THE | /

8
ILLUSTRATED BOTANY, =

~

COMPRISING AN

INTRODUCTION TO THE NATURAL SYSTEM, A TREATISE ON
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, AND ON THE BOTANY OF
FOSSILS, TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF
NUMEROUS SPECIES OF PLANTS. *

‘EDITED BY
FL oee 7, OC K , M.D...
AUTHOR OF “NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,” “ CHEMISTRY,” “ MINERALOGY,.’ “ GEOLOGY,”

“ prysioLoay,” “ BOTANY,” ETC.

ASSISTED BY

J. C. COMSTOCK, ESQ. |
460S0

NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY J. K. WELLMAN.

1847. |

Entered according to Act of Congress, by
; J.B. Bellman,
In the year 1847, in the Clerk’s office of the Southern District of New York.

~ Reed & Cunningham, Printers,
No. 9 Spruce-street, N. Y. —

PUBLISHER’S PREFACE

The publisher is happy to announce to the patrons of this
work that its prospects for the coming year are now very flatter-
ing. It will be perceived from the title page that he has been so
fortunate as to secure the editorial services of a gentleman
than whom no American author in several departments of
science is better known, both at home and abroad. He
considers this fact alone to be a sufficient guaranty for the im-
provement and usefulness of the work.

In addition to this, the publisher would also state that, even
with facilities by no means great, and under many unfavorable _
circumstances, the subscription list has already, during the
past year, attained the number of four thousand and more, and
has thus placed the continuance and stability of the work be-
yond ordinary contingencies. It is believed that there are
few instances where a periodical, commenced under like
circumstances, has in so short a time established itself so firmly
in public estimation, and the publisher cannot but feel an hon-
est pride in the success which has crowned his exertions, as
well as sincere gratitude to those whose patronage has so ma-
terially contributed to that success. The original idea of the
work, it is but justice to himself to say, was entirely his
own, and though he felt great confidence in its ultimate popu-
larity, yet it was with some misgivings that. he expended his
time, labor and money, in the important and difficult underta-
king of its commencement. With no aid except what his

4: Publisher’s Preface.

own resources furnished, with no name of weight and influ-
ence to recommend it, the nature of the subjects to which its
pages are devoted has been sufficient to give it a strong hold
upon public favor. Its future course will be unimpeded by these
or similar emb arrassments, and there canbe no doubt that it will
reach such an eminence in the estimation of a discerning com-
munity as it shall be justly entitled to by the ability with which
it will be conducted, the great and increasing interest felt in
- the science of Botany, and the unwearied efforts, both of
editors and publisher, to render it, in every respect, worthy of
the first rank among similar publications. The explanation of
the plans formed for the future course of the work, belongs
more particularly to the editor, but the publisher may say that
it will embrace every thing necessary to make it a standard
treatise on Botany, together with such accessories as shall be
suggested by taste and experience, and shall be calculated to
gratify the natural desire for what is at once elegant, entertain-
ing and instructive. For this purpose the publisher is confident
that he could possibly make no more favorable arrangements
than he has done for the year to come; and that the expec-
tations of his patrons will not be in the least degree disap-
pointed. The matter which is furnished by the editors will be
of the most substantial character, and in point of beauty and
correctness of delineation and of coloring the plates will be
equal at least to any thing of the kind executed.

J. K. WELLMAN.

)

INTRODUCTION.

Ar the commencement of the second year’s existence of this
work, under auspices somewhat different from those by which
it has hitherto been governed, there is perhaps some propriety
in saying a few words to those who may read it, respecting its
conduct in fature. A is announced by the publisher, a change.
in the editorial arrangement has been effected, in regard to the
judiciousness.of which it does not become the present writer to
speak. He indulges the hope, however, that the interest of the
work will be at least fully sustained, and that whatever repu-
tation it may now possess, will not be diminished in his hands.
It isalso hoped, that in consideration of the assistance which has
been promised from abler pens than his own, of certain new
features which he proposes to introduce, and of the firm foun-
dation on which, in other respects, the work has now been
placed, that it may increase in popularity as well as in literary
and scientific value. Upon a sufficiently careful inspection of
the foregoing numbers, the Editor is convinced that a method,
considerably different from that already pursued, may be

, adopted with enlarged benefit both to its usefulness and inter-
est; and that some branches of the science, not hitherto entered

upon, may be discussed with advantage. An unconnected
collection of isolated facts, theories, descriptions and explana-
tions, however entertaining for the moment, is’ of little perma-
nent use to any one who wishes to become a botanist, or in-
deed to attain even a tolerable degree of excellence in any

%

scientific pursuit whatever. The nature of all sciences is pro-

6 | Introduction.

gressive. Itis necessary for the student of Botany to proceed .
by deliberate advances. Festina lente is his safest maxim. He
must begin by learning the elements of the science as a child
learns letters. He must first acquire a thorough familiarity
with the simplest and broadest distinctions between the great
divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, the reasons upon which
those distinctions rest, the names of the parts on which they
depend, the differences of organization, the modifications of
structure or of appearance, which are the foundation of the
modern science of Botany. In short, Botany cannot be under-
stood in its most interesting and most important view, without
a very considerable degree of patience and toil; especially in
taking the primary steps. It is like a noble fortification, of
which the outposts are the most difficult to be captured, but
which, when once in the hands of the invader, offer a com-
paratively easy access to the more important, but less strongly
guarded interior. Such, indeed, is the condition on which all
valuable knowledge must be obtained; and the assertion
is a safe one, that whatever learning can be easily and super-
ficially acquired, is in itself superficial. An eminent author
has maintained that the popular notion that Botany is a
science of easy acquirement, is a popular error, and to this
position we entirely assent. To the study of Botany, one who
wishes to master it as @ science, must bring no ordinary com- —
bination of faculties. To patience he must add quickness of
perception; to methodical habits of: thought, a certain kind
and degree of imagination ; to comprehensive views of nature,
the power to enter into the most minute details. On the one
hand, he must be calm and considerate ; on the other, ener-
getic, enthusiastic and inquiring; capable as well of long con-
tinued and laborious effort as of dexterous and versatile exer-
tion. And yet, to assert that Botany is not calculated for a °
popular object of study, would be as absurd as the same
assertion in regard to the science of music: and an argument
against the general pursuit of the former, based upon the fact

F
|
3
)

Introduction. ; 7

a nc rmnDnsimnDe i anid maine ncaa a A ASS aaa
that every student cannot become a Linneus or a Lindley,
would be as fallacious as to contend that no one should study

emusic because he could not reach the fame of a Mozart or a

Haydn. Indeed, a contrary argument, without a paradox
either, might be drawn from these very circumstances.

But we take it for granted that our readers need no such
reasoning to induce them to follow us when, in ensuing parts
of this work, we attempt to lead them, by a somewhat more
thorough and regular course than has been before pursued,

to some acquaintance with the great modern system of Bot-
any, as improved and extended by Lindley and others, and

which seems to have given to the science a stability and
precision which it has been comparatively late in acquiring.

. It will, of course, be quite impossible, in such a periodical, to

enter minutely or largely into the details of this subject. All
we shall aim at will be, to give the reader as competent a
knowledge of first principles, as will render him capable of study-
ing with pleasure and profit the learned and systematic works of
more able and distinguished authors. It will be our purpose to

~ devote a portion of each number, during the ensuing year, to a

series of articles of this nature; in which we shall, so far as
possible, avoid. technical difficulties, and which, taken collec-
tively, at the end of the year, we hope to render a nearly com-
plete introduction to the Natural System of Botany, as expounded
by its great advocate and teacher, Professor Lindley. For this
object we shall make a free, but we hope a judicious use of
the works of the celebrated Professor, as well as those of other
standard writers. We also expect the occasional aid of
one of the most accomplished and distinguished of Ameri-
can botanists, whose labors in the fields of our native hed
deserve the gratitude of every lover of science.

Another portion of the work will be occupied exclusively by

the senior editor, with a series of notices on the subject of Fos-
sil Botany : a branch of the science hitherto but little appre-

ciated or understood in this country ; but which, being the

$ Introduction. ,

connecting link between Botany and Geology, we hope to make
interesting to the inquirer in both these sciences.

As to the engravings which each number will contain, we
intend a somewhat different course from that pursued during
the past year. Instead of an indiscriminate selection, deter-
mined only by taste or fancy, we expect to make the engra-
vings serve the cause of the science and facilitate the progress
of the reader, by giving the figures of such plants as shall
answer the purpose of illustrating the order which forms the ©
subject of each successive article. For instance, whenever —
the Natural Order Ranunculaceae, shall be the theme of our re- —
marks, we shall illustrate its general features by figures of some
species of the genera comprised in that order, and shall add
representations of the peculiarities of structure which are thé —
marks of distinction between it and others. It may, in doing
this, be necessary to offer a second time figures of plants which
have been already described ; but as far as possible this will _
be avoided, and whenever it does occur, the -deséription will %
be new and different in its arrangement. ua

The. highly interesting subject of Vegetable Physiology,
inseparable as it is from a competent knowledge of the Natu-
ral System, will form an important part of our consideration,
and we believe that by proper illustrations and explanations,
we shall be able to render it both instructive and enter-
taining. ;
Into the ee details of our proposed plans we do Be
not consider it necessary to eriter. _ So far as the minor mat-
ters of taste or elegance of embellishment are concerned, we
may promise, that while they do not interfere with the general
scope of our graver and more important labors, they shall yet
receive a degree of attention sufficient to render them entirely
satisfactory.

In conclusion, we venture to hope that none of our readers,

especially those of the gentle sex, if any such we are so for-
tunate as to possess, will be led to imagine, from any thing

Introduction. 9

Sa
we have here written, that our purpose ‘is to make this work
too dry and scientific for general perusal. Such is by no
means our intention. We believe that such a work can be
: rendered sufficiently scientific at once and popular: that with-
_ out sacrificing science to popularity, the two can be so com-
Fy bined as to instruct at the same time. and to please. We are
£ well aware that too many consider the difficulties which must
__ be overcome before any considerable knowledge of Botany can
be obtained, to be more than a sufficient bar to their efforts.
Difficulties, it is true, exist, and are of the essence of the sub-
¥ ject ; but none which, for all the purposes at least of this
work, a diligent student cannot master; though, as we have
a before intimated, no royal road through them exists.
Many are also deterred from seeking a knowledge of Bota-
ny, by a misapprehension of the true character of the science.
_ They believe the end proposed by its pursuit to be only the filling
_ of their minds with a mass of unmeaning technicalities, and
hard and unintelligible names. A greater mistake cannot
_ possibly be made. Nomenclature is indeed of only secondary
importance, and without going so far as to assert with Rous-
seau that “one may become a first rate botanist, without
knowing a single plant by its name,” we may safely say
that he will never become a botanist who learns nothing
of plants except their names. Such knowledge would
truly be useless, meagre and insipid enough. But the pecu-
liarities of’ structure and of vital action, the remarkable opera-
- tions of nature in adapting the physiological arrangements of
plants to the functions which they are destined to perform, the
_ singularities of their internal and external developement, the
- combination of vessels, of nerves and of tissues of which they
are formed, so miraculously and beautifully fitted for the offi-
ces of sustentation and increase, form matters of inquiry and
of reflection which cannot fail, in a well regulated mind, to
instil ideas of the most elevated and inspiring character, and
to lead the heart of the thoughtful student from an observation

10 Introduction.

of the wonders of these creations = to the great Being whose
hand in them all is so , evident.

Inferior to no study in interest of this kind. that of Bosna
is peculiarly favorable to the pursuit of the inquirer, from the
readiness and ease with which the objects of its investigation
may be procured. Every flower and every leaf, the tiniest
grass, the most neglected lichen, may form a theme for lofty
contemplation. The eye of the botanist may become endued
with a sort of second sight. It may discern in the-commonest
things of the.earth wonders which are not found in the most
gorgeous palaces. It may -perceive in the most ordinary
works of Nature an exquisiteness of design, an elaborateness
of execution, an adaptedness of means to the.end proposed,
which are looked for in vain in the most exalted plans of hu-
man genius. And more, the true. student of nature, too often
care-worn and oppressed by the toil and disappointments of
his harsher human existence, may forget allin the separate life,
in which, among all these wonders, he may become soothed
and consoled. There is to him more than “a pleasure in the’
pathless woods,” more than ‘a rapture on the. lonely shore,”
and he needs the impulse of neither misanthropy nor satiety,
to become in such scenes a wiser, ahappier, and a better man. -

It is in the’ spirit of these reflections that we approach the
task before us, confident of our success in inspiring our readers
as we proceed, with something like a similar feeling.

J.C. C.

eT eS eae eee ae ee ee ee
2

4

THE ILLUSTRATED BOTANY.

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER ONE.

In attempting, through the pages of a periodical work, to
convey proper ideas of the Natural System, to afford such aid
to the learner as will enable him to understand its importance,
and for that purpose to overcome the difficulties by which it is
surrounded, the writer is conscious that he is engaging in a
task of considerable magnitude. He is not aware that a simi-
lar undertaking has yet been accomplished -in this country.
In fact, except among botanists of high attainments, the Linnzan
System has here been the common, if not almost the exclusive
object of study. Little more has been published for the benefit
of the beginner in Systematic Botany, than the merest outline
of the Natural System, while many of those who pursue the
study as a recreation, or as a popular branch of knowledge,
seem to be nearly ignorant of the existence of a system different
from the Linnzan. Works there are, it is true, whose object is
expressly to afford elementary instruction on this subject, but
they are, so far as our observation has extended, mostly
foreign publications, and from their scarcity or expense, are out
of the reach of ordinary students. It has been considered,
therefore, (without offering further reasons,) that a monthly
series of articles, in a popular magazine, each of which may
easily be read and understood before the appearance of the
next, might be made serviceable to the learner, and might be ©

12 The Natural System.
_ so arranged as, in a collected form, to supply the place of an
American Introduction to the Natural System, until such an
Introduction shall be produced, (a consummation megs to
be wished), by some one of our eminent botanists.
It is supposed that the student who’ intends to follow us in .
_ these articles, has already an acquaintance with the Linnean
System, and.a knowledge of the parts of plants, sufficient for
the purpose of understanding at least some of the terms used.
For instance, when we come to speak of stamens and pistils,
of carpels and dissepiments, of bracts and ovaries, we shall
take it for granted that our reader knows the -part or organ
indicated by these names. Should he be deficient in. such
knowledge, he will find in the articles on Vegetable Physiol-
ogy; which will be the monthly companions of these, much
important information, and for whatever more may be neces-
sary, he can consult almost any elementary treatise. Con-
sidering, then, that he is properly prepared to follow us, we
begin by some general remarks on Classification.
' The science of Botany may be correctly divided into two
distinct departments. One of these may be termed Physiolo-
gical Botany, and has for its object the investigation of the —

internal structure and method of the growth and reproduction _

of plants.. The other, which is closely connected with, and in
a great measure depends upon the first, concerns the arrange-
ment of plants into groups or divisions, and is termed Classifi-
cation. The utility of such an arrangement must be obvious,
when we think of the utter impossibility of studying and
remembering by themselves the peculiarities of every one of
the one hundred thousand species which the globe is estimated
to contain. For instance, suppose the grain which we call
Wheat was lately discovered, and generally unknown; by
what method could one, who knew nothing of Classificaiton}
designate it so that it might be distinguished from all others?
Without some systematic arrangement, and some definite
terms to denote its distinctive characters, this would be mani-
festly difficult and uncertain. It is on these distinctive marks,
or invariable peculiarities, that, in all branches of natural
science, systematic arrangements are founded, and accordingly
we find, that in the earliest periods of botanical research, some

Classificatvon. 13

kind or degree of classification was adopted. This was no less
natural than necessary, and was founded on the same great
_ principles of general resemblance and similarity of properties
_ which form the basis of the most complete mddern system.
The most superficial observer, says Dr. Smith, must perceive
something like the classification of nature. The Grasses,
Umbelliferous Plants, Mosses, Sea Weeds, Ferns, Liliaceous
Plants, each constitute a family strikingly similar in form and
qualities among themselves, and no less evidently distinct from
all others. It is singular, that in all other departments of natu-
ral science, such a method of classification is strictly adhered
_ to, while in Botany, principles have been introduced, which in
_ Zoology would lead to the greatest absurdities. The earliest
attempts at the classification of plants only extended to a few
simple divisions, formed from the widest distinctions. One
ancient writer, for instance, divides vegetables into water
plants, parasites, pot herbs, forest trees, and corn plants;
another into aromatics, gum bearing plants, eatable vege-
tables, and corn herbs. Many centuries elapsed before
any thing further was effected towards a more correct and
‘precise arrangement, and it was_not till the year 1570 that
Lobel, a Flemish botanist, made important improvements in
the former methods of distinction, and by the use of more defi-
nite characters than had before been employed, laid the groun-
work of the present system. Several authors of eminence fol-
lowed, whose principles of classification were the same. At
length, near the end of the seventeeth century, the necessity
began to be felt, of greater precision, and this led to the inven-
tion of a system, which, partly from the renown of its author,
and partly from its simplicity and the readiness with which it

_ may be understood and applied, has obtained the greatest
celebrity. The first attempt at what is now called the Artifi-
cial System, was made by Rivinus, who, in 1690, invented a
system depending on the formation of the corolla. He was fol-
lowed by Kamel and by Magnol, whose methods depended,
the first on the formation of the calyx, and the second on that
of the calyx and corolla together. It was reserved for Lin-
nus, in 1781, to complete the ideas of his predecessors by the
invention of the system since so universally adopted, and named

14 The Natural System.

after its inventor. This, no doubt, contributed largely to the
dissemination of botanical knowledge, and was of much benefit.
to the state of the science as it then-existed ; but the researches
of modern botanists, aided by the great improvements in
optics which have so facilitated their observations on life and
structure, have shown that it is by no means suited to or suffi-
cient for the advancement of later times. Indeed, its chief
merit consists in the convenient clue which it offers to the name
alone of an unknown plant, while as to structure or properties
it affords no indication. It has been compared to the alphabeti-

‘ eal index of a book, which directs the reader to the point which

he wishes to ascertain, without giving him any information as
to the general nature of the book, or of the method in which its
subjects are arranged. Indeed, Linnzus himself was fully
sensible of its defects, and by no one more than by him have
the superior advantages of a Natural System been appreciated.
When he framed his Artificial System, he probably intended
it only for temporary employment, and to facilitate that
acquaintance with the vegetable kingdom which must precede
the formation of a perfect Natural System, and he anticipated
the time when. greater progress should cause it to be aban
doned, and botanists to revert to the system of nature. Though
not then fully developed, he said that the elucidation of the
principles of the latter should be the first and ultimate aim of
botanists, to this end should their labors be directed, and the
merest fragments of such a system should be carefully studied; _
and he adds, “ For a long time I-have labored to establish it,
I have many discoveries, but have not been able to perfect it;
yet while I live, I shall continue to labor for its completion. aa
Those are the greatest botanists who shall be able to correct, —
augment, and perfect this method.” From this it is evident, _
that those who, out of veneration for the‘name of the great —
Naturalist, adhere to his system to the exclusion of one formed on
on natural principles, and imagine they have his authority for —
so doing, mistake his views and misrepresent his declarations: _
The Linnzan, or Artificial System, as we shall hereafter call oa
it, in contradistinctiun to the Natural System, is not, how-
ever, even at present, without its advantages. T'o one whois
not ambitious of extending his studies into the higher régions

Classification. 15

Oe
_ of the science, but is only desirous of becoming acquainted
< with the names and characters of such plants as he may meet
_ with in his rambles, this System offers facilities which are well
calculated to encourage. To determine the class and order by
counting the stamens and pistils, is generally a very simple
“a matter, and when this is done; the discovery of the genus and
_ species can be readily effected, with the aid of a Manual and a
‘s little practice in examination. It is not too much to say, how-
_ + ever, that this System is, after all, of no further use, taken by
itself, than merely to assist in finding out the name of an
unknown plant, and even in its application to this purpose it
‘possesses many imperfections. The number of pistils or of
stamens is often inconstant in any species, and varies even
cS among individuals of the same species, or even in the different
flowers of the same individual. This must of course lead to
great confusion, and every one who has experienced the fre-
quent difficulty of determining the name only of a plant by the
artificialfethod, must have become aware of the necessity in
” such cases of applying to other principles for assistance. Then
- it is that the necessity of means of discrimination not afforded
by the mere number or positions of stamens or pistils, becomes
apparent. For instance, the genus Polygonum, some members
_ of which are commonly known by the names of Bind-weed
or Knot-grass, is placed in the class Octandria and order
© Trigynia. Now out of sixteen species of this genus, which are
found in the northern and middle states, nine only are Octan-
drous, and some of these vary, while of the remaining seven
species two are Pentandrous, three Hexandrous, and two Hep-
_ tandrous, and out of the whole sixteen at least ten are not pro-
perly Trigynous, Now, if without any previous knowledge of
these facts, the student should find a Polygonum which has
_ five, six, or seven stamens, he would at once look for it in the
class Pentandria or Hexandria or Heptandria. He finds
nothing like it, and must endure his perplexity and disappoint-
ment until some one who has perhaps passed through the same
difficulties shall tell him that his plant is a Polygonum. Should
poe how this happens, when it evidently belongs to a
erent class, the only answer can be that it is so much like
the Polygonums that it cannot be separated from them. and

‘

16 The Natural System.

they in most cases belong to Octandria. Thus it appears that
it is not by means of the Artificial System that the plant is to
be discovered, but through its resemblance to other Polygonums,
thus applying the very principles of the Natural System.
Again, the genus Rhamnus, or Buckthorn, is placed i in the
class Pentandria, while the most common species, (R. alnifo-
lius,) is Dicecious ; so that if, on observing that one individual
bears female and another male flowers, it should be sought for
in the class Dicecia, the result would be the same as before,
These instances are not exaggerated, and similar ones are by
“no means uncommon. It has been proved that in fourteen
divisions of the Linnzan System, including one hundred and
seventy-three British genera, the number of such exceptions
amounts to forty-three, or nearly one quarter; and that out of
two hundred and seventy-four North American genera, belong-
ing to eighteen Linnean sections, there are no less than seventy-
eight exceptions, or more than a quarter of the whole. This
comprehends, too, only those variations which are constant and
uniform, and not merely accidental deviations. It is true, that’
the labors of botanists have in a degree lessened the difficulty
by pointing out the most perplexing of these variations, in such
a manner as to prevent the loss of time and patience in futile
endeavors at finding genera. in wrong classes, or species in
wrong genera ; but this does not ot lessen the perro of the
ion

Pree © vir engee oS

Vegetable Physiology. 17
i RR ning

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
NUMBER one .

In order to obtain a correct knowledge of either animais or
vegetables, it is not enough simply to observe their outward
appearance, to examine their different parts superficially, to
mark the changes which they undergo, or to watch their habits
and motions. ‘These are but the results of their internal struc-
ture, and before we can arrive at a right understanding of
them, we must become acquainted with that structure. Two
branches of science have for their objects the mechanism and
functions of the organs of animals and plants. ANAatTomy
explains the form, structure, and disposition of those organs,
and PuystoLogy their uses and functions. In Zoology, the
distinction between these branches is more strictly adhered to’
than in Botany, though in the latter science VEGETABLE

» Anatomy or Puytotomy’ is properly a separate department

from VEGETABLE Puystotogy. We do not consider, how-
ever, that it is necessary here to specify the subordinate sec-
tions into which botanists have divided these sciences, since
the beginner is liable to be embarrassed and discouraged by a
multiplicity of terms, which he will better understand in the
course of his onward progress. We shall prefer, therefore, for
the present, to define Vegetable Physiology as that science
which explains the nature, appearances, and uses of the inter-
nal organs of plants. It will be necessary, of course, to exam- -
ine the form and structure of these organs, before their func-
tions can be discovered. Let us take, then, almost any com-
mon plant, and see the parts of which it is composed. The
most obvious of these are the stem, roots, leaves, and flowers.
It will be seen, when we have advanced a little further, that
they are subdivided into many other parts—but for our pre-
sent purpose it is enough to mention these. The root, then,
whose office it is to fix the plant in its place, and to draw nutri-
ment from the soil, the stem which carries this to the leaves,
and raises them to receive light and warmth, the leaves which

elaborate this nutriment and make it fit for the sustenance of
——VOL. IL.—2., 1 ~

18 __, Vegetable Physiology.

the whole plant, the flowers which produce seed necessary for
its reproduction, are termed organs, while the effects produced
by these parts are called their functions. All bodies which
possess these or analogous parts, are called organic, while
‘those which do not, are inorganic. Some of the functions of
organic bodies are subject to the same laws which operate on
inorganic matter. For instance, the principle on which the
blood is propelled by the heart through the arteries is the same
on which water may be driven through a series of pipes by a
pump. But the nature of the force is entirely different. In
the latter case, it is merely mechanical. In the former, it is
_ produced by a property peculiar to organized structure, and
especially belonging to muscle—that of contracting when it
receives a certain stimulus or irritation. This property, and
many others which are never displayed by inorganic bodies,
are called vital, and it is by means of these that those changes
are effected which constitute the lite of an animal or plant.
- These properties of organized bodies operate only under cer-
tain conditions. A seed may remain for centuries in a dor-
mant state, and may never become any thing but a seed. As
soon, however, as it is laid where it can receive moisture,
warmth, and air, it will begin to germinate. These, then, are
the conditions required to produce in it vital action, or those
changes which aretermed Life. In case the plant, after it has
begun to grow, under these influences, be placed entirely out
of their reach, it either dies, or remains inactive for a time,
until returned to its former position. Light, warmth, and
moisture, for these reasons, are called the stimuli to vital
action. In our considerations, therefore, are naturally com-
prised that of the structure of plants, of the properties which
belong to that structure, and of the operation of external stimuli
upon those properties. — |
It will be perceived here, that the distinctions so far ex-
plained, between organic and inorganic bodies, apply as well
to animals as to plants. Before proceeding to our main sub-
ject, then, it will be proper as well as interesting to trace some
of the less general distinctions by which is produced the dif-
ference between these two grand divisions of organized mat-
ter. It is sometimes by no means easy to point out such a dif-

Vegetable Physiology. 19

ference, since some animals so nearly resemble plants as to
make it almost impossible to detect the line of demarcation.
But in genera], and among the higher orders of animals, the
distinction is so clear as to require no demonstration. An
animal may be defined as'a living body possessed of sensibility
and voluntary motion. Locomotion, or the power of changing
from place to place, is not, however, essential, since ani-
mals exist which are fixed to one spot. But all animals have
a stomach, or internal cavity, into which is received matter
from without, to be elaborated into a nutritive substance.
This stomach does not occur in plants. Animals are also pos-
sessed of a nervous system and muscular fibres capable of
contraction, together with the power of Selecting the matter
which is. to afford them nutriment. Thus their food is com-
posed of many kinds of ,animal. and vegetable substances, for
the digestion of which the organs which perform that office are
variously modified and arranged. But plants, being unable to
move from a particular spot, and to search for their food, are
nourished by the substances which surround them, and absorb,
by their surfaces, air, water, and many matters. which these
contain in solution. Thus, from the little diversity of their
food, results the great uniformity in structure and purpose of
their organs. The parts of the animal body are also possessed
of mobility, and do not preserve a fixed position, while those
of the vegetable are nearly stationary, so that the impulse »
which causes the distribution and motion of the nutritious
fluids in the former, is internal, while in the latter it acts from
without, and is not connected with the organization. Thus the
operation of the digestive organs, which in man forms chyle, is
independent of the conditions which are essential to the analo-
gous operation in plants, such as heat, moisture, and evapora-
tion. The chemical composition of both is the same, but the
elements are differently combined. The organs of sensation
and of motion, nerves properly so called, and muscles, are
entirely wanting in vegetables. They possess no heart or
other great organ of circulation, and have no vessels resem-
bling arteries or veins. There are some plants, notwithstand-
ing, which would seem to form exceptions to the general prin-

ciple that they lack sensibility and voluntary motion. The

\

20 Vegetable Physiology.

ee CS ee en ee ee ee ee eee ee
phenomena which some of these exhibit, such as the closing
of the leaves of the Sensitive Plant on being touched, must be
familiar to every one. The little Dionea Muscipula, or as it
is commonly called, Venus’ Fly-trap, which inhabits the
swamps of many parts of this country, is another singular
instance. The leaf is formed, or rather has an appendage, of
two lobes, on the edges of which are long, slender and sharp
spines, and in the centre a viscous fluid, which is attractive to
insects. "Whenever one of these alights on the leaf, for the
purpose of tasting this fluid, the two lobes suddenly contract,
close themselves together, and with their spines pierce through
and confine the unfortunate victim. The Sun-dew, (Drosera
rotundifolia,) also a common inhabitant of the northern states,
has its leaves covered with brown upright filaments, on the
top of which is a globule of clear fluid, and which on being
touched, instantly fall down. The common Barberry, (Berbe-
ris Canadensis,) presents another instance, which may readily
be observed. On touching with a pin the lower part of the
stamens, they instantly throw themselves forward against the
pistil. “hese and other similar phenomena are caused, how-
ever, by no voluntary power like that exerted in the, movement
of animal muscles, but are explained on entirely mechanical
principles. But there are many respects in which animals and
plants agree. They are both produced from a germ or egg,
they increase by the assimilation of foreign matter, they grad-
ually reach their full developement, propagate their species,
decay, and at last lose their vitality, become subject to the
decomposing influence of the atmosphere, are dispersed, and
their elements enter into new combinations. Plants respire
air, and have acontinual motion of their fluids, which, like those
of animals, are partly converted into the solid matter which
enters into their composition, and partly escape through the
pores of their outward surfaces. Yet these analogies are far
from being perfect, and the organs of plants can bear but a
limited comparison with those of animals. Of these affinities
we shall take more particular notice when we enter upon the
explanat: on of the structure and functions of the different parts

of vegetables, as a preliminary to which these concise remarks
are offered.

Fossil Botany. 21

FOSSIL BOTANY

The progress of Geology has developed the elements of
what may be considered a new science—that of Fossil Botany.

The splendid work of Count Sternberg, on the continent of

Europe, and those of Hutton and Lindley in England, together
with several others of less note, have created, not only among
the learned, but also among all classes of the educated, an
interest in the Flora. of the ancient world. Nor can any recent
book on Geology, now a common study in this country, be
understood and appreciated without a knowledge of the
elements of this science.

The subject is indeed highly curious and interesting to any
inquiring mind. Who can read accounts, or examine the
remains, of vegetables, sometimes of colossal proportions,
differing entirely in appearance, and, in some respects, in
structure, from any now growing on the earth, without a de-
sire to learn more concerning them? For the acquirement of |
such knowledge, the Botanist will be conscious that the Sexual
System, or Linnzan method of classification, must be insuffi-
cient—since the flowers and other parts on which the Artificial
classes are founded, are, in most cases, entirely wanting, only
the trunks, limbs and leaves being preserved. The Natural
System therefore can only be employed, and this to but a
limited extent, since trunks only, without the vestige of leaf,
flower or fruit, have occurred in great abundance. In such
instances the structure of the interior, the external appearance
of the bark, the marks left by the falling off of the leaves, the
branching of the top, when this can be found, are all that serve
-as data on which to base an opinion as to the class or family
to which the tree belonged. In this country, if little interest
is felt on this subject, it is only because there has yet been
published no popular exposition of the objects of Fossil Botany,
or the methods by which it is investigated. We therefore propose
to dedicate a few pages of this periodical toa seriesof articles on
this science, for which we have not a doubt of ultimately re-
ceiving the thanks of our readers. Sis

. ie

22 Fossil Botany. |
To those who are ignorant of Botany, and only wish to
acquire a knowledge of the elements of the fossil arrangement,
the trouble of learning the twenty-four classes and numerous
orders of the Linnzan System will be spared. Indeed, we
shall at present hardly venture on any strict arrangement, or
classification, but only, offer such information on the structure
of fossil wood and leaves, as will enable the reader to under-
stand what will follow.
. The structure of vegetables, compared with that of animals,:
presents a remarkable simplicity. While in animals every sepa-
rate operation of life is carried on by a setof separate organs, of
peculiar construction, a few tissues, variously modified, consti-
tute the whole mechanism by which all vegetable functions are
performed. Hence, for the purpose of distinguishing one of
the grand classes of plants from another, only a transverse
section of the stem or trunk, or a leaf, is required. The method
of arriving at such a result in the case of fossil plants, espe-
cially when the trunk or wood is the only part preserved,
requires’ some instruction and a few illustrations, which we
propose to insert in our next number. .

For the present, we must content ourselves with giving
an engraving or two representing fossil remains of vegetables,
and a few general observations and descriptions which may
serve as an introduction to the subject.

’ Some of the antediluvian plants were highly curious in their
ferm and structure, and must have been remarkably beautiful
in theic appearance. Others were similar to species now
growing, or recent species—so called by the botanist, to dis-
tinguish them from those which no longer grow, termed extinct
species. The ferns compose the most numerous family of
vegetables found as organic remains, some of which closely
resemble recent species, though none have been found which
can be considered as more than types of those now existing.
The argillaceous nodules, or balls of clay, found in some of the
English coal mines, the great depositories of fossil plants, often
exhibit very perfect impressions or casts of these ferns. In
most instances they appear to have been produced in tropical
climates. This is inferred from the fact, that in hot countries
their nearest living analogies are to be found—though, as we

he Sa

EO Bee 5 blr Bh Eee — mi
1a 2 ot MRA oh ages Pi ING

Fd
eit

aa

Fossil Botany. 23

———

have before stated, identical recent species have not been dis-
covered. When these nodules are carefully broken, the im-
pressions are seen preserved on both faces of the clay,—but

on, not displaying each side of the leaf or

contrary to expectati
stem, but the same side on each broken surface ; on the one in

alto, and on the other in basso relievo, or slightly depressed on
one side and slightly raised on the other. The best explana-
tion of this curious circumstance, which long puzzled observ-
ers, appears to be the following.—The vegetable matter, in
passing through its bituminous change, first became softened,
and filled its own mould between the walls of clay with the
liquid or deliquescent substance thus produced ; this subse-
quently became hardened, and adhered to one side of the clay,
which on being broken shows the surface of the adherent
bituminous cast, while the other side displays the corresponding
mould. The adjoining cut will give an idea of such appear-
ances. It represents a species of fern or Polypodium, in clay
slate, from an English coal mine. Sir James E. Smith considers
it the product of a tropical climate, but not referable to any

recent species.

‘> Tt is well known to geologists that nearly all the plants, par-
ticularly those of the cryptogamous tribes, as the Ferns, and
Algz, or sea weeds, now found in geological formations in all
parts of the earth, indicate by their increased proportions, the
influence of tropical regions. Moisture and heat appear to be
the conditions of the largest developement of these plants.

