ass, or any neat cattle, hogs, sheep, or
goats, running at large, break into or
enter any inclosure other than inclosures
of railroads, the owner is liable for all
damages, and an amimal so breaking into
or entering an inclosure is not exempted
from execution issued on any judgment
or decree rendered by any court. For
allowing any such animal to run at large
in any public highway or upon any
uninclosed land, or for herding any of
them for the purpose of grazing on
premises other than those owned or
occupied by the owner or keeper of the
animals, the party offending is liable, for
every violation, to a fine of not less than
$1 nor more than $5. But a general
permission may be granted by the com-
missioners of any county for certain
animals to run at large, and in any coun-
ties where there is no such general per-
mission, township trustees may grant
special permits, such general and special
permits terminating on the first Monday
of March of each year ; and special per-
mits are revokable at the discretion of
the trustees, upon three days' notice
in writing to the owner of the animals.
Special permits must be directed to in-

31

dividuals, and for particular animals
described therein. The owner of tres-
passing animals is liable for all damages
upon premises of another without refer-
ence to the fence which may inclose the
premises. Any person may take up and
confine an animal found at large contrary
to law, and the owner may reclaim the
same within ten days. The fees are as
follows : For taking up and advertising
each horse or mule, $1; neat cattle, 75;
cents each; swine, 50 cents each; sheep-
or geese, 25 cents each; and reasonable
pay for keeping the same. It is unlawful
for the owner or keepers of any animals
knowingly to permit them to enter the
enclosure of any railroad, or, having
entered, to remain therein; or to lead or
drive any such animals within the in-
closure, or along or upon the track of
any railroad, at any other place than the
regular street or road crossing, farm
crossing, or way.

Michigan. — In Michigan it is not law-
ful for any cattle, horses, sheep, or swine
to run at large on the highways, except
in those counties or parts of counties
where it shall be otherwise determined
by the board of supervisors in such
county. Where the law is in force, any
person may seize and hold in his posses-
sion any animal lound running at large,
and give notice to a justice of the peace
or a commissioner of highways, who is
required to post up notices describing
the animal. The animal must be sold at
public outcry in not less than thirty days
nor more than sixty days after date of
notice; but the owner may redeem the
animal by paying costs and compensa-
tion for keeping — redemption to be made
within one year. Any animal found tres-
passing by the willful act of another,,
may be taken by the owner on demand,,
after paying resonable compensation, but
the person committing the act is liable to>
a fine of $20. Any person taking up a.
beast going at large contrary to law, or
contrary to any by-law of a township, is
entitled to fifty cents per head for all
horses, mules, asses, and neat cattle, and
10 cents per head for all sheep, goats and
swine. When any person is injured in
his land by animals, he may recover dam-
ages in action for trespass against the
owner of the beasts, or by distraining the
beasts doing damage, unless the animal*-.

482

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

shall have been lawfully on adjoining lands,
and shall have escaped therefrom in con-
sequence of the neglect of the person
who has suffered the damage, to main-
tain his part of the divison fence.

Wisconsin. — The laws of Wisconsin
permit towns to make regulations con-
cerning the running of animals at large.
The owner or occupant of lands may dis-
train all beasts doing damage within his
inclosure, and when any distress shall be
made the person distraining is required
to keep such beast in some place or other
than in the public pound until his dam-
ages are appraised; and within twenty-
four hours he shall apply to a justice of
the peace, who shall appoint three dis-
interested free-holders to appraise the
damages sustained. If within twenty-
four hours after the appraisement the
damages are not paid, the animals may
b>e placed in the public pound, to be
there maintained until the amount of dam-
ages and costs is recovered by due pro-
cess of law. If the owner of any sheep
infected with contagious disease permits
any of them to go at large out of his own
inclosure at and season of the year, he
shall forfeit the sum of $5 for each and
every such sheep, to the person who may
enter complaint, for each time they are
so found running at large. If the owner
neglect to restrain such sheep, any per-
son is authorized to take them up and
put them in some safe place other than
the public pound. Rams are not per-
mitted to go at large between July 15 and
December 1, and the owner forfeits $10
to the person taking up the animal for
■ each time so found abroad.

Minnesota. — The electors of each town
in the State of Minnesota have power
.at their annual meetings to determine the
number of pound masters, and the loca-
tion of pounds, and regulations for im-
pounding animals, and to fix the time
and manner in which cattle, mules, asses,
and sheep may be permitted to go at
large, provided that no cattle, horses,
mules, nor asses be allowed to go at
large between the 15th of October and
the 1 st of April. The owner or occupant
of lands may distrain all beasts doing
damage upon his lands during the night-
time, from 8 o'clock in the evening until
:sunrise ; and when any distress is made
the distrainer shall keep such beasts in

some secure place other than the public
pound, until his damages are appraised,
unless the same is made on Sunday, in
which case, before the next Tuesday
morning thereafter he shall apply to a
justice of the peace of the town, who
shall appoint three disinterested persons
to appraise damages. No damage can
be recovered by the owner of any lands
for damage committed by any beasts dur-
ing the daytime, until it is first proved
that the lands were inclosed by a lawful
fence. Distress may be made at any
time before the beasts doing damage
escape from the lands, and without re-
gard to the sufficiency of fences. The
owner of any horse or other animal, hav-
ing the disease known as the glanders,
who knowingly permits such animal to
run at large, or be driven upon any of
the highways of the State, or any hotel
keeper, or keeper of any public barn, who
permits any animal having such disease
to be stabled, such person shall be deem-
ed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon
conviction before any justice of the peace,
shall be punished by a fine of not more
than $100 nor less than $25.

Iowa. — In Iowa no stallion, jack, bull,
boar, or buck is permitted to run at large.
Persons aggrieved are allowed to distrain
any such animals, and compel the owner
to pay damages. If the animal is not re-
deemed within seven days, seven days'
notice of its sale at public auction must
be given, the proceeds to apply on dam-
ages after deducting costs. If any do-
mestic animal, lawfully on adjoining land,
escapes therefrom in consequence of the
neglect of the person suffering damage to
maintain his part of the division fence,
the owner of the animal is not liable for
any damages. If beasts are not lawfully
upon the adjoining land, and came upon
it, or of they escaped therefrom into the
injured inclosure, in consequence of the
neglect of the adjoining owner to main-
tain a partition fence or any part of one,
which it was his duty to maintain, then
the owner of the adjoining land shall be
liable as well as the owner of beasts.
Fence-viewers appraise all damages. An
act of April 8, 1868, forbids anyone to
bring into the State, or to have in posses-
sion, any Texas, Cherokee, or Indian
cattle. Transportation on railroads through
the State is not forbidden, nor the

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 4S3

driving through any part of the' State of
such Texas or southern cattle as have
been wintered at least one winter north
■of the southern boundary of the State of
Missouri or Kansas. The penalty of vi-
olation is a fine not exceeding $5,000, or
imprisonment in county jail at the discre-
tion of the court, not to exceed six
months, together with all damages that
may accrue by reason of such violation of
the law. Any one driving or importing
•diseased sheep into the State, knowing
the disease to be contagious, is deemed
guilty of misdemeanor, and is punishable
by fine of not less than $50 nor more
than $100. The same fine is imposed
upon any person who may turn out of his
inclosure, or sell sheep, knowing them to
be diseased.

Kansas. — In Kansas when a majority
of the electors' in any township petition
•county commissioners for orders to con-
fine animals during the night time, such
orders shall be made and notice thereof
.given. The owner is liable for depreda-
tions of animals during the continuance
•of such orders, without regard to con-
dition of fences. Persons damaged in
their property have a lien upon the stock.
If any stallion or jack over the age of
two years is found at large, the owner, if
known, must be notified of the fact, and
if he fails or refuses to confine the animal
he is liable to a fine of $5 for the first
■offense, and $10 for each subsequent
offense, and all damages. Stallions and
jacks, not used for breeding purposes,
may be castrated by the person taking
them up, if the owner fails, after three
days' notice, to reclaim the same, and
pay damages, or such animals may be
killed after six days' notice. Any bull,
boar, or stag found running at large may
be taken up at any time or place. Electors
of townships may decide whether swine
may run at large or not, at least ten
voters having petitioned for the submis-
sion of the question. No horse, mule, or
ass diseased with glanders is allowed to
be at large, under a penalty of not less
than $5 nor more than $100. Knowing-
ly to import or drive into the State sheep
affected with contagious disease is a mis-
demeanor, with a fine not to exceed
$200. The same penalty is provided for
any owner allowing such sheep to run at
large, together with responsibility for

damages to other owners. Rams must
be restrained between June 15 and De-
cember 15, under penalty of $5 for each
day allowed at large. In February, 1867,
a sanitary measure was passed for the
protection of cattle from the ravages of
the Spanish fever. Stock from Texas
and the Indian Territory brought into the
State between the first day of March and
the first day of December in any year,
are not to be driven through the State
except in the remoter parts of the plains,
and then not within five miles of any
highway or "ranche," except by the con-
sent of the owner of the latter. Violation
of the law is treated as a misdemeanor,
and the first offense is punishable by fine
of $100 to 1,000, and imprisonment from
thirty days to six months ; for subsequent
offenses the penalties are doubled.

Nebraska. — In Nebraska cattle and
other stock are restrained in particular
counties. The legislation concerning cat-
tle, etc., is also of a local character in the
State of California.

Oregon. — The laws of Oregon inter
diet the running at large of any stallion,
jack, or mule, over eighteen months old,
within the months of April, May, June,
July, September and October. If not
kept for breeding purposes, the animal
may be gelded. If kept for breeding
purposes, the distrainer may return him
to the owner, and recover $2. The
owner of such an animal is liable for dam-
ages. Animals affected with contagious
diseases must not be brought into the
State under a penalty of not less than $50
nor more than $500 for the introduction
of each animal so diseased.

PUBLIC LANDS, Manner of Acquiring
Title to. — The following directions for
acquiring title to the public lands are
communicated by the Commissioner of
the General Land Office :

There are two classes of public lands ;
the one class at $1 25 per acre, which is
designated as minimum, and the other at
$2 50 per acre, or double minimum.

Title may be acquired by purchase, at
public sale, or by ordinary " private
entry," and by virtue of the pre-emp-
tion and homestead laws.

i. At public sale, where lands are
" offered " at public auction to the highest
bidder, either pursuant to proclamation by
the President or public notice given in

484

LAW—EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

accordance with directions from the Gen-
eral Land Office.

2. By private entry or location. The
lands of this class liable to disposal are
those which have been offered at public
sale, and thereafter remain unsold, and
which have not been subsequently re-
served, or otherwise withdrawn from
market. In this class of offered and un-
reserved public lands the following steps
may be taken to acquire title :

Cash Purchases. — The applicant must
present a written application to the regis-
ter for the district in which the land de-
sired is situated, describing the tract he
wishes to purchase, giving its area.
Thereupon the register, if the tract is
vacant, will so certify to the receiver,
stating the price ; and the applicant must
then pay the amount of the purchase
money. The receiver will then issue to
the purchaser a duplicate receipt, and at
the close of the month the register and
receiver will make returns of the sale to
the General Land Office, from whence,
when the proceedings are found regular,
a patent, or complete title will be issued ;
and on surrender of the duplicate receipt
such patent will be delivered, at the op-
tion of the patentee, either by the Com-
missioner at Washington, or by the regis-
ter at the district land office.

Warrants, Location with. — Application
must be made as in cash cases, but must
be accompanied by a warrant duly assign-
ed as the consideration for the land; yet
where the tract is $2 50 per acre, the
party, in addition to the surrendered war-
rant, must pay in cash $1 25 per acre, as
the warrant is in satisfaction of only so
many acres at $1 25 per acre as are con-
tained in the tract located. A duplicate
certificate of location will then be furnish-
ed the party, to be held until the patent
is delivered, as in cases of cash sales.

Agricultural College Scrip. — This scrip
is applicable to lands not mineral, which
may be subject to private entry at $1 25
per acre, yet is restricted to a technical
" quarter section ; " that is, lands em-
braced by the quarter section lines indi-
cated on the official plats of survey, or it
may be located on a part of a " quarter
section," where such part is taken as in
full for a quarter ; but it cannot be ap-
plied to different subdivisions to make an
area equivalent to a quarter section. The

manner of proceeding to acquire title with
this class of paper is the same as in cash
and warrant cases, the fees to be paid
being the same as on warrants. The lo-
cation of this scrip is restricted to three
sections in each township of land.

Pre-emptions. — These may be made
under the general pre-emption laws, upon
" offered" and " unoffered" land ; and in
certain States and Territories west of the
Mississippi, including that part of Minne-
sota east of the river, may have legal in-
ception by actual settlement upon unsur-
veyed land, although in such cases no de-
finitive proceedings can be had as to the
completion of title until after the surveys:
are officially returned to the district
land office.

The act of March 3, 1853, extends the
pre-emption from one quarter, or one
hundred and sixty acres, at $2 50 per
acre, to every " alternate " United States
or reserved section along the line of rail-
roads.

The act of March 27, 1854, protects,
the right of settlers on sections along the
line of railroads where settlement existed
prior to withdrawal, and in such cases,
allows the tract to be taken by pre-emp-
tion at $1 25 per acre.

Where the tract is "offered" the party
must file with the district land office his.
declaratory statement as to the fact of his
settlement within thirty days from the
date of said settlement, and within one
year from that date must appear before
the register and receiver and make proof
of his actual residence on and cultivation
of the tract, and secure the same by pay-
ing cash, or by filing warrant duly assigned
to the pre-emptor.

Where the tract has been surveyed and
not offered at public sale, the claimant
must file within three months from date
of settlement, and make proof and pay-
ment before the day designated in the
President's proclamation for offering the
lands at public sale. Should the settler
in either of the aforesaid cases die before
establishing his claim within the period
limited by law, the title may be perfected
by the executor, administrator, or one of
the heirs, by making the requisite proof
of settlement and paying for the land;
the entry to be made in the name of " the
heirs" of the deceased settler, and the
patent will be issued accordingly..

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 485

In those States and Territories in which
settlements are authorized by law on un-
survcyed land, the claimant must file notice
of settlement within three months after the
receipt of the township plat of survey at
the district land office, and make proof
and payment as required in the case of
tracts which have been surveyed and not
offered at public sale.

Homestead Lands. — The original Home-
stead act of May 20, 1862, gives to every
citizen, and to those who have declared
their intention to become such, the right
to a homestead on surveyed lands. This
is conceded to the extent of one quarter
section, or one hundred and sixty acres,
held at $1 25 per acre, or eighty acres at
$2 50 per acre, in any organized district
embracing surveyed public lands. To
obtain homesteads the party must, in con-
nection with his application, make an affi-
davit before the register or receiver that
he is over the age of twenty-one, or the
head of a family ; that he is a citizen of
the United States, or has declared his in-
tention to become such, and that the entry
is made for his exclusive use and bene-
fit, and for actual settlement and cultiva-
tion. Where the applicant is prevented
by reason of bodily infirmity, distance, or
other good cause, from personal attend-
.ance at the district land office, the affi-
davit may be made before the clerk of
the court for the county within which the
party is an actual resident.

The Amendatory Act of March, 1864,
xelaxes the requirements of personal at-
tendance at the district office to persons
in the military or naval service, where the
party's family or some member is residing
on the land that it is desired to enter, and
upon which a bona fide improvement and
cultivation has been made. In such cases
the said act of 1864 allows the beneficiary
to make the affidavit before the officer
commanding in the branch of the service
in which he may be engaged, and the
same may be filed by the wife or other
representative of the absentee with the
register, together with the homestead ap-
plication. His claim in that case will
become effective from the date of filing,
provided the required fee and commis-
sions accompany the same; but imme-
<Iiately upon his discharge he must enter
upon the land and make it his bona fide

home, as required by the original act of
May 20, 1862.

Upon faithful observance of the law in
regard to settlement and cultivation for
the continuous term of five years, and at
the expiration of that time, or within two
years thereafter, upon proper proof to
the satisfaction of the land officers, and
the payment to the receiver, the register
will issue his certificate and make proper
return to the General Land Office as the
basis of a patent or complete title for the
homestead. In making final proof it is
indispensable, under the statute, that the
homestead party shall appear in person
at the district land office, and there make
the affidavit required of him by law in
support of his claim. Where, from
physical disability, distance, or other good
cause, the witnesses of said party cannot
attend in person at the district land office,
their testimony in support of the claim
may be taken where they reside before an
officer authorized by law to administer
oaths. Their testimony must state satis-
factorily the reason of inability to attend
the district office; and the credibility and
responsibility of witnesses must be certi-
fied by the officiating magistrate, whose
official character must be certified under
seal. Where a homestead settler dies
before the consummation of his claim, the
heirs may continue the settlement and
cultivation, and obtain a title upon
requisite proof at the proper time. Where
both parents die, leaving infant heirs, the
homestead may be sold for cash for the
benefit of such heirs, and the purchaser
will receive title from the United States.

The sale of a homestead claim by the
settler to another party before com-
pletion of title is not recognized by the
General Land Office, and not only vests
no title or equities in the purchaser, but
is prima facie evidence of abandonment,
and gives cause for the cancellation of
the claim. To the government only may
a claim be relinquished ; and in such case
the duplicate receipt of the settler should
be surrendered with the relinquishment
indorsed thereon; or if the duplicate
has been lost, that fact should be stated
in the relinquishment, duly signed and
acknowledged.

When application is made for cancel-
lation of a homestead entry on the
ground of abandonment, the party must

486

LAW— EVERY MAN HIS OWN LAWYER.

file his affidavit with the local land officers,
setting forth the facts upon which his
allegations are founded, describing the
tracts and giving the name of the settler.
Upon this the officers will set apart a day
for hearing, giving all the parties in in-
terest due notice of the time and place of
trial.

The expenses incident to such con-
test must be defrayed by the contestant,
and no entry of the land can be made
until the local officers have received
notice from the General Land Office of
the cancellation of the entry covering
the same. As the law allows but one
homestead privilege, a settler relinquish-
ing or- abandoning his claim, cannot
thereafter make a second entry. Where
an individual has made settlement on a
surveyed tract and filed his pre-emption
declaration therefor, he may change his
filing into a homestead, yet such a change
is inadmissible where an adverse right
has intervened, but in such cases the
settler has the privilege of perfecting his
title under the pre-emption laws. If the
homestead settler does not wish to
remain five years on his tract, the law
permits him to pay for it with cash war-
rants, upon making proof of settlement
and cultivation from the date of entry to
time of payment. There is another class
of homesteads, designated as "adjoining
farm homesteads." In these cases the
law allows an applicant, owning and
residing on an original farm, to enter
other land lying contiguous thereto,
which shall not, with such farm, exceed
in the agregate one hundred and sixty
acres. Thus, for example, a party own-
ing or occupying eighty acres may enter
eighty additional graded at $x 25, or
forty acres at $2 50. Or suppose the
applicant to own forty acres, then he may
enter one hundred and twenty acres
graded at $1 25, or forty at $1 25 and
forty at $2 50, if both classes of land
should be found contiguous to his original
farm. In entries of " adjoining farms "
the settler must describe, in his affidavit,
the tract he owns and is settled upon as his
original farm. Actual residence on the
tract entered as an adjoining farm is not
required, but bona fide improvement and
cultivation of it must be shown for the
period required by the statute.

Lands obtained under the homestead

laws are exempted from liability for debts
contracted prior to the issuing of patents.
therefor.

Pre-emptors, in all organized districts
where surveys have been made, can pay
for their tracts either in cash or with
warrants, except as to double minimum
or $2 50 lands, within the lateral limits of
railroad grants, it being required for the
double minimum tracts that the warrant
shall be taken as half the consideration,
and the residue be paid in money.

Homestead Entry Fees. — For home-
stead entries on surveyed lands in
Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri,
Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkan-
sas, and Florida, the total commisions
and fees to be paid on minimum lands
are as follows : On 160 acres, $18; on
80 acres, $9; on 40 acres, $7; on double
minimum lands, 80 acres, $18; 40 acres,
$9. On surveyed lands in California,
Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, New Mexico,
Washington, Arizona, Idaho, and Monta-
na, the commissions and fees are as
follows: On minimum lands, 160 acres,
$22; 80 acres $11; 40 acres, $8; on
double minimum lands, 80 acres, $22 ; 40
acres, $11. By the act of the 21st June,
1866, the public lands of Alabama, Mis-
sissippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Florida,
are subject to disposal under the pro-
visions of the homstead laws only.

SOLDIERS' and SAILORS' HOME-
STEADS.— Any loyal person in the naval
or military service of the United States
may acquire a homestead by reason of
his family occupying land and making
the application in his stead. All officers,
soldiers, and sailors who have served in
the army or navy for ninety days and
remained loyal, may enter one hundred
and sixty, instead of eighty acres of dou-
ble minimum lands.

By act of Congress, persons taking
government lands by homestead will be
allowed to deduct from the time required
to occupy the land, the term of service
in the army or navy during the rebellion
— provided, however, that no patent shall
be given until the land has been occupied
one year after his improvements, as afore-
said.

The following amendment was passed
by Congress, in 1873 :

Whereas, By act of Congress, entitled

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 487

" An act to enable honorably discharged
soldiers and sailors, their widows and or-
phan children, to acquire homesteads on
the public lands of the United States,"
approved April 4, 1872, and by the
amendment thereto, approved June 8,
1872, it is provided that said soldiers and
sailors, their widows and orphan children,
shall have the right to enter homesteads
of one hundred and sixty acres each, up-
on what are called and known as " dou-
ble minimum " lands, or lands within the
limits of railroad land grants ; and

Whereas, Many soldiers and sailors
had, prior to the passage of said act and
the amendments thereto, entered home-
steads within said limits, not exceeding
eighty acres each, and are unable, under
the terms of said act and amendment,
and the rulings of the General Land
Office, to avail themselves of the general
advantages of entering one hundred and
sixty acres of said "double minimum"
land; and

Whereas, Such discrimination against
the pioneer soldiers and sailors is unjust ;
therefore,

Be it Enacted, etc., That section two of
the act entitled " An act to amend an act
relating to soldiers' and sailors' home-
steads," approved June 8, 1872, be
amended so as to read as follows : That
any person entitled under the provisions
of the foregoing sections to enter a home-
stead, who may have heretofore entered

under the homestead laws a quantity of
land less than one hundred and sixty
acres, shall be permitted to enter so much
land as when added to the quantity pre-
viously entered, shall not exceed one
hundred and sixty acres.

LAW, Business. — Ignorance of the
law excuses no one. It is a fraud to
conceal a fraud. The law compels no
one to do impossibilities. An agreement
without consideration is void. Signatures
made with a lead pencil are good in law.
A receipt for money paid is not legally
conclusive. The acts of one partner
bind all the others. Contracts made on
Sunday cannot be enforced. A contract
made with a minor is void. A contract
made with a lunatic is void. Principals
are responsible for the acts of their agents.
Agents are responsible to their principals
for errors. Each individual in a partner-
ship is responsible for the whole amount
of the debts of the firm. A note given
by a minor is void. Notes bear interest
only when so stated. It is legally neces-
sary to say on a note "for value received."
A note drawn on Sunday is void. A note
obtained by fraud, or from a person in a.
state of intoxication, cannot be collected.
If a note be lost or stolen, it does not
release the maker; he must pay it. An
endorser of a note is exempt from liability
if not served with notice of its dishonor
within twenty-four hours of its non-pay-
ment.

Farm, Orchard, Dairy and Garden.

APPLE ORCHARD. — The following
directions, if carefully attended to, will
insure complete success in growing an
apple orchard.

The number of trees or acres embraced
in our plan for the apple orchard is not
a matter of so much importance as the
particular manner of preparation of the
soil, and the planting and cultivating of
the trees thereafter.

Observation demonstrates clearly the
fact that there is not one first-class apple
■orchard in the country. The result is
that universal disappointment prevails
among those who have engaged in grow-
ing the king of all fruit.

For illustration, our orchard shall con-
tain from ten to one hundred acres, as
circumstances shall determine. The se-
lection of the location will exert more or
less influence on the successful results
when profit is a primary consideration,
therefore we recommend the highest
ground in the particular locality, or the
TDank of the Missouri or Mississippi rivers.
The immediate border of any consider-
able lake will do equally as well.

The land must be broke not less than
twenty-four inches deep, which can be
done with a plow and sub-soil plow at a
moderate expense. When the sub-soil is
not sufficiently porous, the entire plat for
our orchard must be completely under-
drained with tile. The drains must be
so close to each other that the most com-
plete and thorough drainage will be in-
sured.

We recommend only the very best trees,
three years old, from the bud or graft.
Plant thirty-five feet apart, after the ground
has been put in the most complete culti-
vation ; set the trees as near the surface
as the circumstances will admit. If neces-
sary, stake each tree to hold it in an up-
right position. The uniform formation of
the head should be carefully observed, in
order to give symmetry and convenience

to the orchard. We recommend that the
lower limbs should not be nearer than six
feet from the ground. The lower branches
of the tree should be above the team with
which we cultivate the orchard.

If you plant only the most sound and
healthy trees, and the ground is prepared
as we have suggested, there will not be
one failure to live.

The trees must be washed with strong
soap suds, soft soap or weak alkali, from
the ground to the limbs, commencing with
the first of May, and the washing to be
repeated three or four times, at intervals
of one month apart. The washing and
scrubbing process must be continued year
after year, or as long as it exerts a healthy
influence on the tree. ,

The trees must be wrapped with straw,
commencing at the surface of the ground
and up into the first limbs. The wrap-
ping must be done in November, and the
straw can be removed after the hard frosts
are past in the spring.

We now come to pruning, which must
be done sparingly — in fact, exercise care
in pruning; as understood by many or-
chardists, we positively prohibit it. Trim
only enough to admit the light of the sun
and a free circulation of the atmosphere.

The ground can be cultivated in corn,
potatoes or vines for the first five years
after the trees are planted, without disad-
vantage. If in corn, we recommend, in-
deed insist, that it shall be hogged off.
The fertility of the soil must be maintained
and kept up equal to its virgin condition.
After the trees have attained a size when
it will be no longer profitable to cultivate
in corn, then red clover must take its
place. The clover will make pasturage
for hogs, whose presence are wanted in
the orchard, to assist in destroying the
curculio and other enemies of the insect
tribe which prey on the apple tree and its
fruit.

The orchard should be grounds fre-

(488)

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 489

quented by all the poultry that can be
maintained to advantage on the farm.
Our plan contemplates a warfare on all
the insects that are the destroyer of the
apple tree and its fruit.

The tree must be well mulched every
fall with tree leaves and sand. If tree
leaves cannot be had then use straw.
The mulching can be forked into the
.ground in the spring. The sand will add
much to the fertility of the soil by keep-
ing the ground in a pliable condition and
admit the action of the atmosphere.
Lime is essential to the perfect growth
and development of the tree. The fruit
will be much improved by the presence
of lime. The amount of lime to be used
will only be limited in proportion to the
benefits derived. The last and not least
in the list of our instructions which we
insist must be followed to the letter, is
the planting of a border of trees on the
four sides of the orchard for a protection
against the winds in both winter and
summer. The first line of defense shall
be a red cedar hedge. Outside of the
hedge there must be a border of trees
four rods wide. The Norway Spruce
and White Pine can be grown success-
fully, and to great profit. The border of
trees will afford fine protection both sum-
mer and winter for numerous insectivor-
ous birds, who will aid in the destruction
of the insects referred to. The ground
must be prepared as for the apple orchard,
which will insure an immense growth. If
all our instructions are followed, we shall
have apples enough the fifth year to pay
expenses. From this time the increase
will be rapid. By the time our trees are
planted ten years, there will be twenty
bushels to the tree. Twelve years planted,
and we will have thirty-five bushels to
the tree. In addition to large crops the
quality of the apples will be superior to
any grown on the imperfect management
of orchards throughout the country. Our
plan of an orchard contemplates a con-
siderable outlay at the commencement.
A careful examinatiou will demonstrate
that no better investment can be made.
The plan above can be limited to any
number of acres. No weeds or grass
must be permitted to grow in the orchard
except red clover.

APPLE TREES, Old, to Renovate.—
Take fresh made lime from the kiln,

slake it well with water and well-dress the
tree with a brush, and the insects and
moss will be completely destroyed, the
outer rind fall off, and a new, smooth,
clear, healthy one formed, and the trees
assume a most healthy appearance and
produce the finest fruit.

APPLE TEEES, Treatment of.— The
limbs of apple trees are recommended by
some to be brushed all over in the midst
of summer; but it is difficult to brush the
branches of trees when the fruit is upon
them. Instead of brushing the trees in
summer, as soon as the leaves have fallen
every tree should be carefully and freely
pruned ; this will open a passage to the
sun and air, and will contribute to health
in the future season. In addition to this,
says a correspondent of the Monthly
Magazine for 1820, I should recommend
brushing off the moss and cutting out the
cankered parts at any season that it is
convenient, and I further recommend the
tree to be anointed some feet from the
ground with a composition of sulphur and
goose oil, and, unless the orchard is
plowed, which is very much the case in
Shropshire and Herefordshire, the soil
should be opened at the roots.

APPLE TEEES, Blight, to Preserve
from. — Washing the branches with quick-
lime will preserve the trees from blight
and insure a crop ; those which escaped
washing will suffer from the blight, whilst
the others produce a good crop.

APPLE TREES, Disease, to Cure in.—
Brush off the white down, clear off the
red stain underneath it, and anoint the
places infected with a liquid mixture of
train oil and Scotch snuff.

Another Method. — Orchards are oc-
casionally much injured by an insect
appearing like a white efflorescence ;
when bruised between the fingers it
emits a blood-red fluid. Mix a quantity
of cow-dung with human urine to the
consistence of paint, and let the infected
trees be anointed with it about the begin-
ning of March.

APPLE TREES, Canker in, to Cure
the. — The only means of preventing the
canker worm, which destroys the young
fruit and endangers the life of the tree,
when discovered, and which in many
instances has proved to be effectual, was
encircling the tree, about knee high, with

49°

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

a streak of tar, early in the spring, and
occasionally adding a fresh coat.

In Other Trees. — Cut off to the quick,
and apply a piece of sound bark from
any other tree, and bind it on with a
flannel roller. Cut off the canker, and a
new shoot will grow strong, but in a year
or two you will find it cankered.

APPLE-TREE SUCKERS.— Many oth-
erwise good orchards are allowed to be-
come defaced, as well as seriously in-
jured, by allowing a profusion of suckers
to grow at the base of the trunks. At-
tempts are sometimes made to get rid of
them by cutting them off down to the
surface of the ground, and leaving con-
siderable portions below in the form of
short stumps. These sprout again, and
they soon become quite as bad as ever.
A better way is to wait until they are in
leaf, at which time they are loosened
more readily, and taking each separately
in the hands, place a thick boot upon it
near the tree, and they are quickly sepa-
rated. If done at that time they will not
be likely to sprout again.

ARTICHOKE, Jerusalem. — Boussin-
gault says, in his " Rural Economy : "
There are few plants more hardy and so
little nice about soil as the Jerusalem ar-
tichoke ; it succeeds everywhere, with the
single condition that the soil be not wet.
The tubers are planted exactly as pota-
toes, and nearly at the same time; but
this is a process that is performed but
rarely, inasmuch as the cultivation of the
helianthus is incessant, being carried on
for years in the same place, and after
harvest, in spite of every disposition to
take up all the tubers, enough constantly
escape detection to stock the land for the
following year, so that the surface ap-
pears literally covered with the young
plants on the return of spring, and it is
necessary to thin them by hoeing. The
impossibility of taking away the whole of
the tubers, and their power of resisting
the hardest frosts of winter, is an obstacle
almost insurmountable to the introduc-
tion of this plant, as one element of a
regular rotation. Experience more and
more confirms the propriety of setting
aside a patch of land for the growth of
this productive and very valuable root.
Of all the various plants that engage the
husbandman, the Jerusalem artichoke is
that which produces the most at the

least expense of manure and manual la-
bor. He then directs the reader's atten-
tion to an example where the artichoke
had been produced for thirty- three suc-
cessive years with success, while they had
received no care or manure for a long
time. Those who wish to try it must
plant it as early as the condition of the
soil will allow. The land after plowing is
marked out with furrows three feet apart,
and the small tubers are dropped about
eighteen inches apart, and covered three
inches deep. Go over the field in a
week or two with a light harrow to kill
weeds, and cultivate between the rows
until the plants get large enough to ren-
der it unnecessary. It grows very readily
in dry soil. Those who make trial of it
should take care that the plant does not
become established as a weed.

ASPARAGUS, Culture of.— Sow the
se?d early in spring, one inch deep, and
three or four inches apart, in rows one
foot apart. When two years old they
may be transplanted into permanent beds,
the plants placed a foot apart in each di-
rection, and at least four inches beneath
the surface.

To make it " giant," be particular to
select for the bed warm, rich soil. Trench
it at least eighteen inches deep, working
in six inches or more depth of well-rotted
manure. Every fall cover the bed with
manure, and in spring dig it in lightly,.
care being taken not to disturb the roots.

AROMATIC, Pot and Sweet Herbs,
Culture of. — The generality of aromatic,,
pot and sweet herbs may be raised from
seed sown early in spring. As only a
small quantity of these are necessary for
family use, they may occupy a corner by
themselves. They thrive best in a mel-
low, free soil; and care should be
exercised to harvest them at the
proper time. The greater part of the
following named herbs are perennial, and
will multiply from the seed they drop, or
from parting from the roots. The offsets,,
roots, or young plants thus raised should
be planted at suitable distances from each
other. The beds should be kept free
from weeds ; and, as the herbs come into
flower, cut them on a dry day and spread
them in a shady place to dry for use.
The best method for preserving them is
to rub them through a sieve when thor-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 49*

oughly dry, and pack them in tin boxes.
Put them in a dry place.

The following are some of the most
useful: Angelica, anise, balm (lemon),
basil (sweet), burnett, cardoon, coriander,
corn salad, comelina, dandelion, dill,
French sorel, pennyroyal, pot marigold,
rosemary, sage, saffron, summer savory.

ANNOTTO, Choice of.— Annotto should
be chosen of a good flame color, brighter
in the middle than on the outside. It
should feel soft and smooth, and have a
good consistence. It should possess a
strong smell.

ANTS in GREENHOUSES, To Destroy.
— Place some arsenic, mixed with sugar
and water, in a saucer, which cover with
a slate, leaving room for the insects to
pass between the slate and the saucer.
A stone ought to be set on the slate to
prevent any other creature but the ants
from getting access to the poison. Lime
water, poured into the nests, will also de-
stroy them.

BARLEY, To Cultivate.— Our climate
is not as favorable for barley as for oats
and wheat. We cannot obtain a good
crop unless the soil is dry, clean and rich.
It seldom does well on a recently inverted
sod. Its best place in the rotation is
after a highly manured and thoroughly
cultivated corn crop. The best crops
are obtained on a rather heavy calcareous
loam, provided it has been thoroughly
pulverized during the preceding summer
and autumn. But as this is seldom the
case, the soils that usually give the best
medium crops are those of a lighter and
warmer character — or sandy loams.

Barley should either be sown very
early, or rather late — say the moment the
ground is fit to work in the spring, or not
until after the heavy spring rains are
over. Much depends on the season. If
there has been heavy rains soon after the
barley is sown, and then before the
plants cover the ground, dry weather sets
in, the surface of the soil becomes baked,
and the crop suffers. An early sown
crop would suffer less, because it would
have got a good start before the drouth
set in. A crop sown immediately after
the spring rains, as soon as the land is in
condition to work, commences to grow
rapidly at the very first, and often does
better than a crop that is sown two weeks
earlier — but not as well as a crop sown a

month earlier. If the soil is rich and has
been plowed the fall previous, sow as.
early as it will work without clogging.

When barley is grown to sell, the six-
rowed, or what is usually the four-rowed
(though there is no such thing as a four-
rowed barley,) is the most profitable — be-
cause it brings from ten to fifteen cents a
bushel more than the two-rowed. But
when barley is grown to feed out on the
farm, the two-rowed is altogether the
best— especially on strong, rich land. It
weighs a great deal more per bushel, and
if the soil is rich enough, it will yield
more per acre. It has another advantage
— that of being later than the four-rowed,
which ripens at the same time as wheat,
and we have wheat and barley harvest on
us at once. With the two-rowed, we can
get through with the wheat by the time
the barley is ready.

It is usual to sow from two to two and
a half bushels per acre. If the land is.
very rich and it is sown early and drilled
in, less seed is required. The yield varies
more than that of any other crop, de-
pending somewhat on the season, but
much more on the condition and previous
culture of the soil.

BARLEY, To Harvest.— When the
straw is long enough, the best way to
harvest barley is to bind it up the same
as wheat. It requires to be cut just at
the right time. If cut too early, the
grain shrivels up, and if it is allowed to>
stand a few days too long, it "crinkles
down," and the heads drop off in reaping
and are lost. We know of no better test
than to squeeze the grain between the
thumb and finger, and if ihere is the least
appearance of milk, the crop should be
allowed to stand longer. The real diffi-
culty, however, is in the uneven ripe-
ness of the crop. Some portions will be
dead ripe, while others are still green,
and it requires considerable experience
and a sound judgment to decide whether
we shall lose most by cutting before it is
all ripe, or by letting a portion of it get
so ripe that there is danger of the head*
falling off. Much depends on the weath-
er. In this, as in many other farming
operations, we must calculate our chances
— and not be discouraged if we sometimes
miss the mark. When barley is clean
and the weather favorable, there is per-
haps no better — certainly no cheaper —

492

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

way of curing it than to allow it to re-
main in the gavels as thrown from the
platform of the reaper. They may be
turned or stirred to facilitate the drying,
but otherwise may remain as left by the
reaper until ready to draw in. By mov-
ing one or two swaths to make room for
the team, two men with barley forks can
pick up the gavels oi three or four swaths
■on each side of the wagon, and place
them on the load. In this way scarcely
any of the barley will be scattered on the
land.

But if there are weeds or grass in the
barley, or the weather is threatening, it
will be necessary to turn the gavels, and
towards night put them into small cocks,
which will have to be turned or opened
the next day and recocked in the evening
again, if not sufficiently cured to draw in.
It should be borne in mind that barley is
very frequently stained in the stack or
the mow, from being drawn in too soon,
or with the dew on it. Barley should be
either thrashed as drawn from the field,
or not until it has done " sweating " in
the stack or mow. If the former, it will
be necessary to watch the grain in the
bin and turn it occasionally, or it will
heat and become discolored. The rakings
should be kept separate, as the grain is
frequently stained, and if mixed with the
rest may reduce the price of the whole
several cents* per bushel.

BEANS, to Cultivate.— These grow best
in warm, rich, mellow soil. The bush
beans are planted in drills, about two
inches apart in the row. The drills may
be from one foot to eighteen inches apart.
When the plants are three or four inches
high, the earth should be drawn up to the
stems, and just before they begin to blos-
som they should be again earthed up with
loose, mellow soil. They require to be
frequently hoed while growing, that the
ground may be loose and free from all
weeds.

Pole or running beans are planted in
hills, two or three feet apart, five or six
beans to the hill, and covered about a
couple of inches deep. It is of no use to
plant until the soil has become warm.
These beans need the support of a pole
■or rod, thrust deep enough into the
ground to sustain the weight of the vines,
usually about eighteen inches, and stand-
ing eight or nine feet high. Three healthy

plants will be enough to grow in each
hiU.

BEANS, LIMA. — The principal point
in the successful culture of the Lima bean
is to get the seed well started. The best
way of doing this is to plant in a hill of
light earth, made so by sifting the soil, if
it can be had in no other way. A shovel-
ful of well-rotted manure should go into
each hill. Then mix sand and muck, and
after placing each seed bean with the
germ downward in the hill, sift the cover-
ing over it through a willow sieve. Corn-
planting time is the right time to plant
Lima beans. The after-cultivation is the
same as for the common pole bean.

BEAN, CASTOR-OIL.— The best land
for the growth of the castor-oil bean is a
light, sandy, loam soil, with a substratum
of clay. First, break up the ground well,
as for corn, and then lay off the rows six
feet apart. Between every seventh row
leave an interval of six feet, to admit the
passage of a horse and slide when the
beans are being gathered, as hereafter
explained. Before planting, put the seed
in very warm (not boiling) water, and let
them soak all night. Drop six or seven
seed in each hill, the hills six feet apart
each way. Thin out to two plants after
the plants have got too large for the cut-
worm, which is sometimes quite destruc-
tive. At this stage, if the plants are vigor-
ous and healthy, reduce to one plant,
leaving two only where the plants look
delicate. Keep the crop clean, first with
the plow, then with the cultivator, and
now and then drawing a little dirt around
with the hoe. When the plants are some
two feet high no more work need be done,
unless, after a long spell of rain, you may
loosen the earth with your cultivator.
After the ripening of the beans, which
will be in July or August, take your horse,
and slide along the rows left for that pur-
pose, and with a pair of shears clip off the
pod-bearing spikes as soon as the pods
begin to turn of a brown or chocolate
color. They must be promptly cut, at
this stage, or the beans will pop from the
pod and be lost.

Have ready a shed with a plank floor,
or a piece of ground, well cleaned, beaten
and rolled like an old-time threshing
floor, twenty or thirty feet square, well
exposed to the sun, on which throw your
spikes, and turn them over occasionally

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 493

until all the beans drop out. Then scrape
away the husks, gather the beans, and go
into the field for a new supply, as they
will continue to bear and mature until
frost. Do not allow the beans, when dry-
ing, to get wet. Hence an open shed is
best. It you have no shed, when the
weather is threatening, rake into a heap,
and cover with a tarpaulin or boards.
They should be well fanned and win-
nowed of chaff before being sacked for
market. From 15 to 25 bushels per acre
is the average yield.

BLACKBERRY. — For the cultivated
blackberry the soil should be rich, dry
and mellow. Barn-yard manure and
bone-dust are its best fertilizers ; it is a
good plan to mix them with half-rotten
straw, or some such thing. They should
be planted three feet apart in the rows,
and the rows should be six feet asunder.

BLIGHT IN FRUIT TREES, to Cure.
—A smothering straw fire should be made
early in October, in calm weather, under
each tree, and kept up during an hour or
more. This done, scrape the moss and
other impurities from the trunk, and from
every obscure hole and corner; set your
ladders to the branches, carefully cleaning
them in the same way, taking from the
remaining leaves every web or nidus of
insects. If need be, wash the trunk and
all the larger wood, with a solution of
lime and dung. Last of all, it is neces-
sary to destroy the insects and eggs
which may be dropped upon the ground,
and it may be useful to loosen the soil in
the circumference. In the spring or early
blighting season, apply your ladders, make
a careful survey of every branch, and act
accordingly ; repeat this monthly, picking
off all blights by hand, and using the
water-engine, where ablution may be ne-
cessary. To those who have fruit, or the
market profit thereof, every orchard or
garden, little or great, will repay such
trouble and expense.

BUTTER, Hints on Making.— A lady
who thinks that much that is written about
butter-making is by " men," and not by
experienced butter - makers, gives a few
hints. For the improvement of winter
butter, she very sensibly begins with the
cow, and advises feeding on Indian meal.
She says : " My rule in winter is to let the
milk stand on a table in a cellar for 24

hours ; set it on the stove until the cream
wrinkles (do not let it get too hot), then
let it stand another 24 hours, and skim.
Use a skimming-ladle with holes, in order
to have as little milk as possible with the
cream. Stir the cream every day ; and
the day before churning put the pot near
the stove, to allow the cream to warm and
get sour. Some have the mistaken idea
that cream should not get sour, but it
makes butter, better and more of it. Stir
the cream well, as much depends upon
that. If a clear, yellow skin forms on the-
cream it will make the butter strong ; it is
as bad as mold, or worse. In summer
throw a handful of salt into your cream-pot
when you first set it ; it will keep the
cream sweet longer. Be sure to ventilate
the cellar or milk-room. It is a mistake
to churn sweet and sour cream together,
as it makes the butter streaked. Do not
work the butter too long ; it will become -
oily; but have a fine cloth, squeezed out
of cold water, to take up the buttermilk
with."

CABBAGE PLAITCS, Caterpillar in.—
A butterfly has lately made its appearance
in the neighborhood of New York and
Long Island which is new to the gardens,
there, the caterpillar of which has already
done very great damage. As a remedy,
salt has been found more effectual than
either tobacco, cresylic acid, soap or
guano; and that by laying pieces of
board between the rows of cabbages,
supporting them about two inches above
the surface of the ground, the worms:
will resort to them to undergo their
transformations and can then be easily
destroyed. The saponaceous compounds
of cresylic acid are also recommended;
but Mr. P. T. Quinn, of New Jersey,
gives the following as his experience in
combating this insect. On his return
from California last summer he found his
cabbages infested with worms, which
threatened total destruction. After try-
ing various remedies, he found this re-
cipe to be the best: 20 parts of super-
phosphate made with slush acid, 1 part
of carbolic powder, and three parts of
air-slacked lime, mixed well together, and
thoroughly dusted into each head four
times at intervals of four days. The re-
sult was the saving of seventy-five thou-
sand cabbages and a loss of only five per
cent.

494

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

3X7TTEE MAKING.— Why is it that
when superior butter brings twice the
price of poor, there is so much that is
■decidedly unfit to eat ? The art of mak-
ing a good article has long been known,
in all civilized countries, by thousands of
people, still there is probably in no coun-
try a supply of the best for a tenth of the
population. Some one recently asked in
the New York Farmers' Club, why plain
directions for making good butter could
not be published with a prospect for their
general adoption. A veteran member re-
plied, with something of human philoso-
phy in the remark, that human nature was
so perverse that few would follow any but
the peculiar method early taught and long
practiced. In many a city market a buyer
of good taste may test the stock of a dozen
stalls before finding one that offers a satis-
factory sample ; yet while the buyer hon-
estly and properly says, " it is naught,"
the seller, perhaps, with equal honesty,
declares it is " all right," either because it
was made in his own family, or suits his
own taste, perverted with a thousand
samples of poor or medium quality. So
many a dairy -woman, proud of her
achievements, sends her produce to mar-
ket with first-rate expectations, and re-
ceives in return a third-rate price. Yet,
while it may naturally differ, a really good
roll or tub of solid, fragrant, sweet, golden
Gutter will always find an appreciating
purchaser, and obtain a good price.

How can there be general improve-
ment, approximation to perfection in
quality, and avoidance of soap-grease,
bearing the misnomer, "cooking butter ?"

Hoping to lead to a practical solution
of this problem, while despairing of offer-
ing anything actually new on the subject,
we propose to give a few of the methods
by which the most noted and acceptable
butter of the country is made. It will be
seen that methods vary, and that the but-
ter is made in many different ways, and
yet it will be observed that there are cer-
tain principles which rule in all, and that
there is really less difference than appears ;
and these very differences prove the pos-
sibility of general improvement and com-
parative uniformity by attention to essen-
tials.

To find the first of these essentials, it is
necessary to go back to the pasture, and
secure sweet and nutritious grasses, as

milk and butter of the finest quality can
not be produced upon weeds, sour grasses,
or distilled slops. Then the cows, se-
lected for hereditary excellence, as elab-
orators of superior milk, should be gently
treated, carefully and rapidly milked by
the same person at regular intervals. The
milk and cream must be kept at an even
and comparatively low temperature, in a
perfectly clean place, free from odors of
every description; and the utensils and
vessels must be kept scrupulously clean,
scalded thoroughly after use to prevent
the development of cryptogamic germs ;
if in winter, milk and cream must not re-
main at so low a temperature, or be kept
so long as to become bitter. Then the
butter, after churning, must be kept at a
reduced temperature, worked thoroughly
without much pressure, in such a manner
as to exhaust the buttermilk or added
water, but not so as to break down the
grain of the butter and render it greasy.
Notwithstanding the fact that a very good
article has been made by working with
the hands, it is an uncleanly practice, not
so well adapted to rapid and complete
expulsion of buttermilk as approved me-
chanical appliances.

A study of the peculiarities of the
modes of making the most popular
brands of butter, will reveal how fully
the best practice agrees in the above es-
sentials. We first describe the method
adopted in making the

Butter, New York Factory. — In the
New York butter factories, the milk-rooms
are constructed with a view to thorough
ventilation, and are provided with water
tanks sunk in the earth, and arranged for
a depth of eighteen inches of water.
There should be a constant flow of water
through the vats to secure a uniform tem-
perature, which should not be below 480,
nor higher than 560. As soon as the
milk is delivered it is set in tin pails eight
inches in diameter and twenty inches deep,
the milk standing at a depth of seventeen
inches in the pail. Milk cooled in this
way throws up its cream rapidly, and the
uniform temperature of the cream has a
favorable effect on the churning. Good
milk thus treated will keep sweet for
thirty-six hours, even in the hottest
weather, and as much cream may be ob-
tained as from milk in shallow pans.
The cream will nearly all rise in twenty-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 495

four hours, and should be taken off be-
fore the milk sours. The butter makers
of Orange County prefer the old-fashioned
dash churn, and add cold water in sum-
mer and warm in winter, at the rate of
.sixteen to thirty quarts of water to fifty
quarts of cream. Thus the temperate of
the cream in summer, when the churning
is commenced, is brought to about 6o°,
and in winter to about 6$Q. It is pre-
ferred that forty-five to sixty minutes be
employed churning. The butter, after
being taken from the churn, is thoroughly
washed in cold spring water, and after
salting and working is allowed to stand
a certain length of time, for instance,
from morning till evening, when it is
carefully packed in strong hooped and
perfectly tight oak tubs, and strong brine
is poured in to fill intervening spaces.

BUTTER, The Philadelphia. — The
description of the manufacture of the
famous and costly "Philadelphia print"
was given in detail in the Report of 1867.
Great care, uniformity and system charac-
terize all its processes. The milking is
done quietly and rapidly, the same milk-
maid always attending to the same cows.
The spring-house is usually of stone, on a
.side-hill, the floor covered with running
water, and therefore always cool and free
from odors. Deep tin pans, painted on
the outside, with bails for handling, are
filled to the depth of three inches, placed
on an oak floor, and surrounded with
cool, clear water of a temperature of 58°.
The cream is taken off in twenty-four
hours, kept in deep vessels holding
twelve gallons, and stirred whenever a
new skimming is added. A barrel churn
is used, the churning lasting an hour,
when a little cold milk is added to cause
the butter to gather. The buttermilk
drawn off, ice-cold water is twice added,
.a few turns given to the churn each time,
.and the last water is scarcely colored
with milk. A gentle rocking motion of
the churn soon collects the butter, which
is left two hours to drain off the remain-
ing water through a small hole made for
the purpose. The butter is worked by a
corrugated wooden roller, revolving on a
;shaft supported over the center of the
table, which also revolves under the
roller. Bevelled blocks at each end of
the roller force the butter from the ends
toward the center, so that the rolls are

broken each time in fresh places. The
roller does not quite touch the table, and
there is no crushing of the particles, but
a separation of the mass with a slight
pressure which permits water and butter-
milk to flow away. A cloth which has
been wrung dry in cold spring water is
repeatedly pressed upon the butter until
not a particle of moisture is seen upon it
as it comes from the roller, and the butter
begins to adhere to the cloth. This is
called "wiping" the butter. An ounce of
salt to three pounds of butter is then
thoroughly worked in by the aid of the
same machine. Thus the processes are all
conducted without any manipulation of
the butter but the human hand. It is
finally weighed out and put up in pound
prints. One hundred pounds are churned
in one hour and prepared for the market
in another, and deposited in tin trays and
set in water to harden. The next morn-
ing it is wrapped in damp cloths, each
pound by itself, put in a tin case upon
wooden shelves, with two compartments
of pounded ice to keep it cool, and sur-
rounded by a thoroughly made cedar tub,
it is sent to market and sold (often) at a
dollar a pound.

BUTTEE, Vermont.— The Green Moun-
tains have been famous for good butter,
and the best dairymen of that region
keep their milk in cool, well-ventilated
cellars in summer, and in a sweet, clean
milk-room at other seasons. The tempera-
ture desired is about 6o°, and when it is
reduced to 500 they scald the milk, and
thus prevent bitterness, labor in churning,
and loss of color. The milk is strained
as soon as it is drawn, and skimmed be-
fore it becomes thick, generally in twenty-
four hours when the temperature is up to
6o°, but much longer in proportion as it
is colder. Many prefer to stir the cream
every twelve hours, and sprinkle over the
top with fine salt. When the butter has
" come," the buttermilk is drawn off and
cold water or ice water turned in, and
the butter thoroughly worked till rid of
buttermilk j and if it is then "crumbly or
spongy" the water is worked out by
hand, very carefully, to prevent injuring
the grain and rendering it greasy. David
Goodall, in the St. Johnsbury limes, thus
describes the mode of packing :

While the butter is warm, and as soon
as salted, put it into the tub and pound

496

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

it down solid ; and, if it does not fill the
tub, cover it with a cloth, and put on it a
pint of brine. Fill the tub within one
inch of the top; cut a cloth one inch
larger than the butter and spread it on
the top of it; than cut another cloth,
one inch larger than the last, and fit it on
the top, spreading evenly and turning up
each edge on the inside of the staves ;
but it must not hang over, as it would
draw brine out. Cut a bar of sweet wood,
two inches by half an inch, and fit it on
the butter; bore through the stave into
each end of the bar, and put in a wooden
pin tight to keep the bar in place ; fill the
tub with fine salt, and fill again with
brine, and keep it full. Some put in one-
fourth inch of fine salt at the bottom of
the tub and cover with a cloth. I think
the cloth without the salt sufficient.

BUTTER, New York. — A correspondent
of the New York Farmers' Club, writing
from Adrian, Michigan, makes the follow-
ing suggestions :

Set your milk where the wind will not
blow on it, for the wind dries the cream,
and dried cream will not make butter.
In warm weather keep your cream still,
for if you want your cream to be sour,
stir it often. Very sour cream will not
produce a good quality of butter. In
cool or cold weather, don t think that you
must let your milk set until it is sour be-
fore you take off the cream. Forty-eight
hours is sufficient length of time for milk
to produce all the cream it is capable of
producing. In a right temperature it will
rise in a less time. Much poor butter is
the result of bad management of the
cream. It is a good plan in warm weath-
er to save strippings, about a quart, night
and morning, from each cow, and churn
every day. Churn your cream as cool as
possible in warm weather. Much butter
is spoiled by churning the cream too
warm. If your butter comes rather warm,
put in twice the salt you usually do, work
your butter just enough to mix the salt
well through it, and set it away in a cool
place for twenty-four hours, then take it
up and work it over. Much of this salt
will dissolve and work out. Thoroughly
cleanse your butter with salt. Use no
cold water about your butter, for you
cannot cleanse butter or any other lump
of grease with water. Some women talk
as though butter was not fit to eat unless

it is first washed with cold water. If
butter is not fit to eat without being
washed with water, it is not by being
washed. Water always damages butter.
Butter that is washed with water is not
fit to pack, for it will not keep. When
the brine which oozes from your butter,.
as you work it, is clear, that is, clear from
milk, it is worked enough; don't give it
another stroke, except to get it into shape.
Pack your butter in perfectly clean ves-
sels, and keep it well covered with
strong brine. When you use your butter,
set it on the table just as you cut it out of
the tub, for it is injured if" worked after it
has been packed. If all butter was made.
after this plan we would see but little that
is poor.

At one of the meetings of the club of
Union County (New York) Agricultural
Society, Mr. H. W. Garret, whose dairy
product is represented as of excellent
quality, gave in substance the following
directions : Everything pertaining to the
entire work of butter making should be
kept scrupulously clean. Forty hours is
the average period of time for a pan of
milk to remain prior to skimming. It is
necessary for the milk to sour before the
entire cream can be obtained. If the
atmosphere is such that the cream be-
comes rancid, immediately skim. Skim-
ming at the proper time is absolutely
necessary. The milk room should be
kept at 6iQ. Twice a day stir the cream
in the jars; let those jars stand in the
coldest place in summer. When churning
is necessary, let the cream be at 62 °.
Use a dash churn, which is superior to
any other. When the globules are about
breaking, reduce the temperature to 6o°.
Do not wash the butter. Work it as
little as possible; too much working
makes it salvy, and washing destroys the
flavor.

BUTTER, Western Mode. — Western
butter has not heretofore enjoyed a high
reputation. It is possible that rank grasses
and noxious plants may have been an
element of this disrepute; impure water
in some places may have had an influ-
ence; but the main cause has been a
lack either of care or skill in the butter
maker. It is rapidly improving, and
while it commands a price less than that
paid for New York butter, a considerable
quantity is forwarded to the Eastern sea-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 497

board, and some of it is of really superior
character. It is probable that individual
dairies may be found which produce an
article unsurpassed by the best Orange
County or Philadelphia products; yet
these must be few compared with the
aggregate number of Western dairies.
The intelligence, skill, and care evinced
by many butter makers of the prairies
will prove a leaven that may be expected
to work wonders in the general improve-
ment of the butter of that great section.
The following directions for butter mak-
ing, by Mrs. M. A. Deane, of Farina,
Illinois, recently received a prize from the
Messrs. Blanchard, churn makers, at
Concord, New Hampshire, as a model
exposition of the subject and of general
application :

Management of the Milk. — The advant-
age gained during the hot season by the
rapid and complete cooling of milk as
soon as it comes from the cow can hardly
be over-estimated, as recent experiments
show that the milk thus cooled will keep
sweet much longer and yield its cream
more readily and more abundantly ; and
as all experience has proved that the
quantity of" butter made depends greatly
upon keeping the milk in such a state as
to secure all the cream, a saving of labor
is effected by this process, as the milk,
when cooled to the required temperature
(6o°), may be set in deeper vessels, thus
diminishing greatly the number of vessels
required, and, consequently, the labor of
cleansing them.

In a large dairy the washing and scald-
ing of the shallow pans so much in use
is always a laborious and tedious process.
There are many methods, more or less
simple, tor cooling milk. Patents have
been granted for various plans, and many
enterprising dairymen are testing ingeni-
ous devices of their own with excellent
success. If it is not convenient to pro-
cure a cooler, the milk may be cooled by
setting some large pails into a trough or
box partly filled with very cold water,
and pouring the milk into these pails as
fast as it is drawn from the cows, allow-
ing it to stand until of the required tem-
perature— if necessary, renewing the
water.

The pails used in milking should be of
tin, never of wood. It is very difficult,
almost impossible, to cleanse wooden

32

pails so perfectly that they will not impart
some degree of acidity to the milk,
though it may be an insensible degree.
Owing to this fact, some factories make
it an absolute requisition that only tin
pails shall be used by those who furnisb,
them with milk.

The Dairy Room. — Much of the success
of butter making depends upon the fitness-
of the place or room where the dairy is
kept, and upon its condition as to clean-
liness and freedom from taints and odors
of every description. If a cellar is used,
it should be a dry one, and perfectly
clean to the remotest corners, having no
hidden remnants of decayed vegetables
or fruit, or anything which could possibly
offend the most delicate olfactories. If a
room in the dwelling-house is used, or a
milk-house built separately, which is per-
haps better, it should not be situated near
a hog-pen, stable, or anything ot the
kind, nor should anything likely to impart
its odor to the milk, as smoked ham,
codfish, onions, or even potatoes, be
allowed a place in the room. Nothing
will receive a taint more easily than milk
or cream ; and all bad odors absorbed by
the milk are certain to be concentrated in
the butter, they not having the accommo-
dating disposition to run off with the
buttermilk. We have known butter to
be spoiled in consequence of the milk
standing in the room with a smoky
furnace, and it is sometimes sensibly
affected by the smoke of burnt grease and
other unpleasant smells from the cook
room. So if a milk-room communicates
with a kitchen the door should be kept
closed.

Temperature. — The milk, whether in a
cellar or in a room above ground, should
be kept cool in the summer, never being
allowed to reach a temperature above"
6o°, though it may fall below that without:
detriment. Milk should be set upon,
racks, rather than shelves, so that the air'
may circulate freely under it as well as;
over and around it. Racks are made in
various ways j the most convenient that
we know of is constructed as follows:
Take a 6 by 6 pine post, of a length
suited to the height of the room, place it
upright upon a pivot so that it will re-
volve, and nail slats of half-inch stuff to
each side of the post, at such intervals as
will give room for the pans or other

49s

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

vessels used. Two such slats, nailed to
opposite sides of the post, will support
two pans of milk, one on each side of the
post. The rotary arrangement enables
one to stand in the same place to skim a
whole rack-full of milk. If pans are
used, the seamless ones are best, but
deeper ones, either of tin or earthenware,
are perhaps preferable, provided the milk
is cooled before being set.

Washing the Utensils. — The greatest
care is requisite in cleansing these vessels,
of whatever material or form, as also of
all the other utensils employed in butter
making. This is a matter of much greater
importance than many suppose, as the
smallest neglect in regard to it is sure to
tell upon the cream and butter. The
pans and pails should be washed thor-
oughly, in two waters, each time being
made as clean as possible with the water
used; they should then be scalded thor-
oughly with boiling water. It is not
sufficient that the water should be tolera-
bly hot — that it should steam in the
kettle, or anything of the sort; it must
" dance as well as sing." The churn,
butter-bowl, and ladle, or butter-worker,
if one is used, should be washed and
.scalded with equal care, and all should
.be carefully wiped and dried, unless some
arrangement is made for drying in the
sun, which will do very well for tin and
earthenware, and save the labor of
wiping. In summer it will be necessary
to see that all utensils are cooled perfectly
before using them.

Skimming. — The milk should be skim-
med as soon as all the cream has risen,
and before the milk has thickened. The
i exact time required for the cream to rise
will, of course, depend upon the tempera-
ture; but a little experience will enable
-one to tell. At the time the cream should
"(be removed it will have a bright, healthy
appearance, a rich, yellow, uniform color,
and such an adherency of particles as
will enable one, sometimes, to remove the
entire cream at one dip of the skimmer.
If allowed to stand too long without
skimming, both the quantity and quality
of the cream will be seriously affected.
The surface will become discolored,
blotched, and knobby, while underneath,
the cream is rapidly yielding to the cor-
rosive tendency of the acid in the milk.
'The thickest cream may be as surely

destroyed by standing on the milk as
would be the firmest fabric in a bath of
sulphuric acid. When thus destroyed,
the cream is replaced by a thin, watery
substance, having no resemblance to
cream or milk. These facts, which may
be easily verified, show how essential it is
that the cream should be taken off before
the milk has acquired any great degree
of acidity. Yet in order to make the
largest quantity of butter care must be
taken not to remove the cream too soon.
Many neat, thrifty housewives make a
practice of " skimming up " all the milk
at stated intervals, so as to be through
with the job. This is, of course, very
pleasant, but it involves considerable loss,
as they do not get the full cream from
the newest milk. The milk should all be.
skimmed at the same age, provided it
has had the same conditions as regards
femperature, etc. It follows, then, that
some milk should be skimmed every
night and morning.

Winter Treatment. — It will be found
that in winter milk and cream require
somewhat different management. The
effort must now be to keep the milk warm
enough rather than to keep it cool ; and
a failure in this respect will very materi-
ally affect the quality of the butter. It
the milk is very much too cold, it will
have to stand so long for the cream to
rise that it will become bitter often long
before it becomes sour, and the quality of
bitterness will be still more apparent in
the butter. To prevent this, the milk
should be kept at a temperature of 6o°
if possible; if not, the milk may be
scalded as soon as strained, and the
cream will then have a fair start before
the milk has parted with this extra heat,
unless the place where it is kept is very
cold. If scalding is not found sufficient,
two or three spoonfuls of sour milk
(which has soured quickly and is not
bitter) may be added to each pan of milk
when it is set away. This will help to
sour the milk and cause the cream to rise
quicker, thus making it less liable to
become bitter. It may also help to pre-
vent bitterness to salt the cows often,
and see that they do not eat decayed
vegetables or any substances which may
impart a bad taste to the milk.

The cream should be kept at about the
same temperature (6o°), and should be

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 499

well stirred as often as new is added. It
should not be kept too long before churn-
ing, never more than a week — four or
five days is better.

Churning. — The cream should be
churned at a temperature of 620 or 63 °.
A great deal of experience may enable
one to guess at this temperature with
tolerable cleverness, but it is better to use
a thermometer and be sure. This tem-
perature will be increased during the
process of churning to 68° or thereabouts,
when the butter will come. If it should
be hard and granular, refusing to come
together well, throw in a litde warm
water, churning all the while, and the
butter will soon be gathered and ready to
take up.

Sweet cream should never be mixed
with sour cream just before churning, as
sweet cream is much longer coming, and
hence likely to lose itself in the butter-
milk. To salt the cows once a week is
generally believed to facilitate the pro-
cess of churning. In case they have not
been thus salted, some put a little salt
into the cream before churning; but we
think that in most instances where butter
is very long coming, it is owing to the
temperature of the cream. It may be so
cold as to require churning all day to
bring the butter; a tax upon one's pa-
tience and strength, if performed by hand,
equal to the cost of a dozen thermome-
ters.

