IRLF

THE

HOUSE SPARROW

AT

HOME AND ABROAD,

WITH SOME

CONCLUDING REMARKS UPON ITS USEFULNESS,

AND

COPIOUS REFERENCES TO THE LITERATURE OF THE SUBJECT

BY

THOMAS G. GENTRY,

AUTHOR OF LIFE-HISTORIES OF BIRDS OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA,

MEMBER OF THE PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES,

AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF NUTTALL ORNITHOLOGICAL

CLUB, DAVENPORT ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES,

AND CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

PHILADELPHIA:
CLAXTON, REMSEN, AND H AFFELF INGER.

1878.

Lib.

Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the j'ear 1878, by

THOMAS G . GENTRY,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved.

PHILADELPHIA :
COLLINS, PRINTER,

705 Jayne Street.

PREFACE.

Ix offering this little volume to tlie public, the author feels
confident that it will meet with a cordial reception from those
who have neither the leisure nor the patience to make such
investigations as a work like the present requires. In view
of the many heated discussions which the sparrow has produced
in this country, tending to show its general usefulness, or whole-
sale destructiveness, a careful and critical survey of its life-his-
tory, detailing the minutest particulars thereof, cannot fail to
awaken attention and to command respect. A desire to know
the subject in all its bearings, must certainly be of paramount
importance. Agriculturists and fruit-growers, mainly of all
others, will certainly reap the first fruits of such knowledge.
The facts, which the writer has gleaned from various fields of
observation, but largely from his own, at infinite pains and
expense, subserve, in the highest degree, the interests of humanity,
and should not be carelessly set aside or lightly considered.

With the disappearance of our highly insectivorous native
species before the rapid and insolent advances of their hardy
foreign brother, and the consequent multiplication of insect
foes, must come the destruction of vegetation and the entail-
ment of untold misery upon man and beast. The sparrow itself,
by reason of its almost exclusive grain-eating habits, will

268446

VI PREFACE.

assist in bringing about this much-to-be-regretted condition of
things. He must be a fool who can close his eyes to the fact.
Wherever we turn, evidence of its baneful influence confronts
our vision. We cannot escape it. Can it be said, therefore,
that a history of this bane of our avi-fauna, and curse of man,
is labor bestowed upon a worthless object, is time sacrificed for
nothing? I know it will be affirmed by some, even if it has not
been already, that the sparrow is not deserving of the attention
bestowed upon it. In reply the writer would say that his only
plea for writing its history is that a more general knowledge of
its odious practices, which are manifold, shall be brought before
the masses, particularly that class of hard-working men, the
tillers of the soil, and the growers of vegetables, upon whom the
professional man and the brawny mechanic depend for many of
the essential articles of life. Further, to awaken attention to
the groAving evil, in the confident expectation that it may be in-
strumental in the adoption of practicable means for getting rid of
the intolerable nuisance.

With the hope that this little book may accomplish the object
for which it is designed, and be instrumental in the production
of much invaluable good, the author sends it forth upon its mis-
sion of kindness and mercy, with his best wishes for its success.

THOMAS G. GENTRY.

GERMANTOWN, Dec. 6, 1877,
55 Sharpnack Street.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION .... 9

The SPARROW in EUROPE ...... 14

The SPARROW in AMERICA 33

EVIDENCE, both POSITIVE and NEGATIVE, of the

SPARROW'S USEFULNESS in AMERICA ... 74

CONCLUDING REMARKS 96

APPENDIX . 113

THE HOUSE SPARROW.

INTRODUCTION.

IN commencing the history of the European House
Sparrow, which I have selected for the title of a work,
it cannot be considered out of place to introduce the
subject by a few remarks upon its position in a system
of classification. "What I shall have to say under this
head will be mainly derived from the investigations and
studies of Dr. Coues. According to that author, the
subject under consideration must be referred to

SUBCLASS I. — AVES AEREJE3, or Insessores, Aerial Birds,
or Perchers.

Of the three primary divisions constituting the class
Aves, the foregoing ranks as first in importance, and
highest in position. It embraces all existing species of
birds down to the Gallince, or gallinaceous birds. A
full definition of its external characters, in a work like
the present, would be entirely unnecessary. Suffice it to
say that, with rare exceptions, the toes occupy the same
plane, and touch the same support throughout, thus
adapting them for grasping, or perching. The members
of this extensive group are now generally placed \ujive
orders, of which the first is the
2

10 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

ORDER Passeres. Perchers proper.

The low insertion of the hind toe and its length ; its
great power of opposibility to the front toes ; and the
superior mobility of the same, which is secured by the
separation of its principal muscle from that which
flexes the other toes collectively, perfectly adapt the feet
for grasping. The hind toe is always present, and is
never directed anteriorly, or laterally. The feet are
never zy god actyl,esynclactyle, nor semipal mate, although
the anterior toes, for a part or the entire length of the
hasal joints, are usually immovably joined to each other.
For further particulars, the reader should examine some
standard work upon classification.

The species belonging to this order are the typical
Insessores, and represent the highest grade of develop-
ment, as well as the most complex of the class. They
possess high physical irritability, the result of a rapid
respiration and circulation ; of all birds, they consume
the most oxygen, and live the fastest.

The Passeres comprise the great majority of birds.
They are separated into two groups, ordinarily desig-
nated suborders, from the structure of the inferior larynx.
In one, this organ is a complicated muscular vocal appa-
ratus; while in the other, it is less developed, rudimen-
tary, or lacking.

Suborder OSCINES. Singing Birds.
Tlie above constitutes the higher of the two suborders

O

previously referred to ; comprising species, which possess
a more or less complicated vocal apparatus, consisting of
five sets of muscles ; but many of them are unable to

INTRODUCTION. 11

sing. Ornithologists are not agreed as to which of the
numerous Oscine families should occupy the head of the
series; hut Dr. Coues inclines to the opinion that some
member of this family with the possession of nine pri-
maries— as the finches or tanagers — will eventually as-
sume the leading place. The Turdidce, or Thrushes,
in accordance with usage, occupy this position.

Family FRINGILLID^E. Finches, etc.

The FringillidcB are the most extensive group in orni-
thology, representing, in round numbers, 500 current
species in about 100 genera. This family represents
more particularly what used to be designated " coniros-
tral" birds. The bill of these birds approaches nearest
to the ideal cone, and unites great strength with deli-
cacy of touch.

The cone is sometimes nearly expressed, but fre-
quently turgid and conoidal ; convex in most directions,
and so constructed as to become concave in some of its
outlines. The nostrils are usually exposed, but in many
northern genera the base of the bill is furnished with a
ruff and two tufts of antrorse feathers, which more or
less conceal the opening ; the cutting edges of bill are
slightly notched, but otherwise plain ; a few inconspicu-
ous bristles about rictus; ordinarily, somewhat lacking ;
in some, highly developed. The wings are composed of
nine developed primaries, variable in size; the tail is
variable, but always composed of twelve rectrices ; feet
scutellate in front, and covered on side with an un-
divided plate, which produces a sharp ridge posteriorly.

The most tangible character of this group is the an-
gulation of the commissure ; this character runs in a

12 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

straight line, or with slight curvature to or near the
base of the bill, and then bends abruptly downward at
varying angles. The cutting edge of the upper mandible
forms a re-entrance; lower, a corresponding salience.
This character separates the group pretty sharply from
other Oscines, excepting the Ictcriidce.

All the species of the United States may be provision-
ally separated into four subfamilies, the European house
sparrow constituting a fifth. These are the following :
Coccothraustince, Pyrgitince, Spizellince, Passer ellince, and
Spizince.

Subfamily PYRGITIN^E.

This group is characterized by the following particu-
lars : bill robust, turgid, and arched superiorly, but with-
out distinct ridge. The lower mandible, at the basal part,
is narrower than the upper. The nostrils are covered,
and the side of the maxilla furnished with appressed
bristles. The tarsi are short, and never exceed the
middle toe in length. The tail is shorter than the
slightly pointed wings.

In some respects, the PyrgilinM are similar to the Coc-
cothraustince. In the short tarsi and covered nostrils,
shorter and more rounded wings, and in the presence of
stiff bristles upon the sides of the bill, they resemble
this group. But the weaker feet, larger and more
vaulted bill, and covered nostrils, are characters which
distinguish them from the Spizellince.

Genus PYRGITA, Cuvier.

Gen. Char. Bill robust, turgid, and devoid of distinct
ridge; superior and inferior outlines curved; margins

INTRODUCTION. 13

inflexed ; palate vaulted and without knob ; nostrils
concealed by sparse, short, incumbent feathers; sides of
bill provided with stiff, appressed bristles. Tarsi short
and stout, and never exceeding middle toes ; claws short,
stout, and much curved. Wings somewhat pointed, and
longer than the tail, which is nearly even, emarginated,
and but moderately rounded.

Pyrgita domestica, Cuv. The House Sparrow.

8p. Char. Male: Upper parts chestnut-brown; summit
of caput and nape, lower back, rump and tail coverts
cinereous ; interscapular feathers, on inner webs, streaked
with black ; chin, throat, lores, and narrow frontal line
black; residue of inferior parts grayish, passing into
white along the middle region. Behind the eye, run-
ning into the chestnut of the back, is a broad concolorous
band ; cheeks and lateral walls of neck white. Exterior
of closed wings chestnut-brown, with the middle coverts
marked with a broad white band ; lesser coverts dark
chestnut. Tail dark brown, bordered with pale chest-
nut. Mandibles black ; feet reddish ; iris brown.

Female : Duller colored and wanting the black of
throat and face. Cheek cinereous; the eyes marked
above and posteriorly by a yellow-ochre band. A similar
colored band crosses the wings. Head and neck above
ashy, tinged with brown ; body superiorly, reddish cine-
reous, with longitudinal black streaks ; breast and ab-
domen reddish -ash.

Length, 6.00 ; wing, '2.84; tail, 2.50; tarsus, .70;
middle toe and claw, .60.

14

CHAPTER I.
THE SPARROW IN EUROPE.

THIS bird is quite common over the whole of the
United Kingdom, including the islands of Orkney and
Shetland. It is also found in Sweden, Norway, and
Denmark; thence extending southward through Prus-

' O c_5

sia, France, Spain, and Portugal, to Northern Africa,
and eastward to Italy and Dalmatia. It is mostly re-
stricted to the European Continent and the adjoining
islands, although specimens have been obtained from
Trebizond, the Nubian Mountains, the Himalaya Moun-
tains, and other parts of India. Since the colonization
of Australia by the English, these birds have been intro-
duced, and are increasing rapidly in numbers, to the
great detriment of native species.

This noisy, familiar, impatient bird is one of those
creatures that manifest a close attachment to man, and
follows him wherever he goes. Nothing seems to daunt
his spirit. In the midst of the crowded and tumultuous
city, among the queer sights and noises of the railroad
station, and in the more retired and peaceful shades of
the country farm, he is equally at home. He treats
with the same indifference the slow-paced wagon, the
rattling omnibuses and cabs, and the snorting engines.

Few species are more wary. Various devices in the
form of traps, etc., are often used to capture these birds,
but without much success. But at nights, when they

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 15

have repaired to their roosting-quarters in hay-stacks
and the common ivy, immense numbers are taken by
means of nets and bags suspended from long poles.
From their bold and obtrusive character, combined with
their exceedingly ravenous appetite, we should naturally
expect that these birds would become a ready prey to
the snares of the fowler. Perhaps, their remarkable
wariness may, in a measure, be attributed to the whole-
sale persecutions which they have met with at the hands
of man during the past.

Bewick, in his History of British Birds, in describing
the habits of this species, says, "It does not, like other
birds, shelter itself in woods and forests, or seek its
subsistence in uninhabited places, but is a resident in
towns and villages; it follows society and lives at its
expense; granaries, barns, courtyards, pigeon-houses,
and, in short, all places where grain is scattered, are its
favorite resorts."

According to the Count de Buffo n "it is extremely
destructive, its plumage is entirely useless, its flesh
indifferent food, its notes grating to the ear, and its
familiarity and petulance disgusting."

Mudie says the sparrows are "voracious, and withal
energetic birds," and "may be seen holding assemblies
with a deal of noise and clatter." Usually a dispute or
quarrel seems to be the cause of these gatherings. In
these troubles, the crowd which has been attracted
invariabty assists the strongest party. White, in his
History of Selborne, briefly alludes to these convocations,
and arrives at somewhat similar conclusions.

Yarrell contributes his testimony to the sparrow's
pugnacity. After alluding to the early mating of this
species, he says, " Like most of those birds which are

16 THE HOUSE SPAKROW.

very prolific, great animosity and numerous contests for
choice or possession occur at this season of the year."
In these battles, it is said by the above writer, " five or
six individuals may be seen indiscriminately engaged,
attacking, buffeting, and biting each other with all the
clamor and fury of excited rage." These contests, after
continuing for a longer or shorter period of time, are
eventually concluded on an amicable basis, the respective
combatants retiring from the struggle to attend to the
more essential business of the season.

From the foregoing evidence, it is obvious that much
of the character which the sparrow now possesses, was
brought with it from its trans- Atlantic home. That

<^>

this bird is jealous of strangers in its own native clime,
and behaves with an insolent bearing towards them,
and even bullies its own kindred when actuated by
amatory influences, is too palpable to be doubted, or
gainsaid. James Kirk, Esq., of German town, who
emigrated to this country several years ago, has re-
peatedly called my attention to the irritable nature and
pugnacious disposition of these birds, and remarked
how alike is their behavior in America as compared
with it in England. Others, no less competent to in-
stitute comparisons, have iterated and reiterated similar
experiences.

The general movements of this species are charac-
terized by marked vigilance, and a notable degree of
energy and vivacity. "When feeding, these birds are
always on the alert, and are seldom, if ever, taken by
surprise. They are mainly terrestrial, often repairing
to trees for the purpose of resting and feeding.

Its flight is moderately firm, tolerably rapid, never
very high, and but slightly protracted. In the fall

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 17

these birds become gregarious, and move in varying
flocks to their feeding-grounds, at more than the usual
elevation.

The song of this species is too monotonous and shrill
to afford gratification. Its position, as a member of the
great Oscine group of Aves, has doubtless been given,
not from any special development of musical ability,
but from the presence of a singing apparatus. According
to Macgillivray, its ordinary call is expressed by the
dissyllabic word phillip or yellop.

Although its ordinary food consists of grain and
insects, which are mainly procurable in the open country,
yet it readily accommodates itself to a town life, and de-
rives a subsistence from the refuse that is thrown out of
houses. Its appetite is so accommodating that there is
hardly any article of human diet which this bird will
refuse. Fragments of potatoes, the refuse of a green-
grocer's shop, a dry crust of bread, and a discarded bone,
are equally attractive. aThe market-places," according
to Rev. J. G. Wood, " especially in those where vegetables
are sold, as Covent Garden and Farringdon Market, the
sparrow appears in great force, and in no way daunted
by the multitudes of busy human beings that traverse
the locality, flutters about their very feet, and feeds
away without displaying the least alarm."

"In the Zoological Gardens, and in all large avaries,"
says the same distinguished writer, " the sparrow is
quite in its element, pushing its way through the meshes
of the wire roofs and fronts, pecking at the food supplied
to the birds within, and retreating through the wires if

t o O

attacked by the rightful owners of the plundered food.
Even the majestic eagle is not free from the depredations
of the sparrow, who hops through the bars of the cage

18 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

with great impudence, feeds quite at his leisure on the
scraps of meat that are left by the royal bird, and,
within a yard of the terrible beak and claws, splashes
about merrily in the eagle's bath. The large animals
are also favored by constant visits from the sparrows,
which hop about the rhinoceros, the elephant, the hippo-
potamus, or the wild swine, with utter indifference,
skipping about close to their feet, and picking up grain
as if they were the owners of the whole establishment."

In rural districts the sparrow subsists almost entirely
upon insects and grains, the former constituting a large
portion of its diet in the spring and early summer; and
the latter, during the autumnal and winter months. As
these birds congregate in immense flocks, and are ex-
ceedingly abundant, considerable quantities of grain are
devoured. Consequently, they are much persecuted by
the farmer, and their ranks continually decimated by
guns, traps, nets, and other devices. Their services are
so immense in the destruction of insects as to render
them eminently useful to the agriculturist. A single
pair of these birds has been known to carry to its
young no less than forty grubs per hour, making an
aggregate of about three thousand for the week. In
every instance where the sparrows have been extermi-
nated, there has been noticeable a proportional decrease
in the crops from the depredations of insects. At Maine,
for example, an entire destruction of these birds was
authorized by law, and the result was that during the
following year even the green trees were killed by
caterpillars. A similar edict was proclaimed by the
government at Auxerre, and like results followed.

In the fall, in addition to grain, various seeds, such

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 19

as the sow-thistle, groundsel, a-nd the dandelion, which
are classed among useless weeds, are eaten with avidity.
The common white butterfly, whose larvae are so noxious
to the cabbage and other garden plants, is chased and
killed in vast numbers. While feeding, these birds
delight in company, and bands of variable numbers
may be observed "all fluttering, and chirping, and peck-
ing, and scolding, and occasionally fighting with amusing
pertness."

A little incident of Mr. Wood's boyhood days is
deserving of mention. So closely do these birds cluster,
that the latter, when a boy, often amused himself by
shooting them with sixpenny toy cannons, after attract-
ing them to a small heap of oats which he had purposely
thrown upon the stable floor ; by thrusting the muzzles
of his miniature guns through holes bored into the door,
he was able to accomplish a due amount of destruction.

That the sparrow, even in Europe, is destructive to
crops, is proved by the concurrent testimony of nume-
rous writers. Mr. William Thompson, the author of
" The Natural History of Ireland," says, in volume I. of
that work, —

u In our garden, these birds were for a number of
years very destructive to young peas, almost living upon
and amongst them, perching on the pea-rod, and with
their strong bills breaking through the pods to get at
the peas, which they ate just when in perfection for the
table.

"The proprietor of the nearest fields of grain to Bel-
fast, in one direction (about a mile distant), complains
loudly against hosts of town sparrows attacking his
ripening crops. They go there early in the morning,

20 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

and after satisfying their appetites at his expense, return
to spend the day in town."

Selby, in the first volume of his work on British Orni-
thology, cites that it is reckoned by Low among the
feathered denizens of the northern islands of Scotland,
where it greatly annoys the agriculturist in the serious
depredations which it commits upon bigg, a coarse
variet}^ of barley, the only grain that is grown to any
extent in those remote settlements.

Mudie affirms that they commit some mischief upon
small seeds when sown, upon patches of grain when first
ripe, in the vicinity of villages and towns, and also, at
certain seasons, upon the buds of shrubs and trees.

Yarrell says, "When summer advances, and the young
birds of the year are able to follow the old ones, they
become gregarious, flying in flocks together to the
nearest field of wheat, as soon as the corn is sufficiently
hardened to enable them to pick it out, and here for a
time they are in good quarters ; but when the corn is
housed, and their supply cut off, they seek the adven-
titious meal which human habitations afford."