Thus, the Ferns, as 4 brake, Pteris, or polypody, Polypodium,

24 Fossil Botany.

grow in our climate only from two to four feet in height, nor

have we any individual of this tribe in this country which
attains more than twice that stature. But in hot countries, as
in Tropical America and in the East Indies, the Arborescent or
Tree Ferns, though belonging to the same family as our own,
attain the altitude of forest trees, with stems of eight or ten
inches in diameter. On the stairs of the British Museum at
London, there is an Arborescent Fern which recently came
from Bengal, measuring forty-five feet in height. In the ardent

climate of South America, Baron Humboldt, to his astonish-

ment, saw immense groves of a similar colossal growth, and
it may well be supposed that nothing in the vegetable world
can present to the eye of the traveller a more beautiful, inter-
esting and imposing scene. ;

In the fossil state, in cold climates, similar ferns, as has
been mentioned, are found at the present day. They are
abundant in the coal mines of England, France, and Germany ;
and in this country near the Canada line, as well as in Siberia,
similar phenomena occur. Now it might be supposed, refer-
ring to the general deluge for an explanation, that transporta-
tion of these plants by water, from their native country to the
place where they are found, would readily account for these
facts; but the plausibility of this theory is at once swept away
by another fact, which is this. These ferns are sometimes
found standing in the identical spots where they grew, their
roots still inserted into the earth, as in their life-time, but
equally with their stems and leaves, petrified into stone. The
cnly consistent solution of the difficulty, appears to be in the
theory, that tue temperature of the earth was once much
higher than it now is, and that the climate of the regions in
which these fossil remains are now discovered, was of the
same nature with that in which their analogical recent brethren
are now produced,—a theory, the truth of which, at present
we shall neither affirm nor deny, and for a discussion of which
this is not the place. Although allusion has been made in the
foregoing remarks to the Ferns only, yet there are several
other families of plants to which the same circumstances are
equally applicable. Among these are the Equisetums, a tribe
well: known as recent plants, one of which, a little straight

my

,

Fossil Botany. 25

a
species of the size of a pipe-stem, is known by the name of
Scouring Rush, and from the quantity of silicious matter in its
outer covering, is sometimes made serviceable in polishing
metal. To this family belongs the Calamites, which is now
only found in a fossil state, and which attained the magnitude
of a forest tree. Specimens of the same species occur in the
coal formations at Newcastle in England, at Lubec near
Canada, in France, and in Siberia, showing the wide extent to
which this plant was spread, at a time when heat and mois-
ture seem to have pervaded the whole earth, and to have given

* to this family, like the Ferns, a gigantic size, while in this

climate no recent species become more than three or four feet
high, with diameters seldom attaining an inch. The following
figure represents a part of the stem of a fossil species, called
Calamites approximatus, on account of the proximity of the
joints.

fr
i
:
v
1\

i
Hy
Hi |

ny

In the next number, we propose to continue the subject of
Fossil Botany, and to explain the means of distinguishing and.
classifying the different species of plants found in the strata of
the earth, illustrating our descriptions with: cuts, and attempt-
ing ¢ to ra the subject both useful and ente ining, to all
readers of sufficient capacity to understand explanati i
we intend to make a once clea and precise. : iad

%

26 Paper Reed. x

CYPERUS PAPYRUS—PAPER REED.

Natural Class, Monocotyledones; Order,Cyperacez. Linnean Class, Tri-
andria; Order, Monogynia. Generic Distinctions :—spikelets, com-
pressed, distinct; glumes, one valved, numerous, imbricated; corolla,

none; style, deciduous; seed, naked.

Tus genus, and others belonging to the same natural order,
are very widely distributed over the globe. Says Lindley,
“They are found in marshes, ditches, and running streams, in
meadows and on heaths, in groves and forests, on the blowing
sands of the sea shore, on the tops of mountains, from the arc-
tic to the antarctic circle, wherever Phaenogamous vegetation
can exist.” These plants also compose the Sedge tribe,

which, though so strongly resembling the grasses in general-

appearance and habit, differs from them in this remarkable
particular. Many of the grasses possess nutritive qualities,
and furnish materials for the manufacture of flour and sugar,
while the sedges are mostly destitute of the necessary nutri-
ment even for the food of cattle. The roots of some of the
Cyperuses, however, possess medicinal properties. Those of
C. longus, are succulent, and contain a mucilage, together with
a bitter principle which gives them a tonic effect. Those of
another species are employed in India by the native physi-
cians in cases of cholera, and the Hindoo ladies use those of C.
perennis in perfuming their hair. In this country, these and
similar plants are principally used in making the bottoms of
chairs, in stuffing cushions, and for similar purposes.

The most useful and celebrated of the genus Cyperus, is
undoubtedly the one represented in our engraving. It is an
inhabitant of the southern regions of Europe, Italy and Sicily,
(where it has probably been introduced in comparatively
modern times,) of Palestine, and of Arabia. But the Papyrus
is best known for its connexion with the history of the Egyp-
tians. Its native country, it is presumed, was Ethiopia, whence
it spread along the Nile into Egypt. The Egyptians, from the
earliest times, made ropes, as well as boats, of the Paper Reed,
and it is supposed by commentators, that the Hebrew word

| ts nda

Paper Reed. i

Sith) EERE Oe
which the translators of the Bible have rendered bulrush, really
signifies the same plant; as in Exodus ii. 3; Job viii. 11; and
in other parts of the Old Testament. If this be the case, the
ark in which Moses was laid must have been made of the
Papyrus. “The waving, feather-like tops of the full-grown
Papyrus were used to crown the statues of the goddesses in
many temples; the upright stem was used in the construction
of light vessels) When macerated in water or wet sand, the
fibres served for cordage, and sail cloth was occasionally
woven of it. The solid part near the root was converted into
soles for the sandals of the priests, cups and various toys, the
more valuable on account of the scarcity of wood in Egypt;
but the chief and most important use of the Papyrus was as a .
material for writing on.”* The ancient Egyptian name of
this plant was biblos, which, for an obvious reason, was adopted
by the Greeks to signify book, and is retained by christians in
the name of the bible. From the common name-Papyrus is
derived our word paper, the ancient method of manufacturing
which from this plant, as described by- Pliny, appears to have
been as follows:—The stem of the reed was divided into
lengths, each sufficient for a page, and-then carpfully peeled
in a transverse direction, as far inward towards the core as
possible, so as to make the width of the page the greater.
Several of these strips were laid together, and then covered.
with some glutinous material, such as gum, glue, or flour paste.
Some authors say that the slimy water of the Nile is sufficient
for this purpose, but experiments have shown that it would not
answer. ‘The first layer being dry, a second was placed trans-
versely upon it, that the fibres might cross each other, like the
threads of cloth. The whole was then beaten, and a strong

pressure applied to make it smooth and level. It is probable
that Pliny was ignorant of some part of the process, since this
method has been attempted without success by Bruce, the
traveller, who, however, by a different process, succeeded in
making a tolerable sheet of reed paper. It is said that the
invention of parchment, which for many centuries was the

* For these and other facts imbodied in this account, see “A Scripture
Herbal,” by Maria Calleott. London, 1842. Art. Paper Reed.

fs Poaoprypus

28 Paper Reed.

common material for writing upon, and the use of which quite
superseded that of Papyrus, was owing to the fact that an
Egyptian sovereign prohibited the exportation of reed paper
from his kingdom. As frequently happens in such cases, a
substance was soon discovered to take its place, and to Attalus,
king of Pergamus, is ascribed the credit of having first prepared
the skins of animals for this purpose. In this connexion, it
may be remarked that a curious treatise might be written on
the various ancient substitutes for paper, and the methods of
writing on them. Books are yet in existence written on palm
leaves, and the most ancient inhabitants of Italy, as well as
some of the East Indian nations, used a kind of linen cloth, so
prepared as to retain the marks of the pen. ‘Tablets of various
kinds of wood, and the bark of trees, have also been employed.
The latter substance, called by the Latins liber, has given the
name for book to the languages of Southern Europe. Our word
book is itself derived from the Gothic, signifying beech-tree, since
the bark of that tree was used for writing upon, as also the
wood, which for that purpose was cut into thin plates or staves; ~
whence verses in poetry are often called staves, each: being
separatély writfen-en one of these tablets.

The Papyrus also supplied the Egyptians with a fibre which
they twisted into a fine cord, and used in the lacing of their
mummy cases. It appears that, in those cases, which were
ornamented and prepared before the corpse was placed ix
them, an aperture was left open in the back for its introduc-
tion, which was afterwards drawn together with these cords in
.a very ingenious manner, and the seam then covered with a —
piece of cloth glued or cemented, so as to make it perfectly
secure.

The Papyrus, when growing together in groups, as repre-
sented in the engraving, is an extremely elegant plant, the
upper part resembling a graceful plume of green feathers. In:
favorable situations, it sometimes attains the height of fourteen
feet, but its ordinary height is less. The tender shoots and
«roots were sometimes used as food.

wees te hn
) eedotrecme CA Ry th HG
ct:

Willow Herb. 29
enna tinea ee

EPILOBIUM—WILLOW HERB.

Natural Class, Dicotyledones; Order, Onagracee. Linnean Class, Octan-
dria; Order, Monogynia. Generic Distinctions :—calyx, four cleft; petals,
four ; stamens, eight; style, filiform, with a clavate or cruciform stigma ;
capsule, linear, of four cells, with four valves; seeds, numerous, bearded.

_ E. Angustifolium. (L.) Leaves, lanceolate, denticulate, veined ; peduncles,
shorter than the germen; flower buds, obovate, narrowed at the base, and.
suddenly contracted into a point at the apex. Sepals, linear, lanceolate,
acute, equalling or slightly longer than the petals; capsule, linear, straight,
erect, three to four feet high; grows in damp, shady places.

Of this genus there are a large number of species, both in

this country and in Europe. There is so strong a family like-
ness between them, as to leave little room for mistaking one
after having seen another. The natural order in which they
are comprised, has for its type the Evening Primrose, (Oeno-
thera,) and is very well defined by the great similarity of its
members to each other, in several curious particulars. Plants
belonging to this order, are scattered in various countries of
the world, from South America to Siberia, and they all agree
in this respect, that every one of the parts of the flower con-
sists of four pieces, or of some number that may be divided
by four. The calyx is composed of four sepals, the petals are
four, the stamens are eight, the ovary contains four cavities,
the style separates into four stigmas, the fruit is a dry oval
case with four angles, opening into four valves. There are
many plants of different orders, which have some of their
parts of the number of four, but it is only in this tribe that all
the parts are in fours at the same time.
_ Some of the species of Epilobium are very handsome,
showy plants, particularly E. spicatum, which is a native of
New York, and of the Northern and Eastern States. It flowers
in August, and when a large cluster is seen together, as is
often the case, the tall, leafy stems, and long spike of purple
blossoms, produce a very brilliant effect. We have cultivated
this species with very good success in pots, by giving it a
portion of the earth in which it originally grew, and keeping it
well watered, in which case it will frequently attain an extra

30 Borage.

ordinary size, and produce a close spike of flowers, sometimes
two feet in length. This, we believe, is the only species indi-
genous to the northern part of the United States, which is
worth the trouble of reclaiming, the others being comparatively
mean looking plants. The Epilobiums, as well as most, if
not all the Evening Primrose tribe, have few’ good qualities
besides their appearance, possessing no useful properties of
any consequence.

BORAGO OFFICINALIS—BORAGE.

Natural Class, Dicotyledones ; Order, Boraginee. Linnean Class, Pentan-
dria ; Order, Monogynia. Generic Distinctions :—calyx, in five deep
segments ; corolla, rotate; tube, very short; throat, with short, erect,
emarginate scales; stamens, exserted; filaments, bifid, the inner fork
bearing the anther.

B. Offcinalis. (L.) Lower leaves, obovate, obtuse, attenuated below; seg-
ments of the corolla, ovate, acute, flat, spreading; grows in waste places
and rubbish; flowers, blue. :

Tuts genus forms the type of the natural order Boragineee.
The species represented in the engraving is the only one much
known in this part of this country, though nearly all are inhabi-
tants of temperate climates. Their number appears to be
much smaller in America than in Europe. Borage is possessed
of some useful qualities. It abounds in mucilage, and is //
sometimes cultivated for the sake of the leaves and young

‘\shoots, which are boiled as ‘ greens’ in the spring, but are far
inferior for that purpose either to those of the Dandelion, or
the Asclepias. It also gives a coolness to hquids in which itis
steeped, and for that reason as Main says in his “ Hortus
Dietetica,”’ an odd book, with an odd title, “*the flowers are
required in the composition of cool-tankard, a favorite bever-
age amongst aldermen in warm weather.’ The flowers undergo
a remarkable change of color. At their first appearance, the
petals are of a bright red color, which becomes a brilliant -
blue when they are fully expanded. This phenomenon is
probably caused by the loss of some acid principle. To those
who are fond of tracing analogies between the higher and

- we Fe ’ my
ee ee a eee eee ee ee Se ee ee ee

Trumpet Flower. 31

lower orders of creation, we might suggest a similarity between
this operation of nature, and that which sometimes takes

lace in certain of the delicate sex—<‘ Dians of the times,”—
who blush enchanting red on their first ‘coming out,” but in
the course of seasons become blues of the most intense and
immeasurable tint. Female chemistry, however, seems to
offer a reason for this change, the reverse of that supposed in
the case of the flower, and makes it attributable, not to the
loss, but to the gain, of some ‘acid principle.’ In considera-
tion that the Borage is emblematic of BLUNTNEss, we hope to
be pardoned for so wicked a parallel, and will not risk a
second offence, by intruding our opinion as to the propriety of
giving it another signification, which we therefore leave our fair
readers to discover for themselves.

BIGNONIA RADICANS—TRUMPET FLOWER.

Natural Class, Dicotyledones; Order, Bignoniaceez. Linnean Class, Didyna-
mia ; Order, Angiosperma. Generic Distinctions :—calyx, divided or entire 3
corolla, monopetalous, usually irregular, four and five lobed ; stamens, five,
unequal, always one, sometimes three, sterile ; ovarium, seated in a disk,
two celled, many seeded ; style, one; seeds, transverse, compressed, often
winged.

B. Radicans.—Leaves, pinnate ; leaflets, opposite, ovate, acuminate, toothed ;
panicles, terminal ; flowers, scarlet; stem, climbing.

Tue genus Bignonia forms the type of the natural order
Bignoniacez, the essential characters of which will be fully
explained when it is noticed in its proper place. The genus
derives its name from the Abbe Bignon, librarian to Louis
XIV., and is composed of beautiful plants, some of which are
trees or shrubs, and others are climbers. They are mostly
- inhabitants of hot climates, from which, on the American con-
tinent, they extend northward to the Middle United States, and
southward to Chili. There is a strong family likeness between
them, though the petals of the different species are of various
colors. The knowledge yet obtained of their medicinal or
other properties, is very imperfect. The natives of some
parts of South America use for painting their faces and bodies,

32 Trumpet Flower.

ared substance which they denominate chica, produced by
boiling the leaves of one species, called from this circumstance,
‘ Bignonia Chica. This article was, some years ago, introdu-
ced into England, and recommended to the attention of dyers ;
but we believe that it did not prove of sufficient value to lead
to any important result. The shoots of another species are
employed by the Brazilians in the making of baskets, and
others form large trees, which afford material for timber and
for the manufacture of bows. The species B. radicans,
which the engraving represents, must be familiar to many of
our readers, under the name of “ Trumpet Flower,” or
“Trumpet Creeper.” It is a native of the Southern and
Middle States, and is cultivated in New York and New Eng-
land. It frequently climbs to the height of forty or fifty feet,
and when covering, as it sometimes will, nearly the whole
side of a house, with its deep green foliage and its large,
trumpet-shaped scarlet flowers, it presents a very splendid
appearance. The tendrils by which this plant supports itself
in such a position, are extremely strong and tenacious, and
often adhere to the wood, and penetrate between the clap-
boards with so firm a hold that it is almost impossible to tear
them away. The seeds are winged with a beautifully reticu-
lated transparent membrane, resembling the wing of the large
- Labellula, or Dragon Fly.

- Wherever the Trumpet Flower grows, there come the hum-
ming-birds, with whom it is a great favorite, and the delicate
‘little creatures sometimes bury themselves so deeply in the

large corolla, as to make it a trap for their capture. Indeed, .

we will warrant any person of ordinary dexterity the possession
of one of these “flying gems,” if he will watch for a few
hours on some clear August day near a Trumpet Creeper in

the country. |
This plant is known and cultivated in England under the

misnomer of “ American Jasmine,” and in France, as “ Jas- _

mine de Virginie.” It is in England made the emblem of
SEPARATION, from the fanciful notion that it does not thrive
well without its guardian spirit, the humming-bird, which in
that “cold and cloudy clime,’” does not exist. We should
prefer it to signify here an entirely opposite sentiment.

ge towered Browallia./

t

(Lat

prandjlow: ie

a wettntn_. (Painted Cup)

toad

Painted Cup. 65

cial mrnt eeee EE T PE in M ) pa eT BA at

CASTILLEJA—PAINTED CUP.

Natural Order, Rhinanthacee. Linnzan Class, Didynamia; Order, An-
giospermia. © Generic Distinctions :—calyx ventricose, two or four cleft;
corolla, two lipped, upper lip long and linear, embracing the style and
stamens ; anthers, linear, with unequal lobes; capsule, ovate, compress-
ed; two celled; seeds, numerous, surrounded with a membranaceous
vesicle. .

C. coccinea. Leaves and colored bracts, pinnatifidly three cleft; segments,
divaricate ; calyx, bifid, nearly equal with the corolla; segments, retuse,
and emarginate. (Pl. 11. Fig. 1.)

Tus is a handsome and singular plant. It is a native of
most of the United States, and must be familiar, under its com-
mon and appropriate name of Painted Cup, to many of our
readers. Indeed, this seems to be the only certain and lasting
appellation which this poor plant is destined to retain, since,
within/our own recollection, it has been christened twice anew
by botanists. It was first placed by Linnzeus in the genus
Bartsia, named in honor of his friend, Dr. Batsch; it was then
separated, and the new genus Euchroma, (signifying well

‘painted,) was created expressly for it, by Nuttall, and it is
finally settled in its present genus, by Sprengel, a German bo-
tanist, where requiescat in pace. The genus Castilleja is de-
rived from the name of a botanist of Cadiz, D. Castillejo.
This species owes its brilliant appearance not, as is generally
the case, to its corolla, but to the colored bracts, which are of
a vivid scarlet, passing into orange. The corolla itself, which is
often nearly concealed by these, is yellow. It is said by the
British botanists to be very impatient of cultivation in England,
-since it there ripens but very few seeds, so that it is easily lost.
In fact, although it was introduced into that country in 1787, it
soon ran out, and was not restored until 1826. It may be
easily cultivated in this country, by sowing the seeds in loose,
gravelly soil, early in the spring, and after the plants come up
they require very little attention. ) :
Vou. IL—5.

+7

66 | . The Nolana.

NOLANA—THE NOLANA.

Natural Order, Nolanacee. Linnean Class, Pentandria. Order, Monogy-
nia. Generic Distinctions :—calyx, five cleft; corolla, campanulate, regu-
lar, plaited. Drupes usually five, containing each a three or four celled
nut.

N. atriplicifolia. Stems procumbent, rather hairy; calyx, campanulate,
with ovate lanceolate, acute, connivent segments; leaves, spatulate,
radical ones large. (Pl. 12.)

The name of this genus is derived from the Latin word nola,
a little bell, and was given by Linnezeus to the first of the spe-
cies discovered, on account of the bell-shaped form of its co-

rolla. The proper position of Nolana in the natural system’

has been a matter of considerable doubt among botanists. It
was placed by Jussieu in the same order with the Borage
and the Echium, but its distinction from the plants of that order
is so plain, particularly in its plaited flower bud, that its right
there was soon doubted. It has a strong resemblance to some
species of Convolvulus, but differs from that genus entirely in
its fruit, which is a fleshy drupe, containing a hard stone, some-
what like a cherry. De Candolle included it in the order
Solanacee, from which again its fruit distinguishes it, all
plants of that order bearing a fleshy berry, us that of the To-
mato or Egg-plant. Professor Lindley, for the purpose of giv-
ing it its proper place, formed the order Nolanacee, which

comprises also two other genera nearly allied to the Convol- —

vulus..: :

The species came from South America, and are now com-
monly cultivated in England. The one in our engraving is
the most beautiful. The flower is very large, and the distinct
combination of the three colors, bright blue, yellow, and clear
white, gives it an extremely fine effect. This is heightened
by the contrast of the broad, fleshy, deep green leaves, which;
on the bending stems, soon become so abundant as to com-
pletely cover the ground. This species is an annual plant, and
its cultivation is said to be quite easy. The seeds are to be
sown early in the season, in a rich soil.

ee

; Vy c ( The Nélana/

3

FGpe Midd’ n elagenijflorac (White Petunia.) ;
Geli CRA. ( Purple Petunia)

Te aa alali. (Winged Thunbergia.)

Petunia. 67
aera ESIC ee ee ee, A eee Mae ae ee

PETUNIA—THE PETUNIA.

Natural Order, Solanacee. Linnzan Class, Pentandria. Order, Monogy-
nia. Generic Distinctions :—segments of the calyx, foliaceous, spatulate ;
corolla, with a short tube, and a dilated, rather unequal limb. Stamens,
unequal, enclosed.

P. nyctaginiflora. Diffuse, clothed with clammy hairs; lower leaves alter-
nate, ovate, obtuse, hairy; Floral leaves, sessile, cordate-ovate, opposite.
Flowers on peduncles, axillary. Tube of the corolla, three or four times
longer than the calyx. (Pl. 13. Fig. 1.)

P. phenicea. Prostrate, clothed with hairs. Leaves, ovate, on short petioles,
acute. Corolla, ventricose, with ovate, acute segments. Flowers, soli-
tary, axillary, pedunculate. (Pl. 13. Fig. 2.)

The plants of this genus are ornamental annuals, and are
great favorites wherever they are cultivated. The generic
name is from Petun, the Brazilian word for Tobacco. There
are several species, which are very generally esteemed in the
flower garden. The two in our engraving are, perhaps, the
most beautiful and the most commonly cultivated. The white
Petunia was discovered near the mouth of the Rio de la Plata,
and seeds of it were first sent to Europe in 1823. It was
found to be quite hardy, and to grow well as a border flower,
in the open air, and from its beauty and the little trouble re-
quired in its management, became at once an object of favor
among florists. The soil which it requires is a peat or sandy
loam, and it must be watered frequently, as the roots are apt
to wither if allowed to become dry.

The Purple Petunia isa more showy and highly colored -
species, and although it was unknown in England until 1830,
and flowered there for the first time in 1831, it has already a
place in every garden there. It was discovered on the banks
of the river Uruguay in Buenos Ayres. It grows equally well
in the open air and in a green house, and as long as its fine
vein-like roots are kept moist and allowed to grow in light fine
soil, without too much wet, it may be trained in almost any
form, and is sure to reward its possessor with a profusion of
its large dark purple blossoms. It is generally trained against
a wire frame, or over an open bed ; or the seeds may be sown

e

2

68 The Thunbergia.

in the autumn or winter, and the young plants kept in pots
and set out in May. As fast as the old flowers drop off, new
ones will expand, and the bed continue to present a mass of
splendid purple until the coming of frost. This species is
found to hybridize freely with the other, and the union of the
two produces a great number of beautiful varieties, some of
which are very large and fragrant, and of a lilac color, and
others of a fine rich crimson shade of purple. Their culture
is very easy; they will grow and bloom freely, if the seeds
are merely scattered on any common soil, and by no flower is
the care of the cultivator better repaid.

THUNBERGIA—THE THUNBERGIA.

Natural Order, Acanthacee. Linnzan Class, Didynamia. Order, Angios-
permia. Generic Distinctions :—calyx, double; exterior in two leaves,
interior shorter, with awl-shaped teeth; corolla, campanulate, tube infla-
ted, limb five lobed, equal; stigma, two lobed ; capsule, globose, beaked,
two celled.

T. alata. Stem twiniug; leaves triangularly cordate, sinuately toothed,
five nerved ; petioles winged. (Pl. 13. Fig. 3.)

‘This genus was named by Linnzeus in honor of Charles Pe-
ter Thunberg, an eminent naturalist, professor of botany at
the University of Upsal, and author of several scientific works.
The species are mostly climbing plants, and some of them are
very beautiful. Their colors are singularly opposite and dif

_ ferent ; the flowers of one species being blue; those of another
scarlet ; those of others white, bright orange, and, as the one
in the plate, a pale buff. 7’. alata is a native of the East Indies,
and its beauty has made it very popular among gardeners,
who frequently give it the pet name of Black-eyed Susan. Its
seeds are of a curious shape, and have the appearance of be-
ing covered with a delicate net work, and the capsule which

‘contains them is hard and horned. The proper method of cul-
tivation seems to be, to sow the seeds in a soil composed of
nearly equal parts of peat earth, or vegetable mould, and sand,

Me hka meinen: (Ties Hine Stade)

wf ~

The Stock. 69

ee
which should be kept constantly moist, but well drained, as
they are not fond of stagnant water. When growing, they may
either have the tops of their shoots cut off frequently, so as to
render the plant bushy, or the long slender stems, instead of
being allowed to twine, may be laid over the bed and fastened
down at the joints.

MATHIOLA—THE STOCK.

Natural Order, Crucifere. Linnean Class, Tetradynamia. Order, Sili-
quosa. Generic Distinctions :—silique, roundish; stigmas connivent,
thickened or cornute at the back ; calyx, bisaccate at the base.

M. annua. Stem erect, bfanched; leaves lanceolate, blunt, hoary. Pods
somewhat cylindrical, without glands. (PJ. 14.)

Few plants are better known than the species and varie-
ties included under the general name of Stocks and Stock-gilli-
flowers. The genus is named from Peter Andrew Mathioli,
an Italian botanist, first physician to Ferdinand of Austria, and
author of a commentary upon Dioscorides. The plants be-
longing to it are generally covered with a white, soft down,
and are among the most popular of garden. flowers, particu-.
larly the species represented in the engraving. Of this there.
are an immense number of varieties, both single and double.
Some of the single ones are white, some purple, some crimson,
some spotted, and some striped. Our figure represents one of

. the most curious and beautiful of the double varieties, of the

kind called the German Stock. The following description of
this plant, and directions for its culture, are given by Mrs. Lou-
don, to whom florists are greatly indebted for her series of fine
and correct works, some of which are of great value, not only
to the practical gardener, but to the student of botany.

“ This is a plant growing from one to two feet high, with an
erect branching stem, hoary leaves, and long spikes of flowers,
the size and richness of color of which differ greatly in the seve-
ral varieties, some of them being very splendid. The species
is a native of the south of Europe, by the sea shore, whence it

70 The Stock.

was introduced in 1731; but the principal varieties have been
originated in England and Germany. The German varieties
are particularly beautiful, and the seed saved in that country,
from the greater heat of the summers, and the great care be-
stowed by the weavers of Saxony, who are the principal
growers of it, is very superior to seed saved in England. What
are called the Russian and Prussian varieties, are, generally
speaking, all grown in Upper Saxony by the weavers, who
take as much pleasure in raising and saving the seed of their
Stocks, as the Lancashire weavers do in England in growing
their pinks and carnations. Home-saved seed can rarely be
depended upon, as where several varieties are cultivated to-
gether, spurious ones are made by the wind carrying the pollen
from one plant to another, and the seed can never be kept true.
Regular seed growers preserve only the plants with the best
flowers, and throw the others away. To produce the
finest flowers, the seed should be sown in August, in a bed of
rather light soil, which should be covered with a frame; or
‘the seed may be sown in pots, four or five in a pot, and placed
in a cold frame. (Acold frame is a pit or frame covered with
glass, but not heated by manure, or in any other manner.)
The plants, when they come up, should be kept dry during the
winter, to strengthen them, and in April they should be taken
out of their beds, with a ball of earth round their roots, or if in
a pot, turned out with the earth entire, and planted in a warm
border, in very rich soil. The poor soil in which they were
raised will have previousty checked their growth; but plant-
ing them in the rich soil after this previous check, will. make
them grow luxuriantly, and produce rich spikes of flowers in
June.

“Those persons who wish to have fine Stocks to flower
early in the summer, but who have no frame to raise them in,
or indeed do not like the trouble of keeping plants during the
winter, will find it their best plan to purchase young plants in
April or May, and to plant them in rich soil. These autumn-
sown plants have, however, the disadvantage of fading very
soon, when exposed to the heat of summer. Their fibrous
roots wither, and their dark colors become blotched, or blanch--
ed by the sun. From this disadvantage spring-sown plants

The Stock. 71

are free. If sown in February, March, or April, in a dry poor
soil, they may be transplanted into a rich soil in April or May,
taking care to preserve the earth about the roots, and not to in-
jure the fibres, though in some cases the extreme point of the
tap-root may be taken off, to‘induce it to throw out more fibres.
Other seeds may be sown in May, which will not need trans-
planting, and which, if preserved from the frost, will continue
flowering till Christmas. Some persons, to produce larger
flowers, take off the side shoots as they appear, and thin the
blossom buds on the flower spike, by taking off every alternate
bud; and others water with liquid manure, and use other
means, to produce fine plants. In whatever manner they are
treated, it must always be remembered that they require great
care in transplanting, and that this should be done when they
are quite young. The general rule is, that they are fit for
transplanting when. they have opened their second pair of
leaves, and that it should not be delayed longer than a little
after the third pair is produced. When large plants are re-
moved, it should always be with such a ball of earth attached
that the roots ‘may experience no check from the removal.
When the Stocks are planted out in the borders for flowering,
they are generally placed three together in an angular form,
so as to allow room for a stake to be placed in the centre to tie
them to, if necessary.” 2

Like all other plants belonging to the same natural order,
the Stock possesses anti-scorbutic and stimulant qualities. The
leaves of all the species are sometimes used as pot herbs.
The name Ten-week Stock is applied to this species, from the
circumstance that about that period elapses from the time
when the seeds are sown to the period of the full growth and
flowering of the plant. On the method of producing double
flowers from single ones in this and other garden plants, we
shall shortly give some instructions.

12 The Natural System of Botany.

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER THREE.

Exogenz or Dicotyledonous plants are next subdivided into
two very natural and easily ascertained families. All those
whose seed is enclosed in a pericarp, or seed vessel, are in-
cluded in the division ANGIosPERM&, signifying covered secds,
and all whose seed is destitute of an outer covering, belong to
the division GymnospERM#, naked seeds. The first division of
Endogenz, or Monocotyledonous plants, consists of those which
have a true calyx and corolla in three or six parts, or if these
are absent, stamens and pistils without any envelope. This
division isnamed Petatowrex. The second division contains
those plants which have no true calyx or corolla, but whose
parts of fructification are enclosed in imbricated scales or
bracts. These are the Gtumacex. All these classes, sub-
classes and divisions, together with the minor divisions which
are not so strictly natural, will be presented to the reader in a
tabular form, their points of distinction briefly recapitulated,
and examples of plants belonging to each of them mentioned,

so as to give at a single glance a clear idea of the whole.
Before offering this, however, and before proceeding with
» descriptions of the orders of the system, it is necessary that
the student should become somewhat acquainted with the
marks or characters used by botanists in determining these
orders, and should be able to estimate with some degree of
precision the value of these characters for that purpose. The
great advantage of some previous explanation of these will be
felt by the student when he comes to the perusal of succeeding
articles, and he must have the greater patience with what may
now seem to him dry and tedious, upon the assurance that his
future difficulties will be thereby materially diminished. He
will commence the study of the natural orders with an interest
and a pleasure heightened by the sense of having overcome
some of the chief obstacles to an acquaintance with them, and
_ his progress will be the more rapid in consequence of his pre-

_ en

The Natural System of Botany. 73

sent delay. The following remarks are incidentally proper also,
for the purpose of explaining many of the terms used in defin-
ing the natural orders, without some knowledge of which on
the part of the student, we should be frequently obliged to in-
terrupt his after progress. Our plan is, as has already been
seen, not to pause longer than is unavoidable on the meaning
and application of technical words, but rather to trust the ob-
servation and memory of the reader to gather the necessary in-
formation on such points, as he proceeds. This, so far as our
own experience extends, is much better than to continually in-
trude upon the senses a collection of compound words, with
lengthy explanations, which are almost certain to confound
and disgust the mind, and to lead it away from the main sub-
ject. We hope in these observations, as well as in the articles
on Vegetable Physiology, so to accustom the eye of the student
to most of the words which botanists make use of, that when
he sees those words collected together, in the form of a diag-
nosis, or in the essential characters of a natural order, he will
understand them at once, without the trouble of repeated refer-
ences to a glossary. This object, to its fullest extent, we can-
not pretend to effect, but only so far as concerns the scope of
this work. .

Before estimating the degree or the manner in which the ex-
ternal organs, such as the leaf, or the flower, are used to deter-
mine natural affinities, it may be remarked as a first principle,
that for this purpose thé value of these organs is proportionate
to the certainty with which they severally afford indications of
important similarities or differences of general conformation.
A single character of an organ may be sometimes a key to all
those of the plant or class of plants to which it belongs; as for
instance, a reticulated leaf at once shows that the plant from
which it is taken, increases from the outside, has a vascular
structure, and a seed composed of more than one cotyledon,

‘because these peculiarities invariably accompany such a leaf.
This principle may be made more plain by a reference to the
animal kingdom. If a living being is found covered with
feathers, we know at once that it has a complete bony skeleton,
that its blood is red, it breathes air, its young are produced
from eggs, in short, that it possesses all those distinguishing

74 The Natural System of Botany.

_— -

qualities which constitute a bird. Again, the form and ar-
rangement of the teeth of a quadruped afford almost unfailing
indications of the form of its digestive apparatus, of the na-
ture of its food, and of its general structure. In a similar
manner the botanist selects from the whole set of characters on
which his classification depends, those which afford the most
apparent marks, to distinguish one division from another. The
most natural character, then, as the distribution of the veins
of a leaf, is that which affords the most plain and extensive
information as to all the other characters of the plants to which
it is peculiar. The number of the stamens or styles indicates
comparatively nothing in this respect, and is therefore only an
artificial character.