Coloring. — As a rule, it is absolutely es-
sential in the winter to color butter, in
order to make it marketable, or at all at-
tractive as an article of table use at home.
There may be a possible exception to this
rule in cases where cows are fed largely
upon yellow corn meal, pumpkins, carrots,
etc., but this does not lessen the impor-
tance of the rule. Of the various sub-
tances used in coloring butter, we think
that carrots (of the deep yellow variety)
give the most natural color and the most
agreeable flavor. Annotto, however, is
principally used, and with most satisfac
tory results. Some of the most celebrated
butter makers in the country color their
butter with pure annotto, giving it a rich,
deep orange color. They do not aim to
produce the color which is natural to a
summer butter, but one considerably
richer; coloring it both summer and
winter. If carrots are used, they should

be grated, the juice expressed through a
thin cloth, and put into the cream just
before churning. A small quantity of
annotto, dissolved in warm water or milk,
may be used in the same way, and with
similar results; but a richer tint is pro-
duced with annotto by coloring the butter
directly. To prepare the annotto for this
purpose, steep it in butter for some hours
over a slow fire, then strain through
a fine cloth into a jar and keep in a cool
place. When ready to work the butter,
melt a small quantity of this mixture and
work it in carefully. A small proportion
of turmeric is sometimes mixed with an-
notto and prepared in the same way.
With this method of coloring an inexperi-
enced hand is in danger of working the
butter too much, in the effort to produce
the same shade of color through the en-
tire mass, which is, indeed, a difficult
attainment for a novice. Coloring in the
cream obviates this difficulty entirely, the
butter being a uniform color when taken
from the churn.

Salting and Working. — While salt is
not to be undervalued as a preserving
agent, it must be remembered that too
much of it destroys or overpowers the fine
flavor and delicate aroma of the best but-
ter. Be careful to preserve all the sweet-
ness of the fresh butter, salting just enough
to remove its insipidity. It is important
to use the best salt. "Ashton's factory
filled " has great fame, and is extensively
used. But any one can test the purity of
salt, and perhaps other brands of Liver-
pool salt may be found equal to Ashton's.
Pure salt is perfectly white and destitute
of odor, if will dissolve in cold water
without leaving any sediment or throwing
any scum to the surface, and the brine
will be as clear as pure water and entirely
free from any bitter taste. Prof. Johnson
says, in the American Agricultural An-
nualy 1868, that the " Onondaga factory
filled must take rank second to none,
provided the ingenious processes of Dr.
Goessman, which were employed in
Syracuse a few years since, are still in
use." The buttermilk should be nearly
all worked out and the butter well washed
before salting. Washing may abstract
somewhat from the flavor of the butter,
but it is, nevertheless, a necessity if the
butter is expected to keep long, as it com-
pletely removes the cream and caseine of

5°o

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

the buttermilk, a part of which might
otherwise remain in the butter. Butter
should stand but a short time after salt-
ing before it is worked enough to remove
nearly all the water, when it may be re-
salted, if necessary ; there should be suf-
ficient salt left in the butter at this time to
make a strong brine of the little water
that remains. It may then stand until the
next day, when it should be worked and
packed. On no account should butter be
allowed to stand long before working, as
it is apt to become streaked, often so
much so as to necessitate working over,
in order to restore a uniform color. Be-
sides, if neglected too long at this period,
a tendency to rancidity will be developed.
We realize the difficulty of giving explicit
directions for the second and last work-
ing of the butter — its final preparation for
packing. If not worked enough, every
one knows that the butter will soon spoil ;
if worked too much, it is spoiled already ;
though the danger of its being overworked
is less. A great deal of judgment and
discretion and somewhat of experience are
requisite in order to determine when it is
worked just enough ; the virtue of stop-
ping in this, as in many other cases, being
second only to that of doing. There are
some suggestions, however, which may
prove valuable, particularly to those
having little experience, ist. The butter
should not be too warm when worked,
nor should it be so cold as to make
working difficult. Immerse the ladle for
a few minutes in boiling water, and cool
perfectly in cold water ; then, if the but-
ter in the bowl is warm enough to admit
of putting the ladle through the whole
mass without difficulty, and dividing it up
without crumbling, and still hard enough
to cut clean and smooth, not the slightest
particle adhering to the ladle, then it is
in the right condition to work. 2d. It
should be worked with careful and gentle,
yet telling, pressure, and not by a series
of indiscriminate stirrings and mashings
and grindings against the sides of the
bowl. The butter is composed of minute
globules, which are crushed by this care-
less handling, thus rendering the butter
greasy and sticky, whereas it should re-
tain its clean, solid individuality up to the
time of packing, always working clear
from the bowl, and never sticking in the
least to the ladle. 3d. The butter should

not be worked until it is perfectly dry.
When ready to pack it should have a
slight moisture about it — a sort of insen-
sible remains of the clear brine which has
been working off, and at the last, enough, soi
that when a trier is thrust into it a drop
or two of brine will ooze out around it*
and the trier itself be slightly wet, as if by
a slight dew. Overworking destroys all
the beautiful consistency of the butter;,
makes it dry and sticky ; greasy in sum-
mer, and tallowy in winter; gives it a dull
appearance, and a tendency to become
rancid. Altogether overworked butter is
very disagreeable, if not positively bad.

Packing and Marketing. — Butter should
be packed solid, leaving no interstices of
air, and should completely fill the firkin,
tub, or pail, as the case may be, leaving a
flat surface. It is common to put a cloth
over the top, and a layer of salt on the
cloth. Some think it better to wet the
salt, making a brine. The cover should
then fit tightly, leaving no room for air
between it and the butter. Some butter,,
also, goes into market in the form of rolls,
some pine-apples, and other fancy forms
for the table, etc. Every person should
be guided by circumstances in his choice
of styles for putting up butter, always
being careful to give it a neat and attract-
ive appearance. If living at a distance
from market, and the dealers at his mar-
ket place buy for New York, he should
pack in firkins or tubs, so that the butter
can be safely kept through the season,
and the whole lot disposed of at once in
the fall. If at a convenient distance from
New York, fresh tubs or pails may be sent
in at intervals all through the season, or
the whole kept through, as he chooses;
or, if in the vicinity of any city, good
chances offer in the way of supplying
hotels, restaurants, etc., the butter should
be put in a style to suit the customers.
Some, who are hundreds of miles away,
make shipments of butter to New York
on their own account, instead of selling to
buyers at home, in which case, if their but-
ter is really superior, they will not be long
in making a reputation, and will soon be
able to secure a high price. Some few
have a stamp of their own, and labor as-
siduously to establish a value for it, as a
trade- mark. It is said that the best but-
ter-maker in the vicinity of Philadelphia
(who never sells for less than a dollar per

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 501

pound), uses a stamp inherited from his
father, and that " not a pound of inferior
Gutter ever went to market with that stamp
upon it." If you would attain to a goodly
fame, then, as a butter-maker, and reap a
rich reward for your pains, attend care-
fully to the minutest details in making,
and never sell any but good butter, put
up in neat packages; never allow your
" trade-mark " to lose its value.

BUTTER, Winter.— There is much
poor, pale, ill-flavored butter made in win-
ter. There is also some produced of a
.fair average quality, only coming short of
the fresh butter from the fragrant grasses
of June. The difficulty lies partly in the
winter food, and partly in the temperature
•of the milk. Willard says it should never
be colder than 55°, and at churning the
cream should be brought to 6oQ or 620.
If allowed to go above 65° the color and
flavor are injured. It is liable to become
bitter before the cream rises if the tem-
perature is too low ; and if it freezes the
cream rises at once, but of poor quality,
yielding white butter ; if kept in a room
heated by day and cold at night it will
not rise well, and is apt to be bitter and
acid. It is not easy to secure a tempera-
ture sufficiently uniform. Some scald the
milk when first drawn from the cow. A
■common English mode is to let it stand
twelve hours, and then place the vessel
containing it in a larger one, filled with
boiling water, letting it stand twelve
hours longer. Before churning, the cream-
pot is placed before the fire, and its con-
tents stirred occasionally to secure equal
warmth, until a temperature of 550 is at-
tained.

The Philadelphia dairymen find no dif-
ficulty in making good butter all winter.
One, who obtains one dollar per pound,
keeps the temperature of his milk-pantry
at as near 550 as practicable. Butter
comes harder as cows advance in gesta-
tion, and he likes to have fall cows so as
to mix their milk with that of cows com-
ing in in the spring. He finds clover hay,
cut and moistened, sprinkled with meal
.and wheat shorts, the best food for mak-
ing choree butter. As the food given
makes a great difference in the flavor of
the butter, it is important that no weeds
be mixed with the hay. He thinks clover
inferior to timothy or any other grass, and
he does not feed cabbages or turnips on

account of the flavor. Cows differ greatly
in their qualities as butter-makers, and in
selecting he finds it necessary to reject
many animals that would be valuable in a
milk or cheese dairy.

BUTTER, Working ol— The universal
testimony of good butter-makers estab-
lishes the fact that the least working of
butter consistent with the expulsion of
buttermilk, and the thorough incorpora-
tion of salt, are the requisites for superior
quality. It is notorious that a large pro-
portion of the market supply is over-
worked, the grain injured, leaving the
mass greasy rather than granular. Butter
of the finest possible quality is often re-
duced to an inferior grade by excessive
manipulation. There are several kinds of
butter-workers ; one much in use in the
best Orange county dairies, is described
by Mr. Willard as a slab four feet long
and twenty-five inches wide at the broad-
est part, tapering down to four or five
inches at the lower end, where an open-
ing allows the escape of the buttermilk,
and a slat into which a long wooden lever
fits loosely allows its free movement over
the entire surface of the slab. It has bev-
eled sides, the lever is either square or
eight-sided, the butter is placed upon the
slab and worked by pressing the lever
down upon the successive portions of it
till the whole is worked. It is not pa-
tented and may be easily made, the size
varied to suit the convenience of different
dairies. It is rinsed with cold water until
the water runs off clear. It is then churn-
ed to gather it together, the water pressed
out when it is salted. The next day it is
worked over and packed like other but-
ter.

BUTTER, Rancid, to Restore.— To im-
prove manufactured butter work it thor-
oughly with fresh cold milk, and then to
wash it in clear water ; and it is said that
even old and rancid butter may be ren-
dered palatable by washing it in water to
which a few drops of a solution of chloride
of lime have been added.

BUTTER, Improved Coloring for.— An
improved coloring matter for butter —
carotine — has been successfully employed
by Dr. Quesneville as a substitute for
annotto, to which it is in every respect
superior, although somewhat more ex-
pensive. This carotine is the representa-
tive in carrot of alizarine in madder, and

502

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

is obtained by slicing, drying, and grind-
ing the roots to a powder, exhausting the
powder with sulphide of carbon, and hav-
ing removed the solvent, rapidly crystal-
lizing out of the carotine from the ex-
tract.

BUTTER, to Preserve Fresh.— Melt it
in a well-glazed earthen pan, set in a
water-bath at a heat not exceeding 1800
Fahrenheit, and keep it heated, skimming
it from time to time, until it becomes
quite transparent ; then pour off the clean
portion into another vessel, and cool it as
quickly as possible, by placing the vessel
in very cold water or ice. This is the
method employed by the Tartars who
supply the Constantinople market. In
this state it may be preserved perfectly
fresh for six or nine months, if kept in a
close vessel and a cool place.

CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWER,

Culture of. — The cabbage can be culti-
vated by the most simple and easy means.
It grows in most soils, and produces its
beneficial heads nine months in the year.
The ground must be rich, or made so by
a good coat of manure, as they have
strong, tapering roots. Digging or plow-
ing deep is very essential. For early use,
sow in hot-beds in February or March ;
and for winter, the seeds may be sown
in open ground in May or June. When
five or six inches high, transplant to from
twelve to thirty inches apart. Almost any
manure, except hog manure, will answer
for cabbages, as barn manure, rotten kelp,
well diluted liquid manure, night soil,
guano, phosphates, wood ashes, fish, salt,
glue-waste, hen manure, ail properly com-
posted, or slaughter-house offal, and the
richer they are in ammonia the better.

In New England the largest cultivators
for market, drop the seed directly where
the plants are to stand, instead of the old
mode of transplanting from a hot-bed.
Time is thus saved, risks incidental to
transplanting are avoided, and all the
plants in the field start alike. Half a
dozen seeds are scattered in each hill, so
that the cut-worm has to depredate se-
verely before he really injures the field.
As the plants grow, the feeble ones can
be thinned out, and where the seeds in an
adjoining hill have failed to vegetate, the
deficiency can be supplied by the super-
fluous healthy plants. Four to six ounces

of seed thus placed in hills are sufficient
for an acre.
CABBAGE PLANTS, To Preserve from

the Fly. — Make the seed-bed on a plat-
form or scaffold raised on posts about
five feet from the ground. The jumps of
the insect are limited to a certain height,
and the plants are thus placed beyond
their reach.

CABBAGE PLANTS, Enemies of, to
Destroy. — Sprinkling wood ashes and air-
slaked lime upon the young plants, while
the leaves are damp with rain or dew, is
an efficacious remedy for destroying the
voracious fly, beetle and flea that attack
them as soon as they have broken through
the soil, as well as for most other insects.
Until the plants have a stump as large as
a pipe-stem they are subject to the rav-
ages of the cut-worm, for which there
seems to be no better remedy than
sprinkling liberally wood ashes or air-
slaked lime close about the stems of the
plants. As this pest disappears about
the middle of June, cabbages that are
planted late suffer but little from it.

CABBAGE PLANTS, Clubfoot in.—
Bainbridge Bishop, of New Russia, New
York, states that he has found, by long
experience, that clubfoot in cabbage can
be remedied by boiling leaves and twigs
of the scarlet-berried alderberry to a
strong decoction, and pouring a gill, cold,
on the center of the plant One appli-
cation is generally sufficient. On heavy
soil it may be necessary to loosen the
earth about the stem of each plant. As
a preventive, water the plants once or
twice with the decoction after setting out.
The application has also a good manurial
effect.

CARROTS, To Cultivate.— Select a good,
rich clover sod, deep loamy soil, or
even gravelly, well drained; spread on
evenly fifteen to twenty ox-cart loads of
good manure to the acre. In the spring,
after the ground is well settled and dry,
with settled warm weather, plow the
ground thoroughly, eight inches deep,
or more, depending upon its previous
management. In plowing, it ought not
to be plowed more than an inch deeper
than before, unless the deeper soil has
been ameliorated and is richer than the
upper soil. A soil having a close, stiff
subsoil, unless thoroughly subsoiled, will
grow poor crops of roots generally. After

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 503;

plowing, harrow so as to make the soil
perfectly fine, and even this is essential
to the ready drilling and germinating of
the seed; now drill in the seed, putting
the drills two feet apart. The seed
should be fresh and of the previous year's
growth. It is best to commence the cul-
ture as soon as the rows can be distin-
guished. Have a cultivator of light
frame, with eight teeth, similar to the
coulter of a plow, only narrower, and
about ten inches long, and a shovel for
the front. With this and a horse go
through, cutting the soil deep close to
the rows without covering the plants;
this will save the greatest part of the
work usually done with the hoe, and do
it much better. When the carrots are
well growing and about the size of the
small end of a clay pipe stem, take a
narrow hoe and cut them into hills,
thinning them to four or five inches apart.
The after culture is performed with the
cultivator, going through once in about
two weeks. If any weeds come in the
rows, pull them out by hand — but it is
not probable that weeds will trouble if
the soil be selected as above, and well
prepared before planting, and the culture
as directed. To harvest, it is best to
take a sharp hoe with a short handle
and clip off the tops close to the crown,
gather them, and then plow around the
plat a deep furrow, as close to the roots
as you can go ; now take them by hand
and draw them out, and throw four or
more of the rows into one. Carrots
should be taken out when the ground is
dry, and lie a few hours to dry, and then
be hauled to the root cellar to be stored,
and if in tight bins and covered with
sand they will keep better. They should
be left in the ground to ripen as long
as safe without freezing, as they im-
prove till freezing weather, and keep
fresher than if gathered before fully ma-
tured; be careful not to let them re-
main too long to get frosted, for a light
freeze injures the carrot more than other
roots.

CAULIFLOWER, Culture of. — See
Cabbage.

CELERY, Culture of— The seed should
be sown in hot beds in March, or in
the open ground the last of April or
the first of May ; but when sown in the
open ground it vegetates very slowly,

often remaining in the ground several
weeks before it comes up. A bushel or
two of stable manure put in a hole in
the ground, against a wall or any fence
facing south, and covered with a rich
fine mould three or four inches deep,
will bring the seed up much sooner.
Sufficient plants for any family may be
started in a large flower-pot or two,
placed in a sitting-room, giving them
plenty of air and moisture. As soon as"
the young plants are about three inches
high, prepare a small bed in the open
ground, and make it rich and the earth
fine. Here set out the plants for a tem-
porary growth, placing them four inches
apart. This should be done carefully;
and they should be gently watered once,
and protected for a day or two against
the sun. Make the trenches a foot or
fifteen inches deep and a foot wider
and not less than five feet apart. At
the bottom of the trench put some good,,
rich, but well-digested, compost manure ;
for if too fresh the celery will be rank
and pipy, or hollow, and will not keep-
nearly as long or well. Dig this manure
in well, making the earth fine and light;
then take up the plants from the tempo-
rary bed, and set them out carefully in
the bottom of the trenches, six or eight
inches aoart.

CELLARS, To Keep from Freezing. —
The following experiment was tried by
a gentleman with the cellar of an out-
house, in which on several occasions;
vegetables have frozen, though the cel-
lar was fortified against frost by a pro-
cess known to farmers as " banking."
The walls and the ceiling were pasted
over with four or five thicknesses of
newspapers, a curtain made of the same
material being also pasted over the win-
dow at the top of the cellar. The pa-
pers were pasted to the bare joist over
head, leaving an air space between thenx
and the floor. The result was that no
frost entered the cellar, though the cellar
was left unbanked. We do not counsel
the special use of old newspapers for this
purpose. It is just as well, or better, to
use coarse brown paper. Whatever paper
is employed, it will be necessary to sweep
down the walls thoroughly, and to use a
very strong size to hold the paper to the
stones. It is not necessary to press the
paper down into all the depressions of

506

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

els of dry white sand upon the roof of the
stack before the thatch is put on. The
sand is no detriment to the corn, and
stacks thus dressed have remained with-
out injury. So very effective is the
remedy, that nests of dead young mice
have been found where the sand has been
used, but not a live mouse could be seen.

GOBS', Broom. — Broom corn should be
planted at the same time Indian corn is
planted. It requires a richer soil than
Indian corn — at least Indian corn will
produce a better crop on a less fertile soil
than is required for broom corn in conse-
quence of its growing faster, and feeling
the effects of fertilizers more perceptibly.
Bottom lands on the banks of rivers that
are annually overflowed in early spring
are particularly adapted to the growth of
broom corn. It is sowed in drills, about
three feet apart, and the corn thinned out
to stand from four to six inches apart.
Any good upland soil that consists of a
rich mould, easily tilled, will produce an
excellent crop of broom corn, with the aid
of barn-yard manure or other fertilizers.
It requires careful cultivation, by running
the cultivator between the rows as soon
as the corn is well up ; and then the rows
require hand-weeding and thinning out to
the proper distances. Boys and girls can
do this work better than men can, and at
one-third the expense that it would cost
to employ men to do it. No weeds
should be permitted to grow, as the value
of the crop depends on the cleanness of
cultivation.

The seed is valuable for fowls, and for
every kind of live stock when ground,
and some cultivators think that the seed
alone is worth the cost of cultivation.

COTTON, Cultivation of. — To raise
a bale of five hundred pounds of seed
cotton per acre, on common cotton land,
requires at least 500 bushels of good
compost manure per acre, or its equiva-
lent in superphosphate or guano, and
very careful of cultivation.

The planter's first care, after having
provided the food for his cotton, is to
bring his rows as nearly as possible to a
horizontal. The manure is spread uni-
formly over the field, and, with a good
plow, the rows are bedded out deep and
thoroughly, intimately incorporating the
fertilizer with the soil, and at the same
time securing perfect pulverization. The

rows are laid four feet apart, and the seed
planted thirty inches apart in the row,
giving 4,368 plants to the acre. A good
stand being secured, the after culture
consists of light plowing, and almost con-
stant shallow stirring, hoeing and care.

Botation of Crops — A good rotation
where cotton is the leading crop, is first
year, cotton; second year, corn; third
year wheat, rye or oats; fourth year
grass — applying the fertilizer mainly to
the cotton.

COTTON, Planting. — A planter near
Columbus, Mississippi, experimenting on
one acre, set his cotton plants three and
a half feet apart each way, thinning to
two stalks in the hill, and cultivating in
the same manner as with corn. The
yield was more than double that grown
in the old way, and in respect to the ma-
turing of the bolls, advantage was found
in the readier access of the sun.

CTICUMBEB, Culture of.— In the open
air is of the simplest character. Merely
dig out a hole about a foot wide and deep ;
fill it with rich sandy soil ; raise it above
the surface about six inches. The
hills should be six feet apart each
way. If the weather be warm, they
will grow in a few days. *If the
nights are cold, protect them. There is
frequently a little bug which preys upon
the tender leaves ; if so, soot and wood
ashes, sprinkled over them while wet with
the dew, will retard the progress of the
depredator. To have young fruit in
February and March is rather a nice
operation; but any one who can com-
mand a few loads of warm horse manure
can have them from April to October.
That the amateur cultivator may have
the articles either for family use or for
sale, a few hints may be in place on
forcing cucumbers. Prepare a frame,
following the instructions laid down in
another part of this work for hot-beds.
After the beds are in order, put in a good
quantity of good, light, rich loam — none
better than the surface of the woods. In
two or three days the earth will be
sufficiently warm for sowing the seeds. If
the plants are to be removed into other
frames, sow them in pots; if not to be
removed, sow them in a hill made in the
center of the bed by placing a barrowful
of soil in it. Cover the sash at night
with straw mats, or any similar protec-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 507

tion, and surround the bed with litter or
boards to protect it from the piercing
winds. The seeds vegetate quickly, and
soon grow into strong plants. During
their growth, admit air every day at the
back of the frame, giving as much light
as possible to the young plants.

CRANBERRY, Culture of.— In prepar-
ing a plantation the surface must first be
cleared of the wood, timber, or brush ;
then it must be "turfed" — that is, the sur-
face-soil and roots must be taken off with
a hoe made for that purpose. The next
step is to ditch it, by clearing out the main
water-course and digging side drains run-
ning into it — generally in deep bottom-
lands, about one and a half or two rods
apart, but the distance should be varied
in accordance to the nature of the ground.
The floats removed in turfing are used for
leveling up low places where needed, so
that the surface may be slightly rounded
between the side drains; they are also
used for building the dam, which is con-
structed with two walls of floats filled in
with sand, a ditch having first been cut
between them to the sand beneath ; the
solid filling makes it water-tight.

After turfing and ditching, muck bot-
toms must be sanded from the depth of
from four to six inches with pure sand,
without mixture of clay or loam, and it
should be taken from a sufficient depth
below the surface to avoid seeds. The
silex imparted to the vine from the sand
stiffens it, materially promotes its pro-
ductiveness, and tends also to prevent the
growth of weeds. Many experiments
have been made to ascertain the proper
depths to which the sand should be ap-
plied ; where little or none is used the
vines grow long and slender, and do not
fruit so well as when sanded. While
some have thought two inches sufficient,
others have tried a thickness of twelve or
more, and with good results — though
with this amount the vines make a slower
growth, on account of the length of
time for the rootlets to reach the peat
beneath, from which they draw
their support. Most cultivators have
concluded that from four to six inches,
and resanding every few years with a
layer of from one to two inches, is prefera-
ble to using a much larger quantity at first.

After sanding, the vines are set in rows
about twenty inches apart, and but a

moderate quantity of vine should be used
for each hill. This is the usual method,
though the distance is often varied each
way. A gentleman, one of the original
cultivators, from recent experiments has
concluded that the vines should not be
set over a foot apart, and that the addi-
tional cost of the vines, etc., will be more
than paid for by earlier and larger
crops, as well as by the matting of
the vines, in much less than the
usual time, which keeps down the
other vegetation, and saves labor and
expense in cleaning. Another has suc-
cessfully adopted the method of layering
the vines, or placing them in furrows in
the sand, with which they are entirely
covered to the depth of about one and a
half inches. Vines grow finely by this
method, but great care must be taken, to
keep them moist. Wild vines have
generally been preferred to cultivated ones
for setting, from the fact that they appear
to grow more vigorously at first, especially
if the season is a very dry one.

Savanna-land can be plowed, and does
not need sanding ; this is a great saving
of expense, but as large crops cannot be
expected as from bottom-lands. Where
possible on land of this kind, the turf
not needed for the dam should be plowed
or dug under the sand, as it is often the
richest part of the soil, and is well adapted
to the growth of the plant.

Plantations should be well flowed from
December until May. The water fertil-
izes the vines, protects them from frost,
and is the only reliable remedy known
for the vine-worm, which is one of our
worst enemies. It is thought that the
water where held on the vines until the
10th or 15th of May, destroys the eggs
deposited on the leaves the previous year;
hence the advantage not only of late
but of thorough flowing, as the portions-
not flowed often constitute a hatching-
ground for the worms, from which they
spread to the adjoining grounds, though
it has been noticed that they apparently
prefer not to go much beyond the
water-line if they can find sufficient vines
that have not been flowed.

GOOSEBERRY BUSHES, Mildew on.—
A weak solution of saleratus, pretty
strongly tinctured with alum, sprinkled
over gooseberry bushes, is sure to prevent
mildew.

:5°3

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

GARDEN SPIDERS, To Destroy.—

Various kinds of fruits and plants, both
in the garden and the hot-house are
frequently infested with insects, such as
aphides, earwigs, red spiders and other
pests. The vine, the peach, the melon,
the cherry, the currant, and some hum-
bler plants, afford them appropriate
places of abode, to the discomfort of the
gardener and the detriment of his fruit.
Several modes of expelling these pests
have been devised. One of the most
successful is the frequent washing of the
plants and fruit trees by means of the
watering-pot and rose. This itself will
vastly diminish the numbers, and at
length destroy them. Lime-water, how-
ever, will be found much superior to the
common water for the purpose, care being
taken that the fluid shall reach the lower
sides of the leaves, and those parts of
twigs and branches in which the insects
take refuge. Six o'clock in the morning
is an excellent time to perform the work.
And when the leaves and fruit have been
thoroughly washed care should be taken
to completely shade the plants in the
hot-house or forcing-house with matting,
to prevent injury to them from the heat
of the sun while they are in a wet, cool
state. The washing may be repeated
about three o'clock in the afternoon.

GARLIC. — The common garlic is pro-
pagated usually by the offsets known
technically as " cloves " — that is the old
bulbs are pulled apart, and the small
•divisions planted in spring. They are
usually set in rows eighteen inches apart,
and the sets four to six inches in the rows;
plant with a dibble, or by thrusting them
into the soil with the forefinger and
thumb. Give them the same culture as
•onions, gathering in autumn, and tie in
bundles, the tops being left on for this
purpose. The young bulbs will throw up
long stalks, and it not checked are very
likely to run to seed, which must be pre-
vented by breaking down the stems, or
tying them in a knot, which is the prac-
tice of European gardeners. Garlics are
mainly used by foreigners, especially the
Germans, and by our people for medical
purposes.

GRAFTING WAX.— i. Take i lb. of
tallow, 3 lbs. of beeswax, and 4 lbs. of
resin ; put in*<) a kettle and melt slowly
until ail the ingredients are combined.

If to be used in the open air in cool
weather, add a ^ to j^ lb. more tallow.
Melt the resin first, and be sure it is well
melted before adding the wax and tallow.
If this be not done, the grafting wax will
be full of lumps. When melted pour
it into cold water, and work it by hand
into rolls of convenient size. In cold
weather, soften the wax by putting it into
warm water before using. When the
scions are set — say as many as 20 or 30,
or few as is wished — have the mixture ready
and apply it warm, with a small wooden
paddle. See that every part is covered
and the air completely excluded. It
requires no bandage.
. GRAFTING WAX, Liquid. — Mr.
L'Homme-Lefort invented, not many
years ago, a grafting composition, which,
when generally known, will no doubt
supersede all others now in use, either for
grafting purposes or for covering the
wounds of trees. It is very cheap, very
easily prepared, and keeps corked up in
a bottle with a tolerable wide mouth, at
least six months unaltered. It is laid on
in as thin a coat as possible, by means of
a flat piece of wood. Within a few days
it will be as hard as a stone. In addition
to all the advantages indicated above, it
is not in the least affected by the severe
cold of our winters; it never softens or
cracks when exposed to atmospheric ac-
tion or changes. There is no better pre-
paration for covering the wounds of trees.
As long as the inventor kept it a secret it
sold at a very high price, and even now
it is generally unknown. The recipe is as
follows : Melt 1 lb. of common resin over
a gentle fire. Add to it 1 oz. of beef
tallow, and stir it well. Take it from the
fire, let it cool down a little, and then
mix with it a tablespoonful of spirits of
turpentine, and after that about 7 oz. of
very strong alcohol (95 per cent.) to be
had at any druggist's store. The alcohol
cools it down so rapidly that it will be
necessary to put it once more on the fire,
stirring it constantly. Still the utmost
care must be exercised to prevent the
alcohol from getting inflamed. To avoid
it, the best way is to remove the vessel
from the fire, when the lumps that may
have been formed commence melting
again. This must be continued till the
whole is a homogeneous mass similar to
honey.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 509,

CUTTINGS, to Choose. — The choice of
cuttings should be made from the side
shoots of trees and plants, and, when pos-
sible, from such as incline toward the
ground, observing to leave a little wood
of a former year or season's growth at-
tached to them, as such are found to take
root more readily than when they are
wholly composed of new wood. The
time to take cuttings is as soon as the sap
gets into full motion. Before setting them
they should be cut across, just below an
eye or joint, with as smooth a section as
possible, observing not to injure the bud.
The superfluous leaves may be removed,
but a sufficient number should be left on
for the purposes of vegetation. The com-
mon practice of removing all or nearly all
the leaves of cuttings is injudicious. In
some cases leaves alone will strike root.
When cuttings are set in pots they should
be placed so as to reach to the bottom
and touch the sides throughout their whole
length, when they will seldom fail to be-
come rooted plants. In the case of tubu-
lar stalked plants, it is said to be advan-
tageous to insert both ends into the soil,
each of which will take root, and may
then be divided, when two plants will be
produced instead of one. An equable
temperature, a moist atmosphere, a shady
situation, and a moderate supply of water,
are the principal requisites to induce
speedy rooting. Excess of any of these is
prejudicial. When the size of the cuttings
admit, it is better to place them under a
hand or bell-glass, which will preserve a
constant degree of heat, and prevent evap-
oration from the surface of the leaves,
which is the most common cause of their
dying, especially in hot, dry weather.

CUTTINGS, to Manage. — No cutting
requires to be planted deep, though the
larger ought to be inserted deeper than
such as are small. In the case of ever-
greens, the leaves should be kept from
touching the soil, otherwise they will damp
or rot off; and in the case of tubular
stalked plants, which are in general not
very easily struck, owing to the water
lodging in the tube, and rotting the cut-
ting, both ends may be advantageously
inserted in the soil, and, besides a greater
certainty of success, two plants will be
produced. Too much light, air, water,
heat, or cold, are alike injurious. To
guard against these extremes in tender

sorts, the means hitherto devised is that of
inclosing an atmosphere over the cuttings,
by means of a hand or bell glass, accord-
ing to their delicacy. This preserves a
uniform stillness and moisture of atmos-
phere. Immersing the pot in earth has a
tendency to preserve a steady, uniform
degree of moisture at the roots; and
shading or planting the cuttings, if in the
open air in a shady situation, prevents the
bad effects of excess of light. The only
method of regulating the heat is by double
or single coverings of glass or mats, or
both. A hand-glass placed over a bell-
glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a
very constant degree of heat.

What the degree of heat ought to be is
decided by the degree of heat requisite for
the mother plant. Most species of the
erica, dahlia and geranium strike better
when supplied with rather more heat than
is requsite for the growth of these plants
in green-houses. The myrtle tribe and
camelias require rather less; and in gen-
eral a lesser portion of heat, and of every-
thing else proper for plants, in their rooted
and growing state, is the safest.

CUTTINGS, to Protect. — A method
practiced in Florida to strike cuttings in
well-drained lands, and to preserve young
seedlings from insects, is as follows : A
square hole is dug in the earth from three
to five inches in depth, with almost per-
pendicular sides, the ground at the bottom
well stirred up, or the bottom earth taken
out and good earth put in. The cuttings,
or seeds are then planted, the hole is cov-
ered with a single piece of glass, and loose
earth is scraped around the edges of the
glass to render it insect-proof. It then
forms a miniature hot-bed and shelter
until the young plants are old enough to
resist the attacks of insect enemies, when
the glass can be removed and the earth
drawn around the roots. In wet, cold
situations the holes could be made on the
summit of little mounds.

DRAINING. — A cheap mode of drain-
ing is, instead of digging the ditch alto-
gether with a spade, to use the plow,,
taking land 15 or 20 feet wide, and leav-
ing the dead furrow where the drain is to
be. By plowing several times the dead
furrow may be sunk nearly two feet, and
from the bottom of this trench, the width
and depth of the space, may be thrown
out, and a drain made of 3 fence boards

5™

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDE N.

(4 inches wide will be sufficient) in the
shape of the letter V, may then be put
into this branch, and the plowing re-
versed till the ground is made level. This
method has a double advantage — 1. It is
a cheaper method than to dig the full
depth by hand, and the wood is cheaper
than tile. 2. By turning up and thus
loosening the subsoil to that depth on each
side of the drain, the water would find its
way into the drain more readily than if
only a narrow ditch had been dug from
the surface down, leaving the sides un-
moved and almost impervious to water.

DOCKS, to Eradicate. — Cut them off
close to the ground when the tops are
fully out, but the seed not fully formed,
and they are done for. The stalk dies in
the ground; but you must cut them so
close to the ground that you leave no
leaves on the stalk, else they will not die.
The end of June is generally about the
best time to cut them ; but it depends on
the season. In the pasture-fields they are
soon cut with a scythe. In wheat and
meadows they have to be cut with a knife.

FGG-PLANT, Culture. — Sow in hot-
bed very early in the spring ; transplant
when two inches high, into a second hot-
bed ; if that is not done, thin to four inches
apart. Do not plant out till the weather
becomes settled and warm. Keep the
plants watered for a few days if hot when
put out. Where hot-beds are not con-
venient, a few plants can be started in
flower-pots or boxes, and when planted
out must have a deep, rich soil, and full
exposure to the sun.

ELM TREES, Ulcers, U Cure in.— The
remedy consists in boring every tree at-
tacked by the disease, at the ulcer itself;
and in applying a tube to the hole occa-
sioned by the borer, penetrating about
nine lines in depth. The sound trees,
which are also bored, afford no liquor,
whereas those that are ulcerated afford it in
great abundance, increasing particularly
in fine weather, and when the wound is
exposed to the south. Stormy weather
and great winds stop the effusion. In this
manner the ulcers dry and heal in forty-
eight hours.

FIGS, Drying.— The editor of the Rural
Alabamiati, who has had some experience
in the drying of figs, says that there is no
more difficulty in putting a first-rate article
of dried figs into the market from the

Gulf States than from Smyrna. The tli.-
ficulty has been that the right varieties
have not been cultivated. The common
large yellow fig of the South is not well
adapted for drying, being too juicy, too
hollow, and too open at the eye, and it is
very liable to injury from damp or rainy
weather at the time of its maturity. He
recommends the Brunswick, Large White,
Genoa, Smyrna and Figue d'Or varieties
for drying.

FIG, Culture. — On warm, dry, rich,
sandy soils here the fig grows with as much
freedom as in the Gulf States, and on ac-
count of our exemption from late spring
frosts, the first crop is more certain than
in Georgia or Tennessee. One is aston-
ished to see their luxuriant foliage, which
is remarkably free from curled or yellow
leaves, a fact doubtless due to the uni-
formity of heat, light and moisture of our
climate. One peculiarity of the fig is that
its fruit-buds start simultaneously with the
leaf-buds, which can be readily distin-
guished the fall previous. The buds be-
gin growth here the forepart of May, and
by the middle of June the new shoots are
about one foot in length, and the young
figs the size of hickory nuts. Then they
commence swelling very rapidly, and in a
few days are the size of small green pears;
in two or three days more, or about the
first of July they become yellow, when
they are ripe and ready for picking. In
some countries they are used as daily food,
eaten in milk, and are very wholesome
and nutritious. They can be canned or
dried, but are too good for that purpose
until more abundant. The second crop
begins to grow as soon as the first is re-
moved, and usually gets ripe the fore
part of September. It is not always nec-
essary to give them protection in the
winter, but for the purpose of dividing
them, and to guard against extreme win-
ters, it is advisable to heel them in, which
can be done at any time after the frosts
of autumn remove the leaves before severe
winter approaches. The process is very
simple ; dig one plant and lay it on its
side in the hole, then dig the next, throw-
ing the dirt on the first, and so on until
they are all covered. Reverse the process
in the spring, at which time you can di-
vide and prune into shape, using the cut-
tings for new plants, which strike root
readily, and often bear fruit the first sea-

>».

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 511

son. In setting out the plants, give them
room according to their size. Taking
them up or dividing them does not pre-
vent them from fruiting if the roots are
not badly bruised nor dried by exposure
to the weather. Where one has but few
plants, open boxes or barrels can be set
over them, filling in with straw or dirt.
The simple process of protecting the
plants in winter should not deter any
from growing and enjoying such delicious
fruit.

FRUIT TREES, to Protect from Rab-
bits.— To protect fruit trees in the win-
ter from rabbits, it is recommended to
make a strong decoction of tobacco,
simmer it down in lard to the consistency
of thin paint, add a little soft soap, stir
well, and it is ready for use. Apply with
a little brush or swab from the root of
the tree upwards until above the reach ot
the rabbits. This dose would seem
calculated to spoil the appetite of the
hungry depredators of whatever kind.
"See, also, " Apple Trees, to Keep Rab-
bits from Barking."

HEMP, Culture of.— Hemp is a plant
of very great importance ; its tough,
■durable and elastic fibres being better
■suited for making cordage and canvas for
shipping than any other substance yet
known. The quantity required to supply
the navy and commercial marine of the
United States alone is immense.

This country is well adapted to the
cultivation of hemp, which is a very profit-
able crop, well rewarding the careful and
judicious cultivator; yet the supply is far
short of the demand for home consump-
tion, a great quantity having to be
annually imported.

The soil most suitable, ana always to
be preferred, are those of a deep, black,
vegetable kind, and which, from the loca-
tion, are slightly inclined to moisture;
such soils are easily found, particularly in
the western country. Mellow, rich, clayey
soils do very well, and none answer any
better than old meadow land. Hemp
may be raised on the same ground for
successive years without degenerating,
and without exhausting the soil, espe-
cially if the shives are returned to the
the land in the form of manure.

Hemp may either precede or follow a
crop of grain, as its tendency is to
smother and choke all other plants; in

fact, nothing else so well cleans and pre-
pares the ground for other crops, especially
for small grain or grasses. It eradicates
all weeds, and when it is taken off, leaves
the field clean, smooth and even.

The ground intended for hemp should
be plowed in time to receive the influence
of frosts, and after a crop of grain ; be-
sides a deep plowing before winter, it
should be plowed at least twice in the
spring, so as to reduce the soil to a fine
tilth, as it is all important that it be
thoroughly pulverized. To insure a good
crop the seed must 'be fresh, which may
be known by its being heavy and of a
bright color.

When hemp is intended to be culti-
vated for seed for the crops of the next
year, it is to be raised in a place distant
from that in which it is raised for the fibre
only, and sowed in drills about four feet
apart. In the blooming season the male
plants should be mostly pulled up and
thrown away, and the female plants
thinned out, leaving the stalks seven or
eight inches apart. The male and female
plants are easily known apart, as only the
male plants blossom, and, when agitated,
throw off farina — a yellow dust — which
falls and colors the ground, or any other
objects with which it comes in contact.
A few of the male plants should be left
scattered through the drills, until the
farina is completely discharged. Between
the drills a plow should be run sufficiently
often to keep the ground from weeds,
and between the stalks in each drill the
hoe is to be used for the same purpose.
The plants are generally cut after the
first smart frost, between the middle of
September and the middle of October,
and carried to the barn, where the seed is
easily detached by the common flail; the
stalks which bear the seed, being too large,
coarse, and harsh to produce good fibre,
are usually thrown away, but they might
be profitably made into charcoal for the
use of powder-mills.

After the seed is threshed out, it is ad-
visable to spread it thinly on the floor, to
cure properly and prevent rotting, before
being finally put away for use the next
spring. The seed should be sown, the
weather permitting, in April, or early in
May ; when the plant first shoots up it is
very tender, and liable to be injured by
frost, if sown too early.

512

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

When hemp is raised for the fibre, the
seed is to be sown broadcast, a bushel
and a half to two bushels and a half to
the acre, according to the strength and
fertility of the soil, and the care with
which it has been prepared, as well as to
the season. When the seed is sown, it is
to be plowed or harrowed in; and roll-
ing the ground afterward will prove
beneficial.

The labors of the cultivator are then
suspended until the, plants are ripe and in
a state to be gathered.

If the season be favorable for a few
weeks, until the plants are six or eight
inches high, they will then shade the
ground and a good crop may be
expected.

Hemp is generally ripe and fit to be
gathered about the middle of August,
varying according to the time of sowing;
and by sowing at different periods, in
order that the crop may not all ripen at
the same time, a press of labor in har-
vesting may be avoided.

The maturity of a plant is determined
by the shedding of the farina, already
noticed, and by the leaves of the plant
turning yellowish; it is then generally
supposed to be ripe, but it is safer to wait
a few days longer. A little observation
will enable any one to judge when it is
fully ripe ; it is a very accomodating crop,
for, if gathered a little too soon, the fibre
will not be materially injured, and it will
wait the leisure of the farmer a week or
two after it is entirely ripe.

The plants are gathered by two modes,
namely, pulling them up by the roots or
cutting them off about two inches above
the surface of the ground — the closer to
the ground the better. Cutting is gener-
ally preferred, which is performed with a
knife (often made out of an old scythe)
or with a good reaping machine.

Whether pulled or cut, the plants are
to be carefully and evenly laid on the
ground to cure, which, in dry weather,
will take two or three days ; a light rain
falling on them while lying down is rather
beneficial, as it will then be more easy to
remove the leaves, which should be done
before the shocks are formed. When
cured, the plants should be tied in small
bundles, for convenience in handling, and

set up in shocks, the roots or butt ends
resting on the ground, and the tops united
or tied by a band made of the plants.
As soon as convenient, the shock may be-
collected together and formed into stacks,
and by remaining in the stacks a suffi-
cient time before being exposed to be-
rotted, the plants go through a sweat,
which very much improves the appear-
ance and quality of the fibre.

HYACDJTH CULTURE. — The hya-
cinth requires a light but rich soil, sandy
loam, well dressed, and mixed with thor-
oughly rotted manure, but if the soil is
not sandy, add a third of silver sand.
The soil for a hyacinth bed must be
deeply dug, well mixed and turned over.
Plant the bulbs eight inches apart, and
four inches under the soil.

To Grow Hyacinths in Pots. — Select
the bulbs, and plant each one separately
in a four-inch pot, well drained with pot-
sherds, and filled within an inch of the
top with the same soil recommended for
the beds. If the plants are to remain out-
doors until rooted, place them in a dry
level place, and cover them about six
inches deep with straw, decayed leaves,,
or cocoanut fibre, putting a piece of bas&
mat over to keep off rain ; they will not
require watering. In ten weeks they will
have made sufficient roots, and may be
brought into the house and watched care-
fully. If brought into the house directly
they are potted, keep them in a dark,,
moist atmosphere for about ten weeks,
then gradually expose them to the light,,
and give them water frequently.

To Grow Hyacinths in Glasses. — Single
flowering hyacinths are the best for this
purpose. Fill the glasses with soft water
(rain water is the best) so as nearly to>
touch the bulb. Exclude the light totally
from them for five weeks, by which time
the glass ought to be full of roots ; they
may then be placed where they will have
plenty of light and an equable tempera-
ture. Do not change the water while
they are in the dark, but when exposed to
the light pour out half the water in each
glass once a week, and fill it up with
fresh water, which should have been kept
for some time in the same room, that the
temperature may be the same. A very
little guano, mixed with the water strength- "
ens the plant.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 513

FRUIT CULTURE.— The first question
may be answered very readily, for most
of those who have no fruits, it is simply
because they do not try to have them,
and this is the very natural result of their
ignorance of the means of obtaining an
abundance of these blessings upon almost
every farm in the United States.

The latter question may be answered
by enumerating some of the great advan-
tages of fruit growing. These are prima-
rily the health of the familes of the pro-
ducers, where fruits are freely consumed
upon the table at all seasons of the year ;
next, the pleasure attendant upon their
propagation, their culture, and, above all,
the satisfaction derived from the harvest-
ing and consumption of these products.

It is a well established axiom in the
medical profession, that the regular con-
sumption of fresh, well ripened fruit, if
conducive to health, and it is also a fact
that the farmers of our country are not
so well fed as they should be. This is
nobody's fault but their own. True, they
cannot have so great a variety of meats
as those who reside in towns and villages,
but they may enjoy the greatest profusion
of fresh vegetables, and a succession of
ripe fruits the year round, if they will but
choose to take the trouble to plant and
cultivate even a small portion of then-
land as a garden and orchard.

An appeal on behalf of fruit culture
may also be made to the more sordid
motive of money making. No crops that
are produced from the soil yield so great
profits. The productiveness of small
pieces of land appropriated to fruit cul-
ture is truly wonderful, and the money
results in some cases are so great as to be
worthy of the fashionable term of "fabu-
lous."

It is well for the farmer to recollect
that some of our fruit crops may be* con-
sumed with great advantage and profit
by his stock animals. Hogs, sheep, cat-
tle, particularly milch cows, and even
horses, may be profitably fed upon some
varieties of fruit. It has been asserted
by a recent author, that "fruits of all
kinds, but particularly what may be
called the large fruits, such as are
green in our orchards, may be prof-
itably cultivated for feeding our do-
mestic animals. Sweet apples have been
especially recommended for fattening

33

swine, and when fed to cows they in-
crease the flow of milk, or produce fat,
according to the condition of these ani-
mals. . . . Orchards have been
planted with a succession of sweet apples
that will sustain swine in a condition of
perfect health, growing and fattening sim-
ultaneously from June to November; and
the late varieties may be cheaply pre-
served for feeding stock of all kinds dur-
ing the winter. The farmer may also be
reminded that portions of many farms
can be appropriated to the culture of
fruits, which are not adapted to crops
that require cultivation on arable land.
It has even been asserted that a given
area planted with fruit trees will sustain
more stock, or fatten more pork than the
same space devoted to grain and forage
crops.

Preparation of the Soil — Disap-
pointment from Bad Selections. —
Having assigned a portion of the farm to
the apple orchard, which should be ele-
vated, and of a light porous soil, the ground
should be well prepared by thorough
plowing, if this be practicable, though it
is found that fruit trees will thrive in new-
ly cleared land, if set among the stumps \
they have been planted on prairie sod, •
and there are many fine orchards on
rocky tracts, where the preparation must
be done exclusively with the pick, the
spade and the shovel. It may be the
best economy for the owner of such land
to appropriate it to the orchard, because
it is unfitted for tillage crops. Even the
holes for setting the trees may be made
with the plow, by simply marking out the
surface at the proper distances, and set-
ting the trees at the inter-sections. This
is done after the whole ground has been
well prepared by a thorough plowing, and
the trees are easily planted in the mellow
soil in which they will thrive admirably.
On low and flat lands that have no good
natural drainage, tile should be used, if
accessible, but even here surface drainage
may be done with the plow, by throwing
the furrows together where the rows of
trees are to be set, what the farmers call
back-furrowing, two or three times, so as
to make a little ridge to plant them on.
This will also make open furrows between
the rows, that will give outlet for the sur-
plus rain water, or at least lead it away
from immediate contact with the roots.

5^4

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

Selection of Trees. — Varieties. —
Young trees are better for planting than
older ones; small ones are more easily-
handled, and are surer to grow than
larger ones. Two years trom the graft
or Dud is long enough for the apple to
remain in the nursery. This is true of
most varieties, but there are exceptions to
this, for some slow growing kinds require
a longer period to attain sufficient size.
The plants should be stocky and branch-
ed, and they should be taken up carefully,
so as to preserve the roots.

Varieties are so numerous, and tastes
so diverse, that it is almost impossible to
make out a list of sorts that will be
acceptable to all, and besides this, it is
well known that the varieties which suc-
ceed in one locality may fail in another.
Every planter should endeavor to ascer-
tain what sorts have been tested and
approved in his own neighborhood.
Hardy and productive kinds, of second
quality, are more satisfactory than those
fruits of greater excellence, which have
not these prime qualities of the tree. It
is rare that we find all excellence united
in one individual.

For the family orchard, it is best to
have a succession in the time of ripening.
The same is true of an orchard planted
for stock-feeding, but in the commercial
orchard, where a large quantity of fruit is
to be produced for shipping, it is found
best to plant only a few varieties, and
these should be productive, hardy, and of
. such a character as to bear transportation
. and to command a ready market, less re-
gard being had to the superior quality as
.table fruits than in the amateur and
family list.

Apple Family. — Planting. — After the
ground has been prepared, it is ready to
mark off with the plow in two directions,
so that the intersections of the furrows
shall come at the stations for the trees.
This is the best way to dig the holes, for
the furrows may be made quite deep
enough. Indeed, it is not desirable to
set the trees deeply ; some even advocate
planting on the surface, and covering the
roots with a little mound of soil, as is
done when the trees are set on top of the
sod of prairie or meadow. The distance
between the trees will depend upon the
habit of the variety. Some will require
more space than others, but close plant-

ing has many advocates, who advance
some cogent reasons for crowding the
trees, instead of the wide planting of
former years. A few of these may be
mentioned : In the first place, it is now
conceded that the land appropriated to
the orchard should be given up to the trees,
and not be used for other crops, therefore
there is less necessity for space between
them. In close planting, the whole
ground is shaded, and kept from the
baking influence of the sun, and thus
remains more loose and friable than
where exposed. The crowding of the
trees also protects them, in a great
degree, from the severity of the cold in
winter, and from the injury incident to
the sudden changes of our climate ; but
in exposed situations, this close planting
especially shelters them from the trying
winds.

The planting should always be done
with the greatest care, the roots should
be spread out in their natural position,
the finest soil put next to the fibres, and
worked in among them with the fingers,
so as to be in immediate contact both
below and above them. When the roots
are well covered, slight pressure may be
made with the foot, especially toward the
end of the roots ; or, if the ground be
dry, a few quarts of water may be poured
upon it to settle the soil, and this should
be covered with more dry earth. All
that portion of the tree which was under-
ground in the nursery must be covered,
and, in fall planting, a little mound should
be heaped up against the stem, to keep
it from being swayed by the wind, as
well as to turn off the rains from the
roots. This mound may be removed in
the spring.

Cultivation should be thoroughly kept
up in the young orchard for a few years,
and, at first, hard crops, such as corn or
potatoes, may be allowed among the
trees, but no grain or grass, nor any
weeds, should ever be permitted among
them. This cultivation may be continued
four or five years, until the trees are well
established, and begin to cover the
ground with their shade, when the spaces
between them will be so occupied by
their branches as no longer to admit the
horse and plow. The land may now be
laid down to clover, not for a hay crop,
but simply to cover the surface as a

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 515

mulch, for which purpose it may be
mowed and left on the ground.

Training and Pruning. — These topics
should be considered together, since both
have the same object — the forming of the
head. The tree should be trimmed early
in its orchard life, so as to produce the
desired shape. It should be branched
low, from two to four feet from the
ground. The main limbs should be well
"balanced and well separated, while the
leader must also be preserved, all inter-
fering branches should be removed, and
those which are too strong must be
shortened in during the summer. All
this will require some care and watchful-
ness, but will need the removal of very
little wood, if it be done in time, while
the tree is small, and this is the best time
to do the work of pruning; midsummer
is the best season, a strong, sharp knife
and a pruning chisel the best instru-
ments.

Pruning old orchards is quite another
affair, and if they have been long neg-
lected, the trees may need a very severe
pruning to remove crowded, exhausted
and decaying branches, in order to re-
invigorate the organism by the production
of new wood growth. The application
of the saw will now be required, and the
mild weather of fall, winter or early
spring should be selected for doing the
work. All large wounds must be pared
smoothly with the chisel, and covered
with some mastich fo exclude the ele-
ments. In such trees it is sometimes
better to thin out the branches and
shorten them than to remove the larger
limbs.

Pears are delicious fruits, and every
farmer should plant at least a few trees.
The crops are certain, and any surplus
may readily be disposed of. The old
saw about planting " for one's heirs "
must give way before the advances of
pomology, for we now have many varie-
ties in cultivation that are early-produc-
tive, and modem horticulture has fur-
nished us with means of forcing early
fruitage upon those varieties that formerly
tried the patience of the orchardist by
their long-continued wood-growth, before
reaching that condition of maturity that
is attended by abundant crops.

The natural season for the maturing of
this fruit being mid-autumn, we find as a

result of cultivation and the production of
new varieties, that this period has been
considerably extended in both directions,
so that the pear season now reaches from
July to March or even longer. A very
experienced student and propagator of
this fruit has suggested that in thus de-
parting from the normal season of ripen-
ing, we may expect to find, under the law
of compensation, that we shall lose some
desirable qualities. The truth of this is a
matter of common observation : thus, in
quality, most early pears are inferior to
those of a later period, and the general
inferiority of the latest or winter pears is a
matter of common remark; there are ex-
ceptions in both extremes, but autumn is
the season of the best pears.

Soil. — Any good loamy land, with a
predominance of clay, will produce good
pear trees, and thorough plowing will be
a sufficient preparation after draining, if
the subsoil be tenacious and wet. The
pear strikes its roots deeply into the soil ;
it is thus able to seek its food, and it is a
gross feeder, but may thrive even on thin
soils, at the same time it will be benefited
by suitable manures. Analysis of its pro-
ducts shows that it needs lime and phos-
phoric acid; therefore, bones may be
applied with advantage to lands that are
deficient in these elements. Planting and
cultivation of the pear may be the same
as that advised for the apple.

Dwarf pears have been very highly
recommended, and largely planted; but
the majority of planters now prefer to
have their trees on tree-stocks. These
are often erroneously called standards in
contradistinction to those being dwarfed
by being worked on quince stocks. The
dwarfs are very satisfactory for limited
grounds, and should have high culture
and good care in trimming and training
to produce their best results. The two
styles of trees should not be planted to-
gether as has been advised ; they require
different treatment.

Training. — Pear trees will bear crowd-
ing, as most of them are of an upright
habit ; fifteen or twenty feet apart is wide
enough for the majority, and many will
succeed much closer. The trees should
not be grown as standards, with tall,
naked stems, but do much better if
trained from the first in conical form,
when they are generally called pyramids.

Si«

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

This object is attained by causing them
to branch low, and by curbing the upper
limbs, at both the summer and winter
pruning, thinning them out and shorten-
ing them in such a manner as to keep the
lower branches always the longest; the
result will be the desired conical tree,
which shall have all of its twigs, fruit and
foliage well exposed to the sun and air.

Culture and Pruning. — The pear or-
chards may be treated like those of the
apple, excepting that the general habit of
the former is pyramidal, and of the latter
globular, so that the pruning will require
some modification, though conducted
upon the same principles. While young,
the ground among the trees should be
well cultivated, but after they have at-
tained some size, after six or eight years,
they are found to do better in grass than
if the cultivation be continued. These
remarks apply to the pear on free-stalks,
but those trees that are dwarfed upon the
quince, or by severe and continued root-
pruning will reqiure high culture and even
manure.

Peaches are always acceptable, easily
grown, and they come into fruiting at an
early age, generally the third year. Un-
fortunately they are not constant bearers,
as the flower buds are often injured by
the severity of winter or by spring frosts.
Peach trees will grow on almost any soil,
but light sandy or gravelly lands and ele-
vated situations seem best adapted to
them. The trees should be one year old
from the bud, cut back to a bare stem
about two feet long before planting.
They should be set from fifteen to twenty
feet apart in the orchard, planted in the
spring, and the ground must be cultivated
continually to secure the best results.
Mounding the tree has been advocated,
but it is an expensive operation, the merits
of which have not yet been fully demon-
strated. There is a great variety of this
fruit, both in its color, flavor, consistence,
and season. There are clings and free-
stones of all colors. The former are the
best, the latter are most popular. The
season extends from the first of August
until the middle of October in this lati-
tude. Those which ripen earlier or later
are of less value.

Plums are so sadly affected by the Cur-
culio that few of us know how excellent a
fruit this is. Occasionally the rascals

stand back, and thus we get a crop ; and
some cultivators have succeeded in coun-
terworking the enemy so as to preserve
their fruit. Trees planted in trodden
places near houses have escaped the at-
tacks of these insects, and have borne
crops for many years, so that farmers are
urged to continue planting plum trees in
such situations. There are some varie-
ties, however, which appear to escape
these invaders, among them the little
Damson, which is well worth cultivating,
as it makes good preserves.

Cherries. — This delicious fruit appears
to be more fastidious as to soil than any
other; for though it will grow almost
anywhere, it does not stand well on our
rich limestone lands. Those soils that
are natural to the chesnut appear to be
the most suitable for cherries.

There are some very hardy varieties
that seem to do equally well on any kind
of land ; these are called the Dukes and
Morellos, they are mostly sour, and are.
chiefly valuable for cooking cherries;
may be planted ten, fifteen or twenty feet
apart, according to their class, as Morel-
los, Dukes, or Hearts and Bigarreaus, the
last being the largest. The trees should
not be too old when planted, two or three
years from the bud or graft is enough.
They should be headed back, so as to
branch low, and should be grown as pyr-
amids. All the pruning should be done
while they are young, as they do not
readily heal over the stump of a large
limb. These trees are very apt to split
and burst their bark, especially where the
stems are exposed to the sun by trimming
them up as standards; hence the impor-
tance of low heads. This accident is
most common in the free growing kinds
and in rich soils.

Quinces have been too much overlooked
by our farmers, who could not present
their families with a more acceptable
offering than the fruit from a few trees
planted in some low spot of rich, moist
soil, such as that which receives the slops
and drainage from the dwelling house.

These trees are rather hardy, and will
occupy little space, as they never grow
large, and can be planted eight or ten.
feet apart. They should be trained to-
one stem, branched about three or four
feet from the ground,, and kept trimmed
to open heads.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 517

Grapes. — Every farmer, every cottager,
<very householder or house ruler, should
plant a few grape vines. It is a very
simple affair, requiring no great amount
-of skill nor labor to plant, train and trim
■a. grape vine, and its productiveness of
fruits that every body, young or old, can
appreciate is proverbial. Who has not
heard of the famous grape cure ? Who
can object to trying it ? Certainly not
he who has planted and trained his own
vines.

Almost any soil that has been deeply
loosened and moderately enriched will
•cause the grape vine to grow luxuriantly.
It may be set in out-of-the-way places,
trained to a stake or a trellis, or be made
to climb beside the walls of out-houses,
and cover their bare sides with foliage
and fruit, rendering them ornamental in-
stead of ugly.

Training the young vines in an upright
direction to encourage their growth, and
at the same time concentrating their force
into one or two shoots, by pinching or
rubbing out the others, is a very simple
affair, and light labor. Pruning them
when dormant, cutting them back to two
or three eyes in the fall or winter, is no
great mystery. The same process of
training two strong shoots the next sea-
son is but a repetition of the first sum-
mer's experience, with more satisfactory
results; and the second fall, with canes
nearly as large as the little finger, the
pruning is less severe, because we now
have bearing wood, which needs to be
shortened-in two or three feet in a strong
vine, These canes are to be trained hor-
izontally, as the arms of the vine, in which
condition they may be left for years, un-
less they need renewal. In the third,
and all succeeding years, we must still
train the shoots upward, taking care only
to remove the superabundance of the
growths, by rubbing out, early in the sea-
son, and leaving one shoot, say every
nine inches, which must be trained up-
ward. In the fall of this year, we com-
mence pruning these shoots for alternate
production of fruit and wood, by cutting
one cane about two feet long, and re-
ducing the next, the weaker, to a spur,
with only two eyes or buds. In this way
the bearing wood of the vine is constantly
renewed. The mystery disappears when
we recollect that all the fruit of a grape

vine is produced upon green shoots that
grow from the cane of last year's growth.
By renewing these shoots annually from
below, we can have bearing wood to
cover the trellis, and strong new shoots to
clothe the whole with abundant foliage.
Various modifications of pruning and
training have been suggested, and may be
practiced, but the most simple, common
and successful is the one indicated above.
All depend upon the annual reproduction
of new wood from which to draw our
supplies of wood from year to year.

FEUITS, SMALL, How to Cultivate—
We now come to the consideration of
the small fruits, which, however, may
constitute a very large share of the food,
comfort and luxury of a well regulated
family, either in the country or city, and
which will contribute in no small degree
to the healthiness of the people, by sub-
stituting their grateful acids and sweets
for the calomel, ipecac, tartar, soda and
potash, in various forms, that are so freely
drawn from the druggists' shelves, either
for the cure or production of disease, ac-
cording as they are administered by the
doctor or by the cooks.

The strawberry comes first in the order
of the season, and, indeed, it is the most
universally welcomed and relished of them
all. The cultivation of this fruit is so sim-
ple, and the returns so speedy and so
grateful, that it should occupy a promi-
nent place in every farmer's garden. This
fruit will grow in almost any soil, but a
good stiff loam, well stirred, is probably
the best. The strawberry plants should
be well rooted runners, or offshoots from
an older plantation; they should be taken
up carefully, so as to have good roots. If
these have been formed in small flower-
pots sunk near the parent bed, so much
the better, as the fibres, being confined by
the pot, will be less disturbed in trans-
planting, or the ball may be set entire.

Strawberries may be grown in hills, in
rows, or in beds. The latter is the com-
mon method, and the beds are formed by
planting two or more rows a foot or fif-
teen inches apart, setting the plants twelve
inches one from another in the rows. In
the beds, the runners are allowed to grow^
and to increase the number of plants in-
definitely, so that they are often injured
by being crowded too closely together,
When planted in hills, they are set eighteen

$I«

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

inches apart ; the space between them is
kept perfectly clean, and the runners are
cut as soon as they appear. This results
in the greater growth of the original plant,
which has an increased number of crowns
from which the blossoms and fruit proceed
in great numbers. This method enables
the producer to have the best possible re-
sults in the size and appearance of his
fruit, but it is attended with more labor
and expense than the bed system. Many
cultivators prefer planting in rows, when
they set the strawberries about a foot
apart, and place the rows two feet or
more one from another, according as they
expect to use plows or hoes in their cul-
ture. In the narrow rows the runners
may be cut off, and the fruit will be al-
most as fine as that grown in the hills,
but in the wider rows the runners are
generally allowed to strike root, and
spread the row into a bed in the course
of the first summer after planting.

Spring is the best time for setting out
the plants, though this may be done at
any time during the growing season.
The advantages of early planting are the
longer period allowed for the stools to
grow and become thoroughly established
in the soil. The plants are set by the
line, a hollow is opened with the trowel,
in this the roots are spread out, then cov-
ered with mellow earth and pressed firmly
with the fist or even with the heel. If
watered at once, a little fresh earth should
be thrown in to prevent the cracking, but
great care must be taken to avoid placing
the crown below the surface of the
ground — in other words, the roots must
be planted and not the corm, from which
the crowns arise. Thorough culture should
be given through the season.

Mulching, with old, rotten manure, ap-
plied after planting, will encourage the
growth of the strawberries, and keep the
soil moist. Winter mulching with clear
straw, leaves, or other material, should be
liberally applied after the ground has frozen,
and be left to protect the buds during the
winter, and to be removed from the
crowns of the plants in the spring. Be-
ing left between the rows, the straw will
make a good summer mulch, and keep
the fruit clean. In hill culture, saw-dust
and old tan bark have been recommended,
and still another material, spent hops from

the brewery, has been used with excellent
effect.

Strawberries have a peculiarity in their
blossoms, from which they have been
classified as Pistillate, Staminates and Her-
maphrodites. In the first class, the stamens,
are so defective that the flowers need tha
fertilizing influence of other kinds which
must be planted near them. These fur-
nish many of our favorite varieties, espe-
cially those which are largely cultivated
in beds. The next class embraces most
of those sorts which produce the largest
berries, their flowers are often so deficient
in the pistils that a large per centage of
them fail to set fruit. This is particularly
the case when these varieties are grown in
beds and allowed to multiply their run-
ners. They are, however, quite product-
ive when cultivated in hills, and they have
formed branching crowns from which
spring numerous trusses of flowers. Be-
side these two classes there is another, in
which the two sexes are so evenly com-
bined that almost every flower is followed
by perfect fruit, a very few varieties of the
strawberry, either cultivated or wild, be-
long to this group.

Baspberries. — Next to the strawberry,
and nearly allied to it in its botanical re-
lations, is the raspberry, which furnishes a
fruit of high flavor and exquisite fragrance.
It is no wonder that this should be a fav-
orite with all fruit-growers, since it is easily
produced, hardy, makes quick returns is
easily gathered, and commands a ready
sale at high prices. And yet it is equally
surprising that so few farmers' gardens are
stocked with the raspberry.

Every soil that is cultivable will pro-
duce this fruit, but a good loam is best
adapted to it. The only preparation requi-
site is ordinary plowing of the land, but
deep cultivation and manuring are well
bestowed upon the rasperry patch, and it
should be kept clean by thorough summer
cultivation.

The raspberry may be planted in the
fall, but the early spring is generally pre-
ferred. They may be set about three feet
apart, in rows that are from six to nine
feet wide, or planted in hills five by five
feet, or wider for some of the larger kinds.
Planting in rows is usually preferred, but
the hills allow of cultivation in both di-
rections, or cross plowing, which saves

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 519-

hoeing, and also permits the pickers to get
among the plants more readily.