Sonini, in Dictionnaire d'Histoire !Naturelle, published
in 1817, says, "Sparrows are impudent parasites, living
only in society with man, and dividing with him his
grain, his fruit, and his home ; they attack the first fruit
that ripens, the grain as it approaches maturity, and
even that which has been stored in granaries. Some
writers have wrongly supposed that the insects destroyed
by them compensated for their ravages on grain ; eighty-
two grains of wheat were crowded in the craw of a
sparrow that had been shot by the writer, and Eougier
de la Bergerie, to whom we owe excellent memoirs on

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 21

rural economy, estimates that the sparrows of France
consume annually ten million bushels of wheat."

Jardine says that a price is set on their heads on ac-
count of the depredations which they commit upon
grains and garden seeds.

Valmont de Bomare, in his Dictionary, published in
1791, says, "In Brandebourg, in order to diminish the
ravages committed by sparrows, a price is set on their
heads, and the peasants are compelled by law to bring
in a certain number yearly ; in each village there are
sparrow-hunters, who sell their birds to the peasants, to
enable them to pay their tribute. The bird is bold,
cunning, and quick in discerning snares or devices to
frighten them ; it breeds three times a year, feeding its
young with inserts, and especially bees, though its
principal food consists of grain. It follows the farmer
while sowing, harvesting, threshing, or in feeding his
poultry ; it enters the dovecot, and with its bill pierces
the throats of young pigeons to obtain the grain in their
craw."

That the sparrow's destructive propensities are well
known in England, is attested to by Oowper's lines: —

"The sparrows peep, and quit the sheltering eaves
To seize the fair occasion ; well they eye
The scattered grain, and thievishly resolved
To escape the impending famine, often scared,
As oft return, a pert, voracious bird."

The following remarks, which are reproduced from
the Bulletin of the French Acclimatization Society, con-
cerning the " ravages committed by the Sparrows in
Algeria," are taken from " The American Cultivator"
for August 25, 1877. The writer says, "Wherever
there are woods or plantations of trees, there the spar-

22 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

rows assemble in incredible numbers. One writer goes
so far as to deplore the introduction of gum-trees, be-
cause they harbor the sparrows, and it is difficult to
dislodge their nests from these slender, lofty trees.

" It is stated that on one estate alone, 200 acres of rye
were so completely devoured by the sparrows before it
was ripe, that not a single corn was harvested; and it
was calculated that in a neighboring wood, some 150
acres ia extent, there were 284,000 nests. One colonist
complained that the sparrows had carried away two
tons of his hay ; and from the average weight of the
nests weighed, it was estimated that ten tons of hay
were carried away to construct these 284,000 nests.
Further, it is stated that this same wood, which consists
mainly of the Aleppo pine, is annually infested with
caterpillars to such an extent that it is dangerous to go
through it in the months of March and April, because
the pine caterpillar is venomous. It seerns that the
sparrow, in Algeria at least, prefers grain to insect food."

A few thoughts from the pen of Mr. Knapp, in Gas-
sell's Popular Natural History, conduct to the same in-
ference. After expatiating briefly upon the friendly
and sociable disposition of these birds among themselves,
and their peculiarlove for human society, he says, '-'The
sparrow feeds on his (man's) food, rice, potatoes, and
almost any other extraneous substance he may find in
the street ; looks to him for his support, and is main-
tained almost entirely by the industry and providence
of man."

He who has been a constant reader of Nature, an
English weekly devoted to science,for several years past,
cannot have escaped the conclusion that the sparrow is
destructive to blossoms. Thomas Comber, of Newton le

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 23

"Willows, England, in the issue of the above journal for
May 10, 1877, substantially states that the sparrows do
not attack the crocuses grown in his garden, but in
that of a friend, living some miles away, their attacks
are exclusively confined to the yellow ones, the purple
variety escaping. He accounts for this preference on
the supposition that the purple flowers possess some
acrid or bitter property which renders them nauseous.

W. Yon Freeden, of Hamburg, editor of the Hansa,
in a communication to Nature for May 17, 1877, which
is translated, says, " I have observed here that sparrows
have shown a very considerable partiality for crocuses
during this spring. My neighbor and I vied with each
other in our spring beds ; he excelled in yellow crocuses
and hyacinths, ,1 in white arid blue crocuses. One
beautiful Sunday the whole of his crocuses were found
bitten and torn by sparrows, and what is noteworthy,
also some yellow crocuses which had somehow wandered
into my lot, while the blue and white remained un-
touched." Should this be regarded as an oversight, or
was it a matter of taste? To offer a satisfactory ex-
planation to this peculiar predilection of the sparrow,
may not be classed among the impossibilities. Perhaps
a dry spring, the color sense of the species, or even a
more or less delicate mixture of the plant-sap, may ac-
count for it.

Corroborative of the last writer's observations appears
in the issue of the same journal, dated May 31, the same
year, a communication from an anonymous writer. He
says, " I have for many years been a cultivator of the
crocus, yellow, white, and purple ; this spring they
flowered abundantly, the white and purple blooming
undisturbed, the yellow picked and torn."

24 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

Another individual, writing from Gray's Inn, attests
to the foregoing assertions, but attributes these on-
slaughts to the town bird. The London bloom is
specially attractive to the London sparrow, while in
gardens remote from London, and surrounding it, plenty
of yellow crocuses bloom, and are undisturbed. Accord-
ing to another writer, the leaves of the bird-cherry are
eagerly attacked by the caterpillar of the pale-spotted
ermine moth, during certain summers, to such an extent
that the trees become ugly and stripped of their foliage
by the middle, or end of July. Although the appetite
of the sparrow can accommodate itself to nearly all
kinds of food, yet it cannot be denied that it is, betimes,
quite capricious. In autumn, the Guelder-rose, which
adorns the English thicket with its beautiful red berries,
presents an attractive and tempting sight, but birds seem
to care very little for such fruit. Evidence, quite cumu-
lative in its character, could, be adduced to sustain the
preceding statements, but enough has been given to
prove the sparrow's destructive propensities. The bulk
of testimony bearing upon this matter, which has ap-
peared in Nature for many years past, points the same
way.

If these birds are not destructive in a high degree,
why begrudge them the grain which they pilfer? Why
should the English peasant lad be employed, at a mere
pittance, from early morning until the sun has gone
down, armed with his clappers, to frighten away these
greedy pilferers from the ruddy grain ? Even before the
days of "Little Boy Blue," of famous memory, down
to the present time, have the same watchfulness and care
been bestowed upon the fields of ripened grain, to guard
them against their attacks.

THE SPABROW IN EUROPE. 25

Notwithstanding the injuries which are perpetrated
upon crops and blossoms, which scarcely a writer will
deny, does the good which these birds accomplish in the
destruction of injurious insects amply compensate for
the losses sustained ? Let us see what evidence can he
produced in justification of the sparrow.

Bewick remarks, as early as 1805, "In the destruction
of caterpillars they are eminently serviceable to vegeta-
tion, and in this respect alone, there is reason to suppose,
sufficiently repay the destruction they may make in the
produce of the garden or the field."

Selby, who writes in 1833, says, " This bird feeds upon
all kinds of grain and seeds, and, in the summer, destroys
vast numbers of larvae, moths, and butterflies, with which
its young are principally fed ; thus making ample com-
pensation for the havoc it commits in the ripening fields
of corn."

Mudie, in 1834, after briefly alluding to the destructive
habits of the sparrow, affirms, "Upon the whole, they
do much more good by the numbers of insects and cater-
pillars which they destroy. It is the house fly, as well
as the thatch, and the eaves and holes in the roof, that
bring them so much about dwellings ; and in the con-
sumption of these, as well as of crumbs and other refuse,
they are most notable and indefatigable scavengers.
But for them, the house flies would, in some situations,
multiply to such an extent as to be intolerable; and were
they not so incessant in their destruction of those pro-
lific pests, the cabbage butterflies, it is doubtful whether
one plant of the tribe could be reared in the market
gardens."

The same writer asserts that, in France, in 1841, in
the fine district of Burgundy, situated south of Auxerre,
3

26 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

so much damage was done to crops from the extraordi-
nary increase of caterpillars, resulting from the conse-
quent destruction of small birds, that a law was passed
prohibiting any further sacrifice of these creatures.

Macgillivray, in his History of British Birds, both In-
digenous and Migratory, which was published in 1837,
after referring to its devastation upon wheat, which is
very perceptible in localities not remote from towns, as
evidenced by the numerous earless stalks which are
noticeable, and its fondness for the seeds of Sinapis ar-
vcnsis,c\wrloc\t,12((phanus Raphanistuvn^ chickweeds and
mouse ears, Stellaria Cerastium, and field and garden
peas, says, "In summer it subsists partly on insects of
various kinds, which also afford the chief nourishment
of its young."

Yarrell, writing in 1843, says, "The young are fed for
a time with soft fruits, young vegetables, and insects,
particularly caterpillars, and so great is the number of
these that are consumed by the parent birds, and their
successive broods of young, that it is a question whether
the benefit thus performed is not a fair equivalent for
the grain and seeds required at other seasons of the year."

William Thompson, Esq., bears testimony in his Xatu-
ral History of Ireland, which was published in 1849, to
the good which these birds accomplish in the destruction
of the large w7hite garden butterfly (Pontia brassiccc),
whose caterpillars are so injurious.

Dr. Brewer, in Forest and Stream, for June, 1877,
says, " Ever since the commission, appointed by Louis
Napoleon, at the head of which was that eminent savan,
Florent Prevost, reported that the sparrow was par emi-
nence the most useful to agriculture of all the birds of
Europe, the sparrow has been protected by law, and the

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 27

children in all the public schools of France, by order of
the Department of Public Instruction, are taught the
value of all birds, the sparrow not excepted." The
doctor's authority for the above statement is the Hon.
M. Servaux, who is head director of that department.

Other authorities could be quoted to show the good
and evil results which are produced by the sparrow in
its native country, but the writer is obliged to- refer his
readers to the bibliography of the subject which will be
appended to this monograph. That immense good is
accomplished in Europe by the services of these birds,
must be admitted, if the testimonies adduced are worth
anything. But it is greatly to be desired that a more
complete inventory of the insects destroyed, than any
hitherto published, should be given to the world. The
mere assertion of the fact, which is all that we have to
rely upon, in many instances, amounts to little in the
writer's estimation. Xo work, with a single exception,
has treated this subject as it deserves.

The sparrow is not one of the earliest risers among
birds, but is certainly as wakeful as any of them. It
begins to chatter with the dawn, and keeps up an ani-
mated conversation for an hour before forsaking; its

O

roost. Even before retiring for the night, its disagree-
able chatter is heard to the annoyance of its human
neighbors, for a similar period of time. As early as ten
minutes before three o'clock in the morning this noise
has been heard.

The nest of the sparrow is a very inartificial structure.
It is composed of straw, hay, leaves, and other similar
materials, externally ; and is lined with a profusion of
feathers. Although an exceedingly hardy bird, caring
little for snow or frost, yet, nevertheless, it likes a warm

28 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

bed to which it can retire when the arduous labors of
the day are past. For this purpose, its resting place is
crammed with feathers, which it procures from divers
sources. Even their roosting quarters are similarly fur-
nished. In the selection of a locality, these birds are
by no means particular. Their nests have been dis-
covered under the eaves of tiles, in creviced walls, in
decayed trees, and even in the orifices of old water-
pipes; in short, wTherever the necessary materials can be
accumulated. Walls overgrown with ivy are favorite
places of resort, both for building and roosting purposes.
The immense numbers of nests which are built under
the nests of the larger birds in a rookery can only be
imagined by those who have witnessed such places.

Sometimes, but rarely, these birds take to trees. The
higher branches of the apple and plum are ordinarily
chosen, but, when any other tree is selected, which is
occasionally clone, it is never situated very far from an
occupied human dwelling. In such situations, the
structure is invariably domed, and is provided with an
entrance in the side. Externally, it is composed of a
profusion of hay; and is lined with a dense mass of
feathers. It is a large and rather clumsy affair.

~Not unlike other familiar birds, the sparrow is some-
what capricious in its choice of locality. Several ex-
amples are upon record of nests being placed on different
parts of a ship's rigging. For example, while the Great
Britain was lying in the Sandom graving-dock, two
nests were constructed by certain sparrows in the " bunts"
of the main and mizzen topsails. Mr. Thompson cites
the case of a nest which was placed upon the furled sail
of the Aurora, of Belfast. This nest, which remained
intact during the first voyage of that vessel to Glasgow,

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 29

was loosened during the second trip, and both it and
the eggs which it contained, were destroyed. Again, a
pair of sparrows nidificated underneath the slings of the
foreyard of the ship Ann of Shields, just preparatory to
leaving port. When the vessel reached its destined port
upon the Tyne, the birds went ashore, and shortly re-
turned with materials with which to finish their homes.
The chief external ornament of the Rotunda, in
Dublin, is a superbly carved frieze. It represents the
heads of oxen, and is beautifully festooned with flowers,
which are pendant from the horns. The frieze encircles
the entire building at a considerable elevation. In the
hollow of the eye of one of these heads, a sparrow placed
its nest. Among other materials which the bird had

O

utilized for this purpose, was a woollen thread with a
noose at one extremity ; by some strange accident, wholly
inexplicable, the little creature got the noose around his
neck, and in his desperate exertions to release himself
from the unhappy situation, dropped from his nest, and
hung suspended below. The most prodigious efforts
were made to escape the threatened death, but in vain.
Unhappily his remains were gibbeted at his own door,
and were to be seen swaying to and fro in the gentlest
breeze, while the straws of his nest protruded from the
eye-hole right over his head.

Mr. Thompson asserts that, in country places, this
species usually places its nests in spouts, and thus stops
the course of the rain, causing the house to be overflowed.
When ejected from such places, it is said to resort to the
branches of the balm of Grilead and the spruce, which
it prefers to deciduous trees. According to the same
authority, it often builds in rookeries; occasionally takes
possession of the nest of the house martin, which is

30 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

general!}7 tenantless at the time, and as frequently usurps
the burrow of the sand martin, before the vernal return
of this species to the home of its nativity.

Mr. G-ould, in writing about this bold and fearless
little creature, confirms much of what the previous writer
has expressed.

He says, "It is not a little annoying to watch closely
the ways and doings of our constant attendant, the
sparrow, who, as if presuming upon our friendship, sets
no bounds to his impudence towards his feathered
brethren, and with great effrontery, frequently seizes
upon the hole selected by the starling when absent from
its nest, and continues to hold possession until the star-
ling, losing all patience, takes him by the neck, and
with main force draws him from the hole. This little
altercation ended, and the stronger bird in possession,
matters grow more amicable. It not unfrequently
happens that the fairy martin, which constructs her
nest under the eaves of our houses, has scarcely finished
her labors ere the sparrow seizes on the building. The
martin is said to revenge itself upon the intruder in a
curious way. To fight so powerful a bird would answer
no end, she therefore plasters up the entrance to the
nest with mud, and keeps him a prisoner."

The sparrow is quite prolific, and raises several broods
in a single season. It has been known to rear no less
than fourteen young during that period. It is a very
affectionate parent, and is not uncommonly observed in
the midst of crowded streets feeding its young, which,
while sitting upon the ground, manifest their hungry
eagerness, by the manner in which they open their bills
and flap their wings.

The eggs of this species are usually five in number,

THE SPARROW IN EUROPE. 31

although six sometimes constitutes a nest full. They
are grayish-white in ground-color, and profusely covered
with spots and dashes of gray-brown. They vary, how-
ever, in markings, and it is quite common to find i"n
the same nest eggs that are nearly black with the
mottlings, and others with few if any spots or stripes
at all.

The young, according to Macgillivray, in progressing
towards maturity, pass through the following stages:
"At first moult, completed by beginning of winter,
males assume colors of adult birds, although it is not
until next season that they are perfected ; females also
acquire deeper tints. In the second plumage the male
is as follows: Upper mandible light grayish-brown,
lower flesh colored with tip brown ; feet pale brown,
upper part of head brownish-gray ; preocular space
blackish-gray ; line over the eye extending down neck,
yellowish-gray mixed with chestnut-brown; some
lateral feathers of neck little chestnut near tip; auricu-
lar coverts greenish-gray ; forepart of neck, breast,
abdomen, light yellowish-gray, fading posteriorly into
white ; a broad band down foreneck from mandible ob-
scurely black, that color being concealed by whitish
tips of feathers. Anterior dorsal and scapular feathers
light yellowish-brown, their inner web brownish-black
at tip ; posterior dorsal and upper tail coverts light
greenish-gray ; lower tail coverts light yellowish-gray.
Tail wood-brown, margined with gray ; smaller wing
coverts light brown, with little chestnut near tips;
quills dusky externally, margined with yellowish-brown ;
primary coverts the same ; secondary coverts with a
broader external margin of yellowish-brown ; the first
row of small coverts tipped with paler yellowish-brown.

32 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

As the bird becomes older, its colors assume a richer
tint, until the wings and hack become bright chestnut,
and bar in former is pure white."

In view of the astonishing increase of this species in
Europe, are there no checks thereto, in the shape of
natural enemies? The last-mentioned writer, in his
history of this bird, says in England they are preyed
upon by the merlin, sparrow hawk, and weasel, and
perhaps by other quadrupeds, as well as by boys, cock-
ney sportsmen, and field naturalists. The mode of
capture employed by boys is thus described. For this
purpose a trap is constructed in this wise: two bricks
are placed parallel to each other, while a third is laid
across one of their extremities ; another brick, or a piece
of board or slab, is placed between the parallel bricks,
and supported by the aid of a vertical stick, the lower
extremity of which reposes upon the edge of a brick
arranged transversely. The trap being prepared, is
then baited with oatmeal, bread, or other edible sub-
stances. In attempting to get the bread, the prop be-
comes removed, the lid falls, and the sparrow remains a
prisoner.

Immense numbers are also captured at night, while
perching among the ivy, their favorite roosting quarter,
by means of a net manufactured for that express pur-
pose.

33

CHAPTER II.
THE SPARROW IN AMERICA.

Tins species, which was introduced into several por-
tions of our country a few years ago, has increased so
rapidly in numbers that it is now accounted one of
our most familiar denizens. Before another decade has
passed, unless measures are taken to check its wonderful
diffusion, the result of its rapid propagation, it will be
safe to predict a general overflow of the entire country.

The earliest attempt to introduce these birds was ap-
parently made in the autumn of 1858, by Deblois, in
Portland, Maine. To the number of six they were let
loose in a large garden near the centre of the city. The
following winter was spent in the immediate locality,
shelter from the inclement weather being obtained
underneath the porch of a neighboring church. In the
spring of 1859 three nests were built, in only one of
which the parents were successful in rearing a family.
Two broods consisting of ten young birds resulted from
this union. The birds continued to multiply, and ulti-
mately became so numerous, that as early as the winter
of 1871 they reached the town of Rockland of the same
State.