A second important principle of natural classification is
found in the fact that when a number of. plants or animals are
collected according to their general resemblances, some indi-
viduals of the group will possess‘in a much higher degree than
the rest, the characters which are commonto all, while others
will be so deficient in these characters as to seem hardly re-
lated to the same assemblage. Those members of a natural
group which most strikingly present an union of all the char-
acters by which it is distinguished, are called its types, and
those in which such characters are less obvious are termed
aberrant. By these latter is formed the connexion between the
different natural orders, since it is often the case that in the
aberrant members of an order, its characters become gradually
shaded off, until they almost blend with those of the next. To
refer to animals again, for an illustration, the family of Lizards
is intermediate between the Serpents and the Tortoises. The
body of some lizards is so elongated, and their legs so small,
as to render them nearly similar in appearance to snakes ; and
in one species the outer form is exactly that of a serpent, while
under the skin are found two pairs of very minute legs. This,
then, is an aberrant form, which it is scarcely possible to refer
with certainty to either family. On the side of the tortoises;
again, the lizards are connected by a species with the head,
neck, legs and tail of a lizard, but with a shell on its back. In
the vegetable kingdom instances of this kind will be frequently
met with, and therefore it by no means follows, when a plant

The Natural System of Botany. 75

is included in a certain order, that it must necessarily possess

all the characteristics of all plants of that order. Again, in the
case of birds, the structure and appearance of the feathers,
their general mark of distinction, are much varied in those
which approach nearest to other animals. The Cassowary,
for instance, which belongs to the Ostrich tribe, has feathers
which differ little from coarse hair, and those of the fin-like
_ wings of the Penguin are much like the scales of fish. In like
manner, some of the plants belonging to the Ranunculus tribe,
have the parts of their flowers arranged in threes, like Endo-
gene; yet their stems are exogenous, their leaves reticulated,
and they have two cotyledons. On the other hand, the Arum,
or Indian Turnip, has partially reticulated leaves, but an en-
dogenous stem and a single cotyledon. It has been already
mentioned that the structure and mode of increase of the stem
are the characters by which flowering plants are divided into
Exogene and Endogenz, and these divisions are entirely na-
tural. There are, however, some Exogenz whose stem is not
marked by annual layers, and in some the predominance of
cellular tissue is such that they are soft and succulent, and
nearly resemble Cellulares. The structure of the stem, then,
does not offer a certain foundation for any division of the pri-
mary classes into sub-classes or orders. No characters uni-
form in particular families are afforded by the Roots, since the
modifications of their form are few, and cannot be applied
with certainty. One general rule is, however, that no Exo-
genous plant has that form of root-like stem called a bulb, nor
the prostrate stem which sends down roots from its lower sur-
face, called a rhizoma. The external figure of the stem is
sometimes one of the distinctions of an order. In Menisper-
mew, the Cocculus tribe, the stem is always twining ; in Labi-
ate, the Mint or Catnip tribe, the stem is always square, and
in one or two other orders its angular or cylindrical figure is a
mark of difference. The leaves are of the greatest use in
affording characters for determining the relations of plants.
One of the most important of these characters is the relative
position of the leaves, though this may be of much greater
value in some orders than in others. In Gentianes, the Gen=

tian tribe, and in Labiate, they are uniformly opposite, so that

76 The Natural System of Botany.

no plant can belong to either of these orders, which has alter-
nate or verticillate leaves. In Urticacez, the Nettle tribe, in
Umbelliferze, to which belong such plants as the Parsnip and
Carrot, and in some others, they are as uniformly alternate.
In many other orders, however, both these arrangements may
be found ; as in Composite, which includes the Aster and the
Daisy, and which generally has opposite leaves, are some
plants whose leaves are alternate ; and in Leguminose, the Pea’
tribe, which commonly has alternate leaves, they are sometimes
opposite. Some orders have only compound leaves, some
only simple leaves, and some both simple and compound.
The degree in which the leaf is divided, is not a certain
character, since in many orders the leaves are both divided
and entire; but in others, this is a sure mark of distinction.
Leaves with a toothed or serrated margin are never found in
Cinchonacez, the Coffee tribe, and are very rare among
endogenous plants. The characters afforded by the veining
of leaves are of great value, and will probably be of more
assistance in determining orders, when more knowledge of
them is obtained. All plants of the order Melastomacez, have
about four strong ribs extending from the base to the apex of
the leaf, and connected by transverse bars, very like some
Endogenze. Myrtacez, the Myrtle tribe, all have a delicate
vein running all around the leaf, just inside the margin; and in
Cupulifere, the Oak tribe, veins extend directly outwards from
the midrib to the margin. Another curious character is afforded
by the presence or absence of those little dots, which are s0
apparent in the leaves of some species of Mint, and which
secrete a peculiar oil. All Aurantiacee, the Orange tribe;
possess these, and are thereby distinguished from allied orders.
The nature of the juice of the leaves or stem is of great use il
distinguishing particular orders. In all the Asclepias tribe
the juice is white, thick, and milky ; and in all the Ranuncw
lus tribe it is thin, clear, and acrid. The little imperfect
leaves, called stipules, often found at the base of the true
leaves, sometimes are a remarkable indication of affinity, and
their presence or absence is frequently sufficient to distinguish
the order to which a plant belongs. They are always present
in Salicinez, the Willow tribe, and always absent in Gutti-

The Natural System of Botany. 77

fere. ‘The small bracts at the base of some flowers sometimes
indicate genera, but are not used to distinguish orders. The
mode in which the flowers are arranged often characterizes an
order. Some have their flowers in heads, some in umbels,
some in spikes, some in amenta, or catkins. The calyx is used
in several ways to distinguish orders. By its absence, as we
shall see, all Achlamydeous orders are known. The number
of its sepals is often constant in a particular order; as in Cru-
ciferee, the Cabbage and Turnip tribe, they are always four,
and in Papaveracez, the Poppy tribe, always two. Their
equal or unequal size is also sometimes an important character,
and their union by the adhesion of their edges is a circumstance
of great value. When this adhesion unites all the sepals, the
calyx is said to be monosepaloys. A character of still more im-
portance, is the degree of adhesion of the calyx to the organs
on its inside. When it grows immediately out of the disk, or
top of the flower stalk, and when the corolla, stamens, and
pistil, are quite distinct from it, having a separate point of
growth, the calyx is said to be inferior, that is, below the pis-
til. But when it adheres to the outside of the ovary, and
encloses it, so that the sepals appear to arise out of its upper
part, the calyx is called superior. As to the value of the
corolla in indicating affinities, it may be said that its most im-
portant characters are those of the adhesion or separation of the
petals. When these are all united into one, the corolla is
monopetalous, and when they are all separate, it is polypetalous.
This is a distinction of great value. All the Rose tribe, and all
the Poppy tribe, for instance, are polypetalous, and the Borage
tribe, and many others, are monopetalous. When no corolla
exists, the calyx alone being present, the plant is said to be
apetalous, or monochlamydeous, without petals, or having a sin-
gle envelope. These two characters are not, however, inva-
riable, since plants without petals are sometimes found in
orders which generally have complete flowers. When we
come to the stamens and styles, we find that the number of the
stamens is of little importance, since this, as has been before
mentioned, is liable to great variation among plants of the same
genus, or even individuals of the same species. In some
orders, however, the number is always invariable ; but the

,

78 | The Natural System of Botany.

principal characters derived from the stamens depend upon
the manner of their insertion into the lower part of the flower.
In some cases they spring from beneath the ovary, in which
case they are said to be hypogynous, and are separately inserted,
with the petals and sepals, on the disk. Sometimes they
adhere for a part of their length to the calyx, their points of
insertion being the same with the sepals, which, when they
are detached, carry away the stamens with them; or they
adhere in a similar manner to the petals. In these cases the
stamens are perigynous. In other instances the stamens are
closely enveloped by the calyx, which also embraces the
ovary, so that they appear to arise from its upper part. In
this case they are epigynous. Figure 1. represents sections of
flowers showing these modifications. In a the stamens are
hypogynous, in 6, perigynous, and inc, epigynous.

Figure 1.

The manner in which the anthers open to disperse the pol-
len, is sometimes characteristic of an order. In the Barberry
tribe, for instance, they open into valves, like the pod of a pea
or alittle box, and in the Heath tribe they have pores through
which the pollen is projected. These peculiarities are not to
be implicitly relied on. Of all natural characters, those
afforded by the central parts of the flower are probably the
most invariable. The number of styles, like that of the sta
mens, is subject to variation, though not in so great a degree,
and in some genera it is quite constant; but the carpels,
separate parts of the pistil, each of which contains a soed,

The Natural System of Botany. 79

afford a very decisive character. When these are distinct from
each other, the ovary 1s apocarpous, and when they are united
into one, it is syncarpous. There are few natural orders in
which one of these conditions is not invariable, to the exclu-
sion of the other; so that plants bearing a general resemblance,
put differing in this respect, may be at once referred to their
proper place. The position of the ovary in respect to the
calyx 18 also to be considered. When the ovary is inferior,
the calyx is superior, and vice versa. Some ovaries are
divided by partitions, and some have but a single cavity.
When an ovary consists of but one carpel, it of course can be
only one-celled; but there are syncarpous ovaries which are
also one-celled. ‘This is owing to the obliteration of the parti-
tions, or dissepiments, originally formed by the adhering car-

els) When this occurs, the ovules are attached to a central
column, leaving an empty space between themselves and the
wall of the ovary; or they are attached to the wall itself,
leaving a cavity in the centre. The point of attachment of
the ovules is called the placenta, and this in the first case is
central, and in the second, parietal. These are distinguishing
characters of several orders. Other marks of distinction are
found in the enlargement of the receptacle on which the car-
pels are situated, and in the varieties of form, substance, and
manner of opening of the ovary when ripe, but these are not
of the highest importance. The definite or indefinite number
of the ovules is often regarded, but their position in the ovary

is much more essential, and is one of the most valuable forms
of structure to be taken into account. Those which stand

upright in the ovary are termed erect, those which hang from
the upper wall are pendulous, and some other intermediate
positions occur. The substance in the seed, which surrounds
the embryo, or rudiment of the future plant, is called albumen.
The presence or absence of this is a character of importance,
particularly when it constitutes nearly the whole bulk of the
seed. In orders whose seed consists almost entirely of albu-
men, it is very uncommon to find plants whose seed is destitute
ofit; but when its quantity is less, and the embryo nearly or
quite equals it in size, the character is of minor importance, and
an order may contain some genera whose seed is quite filled

“*

80 The Natural System of Botany.

with the embryo, and others which have a portion of albumep,
‘There are some other characters used by botanists for distin.
guishing natural orders, but it is hardly necessary to mention
them here, as they will be incidentally used as we proceed,
and as those already enumerated are of the greatest importance,
We have also anticipated in some measure, as was unavoida.
ble in pointing out characters dependent on the structure of
the ovary and seed, a future article on Physiology, in whic)
this structure will be fully explained, with the aid of prope;
engravings, and which can be consulted for any thing which
is not already understood.

We apprehend that the student who has read the foregoing
remarks, is not a little perplexed on account of the constant
uncertainty which has been asserted to attend the value of the
characters. He will find, however, that this uncertainty js
greater in appearance than in reality, and experience will
show him nearly the precise estimate which he can place
upon each mark of distinction. He will learn that though a
single character is seldom to be relied on, yet that a combination _
of characters, peculiar to an order, may be ascertained with
less difficulty than he may perhaps now imagine. The power
of judging of these more or less intricate combinations, to use
the words of Professor Lindley, ‘is the same test of a skilful
botanist, as an appreciation of symptoms is that of a physi-
cian.” 7

In our next article we shall be prepared to present the tabu-
lar view of the natural divisions, and to describe one of the

orders.

Vegetable Physiology. 81
en ccna

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

NUMBER THREE.

The form of elementary tissue called Woopy Frere is so
named because it has been supposed to consist of fibres infi-
nitely divisible. It is now considered to be only a variety of
cellular tissue, in which the cells are much elongated, and lie
close to each other in bundles. It is possessed of great tenaci-
ty, and those plants in which it exists in the greatest perfection,
such as flax and hemp, are used in the manufacture of cordage.
If a fibre of hemp be examined by the microscope, it is found
to consist of a great number of smaller fibres adhering together,
and each of these is discovered to be a slender, transparent
tube, pointed at each end. Figure 5, a, represents a bundle
of this tissue, as it commonly exists. Its use in vegetable
economy appears to be, to convey fluids in the direction of its
length, and some observers have thought that each tube has a
pore at the end so as to afford a communication with the rest.
The especial office of this tissue in its adult state, is evidently,
to give strength and elasticity to those parts of ‘the structure -
which require support, and accordingly in all plants whose
stem is permanently elevated, as trees and shrubs, it is very
abundant. In these it receives additional consistence and
firmness from the deposition of various secretions within its
tubes, and a difference in the quantity or character of these
secretions produces the distinction between the inner portion, or
heart, of a tree, and the surrounding wood. In its hardest state
the tubes are entirely filled up, so that no sap can pass through
them. Figure 5, b, shows the appearance of woody fibre,
when the walls of its tubes are straight and parallel, and the
granules deposited by the permeating fluids begin toadhere to
them. Another variety of woody fibre is represented in Figure
_ 5, ¢, and is called glandular woody fibre. This is peculiar to
the natural order Conifera, or cone bearing trees, such as the
Pine, Fir, and Juniper. It may be readily known by the
regular series of circular glandules, with an opaque centre,
which are found on the tubes of which it consists. ‘They

82 Vegetable Physiology.

appear like little dots, and are supposed to be formed by ay
growth of matter in the inside of the tubes. Their form and
arrangement can readily be observed by placing a thin Pine
shaving under a magnifier, and even with the naked eye they
can be distinguished. Their nature and use do not seem as yet
to beclearly understood, but they are of considerable interest ag
having assisted in establishing the true nature of coal. The
formation of this substance, after it was acknowledged to be
of vegetable origin, was at first supposed to have been r=
duced by the decay of plants of the Fern tribe; but the ques.
tion then was, how to account for the bituminous matter 80
often combined with it. Nothing of this kind is contained jn
any of the Ferns, and therefore it was evident that some resin.
ous wood must have afforded it. On examining those por.
tions of coal which present the strongest traces of woody
structure, they are found to display the dots and all the
other peculiarities of the glandular form of woody fibre,
and hence it: may be considered as satisfactorily ascertained
Fig. 5. that coal is only the remains of im.

™ mense forests of those trees in which
1 alone this species of tissue is found,
j The arrangement of the dots being
yoH } different in different divisions of that
1°/3)) tribe of trees, it may even be possible
eile to say to which of these their Coal

7 ¢ producing ancestors belonged.

_ Another variety of elementary tissue is that called the Spr
RAL VussEL. This is a membranous tube, tapering to a point
at each end, and having .within. it a cylindrical fibre, spirally
rolled, and capable of being untwisted. This fibre has been
already described on page 43. To this vessel has also been
given the name.of Trachea, or windpipe, from a fancied resem
blance in its structure and function to that organ. — It is consid.
ered by some to be formed only of fibre spirally twisted, without
any membrane, but the better opinion seems to be that which
we have followed in thé above definition... The fibre itself has
been also variously represented as cylindrical, flat, or tubular.
It is generally formed of a single thread, as in Figure 6, c, but
sometimes it is double, or triple, as in d, and in some plants it

Vegetable Physwology. 83

is quadruple. These vessels are extremely delicate, their
diameter averaging the 1000th of an inch. The bark, wood
or root seldom contains them, but in the stem and leaf stalk
they are often found, and they form almost the whole of a
peculiar part which surrounds the pith of some plants, called
the medullary sheath. They may be detected in the stringy parts
of the stem of the Asparagus, more readily, than perhaps in
any other situation, by separating the strings by boiling, and
placing one of them upon a, piece of glass under the micro-
scope, and then further dividing it lengthwise with the point of
aneedle. These vessels are very similar in their construction
to the air-tubes of insects. The principal difference between
the two is, that those of the insect branch off into a set of con-
tinuous tubes, all having a direct communication with each
other, while those of the plant are parallel, and their ends are
closed. All the varieties of vessels not furnished with an elas-
tic spiral filament, are named Ducts. These are considered
as only elongated cellules, and seem to be formed by the
‘breaking down of the partition between the cells, which aswe
have seen compose cellular tissue, so that a continuous tube
is produced. Sometimes the remains of these partitions are
discovered in them. The variety of duct which approaches
most nearly to simple cellular tissue is the dotted duct, Figure
6,g- This is formed by a membranous tube in which appear
to be the remains of a spiral fibre broken intosmall fragments.
Some observers, however, consider that this duct is membra-
nous only, and that what appear to be portions of fibre, are
only an interior deposite. The dotted duct is the largest vessel
discovered in the vegetable fabric,:many of them being visi-
ble to the naked eye, and of sufficient diameter to admit a
hair. If the stem of a grape-vine be cut across, their mouths
can be distinctly seen, and the sap will flow from them freely.
Their office is the important one of conducting the sap through
the stem and branches to the leaves. Another kind of duct,
which more nearly resembles the spiral vessel, is the annular
duct, Figure 6, e. This shows clear traces of a spiral fibre
running within its membrane, sometimes broken so as to
form a complete ring, so that it would seem as if the mem-

brane had grown faster than the fibre, which, losing its elasticity,

84 ‘egetable Physiology.

had been thus separated into pieces. A third variety displays
the spiral fibre continuous in some parts, in others branched,
and sometimes has a netted or barred appearance, as in Figure
6, f. Thisisnameda reticulated duct. ‘The structure of the anny.
lar duct much resembles that of the windpipe of most animals,
which like it, is composed of membranous walls, preserved jp
their cylindrical form by regular rings of cartilage; and the half
spiral, half annular duct is constructed precisely like the wind.
pipe of an animal of the whale tribe, in which isa spiral cart).
lage terminating at intervals in rings. There are several other
varieties of the duct, presenting various proportions of mem.
brane and fibre, combined in numerous different forms. The
office of all these is the same,—that of conveying fluid, while
the true spiral vessel only contains air. The combination of
woody fibre, spiral vessels and ducts which constitutes vagcy.
lar tissue is shown in Figure 6, a; and represents the Joining
together of two ducts.

|
14\4

AY AT

+ age

_Besides these elementary organs, properly so called, there
are various cavities resulting from their connexion or separa-
tion, which require some notice. It has been already stated
that the cellules often leave between themselves vacant spaces,
to which the name of intercellular passages is given. These
vary in size, being largest in the most succulent plants, and
always contain.a fluid. Besides these, there are cavities in the
tissye, bounded by its cellules, which have no lining mem-
brane, do not communicate with the intercellular passages,
and contain air, for. which reason they are called air-cells.
Sometimes the intercellular passages are unusually dilated by
the fluids which they contain ; or by the pressure of the fluid,
cavities are formed in the cellular tissue. Such cavities, filled
with the peculiar juices of the plant, are by some named proper

Vegetable Physiology. 85

liar fluids, or accidental reservoirs. Although destitute of lining
membrane, their walls are generally compact, being formed of
condensed cellules. They vary in size and form, and though of-
ten quite regular, sometimes have no definite figure or arrange-
ment. This is the view taken of these proper vessels by some
botanists, while others consider them to be not simply cavities
between adjacent cells, but a separate form of tissue, to which
they give the name of branching vessels. 'They are found on the
lower sides of leaves, and in the bark, and the sap or proper
juice is carried by them from the leaves, where it is produced,
down the bark, and thence to other parts of the structure.

Of these modifications of membrane and fibre, are formed all
the parts of plants. The varied combinations of the vascu-
lar and cellular tissues give rise to an endless variety of struc-
ture and external form, and produce an equal diversity in the
properties of the juices and secretions. Many plants, as we
have seen, are entirely composed of cellules, but the greater
number, of both cellules and vessels. The compound organs
of plants, as the leaves and flowers, which are formed of com-
binations of these, will be described hereafter. There are,
however, parts more or less complex which may also be con-
sidered as elementary. These are the cuticle, epidermis, or gen-
eral envelope of plants, and the organs immediately connected
with it. This is a modification of cellular tissue in the form of
a delicate membrane. In young plants it extends over the
whole external surface, from the fibrils of the roots to the
leaves, the petals of the flower, and the fruit. From the leaves

of some plants, as the Iris, it may be easily stripped, without

any preparation, and from others, after being soaked in water.
It is usually transparent and colorless, and is found to consist
of flattened cells containing air. The form of these is various
in different plants, some being regularly oblong, and some, as
it were, dove-tailed into each other. Sometimes these layers
of cells are single, sometimes arranged in two.or three series.
Over all these is an extremely delicate. film, perforated. by
minute oblong pores,. The use of the cuticle appears tobe to pre-
vent the moisture of the soft tissues beneath it from evaporating.

Accordingly, itis absent in all plants which live beneath the sur-

86 Vegetable Physiology.

face of the water, and those which grow partly in the water Pose.
sess it only on those parts which are not submerged. When jt
is destroyed on the succulent twigs of perennial plants jt is
soon renewed, but on the leaf and flower, and on annual plants,
itis not reproduced, and the part from which it is removed soon
withers. The cuticle possesses certain peculiar apertures,
called stomata, from the Greek, signifying mouths. They are
usually of an oval form, but sometimes square, or circular, and
are bounded by two curved or kidney-shaped vesicles, by the
contraction or expansion of which the orifice is diminished 9,
increased. The appearance and structure of some of these
is shown in Figure 7, a and 6.

Fig. 7.

Stomata are chiefly found on the soft green tissue of young
shoots and leaves, and on such succulent stems as those of the
Cactus or Prickly Pear, and they always open into intercelly-
lar passages. On the upper surfaces of many leaves whose
tissue has become hardened, they seldom occur: but in other
leaves, particularly those which grow upright, as those of the
Iris and Flag, they are common to both sides. No traces of
them are seen in the sea weeds, and few in the mushrooms or
lichens; but in the Liverwort tribe they occur in a remarkably
complex form, and in all flowering plants they abound. Their
size is very minute, being only from the 3000th to the 1500th
of an inch in length. Their office seems to be connected with
the evaporation of water from the inner tissue, which is one of the
processes by which the fluid absorbed by the roots is converted
into the nutritious sap, or proper juice. Some curious experiments
have been made to show the effect of light in the production of
stomata. There is acommon kind of Liverwort, called Mar-
chantia polymorpha, which grows in moist situations, and has a
very peculiar system of fructification. It produces small leafy
buds, which spontaneously separate themselves from the parent
structure, and become new-plants. In these buds no stomata
or roots exist when first separated, but as soon as they begin

+

| Vegetable Physiology. 87

a csc
to grow, stomata are found on the upper side, and roots on
the lower. If the plant be then turned over, so as to bring the
stomata on the under surface, and the roots in the air, it will
twist itself completely back again, so as to bring the surfaces
into their former position.

Some observers have had the curiosity and the patience to
count the number of stomata contained within an inch square
of the surface of the leaves of various plants. The following
tabular statement has been collected from such observations.
The letters u. s. indicate the upper, and u. s. the lower side of
the leaf.

ea haeennesea icbeooe v= enheneeenemnnne -oagalliaSinigiantinmanipneedeoxyuatippeesseeeest=anasingesastivememncaiioassnsreas

NAMES OF PLANTS WHOSE PORES HAVE BEEN COUNTED. U.S. L. Se

gai naam ilo eaten meta ener
Andromeda speciosa, - - - - None. | 32.000
Arum draconitum, - - “ - 8.000

Alisma plantago, - @ ~- = - - 12.000 | 16.320
Amaryllis Josephiana, - - - - 31.500 | 31.500
Cobaea scandens, - - - - - None. | 20.000
Dianthus caryophyllus, - ~ - - 38.500 | 38.500
Hydrangea quercifolia, - - - - None. |160.000
Tlex, the Holly, - - - - - None. | 63.600
Peonia, the Peony, - - - - - None. | 13.600
Pyrus, the Pear, - ~ - - - None. | 24.000
Syringa, the Lilac, - - ~ - - None. |160.000
Rheum, Rhubarb, - - - - - 1.000 | 40.000
Rumex, the Dock, - - - - ‘. 11.088 {| 20.000

The cuticle possesses several different kinds of appendages,
which this is the proper place to mention. These are havrs,
bristles, stings, prickles, scales, glands, &c. Hairs are constructed
in various ways. Sometimes they are composed of a single
cell, as in Fig. 8, @; often of a row of cells, 6, in which
case they appear like a tube divided by transverse partitions.
They may be branched, as c, or covered with small processes,
which are themselves branched, d, or they may be divided, as
in e. Hairs are generally acute, but often their point is blunt
‘or enlarged at the extremity, as f, secreting a viscid fluid, when
they are called glandular hairs. Sometimes they are tubular
and pointed, and fixed upon a gland containing an acrid fluid,
which, when the hair is touched, rises up, by the compression
of the gland, into the wound made by the point. In this case
it is called a sting, g, and must be familiar to every one who

88 Vegetable Physiology.

awe
has had the misfortune to handle a nettle. This kind of hair
is analagous to the poison fang of aserpent. The prickles of

Fig. 8.

Aca By sacit be od ff g

the Rose, Raspberry, and other shrubs, are also appendages of
the cuticle, which, when stripped off, carries them with it. They
are thus easily distinguished from spines, which are prolonga-
tions of the woody tissue, and do not come off with the bark,
They occur on many parts of plants, but are rarely found
except on the stems. Scales are thin, flat, scurf-like pro-
cesses, composed of cellular tissue, and one,form of them is found
in great abundance on the stalks and leaves of ferns. A gland
is a small prominence in the tissue just beneath the cuticle,
which it causes to project. Sometimes it is furnished with a
little pedicel, by which it is elevated somewhat above the sur-
face of the cuticle. Glands frequently secrete a peculiar fluid.
Those which are so abundant in the rind of the Orange and
Lemon contain the volatile oil which gives it its odor and flavor,
The turpentine of resinous woods is collected in similar glands.

We have been compelled to leave unnoticed many of the
_ different forms which result from the combination of membrane
and fibre, and the foregoing remarks afford but a bare sketch
of what might be very‘ widely extended. We hope, never-
theless, that the reader has not failed to observe the simplicity
of the plan by which so many different results are effected, so
many functions necessary to vegetable economy performed.
Nature is a better artificer than man. While the most elabo-
rate works of the latter are found, the more closely they are
scrutinized, the more full of defects, those of the former dis-
play new beauties at every examination, and the more tho-
roughly their intricacies are penetrated, the more perfect do
they appear. |

Prolonged Vitality of Seeds. 89

PROLONGED VITALITY OF SEEDS.

The article on Fossil Botany for the present month is una-
yoidably omitted, and in its place we present the reader with
the following interesting anecdotes, illustrating the great length
of time during which the vitality of seeds is sometimes re-
tained.

The seeds of most plants are endowed with a remarkable
power of preserving their vitality for an almost unlimited time,
when they are placed in circumstances which neither call their
properties into active exercise, nor occasion the decay of their
structure. ‘The conditions most favorable for this preservation
are a low or moderate temperature, dryness of the surround-
ing medium, and the absence of oxygen. If all these be ar-
ranged in the most favorable manner, there seems no limit to
the period for which seeds will retain the power of performing
their vital operations. Even if moisture or oxygen be not en-
tirely excluded, the same result may take place, provided the
temperature be low and uniform. Thus many seeds may be
kept for several years, freely exposed to the air, if they are
not permitted to become damp, in which case they will either
germinate or decay. Some of those which had been kept
in the seed-vessels of plants belonging to the herbarium of

. Tounefort, a French botanist, were found to retain their fertili-

ty after the lapse of nearly a century. Frequent instances
have happened, in which ground, recently turned up, has
spontaneously produced plants different from any in their
neighborhood. Undoubtedly this is owing, in some cases, to
the seeds having been deposited there by the wind, or by other
means, and growing because they have found a congenial soil ;
but there are authentic facts which can only be explained on
the principle that the seeds of the newly appearing plants have
lain for a long period imbedded in the earth, at such a distance
from the surface as to prevent the access of air and moisture,
and that they have been excited to ination by exposure to
the atmosphere. To the westward of Stirling in Scotland,

~

90 Prolonged Vitality of Seeds.

there is a large peat-bog, a great part of which has been flooded
away, by raising water from the river Teith and discharging
it into the Forth, for the purpose of laying bare the undersgoj]
of clay for cultivation. The clergyman of the parish was on
one occasion standing by, while the workmen were formin a
ditch in this clay, in a part which had been covered with four.
teen feet of peat earth ; observing some seeds in the clay thrown
out of this ditch, he took them up and sowed them. They
germinated, and produced a species of Chrysanthemum. A
very long period must have elapsed whilst the first covering
of clay was formed over the seeds, and of the time necessary
to produce fourteen feet of peat earth above this, it is scarcely
possible to form an idea.

The following circumstance, which occurred in Maine about
thirty years ago, is still more remarkable. Some well-diggers,
_ while sinking a well, at the distance of about forty miles from
the sea, when they arrived at the depth of about twenty feet,.
struck a layer of sand. This excited their curiosity and inter.
est, from the circumstance that no similar sand was to be found
anywhere in the neighborhood, nor in any other place except
on the sea-beach. As it was drawn up from the well, they
placed it in a pile by itself, and did not mix with it the stones
and gravel which were also drawn up. But when the work
was finished, and the pile of stones and gravel removed, the
sand was scattered about on the spot where it had been at first
placed, and was for some time scarcely remembered. In a
year or two, however, it was perceived that a number of small
trees had sprung from the ground where the sand had been
strewn. These trees became in their turn, objects of strong
interest, and care was taken to preserve them from injury. At
length they were ascertained to be Beach Plum trees, a spe-
cies of Prunus, which had never before been seen, except im-
mediately upon the sea-shore, and they actually bore the
beach plum. These trees must therefore have grown from
seeds which had existed in the stratum of sea-sand pierced
by the well-diggers, and had remained inactive until this was
dispersed in such a manner as to expose them to the air. “ By
what convulsion of the elements,” adds the narrator, “they

Prolonged Vitality of Seeds. 91

had been thrown there, or how long they had quietly slept
beneath the surface of the earth, must be determined by those
who know very much more than I do.”

Another example of the same general fact, is interesting
from its connexion with historical events. During the rebel-
lion in Scotland in the year 1715, a camp was formed in the
King’s Park at Stirling. Wherever the ground was broken,
broom sprang up, although none had ever been known to grow
there. The plant was subsequently destroyed; but in 1745,
after the ground had been broken up for a like purpose, a
similar growth appeared. Sometime afterwards the Park
was ploughed up, and the broom spread all over it. The same
thing happened in a field in the neighborhood, from the whole
surface of which about nine inches of soil had been removed.
The broom seeds could not have been conveyed by the wind,
since they are heavy, and without wings; and the form of the
ground is such that no stream of water could have transported
them, or covered them afterwards with soil. The effect must
have been produced by the operationof causes continued through
along period of time.

The most remarkable instance on record, as presenting sat-
isfactory proof of the lapse of at least 1600 or 1700 years,
during which the seed was dormant, is perhaps one related by
Professor Lindley. “I have now before me,’ he says, ‘three
plants of Raspberries, which have been raised in the gardens
of the Horticultural Society, from seeds nee from the
stomach of a man whose skeleton was found™30 feet be-
low the surface of the earth, at the bottom of a barrow,*
which was opened at Dorchester. He had been buried with
some coins of the Emperor Hadrian.” Grains of wheat en-
closed in the bandages of mummies are said to have some-
times germinated, and though there is no improbability in the

area em oa we nae EE TN

* These barrrows are large mounds of earth, common on the downs along
the south coast of England. They are evidently artificial, and when dag
into, are usually found to contain human remains, with pottery, weapons,
coins, and other articles. They are evidently burial places, and as a number
of them are generally found together, they seem to have been erected on
fields of battle, to contain the bodies of the slain.

92 Conditions of the Growth of Plants.

fact, yet as the Arabs from whom the mummies are usually
obtained, are in the habit of previously unrolling them jy
search of coins, it is not always certain that the seeds which
have sprouted were really at first enclosed with the body,

‘ CONDITIONS OF THE GROWTH OF PLANTS,

Every distinct tribe of plants flourishes naturally under
peculiar conditions. Some prefer a warm atmosphere, some
a cool one; some luxuriate only in moisture, and others in d
situations alone ; some require the brightest light, and some only
grow in darkness. There are some plants which are ye
deficient in the power of adapting themselves to slight changes
in these conditions, and are accordingly restricted to cep.
tain localities, which are favorable to their growth, and are
hence considered rare plants. For example, there are certain
species which require in the moisture of the air which guyr.
rounds them, a portion of salt, and these abound only near the
sea-shore. But if works for the manufacture of salt are es.
tablished, even more than one hundred miles inland, in the
neighborhood of these they will spring up, their seeds having
been conveyed by the wind or by birds, which have spread
them over * whole surface of the ground, but finding only
in. that spot conditions required for their development. Qn
the other hand, many plants can grow in almost any situation,
and can adapt themselves to a great variety of circumstances,
often exhibiting under the influence of these, evident changes
of form and quality. For example, the Potato, growing in
its native tropical climate, does not require for its young shoots
that store of nourishment which, in temperate regions, is provided
in its fleshy tubers, and thus its edible portion is there ex-
tremely small, since the warmth and moisture constantly sup-
plied to it, develope the growing parts without such assistance.
But when transplanted to a colder clime, and to a richer soil,
that nourishing matter is greatly increased, and becomes one
of the most important articles of food to man. If it were not

Conditions of the Growth of Plants. 93

for this capability of adapting itself to new circumstances, it
could not thrive in Northern America; since its own powers of
growth would be insufficient, when its external conditions are
so much changed. It is this capability which renders it so
useful. If large potatoes raised in northern countries be planted
again in tropical climates, they at once dwindle, and their
produce becomes little superior to that of the original stock;
since when circumstances no longer demand it, the acquired
habit ceases. The Cabbage, Broccoli, and Cauliflower are, in
like manner, only varieties of a single species, greatly altered by
cultivation and change of circumstances ; the plant which was
the original stock of all having been found susceptible of
enduring such changes, and thus rendered at the same time
useful and easy of production. The celery which is in such :
common use on our tables, in its original state is a small, rank,
coarse plant, wholly unfit for eating. By causing it to grow in
a peculiar manner, it becomes sweet, crisp, juicy and agree-
able.

These instances, to which many others might be added, will
suffice to show that not only in their original state is exhibited
the adaptation of each tribe of plantsto particular circumstances,
but that there are many which can thus spread themselves, or
be spread by man, over a large portion of the globe. In this
capability, no less than in their native aspect, do we recognise
the wisdom and power of the Almighty, who willed that no
portion of the globe should be unclothed by vegetation, and
that from every place should spring forth herbage for the animal
creation, which is entirely dependent on it, either directly or
indirectly, for its sustenance. Such, then, being the universal
diffusion of plants, it is obvious that in no spot can he who
seeks to make himself acquainted with their structure and
habits, be without some subjects for examination; and since
the humblest and’ simplest of these beings are found to display
an organization as remarkably and beautifully adapted to the
functions they are to perform, and to the conditions in which
they are to exist, as is that of the highest and most complicated,
there is no reason why any, however insignificant they appear,
should be neglected. :

of Lichens.

LICHENS.

Every one is familiar with that tribe of flowerless plants, called
Lichens, which spread like dry,hard, scaly crusts, over walls, old
trees, and rocks, but perhaps few think of the important part
which they perform in the vegetable world. To them ma
be well applied the title of Vernaculi, or bond-slaves, which
Linneus fancifully gave to the sea-weeds; for they seem ag it
were chained to the spot which they labor to improve for the
benefit of others. The way in which they prepare the sterile
rock on which they grow, for the reception of plants of higher
rank than themselves, is most remarkable. They may be
said to dig their own graves. While alive, they form a consid.
erable quantity of oxalic acid, which by its chemical action,
eats a small hollow in the rock, in which the particles of the
lichen remain after its death. The moisture which is caught
in these cavities, finds its way into the cracks and crevices of
the rock, and when frozen, rends off minute fragments by its
expansion, and thus adds more and more to: the forming soil,
Slowly and unwearily do successive generations of these bond.
slaves perform their duties, until at length there is soil enough
made for the growth of mosses, ferns, and other cryptogamia,
and at length, the barren and insulated rock, or the pumice
and lava of the volcano, are covered with sufficient depth of
mould for the nourishment of the luxuriant grass and the lofiy
forest tree. Thus by the labors of these poor and insignificant
plants, are men enabled to reap their harvest, to feed their
cattle, to supply themselves with timber, on what was once but
a naked and desolate rock. One of the sternest and most
faithful delineators of Nature, Crabbe, has ‘described such a
process, as it occurs on ruined buildings. We may be allowed
the hypercritical remark, however, that the terms seed, foliage,
and flower, are not strictly applicable to the Lichens, which
possess none of these. :

a Re

é MeR ar precaver 8 Lith A
eh
i ba? “é

Longevity of Trees. 95

“ Seeds, to‘our eyes invisible, will find

On the rude rock the bed which fits their kind ;
There in the rugged soil they safely dwell,

Till showers and snows the subtle atoms swell,
And spread the enduring foliage; then we trace
The freckled flower upon the flinty base ;
These all increase, till in unnoted years

The stony tower as gray with age appears,
With coats of vegetation thinly spread,

Coat above coat, the living on the dead.

These then dissolve to dust, and make a way
For bolder foliage, nursed by their decay.

The long enduring ferns in time will all

Die and depose their dust upon the wall ;,
Where the winged seed may rest, till many a flower
Shows Flora’s triumph o’er the ruined tower.”

LONGEVITY OF TREES.