Trimming the raspberry was formerly
done only in the winter, and consisted in
shortening the canes, and removing the
old dead wood, and the surplus feeble
shoots, so as to leave from two to four
on each plant or hill. This was done at
any mild time between October and Feb-
ruary or March. Fall pruning, if done
too early, may prove very injurious, if fol-
lowed by mild growing weather that
causes the buds to grow, and thus de-
stroys a portion or the next year's crop.
Of course, it is understood that all the
varieties and species of this genus, Rubus,
including the raspberry and blackberry,
produce shoots one year that become the
bearing canes of the next summer, and
then die ; an apparent exception exists in
the autumnal bearing raspberries, which
produce blossoms and fruits upon the
shoots the season of their growth.

Summer pruning is now practiced by
all good cultivators. This is a very simple
operation, and consists in pinching or cut-
ting off the shoots as soon as they are two
feet high, which causes them to branch
out with strong laterals, and these are to
be cut back, according to their strength,
in the winter. By this means the plants
are made more stocky and bushy ; they
resemble little trees, and are able to bear
enormous crops. At the same time, all
redundant branch shoots are to be cut
away. This method also obviates the ne-
cessity for any kind of support, such as
stakes or trellis, since the sturdy plants
are able to stand alone.

We have two American species of eat-
able raspberries, the Strigosus, or red
fruited, and the Occidentalis, or thimble-
berry, the black caps. Besides these, the
European species, the Idazus, furnishes
many delicious raspberries, most of which
are tender and need winter protection.

Blackberries.— The blackberry, though
abounding in most parts of the country,
is entirely deserving of care and cultiva-
tion. In the garden it is under our con-
trol, and may be allowed to reach perfec-
tion, by hanging until perfectly ripe, which
is not the case that must be yielded to
the " eminent domain" of any vagabonds
who may come along and trespass on our
farmers, and glean the fruit from our ne-
glected fields and fence-corners.

Any rich, deep soil, well plowed, will
suit this fruit. The plants should be al-
lowed plenty of room, and may be set
every four feet, in rows eight or ten feet
wide. The ground should be well culti-
vated, or deeply mulched, and the suckers
must be kept down, by cutting them with
the hoe whenever they appear between
the rows, and these should not be crowd-
ed— one stalk to every two feet will be
sufficient. This being only another spe-
cies of the genus Rubus, or bramble. The
remarks as to the habit, and pruning of
the raspberry are applicable to this spe-
cies, and need not be repeated, except
that the summer pruning should be prac-
ticed a little higher, say from three to four
feet, according to the vigor of the plants,,
and the redundant shoots must be cut
off.

Currant, the. — In almost every log
cabin garden we used to find this health-
giving fruit, which offers its agreeable acid
in the heats of summer as an antidote or
preventive of the bilious effects of our tor-
rid season. And yet the currant is a sadly
neglected fruit, and in many parts of the
country there is not enough for home con-
sumption.

This being a northern plant, it is thank-
ful for a partial shade or protection from:
the scorching sunshine (in lat. 400 or south-
ward). For this object it is well to plant
the bushes on the north side of a fence or
building, and even in the shade of young
orchard trees, where they sometimes suc-
ceed very well for a long period, even
after the apple trees have occupied and
shaded the whole surface.

The currant delights in a deep, rich
loam, and will thrive even where the soil
is somewhat moist. The bushes should
not be crowded, as they require about four
feet space, each way.

Trimming is to be done in the fall or
winter, as the buds swell very early in the
spring. It should consist in shortening
two or three of the strongest young shoots,
cutting away all the weaker ones, and re-
moving only the oldest and exhausted
bearing wood. Unlike the raspberry, cur-
rants do not fruit on the young shoots,
but upon little spurs that appear only on
branches that are two or more years old.

The plantation must be kept clean, and
free from grass and weeds. After cultiva-
tion in the spring, it is a very good plan.

.52°

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

to cover the soil with a heavy coating of
old hay, straw, fodder, leaves, or other
suitable mulching material, which will re-
tain the moisture, and preserve the fruit
a long while in fine condition.

Gooseberries. — Fashion has wonderfully
affected the production of this fruit. The
fine, large, English varieties were gener-
ally so badly affected with a mildew, that
their culture was abandoned, except by a
few fortunate persons. The introduction
of the Houghton, and American red va-
rieties, worked a revolution— everybody
planted them, and everybody purchased
them at high prices for several years;
when lo! the cost of sugar caused a
change, and the demand fell off to such
an extent that the plantations were rooted
up, and there was no longer any sale for
the plants, and nurserymen discontinued
their propagation. Gooseberries are just
as valuable, nevertheless, to the farmer's
family as ever they were, and their culti-
vation is so simple that they may and
should be grown in every household gar-
den, and by every cottager.

FRUIT, Preparing for Market. —The
truth can hardly be too often or too
strongly impressed upon the minds of
fruit-growers, and especially on those
commencing the business, that on nothing
does success so much depend in market-
ing fruit as in having it in good order.
Superior fruits always sell quickest, and
often at extravagant prices. Assorting
and grading fruit, putting all uniformly
fine together, and the inferior and dam-
aged by themselves, selling each class on
its merits, has always paid us well, and we
have reason to believe, given good satis-
faction to the customers. Many persons
who appreciate first-class fruit will pay
more for that only which is choice and
neatly arranged than the producer can get
for both superior and inferior packed and
marketed together. Our mode is to have
each picker carry in her hand two quart
baskets, into one putting the large straw-
berries, and into the other the smaller
ones ; and a moment's care in arranging
the berries on top, with the stems down-
ward, gives a luscious beauty to this un-
surpassable fruit, and compensates in
quickness of sales. We think square
•quart baskets preferable where the market
is several hundred miles distant. Rasp-

berries and blackberries, having no stems
or hulls, press more closely together, and
therefore do better, when sent long distanc-
es, if put into square pint baskets. The ber-
ries will generally keep better on the vines,
or, if well aired, under the packing-shed,
than in close cellars or store-rooms in the
city. Everywhere " honesty is the best
policy," and dealers are by no means slow
in learning to discriminate in favor of the
brands of honest packers.

GRUBS, White, Remedies for.— An

authority says : A good coat of unrotted
manure, plowed in six or eight inches
deep, is almost a specific against white
grubs in corn or potatoes. We suppose
the grubs work in the manure and leave
the corn plants alone. Plowing under
clover, immediately before planting, often
has the same effect.

HAY, (Clover), Management of. — Clo-
ver should be mowed as soon as it is well
in blossom. There is no necessity to
wait for a brown head; there will be
plenty to be seen before the crop is well
down. Cut when the dew is off, and
allow to dry until the afternoon, when it
should be shaken up and turned before
the dew falls. If a tedder is employed,
its constant use will fit the clover to be
put in cocks the same day. If turned
by hand, it may lie until the noon of next
day, when it may be put in cocks, made
as high and narrow as possible; they will
shed rain better in this shape, and, if
caps are to be used, a yard square will be
sufficiently large to cover them. Caps
are to be strongly recommended, and the
above size is sufficient, as the top only
needs protection. Put up, and thus pro-
tected, the hay may stay in the field until
it is all made, when it may be hauled
together. If any cock should be damp
inside, spread for a few minutes ; it will
dry rapidly. Clover cured in the cock is
much more valuable than that dried in
the sun, and wastes less in hauling. Put
away the first cut hay by itself, in a place
convenient for use in the spring. Cows
coming in early in the spring will thrive
well on this hay; the milk will be largely
increased in quantity, and be richer in
quality, while the butter will come easily,,
be free from white curdy specks, and in
color wiH not be far behind that made
from June grass.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 52!

FOOD, Steaming Cheaply. — A farmer
recommends, from personal experience,
the following economical steaming appa-
ratus: A large box, made steam-tight,
placed within a larger box, with some non-
conducting material, such as saw-dust,
packed between, at least twelve inches
thick. The food to be cooked being
placed in the steam-box, hot water is to
be turned in and the apparatus covered
tightly with woolen covers in order to
confine the heat.

FRUIT TREES, to Destroy Moss on.—
Every second year fruit trees should be
well scrubbed with a scrubbing brush
dipped in strong brine, so as to moisten
every part of the bark of the stem and
branches. This not only destroys the
moss, but insects of all kinds, and is bene-
ficial to all trees, whereas applications of
lime choke up the respiratory pores, and
sometimes produce canker.

Carbolic soap and lye is also recom-
mended. The poorest soft wood ashes
will answer for making the lye, as it need
not be strong ; it is used simply to dis-
solve the carbolic soap ; say ^ pound of
soap to a 3 gallon pail of boiling lye. It
may be applied to old trees while boiling
hot; use a swab or a large paint brush;
go over the trunk and all the large
branches. It will kill the eggs and larvae
of insects as well as the moss, and will
greatly improve the appearance of the
trees.

FRUIT TREES, to Prevent Ants from
Injuring — Make aline of gas-tar round
the stem of the tree, or if it be trained on
a wall, make a horizontal line near the
ground on the wall, and one around the
stem ; this will prevent ants from ascend-
ing.

FRUIT TREES, to Preserve from In-
sects and Mice. — Apply, early in the fall,
around the root a thick layer of lime and
ashes. It would be well to sink the earth
.around the tree about six or eight inches ;
throw in a few shovelsfull of the lime and
ashes, and then cover up with earth,
trampling it well down.

FRUIT TREES, Blight on, to Cure.—
If the winter dressings fail and the pests
appear in spring so as to endanger the
•crop, procure a quantity of ammoniacal
liquor from the gas-works, and to every
pailful of the liquor add six of water, and
ioil as soon as possible in a large copper.

Apply this in the evening, hot, with a
syringe, drenching every part of the trees,
and letting not a leaf escape. It should
be used be as hot as can borne by placing
the hand in it, and thrown with as much
force as possible into all the crevices in the
bark, on the under side of the leaves, and
splashed vigorously against the wall on
which espaliers are trained. It may be
used also for roses and fruit bushes, with
the most certain benefit. Two days after
give another syringing with plain warm
water. To clean the copper in which the
mixture is prepared, fill it with water,
throw in a shovel of cinder ashes and a
pound of soda, and let it boil for half an
hour.

FRUIT TREES, Blossom in.— Surround
the trunk of the tree in blossom with a
wisp of straw or hemp. The end of this
sink by means of a stone tied to it, in a
vessel of spring water at a little distance
from the tree. One vessel will con-
veniently serve two trees; or the cord
may be lengthened so as to surround
several before the end is plunged into the
water. It is necessary that the vessel
should be placed in an open situation out
of the reach of any shade, so that the
frost may produce all its effects on the
water by means of the cord communi-
cating with it.

FRUIT TREES, Coating for Amputated
Branches and "Wounds in. — Shellac, dis-
solved in alcohol, forms an excellent coat-
ing for amputated branches and for
wounds of fruit trees, making a water-
proof artificial skin, under which the
wood grows until the wound is healed.

FRUIT, Time to Gather— It is well
known by observing horticulturists, that
winter-fruit may become over-ripe while
yet hanging on the tree, so that its season
is advanced. Such was the case during
the very warm and late fall of 1875; and
the following winter there was a complaint
all through the country that fruit could
not be kept. In some places it was gone
before New Year. There is a time in the
life of fruit when it is growth is complete —
when it will receive nothing further from
the tree. It is then tree-ripe. Shortly after
begins after-ripening, a chemical change,
whereby the starch, abundant in the un-
ripe or green fruit is transformed into sugar.
At the completion of this saccharine
change the fruit is in the best condition

522

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

for use. But almost immediately putre-
faction sets in, first dissipating the volatile
aroma and destroying the delicate flavor,
and finally converting the grateful sugar
into an unwholesome acid and consuming
the very tissues of the fruit. Though a
low temperature and dry atmosphere may
sometimes retard this change, yet so easy
and rapid is its progress that efforts to
preserve the fruit after it has become ripe
for use are of little avail. But the pro-
gress of the first change, the after-ripen-
ing, may be so delayed as to require sev-
eral months for its accomplishment. It
is done by taking the fruit from the tree
at the moment of its maturity, and keep-
ing it in a low, even temperature, in a dry,
pure atmosphere, and secluded from the
light. Fruit-houses are constructed where
these conditions are secured almost in
perfection ; where the thermometer, for
instance, does not rise above 340 for
months together, and fruit kept in them
has barely ripened for the late spring
market.

Fruit should be gathered in a dry day.
Plums readily part from the twigs when
ripe ; they should not be much handled,
as the bloom is apt to be rubbed off.
Apricots may be accounted ready when
the side next the sun feels a little soft
upon gentle pressure with the finger;
they adhere firmly to the tree, and would
over-ripen on it and become mealy.
Peaches and nectarines, if moved up-
wards, and allowed to come down with a
slight jerk, will separate, if ready; and
they may be received into a tin funnel
lined with velvet, so as to avoid touching
with the fingers or bruising.

A certain rule for judging of the ripe-
ness of figs is to notice when the small
end of the fruit becomes of the same color
as the large one.

The most transparent grapes are the
most ripe. All the berries in a bunch
never ripen equally ; it is therefore proper
to cut away the unripe or decayed berries
before presenting the bunches at table.

Autumn and winter pears are gathered,
when, dry, as they successively ripen.

Immature fruit never keeps so well as
that which nearly approaches maturity.
Winter apples should be left on the trees
till there be danger of frost ; they are then
gathered on a dry day.

FENCE, Fire-Proof, Wash for.— Make
a wash of 1 quart fine sand and 1 part
wood ashes well sifted, and 3 parts lime
ground up with oil, and mix together.
Apply this to the fence with a branch —
the first coat thin, the other thick. This
adheres to the boards or planks so strongly
as to resist an iron tool or fire, and is, be-
sides, impenetrable by water.

FENCE POSTS, Preservation of.— Any
sort of timber, when employed for fence-
posts, will be more than twice as durable
if allowed to become thoroughly seasoned
before being set in the ground. The
durability of seasoned posts may be pro-
moted, so as to make them last for an age,
by the application of a heavy coat of coal-
tar to the portion buried in the earth, and
a few inches above the surface of the
ground. Some farmers set the ground-
end in hot tar, and let it boil for fifteen
minutes. When cool cover with coal-tar,
thickened with ground slate or ground
brick. The boiling stiffens the albumen,
and causes the pores to absorb tar. The
coating prevents the action of moisture.
But such a treatment of green posts would
do very little good, and perhaps mischief.
Others contend that the better way is to
season the post well before setting it, and
when the post-hole is filled to within ten
inches of the surface of the ground, to
apply a heavy coat of tar and fill up with
earth. As fence-posts always decay first
near the surface of the ground, it is only
necessary to protect the post a few inches
above the surface, and about a foot below
it. The timber begins to decay, usually,
on the surface of the posts. Therefore, if
the surface can be protected by some anti-
septic material, posts will last a lifetime.

FLY ON TURNIPS, to Destroy.— Take
1 bushel of newly slaked lime, and mix
therewith y^ bushel of wood ashes ; mix
and blend the whole intimately together,
and sift the powder lightly along the top
of the drills.

FRUIT TREES, Over-Bearing— The
bending of branches of trees by an over-
crop of fruit is most injurious; for the
pores of the woody stalk are strained on
one side of the bend and compressed on
the other; hence the vessels through
which the requisite nourishment flows
being partially closed, the growth of the
fruit is retarded in proportion to the
: straining and compression of the stalk.

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

523

GRAPE, Grafting. — One important
fact should always be borne in mind in
this connection, and that is, that the
grape vine, having a very thin inner bark
or liber, does not graft with the same ease
as do the more common of our fruit
trees, such as apple, pear, etc. ; more care
is, therefore, necessary in the operation.

Cleft grafting is the common mode
employed, and is usually done by dig-
ging away the earth, and inserting the
graft very early in the spring, two or
three inches, or at the first smooth place
below the surface. A horizontal cut of
the stock is generally made, but a sloping
one is, perhaps, preferable, from the fact
that it enables all the gummy matter and
excessive moisture which oozes from the
cut, to run down, and not accumulate to
the injury of the cion. Fuller recom-
mends grafting in the fall; yet we give
his method in his own words, as recently
published in the New York Iribune :

"Select cions of the present year's
growth, and from canes a quarter to
three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and
cut into lengths of three inches, with a
bud near the upper end. The lower end
should be made into a long, slender
wedge. Remove the earth about the
stock four to six inches, if the main
branching roots will permit of this depth.
Then cut off the vine a few inches below
the surface and square across ; then split
it with a chisel or a knife, making as
smooth a cleft as possible for the recep-
tion of the wedge-shaped cion. v If the
stock is an inch or more in diameter, two
cions may be needed, one on each side
of the cleft

•' The outer edge or the wood of the
cion should be placed even with the outer
edge of the wood of the stock, no atten-
tion being paid to the uniting of the
two, because one will be very thick and
the other thin. A nice fit of the two is
essential, and in crooked-grained, gnarly
stocks, a smooth, even cleft can only be
made by cutting out the wood with a
sharp instrument. But it does not mat-
ter how it is done so it is well done.
After fitting the cions to stock, wind a
strong cord about the two, in order to
hold the former firm in place ; then pack
grafting clay or common soil about the
stock, entirely covering the wound made
and the lower half of the cion, but leav-

ing the bud uncovered. No grafting
wax should be employed in grafting
grape vines. After the cions have been
inserted as directed, invert a flower-pot
or small box over the cion; upon this.
place a quantity of leaves, straw or hay;
then cover all with earth, rounding it up
in order to keep the water from settling
around the grafted stock as well as to
prevent too severe freezing.

"Early in spring remove the covering,
and if the operation has been properly
performed, the cion will be firmly united,,
and will push into growth as the season
advances. I have had Delaware, Iona
and similar varieties make a growth of
from forty to sixty feet of vine from a
single bud in one season, set in strong
stocks in the manner described. Graft-
ing in the spring may be performed in the
same manner, omitting the covering, but
it should be done very early or after the
leaves have started and growth begun.
The cions, however, should be cut early
and kept dormant in some cool place
until wanted for use.' '

But valuable above all other expe-
rience for our own people, will be that of
Mr. George Husmann, and as he has
said little on the subject in his well
known work, "Grapes and Wine," we-
take pleasure in giving that experience,
as he has kindly communicated it to us:

"As you wished to have my views of
grafting the vine, especially with the ob-
ject of grafting some of our varieties most
subject to the ravages of the Phylloxera
upon roots of varieties which resist it, I
will cheerfully add my mite to the re-
searches which have already thrown so
much light upon the history and the fail-
ure of so many of our otherwise most
valuable varieties. My first attempts at
grafting the vine were made in the spring
of 1852, nearly twenty-three years since,
and were made by grafting the then rare
varieties of Norton's Virginia and Her-
bemont upon five years old Isabella
roots. I found in the first edition of A.
S. Downing's * Fruits and Fruit Trees of
America,' a few remarks on the practica-
bility of grafting the grape below the
ground, which led me, then a novice in
horticulture, to try it, and with eminent
success. I took the ground away from
the crown of the vine until I came to a,
smooth place, then cut off the stock,.

5:4 ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE.

split it with a grafting chisel and inserted
from one to two cions, according to size
of stock, cut to a long wedge with
shoulders on each side. I used no band-
ages, as the stocks were strong enough to
hold the cions firmly, and only pressed
moist earth on the cut to cover the wound.
This was done on the 22d and 23d of
March, and the cion covered and shaded
to the top bud. About three-fourths of
the grafts grew vigorously and fruited the
next year. They have produced heavy
crops ever since, and when at Hermann,
a week ago, I still found them vigorous
and healthy, while the Catawbas around
them have " passed away " several years
ago. I have practiced various methods
since, with more or less success, and still
think this the best and most practicable,
though it is neither an easy nor a pleas-
ant task, as it must be performed when
the ground is still cold and moist, and
requires a good deal of stooping. The
inner bark or liber of the vine is very
thin, while the outer bark is very thick
•on a large old stock. The success of the
operation depends entirely on a good
junction of the liber of stock and cion,
and therefore requires a steady hand and
a good eye to push the cion to its place.
My friends, the venerable Fr. Muench
and Samuel Miller, practice about the
same method, and are both almost inva-
riably successful. The cions should, if
possible, be cut in fall and kept on the
north side of a building or fence, so as to
remain dormant. Should the stock not
be strong enough to hold the cion firmly,
it should be tied with basswood bark, or
an oblique cut be made instead of a split.
This is preferable in small vines any way,
as by so doing, the fibres of stock and
cions are both cut obliquely, and there-
fore make a closer fit.

There are other different methods.
Another, which I will mention here, has
been practiced at Hermann with very
good success, though I have not been
very successful with it. It has the ad-
vantage of saving the vine, provided the
graft does not take. It is done by sim-
ply making an oblique cut into the stock
below the surface or crown, and insert-
ing the cion, cut a rather blunt wedge, by
lending the stock to one side, and there-
by opening the cut. If the cion takes,
the stock is cut off above it. Another

method is grafting under the bark later
in the season, when the sap flows freely
and the bark peels readily; a long,
slanting cut is made on one side of the
cion, the stock cut off square, the bark
lifted with a knife, and the scion pushed
down under it. Every one who has
practiced budding will readily perform
this operation. The stock is then tied
with basswood bark. I have followed
this plan with varied success later in the
season, but prefer the first method. I
think grafting above ground impractica-
ble in our climate, on account of the
high winds and drying influence of our
summer sun.

As to the advantages to be gained by
grafting, they are manifold. They may
be summed up as follows :

1. The facility it gives us to try and
fruit new and rare kinds by grafting them
on strong stocks of healthy varieties,
where they will often make wood strong
enough for fruiting the next season, and
give us abundance of propagating wood,
thus gaining more than a year.

2. Nearly every vineyard contains
some worthless varieties, which are, how-
ever, strong and healthy growers. These
can, by grafting, be changed into the
most valuable varieties.

3. The facility by which varieties which
are very difficult to propagate may be in-
creased and multiplied, as nearly every
variety will graft readily.

4. Last, but not least, it gives us a
means of successfully combating the
Phylloxera, as your experiments have so
conclusively proven. If the Catawba
and many of our most valuable varieties,
have deteriorated because this little in-
sect has been to work on their roots, and
the roots of other varieties are compara-
tively exempt from its ravages, the reme-
dy would indeed be a very simple one.
By planting such varieties as propagate
readily, and also graft with ease, they
could be changed by grafting the second
spring. I know, from experience, that
slow growing varieties can be made to
grow much more vigorously by grafting
on stocks of strong and healthy growers.
The most vigorous and productive Dela-
ware I know around Hermann, was
grafted on a Norton's Virginia, and pro-
duced an abundance of fine fruit, when
Delawares on their own roots, in the

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

5*S

same vineyard, dropped their leaves, and
did not ripen their fruit. It is certainly
of the utmost importance that experi-
ments of this kind should be made, and
I would advise all lovers of the Catawba
and Delaware to try it.

But now the question arises, what
stock shall we choose? The Clinton,
though easy of growth, is a poor stock, as
it suckers inveterately, and, besides, has
not the affinity to most of our valuable
varieties which makes them take readily
on it. In fact, I do not consider any of
the Riparia or Cordifolia class as good
stocks, for Labrusca and its hybrids, or
^Estivalis. But the Concord seems to
me eminently the stock to graft upon.
Easy of propagation, within the reach of
every one, with the adaptability to any
soil it possesses, and as nearly every
variety will unite readily with it, it seems
as if hardly a better one could be found.
But were I to plant it for this purpose, I
would take good, strong, plants, say at
least one foot long from the cutting to
the crown, plant them with their roots
one foot below the surface, and trim off
the surface roots clean, only leaving the
roots on the two lower joints. Then cul-
tivate well for one year, and graft as near
the surface as practicable to insure the
life of the cion. Should the plants make
roots above the junction, I would cut
them smoothly close to the graft every
spring, and thus establish the plant en-
tirely upon Concord roots. ~

This may seem very troublesome to
our friends who plant vineyards entirely
upon the easy plan, and let them take
care of themselves. But I think that
their days are numbered. This slovenly
culture, or rather no culture at all, will
never make us a wine producing country
worthy of the name ; and if we had not
a single one of that stamp left among us,
I believe we would be infinitely better off
than we are now. If France can import
millions over millions of our American
varieties to regenerate her devastated
vineyards, we can certainly afford to use
the means ready at hand. Our Ameri-
can wines have a glorious future, and we
have the material for the grandest results

already.

******

Let none follow or commence grape
growing in the future who are not willing

to do their best. We want brains and
skill, as well as muscle. We want close
observation, indefatigable exertion and
intelligent labor in the vineyard as well
as in the wine cellar. It is my belief that
the darkest days of American grape cul-
ture are over, and the future will not fail
to bring us glorious results if we labor for
it faithfully.

Your labors have done a great deal to
post us in regard to out insect enemies
and friends, and should be gratefully ap-
preciated by every grape grower, while
all should do their part in sending you
specimens and observing their habits.
Geo. Husmanw."

It will be noticed that the above expe-
rience and directions refer solely to graft-
ing underground. Both Fuller and Hus-
mann deem grafting above ground im-
practicable in our climate, principally om
account of our winds; and their advice
has been so very generally followed that
little attention has been given to this
mode of grafting the grape vine. The
consequence is that we have the most
conflicting experience as to the results of
grafting, for by the underground methods
the graft will make its own roots in the
course of a few years, unless very great
pains are taken to prevent such an occur-
rence ; that it has done so in the majori-
ty of cases of grafting in this country in
the past, admits, we think, of little doubt.
Yet, in grafting as a means of counteract-
ing the Phylloxera, the first requisite is to
prevent the graft from making any roots
of its own; for it must be remembered
that we are dealing with a root malady
purely, and that the object is to grow
those varieties whose roots succumb more
or less to the attacks of the insect, by
using the roots of those which resist;
this object is necessarily frustrated in pro-
portion as the graft forms roots of its
own.

There are two methods of grafting
above ground, which we have every reason
to believe may be made more successful
than grape growers have hitherto been
led to suppose. The first is by tempora-
rily making a false surface and grafting in
the ordinary manner just described, i. e.r
instead of digging away the earth and in-
serting the cion two or three inches below
ground, it should be inserted two or-

526 ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE.

three inches above ground and the earth
thrown up around it, to be removed only
after the graft is thoroughly and perma-
nently joined. There will then be no
danger of the graft forming its own roots;
and it is certainly as easy to throw the
■earth around the vine as to dig it away,
while the mechanical work can be much
more conveniently and agreeably per-
formed above than beneath the surface.
No doubt this mode of grafting needs
greater care to make it successful, espe-
cially in a very dry season, as the mound
is more apt to dry out than the level
ground, yet there is not lacking evidence
that this method will work well in our
soil and climate. Mr. John Vallet, of
New Haven, a grape-grower of much
experience, has had eminent success in
thus grafting above ground, employing
flax twine and paw-paw bard for bandag-
ing. He considers that the vine grows
more vigorously and that there is less
danger of separating the graft when once
formed, as there is no necessity for going be-
low ground to destroy the suckers, the do-
ing of which sometimes loosens the graft.

The second method is by inarching.
This system of grafting does not seem to
have been much practiced in this coun-
try, yet while it requires great care, and
success may not as often crown the effort
as in the former methods, we hope more
attention will in future be given to it.

The operation is comparatively simple:
A slice two or three inches long is cut
from one side of the vine to be grafted,
and a similar slice from the vine which is
to serve as stock, as near the base or butt
as possible. The two cut portions are
then brought face to face, so as to fit as
neatly as possible, and are then bound to-
gether with cord, basswood bark or other
grafting bandage, which should be kept
moist with moss. In the course of a fort-
night partial unison takes place, when the
bandage should be somewhat loosened to
admit the expansion. In six or eight
weeks, if the operation is successful, the
stock and cion are firmly united, when
the bandage may be removed. The graft
immediately below the union and the
stock immediately above it should then
be partially severed, and in a week or so
more, entirely cut loose.

The following description of the method
has been furnished us :

For this method it is desirable that two
plants, one each of the variety which is to
form the stock, and one of the cion, be
planted close together, say about one foot
apart. In June, (the first year, if the
plants make a sufficiently strong growth,
if not, the second year), or as soon as the
young shoots become sufficiently hard and
woody to bear the knife, a shoot is taken
from both the stock and the cion vine,
and at a convenient place, where they
may be brought in contact, a shaving is
taken out from each of these, on the side
next to the other, for a length of two to
three inches. This must be done with a
smooth cut of a sharp knife, a little deeper
than the inner bark, so as to obtain on
each a flat surface. They are then fitted
snugly together, so that the inner bark
joins as much as possible, and wrapped
securely with some old calico torn in
strips, or soft bass strings. Besides this,
it is well to place one tie a little below,
and one above the grafted point, and also
to tie the united canes to a stake or trellis
to insure against all chances of loosening
by the swaying of the wind. The rapid
swelling of the young growth at this
period of the year makes it desirable that
the grafts be looked over after a few weeks,
replacing such ties which may have burst,
and loosening others which may bind so
as to cut into the wood. A union will
generally be made in the course of two or
three weeks, which will be further consoli-
dated in the course of six to eight weeks,
when the bandages may be removed and
the grafted portion left exposed to the
sun, to thoroughly harden and ripen it.
The shoots themselves are to be left to
grow undisturbed for the rest of the sea-
son. In the fall, if a good union has
taken place, the cane forming the cion is
cut close below its union with the stock
cane, which in its turn is cut close above
the connection. Supposing the stock to
have been a Concord and the cion 3
Delaware, we now have a vine of the
latter entirely on the strong, vigorous root
of the former. Of course constant vigih
ance must be exercised to prevent suckers
from starting out of the stock. It is well
to protect the grafted joint the first few
winters by a slight covering of straw or
soil to prevent the frost from splitting it
apart.
The party in giving his experience,

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

5*7

-writes: "I have positively abandoned
cleft grafting; it is too much trouble and
too uncertain, and the graft often makes
its own roots. I assure you that from a
long experience in inarching, I am of the
opinion that not alone the Delaware but
most of our cultivated varieties will do
better on native wild roots than on their
own. I have fourteen acres of vines
mostly grafted in this manner on wild
stocks, and I have not lost one of such
grafts. It is preferable to graft at from
ten to fifteen inches from the ground."

Another mode of grafting above ground
is thus given in " The Cultivation of the
Grape:"

"After the first four or five leaves are
formed, and the sap is flowing, you choose
the place on the vine where you intend
to graft. At that point wrap tightly a
twine several times around the vine.
This will, in a measure, prevent the
return sap.

" Below the ligature make a sloping
cut down, as shown at Figure 50, a ;
also, a similar reversed one
above the ligature, as at b,
about one inch in length.
In selecting a cion prefer
one that has naturally a
bend. Cut it so that it shall
be wedge-shaped at both
ends, and a little longer
than the distance between
the cuts in the vine at a
and b. Insert the cion,
taking care to have the
barks in direct contact,
securing it with a string, c,
bound round both cion
and vine sufficiently tight
to force the cion ends into
their places. If the work
is done well, no tie will be
required at a and b, but the
joints should be covered
with grafting wax. In a
short time, the bud at </will commence
its growth, after which you can by degrees
remove all the growing shoots not belong-
ing to the cion, and in course of the sum-
mer you may cut off the wood above b,
and in the fall remove all above a on the
■stock, and above c on the cion.

Still another mode of grafting which has,
we believe, seldom, if ever, been attempt-
ed in this part of the country, but which

has been employed with much satisfaction
the past year by a few vine growers in
France, and especially by M. H. Bouschet,
of Montpellier, remains to be mentioned.
It is the winter grafting of a cutting of
such variety as is desired to grow, upon
another which is to
be used as stock, the
combined cuttings
being planted in the
usual manner in
spring, leaving only
the buds on the
graft proper out of
ground. This is
very similar to our
ordinary mode of
making apple grafts;
and while we have
little or no experi-
ence in this country
on which to base
anticipations, the
method is worthy of
trial, and is illus-
trated at figure 51.
But not to weary
With details, we here
reaffirm my belief,
51, strengthened by

each further observation, and by every ad-
ditional experience of the past years, that
just as the working of the root-louse is the
primal cause of failure of some of our
choicest varieties of the grapevine, so in
judicious grafting we have the most avail-
able means of counteracting its work, and
of thus growing successfully many of
those kinds which cannot be grown in
this latitude with any profit or success on
their own roots.

GRAFTING. — In grafting, a sharp pen-
knife and a good fine saw are indispensa-
ble. Splitting the stalk so that the bark
shall not be at all bruised, and shaping
the scion wedge-fashion both ways, pre-
serving also the bark uninjured, and plac-
ing the rim of the wood of both stock
and cion exactly together, so that the
sap can intermingle, there is no danger
of failure if they are properly waxed.
One year's wood should always be used
when it can be obtained, as it is more
certain to take, and grows more vigor-
ously. For grafting generally, any time
is good when growth is going on, and
there is not too much sap in the cion ;

Fig.

5*8

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

the amount in the stock makes no differ-
ence. If there is much in the scion, it is
liable to rot before the union takes place.
If scions are taken from healthy trees,
and are kept from drying, sprouting, or
other injuries, grafting may go on from
early in the spring till midsummer.

GRAFTING, (Root), Apple Trees.—
This kind of grafting is performed as
follows : Take seedling stocks one or two
years old, cut off the stock at the collar of
the plant, and remove the top root and
all unnecessary fibrous roots, leaving only
a few of them four or five inches long.
Wash the stocks, and make a very smooth
cut sloping upward an inch or so across
the collar. In the centre of this cut
make a slit or tongue to receive the scion.
The scion, three or four inches long,
should be made to fit the tongue exactly,
both the woody part and the inner bark.
On this close fitting depends the success
of the operation. This done, cover the
entire graft with the wax, or with pre-
pared wax cloth, which is nothing more
than cotton cloth spread thinly with
grafting composition while it is hot. This
work is commonly done in the leisure of
winter. After the required number of
stocks have been grafted, they are packed
away in sand in a cool cellar to be
planted in the spring.

HAY, Cutting and Curing. — i. Get
ready for haying — that is, put your mow-
ing machine, etc., in good order, so as to
have no delay when you begin the work.

2. If you have a good deal of grass to
cut, some of it should be cut a few days
before it is actually mature, or you will
be compelled to cut other fields so much
later than it ought to be cut, that you
would lose more by waiting till your
earliest grass is fully ripe, than you would
gain by waiting till it is mature ; besides,
grass cut a few days before it is strictly
ready for the mower makes excellent
hay, but not quite so much of it as when
cut later.

3. When the time comes to commence
mowing — which should be when there is
a prospect ot fair weather, go ahead and
do not wait until the dew is off, on
account of any injury the hay may sus-
tain, as you will never be able to see any
difference in value between hay, from
grass cut with or without the dews upon
it.

4. Just as soon as the sun has dried the-
upper surface of the grass, the spreading
operation may commence; and yoa
should have help enough to do the work
well. No grass cut during the previous
afternoon, and up to ten o'clock that day,
should remain unspread at dinner-time,
unless it be such as is light, and is left in
good shape to dry by the machine, as is
often the case. Keep the grass moving
as long as possible before you begin to
protect it for the night; and here we will
say that we never would allow a load of
hay to be put into our barns that was cut
the same day, except when the grass had
been delayed to be cut till it was past its.
prime and partially dry, so that a few
hours of sun and wind sufficed to cure
it.

5. After drying the hay as much as
possible up to 3 or 4 o'clock p. m., accord-
ing to the quantity of it, and hands to*
take of it, the question comes up : Is it
best to cock it, or to rake it into win-
drows, and so leave it till the succeeding
day, when, if the weather be fair, it may
be put into the barn or stack ? If left in
windrows a great deal of labor is saved,,
and if the next day is fair, the hay is in
a better condition to be spread than if in
cocks; but if a storm ensues, the hay is
in a badw shape, and will suffer injury,
according to the length of unfair weather
that takes place. No farmer should leave
his hay over night in windrows, unless
he shall have the very best of reasons for
believing that the next day will be fair.

6. Hay may be injured by drying too
much; but the wide-awake farmer will
avoid that, and either get his hay .into
windrows or cocks before it is thus dam-
aged.

HAY STACKS, To Ventilate.— Stacks;
of hay, corn-stalks, etc., may be venti-
lated by making a hole perpendicularly
through the centre, with apertures through
the base and top of sides of the stack to
admit a current of air. The orifice
should be constructed when the stack is
being built, which can easily be done by
filling a bag of the requisite size with hay
or straw, placing it upright in the centre
of the stack, drawing it upward accord-
ing as the stack rises. In this way a
chimney will be formed in the centre of
the stack, which will carry off the steam,
if the hay or corn-stalk should ferment,.

OXE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 529

and by admitting air will prevent damage
from mold. The top of the air-tunnel
should be protected by a roof to keep
out rain.

HOGS, Time to KilL — In fattening
swine, so far as money profit is concerned,
the farmer will realize the greatest net gain
by slaughtering his hogs at the age of
eight to ten months. With the smaller
breeds and thrifty pigs he can get a weight
of 250 to 300 pounds; while, as com-
monly managed, the additional eight
months add only about 100 pounds ; and
experience has shown that it costs but a
trifle more to grow and fatten a weaned
spring pig to ten months old, than to fatten,
a ten months' store hog from July to De-
cember; under favorable circumstances it
may cost less, and the net profit be in fa-
vor of the pigs.

HOT-BEDS, to Make.— They should
be in a warm position, fully exposed to
the sun, facing the east or south, and
sheltered by a fence or hedge on the
west or north. The soil should, if possi-
ble, be light and dry, as in this case the
bed can be sunk a foot or more in the
ground ; but if damp or cold, it should
be built upon the surface.

Manure fresh from the stable is best.
This should be thrown over and thor-
oughly shaken up with a fork, making it
into a conical heap. In this state it
should be allowed to remain four or five
days, at the end of which time it should
be turned over, shaking it up as before.
At the end of another three or four days,
it will be ready to make up the bed. Lay
out the ground six inches larger than the
frame, and put down a stake at each
corner. The frame may be of any size;
but the most convenient is nine by three
feet, which will make three lights, three by
six feet, the ordinary size, which can
always be had ready made. Proceed to
build up the bed to the height of two
and a half or three feet, making it rather
firm, and watering if the manure is dry.
When the bed is finished, put on the
lights, and let it stand and settle and ex-
haust the violent heat. In a day or two
add three or four inches of light, sandy
loam, spreading it evenly over the bed.
If the seeds are sown in the soil of the
bed, two or three inches should be added;

but, if in pots, no addition will be
necessary.

The pots being ready, and sown with
the various seeds, should be put into the
frame shading them during the day, and
regulating the temperature by tilting the
lights at the back, both night and day,
and covering at night with mats. Plunge
the pots in the soil, and, with proper
care, the seeds will soon be above the
soil. A thermometer placed in the bed
will be the safest guide to the inexperi-
enced. It should not rise above 85
degrees in the day, nor sink below 60 de-
grees at night. As the heat declines,,
linings of fresh manure should be applied
around the outside of the bed; but,
ordinarily, for seed this is not necessary.

The length or number of the frames is
immaterial; but they should be nine to
twelve inches deep at the front, and fif-
teen to eighteen inches at the back. This
will give a good slope to ' carry off the
rain. Cold frames are simply the hot-bed
frame set upon a warm spot of ground,
covering it at night to keep in the warmth
accumulated during the day.

IRRIGATION.— By judicious flooding
the yield of grass land may be doubled ;
but by flooding at improper seasons the
grass may be destroyed. Water should
not be permitted to lie on grass more
than two days at a time, nor more than
two inches in depth, and not at all during
the winter. If the land is to be seeded
the coming spring, the water may be
turned on at sundown as soon as the
grass has become well started, and during
the dry spells weekly, or bi-weekly if rains
occur. It should never be turned on
while the soil is heated during the day-
time. When the grass has well covered:
the ground and it is nearly ready for cut-
ting, no water should be given for two>
weeks before the hay is made. When*
that is done, watering should be repeated
as before until another cutting is ready-
No water should be given for a month
previous to the winter, as it is very injuri-
ous during the frosts. The aftermath
should be permitted to die down on the
meadow on the approach of winter, as a
protection to the roots from frost. Under
such treatment four tons of hay has been
gathered from one acre. Such a meadow
would be improved also by underdraining;
with the irrigation.

53°

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

HEDGES AND HEDGE PLANTS.—

Live fences, as they are very properly
termed, have long been held in high esti-
mation for inclosures when plants suita-
ble for the purpose could be secured. The
maintenance of efficient fencing is a
heavy tax upon all who occupy land, and
the cost is greatly increased when the
materials are difficult to procure, and re-
quire frequent repairs. If the chronolog-
ical history of fences should ever be writ-
ten it might be divided into three epochs:
the temporary, the equivocal and the per-
manent; or the period of the wooden
fence, the live fence, (possibly including
the wire fence,) and the fence of stone.
To obtain a good hedge requires a suit-
able plant, care in its formation, and
proper keeping afterwards. Neglect of
any one of these essentials will prove fatal
to the object in view, whether as a pro-
tection against depredators or as a shel-
ter for ameliorating local climates.

For farm hedges there are only two
plants which can be considered as being
perfectly satisfactory. These are the
•Osage orange and the honey locust. The
'Osage orange is perhaps to be preferred
in localities where it is sufficiently hardy.
It is cheaply produced, of rapid growth,
thickens its branches freely when pruned,
has formidable thorns, is not liable to in-
sect injuries, not eaten by cattle, and will
grow in any soil of ordinary fertility.
The honey locust is a good plant in more
northern localities, where the Osage or-
ange is destroyed by cold. It is also well
. supplied with thorns, is of rapid growth,
. and will make a fence as soon as the
• other. It has very beautiful and delicate
foliage, and is more robust, but less dense,
than the Osage — which is rather an ad-
vantage than otherwise for a strong fence.
iSome of the best hedges in the country
.are of this plant.

Seeds or plants of either of the preced-
ing are easily obtained; but, where time
is a matter of consideration, it will be ad-
visable to procure plants, which are now
produced in large quantities by nursery-
men, and sold at prices much less than the
cost of growing them on a small scale. It
is scarcely possible to form a good hedge
iby sowing the seed on the position which
the hedge is to occupy. The casualties
,of growth will certainly produce many
iareak plants that will be eventually de-

stroyed by their stronger neighbors, leav-
ing unsightly blanks, and greatly dimin-
ishing the uniform efficiency of the hedge.
When the plants are properly assorted as
to size before setting, an equality of
growth is at once established.

In preparing the soil for a hedge-row
a breadth of three to four feet will be
amply sufficient. If plowed, the ridges
should be thrown toward the centre, form-
ing a slightly mounded finish. In stiff
soils this can be done to a greater advant-
age in autumn by throwing the furrows on
each side from the centre of the hedge
line, so that the frosts of winter may pen-
etrate and loosen the subsoil; and then
throwing them together in spring, to be
ready for planting.

The best distance to set plants is from
ten to fourteen inches apart, and in a sin-
gle row. On poor soils, or for a mere
ornamental dividing hedge, the closer dis-
tance may be adopted ; and for a strong
fence, or on rich soils, the wider will not be
too great. They may be set either in
fall or spring, according to the location.
If the position is elevated, and the soil
naturally dry, fall planting is to be pre-
ferred ; in low positions, or in wet soil,
spring planting is safer, as the plants are
liable, in such soils, to be thrown out of
the ground during winter. Even in wet
soils, however, the practice of planting
in the fall has of late been adopted, and
with perfect success, by placing the plants
in a slanting position, instead of an up-
right one, and covering them slightly with
litter. No hedge will be perfectly satis-
factory in soils saturated with water dur-
ing winter.

The perfection of a hedge, even with
the best plants, depends altogether upon
the treatment it receives in its early
growth. Neglect in pruning, during this
period, can seldom be remedied in after
years; and to this, more than to any
other cause, failures in forming good
hedges may be attributed. A brief state-
ment of the principles involved in form-
ing them will, therefore, be given.

The only form in which a hedge can be
kept, to be of service as a fence, is that
of a pyramid. When it has attained a
height of five feet it should be at least
three feet wide at the base or surface of
the ground. All pruning must be direct-
ed with a view to securing this form.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 531

When the plants are first set out they should
be pruned back to within three inches of
the ground, and allowed to grow undis-
turbed during the first season, their
growth in the meantime being encouraged
by judicious cultivation. At the termi-
nation of the yearly growth the plants
should again be pruned down to within
four inches of the first pruning, and the
side shoots below this point also be re-
moved to within an inch of the main
stem. This severe pruning of the branch-
es will give to the roots a vigorous
growth; and, when the buds burst in
spring, strong shoots will immediately
follow. During this second year's growth
the hedge may be partially shaped by
repressing the growth of the strongest
perpendicular shoots, and encouraging
those of horizontal tendency. Practical-
ly this is accomplished by going over the
plants about the end of June, and cutting
all upright shoots back to a point about
eight inches above the previous winter
pruning, taking care not to disturb a
shoot or leaf on the side branches below
that point. In thus cutting back the up-
right shoots, the side growth will be in-
creased, and a breadth of base secured,
which, at this stage of growth, is the most
important point of all. In the following
winter the hedge, if it has progressed at
all favorably, may be pruned down to
fourteen inches in height from the ground
surface, with the horizontal branches ex-
tending from nine to twelve inches on
each side. The principles of pruning
are that growth is repressed by summer
trimming, and encouraged by pruning
after the leaves have fallen. By keeping
these facts in mind, and practicing ac-
cordingly, the shaping of a hedge is only
a work of time. The lower branches
can always be retained as healthy, and
produce as much density of foliage as the
upright portion of the plants, if the pyr-
amidal form is strictly maintained ; but if,
at any time, the upright growth predomi-
nates, the lower limbs will proportionate-
ly lose vigor. The upright shoots should,
therefore, be pruned during summer, in
order to weaken the growth at that point,
and to strengthen and keep the base of
the hedge vigorous and close. The prin-
cipal pruning of the lower branches
should be performed during winter.
This is the only way in which a hedge

can be made that will be effective as a
fence; and the neglect of the principles
here suggested is generally the origin of
the conflicting opinions with regard to the
value and efficiency of hedges as farm
fences. They may receive some atten-
tion for a year or two, but when it be-
comes thoroughly understood that they
cannot be preserved unless trimmed dur-
ing summer, when attention is wholly
given to ordinary crops, farmers are not
always disposed to give hedges the atten-
tion necessary to keep them in good con-
dition ; and therefore they fail to be of
service. It should, however, be remem-
bered that, as the hedge becomes perfect,
the yearly labor to keep it in order grad-
ually becomes less ; and at no time does
it require so much labor as that required
to keep a common wooden fence in good
repair.

For purposes of protection and shelter
to gardens, or as dividing lines in the
grounds of country and suburban resi-
dences, hedges are of the greatest utility.
For these purposes there is an extensive
choice of plants, both evergreen and de-
ciduous. A well-grown evergreen hedge
is found to be as congenial a protection
for the garden as a brick wall. The com-
mercial value of shelter, in accelerating
early crops, is not so generally known as
it deserves to be ; yet it is fully appreci-
ated and adopted by many of the most
successful cultivators; and, as a means of
arresting drying winds ana lessening
evaporation in level tracts destitute of
trees, no just estimate can be made of the
intrinsic value of close-foliaged hedges.

Among evergreen plants the Norway
spruce is the most valuable where a high,
strong, wind-break is necessary ; and, for
the purposes of sheltering orchards and
vineyards, it is unsurpassed. It will, in
time, form a very close and compact
hedge when trimmed; but to produce
an effective shelter in the shortest period,
the plants should be set four to six feet
apart in the row or line, and allowed to
grow undisturbed, so far as pruning is
concerned, until the leading or top shoot
reaches the required height. Then by
merely trimming the top, so as to keep it
at this height, the side branches will
spread and interlace, forming a screen
quite as effective and more beautiful than
a closely-clipped hedge.

53-

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

For general purposes, perhaps the most
useful plant, all things considered, for an
evergreen hedge, is the American arbor
vitae. Its habit of changing to a dingy
brown color during winter is a fault easily
overlooked, and more than compensated
by its numerous good qualities. It is a
plant of free growth, readily transplanted,
of comparatively small cost, and grows
well in any good soil, but preferably in
a clayey loam. Plants of one foot in
height, set twelve to fourteen inches apart,
will reach five feet in as many years.
The variety Siberica is more compact in
growth, and forms a perfect and shapely
hedge, without any trimming whatever.

The most beautiful and graceful hedges
are formed by the hemlock spruce. Al-
though sometimes of slow growth after
removal, yet it develops rapidly when
once fairly established. Nothing can ex-
ceed the beauty of its pendant branches
of delicate foliage; and no other plant
will admit of shearing into so dense a
wall of green as this. For a dividing line
in the pleasure ground or flower garden it
is most admirably suited.
' There is a great variety of deciduous
plants well adapted for inside hedges,
such as may be planted for protection of
crops, or as ornamental dividing lines in
gardens, but which will not be suitable as
fences for stock ; of these a few of the
best may be mentioned :

The Buckthorn, although of slender
growth, forms a tolerably good hedge.
It has a glossy and lively green foliage,
which it retains quite into winter, thus
affording protection for a lengthened
period.

A very beautiful hedge can be pro-
duced from the common English maple.
This small tree is naturally compact in its
habit of growth, and requires very little
pruning to keep it in form. For a shel-
ter belt, when a smoothly trimmed hedge
may not be desired, this will be found
suitable. It has small foliage, ♦ and the
whole plant is eminently neat, hardy, and
free from insects.

The European hornbeam is a good
hedge plant. It has a very dense foliage,
and the small ovate leaves are closely set
on the branches. It is rather slow in
growth, but, in consequence of not re-
quiring to be shortened by pruning, as is
the case with luxuriant growing plants,

the growth is economical, and a hedge
soon formed. In ancient gardening,
when topiary work was fashionable and
plants were trained and pruned into forms
of birds, vases, etc., the hornbeam was
largely used and held in high esteem.

A pleasing variety of color may be in*
troduced by forming a hedge of the pur-
ple-leaved berberry. This plant persist-
ently retains its color throughout the
summer, and with care can be kept in
good shape as a hedge.

For rapid growth, easy propagation/and
ample foliage of shining deep green color,
there is no plant superior to the Japan
privet. This must not be confounded
with the common privet, a small-leaved
and much inferior plant. Cuttings of the
Japan privet may be inserted at once
where the hedge is to be formed. They
will root quite as speedily as the easiest
rooting willow twig. A splendid shelter
or screen, eight feet in height and four
feet in width, has been grown in five
years from the time of inserting the cut-
tings. It is almost an evergreen, retain-
ing its foliage even after severe frost.
Twenty degrees of frost, in December,
has no effect on the foliage, and for at
least nine months of the year it is clothed
with the richest verdure.

For sheltering orchards, vineyards, or
fields, a free-growing plant, of compact
habit, should be selected. Such are the
Osage orange, white birch, English bird-
cherry, honey locust, English maple, Eu-
ropean larch, English alder, many of the
willows, and the Lombardy poplar. Any
of these will, in a few years, afford an
efficient shelter. They may be planted
from four to six feet apart, and allowed
to take their natural habit of growth until
they reach a height of ten or fifteen feet..
If the tops are then removed or checked,
so as to repress upward elongation, they
will spread and interlace their lower
branches, forming a thick shelter, without
the trim, formal appearance of a regularly
cut hedge.

It may be safely asserted that no length-
ened period of uniform success in fruit
culture can be realized in exposed situ-
ations, unless a systematic plan of shel-
tering by belts or hedge rows is intro-
duced ; and the time is fast approaching
when no person will think of planting
fruit trees, or raising fine fruits of any

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 533

"kind, without first preparing for them a
thoroughly protected situation.

HEDGE, Seed for Planting.— Gather
them in the fall when fully ripe and com-
mence to fall of their own accord, shell
and store them in a cool, airy place, to
insure them not to mold. In the spring
in good weather, and at the time of
planting corn, put them in a bowl or
crock, and pour boiling water on them
until the seed are covered, and let them
stand in a cool place eight or ten hours ;
then pour off this water and put on boil-
ing water as before. After standing from
four to six hours drain off the water
again, and they are ready immediately to
plant in the ground, which must have
been well prepared by plowing up into a
ridge where the fence is designed to be.
Then mark off a straight shallow furrow,
and drop two or three seeds in a place,
18 or 20 inches apart; cover one or two
inches deep, owing to the weather. They
will be up in four or five days ; cultivate
as corn, and if necessary use the hoe to
clear them of weeds. If all have come
up well they can be dug up in the fall
and saved, except one in a place, and
those that have been kept through the
winter can be planted in the spring the
same as the Osage orange, only earlier in
the season. If any have missed grow-
ing, be sure and fill the space with a
strong, vigorous plant; cultivate the
second year the same as the first. By
having the plants the distance designated
enables them to throw out a considerable
number of side branches, which are
essential and should not be cut off. At
two or three years old they may or may
not be cut and plashed down as Osage
orange ; if not cut down, they should be
top trimmed, so as to keep the side
branches alive and thrifty, which insures
a growth of thorns on the side branches,
and renders it stock-proof.

HOG CHOLERA.— We find the follow-
ing in the Southern Cultivator:

" Last year I lost nearly all my hogs
with hog cholera. My neighbor lost none
scarcely, which led me to believe that he
must possess a sovereign remedy for this
evil. I asked why he lost no hogs. His
reply was, that he ' kept them clear of
worms, and stimulated with black pepper.
I first fed them on corn soaked in lye and
•copperas, to clear them of worms ; after- j

wards, gave them plenty of black pepper.
Those that were sick got well, and those
that were well remained so, of course.'

" This year I have given my hogs an
occasional dose, twice a week, of kero-
sene oil, said to be a preventive of chol-
era. Several of my neighbors lost nearly
all their hogs, and six weeks ago mine
showed signs of disease, and I concluded
to try the lye and pepper. I prepared it
as follows : First, shell an ear of corn and
soak in strong lye all night ; next morn-
ing add a half teaspoonful of pulverized
copperas. Mix, and feed in a trough.
This was repeated on the following morn-
ing, and a half teaspoonful of black pep-
per was added. After this I put a tea-
spoonful of pulverized pepper in the food,
boiled grits, every other morning for a
week.

" Result. — My hogs stopped dying ; all
that ate got well, and are as thrifty now
as I could wish. The above is the dose
for a single hog. It is simple and reliable ;
as a preventive it cannot be beat, and I
have seen hogs sick — very sick, too —
restored too good health by the use of
this remedy."

HORSE RADISH, Culture of.— The
soil must be deep, so as to allow the roots
to penetrate a foot or more if possible.

The sets which are planted consist of
the small roots taken from the large
ones, and are from four to six inches in
length. In order to distinguish the bot-
tom from the top end of the sets, a
slanting cut is made across the lower end,
while the top is cut off square. When
planted upside down they will grow, but
the roots are apt to be irregular and
branching. These sets are planted in
May, in rows two feet apart and eighteen
inches between the plants. During the
summer it is only necessary to keep the
weeds down and the soil loose. Horse
radish is not injured by frost, and may
remain in the ground until quite late.
Just before the ground closes up the roots
are dug, and after trimming off the small
rootlets for sets for planting the next
season, the large roots are either stored in
pits in the open ground, or preserved in
sand in a cool, dry cellar. The
small rootlets are preserved in sand,
taking care not to make the layers of
roots so large that they will heat.

534-

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

MANURE FUE, Management of.—
Every manure heap consists of three por-
tions, and all of these require very differ-
ent means for their preservation. We
have first the carbonaceous matter. This
forms the chief bulk of every manure
heap, and from the fact that it came orig-
inally from the atmosphere, and that it
can be replaced from the same source,
theorists who have not carefully watched
the results attained in the practice are apt
to depreciate its value. It is not as valu-
able as the other two constituents, but it
serves to bring the land into fine, friable,
mellow condition, and it is by no means
certain that the carbonic acid, furnished
by its decomposition, is not a source of
plant-food. Under any circumstacnes,
however, it is well to be economical of it,
and allow none to go to waste.

The second portion is the inorganic
plant-food of animals. It consists of
phosphoric acid, lime, potash, soda, mag-
nesia, soluble silica, etc., and the great
source of loss of these constituents is
from their being washed out. They can-
not evaporate, but if the rain and liquid
manure are allowed to fall on a manure
heap, and drain through it and out of it,
the manure pile becomes a mere caput
mortuum — a worthless residuum of origi-
nally valuable materials. Hence every
barnyard where manure is kept exposed
to the weather, should be hollowed out
in the centre and well puddled, so as to
prevent the soluble matters from draining
or soaking away. Moreover, if the farm-
is located in a region where a great deal
of rain falls, it is necessary to place a
large portion of the barnyard under the
cover of sheds, which prevent excessive
wetting. Some moisture is absolutely
necessary. Too much is decidedly in-
jurious.

The third constituent of the manure
heap is nitrogen. This is a substance of
great and undoubted value, and every
care should be taken to preserve and in-
crease it. When vegetable substances
containing nitrogen undergo putrefaction,
in a moist state, the nitrogen in general
becomes converted into ammonia. The
same process of putrefaction, however,
produces carbonic acid in large quantities,
and this combines with the ammonia
to form carbonate of ammonia. This
salt is comparatively volatile, and if

the manure is allowed to dry up, while
exposed, in thin layers, the ammonia dis-
appears. Several agents may be set to-
work to fix and retain it.

Water is one of these — carbonate of
ammonia dissolves very readily in water,
and does not then evaporate to the same
extent that it would do from a dry mass.

The great agent in the fixing of ammo-
nia on the manure heap is the humic and
similar acids, produced during the decom-
position of the straw. These acids do it
very effectually, and hence the importance
of mixing animal excrement with a large
proportion of moist straw.

One of the most powerful fixers of am-
monia is plaster or sulphate of lime.
When this meets carbonate of ammonia
in solution decomposition ensues. Car-
bonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia
are formed, and as sulphate of ammonia
is not volatile at ordinary temperatures,
there is no danger of loss except by its
being washed out.

Hence a few simple rules will enable us
to manage a manure heap so as to avoid
any very great loss :

i. Prevent all loss by drainage and
soaking.

2. See that the animal excrements are
covered with moist straw.

3. See that, while too much water is
avoided, there is a sufficiency to keep the
manure moist.

4. Moisture and packing prevent fire
fanging — that is, too rapid fermentation.

5. If you find it convenient to use a
few bushels of plaster, sprinkle them over
the heap so that the plaster will be incor-
porated with the successive layers. It
will thus prove of great service.

MANURE, to Shelter.— We lose a
great deal from the washing of manure,
when out of doors, as well as by evapo-
ration. My experience has led me to the
conclusion that we want a tight bottom to
our manure receptacle as much as we
want a tight roof overhead. When I
raised my old barn to put a cellar under
it I saw that the earth underneath looked
damp and very rich, and I dug out and
put away as manure all that had the
slightest tinge showing that it had been
colored by the manure that had soaked
through the floor. I have no doubt I
had lost for years quite a quantity of val-
uable manure in that way. But when I

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 535:,

got down to the clear sand, as white as
the sand on the sea shore, we came to the
conclusion that that was not good for
anything, and we used it to grade up
around my house, intending to spread
some soil over it in order to make the
grass grow. Very much to my surprise,
this sand that we had taken from two and
a half to three feet below the surface,
that was entirely barren, as we supposed,
threw up a rank growth of barn grass
that lasted one year. We thought if it
would bear barn grass we would wait and
see what else it would bear. That barn
grass went out the next year, and up
came a growth of witch grass ; and from
that day to this, fifteen years or more,
that ground has grown witch grass every
year, without a particle of manure.
What does this show? It shows that
these fertilizers, particularly liquid man-
ure, go down further than we have any
idea of, and that we are losing more
every year than we are aware of, by not
having it in the bottom of our barn-cel-
lars.

MANURE, Garden Refuse as.— Green
stuff, such as cabbage leaves, radish and
beet tops, and the like, should not be
allowed to dry. Let them go while fresh
to the pig-pen or to the compost heap.
Young weeds — and old ones ought not
to be found in the garden — should have
the same destination. By saving all the
refuse of the garden in a heap by itself,
or putting it in the pig-pen, a surprising
accumulation of valuable compost will be
found at the end of the season.

MANURE, Hen. — A mixture of hen-
dung, unleached wood-ashes and plaster,
frequently has a wonderful effect on corn.
If the ashes and the hen-manure are per-
fectly dry, no decomposition or chemical
change will take place when they are
mixed together. But if moist, more or
less ammonia will escape, and the plaster
will not hold it. The only advantage of
mixing these articles together, aside from
the ease of applying them, is probably
this : When the dry hen-manure is thor-
oughly broken up fine, and mixed with
the ashes and plaster, and applied in the
hill, the moist soil soon induces chemical
action. This produces more or less heat
immediately under the seed and favors
germination; carbonate of ammonia
would also be given off, and would be

absorbed by the soil immediately in con-
tact with the roots of the young corn
plants, and would, if everything is favor-
able, cause them to grow rapidly and
assume a dark-green color. But care
must be used in applying the mixture, or
it may do more harm than good by burn-
ing the roots. It should be well mixed
with the soil, and not come in direct
contact with the seed. Some persons
apply it on the hill after the plants are
up, just as they frequently apply the plas-
ter or ashes alone.

MANURE, Leaves as. — Forest leaves
are excellent to supply the stable-yards,
and, where straw is scarce, also the cow-
stables and hog-pens. They can be
most conveniently gathered after the first
snow, or at least before the wintry blasts-
have scattered them. They then lay
compactly, and, being moist, can be han-
dled with greater facility. Leaves absorb
large quantities of liquid manure, and are
an excellent fertilizer in spring. They
can be gathered, too, when other labor
about the farm is slack.

INSECTS, to Destroy.— In some sea-
sons the vegetables in our gardens are
almost annihilated by worms of several
species. Fall plowing, or spading the
ground just before frost sets in, and strew-
ing the ground with fine salt in the;
spring some time before the seeds are
sown, are said to be sovereign remedies-
against these petty but powerful depre-
dators.

Some vegetables are offensive to all in-
sects, such as the elder, especially the
dwarf kind, the onion, tansy, and tobacco,
except the worm that preys on the plant.
The juice of these may therefore be ap-
plied, with effect, in repelling insects ; and
sometimes the plants themselves when
green, or when reduced to powder, par-
ticularly the latter, when made into snuff.

Set an onion in the centre of a hill of
cucumbers, squashes, melons, etc., and it
will effectually banish the bugs.

To destroy on trees, plants, shrubs, etc.,
tie up some flour of sulphur in a piece of
gauze, and dust the plants with it

LETTUCE, SNAILS, to Protect from. —
If the beds are surrounded by a slate or
board edging, made to stand five inches
above the ground, and occasionally coat-
ed with a paste made of train-oil and sootr

53^

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

it will form a barrier over which snails will
not pass.

Lettuce in Winter. — It is said that
heads of lettuce can be produced in win-
ter in from 24 to 48 hours, by taking a
box filled with rich earth, in which one-
third part of slaked lime has been mixed,
and watering the earth with lukewarm
water; then taking seed which had been
previously softened by soaking in strong
brandy for 24 hours, and sowing in the
usual way. We are assured, but will not
vouch for the tact, that a good-sized head
of lettuce may be obtained in the time
mentioned.

MAPLE TREES, To Tap.— Much in-
jury is often ignorantly and thoughtlessly
inflicted on sugar maple trees by excessive
tapping, and various negligent practices
in connection with the operation. As a
guard against such malpractice the fol-
lowing rules will be useful : 1. Use noth-
ing larger than a three-fourth inch auger
or bitt. One-half to five-eighths of an
inch is best. 2. Do not open the trees
until they will run equally well on all
sides. 3. Select the thriftiest part of the
tree that is farthest from an old orifice.
4. Never put more than one spout to a
tree that is less than one foot in diameter,
nor more than one bucket to one less
than eighteen inches in diameter. 5.
Never bore trees more than once in a
season, but freshen them once, or any
time after a long and hard freeze. 6.
Never leave spouts in the trees a single
day after they have done running. The
•quicker the orifices dry, the less they de-
cay.

The following facts should also be re-
membered : The root of a tree will some-
times run more than the body. A healthy
tree runs in proportion to the size of its
top, and should be opened with respect
to its capacity for production. Trees in
open grounds, with spreading tops, dis-
charge more and much sweeter water
than those in a forest.

MAPLE SUGAR, Making.— First, the
sweetness and cleanliness of the tubs, and
everything connected with the sugar
orchard, and without this requisite no
one can make the best quality of sugar.
And we think that tin tubs are much bet-
ter than wooden ones, for tin tubs are
easier kept clean and sweet. The sap
will penetrate the wood of the wooden

tub, and sours and dries during the last
part of sugaring; and another advantage
tin has over wood is, you can gather the
sap earlier in the morning from the tin
tubs than you can from the wooden ones.
Most of the wooden tubs are manufac-
tured of timber embracing the sap as
well as the heart timber. This sap-wood
sours much quicker than the heart-wood,
so that heart tubs are preferable to those
containing the sap-wood. We notice
that some use wooden tubs painted in-
side and out, and think them preferable
to tin, as they do not warm the sap as
much in a sunny day as the tin does, and
will therefore keep the sap longer sweet ;
but the fact is that sap should not stand
in any tub longer than one can help, and
as the sap can be gathered from a tin tub
whenever it is warm enough for it to run,
and as it will keep longer in bulk if gath-
ered when it is cold than it will in the
sap tubs, it gives the tin tubs an advant-
age in this direction.