In 1860 Eugene Schieffelin, of New York, imported
twelve of these birds, and set them at liberty in the
vicinity of Madison Square in that city. Several years
in succession the experiment was repeated. In 1864

34: THE HOUSE SPARROW.

fourteen birds were released in Central Park by the
Commissioners. Others were subsequently brought from
England by different individuals, and set free at Jersey
City. The latter have since multiplied so rapidly that
their offspring have spread to adjoining towns, and are
now social residents in all the large cities and towns
around New York, as well as in every portion of that
great metropolis itself.

It was not, however, until 1868 that the sparrow was
introduced into Boston. Two hundred birds were then
purchased in Germany, by the city government, but
only about twenty reached their destination. These
were released in the month of June, but, unfortunately,
several died from disease, or from weakness induced by
sea- voyage ; the remnant disappeared. In the ensuing
summer others were brought over, only ten of which
survived. The survivors were carefully housed and
nourished, and only restored to freedom when in ex-
cellent condition. Released from confinement, they
quickly flew away, and nothing was seen of them for
several months, when, unhappily, they turned up in the
southern part of the city, whither they had betaken
themselves. In the immediate vicinity of stables, for
which they apparently manifested a preference, they
built their houses and reared their families. There
the}7 remained until the approach of winter, when they
returned to the city to the number of one hundred and
fifty, where they were regularly fed by the city-forester
each day in the Deer Park. At night they roosted in
the thatched roofs of the buildings.

Near the close of the winter of 1869 these birds were
brought to Philadelphia. To John Bardsley, Esq., of
Germantown, belongs the credit of their introduction.

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 35

For many years our lawn and shade trees liad been in-
fested by measuring worms, much to the annoyance of
pedestrians. Nothing could be done to remedy the
matter. The nuisance became yearly worse and worse.
The good effects of the sparrows, in other cities, in rid-
ding the squares and parks of insect-pests, were too well
known through the public papers to allow of much
hesitation upon the part of the people. Councils
were petitioned for relief. For many long months the
question was agitated, but seemingly with little hope of
a speedy settlement, At this crisis Mr. Bardsley was
projecting a visit to his native land. Sympathizing witli
his city brethren, preparatory to starting upon his
journey he sought an interview with leading council-
men in relation to bringing over a goodly number of
birds on his return. Nothing satisfactory was elicited.
Having completed his arrangements, Mr. Bardsley sailed
for England, determining, should he reach home, to col-
lect a thousand or two of birds at his own expense, and
present them to the city of his adoption. In due season
he reached Ash ton, his native town, and had actually
commenced work when he received the startling yet
doubtless joyful intelligence that the sparrow difficulty
had been settled by Councils, and he was the city's
authorized agent. With his characteristic zeal and
energy Mr. Bardsley applied himself vigorously to the
task, and, with the assistance of several lads, succeeded
in obtaining, in the course of a few days, more than a
thousand birds. Having secured his cargo, and every-
thing being in readiness, he sailed from Liverpool, and
after many trials and a few vicissitudes of fortune,
reached Philadelphia early in March. His numerous
and troublesome charges were at once surrendered to

36 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

the authorities. Owing to the inclemency of the season
they were comfortably quartered, and provided with
every needful attention. In the latter part of April,
the weather becoming mild, they were released from
their long confinement, to fly whither they chose. In
the best of condition, the result of the attention and
care bestowed upon them since their arrival, and eman-
cipated at a period when nature was buoyant with life,
and all aglow with beauty and song, there could be no
obstacle to their easy acclimatization, and consequent
multiplication and diffusion.

Later, these birds were introduced into Utah, in the
vicinity of Great Salt Lake, where they have become
quite common ; and still later in Indianapolis, la., where
they have grown to be so troublesome that the inhabi-
tants would gladly get rid of them at almost any cost.
An effort is now being made to introduce them into
North Carolina, under the fancied belief that they will
prove highly beneficial in the destruction of noxious in-
sects, but I hope that it will not succeed. The agent for
their introduction has lately become convinced of their
utter worthlessness, and has so informed his friends.

Few species of birds display less suspicion, greater
caution, and more pugnacity, than the subject of our
sketch. It delights to dwell in close proximity to human
dwellings, and apparently affects a fondness for man's
society. While thus manifesting considerable confidence
in man, as shown by its familiar manners, it, however,
possesses so many unenviable traits as not to merit the
full measure of his esteem and approbation. The inso-
lence of its deportment, sneaking, thievish propensities,
and above all, its pugnacity, rapacity, and destructive-
ness, render it an object of profound contempt.

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 37

Its pugnacity, the certain outgrowth of an extremely
jealous and irritable nature, manifests itself in various
ways. By a limited few, it is alleged that this feeling
is confined to the males, and only exhibited among
themselves when actuated by amatory influences. This
is a gross mistake. It is manifested at all times, and is
as conspicuous among the females as among their more
powerful lords. It is chiefly during the breeding-period
that these contentions occur among themselves. Terri-
torial possession is the casus belli. Males and females
mingle promiscuously, and it is quite difficult to deter-
mine which of the sexes displays the greater valor. The
struggle frequently commences between a pair, of males,
and assumes gigantic proportions. The females at first
stand aloof, maintain almost perfect silence, and only
enter the arena when the conflict seems utterly hope-
less on one side or the other. The loud clamors and
menacing gestures of the belligerents soon attract their
feathered brethren, who enter the lists, and at once
take part with one or the other of the contending fac-
tions. These struggles often continue for nearly a half
hour unless stopped by human interference, and break
up as quickly and as mysteriously as they are precipi-
tated. A careful study of the manoeuvres of the opposing
parties have convinced me that a very close kinship
subsists among the individuals of each side.

These quarrels occur less frequently, however, during
the feeding process, and are not restricted to any par-
ticular season. When there is a rich supply of appro-
priate food-stuffs hundreds of birds may be seen feeding
together, and the utmost harmony and good-will be
observable. But let there be a paucity of regimen, and
the birds are not slow to perceive the fact, the spirit of

38 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

greed is soon in the ascendant, and a quarrel ensues.
The same unhappy condition of affairs occurs when a
pair of birds or a family group has most fortunately
come across an article of luxury, and is disturbed by the
approach of strangers who endeavor to wrest from them
the much coveted booty.

But it is not so much on account of these family diffi-
culties that our repugnance to the sparrow arises. Do
not our native species, in many instances, have their
domestic infelicities, less bitter and less lasting though
they be? It is mainly owing to its domineering and
insolent bearing towards the latter that we detest the
sparrow7. AVho has not witnessed frequent manifesta-
tions of the hostile conduct of this foreigner? In the
spring, when our migrants return from their winter
homes to the scenes of conjugal bliss and domestic feli-
city, they are received by these strangers with the most
perfect coolness and stolid apathy. Should they ven-
ture to take up their quarters in places rendered sacred
and dear by the associations of the past, they are instantly
beset and driven aw7ay. Their former territory has been
taken possession of, and they must look elsewhere. A
near approach to accustomed haunts is sure to be found
out, and instant vengeance wreaked upon their te-
merity. These birds lay claims to occupied spots, and
prepare to defend them at all hazards. What individual
courage cannot accomplish is effected by stratagem, or
by combination. Many of our most useful birds are
ohjects of these unmerited assaults, and unable to cope
with prodigious numbers are compelled to forsake ac-
customed sites for less congenial places. The lawns and
groves which surround the residences of opulence, that
once rang with the merry notes of the robin and song

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 39

sparrow, now resound with the disagreeable noise of this
sparrow.

The extraordinary salacity of these birds, which is
almost as conspicuous a feature of their existence during
cold weather as during the season of breeding, begets,

O C* * O *

beyond the shadow of a doubt, a feeling of jealousy
which graduates into one of intense hatred towards other
species should they venture within forbidden grounds,
and even shows itself in a much lighter form towards
their fellow-companions. As a consequence of this ab-
normal sexual condition, the desire to nidificate com-
mences remarkably early, and continues rather late,
often lasting from February to November.

Having dwelt upon the sparrow's treatment of other
species, at considerable length, it becomes necessary to
inquire whether our native birds do not occasionally
manifest a little of the spirit of pugnacity towards the
foreign invader. To do otherwise would seem unnatural.
Birds, like their human brethren, become strongly at-
tached to the homes of their nativity, and show a will-
ingness and readiness to protect them against assault.

O J- *— 5

Among many species there is apparent a friendly and
neighborly feeling, which tolerates others within their
territories. Instances of the existence of this noble trait
are not wanting. The robin, song and chipping sparrow,
have been known to fraternize with other species, and
to live upon the most amicable terms with them. The
same good and kindly feeling would be shown towards
the sparrow, were there a disposition to reciprocate it.
I have observed such a disposition upon the part of the
song sparrow, and its very near relative, the hair bird,
on scores of occasions, but there has always been mani-
fest a want of inclination upon the part of the house

40 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

sparrow to notice these friendly advances, or a tendency
to repel them most unceremoniously and ungenerously.

Cruel as is the treatment which our smaller birds re-
ceive from the stranger, when they have returned, after
a brief sojourn abroad, to the land of their birth, they
bear it quite patiently and nobly, and only venture to
resent the insults which are heaped upon them when
forbearance ceases to be a virtue. To witness this usur-
pation of rightful territory and the insolent bearing of
the marauder, is certainly very provoking, and to the
robin, whose ideas of honor and right are very exalted,
must be considered a just cause for war. It is not sur-
prising then that this " bouncer of the sod" should wage
persistent warfare upon the enemy, on each annual re-
turn, but to be ingloriously defeated. The bluebird, a
very obstinate little fellow, to be sure, has learned from
experience the folly of contending against superior
numbers, and, consequently, leaves the sparrow in un-
disputed possession of subjugated territory. In past
years I have seen this bird contend with the sparrow
for the possession of a tree-cavity, or a box, with a
courage which was truly commendable and astonishing,
but to no use.

In not a single case have I known either the robin or

O

the bluebird to come off victors in these encounters.
In a single-handed struggle I would have but little fears
for them. While this has been the experience of com-
petent observers in other cities, also, there can be no
doubt but that the sparrows are sometimes beaten and
driven away, the conquerors remaining masters of the
situation. The experience of Dr. Brewer, of Boston,
confirms this suspicion. When told by Mr. Galvin, the
city-forester of Boston, that the bluebird assails the

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 41

sparrow, and expels it from its home, the doctor sud-
denly remembers that, in various instances, throughout
his experience, the former is always the aggressor.

Mr. Galvin affirms substantially that our native birds
have nothing to fear from the sparrow. Not the least
animosity is manifested towards either the robin or the
bluebird. The little chipping sparrow is its friend, and
is often found feeding with it upon the same bit of
bread. Bluebirds, which were wanting on the Common
before the introduction of the sparrows, are now quite
plentiful. The martins, attracted by the number of
boxes, have wonderfully increased. These two species
we are informed are the inveterate enemies of the spar-
rows, treating them badly, seizing their boxes, and
breaking up their nests. These indignities, it is natural
to be supposed, would be resented ; but in the contest
which is provoked, we are told that the bluebirds "are
always too strong for them." Evidence is not wanting
to show that the reverse of this is equally true. In the
proper place the testimony both pro and con will be set
forth.

The impudence of the sparrow has certainly not es-
caped notice. For boldness, this species of avis has no
parallel. The crow is a paragon of excellence when
brought into contrast. While the fowls are being fed,
flocks of fifty, and even more, assemble in the poultry-
yard, and wilfully defraud the occupants of their due
allowances. When detected and driven away, I will
not say frightened away, for they are strangers to fear,
they repair to a short distance, alight upon any neigh-
boring object, and, as if to show their utter disgust and
indignation, break forth in a full chorus of loud and
uncouth vociferations. With eyes intently fixed upon
4

42 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

the much coveted fare, they hide their time, although
rather impatiently, and when the disturber of their meal
has turned his back and is out of sight, repair with all
possible speed to the feeding ground, and there gorge
themselves to satiety. All the while they are thus oc-
cupied, they do not permit themselves to be surprised;
for, with half-averted look, the stealthiest approach is
noticed, and the flock is off in the twinkling of an eye.
In this respect, there is a manifest difference between
this species and others which relax this general vigilance
by appointing a few individuals to act as guards.

The chickens evidently do not entertain the highest
feelings of regard for these gamins, as shown by the
tierce attacks which they make upon them whenever
they insinuate themselves into their presence. These
assaults subserve but a temporary purpose, for the spar-
rows hop carelessly aside, or fly to a short distance when
vigorously pressed, and subsequently resume their labors
as though nothing had happened. Instances have oc-
curred, in the writer's experience, of this boldness being
carried to extremes. A case in point I will now pro-
ceed to mention.

In the summer of 1877 I raised several broods of
chicks, which it was the custom to feed at six o'clock in
the morning, and at the same time at the close of the
day. While thus occupied, the sparrows, as if by a sort
of intuition, would come in vast numbers, and very
contentedly perch upon the adjoining trees, preparatory
to making a meal of Indian corn. Their approach was
quite silent, only a few coming together. Sometimes
their presence was unknown and unobserved, so quietly
did they deport themselves. But when the person,
whose duty it was to attend to this business, would dis-

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 48

appear from the scene, the ground would soon be covered
by birds, some of which would enter the coops, taking
due care, however, to avoid the bill of the enraged hen

Jealousy is certainly the vera causa of the sparrow's
irritability and pugnacity. This feeling is so deeply in-
grained into its very being that the slightest cause will
evoke it. The presence of a stranger bird when the
feeding process is going on, is enough to arouse sus-
picion and lead to trouble. Perhaps jealousy is the
natural outgrowth of long-continued exertions for main-
tenance in the "struggle for existence." The wonderful
salacity of this species, and its remarkable powers of
reproduction, lend countenance to this belief. A species
that breeds freely, and multiplies rapidly, must doubtless
perish, where bounteous provisions for its subsistence
are not made in the wise economy of nature. Particu-
larly will this be found to be the case in regions in which
the natural harmony of things is spoiled by man's short-
sightedness and stupidity. Either nature must most
miraculously increase her supply to satisfy the growipg
demand, or else a long and bitter struggle for supremacy
will inevitably ensue, the weaker go to the wall, or
be compelled to migrate to other quarters. Thus will •
be engendered a feeling of jealousy, if not of intense
hatred, upon the part of the stronger against the weaker,
which will manifest itself in bitter persecutions and life-
long quarrels. Just such a situation of things as I have
depicted, must be patent to all who are not blinded by
prejudice, if they will but use their powers aright.

In by-gone years, many of our smaller winter denizens
were daily to be seen in our gardens and on our lawns.
Who does not recollect the pleasure and joy which their
presence afforded ? The song sparrow, tree sparrow, and

44 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

even the active little black-capped titmouse, would hop
about the door, and, by their well-known calls, solicit,
as it were, the refuse of the kitchen. Upon the summit
of a bush or a tree, or perched upon the fence, they
would patiently wait until the poultry had been fed and
had retired, when they would gladly descend to the yard,
and thankfully receive what their stronger brethren had
left. But now the grounds are thoroughly policed by the
sparrows, and our native birds compelled to keep at a
wary distance, or only venture to peck a few grains
during the temporary absence of their masters. During
the prevalence of cold weather, the sparrows are a con-
stant source of annoyance by their presence and noise,
save when they retire to their roosting-quarters, at the
close of the day. But with the rising sun, and, in some
instances, long before his slanting rays are seen in the
east, they are on hand, ready to seize, with their charac-
teristic avidity, whatever comes in sight. The strictest
vigilance is necessary to prevent their wanton pillages.

In the spring, save during the season of harvest and
fruitage, their attentions are somewhat intermitted.
The duties of nidification, incubation, and brood-raising
demand a considerable share of attention. Hence their
presence, except during the mornings and evenings, is
notably scarce. While they take their breakfast and
supper upon the writer's premises, their homes are else-
where. The lack of suitable accommodations is mainly
the cause of this seeming preference. A near neighbor
having erected comfortable houses for them, we are thus
saved much annoyance.

It is only during their absence, consequent upon the
discharge of home duties, that a few of our native birds
pay us a slight call, occasionally. It is during these visits,

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 45

as if reluctant to desert entirely the scenes of past asso-
ciations, that a few are seized with an irresistible desire
to build. While some are most summarily frustrated in
any such endeavor, others are not wanting that meet
with a due degree of success. I cannot forbear to mention
in this connection an incident which happened during
the month of June, 1877. A pair of robins visited
my lawn, emboldened by the absence of the enemy ;
and, being lured by the aspect of the scenery, they al-
most instantly set to work to build themselves a home.
The summit of a tall and rather dense maple afforded a
suitable and retired site. Their advent was unobserved.
The almost perfect silence which they maintained whilst
engaged in its construction was truly wonderful. Even
the keen and vigilant gaze of the sparrow was eluded.
The nesting-tree occupied the centre of a grass-plot, and
stood but fifteen feet from my doorstep. Troops of noisy
children whiled away their merry moments beneath its
sheltering boughs, without so much as disturbing the
busy workers, or catching a glimpse of their quite fa-
miliar forms. The chosen site was doubtless the inevi-
table result of mature reflection, for, at this point, a
cherry tree blended its dark green foliage with that of
the red maple. So thickly and intricately were the
leaves and branches interlaced, that the most acute
vision could not pierce the almost impenetrable net-
work. Thus concealed, the nest would have remained
unknown, had not a most curious circumstance revealed
its presence. The robins could have entered the nest and
retired therefrom as often as they chose without being
perceived by human or feathered enemies, so artfully
was it hidden, and so favorably situated was the tree.
But this fancied security was destined to be of short

46 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

continuance. My son, a lad of twelve years, was the
first to call attention to its existence. The discovery
was wholly accidental. In the exercise of his scanso-
rial powers, a failing to which the generality of lads
is prone, he unexpectedly fell upon the structure. At
this time it contained but three eggs which were
slightly altered. From some strange and mysterious
cause, the sparrows, seemingly, had not observed this
trespass upon their grounds, my son's discovery ante-
dating theirs by a couple of days. On reflection, the
circumstance does not seem so mysterious after all. To
reach the poultry-yard unobserved by their human per-
secutors, they were compelled to make a circuitous
journey; by so doing, they avoided altogether the tree
which supported the robin's nest. These raids upon
the poultry -yard were always made in the morning and
evening. The robins were doubtless apprised of the
fact, and shaped their actions accordingly. During the
intervening time less caution was necessary, as the
visits of the sparrows were quite infrequent.