At Ellerslie,in Scotland, the birthplace of William Wallace,
exists an oak which is celebrated as having been a remarka-
ble object in his time, and which can therefore be scarcely less
than 700 years old. Near Staines, in England, there is a yew
tree known to be olderthan Magna Charta, which was granted
by King John in 1215; and the Yews at Fountain’s Abbey, in
Yorkshire, are probably more than 1200 years old. In the
Garden of Olives at Jerusalem are eight Olive trees, known to
have existed at least 800 years. Every American has heard
of the celebrated Charter Oak, at Hartford, in Connecticut,
and knows the story which gave it its name. This tree must —
have been of considerable age in 1687, the year when the
charter was hidden in it; for the case, containing the parch-
ment on which the charter is written, is at least three feet in
length by-six inches in diameter, and the hollow part of the
oak must have been of still larger dimensions. This remarka-
ble oak is still flourishing, a hale old tree.

Incidents in the Life of Thomas Paine.

96

LP &@5Vc_6o6ccl ee .

Bryant has written some fanciful lines to the Castilleja, which
might form a proper pendant to the description of that

The Painted Cup.

THE PAINTED CUP.

and its representation in Plate 11.

oo

wy

5

Scarlet tufts
Are glowing in the green, like flakes of fire ;
The wanderers of the prairie know them well,
And call that brilliant flower the Painted Cup.
Now if thou art a poet, tell me not
‘That these bright chalices were tinted thus
To hold the dew for fairies, when they meet
On moonlight evenings in the hazel bowers,
And dance till they are thirsty. Call not up
Amid that fresh and virgin solitude,
The faded fancies of an elder world,
But leave these scarlet cups to spotted moths
Of June, and glistening flies and humming birds,
‘To drink from, when on all these boundless lawns
The morning sun looks hot. Or let the wind
O’erturn in sport their ruddy brims, and pour
A sudden shower upon the strawberry plant,
To swell the reddening fruit that even now
Breathes a slight fragrance from the sunny slope
But art thou of a gayer fancy? Well—
Let then the gentle Manitou of flowers,
Lingering amid the bloomy waste he loves,
‘Though all his swarthy worshippers are gone—
Slender and small, his rounded cheek all brown
And ruddy with the sunshine ; let him come
On summer mornings when the blossoms wake,

~ And part with little hands the spiky grass;

And, touching with his cherry lips, the edge
Of these bright beakers, drain the gathered dew.

The Martynia. 97
pera acne oa Anca

MARTYNIA—THE MARTYNIA.

Natural Order, Pedalinex. Linnean Class, Didynamia ; Order, Angiosper-
mia. Generic Distinctions :—calyx, five parted ; corolla, ringent; capsule,
woody, dry, with a hooked beak, containing a four-celled nut.

M. proboscidea.—Stem, branched; leaves, alternate, lobed, cordate at the
ane; stamens, four, all fertile.— Plate 15.

Tuts genus was named in honor of John Martyn, who was
rofessor of botany at the University of Cambridge, and author
of several botanical works. He died in 1768. Martynia is
nearly allied to Bignonia, the Trumpet-flower genus, in the
formation of its corolla, the number and position of its sta-
mens, and in other respects; but is readily distinguished
by the absence of wings from its seeds, and by the oil which
they contain.

The species in our plate, takes its name, proboscidea, (pro-
boscis-like,) from the singularity of its capsules or seed vessels,
which are hard and dry like a nut, and terminate in two beaks
orhorns. It is a native of Louisiana, and probably of some of
the other southern states, having been discovered on the banks
of the Mississippi, and introduced into England in 1759. Its
cultivation is said to be easy; the seeds are to be sown in
April or May, in a light, rich soil, and warm situation. The
seeds, like all others which are oily, are apt to become spoiled,
and often only a few of those which are sown, will germinate.
It is a showy and curious plant. The stem and leaves are
covered with glutinous hairs, the flowers are somewhat bell-
shaped, dotted, and variegated with several shades of purple,
ona white ground ; the throat of the corolla is edged with yel-
low, and the stigma is divided into two lobes, which are irrita-
ble, and when touched, close together.

There are three or four other species, all but one of which are
natives of Mexico and Brazil. Of these, M. lutea much resembles
the one already described, but its flowers are a bright orange
color, and its leaves have toothed edges. M. diandra, which
comes from Vera Cruz, has very peculiar flowers, the limb of
the corolla being a delicate pink, variegated with deep scarlet,

Vou. I.—7.

4. e Murty nea LOO ebidoue

(| Horny Martynia./

98 Horned Poppy.

ee ——_—_
and the throat having a yellow stripe on its inside. The calyx
has a kind of involucre formed of two large membranous.
bracts, of a pale pink color. M. longiflora is a native of the
Cape of Good Hope, and its flowers are very long and purple,

The Order Pedalinee, or the Oil-seed Tribe, to which this
genus belongs, takes its name from the genus Pedalium. Ajj
the plants of this Order agree in possessing seeds which cop.
tain an abundance of oil. The genus Sesamum produces a seeq
which is much used in the Levant, and also in Africa, ag an
article of food, and an oil is pressed from it which is used on
salads, and for all the purposes of sweet oil. A species of this.
is the “ Open Sesame,” which every reader of the story of the
Forty Thieves in the Arabian Nights, will remember.

GLAUCIUM—HORNED POPPY.

Natwal Order, Papaveracee. Linnean Class, Polyandria; Order, Mono. |
gynia. Generic Distinctions :—calyx, two-leaved; petals, four; pod,
linear, two-eelled ; stamens, indefinite; stigma, bilamellate.

G. luteum.—Stem, smooth; cauline leaves, repand ; pods, rough, warty. —
"Plate 16. Fig. 1.

Tue genus Glauciwm takes its name from the glaucous, or |
bluish bloom which covers all the herbaceous parts of its spe-
cies. They closely resemble the-true poppies in many points,
but may always be distinguished by their long, horn-like pods, ©
and their stigma, which, instead of radiating into numerous
divisions over the top of the ovary, forming so elegant a feature
in the fructification of the common Poppy, is simply divided
into two plates or lamella. We shall see how these pods, as
well as the capsules of the Poppy, are formed, when we
describe the Order Papaveracea. 4

The species in our plate is the one common on the sea side
- in England, and from the blue tint of its stem and leaves,

_ “looks,” says Dr. Lindley, “as if the salt of the sea spray had

_ incrusted itself upon its skin.’ It becomes, in favorable situa
tions, two or three feet in height, and the large, brilliant yell

o 9

CMOTE Manian Mentcan Prickty Poppy .

Caucium A Uveitr Yellow Horned Foppy./

Prickly Poppy. 99

3 fall off, the pods grow out like horns, and sometimes be-
come more than a foot in length, being composed of two valves,
and having the seeds arranged along the inside, like peas in
their shells. The leaves are rough and prickly, and the whole
plant abounds in a yellow juice, which is fetid, poisonous, and
gaid to produce madness.

This plant is often cultivated as a garden flower, and will

grow in almost any soil, though it prefers sand, on account of
the great length of its roots, which penetrate this more easily
than any tougher soil. It will not bear transplanting, and
therefore the seeds must be sown where the plants are intended
to remain, and sparingly, since they should be at a considera-
ble distance from each other to look well when in flower.
_ Another species, G. pheniceum, comes from the. south of
: Europe. Its petals are bright scarlet, with a black spot at the
base, and varieties with yellow flowers sometimes occur.
There is also a North American species.

ARGEMONE—PRICKLY POPPY.

Natural Order, Papaveracee. Linnean Class, Polyandria; Order, Mono-
gynia. Generic Distinctions :—petals, four to six ; style, almost wanting ;
stigmas. four or five, radiating, concave ; capsule, obovate, prickly.

A. Mexicana.—Leaves, repand, sinuated, spiny, blotched with white ; flow-
_ ers, solitary; calyx, smooth; capsules, prickly, three or four valved.—
Plate 16. Fig: 2.

Tur name Argemone is derived from argema, a cataract of
the eye, which was once thought to be curable by the juice of
this plant. Like Glawcium, this genus is readily recognised as
_ a near relation of the opium-bearing poppies. The species

differ from both those of Glaucium and Papaver (to which lat-
ter belong all the true poppies) in the disposition of their stig-
_ mas, which form a kind of cross at the top of the ovary, by
which they may be at once ascertained. There are several
species, all natives of Mexico, of which the one represented in

100 The Collinsia.

the plate, is the mest common. It is about two feet in height ;
the leaves are very deeply cut, covered with prickles, and of a
bluish-green color, which is varied with white blotches alo
the principal veins. The capsule is oblong, and also studded _
with prickles. From this circumstance, and from the sha
of the capsule, it was called by the Spaniards, at their inyg,
sion of Mexico, Figo del inferno, or Devil’s fig. The whole
plant abounds in a yellow juice, glutinous and milky, which
when hardened in the air, is not distinguishable from gamboge,
is used for the same purposes,—and is probably of equal eff. .
cacy, in cases of dropsy, jaundice, and cutaneous diseases,
(The true gamboge probably comes from a species of Garcinia,
which belongs to the order Guttifere.) It is also used in mala.
dies of the eye, and is said to form a principal ingredient jn
certain eye ointments. The narcotic quality of the seeds jg
said to be much stronger than that of Opium, aud an oil jg
pressed from them, which is used in Mexico by painters, and
for polishing wood. When cultivated, the seeds are to be
sown early in the spring, and the plants require little attention,
They flower from August to October.

Another species of Argemone, is named ochroleuca. It isa
large plant, and the flowers are cream colored. The hand.
somest species is A. grandiflora, whose flowers are a pure
white, and frequently four inches in diameter.

COLLINSIA—THE COLLINSIA.

Natural Order, Scrophularinee. Linnean Class, Didynamia ; Order, Angios-
permia. Generic Distinctions:—corolla, gibbous above the base; limb,
very irregular; capsule, two-valved ; valves, two-parted.

C. heterophilla.—Lower leaves, trilobate; upper ones, ovate, acuminate:
peduncle, shorter than the flower ; calyx, covered with a glandular pubes-
cence; segments of the corolla, rounded at the apex, crenate; middle

tube of the lower lip, acute; border of the upper lip, nearly entire —
Plate 17.

Tuts is a genus of very beautiful plants, and was named by
Nuttall in nonor of Mr. Collins, formerly of the Philadelphia
Academy of Natural Sciences. The species are all North Ameri-
can plants, and the first discovered was C. verna, which Nuttall

27 J Ds Pi $e
le i AO Fob Ps Ree

(Variable leaved Collitisia J ee

The Collinsia. 101

ee
found on the borders of Lake Erie, in Ohio, in 1810. He lost
the specimens then gathered, and in the spring of 1816, he
made a long journey in search of it at the place where he had
first observed it. Not being able to find it here, and after look-
ing for it in vain for a distance of a hundred miles, he at length
found a withered specimen on the banks of the Ohio river,
from which he saved the seed. Another Collinsia, at first sup-
to be a different species, but now considered the same,
was discovered, in 1826, near the Columbia river, and since
that year, three others, which are well defined species, have
been sent from California, and introduced into England, where
they are much cultivated and highly valued. They are very
hardy plants, can endure a low temperature much better than
heat, and will live in almost any soil or situation, though from
differences in these, some of the species will become so varia-
ble in appearance, as to be hardly recognisable. The seeds,
to grow in perfection, should be sown in the autumn, and the
plants removed in the spring toa bed of rich and strong soil,
where the roots can be shaded and kept moist, when they will
grow two feet high, with an erect stem, and produce a profu-
sion of splendid, large, clear, and brilliant flowers. If the
seeds are sown, as is generally the case, in the spring, the
flowers will be small, and the stems weak. Care must also
be taken not to expose the roots to the sun, since if this takes
place, the plants will wither and die. The species here en-
graved is perhaps the most showy and elegant. Its leaves, of
_ which the lower ones are divided into three lobes, are of a fine
dark green, and the flowers are large, and beautifully colored
_ with deep violet, shaded into light purple, and the veins of the
petals are a delicate red.

102 Candy Tuft. |
Pes a re. ENG eg ee. F

IBERIS—CANDY TUFT.

Natural Order, Crucifere. Linnean Class, Tetradynamia; Order, Siljey,
losa. Generic Distinctions :—two outer petals, largest; silicle, compregg.

ed, truncate, emarginate.

I. umbellata.—Herbaceous, smooth; leaves, lanceolate, acuminate; lower
ones serrate, upper entire; pods, umbellate, acutely three-lobed.—Pigy
18. Fig. 1.

I. coronaria.—Pubescent; leaves, wedge-shaped, obtusely toothed; pods,
corymbose, acutely two-lobed, margins crenated ; seeds, winged ; stem,
branched.—Plate 18. Fig. 2.

THE ancient name of Spain was Iberia, from which js
derived the name of this genus, some of the first known Spe-
cies of which, came from that country, and were called Spanish -
Tufts. Another species was brought from Candia, which |
gave the common name of Candy Tufts to the whole genus,
They all possess the peculiar propérties of the Crucifera,
which we shall notice at length when that order is described
in its proper place. The seeds of all the Candy Tufts are
pungent, and have been used as mustard, and their leaves and
young shoots may be eaten as pot herbs. J. umbellata is best
known as a garden plant. It is about a foot in height, with
spreading branches and large heads of purple flowers. It has
long been a favorite in the gardens of Great Britain, as well as
_of this country—and is well known to every cultivator. Mrs,
Loudon gives th following directions for its culture, which are
probably as well suited to the meridian of New York as to
that of London. ,

“Tt does best on a rich soil, if not too moist; and as it will
not bear transplanting without serious injury, it should be sown —
where it is toremain. As it looks well in masses, it may be
sown in square beds, mixed with mignonette, or a row may be _
sown at the back of a border, and smaller flowers planted or
sown in front of it. It may be sown in autumn, or in March,
April, or May. When it is wished to have the flowers very
fine, the seed should be sown rather thinly in August or Sep-
tember; and when the plants produce their second pair of
leaves, they should be thinned out. They should be kept

Annual Flowers. 108

_
rather dry during the winter, and protected from frost. In the
spring, as soon as the plants begin to grow, they should be
thinned again, and a third tire when they begin to branch.
After this, they should be watered with liquid manure, taking
care not to let the liquid touch the plants, but to let it sink in
the ground, so as to afford nourishment to the roots. When
they are going into flower, the heads should be examined, and
if they appear too numerous, the weakest should be removed.
By this treatment, and keeping the ground free from weeds,
and occasionally loosening it around the plants, flowers of the
common Purple Candy Tuft have been grown three inches
across, most beautifully colored, being of a very dark purple
on the outside, softening to white in the centre. The great

‘nts are, thinning the plants gradually as they increase in
size, and supplying their roots with abundance of rich food
when they are going into flower.” The seeds may also be
sown in the spring, but the flowers of such never attain the
game size as those sown in autumn. ‘There are several varie-
ties of this species, some having crimson, and others white
flowers.

I. coronaria is the most splendid of the genus. It will.
grow, if properly treated, to a height of more than two feet,
pranching widely, and producing racemes of flowers from
eight inches to a foot in length. ‘The mode of cultivation is
the same as that recommended for the other species. It would
seem that little is known of the history of this plant. No work
which has mentioned it, so far as we know, has given any
information as to its native country, though it appears to have
veen cultivated for a considerable length of time in France.
There are several other species, as the sweet scented, the pin-
nate, and the bitter Iberis, which are often raised by florists.

ANNUAL FLOWERS.

_ After the foregoing descriptions of several commonly cultiva-

ted annual plants, it may not be improper to introduce some
remarks respecting the culture of such plants as an appro-

| St oe 2 : Ps ZA,
“ae Shows umielietee turple Ca

2. 7 4 3 é
x heats Corerweld , Mochel lant

104 Annual Flowers.

priate and agreeable occupation for ladies. We quote fae
a work of great authority.

Of all kinds of flowers, the ornamental garden annuals are
perhaps the most generally interesting; and the easiness of
their culture renders it peculiarly suitable for a feminine pur.
suit. The pruning and training of trees, and the culture of
culinary vegetables, require too much strength and manual
labor; but a lady, with the assistance of a laborer to leve]
and prepare the ground, may turn a barren waste into a flower
garden with her own hands. Sowing the seeds of annuals,
watering. them, transplanting them when necessary, training
the plants by tying them to little sticks as props, or by leading
them over trellis-work, and cutting off the dead flowers, or
gathering the seeds for the next year’s crop, are all suitable for
feminine occupations, and they have the additional advan.
tage of inducing gentle exercise in the open air.

It is astonishing how much beauty may be displayed in a
little garden only a few yards in extent, by a tasteful arrange.
ment of annual flowers. All that is required is a knowledge
of the colors, forms and habits of growth of the different kinds,
Many of the flowers now grown in our gardens are not worth
culture; but they are grown year after year, because their
cultivators know them, and do not know anything better,
Many beautiful flowers have been introduced, grown for a
season or two, and then thrown out of cultivation from the
want of a demand for them; and this want has arisen from
very few flower-growers being aware of their existence.

The culture of annuals has two great advantages over the
culture of all other flowers whatever. In the first place it is
attended with less expense than any other description of flower

_ culture ; and in the second, all the enjoyment it is capable of
affording is obtained within the compass of six or eight months.
Bulbous or tuberous-rooted plants, like annuals, produce their
blossoms in the first year; but they are attended with a
greatly increased expense. Perennial herbaceous flowers
never come to perfection until the second year, and, like bulbs,

_ can be beneficially purchased only by thosé who expect to re-
tain the occupation of their garden for several successive
years. To a resident of New York, who generally ‘moves’

Annual, Flowers. 105

every May day; this latter circumstance is a stronger argu-
ment than to any one else, in favor of annual flowers. On the
other hand, the seeds of annual flowers cost a mere trifle ;
the expense of stirring the soil, sowing them, and thinning
them when they come up, is also very little ; while the effect
produced is as great, or greater, than that of most bulbs, and
most perennials. The flower of a choice hyacinth, the bulb
of which will cost a dollar or two before planting, is not much
more beautiful than that of a double larkspur, which may be
reared to perfection in three months, from a seed, a hundred or
two of which may be had for sixpence. Annual flowers are
therefore, above all others, suitable for the gardens of residen-
ces which are hired for not more than a year; while they are
equally fit for decorating all other gardens whatever, and
peculiarly so for those which are defective in soil, situation, or
exposure to the sun. In one of the numbers of “ Pazton’s
Magazine of Botany,” the leading botanical periodical of
England, the editor, who is the chief manager of the gardens
of the Duke of Devonshire, observes, ‘‘ Considered as the prin-
cipal ornaments of the flower garden throughout the most
delightful period of the year, and during a considerable por-
tion of itas the most interesting features in the green house,
annual plants have great claims to our attention, and should be
very extensively cultivated in every pleasure-garden. But the
vast number and variety of sorts that are now known in our
collections, the whole of which it is impossible to introduce
into even the most extensive gardens, renders necessary a
judicious selection of the best kinds, in order to compensate for
any deficiency in number or variety by the superior beauty of
those which are admitted.” It is a common error, then, to
suppose that all that is necessary to make a showy flower
garden is to sow the ground with a great many kinds of

flower seeds. A few of the most brilliant and ornamental —
_ kinds, so arranged as to harmonize in their colors and habits
of growth, cultivated with care, and trained and pruned into
regular and compact shapes, will produce more effect than
three or four times the number sown injudiciously, and after-
wards neglected. On looking into most flower gardens, it will be
found that the annuals are crowded together, each tuft having

106 The Natural System of Botany.

been left unthinned; and that the plants having neither been
trained nor pruned, present, as they grow up, the most tawd
appearance, without either the grace and elegance of wild
nature, or the trimness and neatness of art. A flower garden
is essentially artificial ; not only from the avowed art displayed
in its general shape, and in the artistical forms of its beds, but
from the collocation of the flowers of so many different coun.
tries and climates. Everything in the flower garden, in short,
shows that it was planted by the hand of man, and the
flowers themselves, to be in keeping with the garden, should
also show the effects of human care in their training.

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER FOUR,

_

RECAPITULATION,

First Class, or Grand Division —Vascuares, on FLowrr-
ING Puiants.

Plants having distinct flowers furnished with stamens and pistils.

This division includes all plants of the Linnean System,

except the class Cryptogamia ; and is therefore by far the
most important part of the vegetable kingdom.
_ They are called Phenogamous plants, because they bear
visible stamens and pistils; and Cotyledonous plants, because
their seeds consist of cotyledons. Both these terms distinguish
them from the cryptogamia, in which no such parts exist.

The plants of this division are characterized by internal
spiral vessels, and woody fibre ; but more obviously, by their
flowers containing stamens and pistils, and the veiny appear-
ance of their leaves,

The Natural System of Botany. 107
i pcan nas MBNA

Sub-Class [.—Exocenx, or Dicoryteponous Puants.

Leaves reticulated ; stem with wood, pith, bark, and medullary rays ; cotyle-
dons, two or more, placed opposite to each other.

‘This sub-class contains all such plants as have seeds com-
posed of two or more cotyledons. The species of this latter
kind are, however, very few in number, nearly all Exogene,
having seeds with only two cotyledons.

Fribe I.—Anctosrermx.—Seeds enclosed in a pericarp.

This tribe includes all such plants as have two cotyledons,
and seeds enclosed in a pod or shell, or in a coat which proceeds
from the germen. Examples: Pea, Chestnut, Larkspur.

This tribe is divided into Polypetalous, Apetalous, Achlamy-
deous,and Monopetalous plants.

A. PotypeTaLz.—(Many-petaled.)\—These have a calyx
and corolla composed of more than one petal. Ex.: Rose,
Buttercup.

B. Aretata.—(Without petals.)\—These have a calyx, but
no corolla. Ex.: Mignonette, Spurge.

C. AcutamypEa.—These have neither calyx nor corolla.
Ex.: Birch, Willow.

D. MonoperaLx.—The corolla of these consists of a single
petal. Ex.: Trumpet Flower, Morning Glory.

The three last of these divisions are sub-divided no farther,
but the first is separated into THaLamirior#, in which the
stamens are hypogynous, or adhere to the sides of the ovarium;
and CaLycirLorm, in which the stamens are perigynous.
Each of these latter is again divided into Apocarpa, in. which

the carpels are distinct, and Syncarpe, in which they cohere in
a solid pericarp. . ; .

Tribe II—Gxmxospermz.—Seeds destitute of a pericarp.

The plants of this tribe have neither stigma nor style, the
influence of the pollen being communicated directly to the
seed through a’ foramen or orifice. They must not be con-
founded with the Gymnosperme of Linnzus, which all belong

108 The Natural System of Botany.

to the natural tribe Angiosperme. The only two divisions of
Gymnosperme are Conifere and Cycadeae.
Conrrerz.—The Fir Tribe. Ex.: Pine, J uniper.
Cyrcaprax.—Ex. : Cycas, the Sago-plant.

Sub-Class II.—Enpogenz, or Monocoryieponovs PLAnts

Leaves, with parallel veins; stem, with no distinction of wood, bark, and
pith; flowers, chiefly with a ternary division ; cotyledon, one, and if two,
placed alternate.

The plants of this sub-class hold an intermediate rank be.
tween the Exogene, or Dicotyledonous plants, in which vege-
tation acquires its highest degree of developement, and Celly-
lares, or Cryptogamia, whose vegetation is of the lowest
degree. In Exogenz there are two cotyledons, in Endogene
there is one cotyledon, and in Cellulares none. The scale of
vegetable developement appears to be graduated in exact con-
formity to these circumstances, exhibiting a striking proof of
the harmony that exists between the great features of vegeta-
tion and the seed from which they originate. The fact, already
mentioned, that the kind of seed is indicated by the appearance
of the leaf, is a still more obvious and forcible illustration of
the same harmony. It may be remarked as another distine-
tive character of the Endogene, that their leaves generally
have no articulation with the stems.

Endogenz are divided into two tribes.

Tribe I.—Pera.owex.

_ The plants of this tribe are characterized by having a calyx
or corolla, and sometimes both, in three, or six divisions, or if
these parts are wanting, then the stamens and pistils are naked.
This tribe comprehends all Endogene except the Grasses and
Sedges, and is further divided into three sections.

1. TretTaLomEx.—The calyx of these is herbaceous—
that is, of a different structure, and usually of a different
color, from the corolla, and the latter is petaloid. Ex. : Spider-
wort, Water-plantain.

2. HexareTatowrEs.—In these, the calyx and corolla are
the same in color, and nearly equal in size, both being fully

The Natural System of Botany. 109

cinth, Lily, Orchis.

3. Spapice#.—These possess no calyx or corolla, but in
their place herbaceous scales, equal in size and uniform in
color. Ex.: Arum, or Indian Turnip, Ictodes, or Skunk’s

Cabbage.
Tribe I.—GuuMacez.

Flowers destitute of a true calyx or corolla, but enveloped in
scales or chaffy bracts. ‘This tribe comprehends the Grasses,
properly so called, and the Sedges, with which in many
respects they are nearly allied. Ex.: Wheat, Oats.

Class IJ.—CELLULARES, OR FLowERLESs Puants.
Plants having neither stamens, pistils, flowers, nor spiral vessels.

This, the second of the grand divisions, as has been before
mentioned, includes all those plants which are destitute of any
perceptible organs of fructification, and is separated into the
three following sections :—

1. Frricome£.—These have a distinct stem or axis, and a
vascular system. Ex: Ferns, Club-moss, Equisetum, or Horse-
tail.

2. Muscowrx.—These have a distinct axis, but not a vas-
cular system. Ex.: Moss, Liverwort.

3. ApHyLL&.—These have neither a distinct axis, nor a vas-
cular system. Ex.: Mushroom, Sea-weed.

The above comprise all the primary divisions of plants,
according to the system of Lindley, a general view of which is
given on the following page. Of these, the sections into which
Angiosperme, and Petaloidee are divided, are called Artifi-
cial Divisions. |

NATURAL DIVISIONS. ARTIFICIAL DIVISIONS.

f Thalamiflore. ; Apenarpe.

PoLyPETALE lomo te
| |) Cal ciflore Feed ah
J : Syncarpe.
(1. Angiosperme. Aveo adi
Sub- Class I.—ExocEenz, or meme
CLASS I. Dicotyledonous erties 2
Plants. 2. Gymnosperme.
VAS id= LARES, TRIPETALOIDEZ.
Sub-Class II.—Enpbocen”, or( 1. Petaloidee. ) Hecareeasoroaa,
F leu ug >; Pleas. Monessen) SPADICEZ.
nous Plants. (2. Glumacee.

1. Filicoidez.
2. Muscoidez.
3. Aphyllee.

CELLUL. ee

|
CLASS ITI. |
E

F Dn Plants.

The Natural System of Botany. 111

Sub-Class —Exocen x.— Tribe —Anc1osPperMa.
Order, RANUNcuLAcER. The Crowfoot Tribe.

In our descriptions of those of the natural orders which we
jntend to mention, we shall follow the method and arrange-
ment usually pursued in the best works on the subject, and
shall particularly refer to that admirable book, “ The Ladies’
Botany,” of Professor Lindley. In the selection of plants to
illustrate the essential characters of each order, we intend,
however, to be governed by the principle that those are to be
preferred which are most familiar to the American reader, and
accordingly, when practicable, such will be chosen.

The species belonging to the Crowfoot tribe, and especially
to the genus Ranunculus, are so abundant in the United
States, that the one used as the illustration of the order at pre-
sent to be considered, can be readily obtained by every one.
The most common species is perhaps Ranunculus acris, known
by the familiar name of Butter-cup. Let the reader take an
individual of this species, while in blossom, and examine with
us the parts of the flower. The petals are five, of a brilliant
yellow, and underneath them are the sepals of the calyx, also
five in number, like small, hairy leaves. Upon separating one
of the petals, near its base, on the inside, will be seen a little
scale from which exudes honey. Within the corolla are the
stamens, which are, with the sepals and petals, separately
inserted into the receptacle. In the centre of the flower, are a
number of little green grains, collected together, and seated on
an elevation of the receptacle. When examined by a magni-
fying glass, they are found to be rounded at the bottom, and
contracted into a short, curved horn at the top. Each of these
grains is a single carpel, the horn-like top is the style, and the
tip of this, which is somewhat broader, and more shining, is
the stigma. Each carpel contains a single ovule, or young
seed. When young, the ovule occupies but a small part of the
cavity of the carpel, but afterwards fills it entirely. After the
calyx, corolla, and stamens have fallen off, the cluster of car-
pels remains, and ripens into the fruit. Their «form. is not
changed, but they increase in size, and become dry, hard, and
brown, In this state they are ordinarily called seeds, but in

112 The Natural System of Botany.

Set SU ea ta ne
reality, as we have seen, they are only the seed vessels, each
containing a single seed. If one of these be cut through with
a sharp knife, the inside will present only a mass of white
flesh, which is the albumen ; unless the division has been made
exactly through the centre, from top to bottom, when a very
minute oval body will be seen near the base. This can be
taken out by the point of a needle, and when submitted to the
microscope, proves to be the embryo, or the part which grows
when the seed germinates, and is composed of the plumule, or
rudiment of the stem, the radicle, or part which forms a root,
and the cotyledons, which are the beginnings of leaves.

Some of these parts are represented in Fig. 2; 1, a petal,
with the scale on the inside; 2, a carpel, its ovary being
marked a ; style, b; and stigma, c; 3, section of a carpel; d,
the ovule within it; 4, section of the ripe carpel filled with the
seed ; a, the embryo, 6, the albumen; 4, the carpels and some
of the stamens adhering to the receptacle.

On turning attention to the other parts of the plant, the
leaves are found to be dark green, and very much divided into
lobes. _ It will also be observed that their form is more simple
at the upper part of the stem, than near the root, the lobes in
the former heing more narrow, and not themselves divided—
while in the latter they are more expanded, and their edges
_ more deeply cleft. Beneath the flower, near the bottom of its
stalk, are two small leafy bodies, called bracts. These are

The Natural System of Botany. 113

‘ntermediate between the true leaves and the leafy parts of the
flower, being sometimes lobed like the leaves, and sometimes
simple, like the sepals. The netted, branching arrangement of
the veins of the leaves, at once indicates that the Ranunculus is
an Exogen, and that its embryo, as we have already dis-
covered, has two cotyledons.

The characters thus indicated, are those by which the Order
Ranunculacez is distinguished from all others. The greater part
of these characters are, to be sure, presented by many different

Jants, and on the other hand are not all presented by every mem-
per of this order. Some Ranunculacee have three or six sepals in
their calyx, instead of five, and the petals of others are sometimes
more than five, and sometimes wanting altogether. Thenumber
of stamens is indefinite ; that of the styles is also variable, since
the styles of all the carpels may unite into a single one, or may
remain, as in the Ranunculus, entirely distinct. What then
are the essential characters which distinguish all the plants of
this order from all others? These essential characters are
simply, 1st, a great many stamens which arise from beneath
the carpels, such stamens being hypogynous, as in Fig. 1.a ;
and 2d, several carpels which are not joined together, but
are separate and distinct. It is thus obvious, that in order to
ascertain whether a plant belongs to the Crowfoot tribe, it is
not necessary ta pay attention to all its different parts, but a
decision is at once made by ascertaining the presence or
absence of these two very easily determined characters. The
structure of the other parts of the flower may not be conforma-
ble to that of the Ranunculus; and it is by minor variations
that the genera of the order are limited. A mistake may
sometimes be made, on account of the general resemblance of
some of the flowers of this order, to those of Rosacez, the Rose
Tribe. It will be readily observed, however, that the stamens
of the latter do not arise at once from the receptacle, but
adhere to the calyx, or are perig-ynous.

All the plants which agree in the characters essential to
Ranunculaceze, also agree in their properties; their juice being
watery, acrid, and nauseous; that of several species raising a
blister on the skin, and being poisonous if taken into the stom-
ach. Some of them have a narcotic principle, on account of

°

114 The Natural System of Botany.

agree in being either herbaceous, or shrubby plants—ney,
becoming trees.

Of this order there are about twenty genera, and one hun.
dred and seven species, belonging to North America, Of
genus Ranunculus alone there are reckoned thirty-eight species
Several of these are well known, and are common in eve
meadow and by the side of every brook. R. multifidus, a flog,
ing species, is curious from the delicate capillary form jy
which its leaves are divided. Several foreign Species arp
much cultivated in gardens, on account of their tendency ty
become double. Among these, the varieties of R. asiaticus, ar
endless. A single cultivator in England, once exhibited eight
hundred different ones.

To this order belong the Anemonies, some species of which
are among the earliest spring flowers of this country. Other
species are well known florist’s flowers, and are Cultivated
everywhere. In these the petals and sepals are colored alike,
so that the corolia cannot be distinguished from the calyy,
When the flower has dropped off, there are seen in its place
little tufts of feathery tails, or oval woolly heads, instead of the
clusters of grains found in the Ranunculus. These tails are
the styles, which, having grown large and hairy, serve the
purpose of wings, by which the seeds are disseminated. Here
also belong the Hepaticas; one of which, the only native spe-
ties, H. triloba, is known to the youngest student of botany,
when he sees its delicate blue corolla peeping up from its
woolly leaves, on the side of a sunny bank, almost before the
snow is melted away. They differ from the Anemonies by
having either six or nine sepals and petals.

Clematis, a genus of climbing plants, is found here, one of
which, C..Virginica, is familiar to country people under the
name of Virgin’s Bower, and in July fills every thicket with
the fragrance of its white blossoms. These are almost the only
plants of the order which have woody stems.

A subdivision of this order contains the Aconitum, or Helle-
bore, the Trollius or Globe Flower, the Coptis, or Golden-

thread, and also the Larkspur and Columbine. It would seem
as if the flowers of these two latter, bore little resemblance to

The Natural System of Botany. 115

ea en ee ee
that of the Ranunculus; but by examining the stamens and
the carpels, they will present the same essential characters.
The Paontes, so generally cultivated in gardens for their
showy flowers, also belong to this Order. They differ from
the Ranunculus in having a persistent calyx, and a smaller
number of carpels, but the essential characters are the same.
Nearly all the Ranunculacee belong to the Linnzan Class
Polyandria.
It would far exceed our limits to give anything like a com-
lete description of the plants of this order, but for the conve-
nience of the student, we add here a list of the North Ameri-
can genera, with the number of their species. This list may
be considered as nearly accurate, having been prepared by

Dr. Torrey.

RANUNCULACEZ.

Clematis - - 14 Enemion - ~ o
Thalictrum = 2 my Scie - - 3
Anemone - - 14 Delphinium 7
Hepatica - - - 1 Aconitum - - 3
Hydrastis - ~- 1 Acteean -*- «= J
Adonis -« - - 1 Cimicifuga - 4
Myosurus - - 1 Macrotys - - «+ 1
Ranunculus - - 38 Xanthorhiza - - 1
Caltha - <= = 8 Peonia «- - - 1
Trollius - - - 1 salen

2 is 107

il i

116 Vegetable Physiology.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
NUMBER FOUR,

In the preceding articles we have described what are called
the Elementary Organs of plants, or those whose nature js
disclosed by the aid of the microscope, and we now come to
those various combinations of these, which are called Com.
pound Organs, or simply, Organs, and which have been al-
ready mentioned as being divisible into Organs of N utrition,
and Organs of Reproduction. These do not all exist in every
plant, nor do they in any case show themselves all at once,
but are developed successively, and sometimes are transformed
into each other. To obtain a general idea of them, it will he
proper to follow the progress of growth in some common plant,
from the period when the seed begins to germinate, to that at
which it produces its own seed.