Sap should be gathered and boiled as
soon as possible after it has left the tree.
This is one of the main points on which
good or poor sugar depends, for the lon-
ger sap stands after it has left the trees,
before it is boiled, the more color there
will be in the sugar. Sap should be
strained before it is boiled, to take out all
foreign substances, and in boiling it one
should make it a point to syrup-off quite
often, as the continued boiling of the
same sweet for a long time will color it,
and the boiling apparatus should be con-
structed with special reference to this
idea, and the syrup should be sugared off
as soon as it has stood sufficient time to
settle, and it should stand in tin cans,
and be kept in a cool, dark place, if pos-
sible. Sap commences to change as soon
as it leaves the tree, and should therefore
be worked up as soon as possible ; and
our motto should be, in making sugar,
first, cleanliness, secondly, expeditious-
ness, and thirdly, to get all foreign sub-
stances out of it, and to put none in,
either in boiling the sap or in sugaring
off.

MILDEW, Sulphur for.— The efficacy
of sulphur in destroying and preventing
mildew is now well known, and it is the
chief reliance of the vine-grower, whether
he cultivates under his glass or in the
open air. Where sulphuring is systemati-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 537

•cally followed, it is applied at least three
times — just before the blossoming of the
vines, after the fruit has set, and when it
begins to color; and, beside these stated
periods, it is applied whenever the ap-
pearance of mildew indicates that it is
necessary. The mode of application, by
La Vergne's bellows is the popular way
of applying the sulphur. The bellows
may now be obtained at most implement
stores. The character of the sulphur is
of importance, as much of that found in
commerce is liable to contain acid, and
be injurious to the foliage. Sulphur con-
taminated by acid may be detected by
the taste, but a more delicate test is
litmus paper. This is paper stained with
a blue dye, which turns red when it is
touched by acids ; it is kept by the drug-
gists. The sulphur to be tested is mixed
with a little water and the paper wetted
with the liquid. If the least trace of the
acid be present, it will be indicated by
the change in color of the paper. Some-
times sulphur is not sublimed as above
described, but the crude lumps are ground
to powder in a mill. Sulphur thus pre-
pared is free from acid.

MILK-ROOM, Charcoal in.— The fact
that milk will absorb noxious gases to
such an extent as to greatly impair its
excellence as well as its healthfulness, is
known to every dairyman. The power
of absorption is not confined to the milk
itself, but it extends to all the products
that naturally form, or are artificially pre-
pared from it, where they are cream, or
butter and cheese. The ill flavor, as well
as the disagreeable odor, of much of our
butter and cheese, are not imparted to
them from substances that existed in the
milk when it was drawn from the cow,
but which were taken up while the milk
was setting in pans or tanks, during the
manufacture into butter and cheese, or
while these products of the dairy are
awaiting sale. How shall the air that
enters our milk-room be purified? The
answer is easily made — use charcoal.
This common and inexpensive substance,
when freshly prepared, is capable of tak-
ing up and securely holding ninety times
its volume of ammonia, and a propor-
tionate amount of other cases. Not only
•does it tightly hold the portions of
noxious matter that pass through its
meshes, but it also seems to have the

property of attracting them from the
surrounding air.

MILE, To Deodorize. — It frequently
occurs in the spring, when the farmers
are feeding the cows upon ruta-bagas, or
turnips, that the milk becomes so strongly
impregnated by their disagreeable taste
and odor as to be unfit for butter-making.
To obviate this, put a pinch of finely
pulverized saltpetre into every gallon of
cream. A little saltpetre worked into
butter that has become sour, or rancid,
will render it sweet and palatable.

MILDEW ON ROSES, Remedy for—
Mix equal parts, by weight, of powdered
sulphur and quicklime. Moisten with
water, and let the lime slake in contact
with the sulphur. After the lime is
slaked, place the whole in a kettle with
plenty of water, and boil it until you get
a saturated solution of the sulphuret of
lime. This will be transparent and of an
amber color, and should be drawn off and
preserved in bottles for use. A gill of
this added to a gallon of water, and ap-
plied with a syringe, will kill the mildew
without injuring the roses.

MOTHS, (Codling), To Trap.— Take
old cider, or cider vinegar, not very
sharp; put half a pint in some open
vessel, and hang it in all parts of the
orchard when in bloom — empty fruit jars,
or tin oyster cans with the top all off
would do. The string holding the vessel
should be so placed that it would not
turn the water running down the limb
into the vinegar or cider. If you have a
large crop to harvest, you will want to
look to them every week or two to empty
and renew if necessary.

OATS. — Oats are chiefly sown after
grass; sometimes upon land not rich
enough for wheat, that has been previous-
ly summer-fallowed, or has carried turnips;
often after barley, and very rarely after
wheat, unless cross-cropping, from particu-
lar circumstances, becomes a necessary
evil. One plowing is generally given to
the grass lands, usually in the month of
January, so that the benefit of frost may
be gained, and the land sufficiently mel-
lowed for receiving the harrow. In some
cases a spring furrow is given when oats
succeed wheat or barley, especially when
grass seeds are to accompany the crop.
The best oats, both in quantity and
quality, are always those which succeed

53»

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

grass; indeed, no kind of grain seems
better qualified by nature for foraging
upon grass land than oats ; as a full crop
is usually obtained in the first instance,
and the land left in good order for the
succeeding crops.

ONION, Culture of. — The onion is
classed among the hardy vegetables, and,
in fact, is one of the hardiest of the hardy.

It would be well to have the land
plowed, cross-plowed and harrowed in
the fall; and then in the spring, just as
soon as it is possible for the ground to be
worked, plow, cross -plow and harrow
thoroughly once more.

Should your ground not have been
plowed in the fall, give it as thorough
plowing, cross-plowing and harrowing as
you possibly can, early in the spring,
breaking it into fine particles so as to
leave no clods.

A sandy, alluvial soil is the best ; but
any rich loam, well manured, will answer.
At all times a new soil is much the best,
as the onions grow much more rapidly,
and are less troubled with weeds.

Sow just as soon as the land can be got
into good condition, in drills sixteen
inches apart, and from half an inch to an
inch in depth.

The Large Red Annual Onion, or
Wethersfield Red, as it is generally called,
is most likely to produce a good crop.
Another variety, known as the Early Red,
will mature perhaps a week in advance
of the Large Red, but will not produce as
large an onion. The yellow and white
onions will not produce with us the full-
sized onion the first year, but require first
to have the seed sown thickly to produce
what are known as the "sets." These
" sets " are kept over winter, planted out
in the spring, and then produce the large
onion. The "sets" known as Yellow
and White can be procured at any seed-
store.

It will take five pounds of seed, if sown
by hand, and four pounds, if sown with a
good seed-drill, per acre.

When the plants are three to four inches
high, thin out to a distance of two inches
apart. Keep clear of weeds. In culti-
vating, be careful not to stir the soil too
deep, nor collect it about the growing
bulb. A top-dressing of wood-ashes would
be found very beneficial after the second
weeding, and would soon be observed in

the increased health and color of the
plants.

Should there be any stiff-necked or
scullions in the patch, roll the whole bed
with a moderately light drum-roller. This
will cause the necks or outgrowth to settle
back in the bulb.

Gather when the tops are wilted and
dried. Let them lie a day or two on the
ground to dry ; then top and remove to a
cool place to keep for future use.

A cool, dry season is best to bring
them to perfection. Hog manure, ap-
plied in the fall, and well plowed in, will
be found one of the most beneficial for
this crop. The onion, unlike other crops,
can be grown in a constant succession,
without the least deterioration on the
same ground for a number of years.

ONION, Blight and Smut.— The onion-
blight and smut is at times very destruc-
tive to the onion crop, turning the most
promising fields in a few days to scenes
of desolation, which is caused, in my
opinion, by a parasitic plant, growing
upon and consuming the vitality of the
onion. The onion-smut so impregnates
the land with its spores as to render it un-
safe to plant onions for several years on
land thus affected. White blight comes
upon the crop at the period of its most
vigorous growth, in a dry time, showing
its effect perhaps in a small spot at first,
but, in case the dry atmosphere continues,
rapidly spreading over the whole field.
Two or three days give sufficient time to
stop entirely all future growth of the crop,
unless a change in the weather occurs un-
favorable to the growth of the parasite.

In many localities rank weeds might be
procured in great abundance on fields in-s
tested by the fungi (on the field alluded
to, weeds three feet in height grew in pro-
fusion); were they cut down, sun-dried,
spread over the field, and with them,
brushwood and all useless materials found
about the farm burned, the surtace-spores,
and all germs of a parasitic life within
reach would be consumed, and caustiq
potash, lime and charcoal would be liber-
ated and diffused over the field for the
benefit of the succeeding crops.

PARASITES, to Destroy. — The best
and simplest, as well as the safest, wash
to destroy fleas, mites, itch-insects, mange
acari, and all external parasites of men
and animals (and probably the mange in

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 539

horses), is a solution of sulphuret of
potassium in water, say two to four
ounces to a gallon of cold water, varying
the strength according to the age and the
tenderness of the skin of the animal, as
the solution will contain some potash,
which, if too strong, would irritate a deli-
cate skin. There is no danger in its ap-
plication, but it has the disagreeable odor
of sulphuretted hydrogen. The sulphuret
of potassium comes in the form of green-
ish or greyish lumps, put up in tight bot-
tles. It is used in photography, and can
usually be bought at the principal drug
stores.

Carbolic acid, diluted in water, is also
recommended as an excellent wash for
killing most kinds of parasites.

PARSNTPS, To Raise.— Select a heavy,
but clean and rich, loam. Plow it deep,
and harrow it thoroughly as early as it
can be worked ; mark off in rows fifteen
inches apart, and drill in the seed or sow
by hand. Use plenty of the seed, two
or three to the inch, and be sure it is
fresh. Go through the rows with a
pronged hoe, or other implement, as
soon as they can be distinguished. When
large enough, thin the plants to stand
four or five inches apart, and be sure that
they stand singly. Keep the land very
clean by frequent hoeing.

PEACH TREES, Management of.—
Seedling trees are the longest livers, most
prolific and most profitable. Secure a
good variety of pits which produce the
same kind of fruit — these are rare. Plant
pits where you desire your tree to remain,
or, if transplanted, they should be of the
first year's growth. After your trees have
attained to a proper size, cut back, and
prevent their bearing ; this will cause the
roots to spread in the soil, and will add
to the longevity of the tree. Trees which
send down one large root and small
fibrous roots, will soon become covered
with moss and die. Use coal ashes and
soap suds plentifully, and if you wish to
keep the trees from blooming early,
spread manure, coal ashes or sawdust
deeply upon the roots when the ground
is hardest frozen, and do not remove till
late in the spring. (This has been sold
as a great secret.) The largest roots of
a peach tree will be found upon the
north and west sides. Branches grow
fastest toward the south and the east.

PARSLEY, Culture of.— Sow it in drills,
half an inch deep, early in April. When
the plants are three or four inches high,
thin them to six inches apart ; to keep a
young stalk constantly for use, cut down
about a third part at a time. Keep it
only from severe frost. For this object,
select a warm spot of ground, light and
rich; sow it early in the season; cut them
all over in September surround the bed,
early in November, with boards, and
cover with mats or shutters ; glass is much
better if it can be obtained.

PEACH, Yellows. — The disease termed
the yellows is truly formidable. It is
peculiar to the peach and nectarine. It
has destroyed whole orchards in portions
of the country, and for a time induced
the entire abandonment of peach culture
in certain localities.

The cause of this malady has not been
satisfactorily ascertained. According to
conjecture, it has arisen originally from
exhaustion by deteriorated soil, over-
bearing and neglected pruning and bad
cultivation. But whatever may have
been its origin, it appears at present to be
chiefly communicated from diseased
trees. It is quickly induced by inserting
the bud from an affected tree into a
healthy stock. It spreads by contact
with diseased roots; a knife used in
pruning the tree will infuse poison if used
on another. It appears to be communi-
cated without actual contact, the healthy
branches nearest a diseased tree being
usually first attacked. It is also prob-
able that the stones from diseased trees
cause its development after a few years'
growth. Its highly contagious nature,
when in its most virulent form, is
indicated by the equal facility with which
young and vigorous trees, and old and
feeble, may be inoculated by contact.

Its infallible indications are, first, pre-
mature ripening of the fruit, some weeks
earlier than usual — accompanied with a
rather insipid flavor, purple discolora-
tions of the flesh. These usually occur
the first season, and on a part of the tree
which has first been inoculated with the
poison. The following season, numerous
small wiry shoots are frequently throwh
up from the larger branches, the leaves,
become yellow, the whole tree assumes a
sickly appearance, and eventually per-
ishes. No instance is known where a.

.540

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

decidedly developed case of this disease
has ever been cured. When once at-
tacked, to prevent a spread of the
disease, the tree should be immediately
removed and burned. No young trees
should be planted on the same spot, as
the diseased roots still remain. Stones
for seedlings should be procured from
districts of the country where it has not
been introduced.

In some parts of the country, possess-
ing a strong fertile soil, as, for instance,
Western New York, this disease has not
spread extensively when introduced from
abroad. It has generally destroyed a
few trees near the affected ones, and has
then disappeared.

ORANGE BLIGHT.— The branches be-
come covered more or less, with a rust-
like substance which ultimately destroys
the affected parts. Probably the true
remedies for the evils complained of con-
sist in thorough drainage, proper culture
of the soil, moderate manuring, and
destroying the cocci and fungi by fre-
quent washings with weak akaline solu-
tions, such as potash, soda, or ammonia.
Orange - plants confined within glass
structures suffer a great deal from insects
and fungi, and the remedy in use in such
cases consists in thorough washing with
whale-oil soap and water, and the free
use of a soft brush. Frequent washings
are necessary.

PEACH TREES, To Prevent Mildew
■on. — In the months ot January and Feb-
ruary, if the trees are in a stunted or
sickly state, take away all the old mould
trom the roots as carefully as possible,
and put in its place fresh rotten turf from
an old pasture, without any dung ; and
the trees will not only recover their
health, but will produce a crop of fine
swelled fruit.

PEACH TREES, To Save.— Peach trees,
after producing a few crops, often not
only cease bearing, but perish in a short
time ; whereas, the natural life is fifty or
sixty years, or more. The cause of this
defective power of growth is believed to
be owing to a deficiency of potash in the
soil, and that if this alkali be supplied to
the tree so that it shall reach the small
roots and be absorbed, the fruit-bearing
power is restored, and the tree itself, pre-
maturely perishing, is revived.

Dr. Wood recommends digging around

the base of the stem a hole four or five
inches deep, scraping away all the worms
that could be found burrowing at the
junction of the stem and root, and fill-
ing the hole thus made with wood ashes
from the fire, which, of course, retain all
their potash. This was done in the au-
tumn of 1868, and with a result the
following spring at which he himself was
astonished. The trees appeared to have
been restored to all their early vigor and
freshness; they put forth bright green
leaves, blossoming copiously, and bore a
crop of fruit such as they had never
borne before, many of the branches
breaking down under the load of peaches.
PEAR, Diseases of. — Mr. Meehan, in
an essay on the diseases of the pear, says
debility is the cause of much of the trou-
ble ; and this want of vigor is produced
by excessive summer and root pruning,
which so weakens the wood-producing
principle as to induce inflorescence, ac-
cording to the well-known law that na-
ture always makes an effort to reproduce
the plant, in proportion to the danger of
death. When pear trees produce flowers
and no fruit, and the blossoms have had
no external injury, it may be safely as-
sumed that the soil is deficient in nutritive
elements, that too much summer pruning
has been done, or too many surface
roots destroyed by a persistent stirring of
the soil. Pears cannot be grown to great
perfection except in rich and generous
soils. Root crops cannot be raised be-
tween the trees without breaking up the
ground, which destroys their surface roots,
the most valuable of all roots. The best
method is to sow down with grass, and
manure the surface two or three times a
year, the grass roots will never run deep,
nor exhaust the soil. Twice as many
trees can thus be grown on ground where
root crops are not grown ; and, if too
thick, after twenty years' growth, they
can be thinned out. Any one will notice
the comparative freedom from debility of
trees grown for years in grass over those
grown in constantly-stirred soils. Old
pear trees in Mr. Median's garden, eight
to nine feet in circumference, always bear
when they have any flowers at all, always
have healthy foliage, always set most of
their blossoms, and drop only fruit punc-
tured by insects, enough being always
left to produce plentifully; while any-

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 541

where in soils with regularly-stirred sur-
faces will be seen innumerable flowers
with little fruit, and with those which do
set great numbers are found afterwards
upon the ground, having fallen off from
no other cause than sheer inability in the
weakened vital principle to maintain
them. Leaf-blight and innumerable dis-
eases follow exceedingly weakened vitali-
ty ; and though fire-blight, cracking, and
other diseases are the means of destruc-
tion to many thousands of bushels of
pears annually, debility destroys its tens
of thousands.

At the discussion of the Lake Shore
Horticultural Association, Mr. E. P.
Powell, of Adrian, Michigan, a successful
cultivator of pears, recommended mulch-
ing pear trees, as a preventive of blight,
and as advantageous in other respects.
He sometimes uses long manure, though
preferring only grass. His soil is a clay
underdrained. A few years after plant-
ing his orchard he ceases plowing the
land, and simply cuts the grass and
spreads it about the trees. No strength
is taken from the land except what is
gathered in the fruit, and this is replaced
four-fold in mulching. No stimulus is
given to hasten the growth of the trees,
and the wood is consequently strong,
compact, and ripe each year.

Mr. H. Pennoyer, another successful
cultivator, sets his trees without manure
or anything to enrich the soil; lets the
grass grow around the trees; uses the
knife freely, so as to bring the tree into
proper shape and proportion. Pear trees,
he holds, must not be stimulated; high
manuring forces an unnatural growth,
winter kills the soft wood, and blight
finally finishes the tree.

PEAR, Slugs in. — The pear slug, a
brownish-green, slimy slug, feeding upon
the leaves of the pear tree, deposits its
eggs singly in June, in incisions made by
the piercer of the female under the skin of
the leaf. The larvae, hatching, eat the
substance of the leaf, leaving the veins
and under-skin untouched. The pupa is
formed in oblong oval cavities under
ground. The insect appears in about
fifteen days after the slug has gone into
the ground, in June and August, and lays
its eggs for the second crop, which go in-
to the ground in September and October,
and remain until the following spring,

when the perfect flies come out to lay
their eggs on the foliage. Mr. Saunders,
of Canada, states that this insect is readily
destroyed by dusting the tree with air-
slacked lime. Coal oil will injure the
trees, and road dust is of little value when
dusted over the trees.

PEPPER, Culture of.— The plants are
always propagated from seed. Sow in a
hot bed, early in April, in shallow drills
six inches apart, and transplant to the
open ground, when summer weather has
commenced. The plants should be set
in warm mellow soil, in rows sixteen
inches apart, and about the same distance
apart in the rows. When all danger
from frost is past, and the soil is warm
and settled, sow the seeds in the open
ground, in drills three-fourths of an inch
deep, and fourteen inches apart; and,
while growing, thin out the plants to tea
inches apart in the rows.

PLANTS, To Banish Red Spider from.—
Cut off the infected leaf. The leaf once
attacked soon decays and falls off, but in
the meantime the animals remove to an-
other, and the leaf from the moment of
attack, seems to cease to perform its
office ; but persevere in the amputation^
and the plants become healthy.

PEAR ORCHARDS, Sites, and Shelter
of. — Low situations should be avoided on
account of the greater extremes of tem-
perature prevalent in valleys than in
places of moderate elevation, and the
consequent probability of injury from late
spring and early winter frosts. A sloping
hill-side, contiguous to a well-defined val-
ley, forms the choicest orchard site, not
only for pears, but for other fruits as well.
To insure the greatest advantage from
position, the trees should not be planted
lower than within fifty feet of upright ele-
vation from the lowest point in the valley.
The cold air will then settle during the
night, in a stratum below the trees, and
the warm air accumulated in the lower
ground during the day will be pressed up
to the higher altitude occupied by the
orchard, and thus afford considerable pro-
tection in cold nights.

The obvious necessity of shelter to pear
orchards has led, in some instances, to the
mistake of selecting low grounds for their
apparently well protected position, which,
for the reasons given above, are the worst
possible localities. Contrasted with val-

542

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

ley planting, even what might be termed
bleak exposures have the preference, and
the unsatisfactory results attending orch-
ards in low protected grounds has led to a
supposition that shelter is injurious rather
than beneficial.

The addition of shelter to an otherwise
judiciously selected site is altogether dif-
ferent from endeavoring to secure it by
choosing a low situation. The efficacy of
protection is now generally well under-
stood, especially by those who attempt
pear culture in regions that are compara-
tively treeless. Even the White Doyenne,
the famed Virgalieu, or butter pear, worth-
less in exposed situations, is produced in
all its pristine excellence where the tree is
protected, as may be seen in many old
gardens in cities, where this variety is very
common.

The shelter required is not so much to
repel or alleviate mere thermometric cold,
as it is to arrest evaporation and its ac-
companying exhaustion of vitality, by
checking the rapid and penetrating action
of dry winds.

Evergreen trees afford the most perfect
shelter in the least space. A single row
of Norway firs, Austrian pines, or other
equally hardy evergreen trees will give
shelter for a considerable distance; thickly
planted belts of deciduous trees will also
render effective service. How far apart
these belts and hedges should be placed,
and in what direction they will be most
useful, will depend upon the surroundings
and local specialties. As the best mode
of draining a field will depend upon its
surface undulations, so the best mode of
sheltering will be guided by the general
aspect and position of the orchard.

PEAR ORCHARDS, Soil for.— The
pear will exist in a variety of soils, but
attains great perfection in clayey loam.
Even on stiff clays the tree will grow and
produce very satisfactorily under the ame-
liorating influences of the preparation and
culture which such soils require. Drain-
ing first and subsoiling afterwards are the
chief requisites for gradual amelioration;
in short, while a water-soaked clay soil is
the most utterly worthless of all lands for
the growth of any crop, a properly drain-
ed and aerated clay soil is by far the most
valuable, and only requires careful man-
agement to render it available for the best
productions of the orchard, farm, or gar-

den. The prominent precaution in man-
aging a clay soil is never to work on it
while wet, but only when it is dry to fri-
ability. No expedient or process of cul-
ture will compensate for the injury sus-
tained by working clay soils during sum-
mer, when they are saturated with water;
the injury cannot be remedied except by
a winter's freezing, which will again pro-
duce friability, under proper treatment.

Soils of a sandy or gravelly character
are not well adapted to the pear. In
these soils, so valuable in their degree of
moisture, the trees ripen prematurely and
drop their foliage early, if the weather
proves dry towards the end of summer;
then, in the event of moist weather fol-
lowing a period of drought, a late second-
ary growth will be produced, which, fail-
ing to mature, induces a tendency to
blight, and predisposes to other diseases.
Surface dressings of compost, repeated
cultivation, or constant mulching, will
counteract, to some extent, the effects of
uncongenial soil for the pear roots, but
where it is impracticable to select any but
a thin gravel or sand for the growth of
this fruit, the dwarf tree is preferable, as
the roots of the quince can be confined to
a small area, which may be prepared and
maintained to meet all the requirements
of growth.

PEAR TREES, Planting.— Where the
soil has been prepared by deep tillage it
will not be necessary to dig holes deeper
than required to merely cover the roots of
the plant. In heavy soils that have not
been prepared in the most thorough man-
ner the holes should be made wide rather
than deep. In gravelly subsoils pits may
be dug eighteen inches in depth, the sur-
face soil and the subsoil being thrown out
at opposite sides, and filled in equally
until the proper height is reached for set-
ting the plant. In either case about a
bushel of compost, made up of leaf mold,
rotted manure, and light soil, if carefully
spread around the roots, will form an ad-
mirable rooting medium ; this should be
finely pulverized and rather dry than wet
when used.

Deep planting and shallow planting are
the injurious extremes in setting trees.
The plain and incontrovertible rule is to
set the plant so that the point from
whence the stem and roots proceed in op-
posite directions will be about one inch

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE.

543

below the level of the surface of the
ground. It is infinitely better to plant so
that some future surface dressing may be
required to cover the swelling exposed
roots, than to have them buried below
the ready influence of atmospheric heat
and air.

PEAR TREE, Mulching.— The pre-
servation of a proper degree of moisture
in the soil surrounding the roots of the
tree is the principal object of culture dur-
ing the first summer after planting. Both
the kind and amount of care will depend
upon the nature of the soil and the con-
dition of the weather; something will also
depend upon the first preparation of the
ground. Where the soil has been drained,
deepened, and pulverized, and the surface
is loose and mellow, nothing further will
be required than merely to prevent a
growth of weeds. If the surface is tena-
cious, frequent stirring, especially after
rains, will probably suffice, but where the
soil is shallow and largely composed of
sand or gravel, mulching will most effectu-
ally accomplish the purpose.

Any loose material will answer as a
mulch, such as coarse manure, strawy
litter of any kind, or short grass as cut
from lawns; where a few trees only are
to be cared for, tan bark and refuse char-
coal dust are frequently employed.
Mulch should not be applied before the
middle of June, unless the weather proves
very dry and warm previous to that time,
and on clean ground it may remain dur-
ing the following winter, or be renewed
if exhausted ; but in rough, soddy ground,
where field mice may lurk, the soil
around the trees should be thoroughly
comminuted, and kept clean and com-
pressed.

PEAR, Culture.— The best mode of
treating the soil in pear orchards is an
important question both in regard to the
health of the tree, and the production of
fruit. Laying aside all special circum-
stances, it appears evident that the con-
dition of the plants will indicate the
treatment required; the object being to
maintain health and encourage fruitful-
ness, the measure of successful accom-
plishment of these conditions will greatly
depend upon the knowledge of the prin-
ciples governing vegetable growth pos-
sessed by the cultivator. When the trees
are young the chief object is to encourage

judicious growth, by employing expedi*
ents known to favor vegetable extension,
such as the application of manures,
breaking up and pulverizing the soil,
surface stirring, and other similar opera-
tions. By judicious growth is meant a,
luxuriance not incompatible with ma-
turity, and as this will depend upon
climate and locality, it is evident that a
discriminating knowledge of cause and
effect will largely influence success. In
northern latitudes, where the season of
growth is confined to five months' dura-
tion, it will be impossible to mature the
same amount of wood that can be pro-
duced on trees in a locality having seven
months of growing season. In the latter
case stimulating appliances may be used
with the best effects that would only tend
to dissolution in the climate of short
summers. The great desideratum in fruit
culture is ripened wood ; all useful culti-
vation begins and ends with this single
object in view, and is the criterion of
good or bad management.

To cultivate, or not to cultivate, is a
question to be determined by climate and
condition of soil. Where it is deemed
advisable to encourage growth, it will be
proper to employ such appliances of cul-
ture as are known to produce that result;
and again, when ample luxuriance is
secured, and the tendency is still in that
direction, all surface culture should be
abandoned, and the orchard be laid down
in grass, cultivation to be again practiced
when the trees indicate its necessity.

PEAR TREE, Pruning.— The pear
tree is usually a victim of excessive
pruning. It is pruned in winter to make
it grow, and pruned and pinched in sum-
mer to make it fruit. Why it is that the
pear, more than other spur-bearing fruit
trees should be supposed to require so
close and continued pruning does not
appear easy of explanation. It is evident
that this immoderate pruning is not
followed by satisfactory results, for while
apple, plum, and cherry trees fruit with
abundant regularity, with but little atten-
tion to pruning, unfruitfulness in the pear
is a frequent cause of complaint, especi-
ally with those who pay the strictest
attention to pruning rules, showing clearly
that successful pear culture is not de-
pendent upon pruning alone. While it
is perhaps equally erroneous to assert

544

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

that pear trees should not be pruned at
all — an extreme which no experienced
cultivator will indorse — it is worthy of
inquiry whether unpruned trees do not
exhibit a better fruit-bearing record than
those which have been subject to the
highest pruning codes. How far the
proverbial liability of the pear to suffer
from blight may be due to the interfer-
ence and disarrangement of growths
caused by summer pruning, it may not
be possible to decide, but the tendency
to late fall growths, and the consequent
immaturity of wood which is thereby
encouraged, is well known to be of much
injury, and greatly conducive to disease.
Perhaps no advice that has been given is
so fruitful a cause of failure and disap-
pointment in fruit culture as that em-
bodied in the brief sentence, " Prune in
summer for fruit."

The physiological principle upon which
this advice is based is that which recog-
nizes barrenness in fruit trees as the result
of an undue amount of wood growth,
and that, in accordance with acknowl-
edged laws, any process that will secure
a reduction of growth will induce fruitful-
ness. The removal of foliage from a
tree in active growth will weaken its
vitality, by causing a corresponding
check to the extension of roots, but the
removal of the mere points of strong
shoots has no palpable effect in checking
root growth, the roots proceed to grow,
and the sap seeks outlets in other chan-
nels, forming new shoots, which in no
way increase the fruitfulness of the plant.

While it may be confidently stated
that, as a practical rule, easily followed,
and of general application, summer prun-
ing for fruit cannot be recommended
except as an expedient rarely successful,
it is also true that there are certain
periods in the growth of a plant when
the removal of a portion of the shoots
would tend to increase the development
of the remaining buds, without causing
them to form shoots. For example, if
the growing shoots of a pear tree are
shortened or pruned by removing one-
third of their length, say, toward the end
of June, the check will immediately cause
the remaining buds on these shoots to
push into growth and produce a mass of
twigs as far removed as they be from
fruit-producing branches. Again, if this

pruning is delayed until August, and the
season subsequently proves to be warm
and dry, the probabilities are that the:
remaining buds will develop into short
spur-like shoots, from which blossom buds
may in course of time be formed; but if
the season continues wet, and mild and
growing weather extends late into the
fall, these same shoots will be lengthened
into weakly, slender growths, which never
mature, and are of no use whatever.
There is no certainty as to the proper
time to summer prune, because no two
seasons are precisely alike, and trees vary
intheir vigor from year to year; and yet .
this uncertain, indefinite, and constantly
experimental procedure is the basis upon
which the advice to "prune in summer
for fruit" is founded.

The pear tree, in fact, requires very
little pruning, and that only so far as may
be necessary to regulate branches in either
of two exigencies; In the first place,,
when the young tree is placed in its per-
manent position in the orchard, its roots
will be greatly disturbed and many of
them destroyed ; it will, therefore, be ex-
pedient in this exigency to abridge the
branches, so as to restore the balance of
growth that existed between the roots and
branches previous to removal.

This pruning at transplanting has its.
opponents on the the theoretical grounds
that, as the formation of roots is depend-
ent upon the action of leaves, it must fol-
low that the more branches and leaves left
upon a plant the more rapidly will new
roots be produced ; but there is one im-
portant element overlooked in this rea-
soning, namely, the loss of sap by evap-
oration, which speedily exhausts the plant,
while it has no active roots to meet the
demand. The proper practice is to re-
duce the branches so as to give the roots
the preponderance, and many kinds of
trees can only be successfully removed by
cutting the stem off close to the ground.

If the tree has been pruned close back
at planting, the first summer will develop
the foundation for a well-balanced, sym-
metrical plant, but as this res alt depends
upon a good start, it is well to keep an
eye on the young growths during the first
season, and if any of the shoots appear to
be developing to the detriment of others
equally necessary for future branches, the
points of such shoots be pinched off, but

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 545

in doing so let there be as small a re-
moval of foliage as possible, the object
being not to weaken, but merely to equal-
ize growth. As a general rule, no advan-
tage will be gained by pruning any por-
tion of the shoots after the first season,
unless in the case of weakly trees, which
will be strengthened by pruning down
during winter. The removal of branches
during summer weakens growth, but when
a portion of the branches are removed
after growth is completed, the rootc, not
having been disturbed, will have the pre-
ponderance, and the number of buds
being diminished, those that are left will
receive increased vigor.

It should never be forgotten that
there is nothing more certain than that
by shortening-in or pruning back the
ends of shoots, either in summer or win-
ter, the fruit-producing period is retarded,
and the fruit-producing capabilities of the
trees abridged. Fruiting spurs will not
form where the growths are constantly
interrupted and excited by pruning; but,
after the third or fourth year, young
shoots will, in the majority of varieties,
become covered with fruiting spurs the
second year after their formation if left to
their natural mode and condition of
growth. Of course, this refers to trees in
soils of moderate fertility grown in a cli-
mate favorable to the plant.

The only pruning, then, that is really
essential, after the plant has become es-
tablished, will be confined to thinning out
crowded branches, and this forms the
second exigency for pruning. If low-
headed trees are preferred, those branches
that have become destitute of fruiting
spurs near the body of the tree may be
cut out and a young shoot be allowed to
take the place of the one removed. There
will be no lack of young shoots for this
purpose, as they will be produced from
the base of the cut branch, selecting the
strongest and best placed to occupy the
vacancy, if such occupancy is desired.
This mode of cutting back branches will
be more particularly essential in the case
of dwarf pears, as the quince roots are
unable to support a tall, heavy-headed
tree, but in all other respects dwarf pears
should be treated the same as standards.

PEAR TREE, Stocks on, Growth and
Quality of Fruit, Influence of. — In com-

35

paring remarks and observations made by
different cultivators with reference to the
merits of varieties, their growth, product-
iveness, size, and quality of fruit, and
other characteristics, there is found so
great a disparity as to lead to a supposi-
tion that different varieties are being dis-
cussed under the same name. No doubt
this is occasionally the case, but the dif-
ference caused by the influence of the
stocks upon which they are worked is-
frequently to blame for these discrepan-
cies. Every nurseryman is aware of the
great irregularity of growth in plants of
the same variety ; they may have been
grafted at the same time on stocks of
equal size — planted on the same day and
in the same way and in the same soil, yet
their comparative growths will vary con-
siderably ; so much difference exists that
the plants will be classed into two or
more sizes, and held at different valua-
tions. Although the vigor of growth im-
parted is thus varied, the habit of the
variety is not changed, the upright form
growth will still characterize the Buffum,
and the spreading habit of the Roztiezer
will remain with each individual of that
variety ; but in a plantation of fifty of any
sort there will be some weak growers, and
an occasional specimen that, after linger-
ing on a sickly condition for several years,
will finally be removed.

It is reasonable to expect these diversi-
ties in the growth of stocks produced from
seed, and the influence they impart to
the graft, but it is seldom that allowance
is made for the many peculiarities that
may undoubtedly be traced to this cause.
This is still further confirmed by the more
uniform growth of dwarf pears, the stocks
of which are produced from cuttings or
layers, and are, consequently, of more
uniform vigor, being an extension of one
individuality, instead of the separate indi-
vidualities of seedling plants.

The opinion is now becoming prevalent:
that close planting, so that the trees shel-
ter each other, is advantageous. For
standard trees, eighteen feet apart is con-
sidered a good maximum, and ten feet
for dwarfs. These distances preclude the
practicability of using horse-power in the
culture of the soil, at all events, after a
few years' growth, which, all things being
considered, may be regarded as a step in.
the right direction.

546

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

PEAR-TREE BLIGHT.— "For nearly
a hundred years blight of the pear has
been the terror and despair to growers
of its fruit." This disease is known un-
der a variety of names — winter or frozen
sap blight, leaf blight, summer blight,
&c. It is quite different from insect
blight Since the temperature and
hygrometric state of the atmosphere and
the conditions of the soil, whether acid
or alkaline, pulverous or stiff, affect
fungi by either retarding or fostering their
growth, it becomes a matter of interest to
ascertain how far observations made in
relation to pear-tree blight agree with the
fungus theory. Some interesting experi-
ments have been prosecuted in relation
to pear tree blight, particularly during the
last two years. A pear-tree which was
badly blighted on its main trunk was
made the subject of special experiment.
Nearly all of the bark was blighted
within three feet of the ground, only
about an inch and a half in width
being left to connect the upper part of
the tree with the unblighted bark at the
base. The affected part was removed
and the sap-wood left quite exposed to
view; but to prevent injury from the air
it was at once coated with a composition
of carbolic acid, sulphur, lime, and water,
and used as a paint. After the lapse of
two years the tree was wholly recovered,
and the denuded part is again covered
with new and healthy bark. The tree in
all respects presents a healthy appearance.
Many other trees much affected with
blight were coated heavily with the sul-
phur compositions, and have evinced
marked signs of improvement. It is
intended to continue these experiments
•on a larger scale, until sufficiently numer-
ous and well-established facts attest the
best mode of treatment. These experi-
ment were made on heavy, compact, par-
tially undrained soil, lying low, and,
therefore, unfavorable for the highest de-
velopment of pear-tree culture.

PRUNING.— The practice of indis-
criminate lopping off of limbs, large and
small, is the cause of disease and a
weakening of the constitution of the
tree, which in numberless cases leads to
premature death. It has been found in
nine case out of every ten, where a
branch of considerable size had been
taken off it would leave a rotten spot in

the tree. In a great many varieties of
the apple tree there is a liability to decay
and rot. The tree may, and perhaps in
most cases will, heal over this, but a
diseased spot is left in the tree, and hence
to that extent is left in an unhealthy state.
And the more these spots are multiplied,
the more the tree is weakened and
diseased.

PEAS, Culture of.— Peas, for an early
crop, should be sown as soon as the
ground is in working condition. The
soil for their reception should be light,
dry, and well sheltered. Mild manure,
such as leaf-mound, has a beneficial effect.
For general crops the ground should be
well manured the previous year, which
causes to yield more abundantly. They
are usually planted in double rows three
or four feet apart, and covered to the
depth of two and a half or three inches.
The height of the pea depends much
upon the moisture and richness of the
ground. The method of planting peas
in the hills with potatoes of an early
variety has been found successful. In
dry weather, soak the peas a few hours
before planting. Pour water into the
drills when the ground is dry, before sow-
ing the seed, which will cause them to
grow at once, should the season continue
dry.

PLANTS (Outdoor), Labels for.— A
convenient method of preparing outdoor
labels for plants, capable of resisting the
weather, consists of cutting them out of
smooth pasteboard, and writing upon
them whatever may desired in ordinary
ink. When this is dry they are immersed
in linseed oil, or, what is still better, lin-
seed-oil varnish, until they are com-
pletely permeated by the liquid; after
which they are hung in the open air upon
threads to dry; they become like iron
and resist wet for a long time, and are
more durable than slips of metal.

POTATOES, Earthing Up.— It has
been demonstrated that earthing up
potatoes diminishes the product, and re-
tards the ripening of the tubers. Long
experiments in England have fully proved
this fact — that hilling up the potato will
reduce the crop one-fourth.

POTATOES, Raising, Under Straw.—
We give an experiment in raising pota-
toes under straw, by a noted agriculturist :

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 547

■"I fitted the ground as for planting in the
■old way, three feet apart, and dropped
the potatoes on the mark, from eighteen
inches to two feet apart, covering them
slightly with soil. I then covered to
about the depth of ten inches with old
straw, and did nothing more with them.
When the crop was ripe I raked off the
straw, and raked out the potatoes, which
were mostly on the surface, looking very
nice, fresh and large. The result was, I
had at the rate of one hundred and
•eighty-six bushels per acre; while the
yield from those planted in the old way
in drills, and cultivated on the ground
beside of them, was only seventy-five
bushels per acre, which was rather small
for this section, owing to the dry season.
The soil is a sandy loam.

POTATOES, SWEET, Culture of.— The
•cultivation is very simple; good stable
manure is distributed along the surface of
the ground in a line about a foot wide,
as long as the ridge is to be, and as thick
as the supply will warrant. A ridge is
then formed over the manure by throwing
a furrow toward it from each side. The
ridge is then finished by the use of a
spade and hoe, and should be about ten
inches high, a foot across at the bottom,
and while the sides are as steep as
possible, the top should be a little flat-
tened. Set the plants fifteen inches
apart, putting them down so that the
junction of the stem with the first leaf
will be covered, and if the soil is not
moist at the time of planting, water the
holes. Keep the sides of the ridge clean
until the vines cover them, and afterwards
move the vines once a week to prevent
them from taking root at the joints.
Plants may be obtained from most seed-
dealers and florists.

POTATO ROT, Barnet's Certain Pre-
ventive for the. — Sow unleached ashes
over the field once a week for six or seven
weeks, commencing soon after the second
hoeing. Apply two or three bushels to
the acre, using care to dust the tops well.

POTATO, Disease, Preventive. — A
French farmer has discovered that the
use of tan is an efficient preventive
against potato disease. For three years
he has introduced a small quantity of the
residue of the bark used in tanning into
each hole on planting his potato crop,
and each time he has been completely

successful in preserving his fields from
the annoying disease.

PLOWS (Rusty), to Clean.— Take a
quart of water and pour slowly into it a
half a pint of sulphuric acid. (The
mixture willl become quite warm from
chemical action, and this is the reason
why the acid should be poured slowly
into water, rather than the water into the
acid.) Wash the mould-board (or any
other iron that is rusty) with this weak
acid, and let it remain on the iron until
it evaporates. Then wash it once more.
The object is to give time for the acid to
dissolve the rust. Then wash with water,
and you will see where the worst rusty
spots are. Apply some more acid, and
rub those spots with a brick. The acid
and the scouring will remove most of the
rust. Then wash the mould-board thor-
oughly with water, to remove all the
acid, and rub it dry. Brush it over with
petroleum or other oil, and let it be until
spring. When you go to plowing, take a
bottle of the acid water to the field, and
apply it frequently to any spots of rust
that may remain. The acid and the
scouring of the earth will soon make it
very bright and smooth.

PUMPKINS Amongst Corn.— Almost
all " old - fashioned farmers" take a
crop of pumpkins off their corn fields,
much to the annoyance of the theorist
who demonstrates to his entire satisfac-
tion that the one crop must detract from
the full force of the other. But the most
careful experiments show no loss to the
corn. The very same weights result from
an acre, with or without pumpkins.

RADISHES. — It is said that, when
radishes cannot be grown on account of
worms or unsuitable soil, if common
wheat bran be strewed one inch thick on
any good soil, well hoed in, and the seed
is then planted, perfect radishes will
result.

RENNET, Mode of Use.— The way to
use rennet is to cut off a bit of suitable
size (a piece an inch square is large
enough to coagulate several gallons of
milk) and soak it for some hours in water;
then add the whole to the milk, a little
warmed. The mixture is now very
gradually heated to something above
blood-heat, or about 120 degrees. Very
soon it undergoes a great change, and a

548

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

solid white curd is separated from the
whey.

PEANUT, Culture, Soil for.— Any soil
that can be put in a friable condition,
and kept in that state, will produce pea-
nuts ; but that which is best adapted to
their growth is a light, gray soil, without
being very sandy. The color of the pods
always partakes of the color of the soil ;
and as the brightest pods always bring
the most money, so the gray land is to
be preferred. When harvested they are
perfectly clean, scarcely a particle of soil
adhering to them. Not so with red or
chocolate-colored lands. They leave a
stain on the pods, of which they can-
not be divested even by washing — a
practice frequently resorted to for the
purpose of getting a fancy article. When
taken to market the bright nuts will com-
mand from ten to fifteen cents more per
bushel than the brown, though equal in
all other respects. The gray soil is there-
fore to be selected when there is freedom
of choice, but the brown soil, when of
the right texture, is equally productive.

In choosing a sight for planting, refer-
ence should be had to the crop of the
previous year. Peanuts require a clean
soil; they will follow any hoed crop to
advantage, with the exception, perhaps,
of sweet potatoes. Corn land is gen-
erally preferred. In tide-water Virginia
much of the land was heavily marled in
former years, and whenever this is the
case an important and perhaps the chief
requisite to success has been already pro-
vided. The peanut will not fruit except
on a calcareous soil. The vines may
grow with the greatest luxuriance, cov-
ering the whole ground, but in the ab-
sence of lime or marl the pods do not
fill : they turn out to be nothing more
than what is popularly called " pops." If,
then, the land has not been previously
marled or limed, it will be necessary to
apply say a hundred and fifty bushels of
marl, or fifty bushels of lime, to the acre.
The kind of lime chiefly used of late
years is burned oyster shells, which may
be had in abundance in all the large
towns. It is applied in either of several
ways, according to the convenience of
the planter, and with about equally good
effect. If there is any choice, spreading
broadcast is perhaps the best, to be done
before the land is plowed; in which case

the quantity should be about fifty bushels
to the acre. A favorite mode, where a
large surface is to be planted, is to strew
the lime in the furrow over which the
bed is to be raised for planting. In this,
case a less quantity will answer by rea-
son of its being more concentrated — say
twenty bushels. Other planters, again,,
who are hurried in their work, spread,
the lime over the beds after the crop is
planted, at the rate of about thirty bush-
els to the acre. Either mode is attend-
ed with good success; but wherever it
is practicable to have a choice of land
that has been sufficiently marled or limed
in former years, and preserved by judi-
cious culture, the best results are found
to follow. In such cases the yield not
unfrequently reaches a hundred bushels
to the acre. Last year the writer was-
told by a planter of the highest charac-
ter, that on twelve acres of such land:
as has been just described he sold four-
teen hundred bushels of nuts of prime
quality, besides saving an ample supply
for seed. The product ranges from the
quantity stated down to twenty-five or
thirty bushels to the acre, according to<
the skill, or want of skill, of the plan-
ter— a fair average of the whole being es-
timated at fifty bushels.

Few persons make peanuts part of a
regular system of rotation, but the pre-
eminent success of a gentleman who has.
followed the plan is worthy of special
reference. Mr. Henry M. Butts, of
Southampton County, Virginia, has for
years pursued the following course: The-
lot intended for peanuts, say next year,
has been seeded in stock peas this year,
the vines to be plowed in some time in
September. The vines afford a great
quantity of vegetable matter, which be-
comes thoroughly decomposed by the
time for planting the crop. When the
season for planting is at hand, the ground
is replowed and laid off, and ten bushels
of lime and a hundred and fifty to a
hundred and seventy-five pounds of su-
perphosphate strewn in the furrows to
be ridged over. The year following
peanuts the land is planted in sweet po-
tatoes, with a liberal dressing of stable
manure. The third year it is laid down
in stock peas again, to be followed by
peanuts as before, always repeating the
lime and superphosphate. The crops of

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 549

Mr. Butts averaged, one year with an-
other, not less than one hundred bushels
to the acre. Last year from ten acres
h? sold thirteen hundred bushels of prime
peanuts, entirely exempt irom "pops,"
and worth three dollars per bushel.

PEANUT, Cultivation.— Having select-
ed the ground, it is to be plowed with
a one-horse plow, in March or April,
to a depth not exceeding four or five
inches. The advantages of shallow cul-
ture will be apparent from the fact that
the peduncles continue to penetrate the
earth until a firm bed is reached on which
to deposit the nut; and the still further
fact of the increased facility afforded in
harvesting, as will appear when we come
to treat of that branch of the subject.

About the 10th to the 20th ot May
is the time for planting. If the land is
thin and needs manuring, open furrows
three feet apart, and strew in a hundred
to a hundred and twenty-five pounds of
Peruvian guano, or from a hundred and
fifty to two hundred pounds of super-
phosphate of lime. The former is gen-
erally used, because of the greater cer-
tainty of getting a pure article, but noth-
ing can be better than the latter when
well prepared. The furrow is then to be
ridged over and the whole surface thrown
into three-feet beds, which should be re-
duced to within two or three inches of
the general level of the field. Then mark
off the rows, and at distances of eighteen
inches plant two seeds, covering them an
inch to an inch and a half deep— not
more.

In ten days to two weeks, according to
the weather, the young plants begin to
come up. As it is very important to get
a good start, the missing hills should be
replanted at the earliest possible moment.
It is the custom of some planters to put
an extra quantity of seed in every fourth
or fifth row, to furnish plants for trans-
planting, if needed ; if not needed, they
can be thinned out.

As soon as the grass makes its appear-
ance give a light plowing, throwing the
earth from the vines, and following with
the hoe, thoroughly removing all the
grass from the row. Plow again as soon
as the grass reappears, this time using a
double-shovel or cultivator, and the hoe
as before directed. If the season should
prove to be very wet, a third working may

be necessary, making use of the cultivator
and hoe again.

Next comes the time for laying by, the
vines having extended nearly half way
across the space between the rows. This
is done by running a mold-board once in
the middle between the rows, and draw-
ing the earth up to the rows with the hoe,
care being taken not to cover the vines
and to disturb their position as little as
possible, as the fruit will now be forming.
It will be necessary also to guard against
making the bed too high. When there
is grass in the row it must be pulled up
by hand. Soon after this the vines will
cover the whole ground, and repress every
other growth, unless it may be a chance
weed that escaped notice at the former
working.

PEANUT, Harvesting.— The time for
harvesting the crop is from the 15th to
the 30th of October, immediately after
the first frost. When the crop is forward,
or when it is an object to get a portion of
it early in the market, the operation may
be commenced in the latter part of Sep-
tember; but the longer the vines continue
to grow, the greater will be the number
of sound pods. Select a time when the
weather is settled and favorable, and with
three-pronged hoes loosen the vines
along the rows. Hands follow the digger,
pull up the vines, shake the dirt from
them, and leave them in the same place.
In dry weather they will be sufficiently
cured in two days to be shocked. Show-
ery weather, though it may somewhat
delay the curing, does no injury.

One of the advantages of shallow cul-
ture becomes apparent in harvesting.
When the fruit is deposited only a few
inches below the surface, the vine is
detached from its position with little or
no loss; when the depth is greater, the
stems or pedicles are liable to be broken
off.

In shocking, provide stakes seven teet
long, made sharp at both ends ; then lay
two fence rails on the ground as a founda-
tion, but with supports underneath to
afford free access to the air. The stakes
are stuck in the ground at convenient
intervals between the rails, the stacks
built up around them, and finished off by
a cap of straw to shed the rain. The
diameter of the stack is made to conform
to the spread of a single vine.

55°

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

After remaining about two weeks in
the stack the picking should be begun,
taking off none but the matured pods.
These are to be carried to the barn, and
prepared for market by completing the
drying process, and then fanning and
cleaning.

The most tedious part of the work is
the picking. An expert discriminates at
a glance between the mature and imma-
ture pods, but cannot pick more than
two and a half or three bushels per day.
A machine to perform the operation
would be a most valuable invention.
Unless the management in the barn is
carefully conducted, there is great dan-
ger, where there is much of a bulk, that
the peas will become heated and mouldy.
The condition in which the early deliv-
eries are often received at market renders
this caution quite necessary. In fact,
there is as much slovenliness in the
handling of this crop as there is in regard
to any other, perhaps more, for the
reason that so many inexperienced per-
sons engage in the culture every year.
Until the pods are thoroughly seasoned
the bulk should be frequently stirred and
turned over.

A certain classification, in regard to
quality, obtains in peanuts as in every
other article of agricultural produce. The
descriptive terms in general use are
" inferior," U ordinary," " prime," and
" fancy ; " but these are not so definite as
to admit of no intermediate grades. As-
suming prime to be the standard, and
that the prime are $2 75 per bushel,
then inferior will be worth, say, $1 to
$1 50; and fancy, $3. Seed peanuts
always command an extra price, ranging
from $3 25 to $3 50. These were the
current prices for the crop of 1875.

PEANUT, Varieties.— There are two
very distinct varieties of the peanut,
known respectively by the names of the
Virginia, and the Carolina or African.
The diversity between them, however,
does not amount to a specific difference,
the chief characteristics being that the
one has a large pod and bean, and the
other a small one. The Virginia is culti-
vated almost exclusively for eating, while
the Carolina is principally used for the
manufacture of oil, which cannot be dis-
tinguished from olive oil, and is, accord-
ingly, sold as such. The standard weight

of the Virginia peanut is twenty-two
pounds to the bushel ; that of the Caro-
lina twenty-eight pounds. In the mar-
kets they are always sold by weight.

PEANUT, Seed. — A matter of primary
importance is to provide seeds of good
quality for planting; and in order to be
assured of their excellence, the planter
should either raise them himself, or buy
them of a person on whose fidelity he can
rely. If, after the vines are dug and they
are lying in the field, they should be
exposed to frosty weather, the germinat-
ing principle would be destroyed or im-
paired. As a merchantable article, how-
ever, their value is not at all affected.
Neither should the nuts become the least
heated or mouldy; nor should they be
picked off the vines while wet, or before
they are thoroughly cured. It is obvious,
therefore, that the most careful attention
is requisite in this matter. Previous to<
planting, the pods should be carefully
shelled and every faulty bean thrown
out; not even the membrane inclosing
the seed should be ruptured. It takes
about two bushels of peanuts in the pod
to plant an acre.

The peanut crop is justly considered
exhausting, but not more so, it is be-
lieved, than either of the others with
which we have compared it. Planters
who have been long engaged in the
culture say that the same ground may be
planted for a succession of years, pro-
vided the vines are restored to the soil,
and a moderate application is annually
made of guano or other fertilizer. Cotton,
under a similar system, may be planted
on the same land for an indefinite period
without diminution of produce.

The vines of the peanut make a large-
quantity of very nutritious provender,
which is eaten with avidity by cattle. If
the crop is dug before frost, it is equal in
value to any other forage plant. As the
pods are picked off, the vines should be
placed under shelter, secure fom the
weather.

On account of the profit of the crop,
it has taken the place of tobacco to a
considerable extent in places where the
soil is adapted to it. This is the case in
the large tobacco-growing counties of
Amelia, Nottoway, Halifax, and Bruns-
wick, besides others of less note. How
far north the culture may be extended to>

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 551

advantage is at present a matter of con-
jecture; but in the tide-water district of
Maryland, and also in Delaware and the
southern part of New Jersey, it well
deserves a trial.

RHUBARB, Culture of.— Rhubarb suc-
ceeds best in deep, somewhat retentive
soil. The richer its condition, and the
deeper it is stirred, the better. Sow in
drills an inch deep. Thin out to 6 inches
apart. In the fall trench a piece of ground,
and manure it well ; then transplant the
young plants into it, 3 feet apart each way.
Cover with leaves or litter the first winter,
and give a dressing of coarse manure every
fall.

ROSE TREES, to Clear from Blight-
Take sulphur and tobacco-dust, in equal
quantities, and strew it on the treesjn the
morning when the dew is on. The insects
will disappear in a few days. The trees
should then be syringed with a decoction
of elder leaves.

RYE, To Cultivate. — Rye ought never
to be sown upon wet soils, nor even upon
sandy soils where the subsoil is of a reten-
tive nature. Upon downs, links, and all
soft lands which have received manure,
this grain thrives in perfection, and, if
once covered in, will stand a drought af-
terwards that would consume any other
of the culmiferous tribe. The several
processes may be regarded as nearly the
same with those answering for wheat, with
the single exception of pickling, which
rye does not require. Rye may be sown
either in winter or spring, though the
winter-seeded fields are generally bulkiest
and most productive. It may succeed
either summer fallow, clover or turnips ;
even after oats good crops have been
raised, and where such crops have been
raised the land will always be found in
good condition.

SAGE, To Cultivate.— Put it out in
rows two feet apart, and the plants a foot
apart in the rows. Cultivate and keep
clean ; it does well in sandy soil. Dry
in the shade. Put up in square pound
packages hard pressed.

SEED CORN, How to Select— In shell-
ing corn for seed, discard the butts and
tips, using only the central portion of
each ear, as the early blade and root are
in size in proportion to the kernel used;
and a plant from the large grains of the

center of the ear will get the start and
keep ahead of the small ones from the
tip. And especially select from ears that
have the grains as near uniformly large as
possible.

SEED BARLEY, How to Select.— The
best is that which is free from blackness
at the tail, and is of a pale lively yellow,
intermixed with a bright, whitish cast,
and if the rind should be a little shriveled,
so much the better, as it indicates a very
thin skin.

SEED OATS, How to Select.— Place
your oats in a heap at the leeward end of
the threshing floor, on a day when a gen-
tle breeze is blowing through the barn.
Take a common wooden flour-scoop, and
throw the oats against the wind, towards
the other end of the floor. A few min-
utes' experience will enable you to throw
them so that they will fall in a semi-circle
at a nearly uniform distance from where
you stand. The oats which fall farthest
from you are the best for seed, and are
to be carefully swept together as fast as.
they accumulate in considerable quanti-
ties.

SEED POTATOES, How to Select— Be
careful to secure large, sound, and well-
ripened seed; cut the large potato into
pieces of one eye. Begin at the butt
end; cut towards the center, leaving a.
due proportion of the potato with each
eye. Potatoes inadvertently left undug,
if they do not freeze during winter, in-
variably produce sound ones, larger and
more abundant than those kept in the
cellar through winter. This has lately
suggested the plan of keeping potatoes
excluded from the air from the time of
digging and planting, which has been
found to invariably prevent rot.

SEED WHEAT, How to Select— Seed
wheat should not only be thoroughly
cleaned from the seeds of weeds, but
small grains should be taken out with a
separator or suitable fanning mill, leaving
only the largest, plumpest, and earliest
ripened kernels.

SEED, How to Test the Vitality of—
By placing almost any of the larger seeds
and grains on a hot pan or griddle,
where the vitality is perfect the grain will
pop, or crack open, with more or less
noise. Where the vitality is defective or
lost, it lies immovable in the vessel.

55*

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

SLUGS and SNAILS, To Destroy.—
These are great enemies to every kind of
garden plant, whether flower or vegeta-
ble; they wander in the night to feed,
and return at daylight to their haunts ;
the shortest and surest direction is : "Rise
early, catch them, and kill them." If
you are an early riser, you may cut them
off from their day retreats, or you may
lay cabbage leaves about the ground,
especially on the beds which they fre-
quent. Every morning examine these
leaves, and you will find a great many
taking refuge beneath ; if they plague you
very much, search for their retreat, which
you can find by their slimy track, and
hunt there for them day by day. Lime
and salt are very annoying to snails and
slugs; a pinch of salt kills fhem, and
they will not touch fresh lime; it is a
common practice to sprinkle lime over
young crops, and along the edges of beds,
about rows of peas and beans, lettuces
and other vegetables; but when it has
.been on the ground some days, or has
been moistened by rain, it loses its
.strength.

SMUT IN WHEAT, Kemedy for.— Soak
the seed wheat in brine, and then dust it
with unslacked lime. This will prove a
perfect prevention.

SORGHUM CULTURE.— The soil and
climate suitable for the cultivation of
corn is well adapted to the growth of sor-
ghum, but a rich upland loam will yield
the richest juice. The land should be
well worked, and kept clean, it requiring
about the same treatment as corn. It
may be either planted in hills or drills.
As the cane is a very deep-rooted plant,
it is very essential that the land should be
made mellow to a good depth, but the
seed should be covered shallow, not more
than half an inch deep. It should be
planted about the same time as corn.
The young plants when they first come
up look like blades of fall grass; they are
of slow growth and feeble appearance
for some time, or until the hot weather of
July and August, when the plants will go
far ahead of corn in a rank and healthy
growth. It appears to delight in hot, dry
weather, as its roots penetrate deep.
Drouth does not affect it as it does corn ;
it is surprising to see at what a rate it
will develop itself after the hot weather
.has come. It is also very hardy, and

may be transplanted with entire safety.
There is a difference of opinion in regard
to keeping the suckers pulled off. Ex-
perience shows that, although we may
lose a little in quantity, it is more than
made up in the quality of the syrup;
therefore have a deep, mellow soil for the
roots to penetrate in search of food by
thoroughly cultivating it during the early
stage of its growth ; but avoid deep plow-
ing after the cane has once acquired con-
siderable size, as the roots then fill the
ground, and if severed the plants are
greatly dwarfed; keep the suckers off,
and be sure and not let a weed show its
head.

SORREL, To Remove.— This field pest
may be eradicated by the judicious appli-
cation of either lime or ashes. The sour-
ing principle of sorrel is oxalic acid ; if
this be removed from the soil, sorrel can-
not grow. Lime or potash unite with
the oxalic acid, forming oxalate of lime
or potash. These substances are some-
times called sweeteners of the soil, from
their ability to remove acids from it.
Sorrel will never grow on lime soil.

SPINACH, Culture of. —Spinach is best
developed and most tender when grown
in rich soil. It should be heavily man-
ured and deeply trenched. Sow early in
March for summer crop, in drills, which
method renders the cultivation and gath-
ering of the produce more convenient.
Encourage the growth with frequent hoe-
ing, which draws the moisture to the
roots. For a succession a few seeds of
the summer varieties may be known, at
intervals of a fortnight, from April.

SQUASH, Cultivation of.— The squash,
being a tropical vegetable, requires much
care and attention in northern latitudes,
in order to be cultivated with success.
Of all the varieties tested, the " Hubbard"
has proved to be the very best for win-
ter. The planting should be done as
early in the spring as possible after the
weather becomes sufficiently warm, so,
that there will be no danger of frost nip-
ping the young plants, as they are very
tender. A few hills can be planted
earlier, and covered with hay or straw
when there is danger of frost ; in fact, if
the season is late, it will pay well to plant
a goodly patch and protect them in that
way, for a very few young plants will
cover a wide space of ground when c!:!.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 553

The land should be made deep and
(rich, the richer the better, particularly in
the hills; the best manure being com-
posted hen-droppings. The soil should
contain a sufficient amount of sand to
make it quick and warm, and a piece of
land should be selected sloping well to
the south, so that the rays of the spring
sun can be quickly felt by the young
plants.

Plant in rows at least sixteen feet
apart, in hills from eight to ten feet ; put-
ting from two to three seeds in a hill, and
when well started thin out to one plant.
Cultivate thoroughly all the ground be-
tween the rows, as well as around the
plants, until the vines cover the ground.
If the above hints are followed a good
crop will result.

STUMPS, To Pull.— Stumps of two to
four inches m ay be pulled out by a yoke
•of oxen, by hitching the chain at the top
•of the stump, and taking two or three
turns around it so as to get a twisting pull
upon it. Large stumps, up to eight
inches, may all be pulled out by using a
block and tackle. Blocks of three sheaves
should be used, and a rope sufficiently
strong for the purpose. A hitch should
be taken upon the largest stump, and all
those around it drawn out, when another
large stump may be chosen to hitch to.

Some scientific Frenchmen have been
trying experiments in extracting them by
means of dynamite, an explosive mate-
rial resembling gunpowder in its action.
The results were quite satisfactory. A
hole from nine to fifteen inches in depth
was drilled in the ground close to the
stump, and a charge of eight hundred
grains of dynamite was placed in it This
was exploded by means of a safety fuse,
and the stump and roots were torn to
fragments, so that they could easily be re-
moved.

TRANSPLANTING During the Night.
— A gentleman anxious to ascertain the
effect of transplanting at night, instead of
"by day, made an experiment with the fol-
lowing results : He transplanted ten
■cherry trees while in bloom, commencing
at four o'clock in the morning. Those
transplanted during the daylight shed
their blossoms, producing little or no
fruit, while those planted in the dark
maintained their condition fully. He did
l'^.c same with ten dwarf trees, after the

fruit was one-third grown. Those trans-
planted during the day shed their fruit;
those transplanted during the night per-
fected their crop, and showed no injury
from having been removed. With each
of these trees he removed some earth
with the roots. The incident is fully
vouched for, and if a few more similar
experiments produce a like result, it will
be a strong argument to horticulturists,
etc., to do such work at night.

TREES, Oak. — The process of deforest-
ing our lands upon the Atlantic border
has gone on for centuries, and in the
very populous States has necessitated re-
planting. It is a fact not sufficiently
known, that oaks may be rapidly grown,
and will develop, within an ordinary life-
time, fine groves of those noble trees
which give so much dignity to an old
homestead. Major Ben. Perley Poore
has upon his estate in Massachusetts, a
splendid oak forest or wood of thirty
acres, every acorn for which was planted
by himself thirty years ago. The trunks
of the trees are now one and a half feet
in diameter.

TOMATOES, Cultivation of.— Set your
tomato plants in rows three and a half
feet apart, and the same distance apart
in the rows. Let the rows be of an even
number, and, if possible, running north
and south, for the better advantage of the
sunshine.

Now, beginning with the first couple of
rows, at one end set a pair of stakes in
such manner that they will enter the
ground just outside of the line of the
rows, and cross each other at the height
of about four feet over the middle space.
Set corresponding stakes at the opposite
end of the rows, and also intermediate
ones, if necessary.

This clone, along the outside of these
sloping stakes fasten horizontal strips of
edging, beginning with the first about
eight inches from the ground, and finish-
ing with the one which will run in the
crossing of the stakes.

As the plants grow, carefully train
them over this framework, securing them
in place by tying with strings, and judi-
ciously trimming when needed.

After the crop is removed in the fall,
the material of this simple structure may
be easily taken apart and laid away for ,
use the coming and subsequent seasons.

554

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

TOBACCO CULTURE.— The subject of
the culture and management of tobacco
is one which, while it has been discussed
at much length, by able writers, within
the past few years, is, at the same time,
one which, owing to many changes and
improvements in its management, as well
as in the various styles in which the
" weed " is prepared for use by manufac-
turers, and the rapidly growing impor-
tance ot the article as one of the "leading
staples" of the country, would justify some
further suggestions founded on actual ex-
perience.

One of the leading and most successful
tobacco grower of the State of Kentucky
furnishes us the following as the result
of his experience and observation, covering
a term of twenty years, both as a grower
and seller of tobacco: "In the outset, I
promise to give no startling discoveries or
new theories on the subject, but will state
facts which, for the most part, may be
familiar to many of your readers, and my
object in writing is to try and get such to
practice better what they know, and
others, who have given the subject no
thought, and have never grown tobacco,
to devote a portion of their farms to the cul-
ture of a crop for which our soil and climate
are so well adapted, and which, when
properly managed, yields a better profit
than any other.

The plant-bed is the foundation of the
crop, and is, therefore, of the first impor-
tance. The best time to sow seed is in Jan-
uary or February, if the ground is not too
wet or frozen too deep ; but they may be
sown as late as the first of April some-
times, and come in time for a late crop.
The most successful farmers sow plenty of
seed, and sow them early as well as late.