The cherry tree had now begun to ripen its fruits.
The sparrows were not slow in making the discovery.
From the poultry -yard fence the tempting cherry could
be easily seen as it dangled from its flexible stem. The
keen eye of the robin discerned it in the near distance.
The temptation was not to be resisted. They sallied
out of their well-hidden retreat to taste the luscious
fruit, but, alas! they were espied by the sparrows, who
had already taken possession of the trees, in vast numbers.
They were instantly assailed and driven from the neigh-
borhood. Four times in succession they labored to regain
possession, but without avail. Defeated and disheart-
ened, they removed to more congenial quarters, leaving

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 47

their borne and its treasures to the cruel mercies of a
relentless foe. On revisiting the nest two days subse-
quently, the eggs were gone. They had either been
spirited away by the authors, or destroyed by the
enemy.

A better example of the sparrow's pugnacity and
vengeful spirit than the preceding, could certainly not
be given. "Were these its only faults we might chari-
tably hide them from view, and extend to these ex-
tremely familiar creatures a most generous welcome.
But their excessively rapacious and vigorous appetites
lead them into wrong doings. Being omnivorous birds,
they do not carefully discriminate between the culti-
vated varities of our fruits, and their wild, untamed
prototypes; and between the seeds of gramineous plants
growing wild, and our cultivated cereals. Their destruc-
tive propensities, though well attested, are not as fully
appreciated by the popular mind as they should be.
Agriculturists and small fruit growers will do well to
master the details of their history, and accord to them
the welcome which their merits, rather their demerits,
amply deserve.

'Tis true this species has received most flattering
encomiums from casual observers, but the writer cer-
tainly cannot bear the best of testimony to its useful-
ness. As it is not as destructive to noxious insects as
many of our smaller native birds, its presence seems
unnecessary. During the breeding-period, I admit,
many caterpillars are destroyed and fed to the young,
but even this good is more than outweighed by the
mischief which is committed.

Its indubitable hatred of native species ; the depreda-
tions which are perpetrated upon the tender buds of

48 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees ; the wholesale de-
struction of the blossoms of the apple, pear, and cherry,
and the fruits of the same ; the wanton devastations
which are committed upon the vines when the grapes
are mellowing, are powerful incentives for those who
have suffered from their ravages to urge the authorities
to colonize and send them back to England where the
peasantry are paid for potting them into sparrow pies.
They are always feeding, but unlike most species, grow
corpulent upon what they pilfer, and thus set the un-
wholesome example of consuming what they do not
earn.

The food of this species is both vegetal and animal
in character, but chiefly the former. Latterly, fewer
insects are destroyed than formerly. This is readily
accounted for. JS"ow, in many of our large towns and
cities, these birds are so \vell fed and pampered that they
are either too lazy to hunt caterpillars, or else the pres-
ence of better and more nutritious food has created in
them a disgust, or rather disrelish, for insect-diet. In
rural localities, the abundance of plant-life in divers
forms constitutes a rich field for the display of their
granivorous and frugivorous propensities.

It is ghastly rubbish to pretend, as a special few seem
to do, that the ridding of our trees of caterpillars and
hemiptera can be intrusted to the sparrows. Almost
any bird, from an ostrich to a humming-bird, may or
does eat, insects. This diet is not restricted to the
technically designated insectivorous birds. In the
general scheme of nature, insects and birds are natural
complements, the one balancing the other. Sparrows
certainly do not come under this category. They are a
conirostral and granivorous species, and take to insect

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 49

fare just as a hawk, a crow, a grakle, or any of our
native finches.

During the cold weather these birds derive a rather
precarious subsistence from the seeds of our commonest
weeds and grasses. They assemble about our doors for
the crumbs and scraps from the table. Throughout the
different seasons, and in all places, hundreds of them
may be seen upon our principal thoroughfares, scratching
among the excrement of horses for whatever of nutrient
qualities may be found therein.

Their winter fare consists of the seeds of Chcnopodium
album, Amarantus hylridus, A. cdbus, A. paniculatus,
Ramex sanguineus, Ambrosia artemisicefolia, and besides
those of the different asters and solidagos.

When balmy spring has melted the icy fetters of
winter, and started the sap through its accustomed
channels, the sparrows, active and hardy creatures
though they are, become endowed with new vigor,
sally out from their winter retreats while plant life is
budding into bloom, and wantonly destroy without
stint or pity.

In the months of April and May, they enter our
lawns and indiscriminately attack whatever of vegeta-
tion is coming into existence. The maples, particularly
Acer rubrum and A. Saccliarinum, are rifled of their
blossoms. The kitchen-garden does not escape their
visits. The cherry, and the various species of Pyrus
and Prunus, are devastated for the ripened stamens and
immature ovaries. Many of our herbaceous plants are
bitten before they have attained to the height of a few
inches above the ground. In the floral stage, primroses
and others, are hopelessly ruined. The grape-vines are
attacked, and the blossoms pillaged. Later, during the

50 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

middle of June, when the cherry has ripened its fruit,
the destruction is immense. Scarcely a tree escapes.
The fruit is seldom eaten in its entirety, but bitten in
several places, thus causing premature decay. Several
trees that I examined, which wrere literally crowded
with fruit, did not reveal a single untouched cherry
One small branch, containing a hundred cherries, had
every one bitten ; some in a semi-rotten condition, in
consequence. The so-called honey cherry has the great-
est attraction, and the common black cherry the least,
showing that the species is somewhat fastidious in its
appetite, notwithstanding its decided penchant for horse-
dung. But is there no way of preventing this destruc-
tion ? I apprehend not. The scarecrow is of little
avail. Even the report of a gnn creates but a momen-
tary alarm ; for the very next moment the birds are
back, feeding as vigorously as before, as though nothing
had happened. For man, creation's lord, they have but
little fear or respect. I have known instances where
they would enter a tree, alight within a few feet of a
person, and feed away as though they were not cogni-
zant of bis presence, all the while keeping a wide
lookout for dangers. The American sparrow is a fond
lover of the juicy cherry, and destroys many when
allowed to visit the trees unmolested. He is charac-
terized by greater boldness than his European kin,
who is desperately afraid of man, his inveterate perse-
cutor. It had been hoped that the strawberry would
have remained unmolested. But no; this most luscious
berry must share a similar fate. During the past season,
a friend of the writer's, living in Germantown, was sur-
prised to find that the sparrows wrere at work upon his
neighbor's strawberry patch. As soon as the fruit had

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 51

turned, it was plucked and eaten upon the spot, or borne
in triumph to the nest, a box upon the premises (a poor
compensation for hospitality shown). To prevent these
ravages the gentleman was compelled to cover the bed,
which was a small one, with netting stretched upon
small upright stakes.

The cultivated raspberry is also esteemed a great
luxury. During the prevalence of the season, from
the middle of June until about the middle of July, the
sparrows are constant visitors to the bushes. The red
variety is greatly to be preferred to any other. The
black variety is the least attractive. It is probable that
the fruits of the high and low blackberries are occasion-
ally eaten, although not to any great extent. I have
seen birds upon these bushes acting very mysteriously.
A subsequent examination showed that the berries had
been pecked. The pea-vines receive their share of
attention also. But it is only when the pods have
appeared and become partially swollen out with the
developing peas. When the latter have attained one-
fourth, and even one-half, their natural size, they are
most prized. They are secured by the separation of
the valves of the pod by the bill of the bird. The
destruction which these birds commit upon the pea is
nothing when compared with that wliicli they perpe-
trate upon grain fields. The growing head is often
attacked, and the soft and milky grain extracted from
the glume. But it is mainly after the head has ripened,
and is reposing upon the field preparatory to being
carried to the barn for shelter, that this destruction is
most complete. Many a grain is then pulled from its
hiding-place and passed into the stomachs of these birds,
or scattered irrecoverably upon the ground. In the

52 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

summer of 1877 immense flocks of these birds, num-
bering from a hundred to five hundred, were observed
two miles to the southwest of Chestnut Hill, a suburb
of Philadelphia, in the midst of a large field of cradled
grain. They were vigorously at work, and, contrary to
what is usual, so intently bent upon their task as not to
notice the writer and two friends, until we were within
a few feet of them. Then, all of a sudden, they rose up,
but to re-alight a few seconds afterwards, within fifty
yards of their former place. To assert that these flocks
would destro}T and waste at least twenty-five bushels,
in less than half a day, would not be beyond the range
of possibility. Other fields were witnessed during the
summer, undergoing similar depredations,. on quite as
extensive a scale; so that the mischief done during a
single season, in a limited area, can hardly be estimated.

In addition to the above articles, the seeds of some
cruciferous and coinpositaceous plants are also eaten.
After the soil has been loosened in early spring, and
sown, these birds assemble upon the newly raked ground,
and in an incredibly short time gather up the scattered
seeds, leaving but few to germinate. Those of the
garden lettuce (Lactuca saliva)^ radish (JRaphanus sa-
tivus), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), are principally desired.
When these plants have matured their seeds, their dried
heads and pods are visited. The seeds of the dandelion,
and our common thistles, are torn from their receptacles,
and devoured at the appropriate seasons.

During the autumnal months, when the grapes are
beginning to mellow, these birds are on hand. In some
localities the bunches are so horribly mutilated as to
be of no use. They attack the grape in the same
manner as they do the cherry. Few of our cultivated

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 53

varieties escape. The small winter grape (Vttis cordi-
folia), on account of its peculiar flavor and small pulp,
is never attacked, although I am inclined to believe
that the sweet-scented blossoms are not so fortunate.
The fruit of the sweet viburnum (Viburnum lentago),
which is in excellent order in the months of October
and November, is eaten with a gusto. The fruits of
Lome-era periclymenum and Rhus glahra constitute a por-
tion of their bill of fare also at this season, although
not favorite articles of diet.

Many careful microscopic examinations of the contents
of numerous stomachs during the fall and winter months,
September excluded, have revealed but few, if any, traces
of insects. It is therefore wise to conclude that their
diet then consists almost entirely of vegetable food,
using this term in its broadest sense. In early spring
indubitable traces of Harpahis pennsylvanicus, H. coinpar,
Casnonia pcnnsylvanica, and Formica sanguined, in small
quantities, have been found. From the small number
of coleoptera and hymenoptera that I have been able to
find, I incline to the opinion that this scarcity is to be
attributed either to general dislike for such fare, or to
its accidental presence. The examination of many
stomachs, without the slightest trace of insect remains,
seems to confirm the latter suspicion.

It is mainly during the breeding-period that the
parent birds destroy vast number of noxious caterpillars,
and others. The principal insects which constitute the
dietary of the young then, are the larvse of Gortyna zece,
Anisopteryx vernata, A. pometaria, Zerene catena-rid, Enno-
mos subsigndrid, Choerodes transversata, Ilybernia tiliaria,
Pieris rapce, Colias philodice, Tkeda humuli, Utethesla bella,
Plusia precaiionis, and Orgyia leucostigma, among lepidop-

54 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

tera. The larva of Gortyna zece, or the corn worm as it
is commonly designated, is but little utilized as food,
owing to the great difficulty experienced in its capture.
During the prevalence of the cabbage plague a few years
ago, vast numbers of Pieris rapes were destroyed. The
birds evidently did some good in the preservation of the
plants. Last year but few plants were infested, and the
result was a good crop of cabbage. Whether the spar-
rows will still continue to merit our praise, in this par-
ticular, remains to be seen. Many of our native birds
are as partial to this worm as the sparrow, and during
my boyhood days always kept them in check, save in
seasons when there was an unusual abundance of these
pests, and a remarkable falling oft' in the number of insect-
eating birds. Formerly, many caterpillars of the rusty-
vaporer moth (Orgyla leucostigma) were eaten, but lat-
terly there is little demand for such articles of diet in a
region where plenty of other and more agreeable food
abounds. During the past season (1877), scarcely a
caterpillar of this species was touched. I have observed
caterpillars in such places that they could not have
escaped detection by the sparrows, but there was appa-
rent a want of disposition to meddle with these irritating
creatures. The condition of our Philadelphia squares,
and the Common, and public parks of Boston, according
to the testimony of II. A. Purdie, Esq., during the
summer of 1877, abundantly testify to the truth of my
assertion. To the disgust of persons of delicate nerves
and sensitive natures, these insect-pests were creeping
everywhere. To be sure our numerous measuring worms,
many of whose technical names are given above, are still
devoured, but through careful watchfulness I am con-
vinced that the rage for these smooth-skinned loopers is

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 55

a thing of the past, lumbers will still be continued to
be fed to the young birds while they are nestlings, but
these will be mingled with other diet of a vegetal
character.

Dipterous insects, but chiefly in the mature state,
are greedily eaten when procurable. To capture these
creatures requires no little skill and address. Still I
have witnessed such feats by the sparrows, but there
was lacking that inimitable precision which character-
izes the MuscicapidcB) Vireonidce, and to a slight degree,
the Sylvicolidce. From the exceedingly limited supply
of dipterous food which these birds are able to procure,
it is obvious that we cannot look to them to rid man of
many of his most inveterate tormentors. The principal
insects of this order that are preyed upon are the com-
mon house fly (Musca domestica), stable fly (Stomoxys
calcitrans), white-lined horse-fly (Tabanus lineola), mos-
quito (Calex tceniorliynchiis).

In addition to the foregoing, our various species of
Aphidaz and Coccidce, are exterminated in countless
myriads. Perhaps the good which they accomplish in
the destruction of these vegetation-destroyers will com-
pensate for the mischief which they commit in other
directions. This good quality, however, certainly loses
much of its value when brought before the light of in-
vestigation. 'Tis true that these rapidly multiplying
creatures are held somewhat in check under sparrow
domination. But then how much better is the condi-
tion of affairs now than in the past ? When our smaller
native birds were common denizens of our yards and
fields, before the introduction of the sparrows, aphides
were not more abundant than under the present regime.
Any of our numerous insect-eating birds would destroy

56 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

as many of these pests in a day as. the pugnacious and
greedy sparrow, and reward us, besides, for the privilege
of nesting in our shade and fruit trees, by the. most
agreeable melodies and winning manners.

o o

The common earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris) is also
eaten. In the spring and summer when these creatures
make their appearance upon the surface on a clear
morning after a night of showers, they are instantly
beset and made subservient to a keen and vigorous appe-
tite. When the garden soil has been broken up by the
spade preparatory to sowing seed, many of these wiry
fellows fall ready victims to the sparrow. Unlike the
robin, tanager, and others, it has never been observed in
the distant fields, gleaning among the upturned clods
for the caitiffs which have been exposed to the light of
day, by the trenchant plough. Other scenes, the bud-
ding and blossoming trees, invite its willing labors.

The flight of the sparrow is low, quite irregular, and
but slightly sustained. It never flies to a great distance,
when disturbed, like many of the Fringillidce. In this
particular, it reminds us of the movements of the song
sparrow. Its peculiar physique will not admit of pro-
longed and rapid flight, but evidently points to a type
of structure best adapted to non-migratory habits. The
acquirement of such habits must certainly beget the
most unenviable traits of character, when viewed in
connection with the sparrow's excessive salacity and
remarkable powers of reproduction. To the same cause
must be ascribed the exceeding sociability which it
manifests towards its human brethren.

In gleaning for food it is mainly terrestrial in habits.
It is only when in quest of caterpillars for its young, and

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 57

of articles for the gratification of its own peculiar appe-
tite, that it becomes arboreal.

The song of this species, if I may be allowed so to
characterize it, judging from a human standpoint, lacks
both variety and expression. It is in striking contrast
with the song of Melospiza melodia, the common song
sparrow, and with that of Spizella pusilla, the field spar-
row. It cannot fail to attract attention by its utter
inharmoniousness. Its ordinary call-note may he quite
accurately expressed by the monosyllabic hwi, which is
repeated at somewhat irregular intervals. A simple
tiul-che, the final syllable being repeated quite sharply,
is symbolic of anger; while the cry of vexation and
disappointment is indicated by tivi-lici-twoo, tici-twi-twoo,
uttered in a lively and discordant manner.

If the sparrow possesses any notes during the period
of mating different from what it has been heard to
emit at other times, the writer is not cognizant of them.
If they exist, they must only be appreciable to persons
possessed of a more delicate auditory apparatus than the
writer can lay claim to. It would seem that this im-
portant period is ushered into existence by the same
noisy demonstrations, but, if anything, tenfold more
pronounced, as mark the sparrow's daily awakening
from the sleep of night. The activity, which is then
manifest, is more animated. Contentions, the results
of amatory influences, are of frequent occurrence. These
are mainly due to desires for particular boxes, and not,
as is often erroneously supposed, to desires upon the
part of particular males for certain females. I have the
best of reasons for believing that, in the generality of
cases, the same birds pair on each annual return of the
season. My own observations upon this species, in cer-
t's

58 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

tain isolated localities, thoroughly convince me of the
truth of the statement. Boxes that were occupied during
the breeding-season have been known to afford shelter to
the same parent birds during the inclemency of winter.
There are times, doubtless, when this condition of things
does not prevail.

Mating commences remarkably early, if it may be
said to have a beginning at all. The astounding salacity
of the sparrow, which surpasses that of any other species,
so far as my knowledge will enable me to form a judg-
ment, inclines me to believe that in many cases it is not
accomplished at all. I have observed the sexes together,
during the warm days of December and January that
sometimes occur in our northern winters, displaying the
warmest affection and closest attachment for each other.
Such feelings beget an ardor of temperament which
manifests itself in conjugal embraces. The sexes, in
coition during these months, have frequently been en-
countered. This should not seem such a wonderful
affair, when it is borne in mind that preparations for
nest-building are frequently made as early as the first
week of February.

Usually, the male among animals is the more amo-
rous of the sexes. But in the case of the sparrow,
the female is certainly the equal, if not the superior, of
her partner, in this respect. I have observed the male
in sexual intercourse with his partner as many as twelve
times in less than five minutes. Mr. John Strouse, of
Germantown, informs me that fifteen expresses the
highest number of times that has come under his no-
tice. Others have observed a much smaller, yet equally
astounding, number. The peculiar movements of the
female at such times, and her not-to-be-misconstrued

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 59

call, are enough to satisfy the most skeptical that she
is a genuine seducer. The male, though generally anx-
ious, does not always obey her summons. From the
foregoing statements, it is obvious that sexual inter-
course is not always indulged in with a view of propa-
gating the species, but is frequently performed as a
mere sensual gratification. The overstimulated life
which these birds lead, has doubtless produced that
excessive amativeness which is so conspicuous a feature
of their character.