In every seed is contained within the envelopes, a small op.
ganized body,,called the Embryo. When germination has com.
menced, this body swells, bursts its covering, and shoots out
into two parts, one of which penetrates into the ground, and
the other rises into the air. The descending part is called the
radicle, and ultimately becomes the root. The ascending part
is the plumule, or caulicle, and is the rudiment of the stem,
leaves and flowers. From the point of junction of the plum-
ule and radicle, proceed laterally one or more appendages,
which are the cotyledons, and are the first leaves of the plant.

When the root has attained its full growth, it usually be-

comes a fleshy body, variously branched, and furnished with
fibrils, or rootlets, having spongioles at their extremities, by
which nourishment is drawn from the soil. The plumule shoots
up into a stem, which subdivides into branches and twigs.
The Leaves are flattened, expanded organs, generally of a
green color, which absorb nutritious fluids from the atmosphere,
and exhale others.

After them appear the Flowers, which decay and fall off,
except the part containing the seeds, which continues to grow,
and forms the Fruit. Thus the essential organs of plants may

Vegetable Physvology- 117

educed to five, of which the Root, the Stem, and the
be ee being. subservient to the growth and preservation of
iaane are named Organs of Nutrition ; while the Flowers
nad Bvt whose office it is to continue the species, are the

Organs of Reproduction. ext ot ¥:

Before examining these in succession, it is necessary to enter
into a short explanation of some circumstances, to which allu-
sion has already been made, both in our articles on the present
subject, and in those on Natural Botany. We have seen that
all vegetables are first divided into Flowering plants, or Vas-
culares, and Flowerless plants, or Cellulares, and that Vascu-
Jares are further divided into the great classes, Exogenz and
Endogene. We propose, before going farther, to give such
explanations, and such engravings in illustration of the differ-
ences of structure on which these divisions are founded, as to
gx them more firmly in the mind of the student.

The cellular structure is the most obvious physiological cha-
racter of the Acotyledonous, or flowerless plants, of which it
forms the entire substauce. By this they are distinguished
from the Cotyledonous, or Vascular plants, which possess not
only cellular tissue, but spiral vessels and woody fibre. This
distinction may pass without farther remark at present. Ex-
ogene and Endogenz, or Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons,
are distinguished from each other by obvious physical proper-
ties, both in the structure of their internal organs, and of their
leaves and seed. The peculiar characters of Endogene are
shown in

Figure 9.

a represents the transverse section of a stem of sugar cane,
showing no medullary rays, nor concentric layers, but appearing
to be composed of little else except cells and membranes in a

118 Vegetable Physiology.

-eonfused mass, with strings or fibres interspersed. A longity.
dinal section of the same stem is represented in 8, in which the
membranes between the cells are more distinctly shown, — Jy
fig. 10, a, is represented the germination of a monocotyledonoyg
seed, and 6 shows the leaf of a plant of this class, with itg
characteristic parallel veins.

Figure 10.

a b

Fig. 11. Figure 11, represents a transverse section
of the stem of an Exogen or Dicotyledonous
plant. In this, the distinctions of wood, pith
SX and bark, the concentric rings, and the me.

\) dullary rays are apparent. The seed of an
ZH] Exogen is represented in a state of germina.
tion, in fig. 12, a, and an exogenous leaf, with
its reticulated structure, in b.

Warr

Figure 12.

a -

Such are the very plain distinctions between the two great
classes of Flowering plants, and it will at once be evident that

Vegetable Physiology. 119

SN Sonia a oo
a leaf, or even a fragment of a leaf, or a piece of a stem, is
sufficient to indicate with certainty whether the plant to which
t belonged had one cotyledon or two, whether it had pith, wood
and bark, or none of these, and whether it increased by inter-
nal or external additions.

We are now ready to proceed to the examination of the five
essential organs of plants, the parts of which they are com-

sed, and their uses in vegetable economy. The structure
and functions of the Root are of primary importance. The
Root may be defined as that part which terminates the plant
below, and penetrates into the soil. It generally consists of
two parts, the caudex, or body, and the radicles, or fibres.
These latter are terminated by soft, succulent extremities,
called spongioles, which, as we shall see, perform an important
office. Upon the roots the plant is dependant for the supply
of moisture required for its growth. That they actually absorb
a great amount of fluid matter, may readily be proved by
placing those of almost any plant in a tumbler of water. Ithas
been found that four plants of spearmint, weighing altogether
four hundred and three grains, have taken up in fifty-six days
fifty-four thousand grains, or almost seven pints, of water. The
greater part of this is exhaled from the leaves, by a process
hereafter to be mentioned, and only a small proportion is
retained as food for the plant. This great supply of fluid
appears to be necessary in order to afford the plant a suffi-
ciency of the solid matter which it also requires, and which is
contained in the liquid in very minute proportions. ‘In some
plants, as the sea-weeds, this power of absorption is not con-
fined to the root, but belongs to the whole surface. Upon
examining the root of a Rose, it will be found to branch and
spread beneath the ground, in much the same way as the
branches above. From the sides and extremities of the prin-
cipal divisions proceed delicate fibres, each terminated with its
spongiole. That the fibres are the parts by which alone
absorption takes place, can be readily proved. Ifa radish be
taken from the ground, while growing, and the root be so bent
_ that it can be covered with water, and the leaves, and the
fibres at the point of the root, be kept dry, the plant will soon
wither. But if only the points of the fibres be allowed to

120 Vegetable Physiology.

touch the water, they will absorb moisture sufficient to make
the plant flourish. The knowledge that the fibres are the trye
and only organs of absorption, has a very important practical
application. It often happens in transplanting trees, or other
plants whose roots are much branched and extend deeply into
the ground, that sufficient care is not taken to preserve the
delicate fibres and spongioles uninjured, and the consequence
is that the plant languishes or dies. This may be obviated }
carefully digging around the roots so as to include the whole,
and then removing the earth from among them in so gentle q
manner as not to break off or bruise their fibres. The growth
of roots always takes place in that direction where they cap
. find moisture, and on this account, some writers have attributed
to them a species of instinct. The fact can, however, be
explained on the principle that the soft points of the fibres wil]
naturally extend themselves most where there is least resist.
ance; and moist earth is always softer than dry. The same
principle will account for the occurrence, which sometimes
takes place, when the roots of a tree insinuate themselves
between the stones of a wall, or ruined building. In this case,
meeting with an obstacle to their growth, in the stones, they
turn into the crevices, and the fibrils grow by their own
absorption and the nourishment sent to them, until they become
so distended as to force the stones apart, and even throw down
the wall. Roots are ordinarily distinguished from stems, not
only by their direetion, and by the presence of the absorbing
fibres, but also by the absence of buds. This last circumstance
is more characteristic of the root than any other, since the part
of the axis above ground is not always a stem, nor that under
the ground always a root. The two parts may sometimes
indeed be transformed into each other. The branch of almost
any tree, upon being stuck into the ground, will produce root-
fibres, and form a new plant, while there are some instances
in which a tree or shrub may be inverted, and made to grow
with the roots in the air. A very beautiful example of the
structure of the fibre and spongiole, may be observed in the
little Duckweed, (Lemna minor,) which is found floating like a
green scale, in every piece of stagnant water. From the cen-
tre of each leaf hangs down a single fibre into the water, with

ee ee a Se

Vegetable Physiology. 12]
oo

a little cup at its extremity: under a microscope, the structure
of these is very beautifully developed. .

The force with which the roots absorb fluid, and the quan-
tity of sap thereby formed, are remarkable. Experiments have
been made, by which this force may be measured, and it is
found to be very great. If the stem of a vine be cut off, in the

ring, when the sap is ascending, and a piece of bladder be
tied firmly over the. section of the part which remains, it will
goon burst from the force with which it is distended. The
attention of several distinguished observers has been directed
to the explanation of the means by which the absorbing action
of the roots and the force which accompanies it, are produced,
and such investigations have resulted in the adoption of the
theory of Endosmose and Ezosmose. M. Dutrochet was the
first to promulgate this theory, and his experiments seem to
have established its truth. It has been before stated, that
although vegetable membrane has no visible pores, yet liquid
will pass through it. The same is found to be the case with
animal membrane. If, then, a thick syrup, or a mucilage, be
enclosed in a funnel-shaped glass vessel, over the mouth of
which a piece of bladder is tied, and then immersed in water,
a portion of the sugar or gum will pass through the bladder
into the water, and a portion of the water will pass upwards
into the vessel. It is the same with milk or any other liquid.
If, on the other hand, the vessel were filled with water, and
immersed in syrup, the result would be reversed. The gene-
ral law, deduced from such experiments, according to M. Du-
trochet, is, that when two fluids of unequal density are sepa-
rated by a membrane, the denser fluid will attract the less
dense. The principal current, or that from without inwards,
he calls Endosmose, (flowing in,) and the one from within out-
wards, Exosmose (flowing out). Now all the conditions of this
action are found in roots. The fluid already absorbed by
them is rendered denser than the water around, by the mixture
of the descending sap; and the partitioning membrane is sup-
plied by the spongiole. Thus, as long as the fluid within is
more dense than that without, absorption will continue. The
Exosmose is shown to take place, by growing a plant with its
roots in water, when the fluid is soon found to be impregnated

122 Fossil Botany.

i
with the peculiar substance formed by the plant, and contained
in the descending sap. Thus a Poppy would saturate the
water with a flavor of opium, and a Spurge would give it an
acrid taste. ‘The theory of Endosmose has given rise to cons
siderable discussion among botanists, and some have used
strong arguments in opposition to its truth. Our limits forbid
more than a bare statement of the principle on which jt de-
pends.

Roots appear to have a certain power of selecting the proper
matter for their nourishment, and will absorb some substanceg
in the fluid around, and reject others. If a stalk of Wheat,
and a Pea, grow in the same soil, the former will absorb all
the silex, or flinty matter which the water can dissolve, and
this is deposited in the stem. On melting a wheat straw with
the blowpipe, there will remain silex enough to forma glass
bead, and in some other grasses, as the Bamboo, it is often
collected in the joints, in large masses, and in the Rattan, it ig
so abundant as to turn the edge of the best tempered knife,
The Pea, on the other hand, will reject this, and confine its
selection to calcareous substances, or those formed of lime. As
to the nature of the fluid absorbed by roots, their food, and the
manner in which they are nourished, we shall speak hereafter,

FOSSIL BOTANY.

NUMBER THREE.

Fosstt remains of plants are found in various conditions ;
sometimes little changed in their appearance. Sometimes
their substance is completely saturated with mineral matter,
and yet both the external and internal structure completely
preserved. There are fossil trees which so nearly resemble
decayed wood, that the utmost scrutiny cannot detect the dif-
ference, until the weight and hardness are ascertained. In
some cases, the most delicate tissue of the original is to be seen,
and is most distinctly and beautifully displayed. The husks
and shells of some fruits, the cones of the ‘pine and fir, the

Fossil Botany. 123

49 of fructification of the ferns, the resinous secretions of
ine, and even the pollen of some coniferous plants, have been
found in good preservation. But vegetables occur not in such
conditions only, but in beds of great extent, consisting wholly
of plants transformed by the process which vegetable matter
undergoes, when under great pressure, and excluded from the
air, into masses of lignite and coal. “ There are stages in this
rocess, when the form and structure of the plants can be dis-
tinguished, and a gradual transition may be traced from the

t and submerged forests of modern periods, in which
leaves, fruits, and trunks of recent species are found, to those
accumulations of the ancient Flora, whose vegetable origin the
eye of science can alone detect.”

As fragments of the stem, or branch, or a single leaf, may
be the only vestiges of a fossil plant, some knowledge of the
internal structure which characterizes the principal divisions
of the vegetable kingdom, is obviously necessary. Here we
see one of the advantages of the Natural method. Were there
no other way of arranging plants, except that depending on the
construction of their flowers, the classification of fossil plants
would be impossible. By referring to our articles on the
Natural System, and on Vegetable Physiology, and to the
engravings in the article on the latter subject in the present
number, the following remarks on the mode of investigation of
fossil plants will be readily understood.

Messrs. Lindley and Hutton, the distinguished authors of
the British Fossil Flora, remark, that a few isolated, and often
very imperfect data, exclusively afforded by the remains of the
organs of vegetation, are the sole guide to the class, order, or
genus of the fossil plants which are to be examined, and
hence only a general idea can be obtained of the nature of the
original. ‘Their suggestions for the guidance of the student, in
his investigations, form the basis of the following directions for
the investigation of vegetable remains. Ifthe wood in a trans-
verse section of the stem be disposed in concentric circles, (see
Veg. Phys., Fig. 11,) it belonged to an Exogen. If, on the
contrary, the wood appears irregularly deposited in spots,
(Fig. 9, a.) then the plant was an Endogen. If a transverse
section show remains of sinuous, unconnected, layers, like arcs

124 Fossil Botany.

‘ 3)
with their ends directed outward, imbedded in a looser tissue,
then it belonged to an aborescent fern. Hereafter wil] be
described the method of preparing slices of fossil wood for
investigation by the microscope. If by means of such invegt.
gation, it is ascertained that the structure is entirely cellular, it
belonged to the cryptogamia; if it consist of parallel tubes, anq
has neither pith nor rays passing from the centre to the circum.
ference, it was endogenous; if any trace be present of tissue
crossing the longitudinal tubes at right angles, this will prove
the existence of medullary rays, and it must have been eXoge.
nous ; and if the walls of the tubes are studded with glands,
(Fig. 5, c.) it belonged:to the conifere. If any vestige of a
central pith be discovered, the exogenous nature of the original
is undoubted. If the fossil has a distinct bark, it is exogenous,
if it has merely a rind not separable from the inside, it jg
monocotyledonous, if neither bark nor rind, cryptogamouns,
The scars or cicatrices left on the stems by the separation of
the leaf-stalks, afford important evidence, as they are often
present, even when the trunk is flattened into a thin layer. By
these scars the position of the leaves may be ascertained, and
the form of the bases; their probable direction, whether they
were opposite, alternate, verticillate, or spirally arranged,
deciduous or persistent, imbricated or remote.

The texture and surface of the leaves are sometimes pre-
served in a fossil state, but generally only the outline of the
leaf, its division and arrangement, and mode of venation, can
be ascertained. The venation or form and distribution of the
fibrous parts or veins of the leaf, is a most important character
for our guidance, and the following suggestions on this point
are offered by Dr. Lindley. If the veins be all parallel, not
branched, or only connected by little transverse bars, and the
leaves undivided, (see Fig. 10, b,) as in the lily and hyacinth,
the plant was probably endogenous ; but if the leaf be divided
or pinnated, it may be referrible to the cycadexw. Leaves hav-
ing veins of equal, or nearly equal thickness, and forked, or
very fine, and simply divided, belong to the fern tribe, the fos-
sil genera of which have been constructed principally from the
venation. Ifthe veins be of unequal thickness, and reticulated,
(see Fig. 12, b,) or arranged in a net-like form, the original was

Sea Weeds. 125

exogenous. Large leaves, having no veins, and irregularly
divided, are to be referred to the fuci, or other marine plants.
The application of thése rules for the investigation of fossil

jants, is quite easy, and by this means may be obtained some
general indications of the nature of the original plant.

SEA WEEDS.

The last and lowest of all plants are the Sea-weeds and their
allies. ‘These productions, which inhabit water exclusively,
and appear at one end of the scale of their developement in
the form of enormous Fuci, many fathoms in length, but at the
other as merely simple bladders sticking together in rows, form
the link between the Animal and Vegetable worlds. Like
Lichens and Fungi, they have reproductive organs of the most
simple construction; in those species which have the most
complex organization, the spores are stored up in peculiar re-
ceptacles, as in the larger and more perfect sea-weeds ; but in
others they are distributed vaguely through the whole sub-
stance of the plant, and start into life when liberated from their
nests by the destruction of the individual that generated them.
In the Lavers, whether of fresh or salt water, they lie clustered
in threes or fours, in the substance of a green membrane; in
the true Confervee they are nothing but granular matter, locked
up in little transparent tubes. It is of a vegetation of this lat-
ter kind that consist the green slimy patches which are seen
floating in water, or adhering to stones and rocks from which
water has receded. : Mx

What is most remarkable in these singular productions is _
their approach to the nature of animals ; an approach which
is not only indicated by the apparently spontaneous motions of
some, butin a much more unequivocal manner by other kinds.
No one has investigated this subject with more unwearied as-
siduity than Mons. Gaillon, from whose “ Observations sur les

126 Sea Weeds.

limites qui separent le regne Vegetable du regne Animal,” are
translated the following amusing and surprising details,

On che rocks that are found at low water mark on the Coasts
of Normandy and Picardy, there grows a production called b
botanists Conferva comoides ; it consists of fine brownish-yellow
threads, collected in the form of a hair-pencil, half an inch or
an inch in length, and at low water spreads over the surface
of the little round calcareous stones, to which it gives something
of the appearance of the head of a new-born child. These
threads are loosely branched, and are finer than the most deli.
cate hair; the plant owes its apparent solidity to the clustering
and entanglement of many such threads. Viewed under a
microscope that magnifies 300 diameters, the threads seem ty
be rounded, slightly compressed, and about as large as a fine
pack-thread. They are of a mucous nature, and contain im.
mersed within their substance a number of small yellowish
bodies, which look at first like dots, afterwards become oval,
and end in something of the shape of a radish, leaving the ends
transparent, and the centre marked by a patch of yellowish mat.
ter. Ifthey are at that time separated from the mucous matter
in which they are packed like herrings in a barrel, you may
see them moving, expanding, contracting, advancing gravely
and slowly, retreating in like manner, altering their direction,
and finally possessing a spontaneous, incessant, measured, vol-
untary motion. These little creatures, which at most are not
more than the thousandth of an inch long, when once they are
separated from the thread that contains them, fall down in
countless multitudes, in the form of a chocolate brown deposit
on the neighboring rocks. Once. there, they distend and emit
a globule of colored particles, which are evidently their fry.
Each particle gains motion and volume, and the little globular
mass, lengthening and branching, reproduces, by the develope-
ment of the germs, that are collected together, the long green
pencilled appearance, which has led botanists to consider this
as a plant. |

In another production, green ditch-Laver, (Ulva Bullata, or
minima, or Tetraspora. lubrica,) still more astonishing circum-
stances have been observed by M. Gaillon and others. This
plant appears to the naked eye, a thin green membrane, within

An Unlucky Botanist. 127

which the microscope reveals a number of green granules, ar-
ranged in forms. Let this membrane be kept in quiet water,
and at a high atmospheric temperature, and the granules may
be seen, under a powerful microscope, to present at their sur-
face certain convexities and depressions, which are the effect
of the repeated contraction and distension of these granules.
If they are carefully watched for several days, the granules
will be seen to be reciprocally displaced; after a certain time
they separate from the membrane, and may then be perceived
tohave a rapid and regular movement, as if in chase of each
otlier} cool with a drop of water, that in which the granules
are floating, and their motions will become slower, they will at-
tach themselves by some part of their circumference, and will
é = swinging motion from right to left, and from left to

“ight. In this sort of imperfect reeling and twirling, one sees
granules approach in pairs, just touch each other, retreat,
approach again, and glide away to the right or left, staggering
as it were, and trying to preserve their balance; at last, in-
stead of pairs, fours combine to execute the movements of the
dance. Imagine the field of the microscope covered, shortly
after, with a hundred of these animated globules, whose diam-
‘eter is not, in reality, more than the 4000th of an inch, chasing
each other, retreating and intermingling, as if executing the
mazes of a fantastic reel, and you have one of the most curious
spectacles that the microscope can exhibit.
Such are, in part, the wonders revealed by the microscope
_ in these ambiguous productions ; many others of equal interest
might be named, but what has been said will suffice to show
how marvellous a store of curious facts remains to be collected

by those whose time and disposition are favorable to such
inquiries. — Ladies’ Botany.

—_—

AN UNLUCKY BOTANIST.

Charles de l’Ecluse, better known under the name of Clusius,
was one of the most excellent and learned botanists who ever
lived, and the author of many works whose value will ever be
appreciated. His mental ability was not more remarkable

which are curious and beautiful trees, belonging to the southern _

128 An Unlucky Botanist.

ab wisi Re
than his personal misfortunes. He was born at Artois in Flan.
ders, in the year 1526. While yet a very young man he com |
menced a course of travel through Portugal, Spain, Hunga ‘a
England and other countries, in pursuit of plants, in those days |
no small undertaking. Through the excessive fatigue which
he underwent in these journeys, he contracted, so early as jp
his twenty-fourth year, a dropsical complaint, of which he Was
afterwards cured. At the age of thirty-nine, on one of his bo.
tanical excursions, he had the mishap to break his right
and within a short time afterwards this calamity was followed —
by a second, which was no less than breaking his right thigh,
When about fifty years old, he became director of the imperial —
Gardens at Vienna, and while there, in his fifty-fifth year, he
dislocated his left ankle, and about eight years afterwards, hig
right hip. On account of the unskilful treatment of these im
juries, he was ever afterwards obliged to use crutches. The
consequent deprivation of his usual and natural exercise
brought on other diseases, among not the least distressing of
which, were calculus and hernia. After remaining at Vienna —
for fourteen years, he finally returned to his native country, and
Was appointed professor of Botany at Leyden, where he gaye
botanical lectures for sixteen years, when he died in 1609, af ;
the age of 73, overwhelmed by the multitude of his bodily ine —
firmities, but retaining his powers of mind unimpaired to the —
last. In his honor was named the genus Clusia, the species of —

of the American continent.

The Cineraria. 129

® CINERARIA—THE CINERARIA. —

Linnean Class and Order, Syngenesia, Super-
ons :—Receptacle, naked ; pappus, simple. In-
eaved, equal.

Natural Order,
flua. Generi
yolucre, simple,

Janata. Peduncles, one-headed ; leaves, cordate, roundish, with seven
angles woolly beneath.—Plate 19.

This genus of well known ornamental flowers, is said to
take its name from the Latin, cineres, ashes, in reference to the
soft white down which clothes the lower, and often the upper
surface of the leaves. The species are distributed over many
parts of the world, but principally come from southern coun-
tries. Many of them are in great favor among those who ad-
mire and cultivate flowers, as well on account of their beauty,

gs the ease with which they are cultivated, and their capability

of enduring the confined air of sitting rooms. By crossing
one species with another, florists have succeeded in producing
many spléndid and graceful varieties. They bloom at all sea-
sons, from January to December, according to the circumstan-
ces in which they are placed. All the species are herbace-
ous, or half shrubby plants, with perennial roots; the leaves
are alternate, the flowers grow in a corymb, or panicle, and
are often yellow, sometimes purple, white or blue, in the culti-
vated kinds. Although they are familiar to every one who
has paid the least attention to floriculture, the following direc-
tions for the cultivation of the Cineraria may-not be superflu-
ous. The modes of cultivation are either by the seed, in which
way many beautiful varieties are obtained, by cuttings, or by
division of the roots. If the seeds are sown in the spring, the

proper way is to fill shallow pans with a light sandy soil, and

scatter the seed regularly over the surface, then cover them
with a similar soil, supply them with a gentle heat and frequent
waterings, until the young plants appear. As soon as they
have put forth two or three pair of leaves, they should be

transplanted singly into pots filled with peat-earth mixed with —

a small portion of garden mould, or almost any light soil. will
answer. If they can be kept in a green house the seed may
9.

Se va

: : Re es Mooly Conerarcas

180 The Cineraria. ‘

be sown as late as September, and when in pots the plants
may be kept in-doors during the winter. :

If it is desired to increase the number of the plants rapidly,
cuttings may be used. Each of these should be placeq
close to the side of a pot, so as to touch it. throughout its length; ;
the pot should then be filled up with bits of broken pots, cin.
ders and stones, to within two inches of the top, and over thig
should be placed a layer of moss, and the pot then filled with
white sand, or light peat earth. The pot should then be placed
in a shady and moist border, with a bell glass over it, and the
cuttings must be watered each day. The root of the Cinera.
ria, being perennial, all the stems die each year, when they
have performed their functions, and are succeeded in the fol.
lowing season by new shoots from the main root.

This property of putting forth new shoots, or suckers,
from the old root, is a very common property among herba. .
ceous and shrubby plants, and advantage has been taken of
it to increase the number of plants by dividing each root :
into as many pieces as there are incipient stems, provided
each portion of the root so separated have also a sufficient
number of fibres as purveyors of nutriment from the soil to in.
sure vigorous vitality in the scion. For making this division.
of the roots of the Cineraria, August is considered the proper
month. The professional florist commonly anticipates nature
by removing the flower stems and old leaves as soon as the
bloom has gone ; by which means he causes the root to expend
all'its vigor in the production of new stems, and increases the —
‘strength of those which have not yet flowered; and for the
purpose of promoting this tendency to the utmost, he places
his plants, when so cut down, in a cold pit, where he allows —
them-to remain for some weeks, keeping them for a while
somewhat close, and when they begin to grow, a little air is
admitted during the day, and excluded at night. If this
_ has been done’ in ‘proper time, when August arrives the roots —

_ will’be in proper condition for being divided. _The pieces —

of root are then:to'bé planted.in pots in a light soil, composed |
of peat, a littleloam, and Some exhausted dung, from a melon —
or cucumber bed. When this is done, the pots should be _
placed in a close frame until they have recommenced growing, »

me eee 29

~

\Y DEAS. |S, rae a vs RES Fa, PR aot et se a)
Bh te eae aa tS oe, fy Oe Bas mol" 5 fe We cs a
° ah + 4 Vp es oa, wee 2 as

The Indian Cress. 181

as they increase in size the plants may be transferred to
larger pots, and supplied with water drained from a manure
heap. This operation of division of the roots is applied to
many other plants besides the Cineraria, and the foregoing
directions may serve as general ones.

A bed of these plants, properly arranged, is very ornamental
in the flower garden. A situation sheltered from the sun in the
hot part of the day suits them best.’ The soil must be loose,
and sufficient water afforded. As soon as the flowers have
fallen, the care of the amateur must be exerted to promote
the growth of the plant, so as to strengthen it for enduring the
coolness of autumn and winter. Those plants which have
bloomed in pots must then be turned out and planted in
a situation where they will be protected from too much heat.
The greater part of the ball of earth around the roots must be
removed, the flower stems cut off within two inches of the
pase, and then set at about a foot apart. The crown of the
root should also be sunk a little below the surface, by which
means the shoots which are intended for separation will have
acquired a sufficient supply of roots for their maintenance
when the season arrives for their removal. When planted in
the open air, they require frequent watering in dry weather,
and the bed must be kept free from weeds,

and

TROPZOLUM—INDIAN CRESS.

Natural Order, Troprolacee. Linnean Class and Order, Octandria, Mono-
gynia. Generic Distinctions :—Calyx, of five united sepals, the lowest
spurred. Petals, five, unequal. Stamens, eight. Ovary of three united
carpels. Stigmas, three. Nuts, coriaceous, furrowed, three-celled, one-
seeded.

T. majus. Leaves, peltate, repand ; petals, obtuse, some of them fringed.

~ Plate 20.

The name of this well known genus is derived from the
latin, tropewm, atrophy. The leaf is shaped like a shield, and
_ the flowers resemble an empty and blood-stained helmet, which
defensive armor formed a part of those trophies which were

132 Bell Flower.

$e
anciently constructed in honor of a victory. The genus com,
prises several species which are familiar both as ornamental
and culinary plants. Under the name of Nasturtion, or Indian _
Cress, the present species is cultivated very generally, for the
sake, not only of its showy and curious flowers, its gracefy]
and perfectly shaped leaves, but of its fruit, which, when
pickled in salt or vinegar, forms an excellent pickle, used ag _
substitute for capers, to which it is decidedly superior. "The
flowers possess the same pleasantly pungent flavor with the
fruit, and may be used as a salad. The cultivation of the
Nasturtion is attended with no great difficulty. Trained oye,
a frame work, it grows luxuriantly, and produces its sho
flowers all summer. The only care necessary is not to tie
the stems to the frame too tightly, since their softness and sucy,
lence renders them liable to be easily bruised. A curious fag
was first observed, in regard to the flowers of this plant, by
the daughter of Linnzeus. During the evening they emit Spon-
taneously, at certain intervals, sparks, like those from an elec.
trical machine. This phenomenon may be witnessed ong
warm cloudy summer evening to the best advantage.

There are about a dozen other species, all of which are na.
tives of Peru. They agree with the Nasturtion in their prop-
erties, and are used for the same purposes. One species pos
sesses a tuberous root, which is eaten in Peru, and another is
in common use as an anti-scorbutic meditine.

CAMPANULA—BELL FLOWER.

3 Natural Order, Campanulaceez. Linnean Class and Order, Pentandria,

_ Monogynia. Generic Distinctions :—Corolla, campanulate, funnel-shaped,
or broadly tubular; stigma, three to five cleft; capsule, inferior, open-
mg bY lateral pores.

: gens. Plant, pilose; stem, panicled; radical leaves, sub-spatulate, —
crenulate; cauline leaves, sessile, lanceolate, acuminate ; peduncles, many _
flowered, diverging ; lobes of calyx, acuminate.— Plate 21.

_Campanvta signifies a little bell, and is a remarkably ap-
pie name for the plants which in its generic application it

includes. The species are very numerous, amounting to nearly —

4
Fear.

oe ee

;
;
;
4

The Bell Flower. . 138

ee
one hundred, and are very widely diffused over the cold and
temperate countries of the earth, very few of them being found
in tropical regions. Their beauty, and the ease with which
they are cultivated, has made some of the species familiar to
every one- The subject of the plate resembles very greatly
the common species, called Canterbury Bell. It is a handsome
plant, bearing flowers of a very fine purple, which are erect
when budding, but drooping when fully blown. It is a native
of Hungary, and Siberia ; from which two countries, it may
be remarked, come several other elegant and much cultivated
species.

Its cultivation is by no means difficult in this country. The
seeds must be sown as early as the frost will permit, in the
place where the plants are to grow ; or if the cultivator has
a green house, they should be sown in the winter, and planted
out in April or May. The young plants should be well sup-
plied with water, and they will grow luxuriantly, producing
sometimes fifty flowers from a single root. .

One of the most delicate of all the Campanulas is a native
of the Northern and Eastern States. This is C. rotundifolia,
known to many as the Harebell, or Bluebell. Its slender stem,
delicate linear leaves, flowers of a lovely blue, the grace and

sweetness of its whole aspect, make it one of our most inter- —

esting plants. It grows on rocks, on the sides of hills and
mountains, frequently on the very verge of the deepest preci-
pice, down which its blue eyes seem to gaze without terror,

secure in its own beauty. To one who should gather it while

in flower, the specific appellation, rotundifolia, would seem a
sad misnomer, its only rounded leaves being the radical ones,
which fall off before the blossoms appear. Another handsome
species, commonly cultivated, is C. Americana, a native of

some of the Middle and Western States. It is a tall, erect,
‘ornamental plant, with blue flowers. . Kins

Of the foreign species, the best known are, perhaps, the pretty
C.speculum, or Venus’ Looking-glass, the polish of whose corollas,
and their form, which is like that of a little, round, concave mir-

ror, have given it a name so appropriate; C. dilifolia, with pale

blue flowers ; C. glomerata, with clustered, violet-colored flowers,

and C, persicifolia, with large blue flowers. This last species,

¥
{

x
x
¢

134 Tobacco.

. SRE eeNEErenEren.
with one or two others, have been much cultivated in France
and Italy, and somewhat in Great Britain, for the sake of
their roots, which are boiled till they are tender, and then eaten,
either hot, with sauce, or cold, with vinegar and pepper. jj
is not known that the Campanulas possess any peculiar
properties, medicinal or otherwise ; their value arises almog
entirely from their beauty.

NICOTIANA—TOBACCO.

Natural Order, Solanacee. Linnean Class and Order, Pentandria, Mono-
gynia. Generic Distinctions :—Corolla, funnel-shaped, or salver-shaped;
limb equal; stamens rather unequal, inclosed or exserted ; capsule open-
ing by four parts at the apex.

N. tabacum. Leaves, sessile, oblong lanceolate, acuminate ; lower ones
decurvent ; throat of the corolla inflately ventricose; segments of the
limb acuminate.—Plate 22, Fig. 1.

N. multivalvis. Clothed with viscid hairs or down ; leaves, fleshy, ovate
lanceolate, lower ones petiolate; flowers, axillary, solitary; calyx, mahy
ee capsules, many celled.— Plate 22, Fig. 2.

is . This genus received its name from John Nicot, of Nismes,
in Languedoc, who seems first to have made it known in
Europe. The first tobacco plant raised in Europe is said to
have been presented to the celebrated Catherine de Medicis,
from which circumstance it was called Herbe ala Reine, a

name which is still preserved by the French. The species
commonly grown for the production of tobacco, the use of
_ which has become more extensive than that of any other nar-
a cotic, are two, N. rustica and N. tabacum. The latter is the

one more commonly called Virginian tobacco, and is cultivated
_-_—s over a great portion of the southern regions of this country.
Ste

*s It is supposed to have been known in Europe as early as 1560,
3 but was first introduced into England by Ralph Lane, in 1586. _
He brought some of it prepared for smoking, either from eel :
island. of Tobago, i in the West Indies, or from the province of —
ae, in Mexico, whence was derived its common name.

Pee | Vergenew Tobaéteo) 7.

t. (Many-valved Lobacees2

Tobacco. 135

sir Walter Raleigh was prebably: the first smoker in England.
He acquired the practice in Virginia, and introduced it up-
wards of two centuries ago, and in commemoration of this
rather questionable service to mankind, he took as the crest
of his coat of arms; which is still to be seen in his house at
{slington, @ tobacco plant. A well known but somewhat apoc-

hal story relates that his servant, bringing in a tankard of
ale to him in his study, and seeing, for the first time in his life,
the mouth of his master emitting a cloud of smoke, in his
anxiety to quench what he no doubt thought to be a case of
spontaneous combustion, dashed the contents of the tankard
over Sir Walter’s head, to the great detriment of his beard
and ruff.

Tobacco, as used by man, says Du Tour, gives pleasure to
the savage and the philosopher, to the inhabitant of the burn-
ing desert, and of the frozen zone. Its use, either in powder,
to chew, or to smoke, is universal; and for no other reason
than a sort of convulsive motion (sneezing,) produced by the
first, and a degree of intoxication by the last two modes of
usage. A hundred volumes, adds he, have been written against
it, Among these every one has heard of the “Cownterblaste,”
of King James. The Grand Duke of Moscow forbade its
introduction into his territories, under pain of the knout for
the first offence, and of death for the second. . The emperor
of the Turks,the King of Persia, Pope Urban VIII, all issued
similar prohibitions, but the object of their wrath steadily in-
~ ereased in popularity, till, at present, there is scarcely a gov-
ernment on the earth which does not derive a great portion ‘of
its revenue from tobacco. It is cultivated in Europe as far
north as Sweden, and in Asia both the Chinese and Japanese
raise it in great quantities.

The species mostly in use is N. tabacum, a flower of which
is figured in our plate. Its appearance is so familiar to the
American reader as to make a description unnecessary. In
England its cultivation is prohibited in order to increase com-
merce with this country, and consequently it is principally
raised for curiosity, as a border flower.