In selecting ground for plant-beds,
choose rich, loose soil in your new ground,
if clearing tobacco ; if not, in the woods,
on some rich spot, where the sun will shine
on the bed most of the day. Clear a
space, say thirty feet square, of the grubs
and large roots ; rake off the leaves and
trash, and then commence piling the
brush by laying it first horizontally along
that side of the bed from which the wind
or breeze is blowing, to the depth and
width of four or five feet, and extending
across that side of the bed. Then con-
tinue the bed by setting the brush upright
with butts on the ground, and the boughs

leaning against that which is lying hori-
zontally. Set the brush as thickly over
the entire surface of the bed as possible,
mixing with an occasional good-sized stick
of wood. It is important, in order to in-
sure good plants, to burn the ground well,
as it answers the double purpose of de-
stroying the roots and seeds of foreign
weeds and grasses, to prevent their spring-
ing up in advance of the tobacco plants,
and also dries the earth and puts it in
good condition to receive the seed in
almost any kind of weather. In burning,
set the fire on the side from which the
wind is blowing, unless it is blowing so
strong as to cause the pile to burn too
rapidly to heat the ground sufficiently —
the danger being not in burning too much,
but the reverse. " Three good men can
pile and burn a bed ten yards square in a
day. The following morning, the first
thing, rake off the sticks, chunks and
coals, which were not burnt, and with a
mattock or grubbing hoe, pulverize the
ground well, by digging to the depth of
four or five inches, carefully removing
roots of any considerable size, which last
may be done best with a fine rake.

When the bed has been thoroughly pul-
verized and ready to be sown, mark it off
in lands, five feet in width, with the hoe or
rake handle, and cross in the same man-
ner in the opposite direction. Mix with a
common washpanful of dry ashes, one table-
spoonful of seed (and no more), not heaped,
but level full, and sow the ashes and seed
over the ground in the same manner as
sowing wheat ; sowing first over the bed
in one direction, and then in the opposite
one, so as to distribute the seed uniformly
over it. After sowing, rake the ground
lightly, and then tramp it until level and
comparatively smooth. Cover lightly with
green brush having no leaves on it to pro-
tect against late spring frosts, and to keep
leaves which may fall from adjoinig trees
from covering the young plants.

Many farmers imagine that their failure
to obtain full prices is attributable to the
kind of seed they sow, and are continually-
hunting new varieties, when in reality they
may be using the best, and the fault lies in
another direction. The best variety to
sow will depend on the soil to be planted
and purposes for which the tobacco is to
be used. If to be planted in old land
or manured lots, which are best adapted

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 555

to the growth of heavy fat varieties of
tobacco, called shipping leaf, then the
Blue Prior or Morrow are excellent vari-
eties. For bright wrappers or fillers for
chewing tobacco, the Orinoco, Yellow
Prior or Little Vic are preferable. The
Little Vic is now preferred by some of
the best growers of bright wrappers in
Kentucky, being, as they assert, much
easier to cure a uniformly bright color,
while it also possesses all the desirable
chewing qualities of the other varieties.

It is said that one bed, the size we have
described, will furnish plants for ten acres;
but if we intended planting ten acres, we
would have at least three such beds, and
would prefer four, so that if one failed in
part, the deficiency would be made up
by others.

It is a well established fact that the
most successful tobacco growers are those
who get their crops set, and in order to
do so it is indispensable to have an abun-
dance of early plants. We would, there-
fore, recommend the sowing of seed in
January, February, and also in March.
It is a very common fault to sow too much
seed on a bed. When they stand too
thick on the ground they grow up very
slim, and do not grow off readily when
transplanted. In preparing new ground
for planting, it should be broken first by
a coulter plow, which cuts the roots well,
then turned over by a two-horse turning
plow, harrowed well each way ; the roots,
sticks, etc., piled and burned ; then laid
off in rows three feet four inches each
way with a shovel plow. A small hill, at
the crossing of each furrow, should be
made, say two or three hoefuls of loose
soil, to which give a sharp pat with the
hoe in order to better retain the moisture
after the plant is set. If bright wrappers
are the aim, and especially if your new
ground is rich, the rows may be only three
feet one way by three and a half the
other.

In fact, some of the best farmers in
Kentucky, among them Mr. R. R. Wake-
field, of Ballard county, have recently
adopted drilling ; that is, they plant only
about two feet apart in the rows, which
is the usual width apart, and only plow one
way. In this way they obtain a more silky
leaf, a finer and better color ; and although
the leaf is smaller by topping high, say
fourteen to sixteen leaves to the plant,

with the increased number of plants the
yield is equal and sometimes greater than
by planting the usual distance. Old land
should be fallowed deep in the fall if pos-
sible in order to turn under the weeds
and grasses, and give them time to decay
and enrich the soil, and it also gives the
cut- worm a good opportunity of freezing,
a thing to be desired, as it is often very
destructive to the plants when set in old
land, but never much trouble in new.
Old land in the spring should be pre-
pared in much the same way as new, ex-
cept the rows should be three and a half
feet apart each way, which gives 3,500
plants to the acre.

Plants will live when transplanted in
fresh lands after a very light rain, but in
old land a good soaking rain is desirable
in order to insure success, besides it dam-
ages the plant-beds much less to draw
from them after a good rain. Care should
be taken when drawing plants from the
beds to avoid trampling on the young
plants, and only one plant should be
pulled at a time, for by pulling a handful
with half a dozen which are large enough
to plant, there will be sticking to their
roots perhaps fifty smaller ones, which
would be large enough in a week or tea
days, and which may be needed. Three
experienced hands can draw the plants
and set four or five acres in a day ; and
were I intending to plant a full crop, say
four to five acres to the hand, I would
prefer to have at least two-thirds of the
crop planted during the first season, /. e.>
at the first planting, and that as early in
May as possible, and the remainder within
ten or fifteen days thereafter. However,
there are but few farmers ready to plant
before the 15th of May, which is ample
time, and good crops are made when
planted as late as the middle of June, and
sometimes later. It may be objected
that too much of the crop should not be
planted at once for fear of having so much
to ripen at one time as to be unable to
house and take care of it properly ; but
the reverse is usually, if not invariably, the
case ; and much more tobacco is cut too
green than is damaged by standing in the
field too long ; besides, fully a third of the
most regular stand, all planted the same
day, will mature a week or ten days later
than the other two-thirds. Plants to set
in old ground should be of good size, say

55$

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

from four to six inches high, while smaller
ones will do well in new ground.

The process of transplanting is simple,
and consists of making a hole in the hill,
which will receive the plant well up to the
leaves, and pressing the soil firmly around
it, taking care not to leave a hole below
the roots of the plant. Fresh land re-
quires less cultivation than old, being
quicker and free from weeds and grass
comparatively — two to three good plow-
ings and hilling once with the hoe are suf-
ficient. Old tobacco land should be
plowed at least four times and hoed twice.
The matter of cultivating the growing
plant, however, as it depends a great deal
on the kind of season, whether wet or
dry, will have to be left to the discretion
of the farmer. In no case should the
ground be plowed while very wet. Be-
fore the plant is hilled up, which is the
last cultivation it gets, and when it is
about large enough to stop, the bottom
leaves should be broken off (which is
called pruning) from the ground up from
four to six inches, according to its size.

Topping, which is breaking, or rather
pinching out the bud of the plant, in or-
der to cause it to spread and mature, and
also to prevent it running to seed, should
be postponed as long as the circumstances
will allow, so as to top as much of the
crop at one time as possible. Early in
the season, old land tobacco should be
topped at ten leaves to the plant, which
can be done without counting, by leaving
the two top leaves hanging directly over
the two bottom ones. Within a week or
ten days from the time the tobacco is
topped, the suckers which sprout just
above each leaf, and also at the ground,
make their appearance, and should be
broken off when from three to six inches
long. If neglected, they become so hard
and so firmly attached to the stock as to
bring away the leaf with them, and if en-
tirely neglected would absorb all the nour-
ishment from the plant, and cause a total
failure. There are generally three crops
of these suckers, all of which must be at-
tended to at the proper time. The work
of keeping off suckers and horn-worms is
all the farmer has to do from topping
until cutting and housing time, and is
.generally all he wants. There has been
no way discovered to prevent the appear-
ance of the horn -worm, nor to keep him

from imitating the example of his illustri-
ous neighbor, "Young America," in
chewing tobacco — in fact, he seems ex-
travagantly fond of the green article, and
claims it as his birthright, being born
(hatched) on the leaves from an egg de-
posited by the tobacco fly. They are not
usually abundant until about the full of
the moon in August, which important fact
furnishes a strong argument in favor of
early planting; for tobacco planted in
May is generally so nearly ripe by the
15th or 20th of August that young worms
can do it but little injury.

The simplest and best way of disposing
of these pests is to pull their heads off as
quickly as possible. Some writer, who
evidently labors under the delusion that
they come to and go to eating again as
soon as the farmer's back is turned, sug-
gests gathering them in tin pails and
carrying them out of the field to destroy
them. They certainly never eat any
more after their heads are taken off, and
while one's hands are liable to be slightly
soiled, this is the best mode of treatment,
as both hands and eyes are needed in
worming and suckering, both being carried
on at the same time. It is much better
to kill the worms while quite small, as a
full grown one will destroy a plant of
tobacco in a very few days. Whole fields
are sometimes ruined by them, but we
have always doubted the statement that
they sometimes crawl on top of the fence,
and ask passers by for a " chaw." The
time usually necessary for tobacco to
mature after transplanting is about ninety
days, but varies some, according to soil,
climate and the season.

Tobacco should never be cut until
thoroughly ripe, unless forced to do so by
prospect of frost. New ground tobacco,
when ripe, turns to a yellowish color, and
old ground becomes spotted; and both
are brittle, and the leaf breaks easily by
being pinched up between the thumb and
finger.

If the crop is large enough and the
force sufficient, enough should be cut in
one day to fill a barn, so that the process
of curing will be uniform. Cutting is
done by splitting the stalk with a sharp
butcher knife, from the top to within two
leaves of the bottom, and cutting off
just below the bottom leaf. The plant is
then inverted and set over the stubble

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 557

from which it was cut. As soon as it
falls or wilts it is put in piles of ten
plants each, with the butts toward the
sun. If the sun is shining very hot, care
must be taken to prevent sun-burn, which
injures it very much. Piling as above
will generally prevent this. Each pile is
hung on a stick, and if the tobacco is
very large eight plants to a pile is suffi-
cient. Stick your stick in the hill adjoin-
ing the one on which the tobacco is
piled, and slanting slightly, and hang the
tobacco in the field, instead of hauling to
the barn or scaffold before hanging it, as
it saves time and is bruised less. As
soon as hung on the stick, haul directly
to the barn, and hoist from the wagon to
the tier poles, filling each room of the
barn from top to bottom as you go.

A conveniendy sized barn is twenty feet
square, five firing tiers high. The lower
tier poles should be about eight feet from
the ground, the next three and a half feet
above, the third three and a half above
the second, and so on to the top. They
should be four feet apart, giving five
rooms in the barn from top to bottom.
Such a barn will hold one thousand sticks
of tobacco, usually about three acres,
and can be built of logs at trifling cost.
The sticks should be four and a half feet
long, so as to lap the tier poles well and
to prevent their slipping off. Scaffolding
in the field has been entirely abandoned
by the best farmers in Virginia and Ken-
tucky, except when the tobacco is to be
sun-cured. The distances between the
sticks when hung in the barn should vary
somewhat, according to the size of the
tobacco, the amount of sap in it, and the
process by which it is to be cured, from
six to eight inches ; and if intending to
cure by action of the atmosphere, the
barn should be quite open, and the sticks
should hang ten inches apart at least.

We now come to the process of curing
— the most important as well as the most
difficult part of the work — requiring all
the energy, watchfulness and intelligence
the farmer can bring to bear. To cure
the heavy, dark varieties for export, called
shipping leaf, the usual mode of firing is
supposed to be the best ; and as a bright
color is not indispensable to its value, the
less fire used the better, so that it is saved
from house-burn until cured fully. This
does not apply, however, to a large and

valuable proportion of the Missouri and
Illinois crops, called shipping leaf, and
suitable especially for the English mar-
kets. This should be cured as bright as
possible, which can be best done by the
use of flues or charcoal ; and at the same
time avoid the very objectionable flavor
and smell of smoke. In fact, the less
smoke any kind of totacco has, the
better it sells ; and when charcoal or flues
cannot be had, as much of the curing as
the weather will permit should be done
by the sun and air. If the weather is fair
and the barn room ample, tobacco will
cure by the action of the atmosphere in
about ten days, with the assistance of
very little fire, and will be much sweeter
and more valuable than if cured quickly
by hard firing.

The climate, and a large proportion of
the soil of Missouri, are as well adapted
to the production of those fine and high-
priced varieties of tobacco used in this
country by manufacturers of both plug
and fine-cut chewing, as Virginia, North
Carolina or Kentucky; but our farmers
have not yet. attained anything like the
perfection in the management of their
crops, and consequently do not get near
such prices. The use of flues for curing
bright manufacturing leaf is gaining in
popularity every year, and we have yet
to see the first farmer who ever tried them
and abandoned them for any other pro-
cess. Less than ten years ago there was
not one in western Kentucky, and now a
very large proportion of the farmers of
that section cure their entire crops with
them, and they invariably get nearly
double as much as the same tobacco,
even with the same color, would bring
if cured by firing in the old way. Even
if they fail — as they sometimes do with
any process — to get a strictly bright
color, the tobacco is so sweet and has
that peculiar flavor which manufacturers
desire. Besides these advantages, they
are very much more convenient, saving a
great deal of fuel, and the farmer is
saved the disagreeable task of smoking
his eyes out.

The construction of the flues used in
Kentucky is very simple and not very
expensive. Two parallel nine-inch brick
walls, about eighteen inches apart, and
eighteen or twenty inches high, across the
centre of the barn, and these brick walls.

558

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

covered with cast-iron caps twenty inches
square, and so made as to lap each other
half an inch where they join, with a
brick furnace to receive the fuel on the
outside of the barn, and a chimney six or
:seven feet high on the opposite outside of
the barn, to carry off the smoke, com-
pletes the flue. The flue should extend
through and a few feet beyond the barn,
-and the chimney should be that distance
from the logs or planks to avoid danger,
as the blaze sometimes reaches through
and out at the top of the chimney. Such
a flue can be built at a cost of $75 or
$85. The cast caps should be slightly
-arched, as they throw out the heat better.

As soon as the tobacco is housed, the
fire should be started in the flue, and a
low degree of temperature, say about 95
•deg., kept up for ten .or twelve hours, un-
til the leaves are yellow, when the heat
•should be gradually increased to 120 deg.,
and so remain until tails are partially
■cured and curl up, when the heat should
be increased to 160 deg-, and kept so un-
til the leaf is thoroughly cured, and the
stalk nearly so.

In order to regulate the heat, a ther-
mometer must be kept hanging in the
barn in a corner and frequently referred
to. While the above is as near a rule as
can be given, yet the judgment of each
farmer and m each particular curing will
be needed, as the amount of heat
necessary will vary according as the
tobacco is light or heavy, the season wet
•or dry, etc.

Coat-curing is practiced successfully in
Virginia, North Carolina and portions of
Kentucky, and throughout Missouri, but it
is not so certain of success as to color, is
more trouble, and in the end more ex-
pensive than flues. To cure with coal,
a thermometer is needed, and the amount
of heat necessary the same as with
flues.

After the fires are withdrawn, the
tobacco in a short time will come in case,
unless the stalks are entirely dried; and
then, if a good bright color has been ob-
tained, it should be hung in the barn as
close as possible, by putting two or three
sticks in the space occupied by one, to
prevent its losing its color by the damp
spells of the weather during the winter.
It will dry in this condition, and remain
so until stripping time in the spring; or,

if stripped during the winter, should be
hung back on sticks, and kept crowded
until ready to prize.

Having rather tediously followed you
through the laborious and disagreeable
part of your work, we now come to the
comparatively easy, but decidedly most
important, because most profitable part,
namely: stripping, assorting and prizing;
and here allow us to say that the farmers
of Missouri, as a class, are far behind
those of the other tobacco growing States.
This is attributable mainly to the fact that
our farmers, after working a year and
making a crop, in order to save a few
weeks' extra labor, are in the habit of not
marketing that crop, but turning it over
to some country re-handler or speculator
at a sacrifice, and he about half way pre-
pares it for market.

It looks reasonable that if re-hand-
lers can take the tobacco as the
farmers deliver it, tied in large bundles,
lugs, leaf and trash altogether, and assort
it, and make one bundle into four or five,
at an expense of one dollar and a half or
more per 100 pounds, that the farmer can
better afford to do it right at first. The
farmers are told that " we buyers " would
rather have it tied thus, so that we
can assort and classify it to suit our-
selves, and when so tied, the competition
is gone, except as between the two or
three country buyers in each county;
whereas, by properly assorting, tying and
prizing, which the farmer can do much
cheaper than any one else, he gets not
only the competition of all the great
American markets, but has his crop in
a condition to ship to any market in the
world.

It would not cost farmers over fifty
cents per 100 pounds in excess of the
present mode of delivering to country
dealers, to prize their crops properly, and
the work, in a great majority of cases,
would pay them better than any other
they could do.

Shipping leaf should be carefully
assorted, putting all the ground leaves,
bruised or sunburnt, etc., into lugs, a'nd
leaf should be neatly tied in bundles of
not over six leaves. The lugs even pay
to tie into small hands. At present
prices there is a difference of at least $1
per hundred pounds in favor of small

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 559

hands in lugs, and from two to four times
.as much in good leaf.

If tobacco is too soft when stripped to
prize, it should be hung back in the barn
until thoroughly dry, giving good room
between the sticks for the air to circulate.
It may then be taken down the first damp
spell and bulked ready for prizing. Tobac-
co intended for the English market should
be prized in much drier condition than
for any other, owing to the fact that
there is an import duty in that country of
over seventy cents per pound on
the article, and the importer wishes to
pay duty on as little water as possible,
A large proportion of the shipping leaf
of this State is prized by the country
operators with a view to the English
market; and we think if managed
differently it would do better for some
other markets, and can be prepared with
less expense. For instance, we would
prize all dark, heavy leaf in simply good
keeping order, and not in what is called
"factory dried," and only factory dry that
which is bright or colory. Dark shipper
should be prized in hogsheads of 1,600 or
1,700 pounds net; lugs, 1,800 to 2,000
pounds net; factory dried, 1,250 to 1,400
pounds net. Care should be taken in all
kinds to handle neatly, and not put two
kinds in one hogshead when possible to
-avoid it.

Bright wrappers and fine fillers should
not be prized so as to bruise the leaf, and
if very fine wrappers, should be put in
half hogsheads, or tubs of 300 to 600
pounds net; fillers from 800 to 1,000
pounds. The most important point in
these varieties is the assorting or classifi-
cation ; and if our farmers will once get
to prizing their crops, and attend a lead-
ing market in person occasionally, where
they can see specimens of the best
managed crops of different States, they
will soon learn more than can be written
on the subject in many long articles, and
the information will be such as will lead
to their prosperity ; and if only a few of
them will try the experiment, our object
in writing this will be accomplished.

TOMATO PLANTS, To Raise.— Make
.a hot bed in the customary way, about
three by six feet. On about three square
feet at one end, sow your seed one-six-
teenth of an inch thick ; cover with one-
half an inch of rich, sifted soil. When

the plants are three inches hight make a.
trench across the bed, leaving one side at
an angle of fifty-two degrees. Wet the
plants so that they can be taken up with-
out injuring the roots. Place them in
the trench two inches apart. Cover them
up to the last leaves by making another
trench so near that the rows of plants
will be three inches apart. When they
are from four to six inches high trans-
plant them into the garden, taking care
not to injure the roots. Plants raised as
above directed will be very stocky, will
not wilt when transplanted, and will ripen
their fruit before frost comes.

TURNIP CULTURE.— The most de-
sirable soil for the cultivation of this root
is a sandy loam free from stagnant water
— one easily cultivated to a considerable
depth, notwithstanding a heavier crop
may occasionally be obtained from a clay
loam.

Early in the fall the land intended for
turnips should receive a heavy coat of
farmyard manure, and be deeply plowed;
cross-plowed in the spring about the end
of May or the beginning of June, har-
rowed and rolled until a fine tilth is
secured. Getting the soil into a finely
divided state is a matter of the highest
importance. It is a well established fact
that all soils have the power of absorbing
and retaining to a greater or less degree
a certain amount ot moisture, and the
more finely divided and thoroughly pul-
verized the land, the greater amount of
moisture will it absorb and retain. It
would be very difficult to state absolutely
when it is the best time to sow, inasmuch
as soils and seasons vary. On clay or
clay loam perhaps the most desirable
time is from the fifth to the fifteenth of
June, and on sandy loams from the tenth
to the twentieth of that month. The
quantity of seed required per acre will
also vary with the weather. In damp
weather, on sandy soils, 2 lbs. is ample,
and on clay loam, and in weather
ordinarily dry, it will be well to use 3
lbs. or more. The depth of the seed
should be 1 to 1 ^ inches below the sur-
face. It is better for plants to come up
thickly, for they grow faster than when
thin, and are more apt to escape the
ravages of the fly; and, moreover, they
require immediate attention as soon as
they are large enough to thin. Sowing

S6°

FARM, ORCHARD, DAIRY AND GARDEN.

upon drills is altogether preferable to
sowing on the level ; not only can a much
larger crop be produced, but the weeds
are far more easily destroyed. The
distance between the drills should be 26
to 30 inches, and the plants should be
left, by thinning, 12 to 15 inches apart.
When a good braird has been secured,
the great secret of success is in stirring
the soil frequently when dry, and keep-
ing the ground pefectly free from noxious
weeds.

WAGONS, To Grease — But few people
are aware that they do wagons and
carriages more injury by grasing too
plentifully than in almost any other way.
A well made wheel will endure common
wear from ten to twenty-five years, if care
is taken to use the right kind and proper
amount of grease; but if this matter is
not attended to, they will be used up in
five or six years. Lard should never be
used on a wagon, for it will penetrate the
hub, and work its way out around the
tenons of the spokes, and spoil the
wheel. Tallow is the best lubricator for
wood axle trees, and castor oil for iron.
Just enough grease should be applied to
the spindle of a wagon to give it a light
coating ; this is better than more, for the
surplus put on will work out at the ends,
and be forced by the shoulder bands and
nut washers into the hub around the out-
side of the boxes. To oil an iron axle
tree, first wipe the spindle clean with a
cloth wet with spirits of turpentine, and
then apply a few drops of castor oil near
the shoulder and end. One teaspoonful
is sufficient for the whole.

WATERMELONS, Large. — Mr. Stan-
ley, of South Carolina, gave his plan for
raising watermelons which weighed from
twenty-five to forty-five pounds apiece.
Holes are dug two feet square and
eighteen inches deep, twelve feet apart,
filled with fresh stable manure tramped
down, the surrounding soil drawn over;
or better still, fresh soil from the woods or
corners of fences, mixed with road
sand. Make the hill of the shape of
an inverted saucer, a little well-rotted
manure or guano being slightly raked in,
and some coal dust applied to absorb the
sun's rays, which also prevents a crust
from being formed. Let no grass or
weeds appear, and never disturb the
vines when the dew is on them. The

best varieties are Orange, Bankright, and
Bradford.

WHEAT, To Prevent Mildew in.—
Dissolve three ounces and two drachms
of sulphate of copper, copperas, or blue
vitriol, in three gallons and three quarts,,
wine measure, of cold water, for eyery
three bushels of grain that is to be pre-
pared. Into another vessel, capable of
containing fifty-three to seventy-nine wine
gallons, throw from three to four bushels
of wheat, into which the prepared
liquid is poured, until it rises five or six
inches above the grain. Stir it thoroughly^
and carefully remove all that swims on
the surface. After it has remained half
an hour in the preparation, throw the
wheat into a basket that will allow the
water to escape, but not the grain. It
ought then to be immediately washed in
rain, or pure water, which will prevent
any risk of its injuring the germ, and
afterwards the seed ought to be dried be-
fore it is put in the ground. It may be
preserved in this shape for months.

WHEAT, to Prevent Rust in.— Some
hours — at the longest six or eight before-
sowing — prepare a steep of three
measures of powdered quicklime, and
ten measures of cattle urine. Pour
two quarts of this upon a peck
of wheat, stir with a spade until
every kernel is covered white with it. By
using wheat so prepared, rust of every
kind will be avoided. I have often
noticed, while in the neighboring fields, a
great part of the crop is affected by rust ;
in mine, lying closely by it, not a single
ear so affected could be found.

The same writer says he takes the
sheaves and beats off the ripest kernels
with a stick, and uses the grain thus
obtained for seed.

WHEAT (Slugs Upon), to Destroy.—

Collect a number of lean ducks, keep
them all day without food, and turn them
in the field toward evening; each duck
would devour the slugs much faster than
a man could collect them, and they soon
would get very fat for the market.

WORMS, Wire. — For the protection ot
grain crops against wire-worms we advise
the sowing of six bushels of salt per
acre, just as the plants are coming
through.

I

BTRAWBEBBT OBOWN BOBXB.

HMBB SALT, BBETTB.

WIHK WORK URVA.

See pagea 368-MO.

WIHK WORM KOTK.

See pages S 3-560.

r«A WBEV1L LARTA.

See page 882.

•OTi IN HORSES.

Se«page91.

ttA. WIITOi,

See page 382.

BASFBBRRY BORBR

See page 406.

/

Miscellaneous and Useful Knowledge

AXLE-GREASE.— i. Water, i gallon;
soda, ^ pound; palm oil, 10 pounds.
Mix by heat, and stir till nearly cold.

2. Water, rape oil, of each i gallon;
soda, ^ pound; palm oil, ^ pound.

3. Water, 1 gallon; tallow, 3 pounds;
palm oil, 6 pounds; soda, ^ pound.
Heat to 210 ° Fahrenheit and stir until
cool.

4. Tallow, 8 pounds; palm oil, 10
pounds; plumbago, 1 pound. Makes a
good lubricator for wagon axles.

BEANS, to Shell Easy.— Pour upon the
pods a quantity of scalding water, and
the beans will slip very easily from the
pod. By pouring scalding water on ap-
ples the skin may be easily slipped off,
and much labor saved.

BED-TICKS, to Clean.— Apply Poland
starch, by rubbing it on thick with a wet
cloth. Place it in the sun. When dry,
rub it if necessary. The soiled part will
be clean as new.

CARPETS, to Wain. — Shake and beat
it well ; lay it upon the floor and tack it
firmly; then with a clean flannel wash it
over with a quart of bullock's gall mixed
with three quarts of soft cold water, and
rub it off with a clean flannel or house-
cloth. Any particular dirty spot should
be rubbed with pure gall.

CARPETS, to Clean.— Before proceed-
ing to sweep a carpet a few handfuls of
waste tea-leaves should be sprinkled over
it A stiff hair broom or brush should be
employed, unless the carpet is very dirty,
when a whisk or carpet-broom should be
used first, followed by another made of
hair, to take off' the loose dust. The fre-
quent use of a stiff carpet-broom soon
wears off the beauty of the best carpet.
An ordinary clothes brush is best adapted
for superior carperts. When carpets are
very dirty they should be cleaned by
shaking and beating.

Beat it well with a stick in the usual
manner until all the dust is removed, then

take out the stains, if any, with lemon o
sorrel-juice. When thoroughly dry rub
it all over with the crum of a hot wheat-
en loaf, and if the weather is very fine, let
hang out in the open air for a night or
two. This treatment will revive the
colors, and make the carpet appear equal
to new.

CARPETS, Spots on. — A few drops of
carbonate of ammonia, and a small quan-
tity of warm rain water, will prove a safe
and easy antacid, etc., and will change, if
carefully applied, discolored spots upon
carpets, and indeed, all spets, whether
produced by acids or alkalies. If one
has the misfortune to have a carpet injur*
ed by whitewash, this will immediately
restore it.

CARPETS, Ink Spots, to Remove.— As
soon as the ink has been spilled, take up
as much as you can with a sponge, and
then pour on cold water repeatedly, still
taking up the liquid ; next rub the place
with a little wet oxalic acid or salt of" sor-
rel, and wash it off immediately with cold
water, and then rub on some hartshorn.

CLOTH, Cleaning and Scouring of. —
The common method of cleaning cloth is-
by beating and brushing, unless whem
very dirty, when it undergoes the opera-
tion of scouring. This is best done on
the small scale, as for articles of wearing
apparel, etc., by dissolving a little curd
soap in water, and, after mixing it with -
a little ox-gall, to touch over all the spots;
of grease, dirt, etc., with it, and to rub-
them well with a stiff brush, until they
are removed, after which the article may/
be well rubbed all over with a brush or
sponge dipped into some warm water, toi
which the previous mixture and a little'
more ox-gall has been added. When this
has been prop erly done, it only remains to
thoroughly rinse the article in clean water
until the latter passes off uncolored, when
it must be hung up to dry. For dark-
colored clot hs the common practice is to>

3<

(56i)

56:

MISCELLANEOUS.

add some fuller's-earth to the mixture
of soap and gall. When nearly dry,
the nap should be laid right, and
the article carefully pressed, after which
a brush, moistened with a drop or
two of olive oil, is passed several times
over it, which will give it a superior finish.
Cloth may also be cleaned in the dry
way, as follows : First, remove the spots,
us above, and, when the parts have dried,
strew clean, damp sand over it, and beat
it in with a brush, after which brush the
article with a hard brush, when the sand
will readily come out, and bring the dirt
with it. Black cloth which is very rusty,
should receive a coat of reviver after
•drying, and be hung up until the next
day, when it may be pressed and finished
off as before. Scarlet cloth requires con-
siderable caution. After being thoroughly
rinsed, it should be repeatedly passed
through cold spring water, to which a
tablespoonful or two of solution of tin
has been added. If much faded, it
should be dipped in a scarlet dye-bath.
Buff cloth is generally cleansed by cover-
ing it with a paste made with pipe-clay
and water, which, when dry, is rubbed
and brushed off.

CLOTH, Renovation of. — The article
undergoes the process of scouring before
described, and, after being well rinsed
and drained, it is put on a board, and the
thread-bare parts rubbed with a half- worn
hatter's card, filled with flocks, or with a
teazle or a prickly thistle, until a nap is
raised. It is next hung up to dry, the
nap laid the right way with a hard brush,
. and finished as before. When the cloth
is much faded, it is usual to give it a dip,
as it is called, or to pass it through a
. dye-bath, to freshen up the color.

CLOTH, To Revive the Color of Black.

If a coat, clean it well, then boil from
two to four ounces of logwood in your
copper, or boiler for half an hour; dip
your coat in warm water, and squeeze it
as dry as you can ; then put it into the
copper and boil it for half an hour. Take
it out, and add a piece of green copperas,
about the size of a horse-bean; boil it
Another half hour, then draw it, and hang
at in the air for an hour or two ; take it
sdown, rinse it in two or three cold
•waters; dry it, and let it be well brushed
-with a soft brush, over which a drop or

two of the oil of olives has been rubbed,
then stroke your coat regularly over.

CRAPE, To Restore. — Skimmed milk
and water, with a little bit of glue in it,
made scalding-hot, is excellent to restore
rusty Italian crape. It clapped and
pulled dry like muslin, it will look as
good as new ; or, brush the veil till all
the dust is removed, then fold it length-
wise, and roll it smoothly and tightly on
a roller. Steam it till it is thoroughly
dampened, and dry on the roller.

DYEING, General Principles of.—
Dyeing is a chemical process, and the
mode of its performance depends upon
the substance operated on. Thus, it is
found that the process by which wool is
dyed black would only impart a rusty
brown to linen. Wool unites with almost
all coloring matters with great facility,
silk in the next degree, cotton less easily
than silk, and linen with even more
difficulty. Preparatory to the operation
of dyeing, each of these substances under-
goes a species of preparation to free the
fibres from adhering foreign matter, as
dirt, grease, etc., which would prevent
the absorption of the aqueous fluid to be
afterwards applied, as well as impair the
brilliancy of the edge. Wool is cleaned
or scoured by means of a weak alkaline
lye, soap and water, or putrid urine; the
latter being very generally used for this
purpose. Silk is cleaned from the natural
varnish that covers it, by boiling with
white soap and water. Cotton and linen
are cleaned with alkaline lyes of more or
less density. The substances so prepared
are ready to undergo the various opera-
tions of dyeing.

Among the various coloring materials
employed by dyers, some impart their
tints to different substances by simple im-
mersion in their infusions or decoctions,
and have hence been called substantive
colors; but by far the greater number
only impart a fugitive dye, unless the
fibres of the stuff have been previously
filled with some substance which has a
strong affinity for the latter on the one
hand, and the coloring material on the
other. The substances applied with this
intention are called "mordants," and
generally exercise the double property of
fixing and striking the color Thus, if
calico be dyed with a decoction of mad-
der, it will only receive a fugitive and

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 563

dirty red tinge, but if it first be run
through a solution of acetate of alumina,
dried at a high temperature, washed, and
then run through a madder bath, it will
come out of a permanent and lively red.
The principal of mordants are the acetates
of iron and alumina, sulphate of iron
alum, and some other chemical salts. A
perfect knowledge of the behavior of
mordants, with different coloring sub-
stances, is of paramount importance to
the dyer.

After having received the proper mor-
dants, the goods are dried and rinsed,
after which they are passed for a shorter
•or longer time through an infusion, de-
coction, or solution of the dyeing
materials which constitute the dye-bath,
they are again dried and rinsed. In
many cases the immersion in the dye-
bath is repeated, either with the same
materials or others, to vary or modify the
■color. After the substances have been
properly dyed, they are subjected to a
thorough rinsing or washing in soft water,
until the latter runs off uncolored.

DYES (Aniline), General Bules. — It is
very important, especially when light and
bright shades of aniline colors are required,
to have a pure water-bath, free from all
foreign ingredients, which may be inju-
rious to the dye.

In dyeing with aniline colors, it is
essential to use only wooden or tin ves-
sels; copper or iron is very injurious to
the color. For family dyeing, any earth-
•en or enameled basin will do.

When sulphuric acid is mentioned in
our recipes, the common commercial
quality is meant.

Where woolen yarns contain much
grease, it is important to wash them well
in a bath of soda and soap, at a tempera-
ture of ioo° to 1200 Fahr.

In speaking of temperature, the Fah-
renheit scale is always understood.

DYES, Anilines, Quantity to be Used.
— One pound of aniline dyes the follow-
ing quantity of goods a medium shade :

Aniline Red — One ounce dyes 19
pounds wool, or i2}4 pounds of cotton,
or 9lA pounds of silk.

Crimson — Same proportion as aniline
red.

Blue or Violet — One ounce dyes 15^
pounds of wool, or 9^ pounds of cot-
ton, or 7^ pound of silk.

Brown or Yellow — One ounce dyes
li}4 pounds of wool, or 7^ pounds of
silk.

Green, oxidized Powder — One ounce
dyes 32^ pounds of silk (night green).

Green, Iodine Paste — One ounce dyes
^ of a pound silk (atlas night green).

Picric Acid — One ounce dyes 16
pounds of wool or silk, yellow; 17^ to
18 pounds of wool, green, according to
shade.

DYES, Aniline Blue, Soluble in Water
— Reddish Blue, or Blue de Lyons.
Bluish Blue, or Blue Blue. English Opal,
or night Blue.

Dissolve the blues by boiling in suffi--
cient water, and filter the solution through
paper, flannel or shirting. If a sediment
remains mix it with sulphuric acid, and
boil again with more water.

DYEING, on Wool— Recipe a. For
every twenty pounds of goods mix one-
half pound of good starch with cold
water, so as to make a thick paste, then
add to it i}( pounds of sulphuric acid,
and put the whole with the dye, into the
bath; stir and let it boil well before
taking the goods into it. This recipe is
liked well for both light and dark shades.

Recipe b. For every ten pounds of
goods add to the bath one-halt to one
pound dissolved gum arabic; then sour
the bath with sulphuric acid till it obtains
a perceptibly sour or biting taste. The
goods are then dyed in the usual manner,
but care must be taken in not adding the
dye all at once ; it has to be done in two or
three installments, letting the goods boil
a few minutes during the intervals. The
bath will at first show a very light ap-
pearance, which must not induce the
dyer to add too much of the dye, be-
cause the color develops itself during the
process of dyeing, particularly through
the boiling, which results in the fine, in-
tensive and even color of the goods. The
use of gum arabic has proved successful
in obtaining the utmost beauty and clear-
ness of color, and at the same time the
utmost use of all the dye.

It the bath after using it once, is to be
used for the second lot of goods, only
one-half to three-fourths pound of gum
arabic, and of course proportionately less
sulphuric acid than in the first instance
need be added: and for the third lot
only half the quanity of gum arabic as

564

MISCELLANEOUS.

for the second lot is necessary; and for
all the following lots, 'same proportion,
three-eighths of a pound of gum arabic,
is sufficient.

For this process the cheap sulphuric
acid is entirely sufficient, and the dearer
mordants, such as oxalic acid and chlo-
ride of tin, become unnecessary. Boil-
ing for about one hour suffices to dye
a lot of goods. Begin with a cold
bath, and gradually heat it to the boiling
point. More sulphuric acid shades the
color off into a bluish tint.

To avoid the crocking (rubbing off)
of the color, which circumstance is
sometimes causing complaints, give, after
dyeing, a lukewarm water-bath, in which,
for every ten pounds of goods, one-fourth
pound of cream tartar has been dissolved.
Turn them five or six times in such bath,
and dry them without further washing.

On woolens which have to be scoured,
dye a deeper shade than wanted, because
the scouring takes off two shades of the
color.

DYEING, on Cotton. — Recipes a and b,
for fuchsine, are also applicable to blues,
adding the dissolved blue gradually, so as
to obtain even shades.

A little alum, or sulphuric acid, added
to the dye-bath, heightens the brilliancy
of the color.

DYEING, on Silk.— Prepare the silk
with Marseilles (castile) soap; sour the
bath with sulphuric or tartaric acid. Dye
and stiffen with fuchsine.

DYES (Aniline), Black, on Wool.—
For two pounds of wool a bath is pre-
pared of twenty quarts of water, three
ounces of permanganate of potassa,
four and a half ounces of sulphate of
magnesia.

The use of sulphate of magnesia has
for its object to prevent the formation of
caustic alkali, and has already been pro-
posed by Tessie du Mothay. The wool
is impregnated with this solution, and
left it until the fluid has become color-
less or nearly so, whereby it is colored
dark-brown and covered with brown oxide
of manganese.

This process takes place easily in the
cold, but it is best to dissolve the per-
manganate in hot water. The wool is
now pressed out, and without washing
conveyed into a bath of twelve ounces of
commercial aniline oil; twenty - one

ounces of commercial hydrochlor. acid,
eight quarts of water, where it is moved
about in the cold : it attains here directly
a dark green-black-appearing color. It
is pressed out again, washed in water
containing a little soda, and treated
with a weak solution of red chromate
of potassa.

This solution is prepared by dissolving
one-third of an ounce of bichromate of
potassa in ten quarts of water. The
color becomes now dark black, when
the wool is washed with water and
dyed.

DYES, Aniline, Orange, or Corallin. —
Dissolve by boiling one pound carefully
in ten pounds best alcohol.

DYEING, On Wool.— Wash the wool
well ; bring the bath to nearly the boil-
ing point ; add the dissolved dye grad-
ually, and it will readily go on the fibre.

DYEING, On Silks.— Add to the wa-
ter bath (temperature ioo° Fahr.) a solu-
tion of Marseilles (castile) soap. Take
the silk through it, raising the tempera-
ture to 1300; then add the dissolved
orange to this bath, heating it gradually.
When the silk has taken the color, add to
the bath a little sulphuric acid, which sets,
it on the fibre ; then handle the silk quick-
ly, heating the bath to 1700, but not
higher. Wash well after dyeing.

DYEING, On Cotton. — Same as for
wool.

DYE," Aniline Red, or Fuchsine. — «»
Aniline red (roseine), a bright red, used
extensively, and answering all common
purposes.

b. Aniline red, diamond crystal, pre-
ferred for silk and fine woolens, giving a
still more brilliant shade than roseine.

Dissolve the crystals in the proportion
of one ounce to twelve pounds of water,
in a stone jar, by pouring boiling water
into it gradually, stirring it well mean-
while, till all is dissolved. Then, after
the solution has become cool, filter it be-
fore use through paper, muslin, or flannel,,
to avoid specks on the fibre. The sedi-
ment on the filter can be boiled again,
and will gradually dissolve almost en-
tirely,

You can also dissolve the red readily
in 950 alcohol. One ounce crystals to
one-fourth pound alcohol.

DYEING, On Wool.— Prepare a bath
of a temperature of 1500 to 1600; put into

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 565

it as much of the dissolved dye as will
give you the desired shade, and then put
in your goods, which, after a lapse of
twenty or thirty minutes, will be com-
pletely dyed. Wash the goods only
slightly, after dyeing, in pure water.

DYEING, On Silks.— Prepare the silk
by carefully washing it in a solution of
Marseilles (castile) soap. Dye in a luke-
warm (about 950) bath, adding the dis-
solved fuchsine gradually; the silk will
take the color readily and rapidly. In
order to intensify and increase the bril-
liancy of the color, wash the silk in a
bath soured by sulphuric acid, or, better,
tartaric acid, after dyeing. If the goods
or ribbons require any stiffening, put
them through a bath containing a little
•dissolved gelatine or gum arabic.

DYEING, On Cotton.— a. With soap.
Boil three-eighths of a pound of soft soap
for every ten pounds of goods in water,
with an addition of a little olive oil; make
a concentrated bath of it in a small vat,
at 120°, turn the goods five times, and
let them lie in it one hour. Then wring
three times, and wash them in cold wa-
ter, to which is added one-fourth ounce
sulphuric acid for every twenty-five pounds
of goods. Turn four times, then wring
four times, and dye with fuchsine in a
third bath, giving the dye into the bath
gradually, which is necessary to get an
•even shade.

b. With sumac. Boil a decoction of
one-half pound of good sumac (Sicily) for
every ten pounds of goods. Filter the
solution and pour it into a small water-
bath, temperature 1400 to 1500. Turn
the goods five times, and let them lie in
it one hour. Wring three times, then dye
with fuchsine, in a second bath, just as in
the above. For dark shades a little more
sumac may be used, but not more than
five or six ounces for every ten pounds of
goods. Too much of it would make the
color too yellowish. If several lots are
prepared in the same sumac-bath, take
proportionately less sumac for the second
and third lots than for the first. The
sumac decoction must not be too old; if
it has become sour it is useless for fuchsine
dyeing. Do not prepare more than three
lots without renewing the sumac-bath.

DYE, Analine, Yellow. — This color dis-
solves entirely by simply boiling it in wa-
ter and filtering it

DYEING, On Silk.— Add the solution
to a water-bath, soured by some acetic or
sulphuric acid, and dye at a temperature
of 1400 to 1700.

DYEING, On Wool— Dye same way as
for silk, only sour the bath with sulphuric
or oxalic acid.

You can obtain every shade, from
orange to cherry-red, by shading off the
yellow of aniline with fuchsine. An ad-
dition of dissolved Marseilles soap will
heighten the brilliancy of the color.

ALDEHYD, Green Powder, or Night
Green. — The best means for dissolving
this color is sulphuric acid. Take for
every ounce of powder about one ounce
of sulphuric acid, 66s Beaume, or in
proportion for every dram of powder,
about one dram of sulphuric acid. Stir
well, and put the mixture 'either at once
into the hot dye-bath, or else dissolve it
before doing so in a rather large quantity
of hot water.

DYEING, On Wool, Flannels, etc.—
Prepare the goods as follows : Mix one
ounce chloride of lime in cold water,
then add about six pounds of water to it,
and let it settle. Draw off the clear so-
lution, and bringing it up to 90* or iooQ
Fahrenheit, put in the yarn, which must
have been well washed and be still moist;
draw it through for fifteen minutes, then
let the yarn cool off, wash again, and put
into a new bath of ioo° Fahrenheit, which
contains for every 6 pounds of water, one
ounce of hyposulphate of soda. Draw
the yarn through this bath also for fifteen
minutes, let it cool, and then wash again
thoroughly.

Woolens or yarns prepared in this way
will then dye in the green bath without
further additions of mordant, and at a
temperature of the dye-bath of about 175*
Fahrenheit. In order to obtain light and
yellowish shades, add picric acid, which
by itself dyes yellow. The preparation
must be moderated more or less, accord-
ing to the desired shade ; at all events, it
must be done carefully and slightly, so as
not to injure the goods.

DYEING, On Silk.— Prepare the silk
by careful washing in a solution of Mar-
seilles white (castile) soap. Dye at a
temperature of 125* to 175* Fahrenheit;
add the dissolved dye-stuff gradually to
the bath, when the silk will take the color

566

MISCELLANEOUS.

easily and rapidly. In order to intensify
and increase the brilliancy of the color,
wash the silk in a bath slightly soured by
sulphuric acid, or, better, cream tartar,
after dyeing. If the goods or ribbons re-
quire any stiffening, put them through a
bath containing a little dissolved gelatine
or gum arabic. Add picric acid to ob-
tain yellowish tints.

DYE, Bismarck Brown. — This color
has become very popular, not only by its
own beauty, as a bright brown, but also
by combining readily with fuchsine in
topping, when it yields splendid garnet
and maroon shades.

. Dissolve by adding sufficient warm wa-
ter to dampen the color, pouring on it
more water gradually till it is all dis-
solved. It is important to observe great
care in dissolving ; if the water is poured
on too fast, the color will not dissolve,
but remain as sediment at the bottom of
the vessel.

DYEING, On Wool. — Prepare a hot
water-bath and add the color ; the goods
will dye readily. For maroon and gar-
net, dye first with fuchsine, or mock
crimson, and top off with the Bismarck.

DYEING, On Silk and Cotton.— Same
recipes as for fuchsine, but add no acid
to the dye-bath, and give the dissolved
color to the bath in three or four install-
ments, so as to obtain even shades.

DYE, Crimson. — A kind of cherry color
is produced by this dye. Dissolve and
dye exactly like aniline red or fuchsine.

DYE, Hoffinan's Violet or Purple— Sol-
uble in water. No. i, reddish shade of
purple; No. 2, medium shade of purple ;
No. 3, blueish shade of purple.

The water soluble Hoffman's are dis-
solved by boiling in sufficient pure water.

Dampen first with a little boiling wa-
ter, in order to prevent a caking of the
dye. Add gradually more till all is dis-
solved. Filter the solution through pa-
per, flannel or shirting.

These Hoffman violets, soluble in wa-
ter, are very valuable, not only by reason
of their very brilliant shades, but also by
the very simple method of dyeing.

DYEING, On Wool.— The color is
dyed like fuchsine, without any acids
whatever, only the bath, to which the dye
has been added, is brought to the boiling
point. Any shade of the primula flower
can be obtained, and the simplicity ot

the process of dyeing has made it also-
very popular in Europe for family dyeing.
It has proved very successful for all Hoff-
man's soluble in water, to add to the
bath, together with the dye for every
ten pounds of goods, one pound of dis-
solved gum arabic, which helps to make
the color even and fast on the fibre.

Splendid gray tints are also obtained,
if you dye the wool only a light tint.

DYEING, On Cotton. — Same recipes as
for fuchsine.

DYEING, On Silk.— Same recipes as
for fuchsine, but add only a little acid to
the dye-bath, and give the dissolved color
to the bath in three or four installments,
so as to obtain even shades.

DYE, Iodine Green, New Atlas Green,
or Vert de Chine in Paste and Crys-
tals.— Dissolves in water — four pounds
water to one-half pound of paste; fifty
ponds water to one-half pound of crys-
tals.

DYEING, On Wool. — Two separate
baths are required, viz.:

a. An alkali bath, in which the wool
takes the dissolved dye-stuff, but remains
still colorless.

b. A sour bath, in which the dye-stuff
is fixed and developed upon the fibre.

For bath a, you take three to four
pounds silicate of soda for every ten
pounds of goods ; add the dissolved dye
and manipulate the wool in this bath at
about 150° to 1608 Fahrenheit. The
wool ought not to show any color in this
bath ; if it does, more silicate must be
added.

Bath b contains only water, soured by
acetic acid; temperature about 150s ta
1608 Fahrenheit. A little tannin is added
to make the color fast.

In order to find how far the wool has
been dyed in bath a, you take out a
small sample skein, rinse it a little, and
put in the sour bath bf when it will in-
stantly turn green. In case the sample
does not show the desirable strength,
then the wool must remain in bath a till
this is the case. Exact shade, according
to sample, is indispensably necessary, be-
cause the wool cannot be taken back, in-
to bath a from the sour bath b.

As soon as the sample shows the de-
sired strength of color, take the wool out
of bath a, let it drip off well over the
bath, in order not to lose any dye-stuff,

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. SCT

and rinse a little ; put it in bath b, where
the color develops vividly. Bath a can
never be exhausted, but, like an indigo
bath, can be used constantly, with pro-
portionate additions, to supply the used-
up-dye-stuff and silicate.

Do not be frightened by the apparent
tediousness of manipulation; the result
recompenses for the same, and by cor-
rect use you obtain a chemical combina-
tion of the color with the fibre, very dif-
ferent in results from the present dyeing,
which touches the surface only. All
shades, from the lightest to the darkest,
can be produced.

Picric acid, or, still better, flavine, is
used to shade the green into desired yel-
lowish tints and added to bath b, but care
must be taken to prevent specks; then
wash and dry. One-half a pound of
paste will dye five pounds of goods a full
medium shade. One-half pound of crys-
tals, from thirty-five to thirty-seven and
one-half pounds.

Some have found it still better to dye
the flavine bottom first, and then to top
it with the iodine green, as above, get-
ting more full shades by it.

DYEING, on Silk.— Prepare the silk,
by carefully washing it in a solution of
Marseilles (castile) soap. Dye in a bath
of 950 temperature. Sour the bath
slightly by acetic acid. Add the dye
in three to four installments; the silk
will readily take the color.

If the goods or ribbons require any
stiffening, put them through a bath con-
taining a little dissolved gelatine or gum
arabic.

DYE (Napthaline), Bismarck Brown.
— Gives very brilliant goldish brown
tints. Dissolve, and dye the same as Bis-
marck brown.

DYE (Picric Acid), Crystal! and Pow-
der.— This color has become very impor-
tant in dyeing, not only bright-yellow
shades, but also brilliant greens and drabs,
on wool and silk.

Picric dissolves readily in boiling water,
and dyes quickly and evenly in sour
baths, avoiding the trouble which fustic
and other yellow dyes often give. Be-
sides brilliancy of color, it facilitates
correctness in shading off, a very im-
portant point where samples have to be
matched. Use either wooden or cop-

per vessels; in tin the color becomes
dull.
DYEING, Green, with Picric, on WooL

— Purify the water-bath at per general
rules above; add for every five pounds
of woolens, one-half pound of alum, One-
half pound glauber salts, about one
ounce sulphuric acid, and as much in-
digo, carmine, and picric acid as the
desired shade of green requires. Let the
bath boil, and mix together for a few
minutes before dipping the goods in.
Dye as usual at the boiling point, tor
about three-quarters of an hour. By add-
ing a proportionately larger quantity of
indigo, carmine, and less picric, or vice
versa, a more bluish or yellowish green
will be produced. In short, any shade of
green can be obtained. Picric acid yields-
a great deal of color; care must there-
fore be had in using it.

DYEING, Drab Colors with Picric on
Wool. — Sour the bath as above, omitting
the alum, and add the picric acid, to-
gether with the indigo, carmine, archil or
cudbear.

DYEING, Yellow, with Picric on WooL
— Sour the bath and dye as above for
green, omitting the carmine of indigo.

DYEING, Green, with Picric on Silk,
— Prepare the silk as fuchsine, and add
the carmine of indigo and picric acid to-
the bath, which has been soured by sul-
phuric acid. For silk dyers, take a neu-
tral picric (free from acid) which is pre-
ferred for many purposes.

DYE (Saflranine), Aniline. — A rose
pink on silk or wool dissolves very
readily in boiling water, and has to be
carefully filtered before adding it to the
dye-bath.

DYEING, on Wool. — The same as
fuchsine.

DYEING, on Silk. — For dyeing oa
silk, add the color to a bath in which
you have dissolved some castile soap, and
dye, keeping the bath lukewarm.

SCARLET of Aniline. — Dissolve in
boiling water only, one pound of scarlet
to twenty pounds of water.

DYEING, on WooL — Add to the boiling
bath for ten pounds of wool, two pounds-
of Epsom salts, one ounce of boracic
acid, and as much of the dissolved dye
as the light or dark shade you want to-
get requires. Keeping the goods in the
bath on the boiling point one-quarter to*

s&

MISCELLANEOUS.

hclf an hour dyes the color thoroughly
c:i the fibre. If you add sulphuric acid
to the same dye-bath, and turn the goods
in it, you can change the scarlet into a
bright orange.

DYEING, on Silk.— Dye exactly like
the orange, but do not add any sulphuric
acid to the bath.

DYE (Catechu), Brown.— Steep four
ounces catechu and half an ounce blue
vitriol about one hour in a brass or cop-
per kettle, with the amount of water
deemed necessary to work in easily.
Then put in the goods and steep, at a
scalding heat, from five to ten hours, stir-
ring often, and adding water from time to
time to make up for the loss in steam.
Lift out, cool rinse in clean water, and
dry. If the color is not dark enough,
make a bath, using half an ounce of
bichromate of potash in five or six gal-
lons of water, and steep the goods in it,
.at a scalding heat, one hour, stirring
•often. Lift out, cool, rinse, and dry.
This is sufficient for two pounds of
■cotton.

DYE (Chemic), Blue, to Make.— Chemic
for light blue and green, on silk, cotton,
• or woolen, and for cleaning and whiten-
ing cottons, is made by the following
process :

Take one pound of oil of vitriol,
which pour upon one ounce of the best
^Spanish flora indigo, well pounded and
•.sifted; add to this, after it has been well
sstirred, a small lump of common pearlash
.as big as a pea, or from that to the size
(•of two peas ; this will immediately raise
a great fermentation, and cause the in-
digo to dissolve in more minute and finer
particles than otherwise. As soon as
this fermentation ceases, put it into a
"bottle, tightly corked, and it may be used
the next day. If more than the quantity
of pearlash "be used, it will deaden and
sully the color.

DYE (Chemic), Green. — This is made
the same as chemic blue, by adding one-
fourth more of oil of vitriol. If the
chemic is to be used for woolen, East
India indigo will answer the purpose even
better than Spanish indigo, and at a less
price; but the oil of vitriol is good for
both green and blue.

DYE COLORS, to Discharge.— The
dyers generally put all colored silk
which are to be discharged into a copper,

in which half a pound of white soap has
been dissolved. They are then to be
boiled off. The copper beginning to
be full of color, the silks are taken out
and rinsed in warm water. In the
interim, a fresh solution of soap is to be
added to the copper, and then proceed as
before, till all the color is discharged.

DYE, Compound Colors. — Compound
colors are produced by mixing togethei
two simple ones ; or, which is the same
thing, by dyeing cloth first of the simple
color, and then by another. These colors
vary to affinity, according to the propor-
tion of the ingredients employed. From
blue, red, and yellow, red-olives and
greenish-grays are made.

From blue, red, and brown, olives arc.
made, from the lightest to the darkes\
shades ; and by giving a greater shade
of red, the slated and lavender-grays ar&
made.

From blue, red, and black, grays of all
shades are made, such as sage, pigeon,
slate, and lead grays. The king's 01
prince's color is duller than usual ; this
mixture produces a variety of hues, ot
colors almost to infinity.

From yellow, blue, and brown, are
made the goose-dung and olives of all
kinds.

From brown, blue, and black, are pro-
duced brown-olives and their shades.

From the red, yellow, and brown, are
derived the orange, gold-color, feuille-
mort, or faded leaf, dead carnations, cin-
namon, fawn, and tobacco, by using two
or three of the colors as required

From yellow, red and black, browns of
every shade are made.

From the blue and yellow, greens of all
shades.

From red and blue, purples of all kinds
are formed.

DYE, Crimson, a Shawl to. — Take
about a table-spoonful of cudbear ; put
it into a small pan, pour boiling water
upon it, stir and let it stand a few min-
utes, then put in your silk, and turn it
over a short time, and when the color is
full enough, take it out ; but if it should
require more violet or crimson, add a
tea-spoonful or two of purple archil to
some warm water, and dry it within
doors. To finish it, it must be mangled
or calendered, and may be pressed, if
such a convenience is at hand.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 569

DYEING, Cotton with Madder as
.Practiced at Smyrna. — Cotton, at Smyrna,
Mr. Eton tells us, is dyed with madder in
the following manner: The cotton is
iboiled in common olive oil, and then in
mild alkali; being thus cleaned, it will
take the madder dye; and this is the fine
color so greatly admired in Smyrna cotton
yarn. "I have heard," adds the gentle-
man, " that the sum of five thousand
pounds was given in England for this
secret!" It is, doubdess a secret in pre-
paring cottons, and perhaps other articles,
for the reception of a particular dye, very
well worth knowing.

DYE, Gray. — Sumach, two pounds;
logwood, one pound ; make a decoction
with water, pass the stuff through it, and
afterwards through weak iron water (sul-
phate or acetate); lastly, add a little
iron liquor to the decoction, and again
turn the stuff through it. This gives a
pearl gray.

a. Dissolve one pound of tartar in four
.gallons of water, turn the stuff through the
liquor for half an hour; add a decoction
of galls one-fourth of a pound, and
.sumach one and one-half pounds ; put
in the stuff and boil for half an hour ;
then take out the stuff, add sulphate of
iron one pound, and when dissolved
again, put it in, and work it well for an
half hour longer. Ash gray. This
"will dye fifteen to twenty-five pounds of
wool.

b. Galls bruised, two pounds; wine-
stone, one pound ; water, sixteen gallons ,
boil for thirty minutes, then put in the
stuff and work it well for half an hour ;
take it out, add three pounds of green
copperas, and when dissolved again, put
in the goods and work them well. Ash
jjray. This will dye sixty to seventy
pounds of wool. The addition of a
little alum converts this into a mouse
gray.

c. Pass the stuff through a weak fustic
bath, and next through a very weak de-
coction of galls, to which a little alum
has been added ; then remove the goods,
refresh the bath with a little logwood,
boil half an hour, add some blue and
green vitriol, and when dissolved, finish
the stuff therein. Yellowish gray.

d. Give the stuff a pale blue tint in the
indigo bath, then pass it through a weak
decoction of galls and sumach, take it

out, add a little iron liquor to the bath,
and work the stuff well through it. In
this way may be given every shade of
iron gray, slate gray, and the other
shades that turn upon the blue.

DYE, How to take the Stains from the
Hands. — Take a small quantity of the oil
of vitriol, pour it in some cold water, in
a wash-hand basin, and wash your hands
with it, without soap ; the dye will then
come off. You may afterwards cleanse
them completely in hot soap and water,
taking care that all the acid is washed
away before the soap is applied.

DYE, Indigo Blue for Yarn.— To dye
this beautiful blue, use wine-pipes or
some other large casks, sunk in the earth
at a depth convenient for the operator to
work at. Five of these constitute a set, and
are worked together and kept of the same
strength. The yarn being worked in
quantities of one hundred pounds, twenty
pounds are passed through each vat.

Each vat is filled about three-fourths
with cold water; there are then added
eight pounds of indigo, sixteen pounds of
sulphate of iron (copperas), and twenty-
four pounds newly-slacked lime. The
whole is well- stirred with a rake for
half an hour, and this stirring is re-
peated every hour and a half for the first
day.

The stirring must be continued until
the solution becomes a rich oak yellow,
having large blue veins running through
it, and a fine indigo froth on the surface.
When these signs are all favorable, the
solution is allowed to stand for several
hours till all the solid matter settles, when
it is ready for use.

The mode of dyeing consists in simply
immersing the goods, and working them
in the solution for fifteen minutes, taking
out and wringing or pressing, and then
exposing to the air ; repeating this opera-
tion until the desired depth of color is
obtained. The yarn is then washed in
cold water and dried. When the shade
required is very deep, the yarn may, pre ■
vious to washing, be passed through a
tub of water acidulated with vitriol till it
tastes acid, and then washed; this adds
brilliancy to the color.

DYEING, Kid Gloves.— In dyeing kid
gloves the first thing needed is an iron
hand on which the glove is drawn. If
the glove is to be dyed black, it is first

57°

MISCELLANEOUS.

brushed over with alcohol and allowed to
dry; it is then immersed in a decoction of
campeachy wood for a few moments,
and the operation is repeated in ten min-
utes, and in ten minutes more it is brushed
over with a solution of green vitriol. If
the color is not dark enough a decoction
of fustic or quercitron is added to the
campeachy solution. Instead of sulphate
of iron the nitrate can be used with ad-
vantage. When the glove begins to dry
it is rubbed with olive-oil and soap-stone
and then laid between folds of flannel
and pressed. It is afterward again rubbed
with oil and soap-stone, and drawn on
the iron hand to dry. A brown is ob-
tained from fustic, campeachy, and cam-
wood, with the addition of some alum.
For bright colors the process is far more
simple, it being only necessary to paint
the glove with a brush or sponge dipped
in a solution of aniline dye of the desired
color.

DYE, Bed. — The various shades of
red are given by madder, cochineal, lac-
dye, safflower, etc., fixed by aluminous or
tin mordants. Less permanent dyes are
produced by Brazil-wood, peach-wood,
and archil. Safflower contains a yellow
as well as a red coloring matter. The
first, being soluble in cold water, is ex-
tracted by putting the safflower in a bag
and kneading it under water. The
safflower, thus deprived of yellow matter,
yields its red color to alkaline liquids, at
the time of using which, lemon juice or
some other acid is added sufficient to
saturate the alkali. Pink saucers are
made by adding lemon juice to the
alkaline infusion of washed safflower, and
allowing the coloring to deposit. Mad-
der also contains a dun coloring matter,
which deteriorates the red, unless pre-
viously removed. This may be partially
effected by washing it in cold water;
another method is to treat the madder
with its own weight of sulphuric acid,
which carbonizes the other matters, but
leaves the red color uninjured. As mad-
der gives out but little of its red coloring
matter to water, the decoction is not
strained off, but the madder is left in the
bath. With acetate of iron madder
yields a purple tint. Lac-dye is imported
from India; requires acids for its solution.

DYE, Bed-Brown.— Remarkably bright,
and the cost of the dye is not more than

sixpence. For a middling-sized woman's^
pelisse, when your copper boils, put in
the following dyeing-materials: Half a
pound of ground camwood, two ounces
of sumac (ground), one ounce of log-
wood chips, one ounce of elder-bark,
two ounces of chipped fustic. A larger
quantity of ingredients may be used, but
they must be in the same proportion as
mentioned in this recipe. When these
ingredients have boiled half an hour,
cool your copper by throwing in a pint of
cold water; put in your goods, and boil
from one hour to an hour and a half;
take them out, and add from half an
ounce to one of green copperas, a tea-
spoonful of powdered argol, take out
your goods, and rinse them in one or
two clean waters, and hang in the air
to dry; send them to the press to be
finished.

DYE, Scarlet. — For one pound of
cloth, cream of tartar, one and three-
fourths ounce ; water, q. s. ; boil in block-
tin vessel, and when dissolved, add solu-
tion of tin (made by dissolving two
ounces of grain tin in a mixture of one
pound each of nitric acid and water, and
one and a half ounce of sal ammoniac)
one and three-fourths ounce; boil for
three minutes, then introduce the cloth
and boil it for two hours ; drain and cool.
Next, take cream of tartar, one-fourth
ounce ; water, q. s. ; boil, and add pow-
dered cochineal, one ounce ; boil for five
minutes, then gradually add solution of
tin, one ounce, stirring well all the time ;
lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly
as possible.

FEATHERS, to Dye and Clean. —
Feathers, to be dyed, must first be
cleaned by passing them through or be-
tween the hands, in warm soap and
water, and by giving them fresh liquors
of soap and water, and at last rinsing
them in warm water. Previously to their
being dyed, it is necessary that they
should be soaked in warm water for sev-
eral hours. The same degree of heat
should be kept up, but the water must be
but little more than blood-warm. If for
yellows or reds, they must be alumed in
cold alum liquor for a day or two, ac-
cording to the body of color you require
the feathers to imbibe; then immerse
them in your dye-liquor.

The only difficulty in dyeing feathers

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 571

is in compounding the dyeing materials,
and making a homogeneous liquor ot
them, so as to produce the desired shade,
after being saddened or made of a dark
color by means of green copperas, which
is generally used to darken brown grays,
blacks, slate colors, etc. Sumach and
fustic, or sumach alone, is the general
ground of browns , the red, as I have
before observed, is obtained by archil,
and the black hue by green copperas in
warm water; after the feather has been
put into the copperas-water, it may be
returned again into the dye-water, and
back again into the copperas ; but care
should be taken, each time, that the
feather is rinsed from the copperas-water
before it is again returned into the
dye - liquor, otherwise copperas would
spoil it.

The same preparation as would dye silk
of the same color will dye feathers ; in
short, feathers as well as silk, being
animal substances, are more alike in
nature than any other two bodies, either
animal or vegetable. You must remem-
ber that in dyeing silks that the water is
used hot, or on the simmer, for most
colors; but feathers must always be
dyed in cold liquors, except for black, the
dyeing materials being first boiled, and
then left to cool; your feathers must
then be put in, and when this liquor is
exhausted, add a fresh one, pouring off
the old liquor.