Niclifi cation, as previously remarked, commences early,
sometimes as early as the first week of April, but
usually not before the last week of March, or the begin-
ning of April. The labors of nest-building are mutually
shared, both birds working with a perseverance and
diligence truly commendatory. The materials out of
which the domicile is built, are mostly gathered by the
male, his partner attending to their proper adjustment.
I have seen more than a single female engaged in assist-
ing the male in such work. Iir February, 1875, my
attention was called to a pair of females and a single
male, carrying dried grasses and feathers to a certain
tree-hollow. The most perfect good-will and harmony
prevailed among the members of this trio. When the
weather was unusually severe, labor was suspended, to
be resumed on the return of milder climate. Myself
and friends anxiously awaited to see what would be the
ultimate result of this tripartite covenant, but before the
nest had reached completion, from some cause unknown
to us, the locality was deserted, and has not since been
occupied. Perhaps the odd female was a young bird
that had been hatched late in the season, and who, being
strongly attached to her parents, had taken this means of

60 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

proving her filial affection. It might he supposed that,
as these sparrows often resort to hollow trees for shelter
during the cold days and nights of winter, the aforemen-
tioned articles were designed for no other purpose than
that of rendering their roosting quarters more comfort-
able. I grant the plausibility of this explanation. But,
then, it is somewhat negatived by the fact that instances
are not wanting to prove that these birds do sometimes
take advantage of an unusually warm February in obe-
dience to their natural instincts of brood-raising.

In the selection of a locality some birds are not at all
particular; but others, again, manifest a predilection for
boxes, or hollow trees. The ivy comes in for its share of
attention. Scores of birds not only find comfortable
shelter in the midst of its network of leaves and
branches during the rigors of winter, but also suitable
accommodations for nesting purposes. Where the above
conveniences are not available, actuated by a true
parental instinct, the birds sometimes place their nests
between the forked branches of a tree. The maple is
not uncommonly selected for this purpose. A case of the
kind came under my immediate observation in the sum-
mer of 1874.

A nest, which the writer possesses, may be said to
constitute a typical structure, when nidification occurs
within a tree-cavity. It occupies the hollow branch of
an apple tree, and measures fifteen inches in length, and
four inches in diameter. Basally, it is composed of a
heterogeneous mixture of feathers, grasses, and leaves ;
and, peripherally, of a thick wall of dry plant-stems,
intermingled with feathers of the barnyard fowl. The
labor of niditication ordinarily continues from four to

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 61

five days, when the builders are working under the
most favorable auspices.

The nest just described is unusually large, and is
the result of several additions to the original structure
after each brood-raising. Three broods had been success-
fully reared within its walls, and at tbe time of the
severance of the limb from the trunk of the tree,
preparations for a fourth brood were manifest. From
the great depth of its cavity, the labor of removing the
befouled materials, which would have been exceedingly
arduous and irksome to the birds, wTas spared ; a fresh
supply of feathers being carried into it for each succes-
sive brood. The preparations for the fourth brood were
being made during the last week of August.

Another nest, which was collected late in June, was
built between a forked twig of the common swamp
maple. It is composed externally of fine and coarse
strings from the thickness of twine to that of sewing
silk, carpet rags, a few branch lets of Populus dilatata or
Lornbardy poplar, and a modicum of rootlets. Inter-
nally, it is lined with a dense stratum of raw cotton.
It measures four and a half inches in diameter at the
mouth, and has a depth of two and a half inches. The
cavity is three inches wide, and one and a half inches
deep. The outer materials are far from being tastefully
interwoven, and the arrangement displays hut little
artistic skill. If its present appearance affords any
criterion, the cotton had evidently been found en masse,
and is adjusted pretty much in the identical condition
which it presented when first discovered by the birds.

The latter is the only nest of the kind that I have
met with. Its structure is somewhat anomalous. But
since my discovery, I have well-authenticated instances

62 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

of other nests having been found in similar positions.
Professor Gilbert, of Germantown, has recently called
my attention to a nest of this species, which was placed
upon a branch, and securely attached thereto. It was
protected from above by an arch-like arrangement,
which was firmly fastened to the walls of the nest proper,
evidently constituting a part of the structure. A nearly
circular aperture formed the only doorway by which ac-
cess could be obtained to the cosy chamber within.

It would seem from the foregoing statement that,
when deprived of the covering which nature affords in
various ways in the shape of decayed tree-trunks and
branches and the matted leaves and vines of the common
ivy, or when deprived of the many human contrivances
for nesting purposes, these birds obtain the requisite
shelter and comfort, in exposed situations, by building
roofs to their domiciles. Here, it is obvious, is another
proof, in addition to the many which have been recorded
from time to time, of the well-known truth that the
actions of the feathered creation are controlled by a
reason, similar in kind but different in degree, from
that which inspires human motives, and governs human
actions. Here is evidence of a high mentality.

Does the sparrow occupy the same nest any two con-
secutive years together, or does it, on each annual return
of the breeding-season, seek a new locality ? I incline to
the former belief. "When the nest is placed in a box, in
many instances, the old and soiled materials are carried
out, and a fresh supply takes their place. The compara-
tive ease with which this labor can be accomplished
renders it preferable to any other. But in cases where
the nest is situated deep down in a hollow tree-branch,
the labor of removing the entire materials, especially

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 63

where the same nest has heen made to answer for several
broods, would be almost herculean, and is therefore sel-
dom attempted. A few of the upper articles only are
removed, and others put into their places. The same
site is thus made available for several years, and is only
deserted when no longer fitted for duties of incubation
and brood-raising.

When the ivy is taken possession of for nesting and
roosting purposes, for it must be remembered that there
is a decided preference for this vine as evidenced by the
hundreds of birds that avail themselves of its shelter,
there is good reason for believing that the same nest is
occupied until it becomes so rotten and time-worn as to
drop from its moorings, when the unfortunate owners
are compelled to construct another. Like the robin, the
sparrow always makes the necessary repairs to its home,
which have been rendered necessary by the war of
elements to which it has been subjected. But, in the
generality of cases, it is otherwise with the robin ; it
follows the example of its great brotherhood of birds in
constructing a new nest on each recurrence of the nest-
ing-season.

The labors of nidification being accomplished, but
little time is wasted in celebrating this remarkable
event. The birds seem actuated by the most intense
desire to obey the controlling instinct of their being, the
chief aim of their transitory existence. Consequently,
oviposition commences on the day succeeding nest-corn-
pletion. The eggs are deposited not oftener than one
a day. The ordinary complement is not less than
four, nor more than five. Incubation immediately
succeeds oviposition, in the majority of instances, and is
never later than the day following the last deposit. It

64 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

continues for eleven clays. The burden of the responsi-
bility devolves chiefly upon the female, although the
male does not refuse his generous assistance. While his
partner is thus occupied, he is a faithful guardian, and
willing provider. He exhibits great affection for her,
and is indefatigable in his efforts to render her comfort-
able and happy. His jealousy is unbounded. !N"o feath-
ered stranger is permitted within his territory, without
receiving summary and condign punishment for such
temerity. When unable to cope with the enemy, a
call-note of distress brings scores of friends to the rescue.
He seldom strays any considerable distance from home,
except when foraging. He maintains the most friendly
relations with his neighbors, and is seldom known to
violate the rules of common decency and good faith. He
never trespasses upon the rights and property of a friend,
and is extremely jealous of his own. Matrimonial rela-
tions are entered into with a due sense of their honor
and sacredness. In not a single instance have I known
a real flirtation to be practised, a genuine case of deser-
tion by either sex, or one of infidelity. The remarkable
salacity which characterizes the social life of this species,
one would suppose, would break up the harmony which
exists, and turn a well-regulated and peaceful commu-
nity into a state of society where quarrels and bitter
animosities would be of daily occurrence; in fine,
would convert it into a communism, or a state of society
in which polygamy would be a prevailing feature. Like
our common Gallus, the most powerful males would be
the more highly favored. But, be it said to the credit
of the species, a more perfect pattern of conjugal faith-
fulness could scarcely be pictured to the mind. Its
extreme amativeness is doubtless, as before remarked,

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 65

the result of the overstimulated life which these birds
lead in the land of their forced adoption. Although in-
duced by climatic and dietetic causes, which act with
greater freedom and power here than in the land of its
nativity, as I infer from the silence of European writ-
ers upon the subject, it is gratifying and consoling to
reflect that the change has not been so radical as to
operate towards the destruction of the social ties which
bind the individuals of this species into a harmonious
whole, and which has cemented a friendship so strong
and durable that infidelity is out the question.

The extraordinary degree of affection which the sexes
display towards each other, naturally leads to the infer-
ence that parental love lacks naught of the power and
vigor of conjugal love. We therefore find that the most
devoted affection and the greatest concern are manifested
for the young. Both parents vie with each other in
rendering them every needful attention. To satisfy
their voracious appetites, they are kept alternately busy
from morning until night, as well by cloudy and rainy,
as by fair and sunshiny weather. Occasionally, both
birds are absent from home on this important business.
"When with young, should the nest be assailed by human
or feathered foe, the utmost excitement, and the most
deafening din, prevail. In the case of a feathered
enemy, the combined vengeance of the insulted pair is
wreaked upon the daring and presumptuous offender.
In these attacks, the female is the compeer of her lord.
It is seldom that, except in isolated cases, the necessity
for such assaults exists, for, where the requisite accom-
modations abound, a disposition to dwell in communities
is manifest, and few species have the rashness to attempt
any molestation.

66 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

When the young have attained the age of from twelve
to thirteen days, they quit the nest, but are still fed by
the parents from ten to eleven days longer, when they
are sufficiently matured to shift for themselves. Paren-
tal affection permits them to linger about their homes,
and where conveniences exist, they are allowed to seek
shelter, during inclement weather and winter nights,
in the boxes and hollows which served them as nests
during their helpless stage of existence.

Generally, three broods are annually raised. In-
stances are known to the writer where preparations
were making for a fourth brood, when the designs of

O 7 O

the birds were frustrated by human interference.

During the prevalence of cold weather, at nights, and
even in the warmer seasons of the year, in the daytime
when the rain is descending in torrents, almost any con-
venience is appropriated for roosting purposes. Hollow
trees, ivy vines, boxes, eaves of buildings, and outhouses,
are common places of resort. In rural districts, barracks
and haystacks afford cosy and comfortable quarters.

In some portions of Philadelphia immense numbers
take refuge in the ivy. In the writer's neighborhood, es-
pecially upon the north side of the mansion of Mr. John
Button, carefully protected from cold winds and pelting
storms by surrounding dwellings, within an extensive
vine which covers the entire gable-end, at least a hundred
sparrows find comfortable lodgings. The ceaseless clatter
which the birds produce during early morning, and in
the evening, is almost deafening. During the breeding-
period, the vine is literally filled with nests. In asserting
that fifty pairs and upward nidificate within its limits,
the writer cannot be accused of misrepresentation or ex-
aggeration. Notwithstanding the petty quarrels which

TEE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 67

sometimes occur, especially in the spring, a high degree of
harmony prevails. May this not he accounted for hy the
fact that this entire community is the natural outgrowth
of a single pair that took up its quarters in the vine
several years ago?

The eggs of the house sparrow are oval, pointed at one
extremity, and dotted with various shades of cinereous
brown upon a light ashen background. Their average
length is .91 of an inch, and average breadth .62.

The breeding-period being over, both old birds and
young may often be seen together, dusting themselves
in the streets (for which they show great fondness), or
else be observed upon a freshly deposited heap of horse-
dung, gorging themselves to satiety upon the undi-
gested fragments of grain and other substances which
it contains. Often, on such occasions, have we remarked
the attention which the parent birds bestow upon their
numerous progeny, showing their affection by the tender
of some racy article which they have discovered in their
careful and diligent examination.

Even at this period, and all along through the dreary
autumnal and winter months which follow, owing to
the extreme scarcity of suitable roosting quarters, which
is mainly noticeable within large towns and cities in
consequence of the vast abundance of these birds,
immense numbers seek shelter upon window ledges,
and underneath verandas or porches, which they defile
by their disgusting habits. The heaps of excrement
which they leave in such places, a sorry compensation
for the kindness and benevolence which tolerate their
presence, are considerable. To the tidy and careful
housewife, they are unmitigated nuisances. It is not
surprising that many should place them under the ban

68 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

of excommunication, and whenever the opportunity is
afforded, should persecute them with a bitter hatred.
In the country, a similar complaint prevails ; but there
the mischief done to newly-painted cornices, pillars, and
window-ledges, is small in comparison with what is ac-
complished by these feathered denizens in cities.

In concluding this rather imperfect sketch of the
sparrow, I cannot refrain from mentioning a few facts
gleaned from other sources. In the winter of 1875,
James Kirk, Esq., of Germantown, informs me that he
erected a rather capacious house with several compart-
ments, for the accommodation of these birds, which were
frequent visitants to his garden. Every encouragement
was given to them to build. Although the house was
put up long before the commencement of the breeding-
period, to my informant's surprise, not a single pair of
birds could be induced to take permanent possession.
Unable to solve the problem, application for a solution
was made to the writer. A little conversation with
the gentleman elicited a number of facts which, asso-
ciated with others that had come under the writer's ob-
servation, enabled the latter to solve the question. It
was apparent from the above conversation, that several
attempts had been made by different parties to build,
but owing to the unfriendly relations which subsisted
between them, they all proved failures. Others had at-
tempted it with the same results. Experience has taught
the writer that when houses and even vines are occupied
by birds of near kinship, but few if any difficulties occur
to mar the happiness of the occupants ; but, on the con-
trary, when different clans, so to speak, come together,
more or less jangling is the certain and unavoidable
result. In view of these established truths, I will be

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 69

safe in concluding that, however suitable my friend's
building may have been for nidificating purposes, for
the sparrow, like our common house wren (Troglodytes
sedon], is not at all fastidious in its selection of a house,
its abandonment was solely due to the conflicting natures
of the parties that sought to possess it.

Some interesting observations, showing the reprehen-
sible conduct of the sparrow, have lately appeared in
the "Hartford Times" bearing date Oct. 17, 1877. As a
general thing, I care very little for newspaper science,
but these facts are so good, and correspond so closely
with notes of others and my own, and are such that we
should expect from the known character of this species,
that I cannot refrain from giving them further publi-
city. The story was given on the authority of a friend
of the writer's, who obtained it direct from the person
that witnessed the occurrences. This gentleman, a
resident of New York, had erected in his backyard,
during the spring of 1877, a large box for the accommo-
dation of the sparrows. It was so constructed that
twelve pairs of birds could find appropriate quarters for
nesting. These apartments were soon appropriated, and
the business of the season proceeded "amid the chip-
pering din of these fussy and pugnacious feathered
colonists." Sitting idly at his window one Sunday
observing the busy creatures, the gentleman's attention
was arrested by a cock-sparrow which came flying to
his place with a fine soft white feather in his bill. The
position of the box was such that he could look into the
compartments. In this case the bird was observed to
deposit the feather into an incomplete nest, and then
fly away. No sooner had he disappeared, than tlie nest
was visited by a female sparrow from the adjoining

70 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

compartment who had evidently noticed the proceeding,
and the coveted feather was carried away. Instead of
carrying the stolen article to her own nest, she made off
with the feather to a neighboring tree, where she se-
curely fastened it, in an inconspicuous place, upon and
between two twigs. There she left it and returned
home. Pretty soon the loser came back with a straw
to add to his nest. Discovering his loss, he issued out,
and with many an angry expostulation, vowed ven-
geance upon the despoiler of his home. His first
demonstration was to visit his next door neighbor, but
finding no trace of the pilfered feather, somewhat per-
plexed, he retired, and desisting from further attempts
at discovery, flew away in quest of another. The
guilty party, after innocently and loudly demanding a
reason for this ungentlemanly intrusion in order to turn
suspicion away from herself, as soon as her offended
neighbor had got well out of sight, flew to the tree,
seized the stolen feather, and bore it triumphantly to
her own nest.

Mr. Elliott, in his Birds of North America, mentions
a rather curious incident, which goes far to show the
familiar and curious disposition of the sparrow. It
savors somewhat of the ludicrous, but is sufficiently in-
teresting to be given. In August, 1868, while passing
by an undertaker's shop in Jersey City, his attention
was attracted to one of these birds which was hopping
very quietly about in a glass window that had been
left open, intently inspecting the caskets on exhibition,
doubtless with the view of selecting one in which to
construct a nest.

A writer, in the "Scientific American" for August 11,
1877, mentions a few observations concerning these

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 71

birds which had previously escaped the writer's atten-
tion. But since their perusal, I have been able to con-
firm them. He not only calls notice to a change of habit
which this species has undergone, but also to a change
of color. His observations are wholly restricted to New
York City and its environs. While a sparrow with a
white feather would be considered much of a curiosity
in England or France, says substantially our informant,
such birds are by no means uncommon in and about
that city. According to this writer they constitute at
least five per cent, of the entire number. In the City
Hall Park, and at Bloomingdale, birds are frequently
seen with unusually light plumage. In the midst of
Germantown, I have observed at least five birds out of
every hundred, in which this color-change was decidedly
manifest. Further, our informant says, after comparing
the movements of the European sparrow with those of its
cis-Atlantic cousin, that the former moves with a clear
and distinct hop, thus making a quite perceptible pause
between the two consecutive hops ; while the latter makes
a succession of quick hops with very small ascent, almost
equivalent to a short run, then stops very abruptly, thus
resembling, in a measure, the characteristic movement
of the American robin. In conclusion, he says that the
American bird is seemingly " entertaining somewhat of
disdain for the insectivorousness to which he owes his
importation, forgetful that in no other way can he pay
his passage money."

It is well known that the most friendly relations
subsist among the sparrows of the same household.
Instances have been recorded showing this, and also
the willingness and readiness with which they hasten
to the rescue of one of their number when in danger.

(± THE HOUSE SPARROW.

How they will deport themselves when a comrade is
ill, I cannot say from experience ; but a knowledge of
the social life of this species, in many of its different
phases, amply qualifies me to speak. But I am debarred
from hazarding an opinion. The New York "Sun" has
called attention to a case in point which occurred quite
recently. In the Jersey City ferry -house of the Pavonia
Ferry, a flock of sparrows excited much interest among
the passengers, in their endeavors to take care of a
companion who was evidently sick. After much chip-
pering among the birds, as though they had been hold-
ing a consultation, it was finally settled to put the
patient behind the top cornice of a pillar. The sick
bird was then borne to the chosen spot by three of its
companions, and carefully covered over with straw.
Everything having passed off quite satisfactorily, a
dozen sparrows perched upon the telegraph wire, and in
loud vociferations celebrated the success of the difficult
undertaking.

The human-like and orderly execution of this busi-
ness, leads me to suspect that a leader of superior intel-
ligence and wisdom directed the whole affair. In the
absence of any positive information bearing upon the
subject, I am led to this belief from facts which have
come into my possession since commencing this article.
"William Ivenney, Esq., of this place, informs me that
he has given considerable attention to the sparrows,
which frequent his trees and ivy vines in large numbers,
nesting in the hollows of the trees, and roosting in the
vines. He asserts that their noise in the early evening
is almost deafening, each bird endeavoring to outstrip
its companions in vocal demonstrations. All appear to
be in the full enjoyment of happiness. But after a half

THE SPARROW IN AMERICA. 73

hour thus spent, one of the birds is observed to leave
the vine, and by a given signal, so loud as to be dis-
tinctly heard by all, commands silence. The order is
instantly obeyed, and quietness reigns supreme. Mr.
Ivenney assures me that he has seen the movements,
and heard the call, on scores of occasions, and cannot
be mistaken.