In most of the Southern States tobacco is a staple produc-
tion, and vast quantities are yearly exported. To some north

136 Tobacco.

ern readers, the following description of the method of Culture
may prove new. ‘The plants are raised on beds, early jn
the spring, and when they have acquired four leaves, are
planted in the fields, in well prepared earth, at about three
feet distance from each other. Twice a day they are examined
in order to destroy a worm which often attacks them, As
soon as they have eight or nine leaves, and are ready to put
forth a stalk, the top is nipped off, in order to make the leaves
longer and thicker, by directing all the energies of the plant
tothem. After this the buds, which spring from the axils of
the leaves, are all picked off, and great care is taken to keep
the leaves free from the caterpillar. When they are fit for
cutting, which is known by the brittleness of the leaves, they
are cut with a knife close to the ground, and after lying some
time, are carried to the drying shed, where the plants are hun
up by pairs on lines. When perfectly dry, the leaves are
stripped from the stalks, and made into small bundles. These
are laid in heaps, and covered with blankets. Care is taken
not to over heat them, for which reason the heaps are spread
out and laid open to the air from time to time, until no more
heat is generated, when the whole is packed in casks for ex.
portation.

In the manufacture of tobacco, the leaves are first made
very clean, then moistened with water in which salt and some
other ingredients are dissolved ; the midrib of the leaf is re-
moved, the leaves mixed together, cut to pieces with a fixed
knife, crisped before a fire, then twisted into rolls. The tobac-
Conist then cuts it into shreds by a machine like a straw cutter,
for smoking and chewing, or twists it into rolls, or presses it
into a mass for the latter purpose; and dries and grinds it
for making snuff.

Some of the species, besides N. tabacum, are used in those
places where they grow. The best Havana segars are made
of N.repanda ; and the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, and
on the banks of the Columbia River, prefer for their tobacco
the species N. quadrivalvis, figured in our plate. This is a
strong, robust species, with leaves of peculiarly rank and pow-
erful odor, sometimes almost foetid. The flowers are very
large and showy, the calyx is ribbed and inflated, and when

The Natural System of Botany. >
., divides into several valves. It is often cultivated in
angled as a garden flower, and is grown in the open border
ey ‘n the spring, when it blossoms in August and Sep-

tember:

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER FIVE.
Order—Maenouiacez. The Magnolia Tribe.

This order comprises only a few genera, but contains some
of the noblest of vegetable productions. Several species of
the genus Magnolia are familiar to the American reader. Of
these perhaps the most magnificent is M. grandiflora, which
is found in most of the Southern States, and less commonly, as
far north as Pennsylvania. This splendid tree grows to the
height of from sixty to eighty feet, its leaves are very large
and of a brilliant green, and its flowers are white, fragrant, and
nearly a foot indiameter. M. glauca is a native of New Eng-
land, and is the species best known in the North, where it is
usually called White Bay. Although inferior in height, and
in the size and brilliancy of its flowers, to its gigantic brother
of the South, it is yet one of the most striking objects in the
forests of Massachusetts and Connecticut. Its leaves are of a
regular, elliptical form, and have a bluish bloom on their lower
sides. Its bark and berries, which latter are red, are in some
esteem for the cure of coughs and some other diseases,
Another American species is M. acuminata, also a large and
handsome tree, which produces cones of fruit, having some
resemblance to a small cucumber, whence_its common name,
Cucumber Tree. ‘It is in the East, however,” says Lindley,
“that the Magnolia tribe has its fragrance most elaborated. In
the dwarf -Talauma of the Chinese, (Magnolia Pumila,) with
its yellow and brown flowers, and the Tsjampaca, the most
beautiful of trees, beneath whose majestic foliage the native
Indian constructs his cottage of Bamboo stakes and palm

138 The Natural System of Botany.

$$
leaves, the essence of the Magnolia perfume is developed iy
all its power. These trees are indeed the living altars from
which a perpetual cloud of incense is ascending unto heaven
day by day, as if in gratitude forthe profusion with which the
gifts of Nature areso prodigally poured forth from the lap of
earth in those favored regions.”

It-would hardly be supposed that there should be any rela.
tion between these stately princes of the vegetable kingdom,
and the insignificant Ranunculus, and yet an examination and
comparison of their flowers shows a near alliance. The calyx
of the Magnolia consists of three sepals, and the corolla of six
petals; within these are placed many stiff stamens, arranged
in several rows upon a conical receptacle ; each anther has two
cells so situated that the pollen falls outward towards the petals,
The carpels are numerous, each containing a single cell, and
terminated by a narrow, thread-like stigma. These cells grow
together into a solid pistil, and ripen into a cone-shaped fruit,
This structure of the flowers and fruit differs very little from
that of the Ranunculus, but there is a difference by which
the Magnolias may with certainty be distinguished. Many
plants possess, at the base of each leaf-stalk, a pair of small
leafy bodies, called stipules, which are to the leaves very much
what bracts are to the flowers. Now the stipules of the Mag-
nolia are large, and perform an important function. Each of
the branches is terminated by a horn-like projection springing
_ from the base of the last leaf. This horn is a pair of stipules
rolled together for the protection of the next leaf which is to be
unfolded; and that next leaf has a similar pair of stipules that
roll up over the still younger leaf lying in its bosom, so that
if the horn be cut through, several generations of leaves will
be found thus enfolded within each other. This is the charac-
teristic peculiarity of the Magnolia tribe, by which it may at once
be distinguished from the Crowfoots and other allies. It is not
only a curious, but important and interesting mark of distinction.
The bud is very tender, and requires protection from the air,
from cold, and from accidents. This protection is afforded by
many different contrivances of nature, and in this instance by
the stipules. The seeds of the Magnolias are attached to the
inner suture of the carpels, from which they are suspended

The Natural System of Botany. 139
Ce eee een eae ee aaa. <7 ae arama
by long cords ; in which peculiarity, as well as in thé con-
idation of the carpels, they also differ from Ranuncu-

raided the Magnolias, there is another fine tree belonging
to the same order, which inhabits the United States. This is
the Liriodendron tulipifera, or Tulip Tree, one of the most re-
markable in American forests. It is found in the Atlantic
States, from Massachusetts to the Carolinas, and is particularly
abundant in the Western States. It grows to the height of
eighty; and sometimes even one hundred feet. The trunk is
straight, and the branches disposed with great regularity. Its
flowers are large, marked with spots of green, yellow and pur-
ple, and when abundant, present a most brilliant display. The
leaves are very singular, being truncated, so that they appear
as ifcut off at the end, and having very much the shape of the
body of a violin. The whole appearance of this tree is in-
deed so peculiar as to render a description of it unnecessary
to any person of observation, who has ever lived in the regions
which it inhabits. The Tulip Tree has been introduced into
Europe, and is now common, both in France and Italy ; and
in England it forms a conspicuous ornament to the pleasure
grounds of many of the gentry.

The Magnolia tribe all possess a tonic and stimulating prin-
ciple, and their bark has been used with success for medical
purposes; that of the Tulip Tree having been considered
equal tothe Peruvian bark.

Very closely connected with this tribe, in which, indeed, it
was formerly included, is the small order, Winteree, which
contains the genus Iilicium, the seeds of one species of which,
I. anisatum, produce a very fragrant oil, are burned by
the Chinese in, their temples. and under the name of aniseed
are employed by Europeans to flavor liqueurs. A very pleasant
cordial, which owes its taste and aroma to these, is well knowr
as Anisette de Bordeaux. Two or three other species are found
in the southern parts of North America.

140 The Natural System of Botany.

ee a ee ee ne

Berserwacem. The Barberry Tribe.

This is an humble, butstill very interesting tribe. Every body
is well acquainted with the common Barberry, Berberis vulgaris,
of the Northern States, and not a few New England farmers
have a strong prejudice against it, and takeevery opportunity to
root it up, on account of their belief that it injures the corp
near which, along the fences, it so generally grows. Not.
withstanding its bad character, it is by no means an ill-looking
shrub, either in spring, with its pendulous racemes of yellow
flowers, or in the autumn, with its branches of brilliant red berrieg,
The leaves have a very pleasant acid taste, and the berries make
an agreeable jelly when preserved in sugar, and are also made
into pickles. The branches are covered with very sharp spines,
sometimes divided into several parts. The manner in which
these are formed is curious, and will serve to illustrate the
theory, now generally adopted, which considers all the parts of
plants as different developments of the leaf, and which will be
stated fully in the course of our articles on physiology.

These parts, (we quote from Prof. Lindley,) are not pric-
kles like those of the Rose, for they are regularly arranged
_ over the stem, and will not break off by a slight pressure side-
ways; nor spines like those of the Hawthorn, for in the Haw-
thorn the spines originate in the bosom of the leaves, but in
the Barberry the leaves originate in the bosom of the spines,
These parts are anexceedingly curious state of the leaf. They
are the first kind of leaf that the Barberry produces when it
shoots forth from the bud ; but immediately after, or perhaps at
the same moment with, their production, other perfectly formed
leaves break out from their axils, and thus at nearly the same
instant, the branches are covered with spines for their defence,
and with leaves for theiradornment. That these spines really
are leaves you may easily ascertain by looking for a very
vigorous shoot of the Barberry, when you will find some
of them with the space between the stiff spiny lobes
filled up by a web of parenchyma, (the fleshy portion of the

~ The Natural System of Botany. 141

leaf between the veins) others with the web hardly visible, and
others with the spines only remaining. The leaves are them-
gelves pordered by spiny teeth, which are the points of their
veins, and there is alittle joint near their base by which they
are articulated with their stalk.

From the midst of a cluster of leaves appear the yellow
flowers, in adrooping raceme something like that of a currant.
Each flower consists of three little external scales tipped with
red; they are the outermost sepals; then of three petal-like

s, the inner sepals; and within these of six genuine petals.

The great similarity between the parts thus differently des-
ignated shows that the distinction between a calyx and corolla
sin many instances very arbitrary, although in other instan-
ces it may be plain enough. At the base of each of the true
petals are two parallel yellow oblong glands, the nature and
use of Which are unknown. Between these glands, and op-
posite to the petals are the stamens, six in number, consist--
ing of a filament somewhat thickened at its upper end and an
anther, whose lobes, growing to each side of the end of the fila-
ment, have a singular mode of opening. At first the lobes
resemble those of any common anther, but when the time comes
for the fertilization of the stigma, instead of splitting along
the middle, the anther opens at the edge all round, except
near the point, and liberates its valve or face, which curves
back and allows the pollen todrop out. This is a very curious
phenomenon, and is technically called bursting by recurved
valves. ‘The ovary is oblong, the stigma flat, round and sessile,
and in its centre is an opening which leads to the single cell
of the ovary.

The two essential characters of the Barberry tribe are
stamens as many, or twice as many as the petals, and oppo-
site to them, and anthers opening by recurved valves.

This tribe contains, besides the Barberry itself, several in-
teresting plants, among which in the United States, is the May
Apple or Wild Mandrake, Podophyllum peltatum, which is a
native of various parts. of the Northern and Eastern States, and

" js curious for its peltate leaves, and its reticulated petals. It is

alow, neat looking plant, with a drooping white flower often
overshadowed by the broad leaves, and the fruit, from which

142 The Natural System of Botany.

its common name of May apple has been given it, is about
the size of a plumb, has a pleasant acid taste, and isoften eaten
and its root is an excellentcathartic. Another singularlittle plant f
the Jeffersonia diphylla. It was named from President J efferson,
and is remarkable forthe curious structure of its seed Vessel,
which opens with a lid like a snuff box. In Ohio it is in some
repute as a medicine, and is termed Rheumatism Root. The
Leontice, or Pappoose Root, is another plant of this tribe, very
commonly known in New England. It is proper to remark
that the two first of these genera were separated from the
Barberry tribe, and formed into another order, whose type wag
Podophyllum, but on no good ground, as it would seem, since
they have been replaced by the best American authorities jp
Berberidez.
We must not forget to notice a curious instance of irritabjl.
ity which occurs in the flower of the Barberry. The stamens
“are in a recumbent position when the. flowers first open, lying
back close pressed upon the petals. But, if you touch one of
their filaments with a pin, the stamen rises gently up, and
strikes its anthers against the stigma, just as, says Lindley,
the figures in old fashioned clocks strike their hammers
upon the bells when chimes are sounded. No one, continues
our authority, knows the cause of this curious habit ; it is one
of those certain butinscrutable facts, the explanation of which
is probably beyond the faculties of man. There is one thing,
however, connected with it that deserves to be noticed, although
it does not throw light upon the nature of the phenomenon. If
you dose the Barberry with laudanum or any opiate, the sta-
mens are stupified and lose their elasticity; and if you poison
the plant by some corrosive substance, such as arsenic, which
produces inflammation in ammals, a sort of vegetable inflamma-
tion is produced in the stamens of the Barberry. We are not,
however, on that account to conclude that this plant approaches
animals in its nature, but merely that the principle- of life
which pervades all nature is the same in its essence, and is
affected by similar causes, whether it exists in an animal or a
vegetable. i
There are two small orders, nearly allied to the Magnolia
Tribe, the members of which belong to tropical countries,

The Natural System of Botany. 143

One of these, Anonace®, or the Custard Apple tribe, is distin-

ished by the structure of its seed, the inmost coat of which
forms several folds or plaits. The fruit of some of the species
is well known by the name of Custard apple, and is eaten
very commonly in the West Indies. Its taste is a pleasant

-acid. ;
pen order, intermediate between the last mentioned and
the Barberry tribe, is MENISPERMACE2&, the Moon Seed, or Coc-
culus tribe. They are twining, shrubby plants, chiefly distin-
guished by the deficiency of parts in their flowers, the same
flower never having both stamens and pistils, and some of them
are dicecious. The number of carpels varies, as does also the
degree of their adhesion, so that it is difficult to character-
‘ze the order. The genera, however, correspond in their
medicinal characters. Their roots are bitter and aromatic.
That called Colombo Root is much used as a tonic, in dyspep-
sia, diarrhoea, and dysentery. Their seeds, on the other hand,
are mostly narcotic, in various degrees. The drug called Coc-
culus Indicus, is the seed of an East Indian species, and has
been much employed by brewers in England, and perhaps in
this country, to heighten the intoxicating properties of their malt
liquor, and to such an extent was this practice carried, that an
act of parliament has made it illegal for a brewer even to have
the article in his possession. Mixed in the form of a pow-
der, with crumbs of bread, and thrown into the water, the fish
who swallow it become intoxicated, rise to the surface, play
strange antics, like all other drunken beings, and are easily
taken. This method of capture is sometimes resorted to among
us, by boys, or poachers, but never by gentlemen or anglers.
Of this tribe one species, Menispermum Canadense, is a native,
of the Northern States: it climbs among the hedges, bears
small yellow axillary flowers in July, and is known by the
uame of Moon Seed. |

There are two other small orders which may be mentioned
here. The order CasomBACE%, or Water Target tribe, contains

_ only two genera. They are curious aquatic plants, and one

species, Brasenia, or Hydropeltis purpurea, grows in the fresh
water ponds of New England, in company with the Water |
Lily. The leaves are perfectly elliptical, and float on the

144 Vegetable Physiology.

surface of the water : the petioles are inserted exactly in dy
centre, and are very long and slender. The flowers are pur.
ple, on similar stalks, and the whole under surface of the
leaves, together with the stem, is covered with a white slime,
The order NELUMBIACE comprises only one genus, a species
of which, Nelumbiwm luteum, or Water Chinquapin, is a fn
plant, growing in the lakes of the South and West, but some.
times met with in some parts of New England. The nuts are
roasted and eaten, or are ground into a kind of flour.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

NUMBER FIVE.

Form anp Srucrvge or tHe Srem.—The stem may be
defined as that part of a plant, which, proceeding from the
root, either extends under ground, or ascends into the air, and
supports the leaves and flowers, and its chief office appears to
be to elevate these into the most favorable position for receiving
the influence of heat, light, and air, on which their due action
depends. All flowering plants are furnished with stems, though
in some instances the stem does not rise above the ground, or
is so short as to appear wanting. In annual plants the stem is
generally herbaceous, consisting mostly of soft cellular tissue,
but containing some woody fibre and spiral vessels, which are
traceable in the stalks of the leaves, and in the strings of such
vegetables as the Asparagus. In longer lived plants, however,
the stem becomes more and more solid, by the formation, each
year, of new bundles of this fibre, which, in time, nearly displa-
ces the soft tissue.

We have already seen that the stems of flowering plants
are not all formed in the same way, but that there are two
different modes in which the woody matter is arranged: that
one set of plants increases by the deposition of this matter in
the interior of their stems, and another by its deposition on the
exterior ; that the former are called Endogens, and the latter
Exogens ; and that the Exogenous stem consists of pith, wood,

Vegetable Physiology. 145

_
and bark. The pith is a soft, spongy substance, occupying
thecentre. Under a magnifier, it is found to consist entirely
of cellular tissue, containing, when young, a good deal of fluid,
but when old becoming dry, and often nearly disappearing.
This is the first formed portion of the stem, and is the remain-
der of the cellular structure which originally formed the whole,
but which has gradually given place to the woody texture,
which is deposited on its outside, and has gradually com-
pressed it into the centre. The pith of a branch is always
an extension of that of the parent branch, and if the latter be
cut through, just where a bud is rising from it, the bud will be
geen to consist mostly of a prolongation of the central pith.
Around the pith are disposed the woody layers, at first in the
form of strings, arranged in a circle between it and the bark,
and separated from each other by prolongations of pith, which
isthus connected with the bark. When the stem grows older,
a second circle of woody layers is formed, beneath the bark,
and enclosing the first layer, and as it increases in age, circle
after circle succeeds in the same manner, till the pithy pro-
cesses between becoming narrower in each ring, appear at
length merely as lines diverging from the centre, and are then
called medullary rays. Their office is to maintain a constant
connexion between the interior portion of the stem and the
bark. These rays form what is called silver grain, so conspic-
uous in several kinds of wood, such as Maple and White
Qak, and which add so much to their beauty when polished.
In general, in temperate climates, a single ring or layer of
woody matter is added each year, so that the age of a tree
may be reckoned by counting these in a cross section; but in
tropical climates, where many trees have several successions
of leaves yearly, there is reason to believe that a corresponding
number of layers is formed. This may account for the great.
number of layers in the Baobab trees of Senegal, which have
been supposed, reckoning their age in this way, to be more
than five thousand years old. In most timber trees, the inner
and older portion, called the duramen, or heart-wood, is much
more hard and dry than the exterior alburnum, or sap-wood ; and
sometimes, in the hardest and heaviest woods, as lignum-
vite and black walnut, the line of separation between them is

146 Vegetable Physiology.

Lao ges 2 a a a i
very plainly marked. But in most cases this change ig more
gradual. It is produced by the consolidation of the interiop
portion, whose tissue becomes so pressed together, and its cel]g
so filled up by different secretions, as to prevent the passage of
any fluid through it. It then becomes of no use to the system,
except to give it strength and durability, since it is through the
new layers, or sap-wood, that the passage of the sap is effected,
As the pith and the inner layers thus gradually become unf;
for their original use, and as in the outer portion alone the pro.
cesses of vegetation goon, the former may be removed withoy
injuring the latter; and this operation is often produced by
natural decay, which destroys the heart of an old tree, leaving
the outside only a shell, though still capable of producing
buds and branches.

A variety in the structure of exogenous stems, is that before
mentioned as belonging to the Pines and Firs. Their annual
layers are generally marked with great regularity and distinct.
ness, especially in those which are natives of cold or temperate
climates, where the process of vegetation is quite interrupted
by cold after the formation of each layer, while in warmer
regions they pass into one another more gradually. In the
latter case, too, the thickness of the layers is nearly uniform,
while in the former, it differs according as the seasons have
been favorable or otherwise. In examining fossil plants, these
facts are important and interesting, as will be seen.

In a circle around the pith, and between it and the first
layer of wood, is arranged a series of spiral vessels, which
seldom occur in any other part of an exogenous stem. This
forms the medullary sheath.

The outermost coat, enclosing the wood, is the bark. This
is also formed in regular layers, from the interior, which are so
much thinner than those of the wood as not to be so easily
distinguished. | The oldest layers of course are on the out-
side, and become gradually lost; by decay,or by falling off,
so that it is in general impossible to trace the same number as
in the wood, although they are formed at the same time. As
each new layer of wood is formed on the outside of the pre-
vious one, and therefore at the circle where it is in contact with
the bark, and as the new layer of bark is added to the inside of

;

Vegetable Physiology. 147

oe ee
the previous one, it is obvious that they are both produced at
the same spot, and that the newest layers of both will always
be in contact with each other. They seem to be produced in .
this way. In the spring, the bark becomes loosened, and may
often be readily separated from the wood. A kind of mucila-

‘nous fluid, called the Cambium, is then formed between them.
This is gradually developed into cells, and from these are
formed the ducts and cellular portion of the woody layer, and
the layer of bark is at the same time added, both being inter-
sected by the medullary rays. Bark sometimes is nearly all
composed of cellular tissue, and becomes thick and spongy, as
ig the case with cork, which may be regarded as a kind of exter-
nal pith. The inner bark, or liber, however, is usually thin and

- delicate in texture, and has been applied to various useful pur-

poses. One of these is indicated by the meaning of the word
liber, which signifies both a book and the inner bark. In fact it
was used by the Romans for writing upon. By many of the Pa+
cific Islanders, the liber of several trees is used for cloth, mats
and sails. It is in the vessels and woody tubes of the albur-
num that the fluid absorbed by the roots is carried through the
stem, and these vessels communicate with those of the leaves,
which receive it from them. In the liber, on the contrary, the
fluid, after being elaborated by the leaves, and converted into
nutritious sap, descends again through the trunk, for the purpose
of nourishing its various parts. A part of this sap is carried
inwards by the medullary rays, which thus diffuse it through
the whole stem, as also through the substace of the roots,
down which it is conveyed by their bark. In this descent it
mixes with the ascending current, particularly at its lower part,
and being much superior in density, adds to that of the ascend-
ing fluid, and thus maintains the conditions necessary for endos-
mose. The vessels of the bark down which the sap runs,
form a complete network, in which it may be seen to move in
various directions.

The endogenous stem is formed very differently. The woody
bundles are distributed irregularly through the mass, and in-
stead of being united into rings, remain separate, and’ only
form any thing like hard wood, on the exterior, where they are
pressed together by the addition of new matter within. Each

148 Vegetable Physiology.

SS ee

anriual set of woody bundles, proceeding from the leaves,
passes down through the soft interior of the stem, and after.
wards turns outwards, and interlaces itself with those pres
viously formed. The cellular portion of the stem, which jp
exogens was separated by the wood into the pith and bark,
here remains intermingled with the wood during the whole
life of the plant. Each woody bundle contains duets
and spiral vessels, besides woody fibre, arranged so that
the spiral vessels are on the side next the centre, and pro.
tected by the woody fibre on the exterior. From this pecu.
liar structure endogenous stems increase little in diameter, the
‘hardness of the outside preventing their enlargement. Qp
this account too, their age is generally limited, since the exte.
rior vessels become so compressed as to admit no further pas-
sage of fluid. A remedy for this is sometimes provided by
Nature, in the splitting of the hard envelope which allows the
interior to dilate; and this has been imitated by splitting the
outside of a Palm with a hatchet, when its vigor was restored,
The same cause which limits the age of endogens prevents
them from being injured like exogens, by ligatures around their
stems. If a cord be tied tightly around the trunk of a young
cherry tree, it will prevent the sap from descending to the
roots, and a protuberance will be formed above the cord, which
will increase by the superfluity of nourishment afforded it, so
as to bury the ligature beneath it The same effect is pro-
duced by the embrace of several kinds of climbing plants,
though as they generally wind in a spiral direction, the descent
of the sap is not so completely prevented, but the woody mat-
ter accumulates above the whole line of the spiral, so that
when the creeper is removed, a deep indentation is seen pass-
ing round the branch or stem from one end to the other. This
never takes place in endogens.

The twining stems alluded to appear to have a peculiar ten-
dency to turn to one side, which constantly operates in con-
nexion with the general tendency of all stems to grow upright.

- The direction of this turning tendency is usually contrary to
that in which sun appears to move, but sometimes the
- game with it. The common direction may be observed in
the case of most plants of the Pea tribe, the Convolvulus, and

Vegetable Physiology. 149

ee EP aEEEENEEPEEPEEPaEEEEEPEPEEeee
the Passion Flower, and the exception in that of the Hop.
There is, however, in almost all flowering plants, some tenden-
cy to a spiral growth, and we shall find when treating of
leaves, that their regular arrangement on the branches is in a
spiral line. In many trees the bark, when stripped off, will
follow a spiral direction, and spiral fissures are seen in many
kinds of wood, after the bark is removed.

The stems already described have been solid, but both Exo-

ns and Endogens often have hollow stems; as among the
former, such as those of the Angelica and Hemlock, and
among the latter, those of the grasses. In these cases the
hollowness is due to the expansion of the outer portion faster
than the interior. The young stem is not hollow, and it is a
beautiful instance of mechanical contrivance, that in such
rapidly growing plants, which are to become independent of
support from others, the limited quantity of hard tissue which
they form should be disposed at such a distance from the cen-
tre as to give the greatest strength with the least expenditure
of material. In hollow stemmed Endogens, as the Bamboo,
and Sugar Cane, certain divisions of the stem are seen, which
are called nodes,or knots. When the remainder is hollow, the
stem is always solid here, and the partition becomes very
firm from the interlacing of fibres from all sides ; and when, as
inthe Sugar Cane, it is filled up with soft tissue, the knot is
still solid. The space from one knot to another is termed the
internode, and from each of these divisions leaf buds gener-
ally spring.

Some peculiarly modified stems are often confounded with
roots) Such are what are usually called bulbous roots, as
those of the Onion and Lily, which are in reality underground
stems. The base of the bulb is the real division between the
stem and the root, and the fibres proceeding downwards from
' this are the roots themselves. The scales of such a bulb are
really but leaves, altered from their usual character, and at
the base of each scale is a little bud, placed in just the same
relation with the scale as the buds to the leaves on the higher
portiens of the stem. In this case, then, the stem is in a con-
tracted state, the internodes not being developed, and the -
leaves and buds of several nodes arising close together. Other

150 Vegetable Physiology.

stems sometimes creep beneath the ground or along its surface,
producing buds which become new stems, or branches. Of this _
kind is the rhizoma, instances of which may be seen in the go.
called roots of the Iris, the Solomon’s Seal, and many kinds
of Ferns, and in the part of the Ginger plant which is eatep
as asweetmeat. Therunners of the Strawberry are also stems,
which send down roots, and shoot forth buds at intervals,
Several kinds of grass, possessing similar creeping stems, ren.
der themselves a dreadful nuisance to the cultivator, who finds
it utterly impossible to exterminate them, since each node,
having buds and roots, becomes a new plant.

One of the most distorted forms of the stem is that observed
in the Potato. The tuber of this plant is evidently a form of
the stem, as is shown by its power of producing buds at the
points, called the eyes. When, therefore, the tuber is divided
into pieces, each one of which has an eye, from which, when
placed in the earth, a young plant will spring, the same
method of propagation is adopted as that used in regard to
the Sugar Cane, whose stem is divided into its internodes,
each of which is planted separately. The nature of the
potato is also well shown by an accidental case, (an engra-
ving representing which is given by Dr. Gray,) in which some
of the buds and branches above ground showed a strong ten-
dency to develope in the form of tubers, The tubers of the
artichoke are of the same nature. There are other subterra-
nean modifications of the stem, such as the Cormus, a solid
bulb, like that of the Colchicum, and the curious bulblets of some
species of Lily and Onion, which grow in the axils of the
leaves, or flowers, and spontaneously drop off to the ground,
where they take root and form separate plants.

Buds and roots may spring not only from those parts of the
stem which grow beneath or on the ground. Many trees exist
whose branches naturally hang downwards, and_ reaching the -
ground, give rise toa new set of root, and becomes secondary
stems. In this way are formed the celebrated Banyan trees
(Ficus indica) of the East Indies, one individual of which some-
times forms a small forest. One of these possessed three hun-
_ dred. and fifty principal trunks, and more than three thousand
smaller ones, each of which was casting out new branches, and

Vegetable Physiology. 151

hanging roots, to form future trunks. The space which
it covered Was so large that it was estimated that seven
thousand persons might find room beneath its shade. Milton
has mentioned this remarkable tree in the following lines:

«The fig tree; not that kind for fruit renowned ;
But such as at this day to Indians known,
In Malabar or Deccan, spreads her arms,
Branching so broad and long, that in the ground
The bending twigs take root, and daughters grow
About the mother tree, a pillared shade,
High over arched, with echoing walks between.”

The Tree Ferns of tropical countries are the only flowerless
plants which form true woody trunks. The stems of these
are sometimes hollow, and sometimes contain a kind of pith.
Their mode of growth differs from that of either Exogens or
Endogens. When cut across, the stem is seen to consist of a
number of hard woody plates, adhering rather loosely together,
and these are found to be either continuations of the flat-
tened footstalks of the leaves which crown the summit, or the
remains of those which have dropped off. Each year the
leaves fall off, and are replaced by a new set, formed above,
go that the stem goes on increasing in length, but very little
indiameter. It is generally the case in these and other eryp-
togamia, that the portions first produced undergo little change,
and hence such plants have received the name of Acrogens,
which signifies growth by the point, or by addition to the ex-
tremities alone.

162 The Herbarium.

Re ne aa a a aa IES aE RR a

THE HERBARIUM.

As the season has commenced forthe enjoyment of the mogt
delightful branch of botanical study, that of the collection o¢
plants for preservation, with all its accompanying pleasures of
free air, fine scenery, and the promotion of health, some direc.
tions in that behalf will no doubt be acceptable. To a quiet
and contented mind there is no more pleasant and desirable
recreation than that of roving the fields in search of plants,
seeking them out in their own fair homes, and studying the
structure of their delicate parts. It is a natural feeling
which prompts the wish to collect and preserve what has af.
forded so much pleasure, and many a tender thought, many a
dear recollection, many a loved scene, is suggested to the mind
by the withered flowers which so delighted us when they were
blooming and fresh. A

The following brief directions for the examination, the col-
lection, and the preservation of plants, are compiled from good
sources, and contain some of the suggestions of experience.

For the examination and analysis of plants, a good magni-
fier is necessary, in order correctly to observe the more minute
parts, such as the stamens, pistil and seeds. A very excellent
single lens, put up in a compact and portable form, with proper
conveniences, may be obtained at a very moderate price at
Mr. Pike’s, Optician, in Broadway. One of these will be found
to magnify sufficiently for ordinary purposes, and should be
carried in the pocket on all Botanical excursions. There are
many curious flowers, which are so delicate as to wither ina
very short time after they are gathered, and to examine these
properly, the magnifier should be always at hand. The fresh-
er, and more fully in blossom, the better is always a flower
for such examination. It would be superfluous to enlarge
upon the benefit to the botanist of the analysis and examination
of the objects of his study. Without this all reading is of
little avail, and more can be learned from correct observations
upon the plant itself, even when it is dried, than by a thousand
printed descriptions. During the flowering months, says that

The Herbarwum. 158

i
excellent New England botanist, Mr. Wood, the learner will
often in his walks meet with plants in blossom, with which he
is yet unacquainted, and he who is duly interested in his pur-
suit, Will by no means fail to seize and analyze each spec-
imen while the short hour of its bloong may last, and to store
hig memory with the knowledge of its names, habits and uses.
Thus in a few seasons, or even in one, he will have grown fa-
miliar with nearly or quite every species in his vicinity.
The student, then, should devote particular attention to collect-
ing and preserving his plants so that he may at his leisure
study their characters fully, compare them with each other, and
arrange them correctly. To form such a collection, or Her-
barium, the following apparatus is necessary. A tin box made

ina portable form, say twenty or twenty-four inches long, by
furor five in depth, with a close fitting cover. In this the
plants are to be placed when first gathered, without bruis-
ing or breaking them. As much of the plant as possible, in-
cluding, in the smaller herbaceous plants, a portion of the roots,
should be taken, and of the larger species, entire flowers, and
leaves, with the shoot from which they spring. If necessary,
they may be kept in the tin box for several days. Nexta
press of some kind should be provided. For this purpose two
thin boards about 12 by 18 inches, connected by hinges, are prop-
er, or even the covers of a large book may be sufficient. Next,
afew quires of printing paper, the smoother and more porous
the better, should be provided. Between several thicknesses
of this paper, the specimens should be placed in such a man

ner as to preserve as much as possible their natural form and
appearance. This often requires some care in spreading out
the leaves and arranging the flowers. The whole is then put
into the press, or between the covers of the book, and subjected
toa proper degree of pressure. This is effected by fitting the
press with a screw, or more simply, and as well, by laying on
weights, always taking care not to make the compression so
great as to crush the plants. Some collectors recommend
that they should not be meddled with, after this is done, until
they are quite dry, but we have found the best plan to be, to
expose them to the air daily for a short time, so as to allow the
moisture to evaporate, until they are quite dry. By the other

164 The Herbarium.

SS
plan, succulent plants will often become mouldy. When they
are perfectly dry, the next object is to arrange them Properly,
To do this, each one, or perhaps more, if small enough, and
belonging to the same genus, should be fastened to a half sheet
of good white paper, by loops of paper, or by stitching them down
witha needle and fine thread. The ends of the leaves, or ay
thin partwhich will not lie flat without, may be touched with a’
little glueor gum Arabic, ‘The name of the species should }p
written near the specimen, with any remarks as to its peculiar).
ties, the place where, and time when it was gathered, or some
other interesting circumstances connected with it. Let all the
specimens of the same genus, be then enclosed in a sheet of
different colored paper, with the generic name, and the names
of all the species collected, written on the outside. The gene.
ra should then be arranged in their proper orders, (this gy
poses that the Natural arrangement is the one adopted.) those of
each order being wrapped in a larger sheet, on which should
be written the names of the order and of the genera. he
orders may then be laid on the shelves of a cabinet, or in any
other proper place. ‘The collector should also take care to pro-
tect his specimens from the’ attacks of insects, and for this
purpose, each one should be washed with a solution of cam.
phor, or a piece or two of camphor gum, or sponge mois
tened with oil of turpentine, be placed among them. Large
seeds or fruit, sections or branches of wood, and other such
articles, which are too bulky to be pressed between paper, may
be preserved separately on a shelf.

April and May Flowers. 155
ee Oe een ee

APRIL AND MAY FLOWERS.

In a preceding article, we have given some brief directions
as to the best method of preserving specimens of plants. Of
the importance to the botanist of collecting and forming into a
herbarium the objects of his study, it is superfluous to speak. A
student will learn more in a few botanical excursions rightly
prosecuted, than by reading a thousand pages. He should
make it a rule never to allow a single plant he meets with to
escape the process of dissection and examination. “It may be
asserted confidently,” says an experienced teacher, “that there
is not a botanist in the world, and there never can be one, who
" hasnot analyzed and prepared with his own hand, at least three
hundred species of growing plants.” For this purpose the pro-
ductions of unassisted nature are far more proper than the
often distorted monsters of the green-house and garden. Let
the student, then, betake himself to the green fields, to the
solemn woods, to the banks of brooks, to the dells of mountains,
where he can find, in their unsophisticated beauty, the favor-
ites of the sun and the air. And ever, as in some:shady glade,
with the fresh spring wind blowing cool on his brow, weary
with walking, he seats himself to examine and admire the
treasures he has been collecting, let their varied shapes, the
harmony of their tints, the wonderful formation of their minutest
parts, suggest to him humble thoughts of their divine Author
and his, and fill his soul with admiration, awe and love.