Mordants are earthly and metallic com-
pounds, the base of which unites both
with the fibres of the material to be
dyed and the coloring matter. In calico
printing the mordants are formed into a
paste, with some gum or other thickening
material, and printed with wooden blocks
on the cloth, which, after being dried,
&c, is passed through the liquid dyes.
The coloring matter combines with the
parts so printed, but is easily discharged
from the other parts. The principal
mordants are the following :

Mordant, Alum, an alum, with one-
fourth its weight of tartar, acetate of
alumina. This is commonly prepared in
a solution for this purpose ; one hundred
and fifty parts of alum, in pyrolignite of
lime of twenty degrees density, is some-
times employed.

b. A solution of alum with crystallized

carbonate of soda, in the proportion of
one ounce to each pound of alum.

c. This is a solution of alum with
sufficient strong solution of caustic potash
to re-dissolve the precipitated alumina,
to which mixture a portion of linseed oil
is added.

d. To fifty gallons of boiling water
add one hundred pounds of alum; dis-
solve, and add slowly ten pounds of crys-
tallized carbonate of soda. When the
effervescence is over add seventy-five
pounds of sugar of lead.

MORDANT, a Protochloride of Tin.
— a. To strong muriatic acid add grad-
ually small pieces of grain tin till no •
more is dissolved. It may be obtained
in crystals by evaporation. In dissolving
them, it is necessary to add to the water
a few drops of muriatic acid.

b. Nitro-muriate, or perchloride of tin.
Mix one measure of nitric acid with four
of muriatic acid, and add tin in small
quantities as long as any is dissolved. Or
mix four ounces of muriatic with one of
nitric acid and one of water; dissolve in
it, by small portions at a time, two
drachms of grain tin.

c. Aquafortis (or equal portions of
nitric acid and water) eight parts; sal
ammoniac, one part ; mix, and add grad-
ually one part, or as much as it will dis-
solve, of grain tin.

d. Dr. Bancroft's murio-sulphate of
tin. Digest two parts of tin with three
of strong muriatic acid for an hour. Add
very cautiously one and one-half part of
oil of vitriol. Keep up the heat as long
as hydrogen is evolved ; on cooling, it
crystallizes. Dissolve this in salt and
water, so as to form a solution containing;
one part of tin in eight.

e. New tin crystals. Add three pounds
of sal ammoniac to a gallon of solution
of tin ; evaporate and crystallize.

/. Mordant for lac-dye. Mix twenty-
seven pounds of muriatic acid with
one and one-half pounds of nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1. 19.), put into a stone bottle,
and add in small bits, till four pounds are
dissolved.

g. Stannate of soda. Digest litharge
thirty-six parts, or minium twenty-seven
parts, in a metallic vessel, with a soda
lye of one and thirty-five one hundredths
density; when dissolved, eight parts of
tin in grains are gradually added. The

67-

MISCELLANEOUS.

lead separates at once in a spongy state,
and the solution of stannate of soda may-
be decanted.

h. Lac Spirit, used as solvent for lac-
dye, in preference to muriatic acid alone,
is thus made : Add gradually three
pounds of tin to sixty pounds of muriatic
acid. Digest three-fourths of a pound
of this solvent on each pound of the dye
for six hours. Plum or puce spirit, peach
spirit, and grain or scarlet spirit, are
names given by dyers to different solu-
tions of tin employed in dyeing these
colors. For scarlet, the nitro-muriatic
solutions (Nos. 2 and 3, above) are
used.

/. Iron Liquor. Scraps of iron are
placed in casks or other vessels, are
covered with rectified raw pyroligneous
acid. There are usually a series of ves-
sels, through which the solution is suc-
cessively passed till it is fully saturated.

FEATHERS, To Clean and Curl.—
White soap must be used (curd will
answer best), cut into small pieces, upon
which boiling water should be poured
until it be quite dissolved, a small quantity
of pearlash being added. When the
latter has sufficiently cooled for the hand
to bear its temperature, the feathers may
be drawn through it. This should be re-
peated several times, and the feathers
gently pressed with the hand, or carefully
passed between the fingers a few times,
so that the dirt may be squeezed out of
them. Another lather containing less
soap must now be prepared, and used in
the same manner. On removing the
feathers from this, they should be well
rinsed in cold water, and the water taken
from them by beating them against the
hand or a clean cloth, and then waving
them backward and forward in the air a
short distance from the fire. Before they
are quite dry, with a pen-knife curl each
fibre separately, by drawing it carefully
over the edge of the blade, which should
be a blunt one. If it be wished that the
feather should be flat, it may be pressed
in drying, after the curl is given to the
fluey part. This process may be used
for white feathers and also for fawn-
colored, or brown. Black ones may be
cleaned with water, adding to it some
gall, and following the above directions
in all other respects. Feathers of brighter
colors cannot be cleaned, but must be re-

dipped, as they usually fade very much
by exposure to the sun.

FEATHER BEDS, to Cleanse.— When
feather beds become soiled and heavy,
they may be made clean and light by
being treated in the following manner:
Rub them over with a stiff brush, dipped
in hot soap-suds. When clean, lay them
on a shed, or any other clean place,
where the rain will fall on them. When
thoroughly soaked, let them dry in a hot
sun for six or seven successive days, shak-
ing them up well and turning them over
each day. They should be covered over
with a thick cloth during the night; if
exposed to the night air they will become
damp and mildew. This way of wash-
ing the bed-ticking and feathers makes
them very fresh and light, and is much
easier than the old fashioned way of
emptying the beds and washing the
feathers separately, while it answers quite
as well. Care must be taken to dry the
bed perfectly before sleeping on it. Hair
mattresses that have become hard and
dirty, can be made nearly as good as
new by ripping them, washing the tick-
ing, and picking the hair free from
bunches and keeping it in a dry, airy
place several days. Whenever the tick-
ing gets dry, fill it lightly with the hair,
and tack it together.

FISH, Cnltnre. — Fishes, whether in the
freedom of nature or in artificial recepta-
cles, show plainly enough the approach
of spawning. The belly of the female
becomes distended and yields readily to
pressure. There is a fluctuation under
the hand, which shows that the eggs are
free from the ovary and easily displaced.
This being the case, take up in your left
hand a female fish, and hold it suspended
by the head and thorax over a flat-
bottomed vessel containing clear water.
Then with the right hand passed from
above downward, squeeze the loosened
eggs through the anal opening. A male
fish is then taken, and the milt is ex-
pressed in the same manner, though often
it flows by the mere act of suspending.
This substance, white and cream-like,
soon gives to water the appearance of
whey. To insure effectual fecundation,
the mixture in this state should be gently
stirred with the hand or with a soft brush.
It requires but a few minutes to accom-
plish the fecundation.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 57$

Build your ponds according to the
amount of water you have. If you have
but little, build small. The water should
be changed every twenty-four or forty-
eight hours, and the oftener it is changed
the better. Your trough should be so
arranged that the water will run in at
about twelve feet per minute. The water
should be filtered by running through
gravel or cloth screens, to prevent the
sediment from reaching the spawn. Mr.
Seth Green, the noted fish culturist, states
that he runs about one inch of water
over his spawn, and if any sediment gets
on them, that it will surely kill them.
Remove all sediment with the bearded
end of a quill by agitating the water,
without touching the spawn.

Large troughs with but little water get
too warm in summer and too cold in
winter for trout to do well. It is detri-
mental to have any other fish with trout.
Any kind of fish or fish spawn is good
for feed. The young should be fed twice
a day very slowly — if fed fast, the feed
sinks and befouls the trough, and the
trout sicken and die. If fed regularly,
and the trough kept clean, with a good
change of water, and not kept too thick,
they will live and do well. If neglected,
they will surely die.

The sun, sediment, rats, mice, snails,
crawfish, and many water insects are
death to spawn.

Mr. Green's troughs are twenty-five
feet long and fifteen inches wide. The
water that feeds each trough goes through
a half-inch hole with a three-inch head.
Use fine gravel that has no iron rust in it.
His troughs are three inches higher at the
head.

Trout hatch the soonest in warm water.
The average temperature of the water is
forty-five degrees, and the fish hatch in
seventy days. Every degree colder or
warmer will make a difference of six days
in hatching. The sack of their bellies
sustain them from forty to forty-five days
after hatching; then they need food.
Beef liver, chopped with a razor or sharp
knife, nearly to the consistency of blood,
is good. If you have small streams or
shallow water near the bed of your pond,
put a few trout in a place in the stream
and pond, and they will take care of
themselves better than you can. The
object of distributing them is that they

will get more food. All old streams and
ponds have plenty of food for small trout
and large, which you will find by examin-
ing the moss,- sticks and stones in your
ponds and streams, as they are full of
water insects.

Trout begin to spawn the first of No-
vember, and cease the first of March.
Mr. Green furnishes young trout, one
inch long, for forty dollars per thousand,
delivered at your nearest railway statioa
or express office. They ran be carried in
barrels or cans any distance when small,
and during the months of January,
February, and March. Impregnated
spawn can be had from November 1st to
March 1st, for ten dollars per thousand,
shipped in moss. The moss box is placed
in a tin pail, filled with saw-dust, so that
the spawn will not feel the change of
heat and cold. They cannot in safety be
shipped in warm weather.

Pick the moss carefully off the top of
the spawn. Then put the box in a pan of
water and turn it nearly bottom-side up,
and pick the moss out very carefully. The
spawn will sink to the bottom, and you
can pick the moss out of the pan. If
there is a little left in it will do no harm.
Then pour the spawn in your hatching-
trough, by holding the edge of your pan
under water, and place them without,
touching the spawn, by agitating the
water with the bearded end of a feather.
The dead spawn will turn a milk-white
color, and should be picked out.

A few hints to those making it a busi-
ness may not be out of place here. In
selecting a site for fish ponds be very
sure that the supply of water is unfailing.
The strength of a chain is always meas-
ured by the strength of its weakest link.
If a spring should give twenty inches of
water most of the time, but only one inch
in a very dry season, then the flow of
that spring is one inch. It has more
than once happened that a would-be fish
breeder has found his ponds without wa-
ter, and his beautiful spring dried up.
Then, too, it would be exceedingly con-
venient, though not absolutely necessary,
to have such a fall that every pond could'
be drained, and the pond should be so
situated that a rising and overflow of the
stream should not overflow the ponds.
This cannot be arranged very well it the:
ponds are made as has been often re-

374

MISCELLANEOUS.

commended, by dams in the stream it-
self. They should be made at one side
of the stream, taking all the water if re-
quired, but leaving the bed of the stream
itself as a convenient waste-gate in case
of overflow. One dam across the stream
will turn the water into the ponds, and
the flow can be made even.

The distance of a spring from a market
makes but little difference in these days
of railroads and refrigerator-cars. But
the amount of water and shape of land
make much difference. It is also well to
own the spring itself, if possible, in order
to prevent disputes with other owners,
■and to have the water always pure.

Ponds for fattening purposes are now
generally made small — say about twelve
feet wide by twenty-four feet long, either
in the shape of a square or of an oval.
It is a matter of fact that trout will "find
more natural food in a large pond than
in a small pond. A large pond has also
several other advantages over a small
pond. For instance, it is more economi-
cal to build one large pond than two
small ones, and it is less trouble to take
care of one race-way and one set of
screens than of two. But the fatal de-
fect in large ponds is that the fish can-
not be equally fed. The larger and more
voracious will follow the feeder as he
moves around the ponds, and drive away
the smaller and weaker fish. But in a
small pond the food can be thrown all
over the surface at once, and all the
fish have an equal chance.

The materials of which ponds should
be constructed vary with the nature of
the soil. In heavy clay ground embank-
ments alone are necessary. But in fact
so much trouble has been caused by
muskrats perforating embankments and
liberating the water, that we are tempted
to say that embankments alone should
never be used. In most soil either stone
or wood should be used in construction.
If stone is used it should by all means be
cemented and the bottom of the pond
finished in grout, or large flat stones,
with the interstices filled with cement.
In order to clean out the lime, water
should be run through the pond some
weeks before putting in fish. The. ce-
ment and stone will crack and in time
become defaced at the water-line. This
may be remedied by a facing of board

along the surface-line. We have lately
constructed very good and cheap ponds
of rough hemlock boards (our cheapest
lumber), and find that they answer ex-
ceedingly well. Thirty feet long, four
feet wide, and six inches of water will do
very well for race-ways to small ponds.

The supply of water necessary to raise
trout for market purposes (making it a
business) should not be less than thirty or
forty inches, and would be better if larger.
Adults should be fed regularly once each
day. The only rule to be given as to
quantity is to feed them till they will eat
no more. It is economy to cut the feed
finely and feed slowly, as most of that
which is not eaten at once will be wasted.
A little water should be mixed with the
meat, and wetting the knife or cleaver
often makes easier chopping, and causes
the food to spread evenly when thrown
into the pond. Cut the toughest food
for the largest fish. Keep your pans,
chopping-block, and meat-house clean,
and feed your meat before it spoils. It
is good economy, before commencing to
build ponds, to take the advice of some
experienced man, and also to read all ob-
tainaole works on the subject. On the
main points there will be found very little
difference of opinion, and on those com-
paratively unimportant everybody's ex-
perience will help you to form a sound
judgment.

A few hints to those raising trout on a
small scale, that is, not making it an ex-
clusive business : There are many per-
sons who have trout streams, either
wholly or in part on their farms, which
streams bring them in no revenue, ex-
cept an occasional day's amusement.
Let us suppose such a stream to be
stocked annually with five thousand trout-
fry, at an expense of $100. In about
three years the stream will be in full
bearing. Let us look at the returns. At
the lowest estimate three hundred pounds
of trout, worth one dollar per pound at
present prices, may be taken from the
stream annually. Then, too, there is al-
ways a demand for fishing privileges, and
in most places such a stream could be let
to sportsmen at a profitable advance on
the cost ot stocking. Besides, if a place
is to be sold, a well-stocked trout-stream
on the premises will add several dollars
per acre to the value of the ground.

ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND FACTS FOR THE PEOPLE. 575

Even a little spring rill, across which a
man can step, if stocked yearly with a
thousand fry, costing twenty dollars, will
yield a profitable interest on the money
•expended. The labor of catching them
is, of course, to be considered. But in
most cases their capture is thought to be
3. pleasure, and if there should be a pro-
prietor who finds no enjoyment in trout-
fishing, he will find enough to do that
work for him without wages. It must be
obvious that stocking streams, though
limited as to results, is yet in its degree
more profitable than the other method of
fish-raising, inasmuch as there is no out-
lay for feed, and the trout require no
care.

The two methods may often be com-
bined with advantage. We once met an
old farmer who was taking a trout to the
village hotel for sale. The fish weighed
plump four pounds, and was a beauty.
We learned that he was in the habit of
bringing such fish occasionally, and on
questioning him, found that he had a lit-
tle spring stream of water running through
his land, and that in its course he had
<lug out a deep hole — simply a hole in
the ground, without screens or apparatus
of any kind. The larger trout from the
stream collected in this hole, and he
would feed them with scraps from his ta-
ble, refuse meat from his butchering, etc.
With the outlay of very little trouble, and
210 cash, the old gentleman must have
gathered a good many dollars per year
from his hole-in-the-ground trout-pond.
As a hint of what can be done in fish-
raising with small means, his example is
worthy of consideration.

There are a few erroneous impressions
still lingering in the public mind which
it might be well, if possible, to correct.
No man need ever expect to make
a more rapid fortune in this business
than in any other. The same qualities
which command success in farming or
the mechanic arts, will command suc-
cess in trout-culture. He who fails at
■everything else will not succeed in rais-
ing fish. It has also been imagined that
trout required no feed, and many ingeni-
ous estimates as to the profits of the
business have left this item out of account.
Now, when "the time arrives that pigs can
De fattened without feeding, or calves
turned into beef without food, then trout

may be grown without expense. Food
they must have in some way. In a na-
tural trout-stream a limited number can
forage for themselves; but trout in a
pond are like cattle in a barn — they must
have food furnished to them or starve.
In other words, fish cannot live on wa-
ter.

PORK, Cutting Up and Curing.— Have
the hog laid on his back on a stout, clean
bench; cut off the head close to the base.
If the hog is large, there will come oft a con-
siderable collar, between head and should-
ers, which, pickled or dried, is useful for
cooking with vegetables. Separate the
jowl from the face at the natural joint;
open the skull lengthwise and take out
the brains, esteemed a luxury. Then
with a sharp knife remove the backbone
the whole length, then the long strip of
fat underlying it, leaving about one inch
of fat covering the spinal column.

The leaf lard, if not before taken out
for the housewife's convenience, is re-
moved, as is also the tenderloin — a fishy-
shaped piec? of flesh — often used for
sausage, but which makes delicious steak.
The middling or sides are now cut out,
leaving the shoulders square-shaped and
the hams pointed, or they may be round-
ed, to your taste. The spare-ribs are usu-
ally wholly removed from the sides, with
but little meat adhering. It is the sides
of small, young hogs cured as hams that
bear the name of breakfast bacon. The
sausage meat comes chiefly in strips from
the backbone, part of which may also be
used as steak. The lean trimmings from
about the joints are used for sausage, the
fat scraps rendered up with the backbone
lard.

The thick part of the backbone that lies
between the shoulders, called grisken or
chine, is separated from the tapering,
bony part, called backbone by way of
distinction, and used as fresh. The chines
are smoked with jowls, and used in late
winter or spring.

When your meat is to be pickled it
should be dusted lightly with saltpetre,
sprinkled with salt, and allowed to drain
twenty-four hours; then plunge it into
pickle, and keep under with a weight. It
is good policy to pickle a portion of the
sides. They, after soaking, are sweeter
to cook with vegetables, and the grease

576

MISCELLANEOUS.

fried out from them is much more useful
than that of smoked meat.

If your meat is to be dry salted, allow
one teaspoonful of pulverized saltpetre to
one gallon of salt, and keep the mixture
warm beside you. Put on a hog's ear as
a mitten, and rub each piece of meat
thoroughly. Then pack skin side down,
ham upon ham, side upon side, strewing
on salt abundantly. It is best to put
large and small pieces in different boxes
for the convenience of getting at them to
hang up at the different times they will
come into readiness. The weather has
so much to do with the time that meat
requires to take salt that no particular
time can be specified for leaving it in.

The best test is to try a medium-sized
ham ; if salt enough, all similar and
smaller pieces are surely ready, and it is
well to remember that the saltness in-
creases in drying.

Ribs and steaks should be kept in a
cold, dark place, without salting, until
ready for use. If you have many, or the
weather is warm, they keep better in
pickle than dry salt. Many persons turn
and rub their meat frequently. We have
never practiced this, and have never lost
any.

When the meat is ready for smoking,
dip the hocks of the joints in ground
black pepper and dust the raw surface
thickly with it. Sacks, after this treat-
ment, may be used for double security,
and I think bacon high and dry is sweeter
than packed in any substance. For sugar-
cured hams we append the best recipe we
have ever used, though troublesome.

English Recipe for Sugar- Curing Hams.
So soon as the meat comes from the
butcher's hand rub it thoroughly with fine
salt. Repeat this four days, keeping the
meat where it can drain. The fourth day
rub it with saltpetre and a handful of
common salt, allowing one pound ot
saltpetre to seventy pounds of meat. Now
mix one pound of brown sugar and one
of molasses, rub over the ham every day
for a fortnight, and then smoke with
hickory chips or cobs. Hams should be
hung highest in meat-houses, because
there they are less liable to the attacks of

insects, for insects do not so much infest
high places — unlike human pests.

Fickle. — Make eight gallons of brine
strong enough to float an egg ; add two
pounds of brown sugar or a quart of
molasses, and four ounces of saltpetre;
boil and skim clean, and pour cold on
your meat. Meat intended for smoking
should remain in pickle about four weeks.
This pickle can be boiled over, and with a
fresh cup of sugar and salt used all summer.
Some persons use as much soda as salt-
petre. It will correct acidity, but we think
impairs the meat

WASHING PREPARATION.— Take

a ^ of a pound of soap, a Jjf of a pound
of soda, and a ^ of a pound of quick-
lime. Cut up the soap and dissolve it in
i quart of boiling water ; pour i quart of
boiling water over the soda, and 3 quarts
of boiling water upon the quicklime. The
lime must be quick and fresh ; if it is
good it will bubble up on pouring the hot
water upon it. Each must be prepared
in separate vessels. The lime must settle
so as to leave the water on the top per-
fectly clear ; then strain it carefully (not
disturbing the settlings) into the washj
boiler with the soda and soap ; let it scald
long enough to dissolve the soap, then add
6 gallons of soap water. The clothes
must be put in soak over night, after rub-
bing soap upon the dirtiest parts of them.
After having the above in readiness,
wring out the clothes which have been-
put in soak, put them on to boil, and let
each lot boil half an hour ; the same wa
ter will answer for the whole washing.
After boiling each lot half an hour drain
them from the boiling water, put them in
a tub and pour upon them two or three
pailsful of clear, hot water; after this
they will want but very little rubbing;
then rinse through two waters, blueing the
last. When dried they will be a beautiftu"
white. After washing the cleanest part
of the white clothes, take 2 pails of the
suds in which they have been washed,
put it over the fire and scald, and this
will wash all the flannels and colored
clothes without any extra soap. The
white flannels, after being well washed
in the suds, will require to be scalded
by turning on a teakettle of boiling wa-
ter.

CONTENTS

Abdominal viscera and their
appendages in horses,

diseases of. . . 87

Accident to horses' legs and

feet 117

Accidents and injuries, and

how to meet them. . 318

Acetate of lead, antidote for 329
Acetate of zine, antidote for 331
Acid, acetic, antidote for .. 327

Acetic acid, antidote for 327

Acid, carbolic, antidote for 328

Acid, carbonic . 329

Acid, citric, antidote for... 327
Acid, hydrosulphuric, anti-
dote for 329

Acids, mineral, antidote for 326
Acid, muriatic, antidote for 326
Acid, nitric, antidote for . . 326
Acid, oxalic, antidote for.. 327
Acid, Prussic, or hydrocy-
anic, antidote for 327

Acid, sulphuric, antidote for 326
Acid, tartaric, antidote for. 327
Acids, vegetable, antidotes

for 327

After-pains in sheep 199

Ages of bees 317

Age to breed swine 230

Age of cattle, by horns, how

to tell 145

Age of cattle, how to tell.. 145
Age of horse, by teeth, how

to tell 17

Age, horse, average ...... 13

Age, horse, how to dis-
guise x8

Age of horse, one year, how

totell .-, 17

Age of horse, two years,

how to tell 17

Age of horse, three years,

how to tell . 17

Age of horse, four years,

how to tell 17

Age of horse, five years,

how to tell 17

Age of horse, six years, how

totell 17

Age of horse, seven years,

how to tell 17

Age of horse, eight years,

how to tell 17

Agreements — See Contracts.
Agreement to build a house 460

37

PAGI.

Agreement to continue a

parnership...... .... 462

Agreement for the sale and

purchase of land. ... 460

Agreement to sell and de-
liver wood ...... . ... 462

Age of poultry 266

Age, profitable in poultry . 253
Age of sheep, how to tell . 225
Ague in breast..... ...... 333

Ague and fever........... 339

Ague mixture.... .... .... 333

Ahdehyd dye, aniline 565

Alcohol, brandy, liquors,

antidotes for 327

Alkalies and their salts, anti-
dotes for ..... 327

Almonds, bitter oil of, anti-
dote for 327

Alum burnt, horses' use of. 243

Alum whey for cattle 248

Alterative drink for cattle .. 250
Alterative powder for swine 25 1
Alterative tonic powders for

cattle 250

Alteratives, horse .... 240

Alterative horse ball 240

Alterative, horse, simply

cooling . 240

Alterative, horse, lor de-
fective secretions.. ...... 240

Alteratives, horse, for dis-
ordered state of the skin. 240
Alterative, horse, in debil-
ity of the stomach 240

Amaurosis in horse 107

Amber, pale, varnish 436

Amber, varnish 435

Amber, black, varnish 435

American lackey moth .... 394

American Meromyza. . .... 373

Ammonia, antidote for .... 327

Anaesthetics, horse ....... 240

Aniline dyes 563

Anasarca in horse ... 120

Anatomy of back of horse . 10
Anatomy of body of horse . 10
Anatomy of the forequarter

ofhorse 9

Anatomy of hindquarter of

horse II

Anatomy of the neck of

horse 8

Anatomy of middlepiece of
horse 10

(577)

feMB.

Anatomy of head of horse . S

Anchylosis in horse 48

Aconite, antidote for..- — 327
Angle-berries, cattle .. . — 18c
Animals domestic, medi-
cines for 240'

Animals subject to epizoot. 73".

Ankle, sprained 333

Anodyne, ball for horse ... 24r

Anodynes, horse 240

Anodyne ball, for horse

colic - 240

Anodyne clyster, horses, in

diarrhcea 244

Anodyne drench for horse

in superpurgation ... — 241
Anodyne drench for horse

in chronic diarrhcea. .... 24 1
Anodyne drench for horse

in diarrhoea.... 241

Anodyne drink for cattle . . 248
Anodyne drink for lockjaw

in cattle 249

Anodyne horseball for colic 240
Anodyne, horse, drench for

colic 240

Annotto, choice of. 491

Antacids, horse 241

Anthelmintics, horse 241

Antidotes of poisons 326

Antimony, antidote for.... 327"

Antispasmodics 241

Antispasmodic drench for

horse 241'

Antispasmodic, horse,

drench for 241

Antispasmodic, horse, in

colic - 241'

Antispasmodic, horse, clys-
ter in colic... 241

Antimonial wine, antidote

for 327-

Ants, to destroy 36c

Ants, black, to destroy 35c*

Ants in greenhouses* to de-
stroy •- 491

Ants, red, to destroy 350

Aperient, clysters, horse... 244
Aperient, drink for calves. - 250

Aperients, horse 241

Apiary, establishment of an 307

Apoplexy. 332, 333

Apoplexy in horse 104

Apoplexy in poultry 257

Apoplexy in swine 235.,

573

CONTENTS.

WJMM,

Appetite, loss of, in sheep. 215

Apple butter 280

Apple butter, Pennsylvania,

to make.... 280

Apples, crab, preserved... 298
A pples, canning .......... 284

Apple curculio .... .- 381

Apples, to dry ... . . 279

Apples, to keep . 279

Apple orchard 488

Apples, preserved . ... 298

Apple pruner ..... 407

Apples, to pack in barrels . 279
Apple-root, plant-louse.... 363
Apple trees, blight, to pre-
serve from 489

Apple tree borer, flat-
headed 396

Apple tree borer, round-
headed 355

Apple tree bark lice. . . 354

Apple trees, diseased, to

cure 489

Apple trees, old, to reno-
vate 489

Apple trees, canker in, to

cure.... 489

Apple tree roots, to graft .. 528

Apple tree, suckers 490

Apple tree, tent caterpillar. 394
Apple trees, treatment of. . 489

Apple trees, planting 514

Apple trees, training and

pruning 515

Apple twig borer 407

Apple wine........ 305

Apple worms, or codling

moth 357

Apricots, whole, preserved 298

Apricot wine. 305

Aquafortis, antidote for.... 326

Army, fall worm 394

Army worm, or grass 379

Army worm, cotton 375

Arnica, charge for horse . . 244
Aromatic, pot and sweet

herbs, culture of 490

Arsenic, antidote for 328

Arsenic, horse, antidote for 89
Arsenical wash for lice in

sheep 251

Artichoke, Jerusalem 490

Artificial honey, to make. . . 286

Artificial seton for cattle 148

Artificial swarming of bees

v s. natural 310

Artificial swarming of bees 311

Ashes, for swine 229

Asparagus, culture of 490

Assignment of bond, and
mortgage indorsed on in-
strument.... . 459

Assignment of bond and
mortgage, as collateral

security.... 457

Assignment, general...... 456

Assignment of a lease 456

Assignment of bond and

mortgage 457

.Assignment of a lease, in-
dorsed ...... ..... 466

PAO*.

Assignment of a patent

. right 456

Asthma 333

Asthma in dogs... 277

Astringent drink, with mut-
ton suet, for cattle 248

Astringent drink for cattle . 248
Astringent drink for lambs. 250
Astringents, horse ........ 242

Astringent, horse, for
bloody urine.... ....... 242

Astringent, horse, for dia-
betes.................. 242

Astringent, horse, for diar-
rhoea .......... .. 242

Astringent lotion for horses 242
Astringent, mild, for cattle 248
Astringent ointment, for

sore heels of horses . 242

Astringent powder, caustic,

for foot-rot in sheep 25 1

Astringent powders, horse,
external, for ulcerated

surfaces 242

Astringent powder for cattle 249
Astringent powder for sheep 251
Astringent, stimulating, for

cattle 248

Attorney, power of 46 7

Attorney, power of, revoca-
tion 467

Avenues and roads, planting 453
Axle grease 561

Back of horse, how to ex-
amine............ ..... 20

Back lanes. 343

Back-raking in horses 130

Back sinews, horse, strain

ofthe 65

Bad breath ........ ...... 337

Bag-worm............... 369

Baldness, cure of. ..... 333

Ball, anodyne, for horse... 241
Ball, alterative, for horse.. 240
Balls, cordial, for horse ... 244
Ball, diuretic, cooling, for

horses 245

Ball, diuretic, stimulating,

for horses.. 245

Ball, expectorant, for horses 245

Ball, horse, alterative 240

Balls, horses, purging with

calomel 242

Ball, fever, for horses 246

Balls, horse, physic 242

Ball, horse, worms 241

Ball, laxative, gentle, for

horses 242

Balls, physic, for horses. . . 242
Ball, physic, warmer, for

horses..... 242

Balls, purging with calomel,

for horses 242

Ball, stomachic, for horses. 246
Balls, stomachic, laxative

for washy horses . 232

Ball, tonic, for horse 247

Ball, worm, for horse 241

Ball, worm 390

Balm for chilblains 334

PAGE.

Balusters, measuring 423

Bandages, horse, use and

application of . . 37

Bank, notes payable at. 458

Barbs in horses 88

Barber's itch 342

Barberries, pickled . . 295

Bark lice of the apple tree. 354

Bark louse 354

Bark louse, oyster shell . . . 354
Barley seed, to select ..... 552
Barley, to cultivate ....... 491

Barley, to harvest .... 49 1

Barnacles for the horse . 122

Barrels, to pack apples in.. 279

Baulky horse, to cure 134

Basket ware varnish ...... 43 7

Basket worm 369

Beans, to keep fresh in win-
ter 280

Beans, string, dried. . 280

Bean weevil 386

Bean worm 390

Beans, to cultivate ..... 492

Beans, castor oil 492

Beans, Lima 492

Beans, pickled 295

Beans for pigs. ....... . 229

Beans, to shell easy 571

Beans, common yellow . 383

Bed bugs, to destroy 350

Beds, feather, to clean 561

Bed-ticks, to clean 561

Beech borer . 397

Bees, ages of 317

Bee, black, to destroy 350

Bees, common or black vs.

Italian 308

Bee, drones, in swarming . 314

Bees, different kinds of 313

Bees, enemies ofthe 309

Bees, feed for 314

Bees, foul broods 316

Bee-hat 313

Beehives, position of. 315

Beehives, the best....... . 315

Beehives, common.. 315

Bees, Italian vs. common

or black 308

Bee-keeper's guide ... 307

Bee-keeping, success in 307

Bee miller, to destroy 313

Bee moth, or wax worm. . . 309

Beepasturage 307

Bee pasturage in spring 308

Bee pasturage in summer.. 308
Bee pasturage in autumn . . 308
Bee queen, fertilization of

the 312

Bee queen, supplying with. 309

Bee queen, rearing of 316

Bees, sting of 332

Bees, supplying with a

queen 309

Bees, swarming of 311

Bees, swarming, artificial.. 311
Bees, swarming, to prevent 309
Bees, swarms going to the

woods 309

Bees, swarming, artificial

vs. natural 310

CONTENTS.

579

PAGE.

Bees, wintering 313

Bees, woods, swarming,

going to the 309

Belladonna, antidote for.. . 328

Belly wounds, in cattle 185

Beef, pickled 280

Beets, pickled 294

Beet-root, pickled ... 294

Beetle, black, blister 362

Beetle, bogus, Colorado po-
tato 380

Beetle, Colorado potato 380

Beetles, to destroy 351

Beetle, elm tree 364

Beetle flea, grape vine 387

Beetle, j umping sumach . . . 406

Beetle, May 368

Beede, May 371

Beetle, margined blister .. . 362

Beetle, potato 380

Beetle, steel blue 387

Beetle, smoke tree 406

Beetle, striped blister 362

Beetle, three-lined lea! 362

Beetle, turnip flea 395

Big head in horse 132

Big leg in horse 132

Big shoulder in horse 132

Bilious colic 333

Bilious complaints 333

Bill, due 458

Bill of exchange... 458

Bill of sale 458

Birds, to preserve 281

Bismarck brown dye, ani-
line 566

Bites, harvest bug 318

Bites of horse by gad fly. . . Ill

Bites of insects . 326

Bites of insects, horse ill

Bites of mad dogs 318

Bites of serpents. ..... . 318

Bites in sheep 223

Bites and stings of insects . 318
Bitter almonds oil, antidote

for 327

Black ants, to destroy 350

Black bee, to destroy 350

Black dye, aniline 5°4

Blackberry, culture of 493

Blackberries, canning 284

Blackberry bush borer 406

Blackberry cordial 333

Blackberry wine 305

Black blister beetle 362

Black leg in cattle .. 1 70

Black quarter in cattle 1 71

Black rat blister beetle 362

Black teeth in swine 234

Black tongue cattle 158

Black varnish 436

Black varnish for harness . . 44 1
Black varnish for iron work 436

Black varnish for wood 436

Black water-in cattle 158

Bladders, to prepare 409

Bladder, cattle, stone in the 147
Bladder of dogs, inflamma-
tion of the 278

Bladder, horse, calculi in
the 100

PAOB.

Bladder of horse, diseases of
the 99

Bladder, inflammation of in

cattle, drink for 249

Bladder, inflammation of

the, in catde 175

Blain in cattle 170

Blanketing horse 144

Blast in sheep 205

" Blasting" cattle 180

Bleaching lard 287

Bleeding from the bowels. - 319

Bleeding, cattle, to stop 186

Bleeding cattle, utility of . . 145
Bleeding cattle, when neces-
sary 145

Bleeding calves from navel

string 193

Bleeding the horse.. .- 123

Bleeding from the lungs ... 319
Bleeding from the mouth.. 319

Bleeding at the nose 310

Bleeding from the stomach. 319
Bleeding of the stomach ... 346

Bleeding swine 234

Bleeding of swine ... 237

Bleeding from varicose

veins 319

Bleeding of wounds 319

Blight in fruit trees, to cure 493
Blight in apple trees, to pre-
serve from 489

Blight, frozen, pear tree 546

Blight, leaf, pear tree 546

Blight, onion 538

Blight orange 540

Blight, rose tree . 551

Blight, pear tree ..... 546

Blight, summer pear tree .. 546
Blight, winter pear tree.... 546
Blindness in poultry ...... 268

Blind staggers in swine . 238

Blisters 333

Blister beetle, black- 362

Blister beetle, margined... 362

Blister beede, striped 362

Blisters for horses 243

Blister, horse, sweating for

ring-bone 243

Blister, horse, sweating for

spavin 243

Blister, horse, sweating for

splints 243

Blister ointment for catde. . 248
Blister ointment for horses . 243
Blister, sweating for horses 243
Blister, sweating for ring.

bone in horse . 243

Blister, sweating for spavins

in horse 243

Blister, sweating for splints

in horses 243

Blistering fly, antidote for . 328

Blistering horses 126

Blood, cattle 170

Blood, cattle, quantity to be

taken 146

Blood, how to stop 334

Blood, horse, fullness of... 132
Blood in horse, how to tell 25
Blood raising 333

Blood striking, axxtle . , . M . 1 70
Blood-vessels of th< chest of
of horse, diseases of. ..... 87

Blood-vessels of the nose,

diseases of the 87

Bloody urine, astringent for

horse 242

Bloody urine, horse, astrin-
gent for 242

Blown in cattle....,, 167

Blown in cattle, to prevent. 167

Blown in sheep..... 205

Blown in sheep, phys'.c for. 250
Blue spangled peach worm. 393

Blue dye, aniline .. 563

Blue steel beetle 387

Bluestone, antidote for 328

Blue vitriol, antidote for . . . 328

Board measurement . 413

Body of horse, points of 8

Bog in horse, how to tell . . 25

Bog spavin in horse 61

Bogus Colorado potato

beede .' 380

Boils 1. 334

Boilers, measuring 418

Bone-dust for swine 229

Bones, poultry, to pulverize

for 266

Bond, common 459

Bond, to execute a convey-
ance 460

Bond and mortgage, assign-
ment of, indorsed on same 459
Bond and mortgage, assign-
ment of. 457

Bond and mortgage, as col-
lateral security, assign-
ment of 457

Bond for payment of money

at different times 457

Borer, apple twig 407

Borer, box elder 397

Borer, apple tree, flat-
headed 316

Borer, apple tree, round-
headed 3551

Borer, beech 397-

Borer, blackberry bush 406

Borer, cherry 397

Borer, cherry twig 407

Borer, corn cob 360

Borers, currant 408

Borer, flat-headed apple

tree 396

Borer, grape. — 386

Borer, grape vine twig 407

Borer, hawthorn 355

Borer, hickory twig ....... 407

Borer, June berry.. ...... 355

Borer, legged maple 401

Borer, linden 397

Borer, locust 395

Borer, mountain ash 355

• Borer, mountain ash ...... 39 7

Borer, new, grape root 365

Borer, oak 397

Borer, peach 397

Borer, peach . 408

Borer, pear 355

Borer, pear 397

58o

CONTENTS.

Borer, pear twig 407

Borer, plum 397

Borer, potato stalk 360

Borer, quince...... 35?

Borer, quince 460

Borer, raspberry 406

Borer, tomato' stalk 360

Bots in horse 91

Bottled fruit 303

Bowels, bleeding from the. 319

Bones broken in horse 59

Bowels, horse, inflamma-
tion of the 92

Bowels, inflammation of,

dogs 276

Bowels, inflammation of the,

in cattle, with costiveness. 169
Bowels, loose, horse...... 130

Bowels, swelled.. ..... 334

Box elder borer 397

Brain, cattle, inflammation

ofthe 153

Brain, inflammation of, in

swine . . 235

Brain, in sheep, inflamma-
tion of the............. 204

Bran for pigs...... ....... 229

Brandy, alcohol, liquors,
antidote for ...... ...... 327

Brandy, fruit in 303

Bread and milk poultice 345

Breaking colts, now to .... 31
Breaking down in horses . . 66
Breaking horses........ . 138

Breaking oxen 190

Breast of horse, how to ex-
amine.. 20

Breast, ague in the . 333

Breath, bad 337

Breeding mares, best kind . 13
Breeds, poultry, the most

popular..... 256

Breeding swine, age to.... 230

Breeds, swine 230

Brick making, hints on ... . 430
Brick ovens, how to make. 409
Brick work, measuring.... 416

Broccoli, pickled 295

Broken bones in horse .... 59

Broken chilblains ......... 335

Broken wind in horse. ..... 85

Broken knee of horse 69

Brood mare, general man-
agement of the 28

Brooded eggs, cooling of.. 273

Bronchitis in catde .... 180

Bronchitis, horse 71

Bronchitis, chronic, in horse 72
Broom corn, culture of .. .. 506

Bruises, cattle 187

Brushes, varnish, care of.. 435
Buckeye in horse. .... .... 108

Buckskins, to tan 433

Bug, cabbage 377

Bug, chinch. 396

Bug, May 371

Bug poison, antidote for . . . 329

Bug, potato. . 380

Bug, potato, antidote for. .. 328

Bugrrose... 366

Bug. squash ............. 384

MM.

Bug, Western potato 380

Bugs, bed, to destroy 350

Buildings and grounds,

choosing a location for. . . 444
Buildings, planting near ... 454

Building site, selecting a 444

Bull burnt in cattle, to treat 191
Bull burnt cattle, lotion for 250
Bulling in cow, to produce . 191

Bunion, cure for. 337

Burns and scalds 320

Burns and scalds .... ..... 337

Burns, tea leaves for 337

Bushes, gooseberry, mil-
dew on 507

Butter, apple 280

Butter, apple, Pennsylvania,

to make.... 280

Butter, hints on making 493

Butter, improved coloring

for 501

Butter making............ 494

Butter making, New York

factory 494

Butter making, New York. 496
Butter making, Philadelphia 495

Butter, packing 280

Butter, preserving 280

Butter, to preserve fresh... 502

Butter, to preserve ..... 280

Butter making, Vermont .. 495
Butter, rancid, to restore . . 501
Butter making, Western

mode 496

Butter, winter..... 501

Butter, working at. . 501

Cabbage bug 377

Cabbage, to cultivate 502

Cabbage, to keep.... 281

Cabbage, pickled 294

Cabbage plants, caterpillars

in - 493

Cabbage plants, to preserve

from fly 502

Cabbage plants, enemies of,

to destroy 502

Cabbage plants, club foot in 502

Cabbage, red, pickled 295

Coxe's hive syrup 341

Cakes, yeast 292

Callus in colt 143

Calves, aperient drink . 250

Calves, bleeding from navel

string 193

Calves, cows slinking 161

Calves, costiveness in 195

Calves, diarrhoea 194

Calves, diarrhoea in 250

Calves, drink, aperient, for 250

Calves, hoose in. 196

Calves, inflammation of the

lungs 250

Calves, purging, to stop 250

Calves, young, diseases of.. 193
Calving, cows, before and

during, treatment of the . 160
Calving, treatment of cow

after.... 163

Camphorated oil for cattle . 247

Cane, grape, gall curculio. . 366

FAOE.

Cancer 337-

Cancer in eye of cattle 1 78.

Cancerous ulcers in cattle. . 18&

Canker worms 399

Canker of the foot in horse. 55
Canker in the mouth, cattle 189

Canker in poultry 267-

Canker worm, fail ........ 3991

Canker worm, spring 399

Canning apples 284

Canning blackberries. ..... 284

Canning cherries 284

Canning currants 284

Canning fruit 283

Canned fruit, to keep 284

Canning fruit, wax for. .... 444

Canning huckleberries. 284

Canning meat 287

Canning peaches. 288.

Canning peaches. 284

Canned peaches, by the cold

process 303

Canning pears ...... ..... 284

Canning pie plant 284

Canning plums ........... 284

Canning quinces. ......... 284

Canning rhubarb ......... 284

Canning strawberries 284

Canning tomatoes 292

Canning tomatoes 284

Cantharides, antidote for. . . 328-

Caponizing poultry 269

Capped elbow in horse 63

Capped hock in horse 63

Carbonic acid, antidote for. 329
Carbolic acid, antidote for. . 328

Card work, varnish for. . 437

Care of lambs 199,

Care and management of

lambs 225

Care and management of

sheep 22c.

Caries of the jaw in horse. . $o-
Caries, or ulceration in

horse 48

Carpenter's work, hints on. 420
Carpenter's work, measur.

ing.. 42a

Carpets, moths in, to kill .. 352
Carpets, ink spots on..... . 561

Carpets, spots on ... 561

Carpets, to wash 561

Carpets, to clean 561

Carriage turns and gates. . . 452
Carrots, to cultivate. ...... 502

Carrot fly 385

Cartilage, horse, diseases of 61
Casting of the horse ....... 122.

Castor oil bean, to cultivate 492
Castor oil emulsions. ...... 33 7

Castor oil, to disguise 337

Castor oil mixture .... 337

Castration of horse ........ 127

Castration, horse, French

plan 128

Castration of pigs 229

Castration, sheep 199

Cataract in eye of horse .... 107

Catarrh 337

Catarrh in cattle 149

Catarrh, horse 70-

CONTENTS.

58»

Mm.

Catarrh in poultry 259

Catarrh in sheep. ......... 226

•Catarrh in swine. ......... 238

Cat, catching chickens 273

Catechu brown dye, aniline 568
Caterpillar, apple tree tent. 394
•Caterpillar in cabbage plant,

to destroy

Caterpillar, cotton 375

Caterpillars, to destroy.... 351
Caterpillar tent of the forest 392

'Catsup, tomato 292

Cattle 145

Cattle, age by the horns,

how to tell 145

Cattle, age of, how to tell. . 145

Cattle, alterative drink 250

Cattle, alterative, tonic

powders 250

'Cattle, alum whey 248

Cattle angle berries ....... 189

Cattle, anodyne drink 248

Cattle, anodyne drink for

lockjaw 249

Cattle, astringent drink 248

Cattle, astringent drink,

with mutton suet 248

Cattle, astringent, mild 248

Cattle, astringent, powder . 249
Cattle, astringent, stimulat-
ing 248

Cattle, belly, wounds in 185

Cattle, black leg 170

Cattle, black quarter in . 171

Cattle, black tongue 1 58

Cattle, black water in 158

'Cattle, bladder, inflamma-
tion of the 175

•Cattle, bladder, inflamma-
tion of the, drink for 249

Cattle, blain in 170

•Cattle, "blasting" 180

Cattle, bleeding, to stop 186

Cattle, bleeding, utility of. . 145
'Cattle, bleeding, when ne-
cessary 145

■Cattle, blister ointment .... 248

Cattle, blood 170

Cattle, blood, quantity to be

taken 146

•Cattle, blood striking 1 70

Cattle, blown in 167

Cattle, bowels, inflammation

of the, with costiveness.. 169
Cattle, blown in, to prevent 167
Cattle, brain, inflammation

of the 153

Cattle, bronchitis in 1 80

■Cattle, bruises 187

Cattle, bull burnt, to treat . 191
Cattle, bull burnt, lotion for 250
Cattle, camphorated oil for. 347

Cattle, cancer in eye 1 78

Cattle, cancerous ulcers.... 188
Cattle, canker in the mouth 189
Cattle, care and management 145

Cattle, catarrh, in 149

Cattle, charge for lameness. 249
Cattle, charge for old strains 249
Cattle, chest, cavity of,
wounds in 185

rxax.
Cattle, chine felon ........ 151

Cattle, chokinf 178

Cattle, cleansing ointment . 247

Cattle, clue-bound 189

Cattle, colds and coughs... 148
Cattle, colic in. ........... 166

Cattle, cordial drink. ...... 247

Cattle, cordial drink. ...... 249

Cattle, cough and cold 148

Cattle, cow-pox 191

Cattle, cow-pox, lotion for . 250

Cattle, cud in, loss of 158

Cattle, diarrhoea or purging 146
Cattle, discutient lotion .... 249
Cattle, diseases and reme-
dies 145

Cattle, diuretic drink 248

Cattle, drink, alterative.... 250

Cattle, drink, anodyne 248

Cattle, drink, astringent,

with mutton suet 248

Cattle, drink, astringent... 248

Cattle, drink, cordial 248

Cattle, drink, cordial 249

Cattle, drink for cough and

fever 247

Cattle, drink, diuretic 258

Cattle, drink for inflamma-
tion of the bladder 249

Cattle, drink, expectorant.. 247

Cattle, drink, physic . . 248

Cattle, drink, purgative.... 248

Cattle, drink, purging 247

Cattle, drink, rheumatic ... 247
Cattle, drink, stimulant,

warm 248

Cattle, drink, stimulating.. 247
Cattle, drink, stimulating.. 248
Cattle, drink, sulphur, purg-
ing 247

Cattle, drink, tonic 247

Cattle, drink, tonic 248

Cattle, drink, tonic, for mur-
rain 249

Cattle, drink, turpentine, for

worms 247

Cattle, drink, for the yellows 247

Cattle, dysentery 155

Cattle, embrocation for bite

of serpents 249

Cattle, embrocation, rheum-
atic... 247

Cattle, embrocation for

strains 249

Cattle, epizoot. in 74

Cattle, expectorant drink. . . 247

Cattle, eye, cancer in 188

Cattle, eye, disease of the.. 176
Cattle, eye, inflammation of

the .' 177

Cattle, eyelids, warts on... 177
Cattle, eye lotion, sedative. 249
Cattle, eye, ulcer on the lid 1 77
Cattle, eye, ulceration in. . . 1 78

Cattle, fardel-bound 189

Cattle, fractures 1 88

Cattle, feet, wounds in . 185

Cattle, fleam, use of. 146

Cattle, fumigation. .. 249

Cattle, garget, mercurial
ointment for 248

MM,

Cattle, gargyse 170

Cattle, glands, inflammation
of 175

Cattle hawks 170

Cattle, healing ointment . . . 247

Cattle, hollow horn in 1 74

Cattle, hoose 148

Cattle, hoove in. 167

Cattle, hoove in, to prevent 167

Calves, hoove in 250

Cattle, hoove, to prevent... 167

Cattle, hoven in .... 167

Cattle, horn, ail in........ 174

Cattle, hornets, sting of.... 184

Cattle, hydrophobia 1 92

Cattle, inflammation of the

bladder 17$

Cattle, inflammation of the

brain in 153

Cattle, inflammation of the

bowels, with costiveness . 169
Cattle, inflammation of the

eye I7T

Cattle, inflammation of the

glands 175

Cattle, inflammation of the

larynx 182

Cattle, inflammation of the

liver 151,

Cattle, inflammation of the

lungs 149

Cattle, inflammation of the

pharynx 189

Cattle, inflammation of the

throat 182

Cattle, inflammation of the

trachea 180

Cattle, influenza in ....... . 149

Cattle, iodine ointment 248

Cattle, jaundice, or yellows

in 152

Cattle, joint felon, or rheum-
atism . 150

Cattle, lameness, charge for 249
Cattle, larynx, inflammation

of the 182

Cattle, leeeh bites 184

Cattle, leg amputated 188

Cattle, lice, mercurial oint-
ment for 250

Cattle, liniment ....... . 249

Cattle, live, measuring to

estimate weight .... 415

Cattle, liver, inflammation

ofthe 151

Cattle, lockjaw 179

Cattle, lockjaw, anodyne

drink for 249

Cattle, lockjaw, physic

drink for 249

Cattle, lotion for bul}. burnt. 250
Cattle, lotion for cow-pox.. 250

Cattle, loss of cud in 158

Cattle, lotion, discutient.... 249
Cattle, lotion, disinfectant.. 248
Cattle, lotion for the eyes,

strengthening 249

Cattle, lotion lor vermin 250

Cattle, madness in 192

Cattle, management and

care of 145

5S2

CONTEN T

PAGE

Cattle, mange 181

Cattle, mange ointment.... 249
Cattle, mercurial ointment

for garget 248

Cattle, mercurial ointment

for vermin 250

Cattle, mild astringent 248

Cattle, mouth, canker in... 189

Cattle, murrain 173

Cattle, murrain, drink for . . 248
Cattle, mutton suet, astrin-
gent drink with 248

Cattle, ointment, blister 248

Cattle, ointment, cleansing. 247
Cattle, ointment, healing. . . 247

Cattle, ointment, iodine. 248

Cattle, ointment for mange. 249
Cattle, ointment, mercurial,

garget 248

Cattle, ointment, mercurial,

for vermin 250

Cattle, ointment for sore

teats 248

Cattle, pestilential fever 173

Cattle, pharynx, inflamma-
tion of the 189

Cattle, phrenitis . . . . .... .. 154

Cattle, physic drink 248

Cattle, physic drink, for

lockjaw 249

Cattle plague 154

Cattle pleurisy. ...... 150

Cattle, pleuro-pneumonia.. 181

Cattle poisons 183

'Cattle, purging, or diarrhoea 146

Cattle, purging drink 247

Cattle, quarter evil in...... 170

Cattle rabies 192

Cattle, red water in . . 156

Catde, remedies and dis-
eases , 145

Cattle, rheumatism, or joint

felon 150

Cattle, rinderpest 158

Cattle, rheumatic drink 2"»

Cattle, rheumatic embroca-
tion 247

Cattle, seton, artificial 148

Catde, seton, mode of in-
serting a 148

Cattle, scouring rot in 155

Cattle, serpents, embroca-
tion for bites of 249

Cattle, slimy, flux 155

Cattle, sore mouth in 154

Cattle, sore teats, ointment

for 248

Cattle, snakes, bites of, em-
brocation for 249

Cattle, staggers I<54

Cattle, stimulating astrin-
gent 248

Cattle, stimulating drink. . . 247
Cattle, stimulating drink... 248

Cattle, sting of hornets 184

Cattle, stone in the urinary

passages, or bladder 147

Cattle, sting of wasps 1 84

Cattle strains 187

Cattle strains, embrocation
for 249

PAGE.

Catde, strains, old, charge
for 249

Catde, sulphur purging
drink 247

Catde, swimming in the
head 154

Cattle, teats, sore, oint-
ment for 248

Catde, throat, inflammation

ofthe 182

Cattle, thrush 158

Cattle, tonic drink . 247

Cattle, tonic powders, alter-
ative 250

Cattle, tonic, strong . 249

Cattle, true red water in 157

Cattle, turpentine, drink for

worms 247

Cattle, ulcer on eyelid 177

Cattle, ulcers, cancerous 188

Cattle, ulceration in eye.... 170

Cattle, vermin in 166

Cattle, vermin, lotion for .. 250
Cattle, vermin, mercurial

ointment for. 250

Cattle, warbles 166

Cattle, warm drink, stimu-
lant 248

Cattle, warm stimulant

drink 248

Cattle, warts on eyelids ... . 177

Catde, wasps, sting of. 184

Cattle, whey alum 248

Cattle worms. 149

Cattle worms, turpentine

drink for 247

Cattle, wounds in belly. 185

Cattle, wound in cavity of

chest 185

Cattle, wounds in feet 185

Cattle, wounds, treatment

of 186

Cattle, -wounds 184

Cattle, the yellows, or

jaundice 152

Cattle, yellows, drink for.. 247
Cattle, young, inflammation

of the lungs 150

Cauliflower, to cultivate 502

Cauliflower, to keep 281

Cauliflower, pickled... 295

Cauteries 243

Caustic astringent powder,

for foot-rot in seeep 251

Caustic, for corns 335

Caustic potash, antidote for 327

Caustics, horse 243

Caustic, lunar, antidote for. 329

Ceiling joists 421

Celery, culture of 503

Celery, to keep 281

Cellars, to keep from freez-
ing 5°3

Cement, for china 409

Cement, for crockery 409

Cement, egg 410

Cement, for glass. ........ 409

Cement, Indian .. 409

Cement, for leather...... . 410

Cement, for marble 410

Cement, measuring 419

PAGK.

Cement, for metals ....... 409

Cement, for wood 409-

Chapped hands 334

Chapped heels in horses ... m

Chapped lips 342.

Charcoal, for swine 229

Charcoal, for turkeys 2 72

Charge, arnica, horse 244

Charges, horse 244

Charges, horse, arnica 244

Charge, for lameness in

cattle 249

Charge for old strains in

cattle 249

Chattel mortgage, to secure

a money demand 458

Chattel mortgage, to secure

note 459

Cheese, to make 504

Chemic blue dye, aniline. . . 568

Chemic green dye, aniline . 568

Cherries, canning 284

Cherries, dried 281

Cherries, pickled 294

Cherries, preserved 300

Cherry borer 397

Cherry, culture of 516

Cherry twig borer 407

Chest, blood-vessels of in

horse, diseases ofthe... . 87
Chest, cattle, cavity of,

wounds in 185

Chest of horse, how to ex-
amine 20-

Chest of horse, water in the

cavity. 85

Chesnut pruner 407

Chickens — See Poultry.

Chickens, age of 266

Chickens, age, profitable... 253

Chickens, apoplexy 257

Chickens, the best breeds.. 256

Chickens, best for eggs .... 256

Chickens, best for the table 256

Chickens, blindness in 268-

Chickens, cats catching. 273

Chickens, canker in 267

Chickens, caponizing in . . . 269
Chicken cholera, remedy for 272

Chickens, consumption in . . 261

Chickens, costiveness . 268-

Chickens, cholera, to cure . 273

Chickens, cramp in...... . 265

Chickens, crop -bound.. 262

Chickens, croup in 267

Chickens, diarrhoea in 262

Chickens, diseases of 256

Chickens, drinking and feed-
ing 253

Chickens, droppings of . 255

Chickens, eggs, eating their 265

Chickens, epizoot. in...... 274

Chickens, epilepsy.. . 257

Chickens, fattening . 2kj

Chickens, fattening coops . . 267
Chickens, feathers, eating

their 267-

Chickens, fumigation of

houses 255

Chickens, gapes in. . 259

Chickens, giddiness in 258

CONTENTS.

583.

PAGE.

Chicken houses, to clear of

vermin 256

Chickens, inflammation of

the oil- vessel in 268

Chickens, inflammation of

the stomach 265

Chickens, lice on 264

Chickens, management of. . 272

Chickens for market 266

Chickens, megrims in 265

Chicken mites 272

Chickens, paralysis in 258

Chickens, pip in 258

Chickens, rheumatism in . .. 265

Chickens, room for 252

Chickens, roots for. ....... 252

Chickens, roup in 260

Chickens, rump root in 268

Chickens, ulcers in 266

Chickens, vermin in 264

Chickens, vertigo in 258

Chickens, white comb in... 264

Chilblains 334

Chilblains 337

Chilblain balm 334

Chilblains, broken 335

Chilblains, cure for 334

Chilblains, itching, lotion

**;•- 334

Chilblain lotion 334

Chilblain ointment 334

Chilblains, Russian remedy

for 344

Children 334

Children, worms in 349

Children, diseases in 336

Children, swelled bowels in 334

Chills 339

Chill in turkey chicks 272

Chimneys, how to measure. 41 7

Chinch bug ... 396

Chine felon in cattle 151

China, cement for 409

Chinese varnish 43 7

Chinese vermillion, antidote

for 329

Chloride of tin, antidote for 331
Chloride of zinc, horse, use

of 243

Chloride of zinc, horse, use

of-: - 344

Chlorine, antidote for 329

Chloroform, horse, use of . 121

Chockered sheep 207

Choking.. ............ 320

Choking, cattle 178

Choking in swine 234

Cholera, chicken, remedy

for.... 272

Cholera, chicken, to cure.. 273

Cholera in hogs 234, 533

Cholera, remedy for. ...... 335

Cholera remedy .......... 336

Cholera in swine 234

Chopped pickles ...... 294

Chromos, varnish for...... 438

Chronic diarrhoea 338

Chronic diarrhoea in horse,

anodyne drench for 241

Cider vinegar . .... 293

Cider, how to keep sweet. . 281

PAG*.

Cions, to cut and preserve.

Cisterns, how to build 411

Citric acid, antidote for.... 327

Citron melon, preserved 298

Clarifying tallow 292

Clatting of sheep ......... 198

Cleaning feathers ......... 572

Cleaning the hair ... 341

Cleansing ointment for cat-
tle . 247

Cleansing of wounds in

sheep .. . 224

Clicking in horse 131

Clipping horse 32

Cloth, cleaning and scour-
ing 561

Cloth, renovating of. 562

Cloth, black, to revive the

color of 562

Clothing on fire 325

Clothing, moths, to pre-
serve from ...... 352

Clover hay worm...... 400

Club-foot in cabbage plants 502

Clue-bound cattle 189

Clyster, aperient, horse 244

Clyster, anodyne, horse, in

diarrhoea 244

Oyster, horse, how to use. 130
Clyster, purgative, for horse 242

Coachmakers' varnish 437

Coagulation of milk in

lambs 200

Cocks— See Poultry.

Codling, grape.... 367

Codling moth, or apple

worm 357

Codling moth, to trap 537

Codlins, pickled . 295

Coffin joint, horse, strain of 65

Cold 337

Cold and cough in cattle. .. 148

Cold, horse 70

Cold, sheep, and discharge

from the nose 206

Colic 321

Colic, antispasmodic, in

horse . 241

Colic, antispasmodic clyster,

for horse . .......... 241

Colic, bilious 333

Colic in cattle 166

Colic, flatulent, in horse.. . 94

Colic in horse.... 93

Colic, horse, anodyne ball

for 240

Colic, horse, anodyne

drench for 240

Colic, horse, antispasmodic

for 241

Colic, horse, antispasmodic

clyster for .......... 241

Colic, painters. 345

Colic, spasmodic, in horse.. 94

Colic in swine 233

Collars, horse, how to fit - - 134
Collateral security, bond
and mortgage assignment

of 457

Coloring, measuring...... 419

Colorless, varnish 437

PAGX.

Colorado bogus potato
beetle 380

Colorado potato beetle 380

Colorado potato bug 380

Coloring butter, improved

process 501

Colts — See Horses.

Colts, breaking, how to .. . 31

Colt distemper .... ....... 88

Colt, callus in 143.

Colts, care and manage-
ment of 143.

Colts, feed for 32^

Colt, to prevent from jump-
ing 143

Common yellow bean 383

Complaints, bilious 333

Complaint, liver 343

Complaints, venereal 349

Composition roofing, meas-
uring 423

Congestion of the lungs in

horse 81

Concentrated lye, antidote

for 327

Conium, antidote for...... 329

Consumption 336

Consumption in poultry 261

Convulsions. 321

Convulsions in ducks 273,

Convulsions in horse...... 101

Contracts 451

Contracts—.?** Agreements.
Contract of copartnership . - 46 1

Contract with lunatic 487

Contract with minors 487

Contraction of horse's foot- 24

Contractor's Hen 467

Conveyances 457*

Conveyance, bend, to exe-
cute - 460M

Cooling drench for horse .. 242:
Cooling drench for horse . . 246'
Cooling fever drink for

sheep... 250

Cooling powder for mash for

horse........... 246

Coops, poultry, for fattening 267

Copal blue varnish 437

Copal green varnish ....... 441

Copal pearl grey varnish. .. 441
Copal purple varnish ...... 443

Copal red varnish......... 442

Copal varnish ...... ...... 439

Copal varnish, to dissolve in

alcohol 438

Copal varnish, to dissolve in

turpentine.... 438

Copal white varnish, to

make 443

Copal yellow varnish ... 443

Copartnership contract..... 461

Corallin dye, aniline....... 564

Cordial balls for horse..... 244

Cordial, blackberry . 333

Cordial drink for cattle .... 247
Cordial drink for cattle .... 248

Cordial drink for cattle 249

Cordial drench for horse... 244
Cordial and expectorant for
horse 244.

584

CONTENTS.

RIM)

Cordials, horse 244

Corn, broom, culture of. . . 506

Corn cob borer 360

Corncobs 505

Corn cribs, rat-proof to

make 410

Corn, culture of 505

Corn maggot 371

Corn, to prevent being de-
stroyed when newly

planted 505

Corn seed worm.... 370

Corn seed, to select 551

Corn stacks, to prevent rav-
ages of mice in......... 505

Corn worm 390

Corns . 337

Corns, caustic for 335

Corns, cure for . 335

Corns, false, in horse 54

Corns, in horse 54

Corns on horse, how to

tell 24

Corns, to relieve 335

Corns, remedy for 335

Corns, solvent 335

Corns, soft 335

Corns, tender 335

Cornices, how to measure. . 417
Corrosive sublimate, horse,

use of 243

•Corrosive sublimate, horse,

antidote for 89

•Corrosive sublimate, anti-
dote for 329

Cough, chronic, in horse. . . 76
Cough, horse, how to make 15
Cough, common, in horse . 75
Cough and cold in cattle. .. 148
Cough and fever drink for

cattle 247

Cough of horse, to judge by 15

Cough mixture 337

Cough, whooping 349

Costiveness in calves 195

Costiveness in horse ...... 76

Costiveness in lambs 20 1

Costiveness in poultry 268

Costiveness hvswine 238

Costiveness, with inflam-
mation of the bowels, in

cattle 169

Cotton, army worm 375

Cotton, caterpillar 375

Cdtton, cultivation of 500

Cotton, louse...... ...... 386

Cotton, planting 506

Cotton, rotation of crops. . . 506
Covenant in mortgage, to

insure 463

Cow, bulling in, to pro-
duce 191

Cows— See Cattle.

Cows, calves, slinking 161

Cows, before and during

calving, treatment of the. 160
Cows, calving, treatment af-
ter 163

Cows, downfall in the ud-
der of 159

Cow, drop 164

PAM.