74

CHAPTER III.

EVIDENCE, BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE, OF THE
SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA.

IN the very imperfect sketch which I have given of
the sparrow's life in its American home, which is
mainly based upon my own observations, I would be
guilty of manifest injustice to my contemporaries who
have written upon the subject, if I should omit to make
mention of their writings and discoveries. Besides, I
would be neglecting a duty which I owe as well to my-
self as to them. The value of confirmatory evidence
cannot be adequately appreciated. The evidence which
I have to offer, therefore, will be both of an affirmative
and of a negative character.

In the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History for
1867, Mr. Lawrence has given a brief sketch of the
sparrow's introduction, and of the benefits which had
accrued therefrom to society up to the time of his
writing. He says, "The pest of oar shade trees and
horrors of pedestrians (caterpillars of Ennomos subsig-
naria) form part of the diet of this species."

Dr. Charles Pickering, who had obviously given con-
siderable attention to the study of the sparrow-question,
in the Proceedings of the Boston Society for 1867,
cites several authorities to show that these birds have
been the enemies of mankind for more than 5000 years.
At the period of the invention of writing this bird,

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 75

according to Mr. Pickering, was selected " as the
hieroglyphic character signifying enemy." This writer
was led into his investigations of its past history only
after noticing exhibitions of its pugnacious disposition,
and destructive character, in his native city of Boston.

In the Proclamation of the Boston Society for 1869,
Dr. Brewer speaks of the good which the sparrows
have accomplished in New York, in the destruction of
the measuring worms of that city, and neighboring cities.
In the summer of 1867, he remarks, they were observed
actively engaged over the city in clearing trees of worms,
and so successfully, that the foliage of none was known
to be eaten. Great hopes were entertained by him of
the incalculable services which they would render to
this country, not merely in keeping measuring worms,
but also canker worms, caterpillars, and possibly curculio
in check. In the work entitled u North American
Birds," his earliest views, the results of his own observa-
tions, are doubtless expressed. Read what he says: —

" Apprehensions have been expressed that these new-
comers may molest and drive away our own native
birds. How this may be when the sparrows become
more numerous cannot now be determined, but so far
they manifest no such disposition. Since their intro-
duction into Boston, the chipping sparrows appear to
have increased, and to associate by preference with their
European visitors, feeding with them unmolested. I
have been unable to detect a single instance in which
they have been molested in any manner by their larger
companions."

In September's issue of the "American Naturalist" for
1874, in answer to a small article which was published
in a previous number, in which Dr. Coues sets forth some

76 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

remarks of the writer's that are derogatory to the spar-
row's character, occurs the following pointed declara-
tion:—

" They never molest, attack, or try to drive away any
birds except their own species, and that only from ama-
tory influences. In such times the males are pugnacious
against other males of their own species, but nothing
more. The females are not at all pugnacious under any
circumstances."

In a subsequent issue of the above journal (Oct. 1874),
a lengthy reply from the pen of the writer is recorded.
In it occurs evidence of the sparrow's irritable, and
above all, pugnacious disposition, substantiated by the
observations of Messrs. Abel Willis, John Strouse, and
others of Germantown, Pa. The same number contains
an article from the pen of Mr. Stephen Gould, of New-
port, R. I., corroborative of Dr. Brewer's statements.
This writer claims that the house sparrow is nearly always
accompanied by the American goldfinch and our com-
mon sparrow, and actually fraternizes with the black-
birds; in short, courts the society of other birds rather
than seeks to drive them away. The male birds only,
he affirms, " tight among themselves after the manner
of roosters, but do not seem to molest other birds."

As early as 1874, in this country, do we discover that
the sparrows are not as destructive to insects as was at
first supposed. None will deny that they have been
of service. For several years prior to their introduc-
tion, the measuring worms preyed upon the leaves of
trees to such an extent that, when summer dawned,
scarcely a tree was to be seen that had not been rifled of
its foliage. So effectively had the sparrows accomplished

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 77

their labors that, two years subsequent to their introduc-
tion, hardly a worm was to be seen. Early in 1874, ac-
cording to the u Medical Times," another insect foe made
its appearance, in the shape of the caterpillar of the
rusty -vaporer moth, the Orgyia leucostigma of entomolo-
gists. As long as the measuring worms were permitted
to rest undisturbed, this caterpillar, which comes rather
late, discovered the "struggle for existence" a sharp one,
its natural provisions being consumed by the worm.
It now finds an ample supply of food, and, consequently,
is flourishing and increasing rapidly in numbers. Its
hairy integument protects it in a great measure from
the sparrow's assaults. Some other bird must be found
to exterminate this pest. But inasmuch as the sparrow
is a very obstinate and pugnacious little fellow, it is
doubtful whether he will permit a stranger to trespass
upon his territory. The writer referred to above, says,
" At present, very many trees in this city have again put
on the familiar woe-begone look of old, hiding their
misery with the merest tatters and shreds of leaves.
But the new-comer doesn't drop on you? Doesn't he
though ? If he does not drop, he crawls, or gets on some
way or other, and the man who has felt his long hairs
tickling his neck, struck for a fly, and finds in his hand
a bare and bursted carcass, on his shirt collar a stain, and
down his back a bunch of tickling hairs, will vote the
c survival of the fittest,' in its latest form, an unmiti-
gated nuisance. "

At the meeting of the American Association, held
August, 1875, Dr. John L. Le Conte, of Philadelphia,
asserts that the sparrow does not attack the larva of
Orgyia leucostigma^ being doubtless deterred therefrom
by the bristles with which it is protected.

78 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

From this .period to the spring of 1877, very little was
written about the sparrow, excepting the writer's work
on the Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania. The many unen-
viable traits of character which this species possesses were
nevertheless matters of daily observation and conversa-
tion. After Dr. Brewer's return from Europe, where he
had been making a rather protracted visit, the sparrow-
question is again revived, and these much-abused and
scandalized creatures find a firm friend and staunch
defender. In the "Washington Gazette, bearing date
June, 1877, the doctor substantially affirms that robins
were more plentiful in Boston than ever before, being
ten times more numerous than they were a decade
since; that bluebirds now abound, which were recently
unknown ; that white-bellied swallows, chipping spar-
rows, and purple martins have appeared in legions; and,
finally, that "each year adds new species, even such
forest-birds as the yellow-bellied woodpecker."

In "The American Cultivator" for August, 1877,
similar views are expressed by this indefatigable writer,
clinched by the opinions of John Galvin, Esq., the City
Forester of Boston.

The last-named gentleman, in reply to certain questions
which were submitted to him by Dr. Brewer, April 23,
1877, affirms without hesitation that " the sparrows do
not molest or interfere with any other bird. They do
not trouble the robin or bluebird, or manifest any ani-
mosity against either. All summer long they are to-
gether, and it would be impossible for this to be done
without my men or I noticing it, yet I never witnessed
anything of the kind."

"I have not noticed any decrease in the numbers of
any kind, but, on the contrary, a very marked increase

of various kinds. The robins were more numerous on
the Common last summer than ever before. The little
chip-sparrow has become very numerous, and seems to
be very fond of the sparrow, often feeding on the same
bit of bread. The small martins have very greatly
increased in numbers on account of the number of boxes.
These they take possession of whenever they want
one, and drive the sparrows away. Before the sparrows
came there were no bluebirds at all. Now they are
becoming quite common, and often treat the sparrows
very badly, taking away from them their boxes and
breaking up their nests. The sparrows, of course, show
fight, but the bluebirds are always too strong for them."

" I am all in favor of the sparrows. I believe that
they do no harm, but a great deal of good. Thousands
of dollars would not pay the city for their loss, and I
would be very sorry to see anything done to prejudice
people against them or permit their destruction."

Again, the same writer, in clear and unmistakable
language, says, "Their introduction into Boston was
immediately attended with great benefit, almost beyond
calculation. The trees on the Common were infested
with a nasty yellow caterpillar, which destroyed the
leaves and buds of the elms and other trees ; and these
insects increased very rapidly in spite of all that my
men could do to destroy them, and, at the south end,
the elm trees were eaten every June by swarms of
canker-worms. Both of these pests have been pretty
nearly exterminated," etc.

Negativing the assertions of Messrs. Brewer and Gal-
vin, we have the unequivocal statements of H. D. Minot,
Esq., of Cambridge, Mass. This gentleman, who is
distinguished alike for the scope and accuracy of his

80 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

observations, remarks in a late number of the "Forest
and Stream," in giving his objections to the English
sparrow: " 1. They have no personal attractions, except
their tameness. 2. They are practically useless, and
are no longer needed. In Cambridge, those trees which
are properly tarred have no canker-worms on them,
because the female moth is wingless, and, if prevented
from ascending the trunk, cannot lay her eggs near
leaf-buds. Many others of the elms here are largely
stripped, but I have not seen an English sparrow eat
one canker-worm, though both the birds and caterpillars
are abundant. The birds may have been useful on their
first arrival from Europe, but they are too much pam-
pered to be so now, at least to any satisfactory extent.
3. They destroy fruit blossoms. 4. They are often quar-
relsome, and sometimes drive away other useful birds,
as I can positively testify to from my personal observa-
tion."

11. A. Purdie, Esq., of Boston, whose reliability as an
ornithologist is unquestioned, in a communication to
the " Boston Daily Advertiser," July 30, 1877, confirms
Mr. Minot's statements in part. He says, "All over the
boles of the elms, maples, lindens, and other trees might
be seen crawling the larvae or caterpillars of the tussock,
plumed or vaporer moth, also known as the white-
marked orgyia, Or gym leucostigma. They had descended
from the branches where since May they have been feed-
ing, and many were spinning about themselves their
temporary home or cocoon. In a few days the com-
pleted cocoons were to be seen by thousands," etc.

Then, in reply to some rather sweeping assertions
which appeared in the columns of the "Journal and
Transcript," and "Forest and Stream," in which the

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 81

writer asserts that "here in Boston the sulphur-colored
caterpillars have ceased to disgust us with their odious
presence, and we no longer fear for the safety of our
elms as we did in 1869," etc., Mr. Purdie inquires,
"Why these caterpillars on our trees? "With more spar-
rows than ever before, and more native species, how can
it he? These crawling things come from eggs that all
last fall, winter, and spring, the pretty little sparrows
should have eaten. They were laid by the wingless
female imago, which should also have been devoured.
The chrysalis must now be swallowed as a dainty
morsel! But no; not one is molested by Passer domes-
ticus."

Still further our informant remarks: "Mr. Galviu
must have noticed this and re-engaged his corps of tree-
scrapers, for on the 18th instant, men appeared on the
Common, each armed with a sharp-pointed pole with
which then and since they destroyed the caterpillars and
their cocoons, and the trees bear scars where each victim
was effectively impaled. But those within ground-reach
only are disposed of. Others on the limbs of the larger
trees are left for the sparrows to enjoy. In a week or
two more the transformation will be complete, the male
moths will be seen flying about, and the unobserved
female, simply crawling from the inside to the outside
of her cocoon, will there deposit her eggs, the same to
develop next season into the destructive stage of exist-
ence."

Mr. Purdie does not leave the subject here. After
showing that the trees of the Common are provided with
one or more occupied boxes to each tree, he leaves the
scene and invites the reader to a place on Bowdoin
Street, where stand six trees, maples and horse-chestnuts,

82 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

nearly destitute of foliage. In one of these trees are
two boxes, and in three of the others, one box each, and
although the occupants are close at hand and have
raised one or two broods in each of the boxes, yet the
trunks and branches of the trees, as well as the boxes
themselves, are completely covered by cocoons. In
speaking of the scarcity of our smaller native birds in
the same article, Mr. Purdie says, " I have been on the
Common nearly every day, and less often on the public
garden, for the past ten years, and have been a close
observer, and have kept a list of the native species
noticed. I am sorry to say, for I wish it were otherwise,
that our birds have wonderfully decreased in both
species and numbers. I miss their songs and other
notes. The big robin I except ; that bouncer of the
sod holds his own against all odds. Who has caused
this thing, but the pugnacious f ring ilia , now courted by
the city?"

Mr. Dearie, also a resident of Boston, who is no less
remarkable for the extent than the accuracy of his ob-
servations, bears indubitable testimony to the truth of
the foregoing assertions.

Dr. Coues, one of the leaders of ornithology in this
country, a gentleman who has done more to advance
this favorite branch of science than possibly any one else,
in the "Field and Forest" for May, remarks that, "Passer
domesticus, the nuisance, was introduced some years after
our last appeared, and now these rowdy little gamins
squeak and fight all through the city to our great dis-
gust. The introduction of these exotics clutters up
ornithology in a way that a student of geographical dis-
tribution may deplore, and interferes decidedly with the
balance of power among the native species. Whatever

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 83

may be said to the contrary notwithstanding, these
sparrows do molest, harass, drive off, and otherwise
maltreat and forcibly eject and attempt to destroy
various kinds of native birds, which are thereby de-
prived of certain inalienable rights to life, liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness after their own fashion."

In the " Chicago Field" for July, 1877, we have another
article from the same gifted pen. After alluding to the
introduction of the sparrows into this country, the good
which they were expected to accomplish, their remark-
able increase, and a dozen no less interesting matters, the
doctor is at length brought to the main point which he
has to urge against these birds, namely, the reaction of
their presence upon our native birds. He remarks that, —

" They are rapidly exterminating the native songsters
and insect-eating birds from our cities, and what the
result will be when the sparrows overflow into all the
country, even I, who try to be alive to the whole case,
can only imagine. The sparrows are lusty, vigorous
birds, remarkably stout for their size, and withal most
pugnacious, irascible, irritable creatures, who wage per-
petual warfare with the peacably disposed and unoffend-
ing birds with whom they are necessarily thrown into
contact. This is contact of a kind that necessarily im-
plies competition, and in every struggle for existence,
as we all know, the weakest must go to the wall."

In the "Forest and Stream" for June, 1877, a very in-
teresting article bearing upon the much mooted " spar-
row question," appears from the pen of William Walsh,
Esq., of Brooklyn, N. Y. The writer, after speaking
about the warfare which these birds wage upon the
bluebird, robin, wren, and worst of all upon that " sweet
charmer of the spring," the song sparrow ; their utter

84 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

uselessness in the destruction of the rose-bug and a spe-
cies of green worm, and their peculiar penchant for cher-
ries, concludes his interesting sketch in the following
language: —

" From what I have seen I know from experience that
the sparrow is a good-for-nothing, domineering bird, and
any casual observer cannot help but notice that they are
always fighting among themselves, and if one picks up
a crumb or worm the others pursue him to the death
almost, to take it away, and more times than one have
I seen him drop a ' rare bit' trying to flee from his
companions. They let orchards go to ruin, for they will
not eat every kind of insect, and the cornices and win-
dow tops of the houses in our cities present a disgraceful
sight from their droppings, they preferring to build their
nest in the eaves of houses and spend their time among
dung hills in the street, rather than protect the orchards,
which they were transported for. They are given to
wanton laziness, and I recommend that the Acclimatiza-
tion Society ship them all home again, and bring Eng-
lish starlings, nightingales, and the like, and while they
are about it, bring over some English partridge and
woodcock."

J. H. Batty, Esq., of New Utrecht, X. Y., than whom
no better authority upon the sparrow exists in that
State, has placed upon record the history of its pugna-
cious disposition and destructive propensities.

H. G-. Carey, Esq., of Indianapolis, la., although a
warm friend to the sparrow, in the midst of the many
excellent things which he says about the species, for ex-
amples, their wholesale destruction of noxious insects,
and the friendly relations which the}^ have established
with our native birds, consistently affirms, —

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 85

"Their value as a means of defence against the ravages
of insects and worms upon foliage and plants, is in an
inverse ratio to the amount of other food at their com-
mand. If there is an abundance of grain and offal
suited to their tastes, at their disposal, they will not
exert themselves in search of worms. They get in their
best work on insects and caterpillars by destroying their
larvfe during the winter season when other means of
subsistence are scarce."
Again : —

" They prefer to build their nests in small boxes placed
fifteen or twenty feet above the ground on trees in pub-
lic streets, walks, or grounds. When a sufficient number
of these is not supplied, they will build in hollow cor-
nices, brackets, window caps, or in projections of any
character on the walls, or under the eaves of houses —
always selecting the front or most public exposure. In
these localities they, from their noise and droppings,
often become great sources of annoyance."

An anonymous writer, in "Forest and Stream" for
Ma}^, 1877, writes in disparaging terms of the sparrow's
usefulness. After alluding to its introduction into In-
dianapolis for the purposes of " worming" and " bug-
ging," the writer says, —

" From less than a hundred they are now become
thousands, and still the caterpillar swings its nest on
the elm and pear tree. The miller flits in undiminished
numbers about the evening lamps. In fact, it is believed
that these foreigners are mere scavengers, alighting upon
the streets, and eating offal with our common pigeons."
In ]N"ew York City and surroundings, evidence of the
sparrow's jealous disposition and destructive propensi-

86 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

ties, is not wanting. In an anonymous article to the
"Forest and Stream" for June, 1877, a few thoughts as
to the advisability of permitting these birds to increase
in their present alarming proportion, are given. The
writer, after alluding to the eminent service which they
perform in the destruction of the insects which prey
upon the foliage of trees, in municipal districts, and in
the removal of refuse materials, argues that we can very
well dispense with the few birds which were accustomed
to visit such localities before the introduction of the
former. He, then, after a brief allusion to the verdict
of Mr. Galvin, of Boston, says in unequivocal language :
" Where the English sparrows congregate or breed in
numbers, there soon our native birds are wanting. We

O

have time and again witnessed the fierce pugnacity of
the imported birds. Among themselves they are ex-
ceedingly quarrelsome, but let a bird of a different genus
but show himself, and the fury of the whole sparrow
community is turned upon the helpless interloper; they
chase him hither and thither, giving him no rest until
he is banished from the neighborhood. The sparrows
prefer the city streets, where their repulsive food is
plenty, and select the public parks for breeding, but
their marvellous increase has driven hordes of them out
to the surrounding suburbs, where their presence is not
needed, the numberless insectivorous and worm-eating
natives generally being there amply sufficient to cope
with the vermin. We have in mind a locality on the
banks of the Hudson, not many miles from the heart
of ]N"ew York City, a spot noted for its forest trees and
picturesque loveliness. A very few years ago it was the
abiding place of many of our most melodious song
birds. The wood-thrush sent his metallic notes ringing

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 87

from the tall oak and hemlock; the robin, scarlet
tanager, oriole, and a host of others, made the Avoods
ring with their songs, or enlivened the scene with their
brilliant plumage."