Old Izaak Walton has drawn so charming a sketch of the
feelings produced in a contented heart by contemplation of ru-
ral scenery, that we cannot forbear to quote it entire, since itis
applicable as much to the botanist as the angler. “I sat
down,” says his pupil, “under a willow tree by the water
side, and considered what you had told me of the owner of
that pleasant meadow in which you then left me ; that he had
a plentiful estate, and not a heart to think so; that he had at
this time many lawsuits depending, and that they both damped.
his mirth, and took up so much of his time and thoughts, that
he himself had not leisure to take the sweet content that I, who

156 April and May Flowers.

pretended no title to them, took in his fields; for I eoy] d a
there quietly, and looking on the water, see some fishes sport them.
selves in the silver streams,others leaping at flies of several sha
and colors; looking on the hills, I could behold them SPotted
with woods and groves; looking down the meadows, could
see, here a boy gathering lilies and ladysmocks, and there g
girl cropping culverkeys and cowslips, all to make garlands
suitable to this present month of May. I say, as I thus Sat,
joying in my own happy condition, and pitying this POOr rich
man that owned this and many other pleasant groves and
meadows about me, I did thankfully remember what my Savior
said, that the meek possess the earth; or rather, they enj

' what the others possess and enjoy not, for anglers (botanists
and meek, quiet-spirited men are free from those high, those ,
restless thoughts, which corrode the sweets of life. There
came also into my mind at that time, certain verses in Praise
of a mean estate and an humble mind. They were written b
Phineas Fletcher, in which you shall see the picture of this
good man’s mind; and I wish mine to be like it.

‘ This certain life, that never can deceive him,
So full of thousand sweets and rich content;
The smooth leaved beeches in the field receive him,
With coolest shade, till noontide’s heat be spent;
His life is neither tossed in boisterous seas,
Or the vexatious world, or lost in slothful ease :
Pleased and full blest he lives, when he his God can please.’”

_ Among the more common wild flowers of April and May,
are several of the Ranunculacee. Everybody knows the
Butter Cup, Ranunculus acris, which begins to flower in May,
and soon covers whole fields with the brilliant yellow of ity _
petals. Several other species flower about the same time, and _
some continue in flower till July and August. The Meadow
Rue, Thalictrum dioicum, is also a May flower, and the Ane
mone, nemorosa, or wind-flower, is one of the earliest in April,
except the Hepatica triloba, which is earlier than all. Theso
two last are to be found 6n the sunny sides of hills, near old
woods. Who that has pursued the “windings bright and
mazy like the snake” of a trout stream in May, albeit intent
on the capture of its speckled inhabitants, and ever and anon

°
April and May Flowers. 157
- a

pookings raising, playing, reeling in, and placing in his pannier
hn goodly fish, without waiting a moment before a new cast
f his flies, to pluck and admire the dark green leaves and
: rge pright flowers of the Marsh Marigold!—This Caltha
ustris, (We give its botanical name for the benefit of the stu-
dent, not of the aforesaid angler) is indeed one of the hand-
gomest of our early flowering plants, and is in its way useful
too for“ greens’ —every yankee, though personally a stranger
to the color, knows what they mean. Towards the middle and
last of the month, the red and white Baneberries, Actea rubra
and alba, are found in the woods, and earlier in the month, or
even in April, the Blood-root, Sanguinaria Canadensis, with
ts reniform leaves and curious white flowers. Let us not forget
to mention the wild Columbine, Aquilegia Canadensis, which in
April adorns dry hills and rocks with its delicate flowers, far
more delicate than any pet of the garden, nor those comical look-
ing Aracez, the Skunk Cabbage, Pothos fetida, or Symplocar-
, or Ictodes, (for by all these names is it known to botanists)
which well deserves its common appellation, with its purple
spathe drawn like a cowl over and around its spadix; the
Orontium, or Golden Club, with its clavate spike of yellow
fowers, 80 curiously constructed, and the Arum itself, with its
trifoliate leaves, hood-shaped spathe, and acrid roots, which
we have wickedly, (for which sin of our youth may we be
pardoned,) offered to some one of our school fellows, less ac-
quainted with its properties than ourselves, as a rare and
delicious morsel. “Young reader, do not imitate this injudicious
trick. ‘These last are found in wet places, in low ground, by
the sides of brooks and ponds. Of the Cruciferze, only a few
flower early, such as the Draba, or Whitlow Grass, the Bar-
barea, or Winter Cress, and the Sisymbrium, or Flax Weed—
all, insignificant plants. In the open fields, spring up more
than one species of the Violet, and open their blue or white
petals to the first warm rays of the vernal sun. Nobody,
whether a botanist or not, can mistake a violet for any thing
else. In going through some old, open, moist wood, near the
base of a rock, the eye of the rambler is often caught at this.
season by a cluster of delicate white flowers, veined with pur-
ple, terminating a slender stalk about half a foot high, with

*

158 April and May Flowers.

a single pair of opposite leaves. This is the Claytonia, one of
the neatest of early flowers. The little Houstonia, or Hedyotis
coeulea, now covers large patches of damp fields with the pale
blue tint of its petals, varied, here and there, with a cluster of,
the more showy Dandelion. In dry, stony places, on high
banks, from beneath a sheltering rock, peep out the smal]
white flowers of the Early Saxifrage, while on the green
slopes, the beautiful little Dog’s tooth Violet, most delicate of
lilies, Erythronium Americanum, shoots up from its bulbous
root its spotted leaves, and drooping yellow corollas, The
Trilliums, conspicuous for their whorls of broad green leaves,
and nodding white flowers, are budding, though they can
hardly be said to be fully blossomed till June. That low,
small trailer, with woody stem and hairy evergreen leaves,
and clusters of fragrant flowers, white, or shaded with pink or
purple, is the Epigaea repens, sometimes called Ground
Laurel. A more rare plant than any of these, is the Ma
Apple, Podophyllum peltatum. It has two peltate leaves, from
the fork of which, rises a single peduncle, bearing a white droo
ing flower, the calyx of which, falls off as the petals expand,
succeeded by an eatable fruit about as large as a plum. The
root of the May apple is used as a cathartic, in place of Jalap,
_ Of trees and shrubs, a great number produce their flowers
in April and May. Among these are various species of the
Elm, the Willow, the Birch, the Alder, the Ash, the Hazel, the
Poplar, the Maple, and the Cherry. These will be readily
recognised without description. One of the most conspicuous —
trees at this season, is the Shad Berry tree, Amelanchier Cana-
densis, or Mespilus arborea, whose large racemes of white
flowers, make it remarkable at a great distance. The thickets
too are fragrant, a little later, with that beautiful and well
known shrub, the Wild Honeysuckle, or Swamp Pink, Rhodo-
dendron nudiflorum.

Our limits will not allow a farther extension of this subject
_ at present, and we conclude by assuring the student that he
will have learned more than he can ever do from reading what
we write, if during this month, he shall have collected, exam-
ined, properly preserved, arranged and labelled, specimens of
the species here mentioned. .

On Window Gardening. 159

ON WINDOW GARDENING.

There are no plants which are looked upon with more in-
terest, OF attended to with more care, than those which are cul-
fivated in the rooms of dwelling houses; and yet from our fair
window gardeners imagining that there is something very dif
ficult in the management of these plants, or from not properly
understanding what that should be, they often fail in accom-
plishing what their labor and anxiety most richly merit. Now, °
there is in reality no great secret in the treatment of window

lants. It must be a general principle in their cultivation, to
give them all the light possible in winter, by placing them close
to the window, and in the summer months in a sheltered situa-
tion out of doors. Although this situation is best in summer,
yetin some places it may not be convenient, and in others it
may be desirable to have them on the outside of the window,
or on a balcony erected there for that purpose, where they will

w and flower under the eye, and perfume the air of the —
room when the window is opened on a summer evening. In
thiscase it is necessary to have some protection from the burn-
ing heat of the mid-day sun, which is very much increased by
the reflection of the rays from the wall of the house. Every

one will readily invent something to answer this purpose ; an

awning, for example, or merely moving the plants to the in-
side of the window. Of course these remarks apply only to

the summer season, when the sun’s rays are very hot in the

middle of the day, and to windows with a southern aspect.
High winds are very injurious to window plants, and should
be guarded against, and for this reason windows on the ground
or second floor are best adapted to their cultivation.

Plants in a natural state send their roots in every direction
in search of moisture and food. In this respect they differ
from those grown in rooms, confined to pots, and supplied with
water by artificial means. The latter are more liable than the
former to suffer from dryness in summer, having fewer mouths
to absorb the moisture evaporated from the leaves ; and more
liable to be injured by excess of wet in winter, owing to the

£60 On Window Gardening.

drainage of the pots getting choked. It is impossible to gay’
how often, and how much water should be given, because
_this depends upon the plant itself, its state of health, and the
season. Asa general rule, however, they should never be Wa.
tered until the soil at the surface of the pot will readily crum.
ble between the finger and thumb, and when in this State, as
much water should be given as the soil will receive ; in other
words, never water till the plants are dry; and then give plenty
of it. Rain water is by far the best, and should always be
used in preference to'that obtained from springs. In Winter
very little water is required, and it should always be Cautiously
given, because the air is more moist, and the light not so ine
tense, and therefore less demand. is made upon the roots by.
the leaves. & ae

When the plants are inside the room, some contrivance is ne.
eessary to prevent the water from running through the pots and
wetting the floor, and this is most simply done by placing the
pot in a flat pan, which receives any superfluous water, which
is absorbed by the roots when the soil gets dry. Pouring the
water into these pans instead of on the soil, is not to be re
commended. Watering over the leaves is of the utmost im-
portance to the health of window plants, exposed as they are
to dust, which forms a crust upon them and prevents the ac
tion of the pores. This operation should be performed every
day in summer, in the afternoon, when the sun does not shine
on the plants.

Setnmilla MMALLILGU POOH, (Dark Fed Potentilla,)

Achermans Ti th.

4 The Cinquefoil. 161
eS eee eisai setae SsuD
¥ |

POTENTILLA—THE CINQUEFOIL.

Natural Order, Rosacez. Linnean System, Tcosandria, Polygynia. Generic
Distinctions : Calyx, four to five cleft, with an equal number of alternate
exterior segments ; petals, four to five, obcordate ; stamens, numerous ;

glaments, slender ; ovaries, collected into a head, seated on a small,

dry receptable.
| P. atrosanguined. Stem, decumbent; leaves, ternate; leaflets, obovate,
deeply serrated, clothed with white down beneath; petals obcordate,
jonger than the calyx.— Plate 23.

- porentitia is derived from the Latin, potentia, power,
the plants belonging to this genus having been supposed to
sess powerful medicinal properties. Like many other
hotanical names, however, it is misapplied here, since none of
the species have been found to pessess any healing principle.

- ‘The genus contains several very pretty and ornamental spe-
cies, some of which are commonly cultivated, and others are
well known wild plants. On examining the flowers of the
~ Potentilla, they will be found to bear a striking resemblance to
those of the Strawberry, but the fruit will always distinguish
the two genera; that of the Strawberry being juicy, highly
flavored and delicious, while the Potentilla only bears a clus-
terof dry, tasteless seed vessels. All the species possess
compound leaves. The common name, Cinquefoil, is from
the French, and signifies five leaved; and a very common
New England species, which flowers early in Spring, P. Cana-
densis, is called Five-Finger, for the same reason. Another na- —
tive species, P. argentea, or Silvery Five-Finger, is curious
on account of the silvery appearance of the down beneath
its leaves, which is also characteristic of P. anserina, Silver-
Weed, or Goose-Grass, one of the handsomest American
species. There are more than thirty species of Potentilla
belonging to North America, of which seven or eight grow in
the Eastern States. The color of their petals is generally

yellow.

“The species represented in our plate, is one of the most

162 The Larkspur.

beautiful of the cultivated exotics. It is a native of Nepal
whence it was introduced into England about twenty-five years
ago. Itisa hardy plant, growing in any common garden soil,
and producing its large, splendid dark crimson flowers from the

ends of its decumbent shoots.

DELPHINIUM—THE LARKSPUR.

Natural Order, Ranunculacee. Linnean System, Polyandria, Trigynia,
Generic Distinctions ; Calyx, petal-like, irregular, of five colored sepals,
the upper one spurred; corolla, five petalled, irregular, the two Upper
petals drawn out into a tubular, nectariferous spur, enclosed in the spur of
the calyx.

D. grandiflorum. Leaves, palmately many-parted into linear lobes ; pedicels,
longer than the bracts; petals, shorter than the calyx; racemes, spread.
ing, few-flowered, diverging.—Plate 24.

Tue Greek word delphin is the original of, and means the
same as our word dolphin, and from it is derived the name of
this genus, on account of a fancied resemblance betwen the
shape of the flower, with its curved and projecting spur, and
that of the dolphin. From another supposed likeness between
the same peculiar appendage and the foot of a bird, is taken _
also the common name, Larkspur. This is a well known
genus of annual and perennial plants, some of which are
‘among the most generally and easily cultivated garden flow-
ers. They are usually tall and showy, their flowers arranged
in a long terminal raceme, and their leaves are commonly
divided into numerous lobes. Their flowers are never yellow,
but always either blue, red, or purple, or some shade of these
colors mixed with white. Of the garden varieties, which are
very numerous, are several of the kind called the Bee Lark-
spur, “which look as if the insect from which they take their
name were glued to their inside,” Rocket Larkspurs, and Sibe-
rian Larkspurs. The genusis so large that it has been divided —

_into sections, two of which contain only annual plants, and
have only one petal, drawn out into a tail, within the spur of

*

Pare ee we

oP ORS ee Oe ee a ee 1 OF Se ep ee ae

Saleh

The Larkspur. 163

OE
the calyx; and the other sections, which contain no annuals,
have the appendages of two petals in the spur. In one of the
latter, the species are all perennials, and the petals are bearded.
This section is divided into the Siberian, and Bee Larkspurs.
The other section consists of biennials, whose: petals are not
bearded, and whose carpels are ventricose. The leaves of all
the Larkspurs are poisonous, and it is said that no insect will
touch them. Only two or three species are natives of this
country, one of which, D. exaltatum, an inhabitant of the mid-
dle, and rarely of the Northern United States, is a fine plant,
with brilliant blue flowers.

Various kinds of the species in the plate are cultivated in gar
dens, and they have the advantage of flowering all summer.
D. grandiflorum was introduced into England, and thence into
this country, from Siberia, in 1816. The flowers are larger —
than those of any other species, and when made double by ~
cultivation, they form one of the most splendid objects in a
border. The sepals are of a most intense blue, spotted with
red, the outer spur being greenish. T'wo of the petals are °
very small, upright, and fleshy; the two others are nearly
round, with an oblique claw, having a small hook at the base,
near which is a slightly bearded yellow spot. The intense

metallic hue of the flower is finely contrasted with these golden

yellow spots. The varieties are all hardy, and are easily
propagated by seeds or divisions of the root. |
The flower of the Larkspur and that of the Ranunculus

would seem to be so widely different as to cause their position

in the same Natural Order a matter of surprise, which may be
increased by contrasting the colors of the two. Our wild
Ranunculus has always yellow flowers, the Larkspur never.
“But,” says Lindley, “ setting aside this, which is of no bo-
tanical importance whatever, let us look at the calyx of the
Larkspur. It is composed of five leaves, or sepals, the upper-
most of which has a horn arising out of its back ; so is that of
the Ranunculus, excepting the horn. It has four petals, of
which two have long tails, hidden within the horn of the

4 sepal. Ranunculus has nothing of this, but five common pet-
_ als instead. The Larkspur has a great many stamens ari-
_ sing from below the carpels: this is the first essential character

PL. 24.

I»:

x2;

arge.tlowered Larkspur)

grarliflcriim dt

wtrhermans Lith.

164 The Rantnculus, or Crowfoot.

of Ranunculus; it has also several carpels, (two or three,) which
are not grown together; and this is the second essential charac.
ter of Ranunculus, so that this plant has, in reality, no egsep.
tial character by which it can be distinguished from the
Crowfoot tribe.” The Larkspur further agrees with nearly al]
Ranunculacee in the poisonous properties of its juice.

RANUNCULUS—THE RANUNCULUS, or CROWEOOT,

Natural Order, Ranunculacee. Linnean System, Polyandria, Polygynia,
Generic Distinctions: Calyx of five deciduous sepals ; petals, five, rarely
eight or ten, with a nectariferous pore at the inside of the base ; stamens,
numerous ; seed vessels, numerous, ovate, crowded.

R. gramineus. Leaves, lanceolate, or linear, quite entire ; stem, erect,
quite smooth, branching ; scales of the petals, tubular; root, fascicled.—
Plate 25, Fig. 1.

R. amplezicaulis. Leaves, ovate, acuminate, clasping the stem; stem,
many-flowered; root, fascicled.— Plate 25, Fig. 2.

R. aconitifolius. Leaves. palmate, three or five parted; stem, branched,
many-flowered ; calyx, smooth.—Plate 25, Fig. 3.

Tue plants belonging to this genus generally grow in wet,
marshy situations, and hence the name, Ranunculus, derived
from the Latin, rana, a frog, which animal lives in such places.
This is a large genus, comprising several very common wild
plants, and numerous garden flowers. The common name of
some of the species, Crowfoot, is taken from the resemblance
in shape of the divided leaves to a bird’s foot, and the other as
common appellation, Buttercup, from the rich golden yellow of
the petals. The flowers, when not made double by cultivation,
consist of five petals, numerous stamens, and carpels, each of
which has a short, beaked stigma, without a style, all collected
in a roundish head, on the receptacle.

The three species figured in our plate are among the prettiest _
of the genus. R. gramineus, is a native of many parts of —
Europe, and is particularly distinguished by its grass-like —
leaves and large flowers. . amplexicaulis, comes from the —

The Ranunculus, or Crowfoot. 165

s, and is remarkable for its undivided glaucous leaves,
4 which clasp the stem, and its white flowers, which have some-
- neg a tinge of pink or purple. &. aconztzfolius, came originally
os the middle of Europe, and a variety of it, with double
| aes as represented in the plate, is very commonly cultiva-
| ted a8 garden flower, under the name of the Fair Maid of
| France, or White Batchelor’s Buttons. It is hardy and easy
of culture. These species we have figured in preference to
) the common native species, since the latter are so well known
qs to make their appearance familiar to every one. Equally
familiar is the very common cultivated species, R. Asiaticus,
so many varieties of which are known to the lover of floricul-
wre. The varieties are indeed innumerable, and scarcely any
two plants raised from the seed will be alike. The following
directions for cultivating the garden Ranunculus, in our climate,
are given by Mr. Eley, a most experienced and skilful florist,
of Hartford, Connecticut.
As this plant is rather more tender than the Anemone, and
mote liable to be killed by the frost and wet in this climate,
~“‘gnless it is well protected, the best way to secure a show of
flowers, is to prepare a bed in the fall, (say October,) and plant
- the roots in the spring. Having selected the bed intended for
them, spread it two or three inches thick with decayed cow
manure, and dig it in pretty deep, laying the soil up in a ridge
inthe centre, to carry off the water. Early in April, level
~ down the bed, and spread over a thin coat of sandy loam;
mark with a rod some lines across the bed, six inches apart,
place the roots carefully in the rows, with the crowns upwards,
four or six inches apart, and lay a portion of sand round and
upon each root ; then cover them over with about two inches
of the loam.
Never select ‘the largest roots to plant in a flower-bed, for
E they generally divide into offsets, and seldom flower well; but
choose those of the middle size, with the crown high and
- firm to the touch. It is indispensable that the roots never be
allowed to come in contact with the manure or decaying vege-
table substance, as they will become more or less injured.
- When the leaves appear above ground, choose a dry day, and
"press the soil firmly about the roots with the hand, as if the

e

% iy

FL, 25 ¢

wrttittttd. (Grase.leaved Ranunculus.)
fexciaules. (Stem cdasping Ranunculus. }

accnidifeleus . (almate. leaved Ranunculus)

: . Manuncwles

166 The Ranunculus, or Crowfoot.

Se le
weather proves dry, and the crowns of the roots are eXposed,

they will suffer material injury. In dry weather, they require
watering, and this must be continued, if necessary, unti] they
are in fall bloom. .
In situations where the sun has great power, they should he _
shaded, or the leaves will become yellow, and few flowers |
:

will be produced. They should also be shaded while jy
flower, or they willsoon fade. This shading may be effecteg —
either with an awning, or by bending hoops across the bed, ang _
covering them with mats, always taking care to allowa cy. —
rent of air to pass underneath. As soon as they have done
flowering, and the leaves have died away, take up the roots, _
clean them, dry them on a tray or in an airy chamber, not ex |
posed to the sun, and when dry, place them in a drawer ti] |
the season for planting again arrives. If protected from frogt |
or damp, the roots will keep for two years. They will flower _

at various seasons, according to the time of planting. Those —
set out in April, will flower in July, and those planted in May —
and June, will flower in August and September. 7,

The Ranunculus also flowers well in pots in the green-house

or room window. In August, fill some flower pots with rich
sandy loam, nearly even with the rim ; give each pot a rap
on the bottom, to settle the soil, but do not press it down; level
the surface, and lay on it a little sand; then select the roots,
and place them in a circle around the pot, about three or four —
inches apart, and put one in the middle; press them gently —
down with the hand, and lay a little more sand over them,
filling the pot level with the rim with soil, and give thema
gentle watering; then place the pots in a sheltered situation,
until the appearance of frost, after which remove them to the |
green-liouse or room window. Supply the plants with water
as they require it, and they will soon flower. Other plantings —
may be made monthly, during the winter, which will flower in —
succession. Roots that have been kept out of the ground one |
year, will be best for this purpose, as they will grow much —
quicker than those which were taken up the last season. The
Ranunculus is increased by separating the tienes from the
root, and by seeds from new varieties. #::
A very neat, smooth species, R. abortivus, not uncommon in

a

Fer. ee

(Sand Pink.)

S

LY

‘ee

me aaallalit . (Hooded Vioiet.)

Ca

Achermans Lith.

a

The Violet. 167

—————————— oe SR eR:

woods in New England, is well worth the attention of
the cultivator, as we are assured that with proper management
itmay be rendered a very ornamental plant. Indeed, there
are several other native species which would well repay the
care of cultivation, and would doubtless receive attention, if,
‘nstead of being native productions, they were only brought
from India or New Holland.

VIOLA—THE VIOLET.

Natural Order, Violacee. Linnean System, Pentandria, Monogynia. Gen-
erie Distinctions :—sepals five, unequal, auricular at the base; petals five,
irregular, the upper one spurred at the base; anthers connate, the lobes di-
verging; capsule one celled, three valved.

J. cucullata.—Very smooth; leaves cordate, cucullate at the base, acute,
- erenate ; peduncles longer than the petioles; stipules linear; inferior and
lateral petals, bearded.—Plate 26. Fig. 2.

The origin of the word viola, given by the Latins to this ge-
nus, is not satisfactorily explained The Greeks called it zon,
which is supposed to be derived from Io, a mistress of Jupiter,
who was transformed into a cow, for whose food the Violet
was fabled to have been created; and it is conjectured that
the Romans, adopting the Greek story, made viola from vitula,
ayoung cow. Whatever may be the derivation of its name,
ny plants have been more celebrated in song and story, than
those of this beautiful genus.

Violets dim,
But sweeter than the lids of Juno’s eyes,
Or Cytherea’s breath,—

have always been the poet’s flowers, and truly their delicacy,
- beauty, and perfume, render them worthy of all that has been
written and sung in their praise. The Sweet Violet, V. odor-
- ata, and the Pansy or Heartsease, V. tricolor, with their numer-
_ ous varieties, have a place in every flower garden, from the
~ conservatory of the prince, to the little patch of the peasant.
- The Sweet Violet, which is doubtless the species described by

168 The Violet.

the ancients, is very widely diffused over the Eastern Conti.
nent, being found in the British Islands, all over Europe, and
extending even through Asia to China and Japan, and to some
degree naturalized in America. The most highly prized varie
eties are the Russian and the Neapolitan. The latter are pale
blue, and very fragrant, and may be made to flower during the
whole winter. The other species, or Pansy, also receives the
attention of florists, and is made to produce very large ang
beautiful flowers, We are again indebted to Mr. Eley for hig
method of cultivating this plant. The seed, he says, should be
sown in spring, or as soon as it is gathered from the plant in
summer. In April or May, make the bed in which it is intendeq
to sow the seed. It should be of rich soil, and in a shady sit.
uation. Lay just as much soil over the seed as will cover it,
and gently pat it down, and, if the weather is dry, water the
bed a little. In ten days or a fortnight the plants will be up,
and when they are an inch or two high, transplant them with
little balls of earth at their roots, into beds, placing them ip
rows four inches apart every way ; and as this is the bed ip
which they are intended to flower, always select a moist sity.
ation, and keep them free from weeds. If any of the plants
have remarkably fine flowers, they may be increased by layers
or by dividing the roots. Layering should be done in May or
September, and is performed by making a slight incision in the
stem at a joint, and pegging it down about an inch in the soil,
They can be taken up and divided at any time in Summer,
except in hot, dry weather, and a moist, cloudy day should be
chosen for the-purpose. To ensure a fine show, it is necessary
to renew the plants by seed, layering, or dividing the roots
every year, as old plants invariably produce small flowers.
The species of which we have given a portrait is one which
every one will recognise as our most common blue Violet. In
almost every moist, grassy field, it is one of the earliest spring
flowers. In New England we have at least twelve well dis-
tinguished species, several of which are worthy of mention.
One, particularly distinct from all others, is the Pedate Violet,
V. pedata. Contrary to the usual habit of the genus, it grows
in dry, sandy soils. _Its flowers are very large, and of a pale
blue color, and its root stalk is very curious, appearing as if

The Pink. 169

LR ELTA EON ioe EGS

e lower part were bitten off, and furnishing an excellent ex-
ample of the premorse root. The leaves are perfectly pedate,
having from five to nine lobes. Another large and showy
gpecies, with yellow flowers, is V. pubescens ; and V. Canadensis,
a tall violet, with white or light blue petals with yellow bases,
is considered one of the most beautiful of the whole genus.
The smallest, most fragrant, and most delicate of our native
species 18 V. blanda, whose sweet white flowers, streaked with

Jender veins of blue, are seen at this season near every brook

4 plants are more changeable in their characters than the
Violets ; all their parts being more or less influenced by acci-
ents of situation, soil and season. In consequence of this
circumstance, considerable confusion has arisen, some botanists
naming as distinct species, what others consider mere varieties.
Indeed, it would be difficult to find two precisely similar
descriptions of a single species. :

THE PINK.

On the same plate with the Violet, we have figured a pretty
and delicate species of Pink, remarkable for its deeply
fringed petals. For the genus Dianthus itself, and another
species, the reader is referred to page 60, in the February No.
of this work. The present species was introduced here, in
order to give an opportunity for some promised directions as to
the cultivation of these favorite plants, and more especially of
the Carnation. | The species from which have sprung the nu-
merous varieties called by the general name of Carnation, is
the Dianthus caryophyllus. This plant is found wild in some
parts of England, growing among old ruins, and in greater
abundance on the south side of the Alps and Pyrenees. It
has been cultivated in most parts of Europe, from time imme-
morial, and has always, been in the greatest favor from its
beauty and fragrance. From Germany and Italy, where it is
cultivated to the greatest extent, are procured some of the best

170 The Pink.

varieties. All the garden carnations are more or less varie
and are divided into three classes, Flakes, Bizarre
Picotees, which altogether contain more than five }

gated,
S$ and

ane ; Uundred
named varieties. Flakes have only a single color, running jp
stripes, quite through the petals, on a white or yellow ground

Bizarres are variegated in irregular stripes or spots, with not
less than two colors on a white or yellow ground. Picotegs
have a white or yellow ground, edged or spotted in fine Spots
with some darker color, and the edges of their petals fringed,
These kinds are again divided by their colors, as scarlet flake,
purple bizarre, &. We are again indebted to Mr. Eley fo,
his very successful method of managing and propagating these
flowers.

Carnations are usually propagated by layers. — These are
shoots buried in the ground so as to forcé them to take root a
a joint, without separating them from the parent plant. hig
operation should be performed as soon as the flowers begin to
fade, or the shoots are sufficiently long, which is generally
about the end of July. A number of pegs, of wood or bone,
about five inches long, with a hooked end, should be provided,
The shoot of which a layer is to be made may have four or five
joints, and the lower leaves next the root ‘are to be stripped
off, up to within two or three joints of the top of the shoot
Next stir up the earth around the plants, and lay on an inch of
fresh soil. Then, with a sharp penknife, the layer should be
cut about half through, about a quarter of an inch below the
second or third joint, on the side next the ground ; then pass
the edge of the knife upwards, splitting the stem through the
centre of the joint, to about one half or three quarters of an
inch above it, and lastly, cut off horizontally the small portion
left below, and connected with the joint, quite close to the
bottom of the joint, taking great care not to injure the joint it
self, as it is from the lower outer circle of the joint that the
root-fibres will spring. After the incision is thus made, the
wounded branch’is to be pressed gently into the soil, so as to
avoid breaking it, and a peg pushed down, so as to bring its
hooked end over the layer, securing it about an inch below
the surface. The upper end of the layer should be raised as
nearly upright as possible, the stem being only covered at the

The Pink. 171

‘int, and none of the leaves being buried: As soon as this
is done, give them a watering, which may be repeated as often
as the weather may render it necessary, and they will be
rooted and ready to pot off in about six weeks. When they
have struck root, or by the end of September, cut them from
the parent plant, with about an inch of the stalk below the in-
cision attached, and plant them in small pots, filled with good
loam, aud a little decayed manure, or leaf mould. When
potted, place them in a sheltered situation, till the middle of
October, at which time they should be removed into the house
or frame for the winter.
Where a quantity of plants are prepared for the garden, the
layers can be planted in boxes, twenty or more in a box, and
be protected by a spare hot-bed frame, placed in the ground, in
a warm situation facing the south. Dig out as much of the earth
from inside the frame as will prevent the plants from touching
the glass, and place the earth dug out around the outside of the
frame as high as the top of it, beating it well down, so as to
exclude the frost. Previous to placing the boxes in the frame,
lay two or three inches of coal ashes on the surface, which
prevents worms from penetrating, and allows the water to drain
away. Put on the glass sash, and shade them from the sun a
few days, until they are recovered from transplanting ; then
begin gradually to give them air, and increase it till dry warm
weather; when the sashes may be taken ‘entirely off. Take
care to close them down again in the evening, and preserve
them at all times from excess of wet, otherwise, mildew will
infest the plants, which should be wiped off when it appears,
orthe diseased plants removed, and all decayed leaves picked
off, and give a little water to those that appear dry. Follow
this mode of treatment till the winter sets’in, then shut the
sash down close, and cover with mats, or straw and boards,
andlet them remain as long as the severe weather lasts ; but
when the weather changes and the days lengthen, give air as
before, till the beginning of April, and a week ‘or two before
finally removing them, give full air, night and day. If it is de-
sired to have them flower in pots, they should be shifted in
March or April, into pots nine inches in diameter, in the fol-
lowing compost: two parts of good,fresh loam, one part de-

172 The Pink.

Ne
cayed manure, and one part of coarse sand, (and if convenient,
leaf mould may be used,) mixed well together; give them a
little water, and as soon as frost is over, plunge the pots in the
ground where they are intended to grow until in flower, the
rims being just level with the surface of the ground. Place a
neat stick in each pot, to which tie up the flower stems as they
advance in growth, and water them in dry weather. Whey,
the buds begin to open, the pots can be lifted and removyeg
where they are wanted to bloom, and if they are placed on g
verandah, or. in some other situation where they are partial}
shaded, the flowers will last much longer, and be finer colored
than if exposed tothe full sun. When the calyx has swelled to
nearly its full size, it is apt to burst and let out the petals on
one side, which destroys the beauty of the flower, and to avoid
this, the calyx should be tied neatly round with a piece of
twine, or a narrow slip of bladder be placed round it, the ends
of which should be lapped over each other, and fastened with
a 3
Seeds are seldom used in propagating carnations, except for
raising new varieties ; but, says the Florist’s Directory, when
they are required, they should be chosen from those flowers
that have not many petals, but their petals should be large,
broad, substantial, and perfectly entire at the edge, and their
colors rich and regularly distributed. Neither layers nor
pipings should be taken from those plants which produce seeds;
and as soon as the petals wither, they should be drawn care.
fully out of the calyx, as the claws are apt to decay and en-
gender mouldiness, which will destroy the seeds. The seeds,
when ripe, should remain in the seed-vessel, and be kept in a
dry room till May, when they should be sown in pots, in light,
rich mould, or carnation compost, and kept in the open air, or
in an airy part of the garden, shaded from the heat of the sun,
till the plants are about three inches high, when they should
be planted out in a bed of good rich mould, about ten or
twelve inches apart, and kept there till they flower, when it
will be seen what are deserving of’ being kept, and what
should be thrown away. No carnations are esteemed that
are not round, and regularly formed, and clear in color. —

Tae oi
ced eee
f. «

| The Natural System of Botany. 173
——— OOo

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

——

NUMBER SIX.

Order—Papaveracem. The Poppy Tribe.

Tis Order contains many plants well known for their pecu-
liar properties, and much cultivated. The insp.ssated juice
of several of the poppies forms the much used, and much
abused drug, opium. The order is nearly related, in some
respects, to Ranunculacee. The leaves are generally deeply
divided, and the stamens are numerous, and arise from under-
neath the carpels. In these points, the resemblance to the

Crowfoot tribe is very strong; but on examining any of the com- ~

mon species of Poppy, the carpels, instead of being separate,
will be found to have grown together into a single ovary; the
styles are wanting, the stigmas are elevated hairy ridges, which
radiate from the centre to the circumference, of the top of the
ovary, forming a kind of star-like crown. On opening the

ovary, a single cell or cavity will be seen, with several little ,

partitions projecting from the sides towards the centre of the
cavity, and covered with a great number of very small ovules,
or young seeds. The calyx of the Poppy has only two sepals,
which completely enclose the bud before it expands, and the
corolla has four petals. These are the usual numbers, but
some of the tribe vary to three sepals and six petals. When
the stem of a Poppy is broken, a thick, milky, turbid juice

exudes, which contains the narcotic principle which gives its -

value to opium. We have seen before that the juice of all the
Crowfoots is clear and watery—so that this is another striking
means of distinguishing the two orders. As the ovary of the
Poppy ripens, the outside becomes very hard and brittle, and
forms a hollow capsule, with a brownish shell, and the seeds
separate from their: attachments, and when shaken rattle in
their case. The shell of the capsule becomes so firm and hard,
that the seeds could not find their way out, unless by some
especial contrivance. The lid, or top of the cavsule, is so

174 The Natural System of Botany.

CA
firmly united to the lower part, that it will not open, and tg
remedy this, there are a number of little valves Which open
between the stigmas, and through these the seeds drop out,
The structure of the Poppy capsule may be understood by con-
ceiving that the several carpels have adhered together, their walls
being flattened against each other, but that the union of these not
being complete, the partitions do not reach the centre. These
partitions, to which the seeds are attached, are called placen-
tas, and in this case they are parietal—that is, they spring from.
the wall of the seed vessel, and not from its centre.

_ The essential characters of this Order are, then—Stamens,
very numerous; Carpels united into one central ovary, witha
single cavity ; Juice, milky. If, now, the reader has procured, .
(as he should always do in studying the Natural Orders,) a
flowering plant of the Ranunculus, and another of the Poppy,
and has examined all the parts as we have described them,
and compared the characteristics of the two together, he wil]
have fixed the difference in his mind, and learned the nature
of two important tribes of plants, so that he will never be in
danger of mistaking the one for the other.