Cows, to dry of milk 181

Cow fever, milk 164

Cows, fever, puerperal.... 158

Cows, foot-rot in 181

Cows, garget in 159

Cows, holding back milk.. 181

Cowhouses, to clean 174

Cows, mercurial garget oint-
ment 159

Cows, milk fever 164

Cows, milk mirror in 166

Cows, ointment, mercurial

garget 159

Cow-pox, in cattle 191

Cow-pox, cattle, lotion for . 250

Cows, puerperal fever.... 158

Cows, slinking calves 161

Cows, sore teats 160

Cows, teats, sore 160

Cows, udder, downfall of

the, in 159

Cows, weeds 160

Crab apple, preserved 298

Crab apple, sweet pickled. 295

Crab, gauger 371

Cracked hoof in horses ... . 131

Cracks in stoves, to mend. 414

Cramp 321

Cramp in poultry 265

Cranberry, culture of. .... 507

Cranberry curculio 3 73

Crape, to restore 562

Cream, glycerine 339

Creosote, antidote for 328

Crib-biter horse, how to

tell 18

Crib-biting, horse, how to

prevent 40

Cribs, corn, rat-proof, to

make 410

Crickets, to destroy ....... 351

Cricket, tree 367

Crimson, dye, aniline..... 566

Crockery, cement for 400

Crop-bound in poultry.... 262

Crossing of swine 230

Croup 336

Croup in poultry. ........ 207

Crystal varnish... 438

Cucumber, culture of 506

Cucumber moths 384

Cucumbers, pickled... 294, 295
Cucumbers, preserved to

imitate ginger 298

Cud, loss of in cattle 1 58

Culture of apples 514

Culture of artichoke ...... 490

Culture of aromatic herbs . . 490

Culture of asparagus 490

Culture of barley 49 1

Culture of blackberry 493

Culture of beans 492

Culture of cherry 516

Culture of Lima beans 492

Culture of castor oil beans. 492

Culture of cabbage 502

Culture of cauliflower 502

Culture of carrots 502

Culture of celery 503

Culture of corn 505

Culture of currants 519

MAE

Culture of broom corn.... 506

Culture of cotton 506

Culture of cucumber 506

Culture of cranberry 507

Culture of egg-plant 510

Culture of fig 510

Culture of fruit 513

Culture of garlic 508

Culture of grapes 517

Culture of gooseberries 519

Culture of Hyacinth 512

Culture of horse radish 533

Culture of oats 537

Culture of onions 538

Culture of parsnips 539

Culture of parsley 537

Culture of peach trees 516

Culture of plum trees 516

Culture of pot herbs 490

Culture of quinces 516

Culture of raspberry 518

Culture of strawberry ..... 517

Culture of sweet herbs 490

Culture of pear 543

Culture of peanut. ........ 549

Culture of peas 546

Culture of pepper. ........ 541

Culture of sweet potatoes . . 547

Culture of radishes 547

Culture of rhubarb 551

Culture of rye 551

Culture of sage 551

Culture of sorghum 552

Culture of spinach 552

Culture of squash 552

Culture of tobacco 554

Culture of tomatoes 553

Culture of turnip 559 <

Curb, in horse 67

Curb, horse, how to tell. . . 25

Curculio, apple . 381

Curculio, cranberry 3 73

Curculio, four-humped.... 381

Curculio, gall, grape cane. 366

Curculio, peach tree 372

Curculio, pear — 379

Curculio, plum.. 372

Curculio, quince...... 379

Curing green hides 41 1«

Curing hams 285

Curing hams, Lease's re-
cipe 285

Curing hams, Potts' recipe. 285

Curing meat 287

Curing rabbit skins .... 434

Curing sheep skins with

the wool on. .. .. 434

Curing and stretching small t

skins 432

Curling Feathers 572

Currant borers..... 40S

Currants, canning 284

Currant, culture of. 519

Currants, preserved 299

Currant wine 306

Currant worm 374

Curing and cutting hay 528

Custard, jelly 304

Cuts 321

Cut worms 358

Cutter, in horse, how to tell 25

CONTENTS.

585

PAQK.

Cuttings, to choose 509

Cutting dons. ........... 504

Cutting and curing hay.... 528
Cutting horse, remedy for. 44

Cuttings, to manage 509

Cuttings, to protect 509

Cyanogen, antidote for..... 329
Cyanide of potassium, anti-
dote for..... 327

Dammar varnish 440

Damsons, preserved...... 300

Dandruff 336

Deadly night-shade, anti-
dote for 328

Deafness 338

Death, how to distinguish. 322
Death, sheep, to examine

after 208

Debility, general, in swine. 233

Debility in sheep 222

Debility, tonic drink for, in

sheep 251

Deed, quitclaim 462

Deed, warranty ....... 462

Deer skins, to dress 410

Demand note 458

Demulcent drench, for

horse 244

Demulcents, horse. 244

Dewberries, preserved 300

Diabetes, astringent f o r

horse . o\>.

Diabetes in horse 99

Diabetes, horse, astringent

for 242

Diaphoretic, drench for

horse 244

Diaphoretics, horse 244

Diaphragm, spasm of the,

in horse 86

Diarrhoea in calves 194, 250

Diarrhoea, cattle 146

Diarrhoea, chronic 388

Diarrhoea, chronic, in
horse, anodyne drench

for 241

Diarrhoea in horse 95

Diarrhoea in horse, ano-
dyne drench for 241

Diarrhoea, horse, astrin-
gent for 242

Diarrhoea, mild remedy for. 229

Diarrhoea in poultry 262

Diarrhoea, or purging in

sheep 222

Diarrhoea, remedies for 338

Diarrhoea, sheep, or purg-
ingin. ............ .... 222

Diarrhoea in swine ....... 238

Digestives, horse — 245

Digestive ointment for

horse 245

Digitalis, antidote for..... 328

Diphtheria.... 336

Diseases in children 336

Diseases of the eye, in cat-
tle 176

Diseases of geese 274

Diseases of horses, general
remarks 48

TASK.

Diseases of kidneys ....... 343

Diseases of poultry ....... 256

Diseases of sheep 197

Diseases of young calves.. 193
Discharge from the nose in

sheep, and cold 206

Discutient, lotions for cat-
tle 249

Disinfectant, lotion for cat-
tle 248

Dislocations. 323

Dislocation of hip joint in

horse 68

Dislocation, horse 68

Dislocation of patella in

horse 68

Displaced womb in sheep . . 199

Distemper in colts ... 88

Distemper in dogs 275

Diuretic, cooling ball, for

horses 245

Diuretic drink for cattle. .. 240

Diuretics, horse 245

Diuretic powder for mash,

for horse 245

Diuretic stimulating ball for

horses 245

Dizziness in sheep 223

Docks, to eradicate 510

Docking, horse... 128

Dogs, asthma in.. 277

Dogs, bladder, inflamma-
tion of the 278

Dogs, bowels, inflamma.

tionofthe 276

Dogs and their diseases — 275

Dogs, distemper in 275

Dogs, dropsy in 277

Dogs, ear, internal abscess

in - 276

Dogs, ear, ulceration of

the 276

Dogs, eyes, weak in 278

Dogs, fits 275

Dogs, fleas in 278

Dogs, hydrophobia in.... 278

Dogs, ophthalmia in 277

Dogs, piles in 277

Dogs, scalds in 277

Dogs, sore ears in ... 277

Dogs, sore feet in 277

Dogs, sore throat in 277

Dogs, sprains in 277

Dogs, mad. .......... 278

Dogs, mad, bites of...... 318

Dogs, mange in 276

Dogs, vermin in 278

Dogs, worms in...... .... 276

Dogs, wounds in 277

Domestic animals, medi-
cines for 240

Draft, at sight 458

Draining 509

Drench, anodyne for horse,

in diarrhoea 241

Drench, horse, anodyne for

superpurgation 241

Drench, anodyne for horse,
in chronic diarrhoea ..... 24 1

Drench, cooling for 246

Drench, cooling, for horse. 242

TAG*.

Drench cordial, for horse.. 244
Drench, diaphoretic, for

horse 244

Drench, demulcent, for

horse 244

Drench, horses, mild laxa-
tive for.. .......... .... 242

Drench, horse, mild open-
ing for 242

Drench, laxative for horse. 242
Drench, mild laxative for

horse..... 242

Drench marshmallow for

horses 244

Drench, mild opening for

horse 242

Drench, mild, for worms in

horse 241

Dressing deer skins 410

Dried fruit, to protect from

worms 284

Drink, alterative for cattle. 250
Drink, anodyde for cattle . . 248
Drink, astringent, for cat-
tle 248

Drink, anodyne for lockjaw

in cattle 249

Drink, aperient for calves . 250
Drink, astringent for lambs. 250
Drink, astringent, with
mutton suet for cattle... 248

Drink, cattle, anodyne 248

Drink, cattle, for cough

and fever 247

Drink, cattle, for fever and

cough 247

Drink, cattle, tor purging. 247
Drink, cooling fever, for

sheep 250

Drink, cordial, for cattle... 247
Drink, cordial, for cattle. . . 249
Drink, cordial, for cattle... 248
Drink, cough and fever, for

cattle. 247

Drink, diuretic for cattle.. 248
Drink, expectorant, for cat-
tle 247

Drink, fever and cough, for

cattle 247

Drink for inflammation of

the bladder, for cattle ... 249
Drink, murrain, for cattle. 248
Drink, physic, for cattle... 248
Drink, physic in lockjaw in

cattle 249

Drink, purgative for cattle. 258
Drink, purging for sheep.. 250
Drink, rheumatic, for cattle 247
Drink, stimulating, for cat-
tle .' 248

Drink, strengthening, for

sheep 250

Drink, tonic, for cattle 247

Drink, tonic, for cattle 248

Drink, tonic, for debility in

sheep 251

Drink, tonic, general, for

sheep 250

Drink, tonic, for murrain in

cattle 249

Drink, tonic, for sheep 250

586

CONTENTS.

rxax.
Drink, turpentine, cattle,

for worms 247

Drink, warm stimulant, for

cattle 248

Drink, for yellows, for cat-
tle 247

Drinking and feeding poul-
try 253

Driving, horse, abuse of.. S1
Drones, bee, in swarming. 314

Drop, cow..--. . .- 164

Drop worm -. 369

Drops for headache ....... 34 1

Droppings of poultry 255

Dropsy. 338

Dropsy in dogs...... .... 277

Dropsy in swine — . 238

Drowned persons, to re-
store.... 823

Drowned, to restore per-
sons apparently 323

Drunkenness, cure for 338

Dry apples 279

Dry picking in poultry — . 268

Drying cherries 281

Dryinj eggs ......... 281

Drying herbs.. .......... 286

Drying gooseberries...... 284

Drying peaches 288

Drying pumpkins........ 289

Drying string beans 280

Dry white lead, antidote

for :---*. 329

Ducks, convulsions in 273

Ducks, to fatten....... 273

Due bill 458

Dyes, aniline, rules for . 563

Dyes, aniline, quantity.... 563
Dye, aniline blue ......... 530

Dye, aniline black 564

Dye, aniline orange....... 564

Dye, aniline corallin ...... 564

Dye, aniline red .......... 564

Dye, aniline fuchsine ...... 564

Dye, aniline yellow....... 565

Dye, aniline aldehyd.. .... 565

Dye, aniline green powder. 565
Dye, aniline night green ... 565
Dye, aniline bismarck brown 566
Dye, aniline crimson ...... 566

Dye, aniline Hoffman's vio-
let 566

Dye, aniline purple 566

Dye, aniline iodine green. . 566
Dye, aniline new atlas green 566
Dye, aniline napthaline.... 567

Dye, aniline picric acid.. .. 567

Dye, aniline saffronine .... 567

Dye, aniline scarlet ....... 567

Dye, aniline catechu brown. 568
Dye, aniline chemic blue. . . 568
Dye, aniline chemic green. 568
Dye colors, to discharge. .. 568
Dye, compound colors. .... 568

Dye, crimson, a shawl .... 568

Dye, gray 569

Dye stains on hands. ...... 569

Dye, indigo blue for yarn. . 569

Dye, red 570

Dye, red-brown 570

Dye, scarlet 570

MM.
Dyeing 562

Dyeing drab colors 567

Dyeing green 567

Dyeing yellow. 567

Dyeing cotton with madder. 569

Dyeing feathers 57°

Dyeing kid gloves 569

Dysentery, cattle 1 55

Dysentery, cures for 338

Dysentery in horse 95

Dysentery in sheep 222

Dyspepsia 338

Dyspepsia, horse 90

Earache 339

Ear, horse, diseases of the. 105
Ear, dogs, ulceration of the. 276

Ear, foreign bodies in 325

Ear, insects in the 325

Ear, internal abscess in dogs 276

Ears, sore, in dogs 277

Ears, sore, in swine. ... — 238
Ear wax, hardened, to re-
move. . ... 325

Eggcement 410

Eggs, brooded, cooling off. 273
Eggs, to choose for hatch-
ing 273

Eggs, to dry 281

Eggs, to keep 282

Eggs, hens eating their .... 265

Eggs, to make hens lay. 270

Eggs, pickled 282

Egg plant, culture of 510

Eggs, poultry best for 256

Eggs, poultry eating their. . 265
Eggs, poultry, great layers. 256
Eggs, poultry, layers of

small 256

Eggs, poultry, layers of me-
dium 256

Eggs, poultry, layers of

large 256

Eggs, sex of 273

Eggs, soft shell. 273

Eggs, storing 281

Elm tree beetle....... .... 364

Elm trees, ulcers in, to cure 510

Elm tree worms 364

Emaciation, swine... 233

Embrocation, cattle, for
bites of serpents.. ...... 249

Embrocations, horse...... 245

Embrocation, mustard, for

horse..... 345

Embrocation, rheumatic, for

cattle 247

Embrocation, stimulating

for horse..... 245

Embrocation for strains of

cattle 249

Embrocation, sweating, for

horse..... 245

Embrocation, sweating, for

windgalls in horse 245

Emetic, tartar, antidote lor. 327

Emulsions, castor oil 337

Emulsion for horse. . . . 245

English Vermillion, antidote

for 329

Engraving on glass, varnish 440

KMB.

Engravers stopping out var-
nish 44°

Engraving, varnish for 440-

Enemata, horse 244

Enemies of the 309

Epizoot in cattle..... 74

Enteritis in horse 93

Epizoot in chickens 74

Epizoot in sheep 74

Epizoot in swine 74

Epizoot, animals subject to. 73
Epizootic apthae in horse. . . yz

Epilepsy in horse 101

Epilepsy in poultry. . 25 7

Epilepsy in sheep 212

Epilepsy, swine 233

Eruption, red, in swine 238

Erysipelas 339

Erysipelas, sheep 22 1

Etching, varnish ... - 440

Exchange, Bill of 458

Exemption, waiver of. 464

Executors, power of, to con-
vey real estate 469

Eye, bad in horse, how to

tell 15

Eye, cattle, diseases of the. 176

Eye, cattle, cancer in 1 78

Eoe, cattle, inflammation of

the 177

Eye, cattle, ulceration in. . . 1 78

Eye, cure for stye in 339

Eye, foreign bodies in 325

Eye, horse, cataract in the. 107
Eye, inflammation of, in

horse 105

Eye, lotion for cloudinees,

in sheep 251

Eye lotion, sedative, for

cattle 249

Eye, strengthening lotion

for, in cattle 249

Eyes, granular inflammation 339
Eyes of horse, how to ex-
amine 26

Eyes, horses, lotion for the. 246

Eyes, inflamed 339

Eyes, inflammation, granu-
lar 339

Eyes, weak, in dogs 278

Eyes, weeping 339

Eye-lid, cattle, ulcer on ... 177
Eye-lids, cattle, warts on .. 177
Eye-lids, oxen, warts on. - . 177
Examining a horse ........ 146

Examining sheep after death 208
Excavations, measuring. — 415

Exostosis in horse 48

Expectorant and cordial for

horse 244

Expectorant ball for horses. 245
Expectorant drink for cattle 247
Expectorants, horse. 245

Fainting 325

False quarter in horse ..... 113
Fall array worm.......... 394

Fall canker worm. 399

Fall webb worm... .. 392

Farcy in horse. ... * 121

Fardel bound, cattle 1 89

CONTENTS.

587

Farm, lease for 466

Farmers should be mechan-
ics 444

Farrow sows, time to 230

Farrowing, near, sows,

treatment of. 239

Fattening coops for poultry. 267

Fattening pigs . 231

Fattening pigs, bad practice 232

Fattening poultry 267

Fatten sheep, for winter... 226

Feather beds, to clean 572

Feathers, to clean 5 72

Feathers, to curl 5 72

Feathers, to dye 5 70

Feathers, poultry eating

their 263

Feathers, poultry, loss of.. 263

Febrifuges, horse 246

Feed for bees ...... 314

Feeding and drinking poul-
try 253

Feeding horses, directions

for 14

Feeding nettles to laying

hens 270

Feeding pigs, how to 23 1

Feeding turkeys 271

Feet, horse, accidents to... 117
Feet, horse, dryness of, how

to prevent 38

Feet, horse, fever of the. .. 53
Feet, horse, management of 38
Feet, horse, scaling in sum-
mer no

Feet, sore, in dogs 277

Feet, swine, soreness of the 236

Feet, wounds in cattle 185

Felons, to cure 339

Fence, fire-proof wash for.. 522

Fences and hedges 450

Fence posts, to preserve 522

Fence law 470

Fence law, Maine 470

Fence law, Massachusetts. . 470

Fence law, Vermont 470

Fence law, New Hampshire 470

Fence law, Connecticut . 470

Fence law, New York..... 470
Fence law, New Jersey. . .. 470
Fence law, Pennsylvania... 471

Fence law, Delaware 471

Fence law, Maryland 471

Fence law, Virginia 471

Fence law, West Virginia. . 471
Fence law, North Carolina. 471
Fence law, South Carolina. 471

Fence law, Georgia 471

Fence law, Florida. 471

Fence law, Alabama 471

Fence law, Mississippi.... 471

Fence law, Texas 472

Fence law, Arkansas 472

Fence law, Tennessee 472

Fence law, Kentucky 472

Fence law, Missouri ...... 472

Fence law, Illinois 472

Fence law, Indiana 472

Fence law, Ohio 472

Fence law, Wisconsin..... 472
Fence law, Michigan.. .... 473

PA.QX.

Fence law, Minnesota..... 473

Fence law, Iowa 473

Fence law, Kansas. ....... 473

Fence law, Nebraska. 473

Fence law, California. 474

Fetlock joint of horse, how

to examine 21

Fetlock of horse, stain of

the 65

Fever and ague 339

Fever ball for horses 246

Fever cooling drink for

sheep ........ 2$o

Fever and cough, cattle,

drink for. . ......... 247

Fever of the feet of horse . . 53
Fever medicine for swine.. 251

Fevers in horses 119

Fever, milk, in cows 1 64

Fever, pestilential, in cattle 173
Fever, puerperal, in cows.. 158

Fever, simple, in horses 120

Fever sores 339

Fever, typhoid, in horses.. 120

Fidia, grape vine .... 366

Field mice 401

Fig culture. ... 510

Figs, drying 510

Firing in horse..... 125

Fire, clothing on 325

Fish culture 572

Fish, poisonous, antidote

for 330

Fissures in horse, how t?

tell 25

Fistula of the withers of

horse 57

Fits. 325, 339

Fits in dogs 275

Fits in sheep 228

Fits in swine 233

Flat headed apple tree borer 396

Flat headed beech borer 397

Flat headed box elder borer 397
Flat headed cherry borer. . . 397
Flat headed linden borer. .. 397
Flat headed mountain ash

borer 397

Flat headed oak borer 397

Flat headed peach borer. .. 397
Flat headed pear borer.. .. 397

Flat headed plum borer. 397

Flatulent colic in horse . 94

Flea beetle, grape vine . 387

Flea beetle, turnip 395

Fleam, cattle, use of ...... 146

Fleas 388

Fleas, to destroy 351

Fleas in dogs ^.. 278

Fleas, to get rid of 351

Fleshworms. ...i 340

Flies, to destroy 351

Flies, house 398

Flies, to keep from horse.. 131
Flies, sheep, troubling of.. 219
Fly, blistering, antidote for. 328
Fly, cabbage, to destroy... 502

Fly, carrot 385

Fly, green...... 368

Fly, hessian. . . . 389

Fly, meat to protect from.. 287

PAGK.

Fly, onion 385

Flypaper 352

Fly powder, antidote for. .. 328

Fly, radishes 385

Fly, saw 374

Fly, Spanish, antidote for . 328

Fly powder for sheep 251

Fly, turnip.... 385, 522

Fuchsine, dye, aniline 564

Fumigation, cattle 249

Fumigation of poultry

houses 255, 268

Furniture varnish 440

Furniture varnished 4 1 o>

Fur skins, to tan 433

Furring of walls, measuring 422
Fused potass, horse, use of 243
Foal, mare, early treatment

of the 30-

Foal, mare, treatment when

in 29

Foaling, mare, treatment

after 29

Foal, mare, wearing and

after treatment of the 3 1

Food for pigs 229

Food, steaming cheaply 521

Foot, inflammation of the

soft tissues in horse 53

Foot, internal contraction of

in horse, how to tell 24

Foot, diseased, horse, how

to tell 16

Foot, horse, canker of 55

Foot, horse, contraction of

the 24

Foot, horse, contraction of,

remedy for 57

Foot, horse, diseases of. 49

Foot, horse, diseases of. 114

Foot of horse, appearance of 23
Foot of horse, how to ex-
amine 23,

Foot of horse, frog, how to

examine 24

Foot, horse, section of the. 23
Foot, lame, horse, how to

conceal 18

Foot rot in cows i8x

Foot rot in sheep ; — 213

Foot rot in sheep, caustic

astringent powder for. 251

Foot rot in sheep, preven-
tives 215

Foot, weak, in horse, how

to tell 24

Foreign bodies in ear 325

Foreign bodies in eye 325

Foreign bodies in throat — 332
Fore quarter of horse, points

of. 7

Forest tent, caterpillar of the 392

Foul brood, bees 316

Founder in horse 52, 132

Foundering in sheep . 225

Four-humped curculio 381

Fowler's solution, antidote

for 328

Fox glove, antidate for.... 328

Fractures 325

Fracture of bones of horse. 6c

588

CONTENTS.

*AGB.

Fracture of carina bones of
horse. 6b

Fractures, cattle.-.- 188

Fractures of the head of
horse. 59

Fractures in horse. — - . 48, 59
Fracture of lower jaw of
horse. .............. 6b

Fracture of pelvis of horse. 59
Fracture of ribs of horse ... 59
Fracture of pasterns of
horse.................. 60

Fractnre of skull of horse - . 60
Fractures in sheep ........ 223

Fractures of spine of horse. 59

Frenzy in swine 238

Freckles .'. 340

Frog of the foot of horse,

how to examine 24

Frostbite 325

Fruit, bottled..... 303

Fruit in brandy. 303

Fruit, canning. ........... 283

Fruit, canned, keeping.... 284

Fruit, canning, wax for.... 444

Fruit culture 513

Fruit, dried, to protect from

worms 284

Fruit, to keep fresh in jars. 303

Fruit in jelly.... 304

Fruit, preparation of soil. . . 513
Fruit, preparation for mar-
ket 520

Fruits, preserve, without

self-sealing cans.. 297

Fruit, selection of trees.... 514
Fruit, small, how to culti-
vate . 517

Fruit, small, preserving

without cooking 297

Fruits, preserved by syrups

without heat 298

Fruits preserved without
sugar or vinegar ........ 298

Fruit trees, insects injurious

to. 408

Fruit trees, to cure blight in 493
Fruit trees, to protect from

rabbits 511

Fruit trees, to prevent ants
from injuring. .......... 521

Fruit trees, to destroy moss

on.... 521

Fruit trees, insects and

mice, to preserve from. . . 521
Fruit trees, blight on, to

cure 521

Fruit trees, blossom on. 521

Fruit trees, coating for am-
putated branches and

wounds in .. 521

Fruit trees, over-bearing 522

Fruit, time to gather 521

•Gad fly, sheep, to protect
from ...... ............ 226

Gadfly, horses, bites of... Ill
Gallsecola, type or gall in-
habiting............ 402

Gall curculio, grape cane . . 366
>Galls, harness in horse 1 10

rwi.
Galloping, horse to judge by 19
Gall inhabiting or type gal.

lsecola. ........ ........ 402

Gall, lambs.............. 199

Gall louse, grape. ........ 402

Gapes in poultry. . .... 259

Garden spiders, to destroy. 508
Garget in cows ........... 159

Garget, mercurial ointment

for in cattle. 248

Garget, mercurial ointment

forcow 159

Gargle in geese........... 274

Gargyse, cattle........... 170

Garlic, culture of. ........ 508

Garlic, pickled 295

Gases, antidote for ........ 329

Gases, suffocation from.... 332

Gastritis in horse 89

Gates and carriage turns. .. 452

Gauging. 414

Geese, diseases of .... .... 274

Geese, gargle in. 274

Geese, glander in......... 274

Geese, to manage. ........ 2 73

Geese, roup in 274

Gelatine, jelly with 304

Generative organs in horse,

diseases of the. 101

Gestation in sow 229

Gestation in sow. . 230

Gherkins, pick led 295

Giddiness, sheep 203

Ginger, green, pickled 295

Ginger, green, preserved . . 300
Ginger, mock, preserved. .. 301
Ginger, preserved, to imitate 299
Girdler, twig............. 408

Glanders in geese. ........ 2 74

Glanders in horse 1 20

Glands, inflammation, in

cattle 175

Glass, cement for.... 409

Glass, varnish. ..... ...... 441

Glaziers' work, measure-

mentfor 412

Gleets 339

Glycerine, cream 339

Glycerine, lotion 340

Glycerine, ointment). 344

Gold varnish 440

Gonorrhoea........ 340

Gonorrhoea injection 340

Gonorrhoea, treatment of.. 340
Gooseberry bushes, mildew

on 507

Gooseberry, culture of. 520

Gooseberries, dried 284

Gooseberries, green, pickled 295

Gooseberries, preserved 300

Gooseberries, red, to keep. 285
Gooseberry maggot ....... 406

Gooseberry midge 406

Gooseberry wine 306

Gooseberry worms 395

Goslings, management of.. 274

Gouger crabs 372

Gouger plum 371

Grafting 527

Grafting root, apple trees . . 528
Grafting grape 523

r-AGE

Grafting wax 508

Grafting wax, liquid. . 508

Graining........... ...... 423

Granular inflammation eyes 339

Grape cane gall curculio 366

O rape codling 367

Grape, culture of......... 517

Grape gall louse .......... 402

Grape grafting. 523

Grape leaf folder. ......... 383

Grapes, to keep .......... 285

Grape phylloxera 402

Grapes,preservedinbunches 299
Grapes, preserved in vinegar 300

Grape root borer, new 365

Grape root borer 386

Grape root louse 404

Grape vine fidia 366

Grape vine flea beetle 387

Grape vine hopper ........ 398

Grape vine plume 367

Grape vine twig borer 407

Grape vine worm, pyra-
midal 385

Grape wine.... 306

Grass or army worm 379

Grasshoppers. 378

Gravel 341

Gravel, horse ... 132

Gray dye 569

Grease, axle 561

Grease in horses.... ...... 112

Grease, molten in horse 96

Greasing wagons 569

Green powder dye, aniline. 565

Green copal varnish 441

Greenfly 368

Green gages, preserved.... 300

Green ginger, pickled 295

Green ginger, preserved — 300
Green gooseberries, pickled 295

Green hides, to cure 411

Green houses, ants in, to

destroy 491

Green house insects and lice 377
Gieen peas, to preserve. — 289
Green tomatoes, pickled — 297
Green, transparent varnish. 443
Grindstones, measuring. . . . 414
Ground glass, varnish to

imitate.... 441

Grub in the head in sheep. 223

Grubs in horse... no

Grub, white 368, 371, 520

Guardian, appointment of.. 469

Guinea fowls ... 273

Gums and teeth, wash for. . 347

Gun shot wounds 326

Gutta percha varnish 442

Hsematurea in horse ...... 99

Hair, cleaning the .... 341

Hair, loss of, in horse 133

Hair restorative 341

Hair varnish .. 442

Hair, wash for 341

Harlequin cabbage bug 377

Halter, horse, slipping the. 45

Halter pulling in horse 133

Hams, to cure, Lease's re-
cipe 285

CONTENTS.

58*

rxax.

Hams, to care. 285

Hams, to cure, Pott's recipe 285
Hams, smoked, to keep... 286

Hands, to soften. 341

Hands, stains to remove... 341
Hands, to whiten......... 342

Hanging, apparent death
from ............ ...... 326

Hardy breeds of poultry... 256

Hard soap, to make 390

Harness, black varnish for. 441

Harness, galls in horse 1 10

Harness for horse 135

Harness, varnish for 441

Hartshorn, antidote for. .. . 327

Harvest bug, bites of. 318

Hat, bee 313

Hatching, eggs to choose for 273

Hawthorne Dorer 355

Hawkes, cattle 170

Hawk moth, tobacco 387

Hay, clover, management of 520
Hay, cutting and curing ... 528
Hay, measuring, weight to

be estimated 415

Hay stacks, to ventilate. . .. 528

Hay worm, clover 400

Headache. 341

Headache drops.. 341

Headache, sick 341

Head, big, in horses 132

Head, grub in, in sheep... 223
Head of horse, how to ex-
amine. 20

Head of horse, points of . . . 7

Head, scurf in 342

Head, sheep, sore... 215

Head, swimming in the, in

cattle 154

Head, water in the, sheep. 203
Healing ointment for cattle. 247

Healing salve . 346

Heaped measure. 414

Heartburn 341

Heart, diseases of, in horse 87

Heat, apoplexy . 332

Heaves in horse 131

Heaving in sheep 199

Hedges and fences 450

Hedges and hedge plants.. 530
Hedges, seed for planting. . 533
Heels, chapped in horses . . 1 1 1
Heels, sore, horses, astrin-
gent ointment for 242

Hellebore, antidote for 329

Hemlock, antidote for 329

Hemorrhoid ointment 344

Hemp worm 390

Hens — See Poultry.

Hens, eggs, eating their... 265

Hens, feeding nettles to

laying ............. 270

Hens, good sitters 256

Hens, houses — 270

Hens, how to choose a good

one 270

Hens, to make lay 270

Hens, how to make lay in

winter 271

Hens, nests for 253

Hens' nests, treatment of.. 270

MM,

Hen roost, vermin in ... 270

Hens setting, how to prevent 270

Henbane, antidote for 329

Herbs, to dry 286

Herbs, pot, to cultivate. . . . 490
Herbs, sweet, to cultivate. . 490
Hernia, horse, reduction of. 129

Hessian fly 389

Hiccough....... 342

Hickory twig borer 407

Hickory pruner. .......... 407

Hide-bound, diaphoretic

horse 244

Hides, green, to cure ..... 411

Hide-bound in horse 108

High blowing in horse 80

Hind quarter of horse,

points,of 8

Hints on preserving 297

Hip joint, horse, dislocation

in 68

Hip joint, horse, strains of. 67

Hive syrup, boxes 341

Hives, bee, the best 315

Hives, bee, common 315

Hives, bee, position of 315

Hoarseness 342

Hoarseness, remedies for.. 342
Hobbles for the horse. .... 122
Hock, horse, strains in.... 67
Hock of horse, diseased,

how to tell 25

Hoffman's violet dye, aniline 566

Hog cholera 234, 533

Hog— See Pig.
Hog — See Swine.

Hogs, time to kill. 529

Hollow horn in cattle 1 74

Homestead, public lands .. 485

Honey — . 310

Honey, artificial, to keep.. 286

Honey, to keep 286

Honey, to take without dis-
turbing the bees 316

Hoof bound horse ........ 133

Hoof, cracked, in horse ... 131

Hoose in calves . 196

Hoose, cattle. . . ... . 148

Hoove in calves.......... 250

Hoove in cattle 167

Hoove in cattle, to prevent. 167
Hopper, grape vine ....... 398

Horn oil in cattle 175

Horn blower, tobacco 387

Hornets, cattle, sting of... 184
Horns, age of cattle, how to

tell by the 145

Horse, abdominal viscera
and their appendages, dis-
eases of. 87

Horse, age, average

Horse, age one year, how

to tell

Horse, age two years, how

to tell

Horse, age three years, how

to tell

Horse, age four years, how

to tell

Horse, age five years, how
to tell

PACK.

Horse, age six years, how

to tell 17-

Horse, age seven years,

how to tell 17

Horse, age eight years, how

to tell xi

Horse, age of, by teeth,

how to tell 17

Horse, age, how to dis-
guise ig

Horse, alteratives 24a.

Horse, alterative ball 240

Horse, alterative in debility

of the stomach 24ft,

Horse, alterative for defec-
tive secretions 240

Horse, alterative for disor-
dered state of the skin. . . 240 •
Horse, alterative, simply

cooling 240

Horse, amaurosis 107

Horse, anaesthetics 240

Horse, anatomy of back.. . 10

Horse, anatomy of body 1©

Horse, anasarca...... . 120-

Horse, anatomy of fore

quarter.... 9

Horse, anatomy of the head \.
Horse, anatomy of hind

quarter... . n

Horse, anatomy of middle

piece 10

Horse, anatomy of the neck 8-
Horse, anchylosis in...... 48

Horse, anodynes 240

Horse, anodyne ball 241

Horse, anodyne ball for

colic 240

Horse, anodyne clyster in

diarrhoea 244-

Horse, anodyne drench for

colic 24c

Horse, anodyne drench in
chronic diarrhoea ....... 241

Horse, anodyne drench in

diarrhoea 241

Horse, anodyne drench in

superpurgation 241

Horse antacids..... 241

Horse, anthelmintics 241

Horse, antispasmodics 241

Horse, antispasmodic clyster

in colic 241

Horse, antispasmodic in

colic 241

Horse, antispasmodic drench 241
Horse, antidote for poisons 89 -

Horse, aperients 241

Horse, aperient clysters 244

Horse, apoplexy in....... 104

Horse, arnica charge 244

Horse, arsenic, antidote for 89

Horse, astringents 242 -

Horse, astringent for bloody

urine 242

Horse, astringent for dia-
betes 242

Horse, astringent for diar-
rhoea. 242

Horse, astringent ointment
for sore heels 242-

59°

CONTENTS.

FAGX.

Horse, astringent lotions.. 242
Horses, back, how to ex-
amine 20

Horse, back raking I30

Horse, back sinews, strains

ofthe 65

Horse, bad habits and out-
door vices 42

Horse, ball, cooling diuretic 245

Horse, ball, fever 246

Horse, ball, expectorant... 245
Horse, ball,- stimulating

diuretic 245

Horse, ball, tonic 247

Horse, bandages, use and

application of. . 37

Horses, barbs 88

Horse, ball, stomachic 246

Horse, barnacles for 122

Horse, baulky, to cure 134

Horse, baulky, to make a

good pulling 45

Horse, big head 132

Horse, big leg 132

Horse, big shoulder 132

Horse, bites of the gad fly. 1 1 1

Horse, bite of insect 1 1 1

Horse, biting and kicking. . 42
Horse, to put black spots

on white horse 46

Horse, bladder, diseases of

the 99

Horse, bladder, calculi in

the 100

Horse, blanketing ........ 144

Horse, bleeding..... 123

Horse, blisters 243

Horse, blister ointment. 243

Horse, blister, sweating 243

Horse, blister, sweating for

ringbone 243

Horse, blister, sweating for

spavins 243

Horse, blister, sweating for

splints 243

Horse, blistering 126

Horse, blood in, how to tell 25
Horse, blood, fullness of.. 132
Horse, blood vessels of the

chest, diseases of the 87

Horse, blood vessels of the

nose, diseases of the 87

Horse, body, points of 8

Horse, bog, how to tell.. . 25

Horse, bog spavin 61

Horse, bone, structure ofthe 46

Horse, bots in 91

Horse, bowels, inflamma-
tion of the 92

Horse, bowels, loose 130

Horse breaking 138

Horse, breaking down 66

Horse, breast, how to ex-
amine ................. 20

Horse, broken bones 59

Horse, broken knee 69

Horse, broken wind 85

Horse, bronchitis 71

Horse, bronchitis, chronic. 72

Horse, buck eye 108

Horse, burnt alum, use of. 243

faoz.

Horse, canker of the foot. . 55

Horse, capped elbow 63

Horse, capped hock 63

Horse, caries of the jaw 58

Horse, caries or ulcerations 48
Horse, cartilage, diseases of 61
Horse, cartilage, ulceration

of. 51

Horse, casting of. 122

Horse, castration 127

Horse, castration, French

plan 128

Horse, cauteries 243

Horse, caustics 243

Horse, catarrh 70

Horses, chapped heels in

Horse, charges 244

Horse, charge, arnica 244

Horse, chest, how to ex-
amine 20

Horse, chest, water in cav-
ity of. 85

Horse, chloride of zinc, use

of. 243

Horse, chloride of zinc, use

of. 244

Horse, chloroform, use of. . 121

Horse, clicking 131

Horse, clipping 32

Horse, clysters, how to use 130

Horse, clyster purgative 242

Horse, coffin joint, strain of

the 65

Horse, cold 70

Horse, colic, flatulent 94

Horse, colic in 93

Horse, colic, spasmodic. ... 94

Horse collars, how to fit. . . 134
Horses — See Colts.
Horse, congestion of the

lungs in 81

Horse, confining, methods

of. 122

Horse, convulsions 101

Horse, cooling diuretic ball. 245

Horse, cooling drench 242

Horse, cooling powder for

mash 246

Horses, cooling solution for

external inflammation 246

Horse, cordials 244

Horse, cordial balls 244

Horse, cordial drench 244

Horse, cordial and expecto-
rant 244

Horse, corns 54

Horse, corns, false 54

Horse, corns, how to tell . . 24
Horse, corrosive sublimate,

antidote for 89

Horse, corrosive sublimate,

use of 243

Horse, cough, chronic in. . . 76

Horse, cough, common. 75

Horje, cough, to judge by. 15

Horse, cough, how to make 15

Horse, costiveness 76

Horse, crib biter, how to

tell 18

Horse, crib biting, how to

prevent 40

FAGS

Horse, curbs 67

Horse, curb, how to tell ... 25
Horse, cutter, how to tell . . 25
Horse, cutting, remedy for. 44

Horse, demulcents 244

Horse, demulcent drench.. 244

Horse, diabetes in 99

Horse, diaphoretics 244

Horse, diaphoretic drench. 244
Horse, diaphoretic in hide

bound 244

Horse, diaphragm, spasm

ofthe 86

Horse, diarrhoea 95

Horse, diet for the 32

Horse, digestives 245

Horse, digestive ointment. . 245
Horse, diseases, general

remarks 48

Horse, dislocation 68

Horse, dislocation of hip

joint 68

Horse, dislocation of patella 68
Horse, to disguise lameness 45

Horse, distemper 70

Horse, diuretics 245

Horse, diuretic ball, cooling 245
Horse, diuretic ball, stimu-
lating 245

Horse, diuretic powder for

a mash 245

Horse, docking. 128

Horse, drench, anodyne in

superpurgation 241

Horse, drench, cooling 242

Horse, drench, cooling 246

Horse, drench, demulcent. 244
Horse, drench, diaphoretic. 244
Horse, drench, laxative. ... 242
Horse, drench, marshmal-

low 244

Horse, drench, mild laxative 242
Horse, drench, mild open-
ing 242

Horse, driving, abuse of. .. 51

Horse, dysentery 95

Horse, dyspepsia 90

Horse, ear, diseases ofthe. 105

Horse eating the litter 42

Horse, embrocations 245

Horse, embrocation, sweat-

. ing 245

Horse, embrocation sweat.

ing for windgalls in 245

Horse, emulsion 245

Horse, enemata 244

Horse, enteritis 93

Horse, epilepsy 101

Horse, epizootic apthre 72

Horse, how to examine . 16

Horse, when to examine. . . 14
Horse, where to examine.. 14

Horse, exostosis 48

Horse, expectorants 245

Horse, expectorant ball 245

Horse, expectorant and cor-
dial 244

Horse, external astringent
powders for ulcerated sur-
faces 242

Horse, eye, bad, how to tell 15

CONTENTS.

591

PAGE.

■Horses, external inflamma-
tion, cooling solution for. 246
Horse, eye, cataract in the. 107
Horse, eyes, how to examine 26
Horse, eye, inflammation of

the 105

Horse, eyes, lotion for the.. 246

Horse, false quarter 113

Horse, farcy in 121

Horse, febrifuges 246

Horse, feeding, directions

for 14

Horse, feet, accident to the. 117
Horse, feet, dryness of, how

to prevent 38

Horse, feet, management of 38
Horse, feet, scaling in sum-
mer 119

Horse fevers 119

Horse, fever ball 246

Horse, fever of the feet. ... 53

Horse, fever, simple 120

Horse, fetlock joint, how to

examine 21

Horse, fetlock, strain of the 65

Horse, firing 125

Horse, fissures, how to tell. 25
Horse, fistula of the withers 57
Horse, flies to keep from. . 131
Horse, foot, appearance of. 23
Horse, foot, contraction of. 24
Horse, foot, diseases of. . . . 1 14
Horse, foot, diseased, how

to tell 16

Horse, foot, diseases of 49

Horse, good points of 19

Horse, gravel .... 132

Horse, foot, internal con-
traction, how to tell 24

Horse, foot, contraction of,

remedy for 57

Horse, foot, how to examine 23
Horse, foot, inflammation of

the soft tissues of 53

Horse, foot, lame, how to

conceal 18

Horse, foot, section of the. 23
Horse, foot, weak, how to

tell 24

Horse, founder 52

Horse, founder, to cure. . . . 132

Horse, fractures 48, 59

Horse, fracture of bones ... 60
Horse, fracture of canna

bones 60

Horse, fractures of the head 59
Horse, fracture of lower jaw 60
Horse, fracture of pasterns. 60

Horse, fracture of pelvis 59

Horse, fracture of ribs 59

Horse, fracture of skull 60

Horse, fracture of spine 59

Horse, fused potass, use of 243
Horse, frog of foot, how to

examine 24

Horse, galled back, lotion

for 246

Horse, galled shoulders, lo-
tion for 246

Horse, galloping, to judge
by 19

TA.QU.

Horse, gastritis 87

Horse, generative organs,

diseases of the 101

Horse, gently generative

ball 242

Horse, glanders in 1 20

Horse grease 112

Horse grubs Iio

Horse, hematuria 99

Horse, hair, loss of 1 33

Horse, halter pulling 1 33

Horse, harness for 135

Horse, harness galls no

Horse, head, how to exam-
ine 20

Horse, heart, diseases of the 87

Horse, heaves in 131

Horse, hernia, reduction of 129

Horse, hidebound 108

Horse, hidebound, diaphor-
etic 244

Horse, high-blowing 80

Horse, hindquarter, points

of

Horse, hobbles for 1 22

Horse, hip-joint, strains of. 67
Horse, hock diseased, how

totell 25

Horse, hock, strains in... . 67

Horse, hoof-bound 133

Horse, hoof-cracked 131

Horses, how to save from

burning barns 131

Horse, hydrophobia 1 02

Horse, hydrothorax in 85

Horse, inflammation of

stomach 89

Horse, inflammation of the

soft tissues of the foot 53

H^rse, influenza 70

Horse, itch 134

Horse, interfering 119

Horses, how to judge and

select 14

Horse, joint evil 62

Horse, jugular veins, how

to examine.. 20

Horsekeeper's guide 7

Horse, kickers, remedy for 43
Horse, kicking, how to tell 15
Horse, kicking in stall, how

to prevent 41

Horse, kicking and biting. . 42
Horse, kidneys, diseases of 98
Horse, kidneys, inaction of 99
Horse, knees, how to ex-
amine.... 20

Horse, knees, strain of the. 64
Horse, knees, wounds of . . 69
Horse, knee-pan displaced- 119
Horse, lame, to make ap-
pear as 45

Horse, laminitis 51

Horse, laminitis, acute.... 52

Horse, laminits, chronic 52

Horse, laminitis, sub-acute 53

Horse, lampas 88

Horse, laryngitis in 76

Horse, laryngitis, acute.... 77
Horse, laryngitis, chronic . 77
Horse, laxative ball, gently 242

PAG«.

Horse, laxative drench 242

Horse, laxative, for staggers 242
Horse, legs, accident to the 117
Horse, leg, to examine .... 21
Horse, legs inflamed, lotion

for 246

Horse, lice on no

Horse, ligament, diseases of 60

Horse, liver, diseases of 97

Horse, lockjaw 103

Horse lotions 246

Horse lotion, astringent 242

Horse, lotion for the eyes - 246
Horse, lotion for foul ulcers 246
Horse, lotion for galled back 146
Horse, lotion for inflamed

legs 246

Horse, lotion for galled

shoulders 246

Horse, lunar caustic, use of 243
Horse, to cover up the

heaves 45

Horse, madness in........ 102

Horse, mad staggers IOI

Horse, to make him refuse

food 45

Horse, to make appear as

badly foundered 45

Horse, to make appear as if

he had the glanders 45

Horse, to make appear as

lame 45

Horse, to make a crib or
sucking wind horse ap-
pear sound 45

Horse, to make him follow

you 137

Horse, to make him sit on

his haunches 137

Horse, to make an old one

appear young . 46

Horse, to make a star on . . 45
Horses — See Marks.

Horse, mallenders in 1 10

Horse, mange in 109

Horse, mangy, how to tell a 15
Horse, marshm allow drench 244
Horse mash, cooling pow-
der for 246

Horse mash, diuretic pow-
der for 245

Horse, maturity .......... 12

Horse, megrims 102

Horse, mental development 13

Horses, metastasis 53

Horse, middlepiece, points

of 8

Horse, mild drench for

worms 241

Horse, mild laxative drench. 242
Horse, mild opening drench. 242

Horse, molten grease 96

Horse, moor-ill 120

Horse, molting 13

Horse, mouth, diseases of

the 87

Horse, mucosas, inflamed

bursa; 62

Horse, muriate of antimony,

use of 243

Horse, muscles, diseases of 60

59*

CONTENTS.

Horse, mustard embroca-
tion 34|

Horse, narcotics.......... 240

Horse, nasal gleet, or run-
ning at the nose.... 134

Horse, navicular disease ... 1 14
Horse, to nerve a lame one 45

Horse, nephritis. .. . 98

Horse, neck, to examine .. 20

Horse, nicking. ....... 128

Horse, nostrils, how to ex-
amine . .. ..... 16

Horse, nymphomania 101

Horse, ointment, astringent,

for sore heels .... 242

Horse, ointment blister ... 243
Horse, ointment, digestive. 245
Horse, organs, classification

of the various 46

Horse, ossification of the

lateral cartilages 49

Horse, osteo sarcoma 59

Horse, over-reaches. ...... 1 19

Horses, pace, learning to . . 136
Horses, palsey in ......... 131

Horses, paps 88

Horses, paralysis 104

Horses' pasterns, how to ex-
amine 22

Horses, periostitis........ 51

Horses, peripneumonia. Si

Horse, peritonitis 93

Horse, phrenitis 101

Horse, physic, how to use. 130

Horse, physic-balls 242

Horse, physic-balls, warm-
ers 242

Horse, piper, how to tell .. 19
Horse piping...... ....... 80

Horse, pleurisy in .... .... 84

Horse, pleurodynia in 85

Horse, plunging...... .... 43

Horse, pneumonia 81

Horse, pneumonia, acute.. 83

Horse, points of..... 7

Horse, points of the fore-
quarter 7

Horse, points of the head. . 7
Horse, points of the neck.. 7
Horse, poison, antidote for. 89

Horse, poll evil 58

Horse, poor, how to fatten. 144
Horse powder, diuretic, lor

amash 245

Horse, pricking 129

Horse, pricks in shoeing... 119

Horse, proportions of 8

Horses, proportions of vari-
ous points ............. 12

Hcrse puffs .......... 62

Horse, pumice foot ....... 56

Horse, purgative clyster... 242
Horse, purging balls, with

calomel ?|?

Horse, phthisis in 85

Horse, quittor 54

Horse, rabies in 102

Horse-radish, culture of . . . 533

Horse-radish, to keep 286

Horse rearing, how to man-
age 43

Horse, refrigerants ....... 246

Horse, respiration, to judge

by 15

Horse, rheumatic 56

Horse, rheumatism, chronic 61
Horse, rheumatic inflamma-
tion 60

Horse, ringbone.......... 50

Horse, ringbone, remedies. 133
Horse, ringbone, sweating

blister for...... 243

Horse, roarer, how to tell . • 20
Horse, roaring in, remedy

for 76

Horse, rolling 43

Horse, running away 44

Horse, rupture.... 96

Horse, sallenders in 1 10

Horse, sand-crack, how to

tell 24

Horse, sand-crack, remedy

for 56

Horse, scars about the head 20
Horse, scar on the knee, to

examine 21

Horse, scratches 133

Horse, scratching the ear,

how to prevent ..... 41

Horse, sedatives..... 246

Horse, seedy toe ......... 114

Horse, setons and rowels.. 126
Horse, shank, to examine . 21

Horse shaving 35

Horse, sheaths, inflamed

tendons . 62

Horse, shelly foot, how to

tell 23

Horse, shoulders galled, lo-
tion for 246

Horse's shoulder, how to

examine. 20

Horse, shoulder, lameness. 57
Horse, shoulder, strain of

the 64

Horse, shouldering ....... 44

Horse shoe, loss of 39

Horse shoes, removal of... 39

Horseshoeing 135

Horse shoeing'in winter 134

Horse, shying 42

Horse, side-bone ......... 51

Horse, side-line for 122

Horse, singeing..... 35

Horse, sit-fasts no

Horse, skeleton, number of

bones of 48

Horse, sleepy staggers .... 105
Horse, slipping the halter . 45

Horse, small stomach 13

I lorsr, smal1 tumors 6 1

Horse, snowballing, to pre-
vent 119

Horse, solution of blue

vitriol, use of 244

Horse, solution of nitrate of

silver, use of 243

Horse, sore throat 70

Horse, sore throat, remedy

for 88

Horse, spavin 51

Horse, spavin, how to tell. 25

FA«B.

Horse, spavins, sweating
blister for 243

Horse, spine, diseases of,
how to tell 25

Horse, splint 50-

Horse, splints, how to ex*
amine 21-

Horse, splints, sweating

blisterfor 243,

Horse, stimulants 246

Horse, stomachics 246'

Horse, stomachic ball 246

Horse, stifle, strain of 67

Horse, stimulating diuretic

ball 245

Horse, stimulating embro-
cation 245

Hor.se, staggers, laxativt

for.... 242

Horses, stables for 143

Horse stables, to deodor-
ize 144

Horse stables, treatment of 39
Horse, stifle diseases...... 25

Horse, sting of insects .... in

Horses, stubborn 45

Horse stomachic, laxatiW

balls for washy horses . . . 242
Horse, stomach staggers .. 89.

Horse, stone bruises. . 54

Horse, strains 63.

Horse, strain of the back.. 63
Horse, strain of the loins.. 63
Horse, strangles, remedy

for 88.

Horse, strangulation...... 95

Hoose, string-halt 105

Horse, stumbling, how to

tell 19

Horse, stumbling, remedy

for 44

Horse, styptics 247

Horse, sugar, powdered,

white, use of . 243

Horse, suspensory liga-
ments, strain of the 65

Horse, surfeit ioo-

Horse, Sulphate of copper,

use of 243

Horse, sweating blister for

sprains 243

Horse, sweating blister.... 243
Horse, sweating blister for

splints 243

Horse, sweating embroca-
tion for windgalls ....... 245

Horse, sweeny 133

Horse, sweating embroca-
tion 245

Horse, sweating blister for

ringbone 243

Horse, swelled legs in

Horse, synovial membrane,

diseases of 61

Horse, synovial membrane,
inflammation of the ..... 61

Horse-taming 138

Horse, to teach him to pick

up a handkerchief. 137

Horse, teaching him to
stand 137

CONTENTS.

593

MM
Horse, tearing the clothes

off 42

Horse, tendon, diseases off 60

Horse, tetanus 103

Horse, time of sending mare

to 28

Horse, thick-winded, how

totell 19

Horse, throat sore, remedy

for 88

Horse, throat, diseases of

the 87

Horse, thoroughpin 61

Horse, thoroughpin, how to

tell 25

Horse, thrush. 54

Horse, thrush, how to tell. 24
Horse, thrush, to prevent . 38
Horse, thoracic organs and

their appendages, dis-

ease»of..... 70

Horse, tonics............. 247

Horse, tonic ball. 247

Horse, tongue, lolling of

the 132

Horse, tongue, sore, to

cure 132

Horse training 136

Horse, trevis or break for.. 122
Horse, tricks of dealers .... 45

Horse trimming 35

Horse, trot, learning to 136

Horse, trotting to judge by 19

Horse, trumpeting 81

Horse, tumors, how to ex-
amine for ... ._ 20

Horse, the twitch for 122

Horse, typhoid fever 120

Horse, ulceration of the

cartilages 51

Horse, unsoundness, signs

of 20

Horse, unnerving .....ri29

Horse, urine, retention of.. 100
Horse, vein, inflammation

of 125

Horse, verdigris, use of . . . 243

Horse, vermifuges 247

Horse, vesicants 243

Horse, vicious, to tie ..... . 45

Horse, vives 88

Horse, walking, to judge by 18

Horse, warts on nose 134

Horse, water in cavity of

chest 85

Horse, water farcin 134

Horse, water for 135

Horse, warts on 113

Horse, warbles..... no

Horse washes 246

Horse, washy, stomachic

laxative balls for 242

Horse, weak foot, how to

tell 24

Horse, weaving 42

Horse wen, to cure 134

Horse, wheezing 81

Horse, when unsound 134

Horse, whistling, how to tell 19
Horse, whistling, remedy

for 76

38

TAGS.

Horse, when and how to

examine 26

Horse, wind thick in 86

Horse, wind in, to improve 134

Horse, windgalls — 02

Horse, windgalls, sweating

embrocation for 245

Horse, worm ball 241

Horse, worms in ...... 96

Horse, worm medicine.... 247
Horse, wounds of joints... 69
Horse, yellow orpiment,

use of 243

Hot-beds, varnish for frames

of ^44°

Hot-beds, to make 529

House, agreement to build. 460
House, choice of color for . 41 1

House, cow, to clean 174

House flies 398

Houses, hen 270

House, ice, extemporane-
ous 411

Houses, lease of 464

Houses, poultry, to clear of

vermin .......... 256

House for poultry 252

House, poultry, fumigation 255
Houses, poultry, to fumi-
gate 268

Hoven in cattle 167

Hove in cattle, to prevent . 167
Huckleberries, canning.... 284
Huckleberries, preserved.. 300

Humors 342

Hyacinth culture 512

Hyacinth, to grow in pots . 512
Hyacinth, to grow in glasses 512
Hydrocyanic or Prussic acid,

antidote for 327

Hydrophobia 392

Hydrophobia in horse 102

Hydrophobia in dogs 278

Hydrosulphuric acid, anti-
dote for 329

Hyoscyamus, antidote for. . 329

Hydrothorax in horse 85

Hysterics 342

Ice house, arrangement of . 445
Ice house, extemporaneous 441
Influenza in cattle ........ 149

Influenza in horse ........ 70

Influenza in sheep 207

In-growing nails ... 344

Injuries and accidents, how

to meet them 318

Injurious insects to fruit

trees 408

Indian cement 499

Indian poke, antidote for. . . 329
India rubber, varnishes for 441

Insect bites 325

Insect, bite of in horse III

Insects, bites and stings of. 318

Insects in the ear 325

Insects, expelling them — . 352
Insects injurious to fruit

trees 408

Insects and lice of the

greenhouse 377

TA.OM.

Insects, to destroy 535

Insects, sting of in horses. . Ill
Insure, covenant for with

mortgage 4°3

Instalment note 45»

Internal contraction of loot

of horse, how to tell 24

Inflamed eyes 339

Inflammation ot the bladder

of dogs 278-

Inflammation of the bladder

in cattle -- 175-

Inflammation of the bladder

in cattle, drink for 249-

Inflammation of the bowels

in cattle, with costiveness 169-
Inflammation of the bowels

of dogs 276

Inflammation of the bowels

in horse -- 9*

Inflammation of the brain in

horse -. 153-

Inflammation of the brain in

sheep '204

Inflammation of the brain in

swine - - 235

Inflammation of the eye in

cattle :- 177

Inflammation of the eye in

horse -- i°5

Inflammation of glands in

cattle 175

Inflammation granular eyes, 339 *
Inflammation of kidneys in

sheep 21*

Inflammation of the larynx

in cattle 182

Inflammation of the lungs

in calves 150

Inflammation of the lungs

in cattle 149

Inflammation of the lungs

in sheep 204

Inflammation of the lungs

in swine 237

Inflammation of the lungs

in young cattle 150'

Inflammation of the liver in

cattle 15*

Inflammation of the oil ves-
sel in poultry 268

Inflammation of the pharynx

in cattle 199*

Inflammation, sheep, kid-
neys of 21*

Inflammation of the stomach

of horse ......... 89

Inflammation of the stomach

in poultry.... 265

Inflammation of trachea in

cattle 180

Inflammation of the throat

in cattle 182

Inflammation of the veins in

horse 125

Ink spots to remove 561

Interest on note 487

Iodine, antidote for 329

Iodine, green dye, aniline. . 566;
Iodine ointment for cattle.. 248
Iron, varnish for 442.

594

CONTENTS.

PAOK.

Irrigation 529

Isinglass jelly. 304

Itch, barber's 342

Itching, chilblains, lotion

for 334

Itch, horse 134

Itch ointment 342

Itch ointment 344

Itch, seven year 343

Itch in sheep 221

Itch in swine 238

Interfering in horse 119

Ivy poison, antidote for.... 331

Jam 304

Jars, fruit, to keep fresh in. 303
Jam, to put up while hot . . 304
Jamestown weed, antidote

for 331

Japan, black varnish 442

Jaundice 343

Jaundice in sheep. 205

Jaundice in swine 239

Jaundice or yellows in cat-
tle 152

Jelly 3°4

Jelly, to color 304

Jelly custard 304

Jelly, fruit in 304

Jelly with gelatine.. 304

Jelly, isinglass 304

Jelly, to preserve with mold 304

Jerusalem artichokes 490

Joiners' work, measuring.. 422

Joint evil in horse 62

Joint felon in cattle 150

Joint promissory note 458

Joints, stiffened 343

Joints, wounds of, in horses 69

Joists, ceiling 421

Joists, measurement 413

Judge and select horses,

how to 14

Judgment, assignment of a. 457
Jugular veins in horse, how

to examine 29

Jumping sumach beetle. ... 406
June berry borer 855

Kalsomine 443

Kerme's mineral, antidote
for 327

Ketchup, tomato 292

Xicking and biting horse .. 42
Kicking horse, how to tell. 15
.Kicking horse, how to pre-
vent 41

Kickers, horse, remedy for 43

Kidneys, diseases of 343

Kidneys, horse, diseases of 98
Kidneys, horse, inaction of. 99
Kidneys, sheep, inflamma-
tion of the 212

Kidney worms in swine .. . 238

Killing knots, painting 423

Killing poultry 266

Knee, broken, in horse .... 69
^Knee-pan displaced, in horse 119
.Knees, horse, strain ot the. 64
JCnees of horses, how to ex-
amine SO

FAOI.

Knees, wounds of, in horse 69

Knots, killed, painting 423

Kraut, sauer, to make..... 291

Lackey moth, American . . . 394

Lakes, water 451

Lambs, astringent drink for 250

Lamb, care of 199

Lambs, care and manage-
ment/^ 225

Lambs, coagulation of the

milk 200

Lambs, costiveness in 201

Lambs, diarrhoea 200

Lambs, drink, astringent

for 299

Lambs, gall lambs 199

Lambs, management and

care of 225

Lambs, milk, coagulation of

the 200

Lambs, staggers in 202

Lambing season, sheep 197

Lame back 343

Laminitis, acute in horse. .. 52
Lameness, cattle, charge

for 249

Laminitis, chronic in horse . 52

Laminitis, horse 51

Laminitis, sub-acute in

horse 53

Lampas in horses 88

Land, measuring 426

Lard, to bleach 287

Lard, to keep sweet 286

Lard, to keep from molding 286

Lard, making 287

Lard, to try out 287

Large breeds of poultry .... 256
Laryngitis, acute in horses. 77
Larynx, cattle, inflamma-
tion of the 182

Laryngitis, chronic in

horses. 77

Laryngitis, horse 76

Laudanum, antidote for. 329

Laurel water, antidote for.. 327

Law 456

Law, acts of partners 487

Law, agreement, what is.. 487

Law, business 487

Law, ignorance of. . ... 487

Law, signature, lead pencil 487

Law, stock 475 to 483

Lawns, formation and man-
agement of 440

Laxative ball, gentle, for

horses 242

Laxative drench for horse.. 242
Laxative medicine for sheep 250
Laxative, mild, for sheep.. 251
Laxative, for staggers in

horse 242

Laxative, stomachic balls

for wasby horses 242

Lead, acetate of, antidote

for 329

Lead, antidote for 329

Lead, dry white, antidote

for 329

Lead, red, antidote for 329

PASS.

Lead, sugar of, antidote for 329
Lead in pickles, antidote for 329
Lead in vinegar, antidote

for 329

Lead in wine, antidote for. 329

Leaping, sheep 223

Leaf beetle, three-lined 362

Leaf, strawberry roller . 368

Lease, agreement of a 456

Lease, assignment of in-
dorsed 466

Lease of house.... ...... . 464

Lease, farm . 466

Leather, cement 410

Leather tanning 434

Leach bites, cattle 184

Leg, amputated, cattle 188

Leg, big, m horse 132

Leg of horse to examine 21

Legs, horse, accidents to

the 117

Legged maple borer. . . 401

Legs, swelled in horse. 111

Lemons, pickled 295

Lettuce, snails to protect

from 535

Lettuce in winter 536

Lice, arsenical wash for in

sheep 251

Lice, bark of the apple tree 354
Lice, mercurial ointment for 250

Lice on chickens 264

Lice, how to destroy in hen

roosts 270

Lice on horses no

Lice and insects of the

greenhouse. ...... ...... 377

Lice, to kill 343

Lice, mercurial wash for in

sheep 251

Lice, plant 377

Lice on poultry 264

Lice on sheep.. 219

Lice on swine, how to de-
stroy 229

Lice on swine 233

Lien, contractor's 467

Lien, law . 467

Lien, mechanics .. 467

Lien, workman 467

Ligament, horse, diseases

of. 60

Lightning rods, how to

erect 412

Limes, pickled 295

Linden borer. . ........ 397

Lines for windows ........ 43 1

Liniment, cattle 249

Liniment, rheumatic 343

Liniment, sore throat 343

Liniment, wonderful...... 343

Linseed poultice 345

Lips, chapped 342

Lips, sore 343

Liquors, alcohol, brandy,

antidote for 327

Litharge, antidote for 329

Liver complaint 343

Liver, inflammation of the,

in cattle 151

Liver, horse, diseases of... 97

CONTENTS.

595

Lobelia, antidote for 329

Lockjaw. 344

Lockjaw, anodyne drink for

in cattle 249

Lockjaw, cattle 179

Lockjaw in horse 103

Lockjaw, physic drink in

cattle 249

Locust borer 395

Locust, Rocky Mountain.. 378

Locust, Western 378

Loose bowels in horse 1 30

Lotion for bull burnt in

cattle 250

Lotion, astringent, for horses 242

Lotion for chilblain 334

Lotion lor cloudiness on the

eye in sheep 251

Lotion for cow pox in cattle 250
Lotion, discutient for cattle.. 249
Lotion, disinfectant for cat-
tle 248

Lotion for foul ulcers in

horses 246

Lotion for galled back in

horses 246

Lotion, glycerine 340

Lotion for galled shoulders

in horses 246

Lotions for horses ... 246

Lotion for inflamed legs in

horses 246

Lotion for itching chilblains . 334
Lotion, sedative, eye, for

cattle 249

Lotion, strengthening for the

eye for cattle 249

Lotion for vermin in cattle. 250

Louse, bark 354

Louse, bark, oyster shell. . . 354

Louse, cotton 386

Leaf, folder, grape 402

Louse, gall, grape 402

Louse, plant 368

Louse, plant, apple-root... 363
Lucifer matches, antidote

for 330

Lunar caustic, antidote for. 329
Lunar caustic, horse, use of 243
Lungs, bleeding from the.. 319
Lungs, congestion of in

horses 81

Lungs, inflammation of the,

in calves . 150

Lungs, inflammation of the,

in young cattle 150

Lungs, inflammation of the,

in cattle 149

Lungs in sheep, inflamma-
tion of the 204

Lungs, swine, inflammation

of the 237

Lye, concentrated, antidote

for 327

Lye, woodash, antidote for. 327

Mad dogs 278

Mad dogs, bites of. 318

Mad staggers in horse 101

Madness in cattle 192

Madness in horse 102

TAGS.

Maggot, onion 385

Maggot, corn 371

Maggot, gooseberry 406

Maggots in sheep 221

M ahogany , varnish 442

Making brick 430

Mallenders in horses no

Management and care of

sheep 225

Management and care of

lambs 225

Management of chickens.. . 372

Management of geese 273

M anagement of poultry .... 252

Management of sheep 197

Mange in dogs . 276

Mange in cattle 181

Mange in horse 109

Mange ointment for cattle.. 249

Mange in swine 235

Mangy horse, how to tell.. 15
Manure, garden refuse as.. 535

Manure, hen 535

Manure, leaves as 535

Manure pile, management

of 534

Manure, to shelter 534

Maps, varnish for 440

Maps, varnish for 438

Maple borer, legged 401

Maple trees, to tap 536

Maple sugar making .. 536

Marble, cement for 410

Mares, best kind to breed

from 13

Mare, brood, general man-
agement of the 28

Mare, foal, early treatment

ofthe 30

Mare, foal, treatment when

in 29

Mare, foal, weaning and

after-treatment of the .... 31
Mare, foaling, treatment

after 29

Mare, time of sending to

horse 28

Mares — See horses.

Margined blister beetle 362

Marketing poultry........ 266

Marmalade 304

Marshmallow drench for

horse 244

Mash, cooling powder for

horse. 246

Mash, diuretic powder for

horse 245

Mason's work, to measure. 415
Mats, to prepare sheep-
skins for 432

Maturity of horse......... 12

May beetle 368, 371

May bug 381

Meadow saffron, antidote

for 329

Measles in swine 235

Measure hay, weight to be

estimated 415

Measure, joists 413

Measure, live cattle to esti-
mate weight 415

FA.QZ.