" The English sparrow, overflowing from the city,
made his ill-omened appearance ; within six months, the
harsh never-ceasing chirp filled the air from morning
until night, and our native birds began to be heard
and seen in less numbers. The following spring the
most prized wood-thrush had gone elsewhere to breed,
and there was a corresponding diminution in the number
of our other yearly visitants. The indignation of the
neighbors soon vented itself on the useless usurpers, and
they were, by being killed and having their nests broken
up, soon driven off, and at the present time, two years
since the banishment of the English birds, the native
and aboriginal avi-fauna of that region is as plentiful as
it ever was."

The editor of the last-mentioned journal, in his issue
for July, 1877, prints two very interesting and graceful
contributions to the sparrow-question, from the pens of
lady correspondents who, according to his statement,
are "direct descendants of the man who, during the
early days of American scientific research, did perhaps
more than any one before or since has done for the ad-
vancement of its interests. They come from those liv-
ing on. the spot where the immortal artist naturalist
spent some of his happiest years; where, having accom-
plished his great life-work, he passed into a ripe old age,
then peacefully away." It requires but little effort of
the mind to imagine to whom the editor refers.

The value of this testimony, coming as it does from
persons who have doubtless inherited much from their

88 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

illustrious ancestor, cannot be fully appreciated, and
must certainly be treated by the friends of the sparrow,
with a due degree of reverence and respect. The first
lady, writing from New York City, over a rather eupho-
nious cognomen, says, concerning the advisability of
cultivating the English sparrow, —

" I deem it not only a pleasure to add my testimony
against them, but a duty, to use every means in my
power to aid those who desire to banish to the city
the little pests, as much the enemies of our birds as ever
tories were of whigs."

Then, after briefly alluding to the reason which the
defendants of these birds give for allowing them to in-
crease, namely, their destruction of the worms which
infest trees and vegetables, she says, —

"Can it be that they do not know that our native
birds do the same? In a city where the latter will not
live, the sparrow may have his work to do, but certainly
in no other place, and for no other reason could any one
ever care to raise them, for they are neither handsome
nor songsters. That they do drive away all other birds
from any locality which is so unfortunate as to have
them for inhabitants is to me, and any close observer,
an indisputable fact. Some years ago, several of the
neighbors brought large numbers of them to this place.
In an incredibly short time not a forest bird was to be
seen or heard. This was borne impatiently for a year
or so, until the guns of more than one lover of justice
and friend to the birds, drove the usurpers from the
place. Since their banishment the forest birds have re-
turned in full force, and once more their sweet notes are
heard around the home of him who made the study of
them and their habits his life-work."

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 89

The other anonymous communication to which re-
ference has been made, emanating as it does from the
pen of a lady deeply alive to the interest of the subject,
is pregnant with the most astounding truths. I cannot
refrain from quoting it in its entirety. Read what she
says : —

" Let me say a few words for the dear companions of
my childhood. I live in one of the loveliest spots on
earth, on the banks of the Hudson. Magnificent old
forest trees surround me while I write, and the songs
of many birds fill my heart with their melody. To my
mind, their notes this afternoon have a pleading tone,
and I feel compelled to answer their appeal by using my
small influence against their enemies, the sparrows.
Years ago our ears were delighted with the thrilling
notes of the thrush, the meadow lark, the oriole, and
many birds who find a welcome home in our grand old
pines and oaks. We little thought when we welcomed
as enthusiastically as any one the importance of the
sparrow that they would destroy this pleasure for us ;
but sad experience has taught us a lesson regarding
them. As they accomplished their work so well in the
city, it was deemed advisable to try them here also ;
why, I know not, as I cannot remember that we were
ever much troubled in our locality with the worms and
caterpillars that- did, I know, infest NQW York. But
out they came in great numbers, and bitterly did we
rue the day. One by one our dear little songsters dis-
appeared, larks, thrushes, scarlet tanagers, orioles, all
fell victims to the quarrelsome dispositions of the little
sparrows. Even the robins could hardly hold their own
against them. For three or four years we suffered the
loss of our favorites, and then indignation overpowered
7

90 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

us, and we rose in a body to drive the intruders away.
We have done so almost entirely, and this summer, for
the first time in many years, have again welcomed our
native birds, but if we are to keep them we must destroy
the sparrows, as they do most certainly fight and kill
all other birds. Let them keep to the city, where they
have done, and are doing, a good work, but leave us in
our country homes our own feathered songsters."

In the summer of 1877, the writer spent considerable
time in New York City, Jersey City, Newark, and
several other large towns and cities of the State of New
Jersey where the sparrows arc quite plentiful, and ob-
served on scores of occasions, exhibitions of their insolent
bearing towards our native birds, particularly towards
such as remained. The great scarcity of the latter was
a rather noticeable feature. H. H. Rusby, Esq., of
Franklin, N. J., who accompanied me in my travels, can
testify to the truth of my statement. The same, close
observer assured me that he had frequently witnessed
the unprovoked assaults of the sparrows upon our native
birds, and the persistence with which they were contin-
ued. From numerous observations he said " he had
become convinced that there existed a feeling of hatred

O

towards our native species, which invariably manifested
itself when the latter came into contact therewith."
He further assured the writer that our own birds de-
creased pari passu with the increase and spread of the
foreigners. Concerning the destructiveness of the spar-
rows, Mr. Eusby says, 4t Farmers in the vicinity of
Newark, N. J., have been seriously troubled during the
past season (1877) by the depredations of the sparrows
upon the growing corn. These birds, gathering in the
hedges and along the fence-rows, often make inroads

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 91

upon the field to the distance of two rods, and tearing
open the husks at the end of the ear, devour the young
corn. I have seen fields where the grain near the bor-
ders was almost entirely destroyed, and have heard
farmers predict that the time would come when the
raising of Indian corn would he rendered almost impos-
sible, owing to this pernicious influence." Evidence of
a similar character from localities occupied by the spar-
rows, in divers parts of New Jersey, could be adduced,
but the desire not to protract this chapter beyond cer-
tain limits, prevents the author from a recital of numer-
ous authorities. He will, therefore, mention one other
authority from this section of the country, and pass to
evidence of the sparrow's fighting and destructive quali-
ties, as witnessed in Eastern Pennsylvania.

Prof. Cope, a naturalist of rare attainments, and re-
markable alike for the extent and correctness of his ob-
servations, informs the writer that while a resident of
lladdonfield, N. J., where these birds are exceedingly
abundant, incessant warfare was waged upon all the
smaller birds that dared to intrude upon occupied terri-
tory, the fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) alone being able
to cope with the stranger. Even the robin, which is
generally able to hold its own, according to the same
eminent authority, was compelled to retreat before the
inveterate attacks of these invaders.

From Philadelphia and its environs, the testimonies
of a score and even more of observers could be given
concerning the sparrow's uselessness. The great body
of evidence is derogatory to its character. I know of
no competent witness that could be brought forward to
testify to its general usefulness. To be sure, I could
mention a few7 names of individuals who would so tes-

92 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

tify, but their evidence must be ruled out, owing to
incompetency on the ground of ignorance and national
prejudice.

John Strouse, of Chestnut Hill (a suburb of Philadel-
phia), can testify to the truth of the foregoing assertions.
In a conversation with the writer upon the sparrow's
usefulness, he says : —

" The chipping sparrow, bluebird, house wren, and
great crested flycatcher, were in past years common
denizens of my yard and kitchen-garden, and were ac-
customed to build therein ; but now the detestable
sparrows have usurped their places. The unprovoked
hostilities, which the latter have waged against their
unoffending brethren, have induced me to make war
upon them. I have generously given our birds that
encouragement and protection which a purblind muni-
cipality has denied. In the spring, when my grape-
vines are in blossom, they are attacked, and scarcely
a blossom is left to mature into fruit. Even the
latter requires the closest vigilance to prevent its de-
struction. In other places I have witnessed similar
depredations, not only upon the vines, but also upon the
blossoms and ripened fruit of the cherry, and the produce
of the strawberry and raspberry. In harvest time im-
mense flocks settle down upon the prostrate grain and
destroy immense quantities of this staple article of food."

William E. Meehan, Esq., of this place, admits that
they accomplish a vast amount of damage, and also that
it is not solely in quest of insects that they are attracted
to the blossoms, but for the sake of the tender ovaries
and ripened anthers. He says, " I have seen them
attack the pear-tree within my father's nurseries, and
scatter the blossoms in every direction. Even in the

I/

THE SPARROW'S USEFULNESS IN AMERICA. 93

spring, I Lave known them to make terrible havoc upon
the buds of the small shrubbery in the same locality."

That the luscious and highly-flavored raspberry is not
free from the ravages of these birds, Mr. Anthony
Strouse, of Chestnut Hill, is ready to testify. In a con-
versation with the writer, in the presence of several wit-
nesses, he adds, — " During the past season (1877), I was
compelled to destroy immense numbers of these birds, in
order to save my fruit. At first, I was the friend of the
sparrow, and built several houses for its accommodation.
But its recent depredations have brought it into bad
repute with me. A raid upon my grapes in the fall of
1876 paved the way for the proceedings which recent
events have compelled me to institute against it. The
luscious and juicy strawberry does not escape its
ravages. Last June my neighbor's patch was entered
and would have been entirely destroyed, had not necessity
compelled him to cover the plants by netting stretched
upon small upright posts in order to save the fruit, for
which the birds showed considerable fondness."

Isaac Reiff, Esq., of Philadelphia, who has spent the
most of his life within the limits of the city proper, and
who has given considerable attention to the study of the
habits of our birds, says, "Fewer birds visit the city
squares and the sidewalks under sparrow rule, than
formerly. Our native birds manifested less dread of the
squirrels than of the sparrows. On the return of breed-
ing period, many of our warblers and finches would
stop in their migrations, and spend a few days in the
heart of the city. Now, even on its outskirts, the merry
chirp and agreeable warble are seldom heard."

George "Wills, Esq., of Germantown, another inform-
ant, and a man of close observation and reliability, has

94 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

devoted considerable attention to the study of the spar-
row in its new home. He remarks, " Its insolent bear-
ing towards our native birds, whenever the latter venture
into occupied territories, combined with its lazy, idolent
habits and destructive propensities, should be a sufficient
inducement for the authorities to rescind the laws passed
for its protection."

Other statements, equally as forcible and positive,
could be given, until the accumulated evidence would
cover hundreds of pages of closely printed matter, and
all from persons of known probity who occupy high
positions in this community, but the writer must forbear.
Negativing the foregoing assertions, might be mentioned
the observations of Philip Freas, editor of the " German-
town Telegraph," a weekly paper of moderate circula-
tion), and those of John Bardsley, Esq., to whom must
be attributed the honor of introducing the sparrows into
Philadelphia. Mr. Freas has taken very little part in
the discussion of the sparrow-question, but what he has
said upon the subject is confined to a small article which
appeared in his paper a few years ago. His remarks
mostly related to personal observations upon his own
premises. Substantially, he asserted that the sparrows
did not molest or interfere in any way with our native
birds, but dwelt upon the most intimate and friendly
terms with them, sparrows, robins, and bluebirds
building in close proximity to each other. Mr. Bards-
ley's interest in the sparrow must certainly be attri-
buted to the part which he played in its introduction.
It is, therefore, but natural that he should defend it
against the attacks of its human enemies. Substantially,
he says the sparrow is not more pugnacious than many
of our native birds, the robin for example, and if so, it

95

is mainly when actuated by amatory influences. Its de-
structive propensities are equalled, if not surpassed, by
scores of indigenous species. It has certainly done much
to rid our squares of the destructive canker-worm which
made such terrible havoc upon the foliage of trees, and
will continue to shower its blessings upon mankind
wherever it shall spread. It is certainly an unmixed
good.

Having adduced considerable evidence both for and
against the sparrow, it now becomes the duty of the
writer to weigh the matter carefully, thoughtfully, and
thoroughly, and to assign it a place, according as its
merits or demerits warrant, among either the beneficial
or the injurious birds of this country. A special chapter
will therefore be devoted to the consideration of this
subject.

CHAPTER IV.

CONCLUDING REMAKES.

IN Europe the sparrow has been placed by eminent
and well-qualified investigators foremost in the rank of
useful birds. When it has been exterminated, it has
been necessary to re-establish and foster it at infinite
trouble and expense. Over there it constitutes part and
parcel of the natural economy of animal life ; it has its
place, and fills it.

It must not be vainly supposed that it is an unmixed
good. Its destruction of the blossoms and fruits of trees,
the tender flowers of herbaceous plants, and the ripened
grain in rural districts, are facts too well known to be
discredited, or passed silently by. Few writers upon
the habits of this species seek to conceal its faults. But
the destruction which it commits, although on a sin-

/ O

gularly grand scale, is nevertheless small, according to
the concurrent testimony of reliable authorities, when
contrasted with the immense benefits which accrue to
agriculturists and fruit-growers in the destruction of
millions of noxious insects in their various stages of
development.

Judging from the rapid multiplication of the species,
which, so far as I know, is unsurpassed by that of
any other species of the Fringillidce, it might be sup-
posed that the supply of insect food would be largely
disproportionate to the excessive demand, and, conse-

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 97

quently, a wholesale destruction of the farmer's crops
would be the inevitable result. In every fauna left to
itself, or but slightly disarranged by man, "a certain
balance of forces is sooner or later established tending

c^

to the co-ordination and subordination of various forms
of animal life."

Every species has a natural check to undue multipli-
cation. When propagation has reached a certain limit,
farther increase is stayed by natural conditions. Either
the supply of food becomes diminished and thousands
perish, the stronger alone surviving in the " struggle
for existence,7' or else the overgrown species affords an
extra allowance of food to its natural enemies which
have waxed powerful enough to reduce the threatened
numbers.

In America the birds exist under unnatural conditions.
They are out of place. Their remarkable increase should
not excite astonishment. Other instances than this
could be cited to show the reaction of exotics upon the
natural species. The Norway rat, which was introduced
into this country many years ago, is destined to usurp
the place of our native species. There are but few
localities where the latter exists. Its hardy and pugna-
cious relative from the north of Europe, is slowly but
surely supplanting it. Among plants, the white weed
has overrun the entire country, and choked out native
vegetation. Even the Indian, who once inhabited the
whole of North America, is fast receding before the
rapid advances of the energetic European, or his de-
scendants.

The sparrow is rapidly exterminating the native song-
sters and insect-eating birds from our cities and large
towns. Even in many rural districts the same condition

98 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

of affairs has been unhappily brought about. These
disastrous consequences will continue to follow the
diffusion of the sparrows, unless means for prevention are
taken. This species has no enemies, and consequently
has nothing to fear. It is warmly domiciled, carefully
fed, and sedulously encouraged to multiply. There is
no natural check to its almost unlimited increase. If
allowed to shift for itself, it is possible that the dis-
turbed harmony might be re-adjusted in the long run,
for nature is full of resources for all her emergencies.

"We do not often give her the opportunity, but thwart
and baffle her with the most determined pertinacity.
It was only the other day that the shrikes (Collurio
borealis) made their appearance upon Boston Common
and began to decimate the ranks of the sparrows a little,
when a crusade was instituted against them, by some
person or persons who had the affair at his or their
whimsical command. This was undoubtedly the first
indication of a natural healthy reaction against the
sparrows which has occurred, but it was most fatui-
tously nipped in the bud.

What would be the result if the sparrows were
permitted to brave the seasons for themselves, and to
seek their own subsistence as our own birds are com-
pelled to do, it is difficult to imagine. At any rate, the
special fostering of these birds by housing and victualling
should be stopped. Let them be thrown upon their own
resources, and take their chances with our smaller
native birds, and see how they will fare.

Deprived of their daily allowances in the heart of
large cities, where there is a scarcity of vegetable food-
stuffs, it is probable that insect diet would be appro-
priated with a better gusto. Pressed by hunger, and in

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 99

danger of starvation, during the famine winter months
every nook and cranny would be searched for the lurk-
ing beetle, the hidden chrysalis, and the tiny egg. The
fissured bark of trees would be probed, and the caitiffs
within drawn from their resting-places with the bill.
"While some birds would remain in the city, amidst the
scenes of past associations and pleasures, the greater part
would doubtless find their way into the country, where
seeds and insects are more plentiful. The happy results.
of this manner of treatment, both in the city and in the
country, would be very apparent, on the return of the
budding season, in the paucity of injurious insects.
Besides, the habit of self-maintenance thus formed
would continue to strengthen, and thousands of insects,
during the seasons when these creatures run riot, would
disappear before their voracious appetites. As an oft-
set to this, it might be argued that this species is mainly
granivorous, and consequently would do little towards
holding in check the enemies of vegetation. Example
after example might be given to show that animals of
carnivorous habits readily adapt themselves to a vege-
table diet, and others of herbivorous propensities, quite
as easily become fitted to the digestion of animal food.
Of course the appetite for vegetable diet would still con-
tinue amid all the vicissitudes of life. The " struggle
for existence," during the predominance of the cold
season, would act with telling effect upon the weaker
portion of the community, the more powerful alone re-
maining to propagate the species on the return of warm
weather. Flocking to the country in quest of food, they
would doubtless become a prey to the shrike, which
delights in rural districts. At any rate, a perceptible
decrease in the amount of injuries committed would be

100 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

apparent. But the compensating good which is experi-
enced in Europe could never be attained, therefore it is
highly probable that the amount of good accomplished
would be more than balanced by the evil committed.

On the introduction of the sparrow into Philadelphia,
which was about the time when nature was begin-
ning to swarm with insect life, being a stranger in a
strange land, it naturally took to eating indiscrimi-
nately everything that came within its reach. Insects,
especially caterpillars of particular kinds, being very
plentiful, and easily obtained, fell ready victims to its
rapacious appetite. Horse-dung and street garbage
eventually carne in for a share of attention. In a brief
time, on account of the eminent services which they had
rendered in the destruction of that pest of vegetation,
the canker-worm, this little creature had securely estab-
lished itself in the public affection. Houses, both public
and private, by the hundreds, some of the most costly
architecture, began to appear in every direction. Chari-
ties poured in upon them from every source, and the
gullible Philadelphia!! soon commenced to lavish more
than usual attention upon these creatures of foreign ex-
traction. The birds often fared much better than their
poor human brethren. These fancied "saviors of vege-
tation" finally became well-housed and well-fed. Their
good qualities were loudly applauded, and the law was
constrained to throw around them its aegis of protec-
tion.

But a change soon came over the aspect of affairs.
Too much pampering had engendered a spirit of laziness.
Accustomed to an easy life, the birds assembled three
times a day to receive their allowances of food. The
results of such folly soon began to be apparent. The

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 101

squares became alive with caterpillars. The rusty
vaporer crawled everywhere. Sparrows were never
more plentiful. They abandoned their carnivorous pro-
pensities, in a great measure, and took to vegetable diet
with a cheerful cbirp. Their rural brethren soon
followed suit. The sparrows should not be censured,
for they merely obeyed the instincts of their nature.
Necessity compelled them to insect diet.