Measure, plank 413

Measure, scantling 413

Measuring balusters 423

Measuring boards 413

Measuring boilers 418

Measuring brickwork 416

Measuring carpenter's work 420

Measuring cement work 419

Measuring chimneys 417'

Measuring coloring 419

Measuring composition roof-
ing-- .- 423

Measuring cornices 417

Measuring excavations 415

Measuring or gauging 414

Measurement glazier's work 412

Measuring grindstones . 414

Measuring, heaped 414

Measuring the height of

trees, 413

Measuring joiner's work 422

Measuring land 426

Measuring mason's work.. 415

Measuring ovens 418

Measuring painter's work. . 423
Measuring paper hanging. . 431

Measuring partitions 422

Measuring pavements 418

Measuring plasterer's work 419
Measuring plumber's work. 414

Measuring sewers 418

Measuring shingles 423

Measuring skylights 422

Measurement of slater's and

tiler's work 412

Measuring staircases 422

Measuring timber 418

Measuring timber in the

trees 414

Measuring vaults 418

Measuring whitening 419

Measuring woodwork 420

Meat, to cure 287

Meat, to keep fresh in win-
ter 287

Meat, mince. 288

Meat, pickle 288

Meat, preserving in cans. . . 287
Meat, to protect from fly. . . 287

Mechanical. 409

Mechanics, farmers should

be 444

Mechanic's hen 467

Medicines for domestic ani-
mals 240

Medicine fever, for swine.. 2jji
Medicines for pigs — See

Swine 251

Megrims in horse. ........ 102

Megrims in poultry 265

Melon, citron, preserved.. 298

Melons, pickled 295

Melon, preserved like gin-
ger 299

Mercury, antidote for 329

Mercurial garget ointment

for cows 159

Mercurial ointment for gar-
get in cattle 248

Mercurial ointment for scab
in sheep 251

596

CONTENTS,

PAGE.

Mercurial ointment for ver-
min in cattle 250

Mercurial wash for lice in

sheep 251

Meromyza, American 373

Metals, cement for 409

Metastasis in horse 53

Mice, to destroy 352

Mice in corn stacks 505

Mice, field 401

Middlepiece of horse, points

of 8

M idge, gooseberry 406

Mild astringent for cattle. . - 248

Mildew on roses 537

Mildew on gooseberry

bushes 5°7

Mildew, sulphur for 536

Mildew in wheat 56°

Milk^and bread poultice... 345
Milk, coagulation of the, in

lambs 200

Milk cows, to dry 181

Milk, to deodorize ........ 537

Milk fever in cow 164

Milk, to keep 288

Milk mirror in cow .... 166

Milk room, charcoal in.... 537

Milk for pigs. ......... 229

Miller, bee, to destroy. 313

Mincemeat 288

Minced pickles 296

Mineral acids, antidote for. 326
Mineral, Kerme's, antidote

for 327

Mirror, milk in cows 166

Mites in chickens 272

Mixed piccalilli, pickled 295

Mixing oil colors in paint.. 426

Mixture, castor oil 337

Mixture for cough 337

Mock ginger, preserved... 301
Molten grease in horse.. .. 96
Molding, lard, to keep from 286
Monkshood, antidote for... 327

Moor-ill, in horse 1 20

Morphine, antidote for 330

Mordants 571

Mordant, alum 571

Mordant, protochloride of

tin 571

Mortgage and bond, assign-
ment^ 457

Mortgage and bond, assign-
ment of, indorsed on in-
strument 459

Mortgage and bond as col-
lateral security, assign-
ment of 457

Mortgage, chattel, to se-
cure a money demand 458

Mortgage, chattel, to se-
cure a note 459

Mortgage, with covenant to

insure 463

Mortgage for purchase

money 464

Mortgage to secure notes . . 464
Mosquitoes, to drive away. 352

Moth, American lackey. 394

Moths in carpets, to kill.. . 352

PAGE.

Moth, codling or apple
worm.... 357

Moths, codling, to trap.. .. 537

Moth, cucumber 384

Moth patches, to remove .. 342
Moth, Lussock, white

marked 369

Moths, to preserve clothing

from 352

Moulting of horses 13

Mountain ash borer 355

Mountain ash borer.. 397

Mouth, bleeding from the. . 319
Mouth, cattle, canker in... 189
Mouth, horse, diseases of

the 87

Mouth, sore, in cattle 154

Mucosae, inflamed bursa; in

horse 62

Mulching pear trees 543

Mule, splint on 142

Mules — See Horses.

Mumps 344

Murrain in cattle. 173

Muriatic acid, antidote for. . 326
Muriate of antimony, horse,

use of 243

Murrain drink for cattle 248

Murrain tonic drink for

cattle 249

Muscles of horses, diseases

of. 60

Mushrooms, pickled 295

Mushrooms, poisonous, an-
tidote for 330

Mushrooms, to preserve 301

Muskrats skins, tanning

with the fur on 434

Mustard embrocation for

horse 245

Mustard plaster.... ...... 345

Mutton suet, with astringent

drink for cattle 248

Nails, care of 342

Nails, in-growing......... 344

Nails, size of..... 431

Nails, to whiten 344

Narcotics, horses 246

Napthaline dye, analine 567

Nasal gleet, or running of

the nose in horse 134

Navel string of calves, bleed-
ing from ... 193

Navicular disease in horse. . 114
Neck of horse, how to ex-
amine 20

Neck, point of horse 7

Nephritis in horse 98

Nests for hens 253

Nests, hens, treatment of. . 270

Neuralgia, cure for 344

New atlas green dye, aniline 566

New grape-root borer 365

New York weevil 374

Nicking, horse. 128

Night planting 553

Night-green dye, aniline — 565
Nipples, sore, ointment for 344

Nipples, sore, in sheep 212

Nitrate of potash,antidote for 331

PAGE.

Nitrate of silver, antidote
for 330

Nitrate of silver, solution of,

horse, use of 243

Nitric acid, antidote for 376

Nose, bleeding at the 319

Nose, blood-vessels of the,

in horse, diseases of the. 87
Nose, running at, or nasal

gleet in horse 134

Nose, sheep, discharge from

and cold 206

Nostrils of horse, how to

examine 16

Notes, endorsed, released. 487
Note, joint promissory.... 458

Note made on Sunday 487

Note of minors 487

Note, mortgage to secure. . 464,

Note, not negotiable 458

Notes obtained by fraud 487

Note, payable at bank 458*

Note, payable on demand. . 458
Note, payable by instal-
ments 4581

Note, what is required .... 487
Note, with security....... 458)

Note, promissory 458

Nux vomica, antidote for. . . 331
Nymphomania in horse.... 101

Oak borer. .... 397

Oak pruner 407

Oak trees 553

Oak varnish 442

Oats, to cultivate 537

Oats, seed, to select 551

Oil cake for pigs 229)

Oil, castor, mixture 337

Oil paintings, varnish for.. 442;
Oil vessel, poultry, inflam-
mation of. 268

Oil of vitriol, antidote for.. 326'
Ointment, astringent, for

sore heels of horses 242

Ointment blister for horses, 243
Ointment blister for cattle.. 24s-

Ointment for chilblain 334

Ointment, cleansing, for

cattle 247

Ointment, digestive, for

horse 245;

Ointment/ glycerine 344

Ointment, healing, for cattle 247
Ointment for hemorrhoids. 344
Ointment, iodine, for cattle. 248:

Ointment for itch 342

Ointment for itch 344

Ointment for mange in cattle 249.
Ointment, mercurial, for

garget in cattle 248

Ointment,** mercurial, for

scabs in sheep 251

Ointment, mercurial, for .

vermin in cattle. .... . 250

Ointment, mild, for scab in

sheep 251

Ointment, powerful, for scab

in sheep 251

Ointment for sore head in

sheep 2511

CONTENTS

597

PAOE

Ointment for piles 344

Ointment for sore nipples . . 344
Ointment for sore teats in

cattle, 248

•Ointment, sulphur........ 344

Onion, culture of 538

Onion, blight and smut in. . 538

Onion fly 385

Onions, to keep 288

Onion maggots ........... 385

Onions, pickled ....... 296

Ophthalmia in dogs .. 277

Ophthalmia, swine 233

Opium, antidote for....... 330

Orange blight .. . 540

Orange peel, preserved.... 301
Oranges, to preserve whole 299

Orange dye, aniline 564

Orchard, apple 488

Orchards, pear 541

Ossification of the lateral car-
tilages in horses ........ 49

Ostes sarcoma in horse.... 59

Outbuildings, stables, etc.,

arrangement of 4

Ovens, brick, how to make 409

Ovens, measuring... . 418

Overreaches, horse .... 119

Oxalic acid, antidote for.... 327

Oxen, breaking. ...... .... 190

Oxen, eye-lids, warts on... 167
Oxen, warts on eye-lids. ... 177

Oxide of tin, antidote for.. 331
Oxide of zinc, antidote for. 331

Ox-yoke, how to make 433

Oyster shell bark louse 354

Pace, horse learning to 136

Packing apples in barrels.. 279

Packing butter 280

Pains 344

Painkiller 345

Paint, cheap, for fences. 424

Painters' colic 345

Painting 425

Painters' work, measuring. 423

Painting, graining 423

Painting, hints on 423

Painting, knots killed 423

Paint, mixing oil colors. 426

Painting, priming color 423

Painting, sanding 424

Paintings, varnish for 438

Paintings, varnish for 442

Pale carriage varnish 437

Palsy in horses 131

Paper, fly 352

Paper hanging, measuring. 431

Paps in horses 88

Paralysis in poultry 258

Paralysis in horse 104

Parasites, to destroy .. . 538

Paregoric, antidote for 330

Parsnips, to keep 288

Parsnips, to raise 539

Parsley, culture of . . 539

Partitions, measuring . 422

Partnership, agreement to

continue a 462

Pisterns, horse, how to

examine 22

Msa.
Partnership..... 467

Pastures, salting, for sheep. 211
Patches, moth, to remove. . 342
Patella, horse, dislocation of 68
Patent right, assignment of a 456
Paving, measuring........ 418

Peach borer 357, 397, 408

Peaches, canning.. 284

Peaches, to can 288

Peaches, canning by the

cold process 303

Peaches, to dry 288

Peach, pickled ........... 296

Peach, preserved......... 301

Peach pruner. ... . 407

Peach tree curculio. ....... 372

Peach tree, culture of 516

Peach trees, management of 539
Peach trees, mildew on ... . 540

Peach trees, to save 540

Peach worm, blue spangled 393

Peach, yellows 539

Peanut, culture of. 549

Peanut, harvesting. 549

Peanut, seed 550

Peanut, soil for 548

Peanut, varieties 55°

Pear borer, i 355

Pear borer 397

Pears, canning 284

Pear, culture of. 543

Pear curculio. ........ 379

Pear, diseases of. 540

Pear orchards, sites and

shelter of 541

Pear orchards, soil for..... 542

Pears, preserved 30 1

Pear slug 377, 541

Pear tree blight 546

Pear tree frozen, or winter

_ blight 546

Pear tree, leaf blight 546

Pear tree, mulching . 543

Pear tree, pruning 543

Pear tree, planting 542

Pear tree, stocks on 545

Pear tree, summer blight.. 546

Pear twig borer 407

Pear worm 358

Pear, culture of. 546

Peas, green, to preserve 289

Peas, pickled 295

Peas for pigs 229

Peasforsoed 382

Peaweevil 382

Pearl grey copal varnish. . . 441
Pear tree, culture and prun-
ing SI<5

Pear tree, culture of. 515

Pear tree, soil for 515

Pear tree, training.. 515

Pelidnota, spotted 389

Pennsylvania apple butter,

to make 280

Pepper, culture of 541

Peppers, pickled. ......... 296

Periostitis, horse 51

Peri toritis in horse 93

Peripneumonia in horse. ... 81
Pestilential fever in cattle.. 173
Phrenitis, cattle 1 54

PAG e .

Phrenitis in horse. .... .... 101

Pharynx, cattle, inflamma-
tion of the 189

Phosphorus, antidote for .. 330

Phylloxera, grape 402

Physic balls for horse — . . 242
Physic ball, warmer, for

horse.................. 242

Physic for blown in sheep. . 250

Physic drink for cattle 248

Physic drink for lockjaw in

cattle 249

Physic, horse, how to use. . 130
Piccalilli, Indian method . . . 289
Piccalilli, mixed, pickled. . . 295

Pickling beef. 280

Picking dry poultry ....... 268

Picking poultry. 266

Pickled barberries 295

Pickled beans 295

Pickled beets 294

Pickled beet root. ........ 294

Pickled broccoli 295

Pickled cabbage.... 294

Pickled cauliflower 295

Pickled cherries 294

Pickles, chopped 294

Pickled codlins 295

Pickles, to color green 296

Pickled crab apple, sweet.. 295

Pickled cucumbers — 294

Pickled cucumbers 295

Pickled garlic 295

Pickled gherkins 295

Pickled green ginger 295

Pickled green gooseberries. 295
Pickled green tomatoes . — 297

Pickled lemons 295

Pickled'limes. . . . - 295

Pickled melons 295

Pickles, minced 296

Pickled mixed piccalilli 295

Pickled mushrooms 294

Pickled onions 296

Pickled plums, sweet 296

Pickled peach 296

Pickled peas 295

Pickled peppers 296

Pickled radish pods 295

Pickled red cabbage. . 295

Pickled roots 296

Pickled samphires 295

Pickled tomatoes 297

Pickled tomatoes, green... 297

Pickled walnuts 295

Pickles 293

Pickles, sweet. . 296

Pickles, sweetened by lead,

antidote for 329

Pickling eggs 282

Pickling meat 288

Picric acid dye, aniline 567

Pictures, varnish for 442

Pieplant, canning........ 284

Pigging m swine 236

Pigs, age to breed 230

Pigs, alterative powder for. 251

Pigs, apoplexy in 235

Pigs, ashes for. ....... .. 229

Pigs, beans for 229

Pigs, black teeth lu 234

59«

CONTENTS.

TAGS.

Pigs, bleeding of 237

Pigs, blind staggers in 238

Pigs, brain, inflammation

of the 235

Pigs, bran for 229

Pigs, bone dust for . . . 229

Pigs, breeds 230

Pigs, breed, age to 230

Pigs, breeding 230

Pigs, castration of 229

Pigs, catarrh in 238

Pigs, charcoal for 229

Pigs, choking 234

Pigs, cholera. 234

Pigs, colic in 233

Pigs, costiveness in 238

Pigs, crossing of. 230

Pigs, debility in 233

Pigs, diarrhoea in......... 238

Pigs, dropsy in 238

Pigs, ear, sore, in 238

Pigs, emaciation 233

Pigs, epilepsy 233

Pigs, epizoot. in 74

Pigs, fattening 231

Pigs, fattening, bad practice 232
Pigs, feet, soreness of the . . 236
Pigs, fever, medicine for. . . 25 1

Pigs, fits in 233

Pigs, food for............ 229

Pigs, frenzy in..... 238

Pigs — See Hogs.

Pigs, how to feed. ... 231

Pigs, how to select . 229

Pigs, inflammation of the

brain 231

Pigs, inflammation of the

Fungs. 237

Pigs, itch in 238

Pigs, jaundice in 239

Pigs, kidney worms in 238

Pigs, lice on 233

Pigs, lice, how to destroy.. 229
Pigs, lungs, inflammation

of the 237

Pigs, mange in 235

Pigs, measles in 235

Pigs, medicines — See Swine 251
Pigs, mild diarrhoea, remedy

For 229

Pigs, milk for 229

Pigs, oil cake for 229

Pigs, ophthalmia ......... 233

Pigs, peas for 229

Pigs, pigging 236

Pigs, posts for scratching.. 229

Pig, preventives 238

Pigs, quinsy 236

Pig raising, important rules

for 235

Pigs, red eruption in 238

Pigs, rheumatism in 233

Pigs, salt for 229

Pigs, scratching post 229

Pigs, select, how t> 229

Pigs, shelter for 231

Pigs, sick, how to manage. 229

Pigs, sore ears 238

Pigs, soreness of the feet.. 236
Pigs, staggers, blind, in.. . 238
Pigs, summer care of. 231

PASS.

Pigs, superphosphate for . . 229

Pigs, sulphur for 229

Pigs— See Swine.

Pigs, teeth, black in 234

Pigs, trichinae in 234

Pigs, vermin in 233

Pigs, winter care of 231

Pigs, worms, kidney, in... 238
Pigs, young, rot of tails . . . 234

Piles in dogs — .. 277

Piles, ointment 344

Piping in horse 80

Pimples 345

Pineapple, preserved 301

Pip in poultry 258

Piper, horse, how to tell. . . 19

Plague, cattle 154

Plank, measurement 413

Plants, to banish red spider 541
Plants, cabbage, clubfoot in 502
Plants, cabbage, to cultivate 502
Plauts, cabbage, enemies of 502

Plants, cabbage, fly in 502

Plantlice 377

Plantlouse 368

Plant louse, apple root 363

Plants, out-door, label for. . 546

Planting near buildings 454

Plaster, mustard 345

Plaster, poor man's 345

Plaster, rheumatic 345

Plaster, strengthening 345

Plasterers' work, measuring 419

Pleurisy in cattle 150

Pleurisy in horse 84

Pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. 181

Pleurodynia in horse 85

Plows, rusty, to clean 547

Plum borer ... 397

Plum tree, culture of 516

Plum curculio 372

Plum gouger — . 371

Plum weevil 372

Plumbers' work, measure-

mentof 414

Plums, grape vine........ 367

Plums, canning 284

Plums, purple, preserved.. 301

Plums, sweet, pickled 296

Plunging horse 43

Pneumonia, acute, in horse. 83

Pneumonia in horse 81

Points of horse 7

Poisons, antidote for, in

horses 89

Poisons and their antidotes. 326

Poisons, cattle 183

Poison ivy, antidote for. ... 331
Poison, horse, antidote for. 89
Poisonous«fish^antidote for. 330
Poisonous mushrooms, anti-
dote for 330

Poker, Indian, antidote for. 329

Poll evil in horse 58

Poor horses, how to fatten. 144

Poor man's plaster 345

Poplar pyramidal worm. — 385
Pork, cutting up and curing 573
Posts, fence, to preserve. . . 522
Posts, scratching for pigs.. 229
Potash, caustic, antidote for 327

PARE.

Potash, nitrate, antidote for 331
Potassium cyanide, antidote

for 327

Potato beetle, Colorado,

bogus 38a

Potato bug 380

Potato bug, modern, anti-
dote for 328

Potato disease, preventive. . 547

Potato rot, Barnet's cure. . . 547

Potato stalk borer 360

Potato stalk weevil 360

Potato or tomato worm 361

Potato worm 387

Potatoes, earthing up 546

Potatoes, to keep4 from

sprouting 289

Potatoes, raising under

straw 546

Potatoes, seed, to select... 551

Potatoes, storing 289

Potatoes, sweet, culture of. 547

Potatoes, sweet, to keep 290

Potatoes, sweet, in bulk, to

keep 290

Pot herbs, to cultivate 490

Poultice, bread and milk. . . 345

Poultice, linseed 345

Poultice, spice 345

Poultry, age of 266

Poultry, age, profitable 253

Poultry, apoplexy. ........ 257

Poultry, best for chickens . . 256

Poultry, best for eggs 256

Poultry, best for table 256

Poultry, blindness in 268

Poultry, bones to pulverize

for 266

Poultry, breeds, the most

popular 256

Poultry, canker in 267

Poultry, caponizing. ... 269

Poultry, catarrh 259

Poultiy — See Chickens.

Poultry, consumption in 26 1

Poultry, costiveness 268

Poultry, cramp in 265

Poultry, crop bound. 262

Poultry, croup in 267

Poultry, diarrhoea in 262

Poultry, diseases of 256'

Poultry, drinking and feed-
ing 253.

Poultry, droppings of 255

Poultry, dry picking ...... 268

Poultry, eggs, eating their. 265
Poultry, eggs, layers of

small 256

Poultry, epilepsy ...... 257

Poultry, eggs, great layers . 256
Poultry, eggs, layers of large 256
Poultry, eggs, layers of

medium 256

Poultry, fattening 267

Poultry, fattening coops... 267
Poultry, feathers, eating

thr'r 263.

Pouhry, feathers, loss of. . . 263
Poultry, fumigation of

houses 255

Poultry, gapes in 259

CONTENTS.

59r

MOh
Poultry, feeding and drink-
ing 253

Poultry, giddiness in 258

Poultry, good sitters 256

Poultry, house for 252

Poultry houses, to clear of

vermin .. 256

Poultry house, fumigation of 255
Poultry houses, to fumigate 268

Poultry, hardy breeds 256

Poultry — See Hens. .
Poultry, inflammation of the

oil vessel in 268

Poultry, inflammation of the

stomach 265

Poultry keepers' guide 252

Poultry, killing 266

Poultry, large breeds 256

Poultry, lice on 264

Poultry, for market 266

Poultry, management of .. . 252

Poultry, megrims 265

Poultry, oil vessel, inflam-
mation of the 268

Poultry, paralysis 258

Poultry, picking.... 266

Poultry, pip in 258

Poultry, to preserve in win-
ter 258

Poultry, profit of 252

Poultry, profitable age 253

Foultry, quiet breeds 256

Poultry, rheumatism 265

Poultry, room for 252

Poultry, roosts for 252

Poultiy, roup in 260

Poultry, rump-root in 268

Poultry, stomach, inflamma-
tion of the 265

Poultry, ulcers in 266

Poultry, vermin on 264

Poultry, vermin, to destroy 268

Poultry, vertigo in 258

Poultry, white comb 264

Poultry, wounds of. 266

Powder, alterative for swine 25 1
Powder, astringent for cattle 249
Powder, putty, antidote for. 331
Powders, tonic, alterative

for cattle 250

Powders, tooth 348

Power of attorney 467

Power of attorney, revoca-
tion 467

Preserve fruits, without

self-sealing cans 297

Preserve fruits, without

sugar or vinegar 298

Preserve,ginger, imitation of 299
Preserve, grapes, in bunches 299

Preserve, mushrooms 301

Preserve, orange, whole... 299
Preserve small fruits, with-
out cooking — 297

Preserved apples 298

Preserved apple, crab. .... 298

Preserved cherries 300

Preserved citron melons — 298

Preserved crab apple 298

Preserved cucumbers, to
imitate ginger 298

PAGE.

Preserved currants. ....... 299

Preserved damsons 300

Preserved dewberries 300

Preserved fruit by syrup,

without heat 298

Preserved ginger, green 300

Preserved ginger, mock ... 301

Preserved gooseberries 300

Preserved grapes in vinegar 300

Preserved green gages 300

Preserved green ginger 300

Preserved huckleberries — 300

Preserved melon citron 298

Preserved melon, like ginger 299

Preserved mock ginger 301

Preserved orange peel 301

Preserved peaches 301

Preserved pears 301

Preserved pine apple 301

Preserved purple plums — 301

Preserved quince 302

Preserved raspberries 302

Preserved rhubarb 302

Preserved strawberries 302

Preserved tomatoes 303

Preserved walnuts 303

Preserved whole apricots.. 298

Preserved yeast 292

Preserving birds 281

Preserving butter, fresh... 502

Preserving, hints on 297

Preserving rosebuds 290

Preventives, sheep, rot in. . 209
Preventives, sheep, foot rot

in 215

Preventives in swine 238

Pricks in shoeing horse. ... 119

Pricking, horse 129

Priming color, painting. 423

Profit of poultry 252

Profitable age for poultry.. 253
Promissory note .......... 458

Promissory joint note 458

Proportions of points of

horse 12

Pruner, apple 407

Pruner, dies nut 407

Pruner, hickory 407

Pruner, oak 407

Pruner, peach 407

Prussic acid, or hydrocyanic,

antidote for 327

Public lands, agricultural

college scrip 484

Public lands, homesteads.. 485
Public lands, how to acquire

title to 484

Public lands, pre-emptions. 484

Public lands, lees 486

Public lands, soldiers' and

sailors' homesteads 486

Public lands, locating war-
rants 484

Public lands, cash purchases 484

Pruning 546

Pruning apple trees 515

Pruning pear trees 515, 543

Puerperal fever in cows. ... 158

Puffs in horse 02

Pulling stumps 553

Pumice foot in horse 56

FAQ*.

Pumpkin worm 39°

Pumpkins amongst corn . . . 547

Pumpkins, drying 289

Purchase money, mortgage
for 464

Purchase sheep, how to . . . 227
Purchase sheep, what kind. 228
Purging balls, with calomel,

for horses 242

Purging, cattle 146

Purging in calves, to stop. . 250
Purging or diarrhoea in

sheep 222

Purging drink for cattle. . . . 247
Purging drink for sheep — 250
Purging drink, sulphur, for

cattle 247

Purging, sheep, or diarrhoea

in 222

Purgative clyster in horse. . 242
Purgative drink for cattle.. 24&

Purple copal varnish. 443

Purple dye, aniline 566-

Purple plums, preserved. . . 301
Putty powder, antidote for. 334
Pyramidal grape vine worm 385
Pyramidal poplar worm . . . 385
Pyramidal raspberry worm. 385
Pyramidal red-bud worm.. 385
Phthisis in horse 85.

Quarter evil in cattle 171

Queen bee, fertilization of

the 312

Queen bee, rearing of 316

Quiet breeds of poultry 256

Quince borer 355, 406

Quinces, canning 284

Quince curculio. 379

Quinces, preserved 302

Quince trees, culture of. . .. 516'

Quinsy 34J.

Quinsy in swine 236'

Quit claim deed ...... .... 462

Quittor in horse 54

Rabies in horse 102

Rabbits, fruit trees, to pro-
tect from.... 511

Rabbit skins, to cure 434

Rabies, cattle 192

Radicicola type, or root-in-
habiting 404

Radishes, culture of ... 547"

Radishes, fly 385

Radish, horse, to keep.... 286

Radish, horse, to cultivate . 533.

Radish pods, pickled...... 295

Rain water, to keep sweet . 289

Raising blood 333.

Raising pigs, important

rules for 235,

Rancid butter, to restore. . . 501

Rarey's plan illustrated. ... 138

Raspberry borer, 406

Raspberry, culture of 518

Raspberries, preserved .... 30*

Raspberry pyramidal worm 385

Rats, to destroy 353

Ratsbane, antidote for 325

Rat poison, antidote for . . . 330-

<5oo

CONTENTS.

TXQM.

Rearing horses, how to
manage....*.. .......... 43

Receipt 467

Receipt on account ....... 468

Receipt for money paid by
another person ......... 465

Receipt for rent .......... 467

Red ants, to destroy ...... 350

Red-brown dye .......... 570

Red-bud pyramidal worm.. 385
Red cabbage, pickled ..... 295

Red copal varnish . 442

Red dye 570

Red dye, aniline 570

Red eruption in swine 238

Red gooseberries, to keep . 285

Red lead, antidote for 329

Red pepper worm 387

Red precipitate, antidote for 329

Red spider 369, 541

Red water in cattle 156

Red water in sheep 202

Red water, true, in cattle.. 157

Refrigerants, horse 246

Release of all demands 468

Rennet, mode of use 547

Rent, receipt for 467

Resin soap, to make 290

Respiration of horse, to

judge by 15

Restorative for the hair 341

Revocation of power of at-
torney 467

Rhubarb, canning 284

Rhubarb, preserved 302

Rheumatic drink for cattle. 247
Rheumatic embrocation for

cattle 247

Rheumatics in horse 56

Rheumatic inflammation in

horse 60

Rheumatic liniment ....... 343

Rheumatic plaster 345

Rheumatism 233, 345

Rheumatism in cattle . . 1 50

Rheumatism, chronic, in

horse. 61

Rheumatism in poultry 265

Rheumatism in sheep 226

Rhubarb, culture of 551

Rinderpest, cattle 158

Ringbone, blister sweating,

for horses . .... 243

Ringbone in horse 50

Ringbone, horse, sweating

blister for 1 . 243

Ringbone, remedies for

horse 133

Ringworm 346

Roads and avenues, plant-
ing....... 453

Roads and waiks, construc-
tion of 447

Roads and walks, laying out 446
Roarer, horse, how to tell . 20
Roaring in horse, remedy

for 76

Rocky mountain locust.... 3 "3
Rods, lightning, how to

erect 412

Roller, strawberry leaf 368

TXQZ.

Rolling, horse.... 43

Roofing, a cheap .... 431

Roofing, composition, meas-
uring 423

Roofs, construction of.. 421

Roojn for poultry ......... 252

Roosters — See Poultry.
Roosts, hen, how to destroy

vermin in 270

Roosts for poultry ........ 252

Root-apple plant louse .... 363

Root-inhabiting,or type radi-

cicola 404

Root-louse, grape 404

Roots, to keep 291

Roots, pickled 296

Rose bug 366

Roses, mildew on 537

Rose slug 377

Rose trees, blight in 551

Rosebuds, to preserve 290

Rot, foot, in sheep 213

Rot, mixture for sheep 250

Rot in sheep 207

Rot in sheep, preventive. . . 209
Rot, foot/sheep, preventives 215
Rot, potato, Barnet's pre-
ventive 547

Rot, tails of young pigs 234

Rot, young pigs, tails of. . . 344
Round headed apple tree

borer 355

Roup in geese 274

Roup in poultry 260

Rowels and seton in horse. 126

Rump root in poultry 268

Running away horse, rem-
edy for 44

Rupture in horse 96

Rust in wheat 560

Rye, culture of 55 x

Saffranine dye, aniline 567

Saffron, meadow, antidote

for 329

Sage, culture of 551

Sale, bill of 458

Sallenders in horse no

Salts, alkalies and their anti-
dotes for 327

Salts, spirits of, antidote for 326

Salt rheum 346

Salt for swine 229

Saltpetre, antidote for 331

Salting pasture for sheep .. 211

Samphires, pickled 295

Sand crack in horse, how to

tell 24

Sand crack in horse, remedy

for. 56

Sanding, painting. ........ 424

Salve, healing 346

Sauer kraut, to make...... 291

Sausages, keeping 29 1

Sausages, making. ........ 291

Savine, antidote for . . . . 33 1

Saw-fly 374

Saw, to put in order ...... 431

Scab in sheep 216

Scabby sheep, mild oint-
ment for 251

PAOX.

Scab, sheep, powerful oint-

mentfor 251

Scab, mercurial ointment

for, in sheep...*. 251

Scab, sheep, smearing mix-

turefor 251

Scalds and burns 320, 337

Scalds in dogs 277

Scalding of urine 349

Scantling, measurement of. 413
Scars about the head of

horse . 20

Scar on the knee of horse,

to examine 21

Scarlet dye, aniline 567

Scarlet dye 570

Scratching the ear, horse,

how to prevent 41

Scratching posts for pigs. . . 229

Scouring rot in cattle '. .. 155

Scours in sheep 225

Scratches in horse 133

Scurf in the head. ...... JL 342

Security, note with 458

Sedative, eye lotion for cat-
tle 249

Sedative, horse 246

Seed barley, to select 551

Seed corn, to select 551

Seed corn worm 370

Seed, hedge 533

Seed oats, to select 551

Seed peanuts 550

Seed peas 382

Seed potatoes, to select .... 551

Seed wheat, to select 551

Seed, to test 551

Seedy toe in horse 114

Select and judge horses,

how to.... 14

Select sheep, how to 227

Serpents' bites 318

Serpents, bites of, embroca-
tion for, in cattle 249

Seton, artificial, for cattle.. 148
Seton, cattle, mode of insert-
ing 148

Setons and rowels in horse. 126
Setting, how to prevent hens 2 70

Seven year itch 343

Sewers, measuring. .. 418

Sex of eggs 273

Shank of horse, to examine 21

Shaving, horse. . .. 35

Shearing sheep.. 221

Shearing sheep, directions

for 227

Sheaths, inflamed tendon-

ous, in horse 62

Sheep 197

Shoulder, horse, strain of

the 64

Sheep, after-pains 199

Sheep, age of, how to tell. . 225

Sheep, appetite, loss of 215

Sheep, astringent powder

for 251

Sheep, astringent powder,

caustic, for foot rot 251

Sheep, arsenical wash for
lice 251

CONTENTS.

60 1

PACK.

Sheep, bites in 223

Sheep, blown in .... .... .. 205

Sheep, blast in 205

-Sheep, blown, physic for .. 250
■Sheep, brain in, inflamma-
tion of the ....... .. 204

Sheep, care and manage-
ment of 225

Sheep, castration ...... .. . 199

Sheep, catarrh in.... 226

Sheep, caustic astringent

powder for foot rot 25 1

Sheep, chockered . 207

. Sheep, clatting of. 1 98

Sheep, cleansing of wounds 224
Sheep, cold and discharge

from the nose 206

Sheep, cooling fever drink . 250

Sheep, debility in 222

! Sheep, debility, tonic drink 251
Sheep, diarrhoea or purging 222
Sheep, directions for shear-
ing 227

•Sheep, discharge from the

nose, and cold 206

Sheep, diseases of 197

Sheep, dizziness in 223

! Sheep, drink, cooling fever 250
Sheep, drink, general tonic 250
Sheep, drink, purging. .., . 250
Sheep, drink, strenghthen-

ing 250

Sheep, drink, tonic 250

Sheep, drink, tonic, for de-
bility 251

Sheep, dysentery 222

Sheep, epilepsy in ..... 212

Sheep, epizoot. in 74

Sheep, erysipelas 22 1

Sheep, to examine after

death 208

Sheep, eye, lotion for cloudi-
ness on the 251

:Sheep, to fatten for winter . 226
Sheep, fever cooling drink. 250

Sheep, fits in 228

Sheep, flies troubling 219

Sheep, fly powder for 25 1

Sheep, foot rot in 213

Sheep, rot preventives ..-. . 215
Sheep, foot rot, caustic

astringent powder for 251

Sheep, foundering 225

Sheep, fractures in 223

Sheep, gad fly, to protect

from 226

Sheep, gall lambs 199

Sheep, general tonic drinks 250

Sheep, giddiness 203

:Sheep, grub in the head 223

Sheep, head, grub in 223

Sheep, head sore 215

Sheep, head, water in the.. 203

Sheep, heaving 199

Sheep, how to purchase .. . 227

Sheep, how to select 227

Sheep, influenza in 207

Sheep, inflammation of the

brain in 204

Sheep, inflammation of the
kidneys in 212

TXOX.

Sheep, inflammation of the

lungs.... 204

Sheep, itch 221

Sheep, j aundice in 205

Sheep, kidneys, inflamma-

mation of the, in . 212

Sheep, lambing season .... 197
Sheep, laxative medicine... 250

Sheep, leaping 223

Sheep, lice en 219

Sheep lice, arsenical wash

for 251

Sheep lice, mercurial wash

for 251

Sheep, lotion for cloudiness

on the eye 251

Sheep, lungs, inflammation

of the 204

Sheep, maggots in 22 1

Sheep, management of . 197

Sheep, management and

care of 225

Sheep, mercurial ointment

for scabs 251

Sheep, mercurial wash for

lice in 251

Sheep, mild laxative 25 1

Sheep, mild ointment for

scab 251

Sheep, mixture for the rot . 250

Sheep, nipples, sore 212

Sheep, nose, discharge from,

and cold 206

Sheep, ointment, mercurial,

for scab 25 1

Sheep, ointment for sore

heads 251

Sheep pastures, salting 211

Sheep, physic for blown — 250
Sheep, powerful ointment

for scab 251

Sheep, preventives in foot

rot 215

Sheep, to protect from the

gad fly 226

Sheep, purging, or diar-
rhoea 222

Sheep, purging drink for . . 250

Sheep, red water in 202

Sheep, rheumatism 226

Sheep, rotin 207

Sheep rot, mixture for. .... 250

Sheep rot, preventives 209

Sheep rot, foot 213

Sheep rot, foot, preventives 215
Sheep, salting pastures.... 211

Sheep scab 216

Sheep scab, mild ointment

for 251

Sheep scab, powerful oint-
ment for 251

Sheep scab, smearing mix-
ture for 251

Sheep splints, use of 224

Sheep, scours in 225

Sheep shearing 221

Sheep shearing, directions

for 227

Sheep, sore heads 2I«j

Sheep, sore heads, ointment

for 251

rxaz.
Sheep, sore nipples in. .... 212
Sheep skins, to cure with

the wool on 434

Sheep skins, to prepare for

mats. ...... 432

Sheep, smearing mixture

for scabs .............. 251

Sheep, strengthening drink 250
Sheep, stretches .......... 221

Sheep, sturdy....... . 2031

Sheep, ticks on 219I

Sheep, tonic drink 250

Sheep, tonic drink, for de-
bility 251

Sheep, water in the head.. 203

Sheep, water, red, in 202

Sheep, what to purchase. . . 228

Sheep, winter, to fatten 226

Sheep, womb displaced. 199

Sheep, wounds in 223

Sheep, wounds, cleansing

of 224

Sheep, yellows in 205

Shelly foot in horse, how to

tell 23

Shelter for pigs 231

Shingles, measuring 423

Shoes, horse, loss of 39

Shoes, varnish for 443

Shoeing horses 135

Shoeing horse, pricks in... 119
Shoes of horses, removal of 39
Shoeing horses in winter .. 134

Shoulder, big, in horses 132

Shouldering horse 44

Shoulder lameness in horse 57
Shoulder of horse, how to

examine 20

Shying horse 42

Sick headache 341

Sick swine, how to manage 229

Sickness of stomach 346

Side-bone in horse 5 *

Side-line for the horse 1 22

Sight draft 458

Silver, nitrate of, antidote

for 330

Singeing horse 35

Sitfasts in horse 110

Sitters, poultry, good 256

Skeleton, horse, number of

bones of 48

Skins, buck, to tan .r 433

Skins, deer, to dress 410

Skins, fur, to tan 433

Skins, muskrat, tanning

with the fur on 434

Skins, small, to tan 434

Skins, rabbit, to cure 434

Skins, small, stretching and

curing 432

Skins, sheep, to cure with

the wool on 434

Skins, sheep, to prepare for

mats 432

Skins, to tan with the hair

on 435

Skylights, measuring 422

Slater's and tiler's work,

measurement 412

Sleepy staggers in horse. .. 105

6o2

CONTENTS.

PAOK.

Slimy flux in cattle 155

Slinking calves, cows ...... 161

Slugs, to destroy 552

Slug, pear 377, 54*

Slug, rose... 377

Slug or snail............. 368

Slugs in wheat .... . 560

Slug worms. ........ . 377

Small fruits, preserving

without cooking 297

Small skins, to tan... 434

Smearing mixture for scabs

in sheep..... 251

Smoked hams, to keep 286

Smoke tree beetle ......... 406

Smut in onion 538

Smut in wheat ........... 552

Snails, to destroy ..... 552

Snail, or slug 368

Snails, lettuce, to protect

from 535

Snakes, bites of 318

Snakes, bites, embrocation

for, in cattle 249

Snowballing in horse, to

prevent 119

Soap, hard, to make ...... 290

Soup, resin, to make...... 290

Soap, soft, to make ... 290

Soap, yellow, to make 290

Soft corns... 335

Soft shell eggs 273

Soft soap, to make r. 290

Soften the hands 341

Solution of blue vitriol,

horse, use of 244

Solution of tin, antidote for 331
Solution of nitrate of silver,

horse, use of 243

Solvent corns ............ 335

Sore ears in dogs......... 277

Sore ears in swine........ 238

Sore feet in dogs .... ..... 277

Sore head, sheep......... 215

Sore heads in sheep, oint-
ment for . .... 251

Sore heels, horse, astringent

ointment for 242

Sorelips 343

Sore mouth in cattle ... 154

Sore nipples in sheep ..... 212
Sore nipples, ointment for . 344

Sore teats in cow 160

Sore teats in cattle, oint-

mentfor 248

Sore throat, how to cure. . . 349
Sore throat in dogs ....... 277

Sore throat, horse ........ 70

Sore throat in horse, remedy

for 88

Sore throat liniment. ...... 343

Sores, fever...... ........ 339

Soreness of the feet of

swine 236

Sorghum, culture of.... — 552
Sorrel, to remove.... ..... 552

Sows, farrow, time to 230

Sows, time to farrow.... .. 230

Sows near farrowing, treat-
ment of. 239

Sow, gestation in 229

PACK.

Sow, gestation in 230

Spangled peach worm 393

Spanish fly, antidote for 328

Spasm of the diaphragm in

horse 86

Spasmodic colic in horse. . . 94
Spavins, blister sweating for

horse 243

Spavin in horse 51

Spavin in horse, how to tell 25
Spavin, horse, sweating

blister for 243

Spearsman, ten-lined 380

Spine poultice..-- 345

Spider, garden, to destroy. 508

Spider, red 369

Spinach, culture of 552

Spine, horse, diseases of,

how to tell 25

Splints in horse, how to ex-
amine ..... 21

Spirits of salts, antidote for 326

Sprains 332

Sprains in dogs 277

Sprained ankle 333

Spotted pelidnota 389

Splints, blister sweating for

horse 243

Splint, horse.... 50

Splints, horse, sweating

blister for. .......... 243

Splint on mule 142

Splints, sheep, use of.. 224

Spring canker worm 399

Squash bug.. 384

Squash, culture of 552

Stable, arrangement of 445

Stables, horse, to deodorize 144
Stable, horse, treatment of. 39

Stables for horses I43

Stacks, corn, mice in. . 505

Staggers, blind, in swine . . 238

Staggers, cattle 154

Staggers, mad, in horse .. . 101
Staggers, laxative for, in

horse.... 242

Staggers in lambs 202

Staggers, sleepy, in horse. . 105
Staggers, stomach, in horse 89
Stains, hands, to remove. . . 341

Staircases, measuring 422

Stalk, potato, borer 360

Stalk, potato, weevil 360

Stalk, tomato, borer. ...... 360

Steamingfood. ........... 521

Steel blue beetle 387

Stiffened joints ....... 343

Stifle diseases in horse .... 25

Stifle, horse, strain of 67

Stimulating astringent for

cattle 248

Stimulating drink for cattle. 247
Stimulating drink for cattle. 248
Stimulating drink, warm,

for cattle 248

Stimulants, horse 246

Stings of bees 332

Stings and bites of insects. . 318
Stings of hornets, cattle. . 184

Stings of insects, horse III

Stings of wasps 332

FAOE.

Sting of wasps, cattle 184

Stock laws.. 475

Stock, laws, Maine 475

Stock laws, New Hampshire 475

Stock laws, Vermont 475

Stock laws, Massachusetts. 475
Stock laws, Rhode Island. . 476
Stock laws, Connecticut . . . 476

Stock laws, New York 477

Stock laws, New Jersey. . . 477
Stock laws, Pennsylvania. . 477

Stock laws, Delaware 477

Stock laws, Maryland 477

Stock laws, Virginia 478

Stock laws, North Carolina 478
Stock laws, South Carolina. 478

Stock laws, Georgia 478

Stock laws, Florida 478

Stock laws, Alabama . . 478

Stock laws, Mississippi 478

Stock laws, Texas 479

Stock laws, Arkansas 479

Stock laws, Tennessee 479

Stock laws, West Virginia . 479

Stock laws, Kentucky 479

Stock laws, Missouri 480

Stock laws, Illinois 480-

Stock laws, Indiana. 480

Stock laws, Ohio 481

Stock laws, Michigan 481

Stock laws, Wisconsin 482-

Stock laws, Minnesota 482

Stock laws, Iowa 482

Stock laws, Kansas 483

Stock laws, Nebraska 483

Stock laws, Oregon 483

Stock laws, California 483

Stomach, bleeding of the .. 346
Stomach, bleeding from the 319
Stomach, horse, inflamma-
tion of 89

Stomach, poultry, inflamma-
tion of...... .... 265

Stomach, sickness of 346

Stomach, small, in horse . . 13
Stomach staggers in horse . 89

Stomachics, nor se 246

Stomachic laxative balls for

washy horses 242

Stone blue, antidote for.. .. 328

Stone bruises in horse 54

Storing eggs...... 281

Storing potatoes 289

Stoves, to mend cracks in.. 414
Stoves, varnish for ........ 442

Strains of hip-joint in horse 67
Strain of the back of horse . 63
Strain of back sinews in

horse .... 65

Strains, cattle 187

Strain of coffin joint in horse 65
Strains, cattle, embrocation

for 249

Strains, embrocation for, in

cattle 249

Strain of fetlock in horse. . . 65

Strain, hock, in horse 67

Strains of horse 63

Strain of knees of horse ... 64
Strains, old, charge for, in
cattle 249

CONTENTS

60 $.

PAGE .

Strain of the loins in horse. 63
Strain of the shoulder in

horse 64

Strains, stifle, in horse 67

Strain of suspensory liga-
ments in horse 65

Stramonium, antidote for .. 331
Strangles in horse, remedy

for 88

Strangulation in horse 96

Strawberries, canning 284

Strawberries, culture of 517

Strawberry leaf roller 368

Strawberries, preserved . . . 302

Straw hats, varnish for . 442

Stray, not redeemed, notice

of sale 468

Stray, notice of town clerk. 465
Strengthening drink for

sheep 250

Strengthening lotion for eye

in cattle 249

Strengthening plaster 345

Stretches, sheep 221

Stretching and curing small

skins 432

String halt in horse. ...... 105

Striped blister beetle 362

Strong tonic for cattle 249

Strychnine, antidote for.... 331

Stubborn horse 45

Stumbling horse, how fo

tell 19

Stumbling horse, remedy

for 44

Stumps, to remove 553

Sturdy sheep 203

Stye, cure for 339

Styptics, horse 247

Sublimate, corrosive, anti-
dote for 329

Suckers in apple trees 490

Suet, to keep 292

Suffocation 332

Suffocation from gases. . 332

Sugar of lead, antidote for.. 329

Sugar, maple, to make 537

Sugar, powdered, white,

horse, use of 243

Sulphate of copper, horse,

use of 243

Sulphate of zinc, antidote

for 331

Sulphur ointment 344

Sulphur purging drink for

cattle 247

Sulphur for swine 229

Sulphuric acid, antidote for. 326
Sumach beetle, jumping... 406

Summer care of pigs 23 1

Sunburn and tan.... 346

Sunday contracts 487

Sun stroke 332

Superphosphate for swine . 229
Suspensory lijaments,horse,

strain of the 65

Surfeit in horse 108

Swarming of bees, drones.. 314
Swarming of bees, artificial

vs. natural 310

Sweating blister for horse. . 243

PAGE.

Sweating embrocation for

windgall in horse . 245

Sweating embrocation for

horse.... 245

Sweet potatoes, to keep.... 290

Swarming of bees 311

Swarming bees, to prevent 309

Sweet pickles 296

Swarming bees, artificial... 311
Sweet cider, how to keep.. 281

Sweet lard, to keep . 286

Sweet potatoes, culture of.. 547
Sweet potatoes, in bulk, to

keep 290

Swelling, white 349

Sweat, to produce 346

Swelled legs in horses Ill

Sweeny in horse 133

Sweet herbs, to cultivate. . . 490
Swelled bowels in children. 334
Swimming in the head in

cattle 154

Swine 229

Swine, age to breed 230

Swine, alterative powder

for 251

Swine, apoplexy 235

Swine, ashes for 229

Swine, black-teeth in 234

Swine, bleeding of 237

Swine, bleeding 234

Swine, blind staggers 238

Swine, brain, Inflammation

of the 235

Swine, bone-dust for 229

Swine, breeds 230

Swine, breed, age to...... 230

Swine breeding 230

Swine, catarrh in 238

Swine, charcoal for 229

Swine, choking 234

Swine, cholera 234

Swine, colic in 233

Swine, costiveness 238

Swine, crossing of 230

Swine, debility, general .. . 233

Swine, diarrhcea in 238

Swine, dropsy in 238

Swine, ears sore in 238

Swine, emaciation ........ 233

Swine, epilepsy .......... 233

Swine, epizoot. in 74

Swine, eruptions, red in 238

Swine, feet, soreness of the 236
Swine, fever, medicines for 251

Swine, fits 233

Swine, frenzy in.......... 230

Swine — See Hogs.

Swine, inflammation of the

brain 231

Swine, inflammation of the

lungs.... 237

Swine, itch in 238

Swine, i aundice in 239

Swine, kidney worms in 238

Swine, lice on 233

Swine, lice, how to destroy 229
Swine, lungs, inflammation

of the 237

Swine, mange in 235

Swine, measles 235

PAGE.

Swine, medicines, fever, for 251

Swine, ophthalmia 233.

Swine — See Pigs.

Swinepigging 236*

Swine, powder, alterative,

for 251

Swine, preventives 238

Swine, quinsy 236

Swine, red eruptions in ... . 238
Swine, rot, tails of young

pigs 234

Swine, rheumatism 233

Swine, salt for 229

Swine, sick, how to manage 229

Swine, sore ears 238

Swine, soreness of the feet. 236
Swine, staggers, blind, in.. 238
Swine, superphosphate for. 229

Swine, sulphur for 229

Swine, tails of young pigs,

rot 234

Swine, teeth, black in 234

Swine, trichinae 234

Swine, vermin on , 233

Swine, worms, kidney in . . 238
Synovial membrane, horse,

diseases of 61

Synovial membrane, acute-
inflammation of, in horse 61
Syrup, hive, Coxe's 341

Tallow, to clarify 292

Tallow, to harden 292

Taming horse 138

Tan, to remove 347

Tan and sunburn 34&

Tanning buckskins . 433

Tanning fur skins 443

Tanning leather 434

Tanning muskrat skins with

the fur on 434

Tanning skins with the hair

on 435

Tanning small skins 434

Tar varnish 443

Tartar emetic, antidote for. 327
Tartaric acid, antidote for.. 327
Teats, sore, in cattle, oint-
ment for 248

Teats, sore, in cows 1 60

Teeth, black, in swine 234

Teeth, care of 347

Teeth and gums, wash for. 347

Teething 346

Tendon, horses, diseases of 60

Ten-lined spearsman 380

Tent caterpillar, apple tree. 394
Tent caterpillar of the forest 392

Tetanus in horse 10^

Tetter 347

Thick-winded horse, how to

tell 19.

Thorn apple, antidote for.. 331

Thoroughpin in horse ot

Thoroughpin in horse, how

to tell 25

Three-lined leaf beetle 362

Thripe 387

Throat, cattle, inflammation

of the 182

Throat, foreign bodies in . . 332

604

CONTENTS.

PASS.

Throat, horse, diseases of
the 87

Throat, sore, in dogs 277

Throat, sore, how to cure.. 349

Throat, sore, in horse 70

Throat, sore, horse, remedy

for 88

Throat, sore, liniment 343

Thoracic organs in horse
and their appendages, dis-
eases of the — . 70

Thrush, cattle 158

Thrush in horse 54

Thrush, horse, how to tell. 24
Thrush, horse, how to pre-
vent 38

Ticks on sheep 219

Tiler's and slater's work,

measurement of. 412

Timber, measuring 418

Timber, measuring in the

tree 414

Tin, antidote for 331

Tin, chloride of, antidote for 33 1
Tin, oxide of, antidote for. 331
Tin, solution of, antidote for 331

Tobacco, antidote for 331

Tobacco, assorting 556

Tobacco, coat-curing of 556

Tobacco, culture of 554

Tobacco, curing of 557

Tobacco, cutting of 556

Tobacco hawk-moth. . 387

Tobacco horn-blower 387

Tobacco hornworn 556

Tobacco, housed. 558

Tobacco, prized 558

Tobacco, stripping.- 558

Tobacco, suckers on 556

Tobacco, topping 55^

Tobacco, transplanting 556

Tobacco worm 387 556

Tomatoes, canning 284 292

Tomato catsup 292

Tomatoes, culture of 553

Tomatoes, green, pickled.. 297

Tomatoes, pickled ... 297

Tomato plants, to raise 559

Tomato or potato worm 361

Tomatoes, preserved 303

Tomato stalk borer 360

Tomato worm 387 390

Tonic ball for horses 247

Tonic drink for cattle. ..247 248
Tonic drink, debility, for

sheep 251

Tonic drink, general, for

sheep 250

Tonic drink for murrain in

cattle 249

Tonic drink for sheep 250

Tonics for horses 247

Tonic powders for cattte,

alterative 250

Tonic, strong, for cattle ... 249

Tongue, black, in cattle 158

Tongue, horse, lolling of.. 132
Tongue, sore, of horses, to

cure 132

Tooth powders .. 348

Toothache remedies 348

PAGE.

Town clerk, stray notice . . . 465
Trachea, cattle, inflamma-
tion of. 180

Training horses .......... 136

Training apple trees .... 515

Training pear frees 515

Transfer varnish 443

Transparent green varnish. 443

Transplanting at night 553

Trees, apple blight, to pre-
serve from 489

Trees, apple, canker in, to 399

cure the 489

Trees, apple, old, to reno-
vate 489

Trees, apple suckers. 490

Trees, apple, treatment of. 489
Trees, canker in, to cure..

Tree cricket 367

Tree, elm beetle 364

Trees, fruit, moss on, to

destroy 521

Trees, fruit, ants to keep

from 521

Trees, fruit, mice and insects

to keep from 521

Trees, fruit, blight on 521

Trees, fruit, blossoms in... 521
Trees, fruit, amputated
branches and wounds,

coating for 521

Trees, fruit, overbearing... 522

Trees, measuring the height 413

Trees, measuring timber in. 414

Trees, oak 553

Trees, peach, management

of 539

Trees, peach, mildew on. . . 540

Trees, peach, to save 540

Trees, pear, blight in 546

Trees, pear, mulching 543

Trees, pear, planting 542

Trees, peer, pruning 543

Trees, pear, frozen blight . . 546

Trees, pear, winter blight.. 546

Trees, pear, leaf blight 546

Trees, pear, summer blight 546

Trees, rose, blight on . . 551

Trevis or break for horse.. 122

Trichinae 234

Trick of dealers in horses . . 45

Trimming horse 35

Trot, horse, learning to 136

Trotting horse, to judge by 19

True red water in cattle — 157

Trumpeting in horse 81

Tumors, horse, how to ex-
amine for 20

Tumors, small on horse 61

Turkeys, charcoal for 272

Turkey chicks, chill in 272

Turkey chicks, paste for

weak 272

Turkeys, feeding 271

Turkeys, to rear 271

Turnip, culture of 559

Turnip flea beetle .... 395

Turnip fly 385

Turpentine drink, cattle, for

worm 247

Turpentine varnish 443

PAGE.

Tussock moth, white mark. 369
Twig borer, apple ........ 407

Twig borer, cherry 407

Twig borer, grape-vine . 407

Twig borer, hickory 407

Twig borer, pear. 407

Twig girdler 408

Twitch for the horse 122

Typhoid fever in horses ... 120
Type, gallaecola or gall-in-
habiting. 402

Type, radicicola or root-in-
habiting 404

Udder, downfall of the, in
cows. 159

Ulcers, cancerous, in caltle. 188
Ulcer in elm trees, to cure. 510
Ulcer on eye-lid of cattle. . . 1 77
Ulcers, foul, lotion for in

horses 24b

Ulcers in poultry 266

Ulceration or caries in horse 48
Ulceration in eye of cattle. . 1 78

Unnerving, horse 129

Unsound, horse when 1 34

Urinary obstruction 349

Urinary passages, cattle,

stone in the 147

Urine, free passage of 349

Urine, horses, retention of 100
Urine, scalding of the 349

Varicose veins, bleeding

from 319

Varnish, amber 435

Varnish, amber black 435

Varnish, amber pale 436

Varnish for basket ware 437

Varnish, black 436

Varnish, black, for harness 441
Varnish, black, for iron

work 436

Varnish brushes, care of. . . 435

Varnish for cardwork 43 7

Varnish, Chinese 43 7

Varnish for chromos 438

Varnish, coachmaker's . 437

Varnish, colorless 43 7

Varnish, copal 439

Varnish, copal blue 437

Varnish, copal, to dissolve

in alcohol 438

Varnish, copal, to dissolve

in spirits of turpentine 438

Varnish, crystal 438

Varnish, dammar 440

Varnish for engravings 440

Varnish for engraving on

glass 440

Varnish, engraver's stop-
ping-out 440

Varnish, etching 440

Varnish for xrames of hot-
beds 440

Varnish, furniture 440

Varnish, glass 441

Varnish, gold 440

Varnish, green copal 441

Varnish, ground glass, to
imitate.......... 441

CONTENTS.

Cog;

PASS.

Varnish, gutta«percha 442

Varnish, hair............. 442

Varnish for harness....... 441

Varnish for India rubber.. 441
Varnish for iron.......... 442

Varnish, Japan black.. .... 442

Varnish, mahogany....... 442

Varnish for maps......... 438

Varnish for maps 440

Varnish, oak — 442

Varnish for oil paintings... 442

Varnish for paintings . . . 438

Varnish, pale carriage 437

Varnish for paintings 442

Varnish, pearl grey copal. .441

Varnish for pictures 442

Varnish, purple copal 443

Varnish, red copal 442

Varnish for shoes 443

Varnish for stoves 442

Varnish for straw hats 442

Varnish, tar 443

Varnish, transfer 443

Varnish, transparent green. 443

Varnish, turpentine 443

Varnish, violet copal 443

Varnish for water-color

drawings 443

Varnish for water-proof
goods ................. 441

Varnish, to make white co-

pal. 443

Varnish, yellow copal 443

Varnish, caution in making 435

Varnishing furniture 410

Vaults, measuring 418

Vegetable acid, antidote for 327

Vegetables, keeping 292

Veins, horse, inflammation

of. 125

Veins, varicose, bleeding

from 319

Verdigris, horse, use of — 243
Verdigris on pickles or food
cooked in foul copper ves-
sels, antidote for........ 328

Venereal complaints 349

Vermifuges, horse........ 247

Vermillion, Chinese, anti-
dote for. .. 329

Vermillion, English, anti-

dotefor.... 329

Vermin in cattle 166

Vermin, cattle, lotion for.. 250
Vermin, cattle, mercurial

ointment for 250

Vermin in dogs. 278

Vermin, how to destroy in

hen-roosts 270

Vermin on poultry 264 268

Vermin, to clean poultry

houses of 256

Vermin on swine 233

Vesicants for horses...... 243

Vermin in water 353

Vertigo in poultry 258

Vicious horse, to tie 45

Vine, grape, Fidia 366

Vine, grape, Hume .......367

Vinegar, sweetened by lead,
antidote for...... ...... 329

PAGE .

Vinegar, cider 293

Vitriol, blue, antidote for.. 328
Vitriol, blue, solution of,

horse, use of. 244

Vitriol, oil of, antidote for.. 326
Vitriol, white, antidote for. 331
Vives in horses. 88

Wagons, to grease 560

Waiver of exemption 464

Walks and roads, construc-
tion of. 447

Walks and roads, laying out 446
Walking horse, to judge by 18

Walnuts, pickled 295

Walnuts, preserved 303

Warbles in cattle 166

Warbles in horse... ... no

Warm drink, stimulant for

cattle 248

Warm stimulant drink for

cattle 248

Warranty deed....... 462

Warts, to cure 348

Warts, cattle, on eyelids... 177

Warts on horses 113

Warts on nose of horse .... 134
Warts, oxen, on eyelids... 177
Washing, preparation for.. 576
Wash, arsenical, for lice in

sheep 351

Wash for hair - 341

Wash, mercurial, for lice in 251
Wash for teeth and gums.. 347

Washes for horses - . 246

Washy horses, stomachic

laxative balls for 242

Wasps, cattle, sting of.... 184

Wasps, sting of 332

Water, black, in cattle 158

Water in cavity of chest of

horse 85

Water farcin in horse 134

Water-color drawings, var-

nishfor.... 443

Water in the head, sheep.. 200

Water for horses 135

Water, lakes 451

Water laurel, antidote for.. 327
Water, rain, to keep sweet. 289

Water, red, in cattle 156

Water, red, in sheep .. 202

Water, true red, in cattle.. 157

Water, vermin in 353

Watermelons, large. ...... 560

Water-proof goods, varnish

for 441

Wax for canning fruit. 444

Wax, ear, hardened, to re-
move 325

Wax, grafting 508

Wax, grafting, liquid 5°8

Wax worm or bee moth.. . 309
Weak foot in horse, how to

tell 24

Weaning foal in mare, and

after treatment of the 3 1

Weaving in horse 42

Webb worm, fall. 392

Weeds, cows. . ....... 160

Weeping eyes 339

PAOX.

Weevil, bean 386-

Weevil, New York. 374

Weevil, pea 382

Weevil, plum 372

Weevil, potato stalk 360-

Weights for windows ...... 43 1

Wen, horse, to cure 134

Western locust 378

Western potato bug 380

Wheat, mildew in, to pre-
vent 56°

Wheat, rust in, to prevent. . 560

Wheat, seed, to select. 551

Wheat, smut in 552

Wheat, slugs in, to destroy 560

Whey, alum, for cattle 248

Wheezer, horse, how to tell 19

Wheezing in horse 81

White comb in poultry.... 264
White copal varnish, to

make 443

White grub 368

White grub 371

White-marked tussock moth 369

White swelling. 349

White vitriol, antidote for.. 331

Whiten the hands 342

Whiten nails 344

Whistler, horse, how to

tell 19.

Whistling in horse, remedy

for 76.

Whitening, measuring...... 419.

Whooping cough 349

Wills, common form ... 468

Will, codicil to a 468^

Will, devise of an estate for
life, in lieu of dower, re-
mainder to his children.. 469'
Will, guardian, appointment

of 469

Will, power of executors to

convey real estate 469

Will, proviso that sums ad-
vanced to children shall
be taken as part of por-
tion 469

Wind, broken, in horse .... 85
Wind, in horse, to improve 134

Wind, thick, in horse 80

Windgalls in horse 62

Windgalis, sweating embro-
cation in horse 245

Windows, lines for. ....... 43 1

Windows, weights for 431

Wine, antimonial, antidote

for 327-

Wine, apple. . . .. 305

Wine, apricot 305

Wine, blackberry ..... 305

Wine, currant. ........... 306

Wine, gooseberry. ........ 306

Wine, grape. .. 306

Wine, sweetened by lead,

antidote for 329

Winter, beans to keep fresh

in 280

Winter butter 501

Winter care of pigs 23 1

Winter, how to make hens
lay in 271

€o6

CONTENTS.

s

PAOK.

Winter, to fatten sheep for- 226
'Winter, meat, to keep fresh

in 287

Winter, poultry, to preserve

in 258

Winter, shoeing horses in. . 134

Wintering bees 313

Wire worm 368 560

Withers, fistula of the, in

horse 57

Wolf bane, antidote for.... 327

Wood, cement for 409

Womb, displaced in sheep. 199

Wood-work, measuring. 420

Wood, agreement to sell

and deliver 462

Woodash lye, antidote for.. 327

Woorara, antidote for 332

Working butter. 501

Working preparation 5 76

Workman s lien 467

Worm, apple or codling

moth 357

Worm, bag 369

Worm, ball, for horse 241

Worm, basket 369

Worm, bean 390

Worm, blue spangled peach 393

Worm, ball 390

Worms, canker 399

Worms in cattle 149

Worms, cattle, turpentine

drink for 247

Worms in children 349

Worm, clover hay 400

Worm, corn 390

Worm, corn seed.... .... . 370

Worm, cotton army 375

fa ex.

Worm, currant.... 374

Worm, cut 358

Worms in dogs. 276

Worms, drench, mild, in

horse 241

Worms, dried fruit, to pro-
tect from 284

Worm, drop............. 369

Worm, elm tree 364

Worm, fall army 394

Worm, fall canker 399

Worm, fall web. 392

Worm, gooseberry ........ 395

Worm, grass or army 379

Worm, hemp 390

Worms in horses 96

Worm, horse, mild drench

for 241

Worm, kidney, in swine 238

Worm, medicine, horse . 247

Worm, poplar pyramidal.. 385

Worm, potato 387

Worm, potato or tomato 361

Worm, pumpkins 390

Worm, pyramidal grape-
vine 385

Worm, raspberry pyramidal 385
Worm, red bud pyramidal. 385

Worm, red pepper 387

Worm, slug 377

Worm, spring canker 399

Worm, tobacco 387

Worm, tomato 387 390

Worm, tomato or potato. .. 361

Worm, wire 368 560

Wounds 349

Wounds in belly of cattle . . 185
Wounds, bleeding of 319

PAOK

Wounds, cattle 184

Wounds in cattle, treatment
of.... 186

Wounds, cavity of the chest,

in cattle.. 185

Wounds in dogs 277

Wounds in feet of cattle.. . 185

Wounds, gun-shot 320

Wounds of joints in horses 69
Wounds of knees in horses 69

Wounds of poultry 266

Wounds in sheep 223

Wounds in sheep, cleansing
ofU.., 224

Yeast cakes 292

Yeast, to keep 292

Yeast, preserved 292

Yellow bean, common 383

Yellows, cattle, drink for.. 247

Yellow copal varnish 443

Yellow dye, aniline 565

Yellows or jaundice in cattle 152
Yellow orpiment, horse,

use of 243

Yellows, peach 539

Yellows in sheep 205

Yellow soap, to make 290

Yoke, ox, how to make 433

Young pigs, rot of tails 234

Zinc, acetate of, antidote for 331

Zinc, antidote for 33 1

Zinc, chloride of, horse, use

of 244

Zinc, oxide of, antidote for. 331
Zinc, sulphate of, antidote

for 331

'•'

AGENTS WANTED.

Young Men, Clerks, Merchants, Mechanics, Farmers and every Household should

examine this book. They can gain information in a few weeks that

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Foundations of Success & Laws ofTrafle

By DANIEL R. SHAFER, A. M.,

Author of "■100,000 Facts for the People," " Cyclopadia of Things Worth

Knowing" Etc.

This work differs in many important respects from all books on the subject of
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Jgp'Choosing a Business — Rules for Conducting and Success in Business — Ship-
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CURRENT AND IMPORTANT EVENTS.

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