In the spring, when plenty reigns supreme, they live
at their ease, and in the most luxurious enjoyment. I
can but repeat what I have iterated before. They are
lazy pilferers, who set the unwholesome example of
consuming what they do not earn. They should be
colonized and sent back to England. If this plan is not
practicable, take away from them the protection of the
law, and let us have some return (we can never expect
an equivalent) for the losses we have sustained. In
England the peasantry are paid for potting them into
sparrow-pies. Here no expense need be incurred. They
can be made a source of revenue, as well as a sustainer
of life.

From the evidence adduced in Chapters II. and III.,
being overwhelming in amount, and coming as it does
from the most reliable authorities, there can be little
doubt of the sparrow's utter uselessness. The testimony
produced, of a negative character, is outweighed in
quadruple proportion by that upon the opposite side.
The small proportion of caterpillars destroyed, when
contrasted with the waste and destruction of grains,
blossoms, and fruits of various kinds, without reckoning
the indirect injuries perpetrated in the expulsion of
scores of highly insectivorous native species, must be
apparent to every one who has given its history a careful

102 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

and considerate attention. This nuisance, this destroyer
of vegetation and pest of human society, deserves the
censure of every honest and right-thinking individual,
as well as the condemnation of the law.

A few remarks upon the motives which prompted
the sparrow's introduction into this country, and also
upon the propriety of such a course of action, cannot be
deemed inappropriate, or misplaced. In treating this
theme I must necessarily restrict what I have to say to
facts brought within the sphere of personal observation,
although other fields of research, outside of my imme-
diate circle of vision, will receive considerable attention.

Let us now ask ourselves the question: What led to
the sparrow's introduction? The answer thereto must
certainly be apparent to the mind of every one who has
kept his eyes open to his surroundings. For years ante-
cedent to this event, the linden and other trees in our
public squares and parks had been sorely infested by the
span-worm, and other caterpillars of near and remote
affinities, much to the disgust of pedestrians, and to the
detriment of the trees. These, particularly the former,
had multiplied to such an alarming extent, that they
had become a downright public nuisance. The trees
were literally filled with caterpillars, and thousands
dangled from the ends of long silken threads into the
faces of passers-by, or crawled their ugly lengths upon
the forms of persons of delicate feelings and refined
tastes.

In the midst of this unhappy state of things, the au-
thorities, aroused somewhat from the lethargy into
which they had fallen, began to revolve in their minds
the expediency of getting rid of these pests and destroy-
ers, and the means of accomplishing the desired object.

CONCLUDIKG REMARKS. 103

The experiment of introducing the sparrows had been
tried in lSrew York City, Boston, and elsewhere, with
marked success. The ugly caterpillars had fast disap-
peared before the inveterate and persistent assaults of
these courageous creatures. Nor is this success difficult
of explanation. The sparrows were in a strange country,
and almost entirely ignorant of its living flora, if we
except a few plant-species that are common to Europe
and America. In municipal limits this diversity in
plant-life is very conspicuous. With insect-life it is
otherwise. Almost every tree lias its particular occu-
pants. While some afford nourishment to but a single
species, others yield ample food for a dozen or more.
The Phalcenidce,to which our numerous species of span-
worms belong, are indiscriminate feeders. Hence, their
presence in unlimited numbers wherever trees flaunt
their foliage. Those who have studied this peculiar
group of insects in their larval stages, know the perfect
facility with which they can be identified. In general
structure, the closest resemblance obtains between spe-
cies, however remote the quarter of the globe in which
they have been studied. It is evident from the above
remarks that England can form no exception to the rule.

From these data, we reason that the sparrows were
more or less familiar with this portion of our insect-
fauna, and consequently manifested no fear of evil con-
sequences resulting from the appropriation of such diet.
Hence their attacks upon the canker-worm. These
assaults would be the more vigorous in situations where
there was a dearth of more desirable food. Thrown
upon their own resources, nothing edible would be likely
to escape their rapacity.

Immense hosts of insects were formerly destroyed by

104 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

these birds during the breeding-period, for the benefit
of their young. There, is reason to believe that nowa-
days the supply exceeds the demand. This is readily
accounted for. Familiarity with their new home and
its immense wealth of vegetable productions, has
created in them a disgust for insects. Necessity alone
drives them to such fare. Their wholesale destruction
of the creeping caterpillar, more mobile imago, and less
active chrysalis, during their early occupancy of this
country, may be, in a great measure, attributed to the
scarcity of other kinds of food, or to ignorance of the
edible qualities of the same.

Perceiving the beneficial effects accomplished by these
birds in other cities, is it at all surprising that the Phi-
ladelphian should see in them the saviors of vegetation,
and the restorers of wonted confidence and ruined pleas-
ure? Councils were besieged by men of influence and
wealth, as though Nature had forgotten us in her distri-
bution of avian existences, and the stupid blunder was
committed of introducing these proverbial enemies of
mankind.

Having briefly explained the motives which led to the
commission of this shameful and unconsidered action, a
few remarks upon the propriety of so doing cannot be
deemed amiss. Were the sparrows needed? The condi-
tion of the squares and sidewalks in our large towns
and cities, and the gradual destruction of the trees by
insect pests, plainly spoke that something should be
done, and that speedily, to remedy the constantly grow-
ing evil. Repeated efforts had been made to abate the
nuisance. Scientific men had been appealed to, but
their suggestions availed nothing. No remedy seeming
likely to be offered, and the sparrow apparently accom-

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 105

plishing the task of holding the enemy in check, Phila-
delphia could do no more than follow the example of
her sister cities.

A little knowledge, a little forethought as well as
foresight, would have gone a great way towards solv-
ing the problem, and staying those proceedings which
have caused the country to he overrun by these hardy,
fearless creatures, which, by their ravages, are consum-
ing our very substance — a thankless return for the many
kindnesses and favors which they have received.

If our native species had been as carefully nourished
as the sparrows have been, and been permitted to avail
themselves of the protection of man by building unmo-
lested in close proximity to his dwelling the same as
they, the necessity for the sparrows would not have
arisen. The law owed them a protection, but it refused
to enforce it. If they took up their abode upon man's
domains, their homes were desecrated, their treasures
destroyed or fearfully mangled, and the parents them-
selves inhumanly sacrificed for no other cause than
daring to defend their rightful property. Everybody
seemed to fancy that he had an inborn right to wage
incessant warfare against these happy creatures of the
field and grove. Farmers, who should have protected
them for services freely bestowed, became their most
inveterate persecutors. The active kinglet, the warbling
vireo, and the sturdy woodpecker, in their frequent visits
to the blossoms and the bark of trees, for the insects
and larvae that lurked insidiously within, had been mis-
judged, and made to pay the penalty of death for
their cleverness. This was undoubtedly an age of igno-
rance and superstition.

But times have changed. By the light of science,
8

106 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

our legislatures no longer grope in darkness. Wise and
healthy laws have been enacted for the benefit of birds
— those saviors of vegetation. And what has been the
happy effects? These joj'ous creatures have forgotten
their shyness, and now visit our yards and orchards, and
repay our goodness by the destruction of myriads of ver-
min. To be sure they take a juicy berry occasionally,
but then the vast amount of good which they accom-
plish, largely overbalances the mischief committed.

It is sufficiently obvious from all reports that a
healthy condition of things is being produced in rural
districts, and also in many of our large towns and cities
that have not had their harmony disarranged by the
much-to-be-detested sparrow. Had the city authorities,
in laying out the plans of our large cities, reserved
suitable plots of ground for the growth of shrubbery and
trees, either within municipal limits or largely on the
outskirts, these spots would have constituted, in course
of time, available building-places for many of our smaller
birds. From these coverts, as friendly relations became
established with their human brethren, they would
emerge to glean among the leaves of the trees which
line our avenues, and occupy our lawns. The same
object would undoubtedly have been gained had suitable
gardens and lawns been attached to private as well as
public buildings, and adorned with a profusion of vines
and shrubbery. But this is acting on the presumption
that these feathered creatures were under the protection
of a stern and impartial law. But as most cities are
now laid out, it is to be feared that the above project can
never be satisfactorily carried into execution. As at
present constituted, few native species could be found to
be as accommodating as the sparrow. The robin, blue-

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 107

bird, wren, song and chipping sparrows, which are quite
versatile in their hahits, would, of all others, be the
most likely to succeed.

If cities, like Philadelphia for example, that had
entailed so much expense in providing comfortable
homes for the squirrels, which certainly were of little
use save to arnuse children, and adults who had nothing
else to do than to lounge about our squares, had taken
as much interest in many of our smaller insectivorous
birds, and encouraged their presence by every means
that wisdom and judgment could devise, we should
to-day not be pestered by these disgusting exotics,
which seem destined to overspread the entire country,
and drive our own native favorites away.

Westward the sparrows are slowly but surely directing
their resistless course, like a baleful pestilence, sweeping
everything before them, and leaving only ruin in their
wake. All this has been brought about in less than
twelve years. What another decade will accomplish,
if these saucy knaves are permitted to go on as they
have done, I do not venture to say. Their present
depredations and odious practices give us a foretaste of
what their future course of action will be. We shall
be entirely deserted by our native-born feathered friends,
and what of grains and fruits the sparrows do not take,
will certainly be destroyed by the thousands of noxious
insects, in their various developmental stages, which
will then wantonly run riot. This will be the inevi-
table state of affairs. The trees will be stripped of their
foliage even before they have flaunted their unfurled
banners to the vernal breezes, and what will be the
result? Despoiled of their respiratory organs, their

108 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

mechanism will be cloo-o-ed, and a long- train of evils

^)& ' O

follow, ending in premature death.

The writer may be branded as a scientific zealot,
carried away by imaginary fears. Be this as it may;
he has a duty to perform, and manfully must he fulfil
it. If he should shrink from its accomplishment,
posterity will not hold him guiltless. Therefore, he
must raise a voice of warning before the evil becomes
so deep-rooted and widespread as to defy man's puny
efforts to check it. He is no alarmist, but generally
sees things as they exist. The handwriting upon the
wall has been seen and recognized. The sparrows have
been weighed in the balance, and found wanting. Their
sins have been many and unpardonable. They will
continue to increase and grow with each succeeding
year. If anything is done, it should be done imme-
diately. E~ow is the opportune moment. N"ow is the
day of salvation. Let the law cease to protect them,
and then let every one who has the good of his land
and fellow-being at heart, strike till the last foe ex-
pires.

I am not alone in these opinions. Others have lifted
their voices in condemnation of the nuisance. Abler
men have discussed the uselessness of the sparrow.
From every portion of the country which has yet been
visited by these birds, we hear the same cry. Those
who had at first befriended them, now clamor for their
destruction. He who has kept his eyes open to his
natural surroundings, cannot have failed to notice the
impudence, pugnacity, rapacity, and destructiveness of
these creatures. But how few, in comparison with the
countless numbers of human beings who inhabit this
continent, give the study of natural history a moment's

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 109

consideration. They run their short race of lite and
enter the unknown, scarcely a whit wiser about natural
phenomena than when they came into existence. They
form an apt illustration of that class of beings who have
eyes, but see not. Others, again, are excellent observers,
but their minds are so warped by various prejudices
and prepossessions, that their observations are unreliable
and \vorthless. But the true scientific man has no
predilections to sustain, no theories to save. He is a
lover of truth for her own sake. The goddess, and not
the altar upon which she sits enthroned, is, or ought to
be, the object of his pious reverence. A few who pass
for the genuine coin, I am sorry to say, are attracted
by the gorgeousness of the shrine, and transfer their
homage to an unsubstantial pageant. The American is
behind his trans- Atlantic brother in matters of natural
science. In Europe the masses are trained to be scien-
tific observers. She has her scientific schools apart from
her colleges and universities. Even her grammar schools
are practised in this most essential branch of knowledge.
Not so in America. In our colleges, with but few
exceptions, other studies, the ancient languages for ex-
ample, are given the prominence. Natural history holds
a subordinate position. Our grammar schools, which
have mainly to do with the masses, are too much
crammed with the dry details of geography and history,
to make room for the study of natural phenomena. Is
it a wonder, then, that the average American should be
so much inferior in the knowledge of such matters to
the average European? With the cultivation of the
observant and reflective faculties, arises this difference,
and with the latter, an utter dislike for the humbler
walks of literature. The imaginative faculties, from

110 THE HOUSE SPARROW.

lack of proper nurture, would dwindle to reasonable
proportions, and life would lose much of its poetry and
romance. Consequently, the mind, no longer clogged
by these enervating fetters, would grow to its full
stature, and life be brought to a higher and nobler plane.
A new era would then be ushered into existence — the
millennium of scientific truth. May the day speed on
swiftest pinions which will inaugurate this felicitous
change.

Coming back from this digression to the subject-mat-
ter of discussion, the disreputable character of the spar-
row is too well known to the candid and unbiassed ob-
server, to leave in his mind any reasonable doubt. But
if my readers have had neither the leisure nor the
patience to examine into its life-history, I would re-
spectfully solicit their careful perusal and earnest con-
sideration of the innumerable facts which occur in
Chapter II., and also of the corroborative evidence which
is largely accumulated in the succeeding chapter. If
they bring to the task a mind divested of preconceived
opinions and national prejudices, they cannot help yield-
ing assent to the following facts, which the writer holds
to be incontrovertible: —

1. That in all localities which are cursed by the pre-
sence of sparrows, indubitable evidence exists of their
extreme irritability and pugnacity.

2. That our smaller native species, the only rightful
tenants of the soil, which have always been adequate to
every emergency that has arisen, except in localities dis-
arranged by human interference, are vigorously assailed
and forced to flee before these irascible creatures.

3. That in situations which once afforded shelter and
security to many of our insectivorous birds, the noisy

CONCLUDING REMARKS. Ill

and disagreeable chatter of the sparrow is heard to the
exclusion of the merry chirp and agreeable warble of
our native songsters.

4. That its extraordinary salacity, the result of the
overstimulated life which it leads, "rises to the dig-
nity of a public scandal."

5. That, as the result of the special fostering which
these birds have received, and are receiving, caterpillars
are at a heavy discount, and blossoms, cherries, raspber-
ries, strawberries, and grapes are eaten with a better
gusto.

6. That when a sufficiency of boxes is not provided
for nesting purposes, and there is a notable scarcity of
ivied walls and decayed tree-hollows, cornices, window-
caps, brackets, etc., are selected, and the nests deposited
generally where they are most likely to be seen.

7. That in such localities they often become sources
of considerable annoyance on account of their turbu-
lence and droppings.

8. That their pilfering propensities, as shown by their
daily raids upon the poultry -yards and pigeon-cotes, are
unsurpassed for boldness by those of any other feathered
species.

9. That for laziness and gluttony they stand un-
equalled, and set the unwholesome example of consum-
ing what they do not earn.

10. That their grain-loving appetites frequently lead
them into fields of standing and fallen wheat, where
they commit, in many localities, untold ravages upon
this staple sustainer of life, amounting, in some cases,
to thousands of dollars' worth of loss.

APPENDIX.

MATERIAL FOR A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE HOUSE SPARROW.

1400. Skeat. Lagland's Piers the Plowman, 1400, part ii, pp.

xxi.

1508. Skelton. The boke of Phyllup Sparrowe. 1508, Ed. Dyce i, p. 51.
1525-1577. The Praise of Philip Sparrowe, 1525-1577.
1555. Belon Pierre, du Mans. Du Moineau cle ville. L'Histoire de

la Nature des Oyseaux, chap, xix, pp. 361. A Paris, 1555.
1555. Belon, P. Le Moineau, Paisse ou Moisson. L'Histoire de la

Nature des Oiseaux, avec leurs Descriptions et naifs Portraits, p.

361. Folio. Paris, 1555.
1585. Gesner, C. Passer. Gesner de Avium Natura, p. 643. Folio.

Francofurti, 1585.
1610-1613. Aldrovandi, IT. Passer. Ornithologia, ii, p. 246. Folio.

Francofurti, 1610, 1613.

1611. Shakspeare, W. Philip Sparrow. King John i, 1, 1611.
1622. Olina, Pietro. Del Fringuello Uccelliera, pi. 31. In Roma,

1622.
1674. Ray, J. House Sparrow (P. domesticus). The Ornithology of

Francis Willoughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick, 3

vols., p. 249. London, 1674.
1676. Raius, Joannes. P. domesticus. Francisci Willoughbeii De

Middleton in Agro Warwicensis, Armigeri E. Regia Societate

Ornithologia3, p. 182. London, 1676.
1678. Ray, John. House Sparrow (P. domesticus). The Ornithology

of F. Willoughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick, 3

books, p. 249. London, 1678.
1684. Olina7 G P. Passera nostrale. Uccelliera overo Discorso della

Natura e Proprieta di diversi Uccelli e in particolare di que' che

Cantano, p. 42. Folio. Paris, 1684.
1706. Anonymous. Der Hauszsperling. Unterricht was mit dem

Lieblichcn Geschopf Denen Vogel, p. 41. Freyhern, 1706.
1733. Raius, J. The House Sparrow. Raii Synopsis method ica Avi-
um et Piscium, p. 86. 8vo. London, 1713.
1728. Anonymous. The Sparrow. The Bird Fancier's Recreation,

p. 52. 12mo. London, 1728.
1735. Linnaeus, C. Fringilla domestica. Systema Naturae, i, 323, 36.

1735.

114 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1738. Albin, Eleazar. P. domesticus. A Natural History of Birds.

With Notes and Observations by W. Derham, 3 vols., vol. i, p. 59,

pi. 62. London, 1738.
1743. Anonymous. The Common House Sparrow. Ornithologia

Nova, 2 vols., vol. 2, p. 223. Birmingham, 1743.
1750. Derham, W. Le Moineau (P. domesticus). Histoire Naturelle

des Oiseaux, 3 vols., 4to., p. 54. A la Haye, 1750.
1750. Albin. E. Le Moineau. Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux, etc.,

p. 54, pi. 62. A la Haye, 1750.
1754. Jagdlust, J. M. Der Haussperling. Grlindliclie Anwersung

alle Arten Vogel, p. 302. Nlirnberg, 1754.
1756. Jonstoni, Joannis. P. domesticus. Theatrum universale de

Avibus tabuli duabus et Sexaginta, etc., tab. 34. Folio. 1756.

1756. Kramer, Gulielmi, H. Hausspatz. Elenchus Vegetabilium et
Animalium per Austrian] Inferiorem observatorum, p. 36. 8vo.
Viennaa, Praga?, 1756.

1757. Linnaei, Caroli. Fringilla domestica. Dissertatio Academica
Migrationes Avium, etc., p. 34. 1757.

1760. Brisson, A. D. Passer domesticus. Ornithologie, tomus iii,
p. 72. 1760.

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9

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3, 10 \ 11, 64 ; 5. 2 I 2, 102 ; 8, 5 § 3, 202 ; 9, 8 § 5, 240 ; 9, 15 \

1, 246 ; 9, 36 $ 5, 277. Interpreted by Cresnell's Translation.

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