There are several plants belonging to this Order, which dif-
fer considerably from the true Poppy, in the formation of their
seed vessels, aud to save mistakes, it is well to notice one or
two of these. In No. 4, Pl. 16, of this work, is the portrait of
a member of this Tribe, called the Horned Poppy. In this
the fruit ditters from that of the true Poppy; in being very long
and slender, instead of short and globose. The reason of this
is, that in the true Poppy there are a greater number of car-
pels grown together, being just as many as there are stigmas,
while in the Horned Poppy-there are only two carpels. On
opening the fruit, however, it will be found to contain, like the
other, only a single cavity, with parietal placentz.

There is a small plant generally known as Celandine, which
is not uncommon in. this country, growing by road sides, and
under fences, whose yellow flowers are in umbels, and whose
fruit is a long pod very like that of the Horned Poppy. Its
juice is yellow, and is frequently used by school boys, with no
great success, to cure warts. | oa
_ Another curious American member of this Order, is the

The Natural System of Botany, ; 175

Blood-r00t, Sanguinarra Canadensis, a neat early spring flower,
with single large reniform leaf, and a scape bearing a single
ghite flower. Its juice is very dark colored, nearly red, and is
matic and purgative. Its pod is oblong, and acute at each end.

There is a genus, Chrysets, which comes from California
and Oregon, one OF two species of which, under the name of
Fscholtzia, are commonly cultivated in gardens, which presents
4 curious anomaly. ‘The flower, before it expands, is enclosed
ina pointed green sheath, which is pushed up as the petals
pen, and at length falls off. This extinguisher-like organ is
somewhat puzzling at first, but if examined, is found to be the
calyx, the two sepals of which have grown together so firmly
that they will not separate, in the usual manner, to admit of the
exparision of the flower, and since it must be got rid of in some
“ways its attachment to the receptacle is made so loose, that it
gparates all round at that point. Similar instances of the
adhesion of two parts which grow near each other, are not
uncommon in plants, and sometimes prove difficult of explana-
tion.

All the Papaveraceze possess narcotic properties in more or
ess intensity, but these properties are only manifested by
those parts which yield the milky juice. The seeds abound
inakind of oil, which is much used in the manufacture of
varnishes, on account of its being colorless, and drying easily.
This oil does not partake of the narcotic quality, though the
capsules, before they are ripe, supply the largest quantities of
the milky juice from which opium is derived. There is a syrup,
yell known to nurses, under the name of White Poppy Syrup,
by the effects of which, when improperly administered, there
isno doubt that the lives of many infants have been lost, and
equally fatal effects have been produced by some popular
medicines, as Godfrey’s Cordial, in the composition of which
opium forms a large proportion. It ought to be known that
infants are far more susceptible of the influence of narcotics,
than of that of other medicines, so that these should never be
administered except under the direction of a competent physi-
cian.

All the Papaveraceze belong to the Linnean class and
oder, Polyandria, Monogynia.

176 The Natural System of Botany.

—s he TR EST LAAT EON SO Re
~

~

Order—Crucirerm. The Cruciferous Tribe,

This is a very large and important order, comprehendip
nearly nine hundred species, among which are many of the
most useful and ornamental plants. The Turnip, Cauliflower
Cabbage, Mustard, Cress, Radish, are universally cultivated
as edible vegetables, and the Wall flower, and Stock gilliflower
as showy garden flowers. They all possess a peculiar act?
stimulating principle, dispersed throughout every part, ohen
accompanied with an etherial oil. Their flowers are generally
small, but marked with such obvious characters that they can
hardly be mistaken. One of these characters is the numbe
and arrangement of the stamens, which is scarcely subject tg
the least variation, and which is peculiar to this order. The
number of stamens is six, of which two are shorter than the
rest, corresponding to the most natural of the Linnzan Classes,
Tetradynamia. Their arrangement, as well as that of the
petals, is somewhat in the form of a cross, from which the
name of the order is derived, the four long stamens being
placed above and below, and the two shorter at the sides,
There is a very common little weed, known to every body
under the name of Shepherd’s Purse, (Capsella bursa~pastoris
which grows by every roadside, producing its minute white
flowers all summer. Its name seems to have been given it
from its seed vessel having small pockets, with minute fla
seeds, like fairy coins. Let the student procure a specimen
of this, and examine its construction. The flowers ar
arranged ina raceme, and are quite destitute of bracts, the
absence of which is a mark of this tribe. Observe, I pray you,
says Lindley, how very useful it is to be aware of this. Ima
gine yourself cast away upon a desert island; and there, sur.
rounded with plants of unknown forms and tempting looks,
none of which you dare use from fear of their proving poison
ous. Among them, however, you remark a good many of the
same kind, one of which is just beginning to bear its tufts of
flowers: the blossoms are too young to be examined, but old
enough to show you that they grow without bracts ; the leaves
you would easily see were those of Exogenous plants, and you

The Natural System of Botany. 177

jd immediately know that this species at least would be
ecaly harmless, but the very best kind of vegetable for you
suse a salad which might be eaten with the utmost
confidence-
To return to the Shepherd’s Purse; the sepals are four, and
a petals four, arranged in the form which gives rise to the
pellation of Cruciferee, or Cross-bearers. The pistil is green,
vdge-ehaped; and bears the short style and flat stigma on its
summit. If the ovary be cut open, it will be found to contain
two cells, in each of which are a number of ovules, hanging by
slender thread-like stalks, and originating, not from one pillar,
like central placenta, but from a kind of partition which
extends quite across the ovary to its sides. This shows the
reason Why in this order the ovary is often one-celled, and also
explains the peculiar mode of dehiscence of the seed vessel.
The fruit becomes a triangular, wedge-like body, heart-shaped
at the summit, and is composed of three pieces, two of which,
the valves, separate from the third, the dissepiment, and it is to
the edges of this last piece that the seeds are united. The
mode in which this curions seed vessel is formed will serve as
another illustratioy of the theory which refers all parts of
plants to different developments of the leaf. In this case, each
valve is considered to be a carpellary leaf, ‘the two edges of
which are not entirely folded in, and the ovules arise, therefore,
from a placenta formed by the thickened edge of each leaf, so
that there are really four separate placentw, and the ovules lie
infour different directions. But the contiguous placentz of the
‘two carpels unite together, and project towards the middle of
the ovary, and in this instance the opposite ones meet toge-
ther and form a complete partition. In many other Cruciferes,
they do not meet, so that the ovary is one-celled, and the pla-
centa parietal. This whole examination must of course be con-
ducted by the aid of the microscope, and may be somewhat
obscure and difficult, but the student will have learned the
means of recognising with certainty the characters of this
great tribe of plants, so widely diffused over the globe, all of
which are quite harmless when eaten, and some of which are
most excellent and salutary. bie % |
‘The fruit of many Crucifere differs from that which we

178 The Natural System of Botany.

en

have examined, and it is on this difference that the Linnaay
orders of the corresponding group are founded. Insteaq of
having a pod nearly as long as broad, called a Silicle, like
that of the Shepherd’s Purse, that of Cabbage, and Turnip
and others, is very long and slender, and is called a Siligue
This difference is not made use of in dividing the Natural
Order, however, but the genera, (which are so numerous as to
make a division necessary,) are arranged in groups, founded
on certain minute distinctions in the structure of the embryo,

The Crucifere are all herbaceous, and most of them annual
plants. It is remarkable that while the characters of the order
are so constant, those of the individual are liable to so great .
variation, under the influence of cultivation. This is shown jp
those which are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers, such,
as the Stock and Wall flower. Both these, says an often
quoted authority, however lovely in their wild and single state,
are chiefly cultivated when their flowers have become what js
called double, that is to say, when the parts which are usually
stamens, and pistils, and sepals, are all transformed into petals;
by which means, the quantity of gaily colored parts is much
augmented. It may be a subject of wonder how these double
flowers are increased, for if the stamens and pistils are cop.
verted into petals, it would seem that no means are left for
multiplying the race. This would doubtless be so, if all the
stamens and pistils were really thus transformed ; but among
many flowers, some are found in which a perfect stamen or
two remain; and others, in which a perfect pistil or two can
be found. If the stigmas of the latter are touched with
the pollen of the former, ovules are fertilized, and seeds are
produced, which wiil grow into other plants, the flowers of
which will be as double as those of their parents. No one
knows why double flowers should be capable of being thus
perpetuated ; it seems as if any tendency which is once given
to a plant, may be carried on from one generation to another,
by a careful attention to stop all disposition to depart from the
new character. In the Stock, any plant that produces flowers
less double than usual, must have a tendency to depart from
the double state, and, therefore, should not be allowed to beat
seed. or to influence the seeds borne by others, but should be

The Natural System of Botany. 179

refully eradicated as soon as its flowers are sufficiently ex-
ca ded for their true character to be ascertained. By atten-
nt to such rules, Turnip-rooted and Long-rooted, White, and
Scarlet, and Purple Radishes, and all the different races of
furnips, have been preserved for years; whereas, if great
recautions had not been constantly taken to maintain them in
their purity, they would long since have become thrown to-
gether; and reconverted into the wild form from whence they
gprang-

The varieties of Cabbage and Cauliflower, are very nume-
ous, and many are too well known to require mention. One
or two are, however, very remarkable for their size. The
Palm-Kale, which is much cultivated in the islands of the
British Channel, grows to the height of ten or twelve feet, and
another kind, the Tree-Kale, used in France as fodder for cat
tle, sometimes attains the height of sixteen feet. A species of
Brassica, very like the Turnip, furnishes Rape-seed, from
which is pressed a much used oil, while the refuse is a nutri-
tious food for cattle, under-the name of oil-cake.

Among other Cruciferae in common use, may be named the
diferent kinds of Mustard, Cress and Horse-radish, and the
Jutis, from which the blue dye called Woad is obtained.

The plants of this order are more abundant in Europe than
in any other quarter of the globe, only ninety out of the nine
hundred species being peculiar to America. Their general
character, as already stated, is to possess, in some degree, ac-
rid and stimulating properties, such as are observed in mustard
and horse-radish. None of the order are Poisonous, and most
of the species are very useful remedies for that dreadful malady,
the scurvy, which, until late improvements in provisioning ves-
sels, was a terrible scourge tocrews upon long voyages. In this
connexion ought tobe mentioned a striking illustration of the
utility of a knowledge of the Natural System. During Lord
Anson’s voyage round the world, near the beginning of the last
century, a very large proportion of his crew lost their lives,
ot were rendered unfit for service, by the Scurvy; and
although new and unknown lands, teeming with luxuridus
vegetation, were constantly being discovered, yet the dread
which the surgeon entertained of the men being poisoned, was

180 Of Flowering, and its Results.

so great, that he would allow them to use no other fresh veg
table food than grass. If he had been acquainted with the
simple fact that none of the Cruciferse are deleterious, and that
all possess, in a greater or less degree, those Properties thay
render them more valuable than ordinary medicines jp the
treatment of that disease, he might have been able to restore
many to health, by simply explaining to them the very evident
marks by which this order is characterized, and encouragin

them to seek for such plants, and to make use of them withoy,
apprehension. :

OF FLOWERING, AND ITS RESULTS.

Tue article on Vegetable Physiology for the present month
is delayed for the purpose of preparing some necessary wood
cuts for its illustration, and in its place we offer the following
interesting remarks of Dr. Gray on the subject of Flowering.

Plants begin to bear flowers at a nearly determinate period
for each species, which is dependent partly upon constitutional
causes, that we are unable to account for, and partly upon the
requisite supply of nutritive matter in their system. For, since
the flower and fruit draw largely upon the powers and nourish-
ment of the plant, while they yield nothing in return, fructifica-
tion is an exhaustive process, and a due accumulation of food is
requisite to sustain it. When the branch of a fruit tree, which
is sterile, or does not perfect its blossoms, is ringed or girdled
by the removal of a narrow ring of bark, the elaborated
juices, being arrested in their downward course, are accumv-
lated in the branch, which is thus enabled to produce fruit
abundantly ; while the shoots that appear below the ring, being
fed only by the crude ascending sap, do not bear flowers,
but push forth into leafy branches. So also a seedling shoot,
which would not flower for several years if left to itself, blos
soms the next season when inserted as a graft into an older
trunk, from whose accumulated stock it draws. The actual
consumption of nourishment in flowering may be shown ina
variety of ways; as by the rapid disappearance of the far-

Of Flowering, and its Results. 181

Ne erence rs
paceous store In the roots of the Carrot, Beet, &c., when they

pegin to flower, leaving them light, dry and empty; and from
the rapid diminution of the sugar in the stalk of the Sugar
Cane (as also that of maize) at the same period. The stalks are
therefore cut for making sugar just before the flowers expand,
asthey then contain the greatest amount of saccharine matter,
The consequence of this exhaustion may be illustrated by the
facility with which annual plants are converted into biennials,
or their life prolonged indefinitely, by preventing their flower-
ing ; while, whenever they bear flowers and seed, whether
during the first or any succeeding year, they commonly perish.
§% a common annual Larkspur has produced a double flowered
variety in the gardens, which bears no seed, and has therefore
become a perennial. So, also, cabbage stumps, which are
lanted for seed, may be made to bear heads the second year,
by destroying the flower shoots as they arise ; and the process
may be continued from year to year, thus converting a biennial
jntoa kind of perennial plant. The effect of flowering upon
the longevity of the individual, is strikingly shown by the
Agave, or Century Plant—so called because it flowers in our
cnservatories only after the lapse of a hundred, or a least a

at number of years ; while in its native sultry clime it gen-
erally flowers in the course of five or six years. But whenever
this occurs, the sweet juice with which it is filled at the time ig
consumed atarate correspondent to the astonishing rapidity
with which its huge flower stalk shoots forth, and the whole plant
inevitably perishes when the seeds have ripened. So, also,

the Corypha, or ‘Talipot-Tree, a magnificent oriental Palm,
which lives to a great age, and attains an imposing altitude,
(bearing a crown of leaves, each of which is often thirty feet

in diameter,) flowers only once ; but it then bears an enormous
number of blossoms, succeeded by a crop of nuts sufficient to
supply a large district with seed, while the tree immediately
perishes from the exhaustion consequent upon this over pro-
duction.

Flowering and fruiting, then, draw largely upon the plant’s
resources, while they give back nothing in return. In these
operations, and perhaps in these alone, do vegetables act as
ttue consumers decomposing their own products, and giving

182 On Flowering, and its Results.

+ . . . Ee
back carbonic acid and water to the air, instead of takin

these materials from the air. It is in flowering that the

actually consume most. In fruiting, although the plant is rob.
bed of a large quantity of nourishment, this is mostly accy,
mulated in the fruit and seed, in a concentrated form, for the
future consumption, not of the parent plant, but of the new indj.
vidual enclosed in the seed. The real and immediate consump.
tion of nourishment by the flower, is shown by the action of
flowers on the air, so different from that of leaves. While the
foliage withdraws carbonic acid from the air, and restores
oxygen, flowers take a small portion of oxygen from the ai,
and give back carbonic acid. While leaves, therefore, purify
the air we breathe, flowers contaminate it; though of course
only to a degree which is relatively and absolutely insignificant,
When carbon is consumed as fuel, and by the aid of the
oxygen of the air converted into carbonic acid, an amount of
heat is evolved uniformly and directly proportionate to the
quantity of carbon consumed, or of carbonic acid produced,
The same amount is more slowly generated in the slower
decomposition of an equivalent amount of vegetable matter,
by decay,—a heat which is employed by the gardener, when
he makes hot-beds of decaying tan or leaves, or by the breathing
of animals, where it maintains their elevated temperature,
Now, since flowers consume carbon, and produce carbonic acid,
acting in this respect like animals, they ought to evolve heat in
proportion to that consumption. This, in fact, theydo. The
evolution of heat in blossoming was first observed by Lamarck,
about seventy years ago, in the European Arum, which justas
the flowers open, “ grows hot,” as Lamarck stated, “as if it
were about to burn.”” It was afterwards shown by Saussure,
in a number of flowers, such as those of the Bignonia, Gourd,
and Tuberose ; and the heat was shown to be in direct propor-
tion to the consumption of the oxygen of the air ; or in other
words, of the carbon of the plant.. The increase of tempera-
ture in these cases was measured by common instruments. But
now that thermo-electric apparatus affords the means of mea-
suring variations inappreciable by the most delicate thermome-
ter, the heat generated by any ordinary cluster of blossoms
may be detected. The phenomenon is most striking in the

Of Flowerig, and its Results. 183

of some large Aroideous plants, where an immense num-
per of blossoms are crowded together and muffled by a kind of
, or spadix, which confines and reverberates the heat. In
ome of these, the temperature rises at times to twenty or even
degrees (Fahrenheit) above the surrounding air. The in-
ease of temperature occurs daily, from the time the flowers
pen until they fade, but is most striking during the shedding
of the pollen. At night the temperature fails nearly to that of
ihe surrounding air; but in the course of the morning, the
heat comes On, as it were, like a paroxysm of fever, attain-
ingthe maximum, day after day, very nearly at the same
hour of the afternoon, and gradually declining towards evening.
The source of the heat in flowering is evident. As to its ob-
ject we cannot say whether its production is the immediate
end in view, and the plant burns some of its carbon merely as
fuel, or Whether the evolution of heat and the formation of
carbonic acid are incidental consequences of certain necessary
transformations. We have remarked that the principal con-’
sumption takes place in the flower; and that a store is laid up
in the fruit and seed. But much evenof this is consumed, with
the evolution of heat, when the seed germinates. It may be
said, therefore, that in the Century Plant, which, after living a
hundred years, consumes itself for the benefit of its offspring,
wholiterally rise from its ashes, we have the realization of the
fabled Phoenix.

There is another condition, which, if not essential to the
production of flowers, exerts an important influence. . When
plants are in continual and luxuriant growth, rapidly pushing

forth leafy branches, they seldom produce flower buds. Our
fruit trees, in very moist seasons, or when cultivated in too rich
asoil, often grow luxuriantly, but do not. flower. The same
thing is observed when our northern fruit trees are transported
into tropical climates. On the other hand, whatever checks
this luxuriance, without affecting the health of the individual,
causes blossoms to appear earlier and more abundantly than
they otherwise would do. It is for this reason that transplanted
fruit trees incline to flower the first season after their removal,
though they may not blossom again for several years. A season
of comparative rest is essential to the transformation by which

184 Of Flowering, and its Results.

ey eg ne
flowers are formed. It is in autumn, or at least after the yj or:
ous vegetation of the season is over, that our trees and shrubs
and most perennial herbs, produce the flower buds of the
ensuing year.

The requisite annual season of repose, which in temperate
climes is attained by the lowering of the temperature in autumn
and winter, is scarcely less marked in many tropical countries
where winter is unknown. But the result is brought about, in
the latter case, not by cold, but by excessive heat and dryness,
The Cape of Good Hope, or the Canary Islands may be taken
as illustrations. In the Canaries, the growing season is from
November to March—the winter of the northern hemisphere
their winter also, as it is the coolest season. But the rains {all
regularly, and vegetation is active; while in summer, from
April to October, it very seldom rains, and the mean tempera.
ture is as high as 73°. During this dry season, when the
scorching sun reduces the soil nearly to the dryness and consis.
tency of brick, ordinary vegetation almost completely disappears,
and the Fig-Marigolds, Euphorbias, and other succulent plants
fitted to this condition of things, alone remain green, not unaptly
representing the Firs and other evergreens cf high northern
latitudes. The dry heat there brings about the same state of
vegetable repose as cold with us. The roots and bulbs then
lie dormant beneath the sun-burnt crust, just as they do in our
frozen soil. When the rainy season sets in, and the crust is
softened by moisture, they are excited into growth under a
diminished temperature, just as with us by heat; and the
ready formed flower buds are suddenly developed, and at
once clothe the arid waste with a profusion of blossoms
This season of interruption to growth, produced either by cold
or dryness, occurs in a more or less marked degree, through
every partof the world.

These considerations explain the operations of forcing plants,
by which we are enabled to obtain in winter the flowers and
fruits of summer. The gardener accomplishes these results
principally by skilful alterations of the natural period of
repose. He gives the plant an artificial period of rest by
dryness at the season when he cannot command cold, and then,
by the influence of heat, light and moisture, which he can

Wild Flowers in June. 185

always command, causes it to grow at a season when it would
have been quiescent. Thus he retards or advances, at will, the
petiods of flowering, and of rest, or in time completely inverts

them.

WILD FLOWERS IN JUNE.

June, ‘leafy June,’ has come at last, though long delayed
by the clouds and frosts of this late cold spring. It is re-
markable to observe how the first warm weather has brought
forward the foliage and flowers. It would seem as if the trees
and herbs, having had their energies locked up so long, had
made a redoubled effort, and burst forth at once into full green-
nessand beauty. Whoever has journeyed through any north-
em section of the country during the past month, must have
observed the striking difference between the aspect of the
scenery, aS it appeared a week ago, and as it appears now.
Then scarcely a green thing broke the dull gray monotony; now
buds are springing, flowers are blooming, birds are singing.
Then, the farmer, as he looked upon his frosty fields, almost
despaired of the fulfilment of the promise of seed time and
harvest ; now he is merrily watching the result of his toil and
patience, in his growing crops. _It is a difficult thing, among
thethousand fair productions of Nature, all at once expanding,
adding fragrance to the air and glory to the earth, to select
those which are most interesting. Many May flowers continue
toblossom during a great part of this month. A few days ago
we found the Wild Columbine in full flower upon the highest
rock of a craggy mountain in Connecticut, giving grace to a
savage scene, with its slender upright stems and nodding flow-
ers Now will be seen, among the thickest foliage of the
forest, the showy white involucres of the Dogwood, Cornus Flo-
rida, and, in the undergrowth, its humble, though scarcely less
conspicuous relative, C. Canadensis. Of shrubs indeed a great
number are in flower. The Swamp Pink, Rhododendron nudi-
forum, with its fragrant flowers, so winning in their beauty that

‘

186 Wild Flowers in June.

the most careless hand hesitates to pluck them from their leg
home ; and the large spreading corymbs of red and white, and
shining leaves of the Large Laurel, Kalmia latifolia, make the
road-side through the woods like the borders of a great shrub.
bery, while the sandy level of the open glades is blue with the
Pedate Violet. The Wild Cherry, Cerasus serotina, puts forth
its racemes of white blossoms, giving to the feathered People
promise of summer sustenance. On the warm bill sides, under
the sheltering hedges peeps up the sweet little Milkwort, Po.
lygala paucifolia, with its curiously fringed purple blossoms,
so large in proportion to its height, and near and around it
grow its neighbors, Convallaria, Uvularia, Geranium, and
a hundred other “vagram posies.” Now is thé time to
look for the Side Saddle Flower, Sarracenia purpurea,
that vegetable spider, which is nourished in part by the up.
lucky flies who enter its hollow leaves. The Sarracenia jg
generally to be found in low, muddy, wet places, by the side
of swampy ponds, among moss, and its nodding flower, with
the singular peltate stigma, is quite as curious as the leaves,
For its singularity this plant well deserves cultivation, and jf
taken up with a considerable portion of its native soil, with
the Sphagnum, or White Moss, which almost always surrounds
it, and planted in a large pot, which must be set into a pan or
tub of water of sufficient depth to reach nearly the rim of the
pot, it will thrive very well. We have found that a shady
situation is also necessary. The pretty little Wood Sorrel, Oz.
alis violacea, with its frail purple blossoms, and one or two other
less handsome species of the same genus, the Golden Alexan-
ders, Smyrnium, or Zizia, conspicuous for their yellow umbels,
the great Cow Parsnep, Heracleum, the delicate creeping
Penny wort, Hydrocotyle, the Sweet Cicely, with its aromatic
root, and other Umbellifer, are June flowers. As to Wild
Roses, now is the season for their greatest profusion, and
towards the latter part of the month, and the first of July,
they perfume every thicket. We need not describe them;
every one knows the Roses. Now the white blossoms of nu
merous Raspberries and Blackberries promise an abundant
supply of their delicate fruit for the later months, and the Wild
‘Currant promises to the same effect, but performs not. The

Wild Flowers in June. 187

guckles, Lonicera, or Caprifolium, are now twining
pt the shrubs, and displaying their pale and fragrant blos-
ae those fine shrubs,the Hobble Bush, Arrow Wood,
eribp other species of Viburnum, are adorning the wood-sides,
a nnder their shade creeps the delicate Partridge Berry,
Hictela repens. Let no one fail to examine and admire its
waxwork petals. Only a few of the Composite flower so
Jy, and those’which do, are the less beautiful species, such as
et EBrigeron, Senecio,and Gnaphalium. Pyrola rotundifolia,
one of the neatest of plants, with its broad leaves and droop-
ing fragrant white flowers, together with several other species
of the same genus, will now delight the student, who seeks
ihem among the dead leaves of old woods. Some of the Or-
dhidacee ate expanding their unique and puzzling flowers.
Orchis spectabilis, Arethusa bulbosa, Pogonia ophioglossoides,
Cypripedium acaule, and parviflorum, are all among the most
carious and interesting plants which the collector will meet
with. We shall shortly have a word to say about the cultiva-
tion of these and other natives of the same order, our especial
fvorites’ ‘The large blue flowers of the Iris are showing
themselves among the grass by the pond side, along with the
more humble Speedwells, Veronica. Along by the fences,
near rocks in open grounds, may be found the Silk weed, -As-
clepias syriaca ; but the handsomer species of Asclepias do not
flower till nearly a month later. Among the high grass in the
meadows, the eye of the rambler will be attracted by the
yellow flowers of the Star grass, Hypozis erecta, and the blue
flowers of the Szsyrinchium anceps, which show, indeed, as if

they might have suggested the thought which

Spake full well, in language quaint and olden,
One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine,

When he called the flowers, so blue and golden,
Stars, which in Earth’s firmament do shine.

One of the most showy of native plants is the Lupine,
Lupinus perennis. We stopped the other day, after a long ride,
with a thunder shower coming on, to collect specimens of it,
which were covering the side of a sandy wood with the blue
tint of their long regular racemes. The Celandine, Cellelido-
mum majus, is displaying its yellow flowers, and smooth spread-

188 Wild Flowers in June.

ing leaves, under the fences. Mitella diphylla is a pretty play
which is now in flower. One glance at its two Opposite
leaves about half way up the stem, and its beautifully fringed
petals, is sufficient for recognising it. It grows in the Woods
and with it is often found a near relation, Tiarella cordifolia,
which much resembles it in general appearance. Let the gty,
dent pay particular attention to the peculiar capsule of both,
On the roots of old trees, that curious parasite, the Indian Pj

Monotropa uniflora, will attract the eye to its white, pellucig
stem and leaves, and solitary flower, which give it ye

nearly the shape which suggested its common name. If
woolly brother, M. lanuginosa, does not flower till August,
The Loosestrifes are, two or three of them, in bloom, and one,
Lysimachia quadrifolia, will be noticed for the regularity of its
whorls of leaves, each with a flower in its axil. One of the
same Order, (Primulacee,) is remarkable, not only for its
pretty star-like white flowers, shining leaves, and delicate
aspect, but for its being the only native example of the Lin.
nan Class, Heptandria, having seven stamens, and seven
divisions of the calyx and corolla. It is a low, neat plant, and
must be handled carefully. It is very strange to observe with
what singular inappropriateness botanists have in many cages
given names to plants. They appear to be the least judicious
of all sponsors. Now here is a plant all in sevens, and not at
all in sixes, and yet it is called from triens, the third part of a
thing, Trientalis Americana. Among the high grass of wet
meadows, the most indifferent observer must notice the bril-
liant scarlet bracts of the Painted Cup, Euchroma, or Castil-
lea, coccinea. This beautiful plant is figured in a former num-
ber of this work. A few others of the Labiatz are in flower,
such as the Prunella, and Galeopsis, and some of the Mints, but
most of the Order do not bloom till autumn. A rough, coarse
stemmed plant, with very handsome violet-colored flowers, in
open fields and waste places, is the Bugloss, Echium vulgare,
and another of the Boragines, rougher and coarser if possible,
and known also as Bugloss, is Lycopsis arvensis. It is not
exactly a native, but has been here long enough to have
become naturalized. Along fences, by the sides of woods, the
flowers of the small Bindweed, Convolvulus arvensis, are con-

The Duckweed. 189°

- ous; and the long, slender, twining stem, with its hastate
. is easily recognised. A larger flowered species, but
on gimilar leaves, C. Sepium, is found in the same places.
FE ke surface of stagnant waters at this season will often be
seen patches of green, which when examined will be found to
consist of a collection of small floating leaves, each about an
inch long; with a cleft in one side, from which proceeds a
minute flower, with two stamens and a single style. From the
centre of the leaf hangs down into the water a solitary root,
with a kind of sheath at the end. This is Lemna minor, Duck-
meat, and is well worth placing under the microscope. A
more rare plant than almost any we have mentioned, is that
slender and delicate vine, which may sometimes be found
among hedges, with its three-nerved, heart-shaped leaves, and
fyscicles of small greenish flowers. This is Dioscorea villosa, a
species of the same genus which produces the Yam. It is pre-
sumed that the collector has already, if he has been at all
among the woods and thickets, had his coat torn and his
hands scratched by that nuisance, the Bull Brier—called so,
we suppose, from its being strong enough to stop the progress
of the maddest of the Vaccine family—with its long thorny
stems. If he has made its acquaintance in this way, we need
only direct his attention to its umbels of green flowers, and
remind him that itsname is Smilax rotundifolia. As to the
Grasses, Cyperacese, and Juncacez, hundreds of which are
now flowering, we can but hope that the reader will have
patience to study them.

THE DUCKWEED.

As we have mentioned the Duckweed (Lemna minor) among
those plants which flower in June, the following description
of its structure may induce the reader to seek for and exam-
ine it -—

In Duckweed there is nothing but a fleshy floating green
body, which looks like a green scale, and which is in reality a

190 The Duckweed.

_—____—
_—_

compound of both root and stem. Most people fancy that
Duckweed never flowers. If, however, you will fix Your eyes
attentively upon a mass of it, on a still sunshiny day jp the
month of June or July, you will probably discover exceed.
ingly minute straw-colored specks here and there on the edges
of the plants ; they have a sparkling appearance, and notwith,
standing their minuteness, readily catch the eye. These arg
the anthers, and they being found, you have only to cary
home the plants, and place them under a microscope, when ail
the secrets of their flowering stand revealed. Where the
anthers have caught the eye, will be seen a narrow slit, oy
of which they peep; if you widen this slit with your dissect,
ing instruments, you will be able to extract the blossom entire ;
and you will have before your eyes the simplest of all knowy
flowers, as Duckweed itself is the simplest of all known flow.
ering plants. ‘The flower consists of a transparent membranoys
bag, split on one side; within it are two stamens, and one
ovary with a style and simple stigma. The fruit containg
but one cell, in which are one or more seeds; its shell is q
thin, cellular integument.

Such are the simple means that Duckweed possesses of
propagating itself; means, however, which appear to be abun.
dantly sufficient, if we are to judge from the immense quanti-
ties which sometimes rise to the surface of our ponds. Besides
the species under consideration, there are three others, which
appear to be common both to Great Britian and North Ame-
rica. We have here no other genus belonging to the same
natural order; but in tropical countries, its place is occupied
by a plant called Pistiw, which is a sort of gigantic Duckweed,
with broad lobed leaves, like some Lichens, and a more highly
organized flower.

Effect of Plants upon the Air. 191

EFFECT OF PLANTS UPON THE AIR.

Ap nature is in a continual state of decay and renovation.
The perishing remains of animals and plants exhale putrid
effluvia, which mix with the atmosphere, and render it impure 5
the incessant action of respiration through the whole animal
world, increases the impurity by abstracting the vital air or
oxygens and substituting foul air or carbonic acid. This com-
pined action has been going on from the beginning of the
resent order of created things, and yet it does not appear that
the air we breathe is less suited to our constitutions now, than
twas in the beginning. This is owing to the agency of plants,
which existing wherever man or animals can exist, are perpet-
vally at hand to catch up and consume the impure particles of
the atmosphere, as fast as they are generated, and by fixing
the carbonaceous part in their own systems, and again libera-
ting the vital air or oxygen with which the former was in com-
bination, they restore to the air all the purity which it had lost.

Here, then, you have another of those admirable proofs of
wisdom and design that meet the philosophical observer at
every step. Plants are Nature’s eternal laboratories for the
decomposition of what would be injurious to man and other
animals; the means by which the nicest equipoise is main- .
tained between two most important opposite principles. Hence
itis that the most tiny grass, or the most obscure weed, be-
comes in the hands of Providence an efficient means of
working out the great designs of the creation.

This is not a phenomenon, liable to derangement or inter-
ruption, but ordered with the most admirable precision in every
portion of its details. Thus, for example, although it is through
the agency of leaves that the salubrious effect upon the air is
brought about, yet we are not to suppose that when the leaves
have dropped from the trees, and the forest exhibits nothing
but bare and naked branches, this agency is diminished.
Leaves fall off indeed in winter, but at that time the corruption
of the air, by the putrefaction of organized matter, is either
arrested or very much diminished, and the green carpet which —

192 Effect of Plants upon the Air.

even in the driest countries springs up at that season, Present
an elaborating surface of immeasurable extent, and antl
sufficient to consume such gaseous impurities as may then be
engendered. On the other hand, in the spring, when ap ele.
vated temperature sets rapidly at liberty the elastic impuritigg
that the winter had bound in chains, leaves too are Produced
with renewed vigor, and still carry off from the atmosphere al] _
that the rapidly decaying matteris mingling with it, Separating for
themselves what man is incapable of respiring, and generatin, —
in its room, in infinite abundance, that vital air or oxygen,
without which, living things would perish.

Hence in bright floods the vital air expands,

And with concentric spheres involves the lands ;
Pervades the swarming seas, and heaving earths,
Where teeming nature breathes her myriad births;
Fills the fine lungs of all that breathe or bud,
Warms the new heart and dyes the gushing blood ;
With life’s first spark inspires the organic frame,
And as it wastes, renews the subtle flame.

These very beautiful lines are from the * Botanic Garden” —
of Darwin, a writer of an ingenious and philosophical mind, —
whose poetry is now forgotten, although it has some splendid
-passages, and contains numerous descriptions of natural phe.
nomena, expressed in language remarkable alike for its magni.
ficence, and for its fidelity to what were, in the author’s time, —
considered facts.—Ladies’ Botany. ey ’

Ladies’ Slipper 193

CYPRIPEDIUM—LADIES’ SLIPPER.

ial Order, Orchidacee ; Linnean System, Gynandria, Diandria. Gene-
Ag Distinctions :—Corolla, four-petalled, spreading ; lip, inflated, ventri-
‘cose, ubtuse; column, terminated by a petaloid lobe; capsule, three-
yalved, one-celled.

— ¢. acaule—Scape, leafless, one-flowered; leaves, two, radical, lliptie-
— gblong, rather acute ; petals, lanceolate ; lip, longer than the petals, cleft
pefore.—Plate 27.

CypRtPEDIUM is compounded of two Greek words, meaning
~ Venus’ Slipper, in allusion to the form of the lip, which, how-
: ever bears no very striking resemblance to that of a slipper.
_ The genus contains several very curious and beautiful plants,
of which the one in our plate is perhaps the best known in the
Nor nern States. It is not easy to mistake this species for any
ing else, or to confound it with any other Cypripedium. It
fers from all others of the same genus in having no stem
aves. The leaves are never more than two; they spring
om the root, are large, plaited, and downy. The scape is
om eight to twelve inches high, the flower single, nodding.
‘The petals are four, of a purplish green color, the two lateral
ones twisted. The chief beauty of the flower consists in the
lip,or nectary, which is a large, veined, inflated bag, of a deli-
cate pink color. This plant grows in old, dark woods, not
uncommonly, in most parts of New England, and blossoms in -
~ June. |
_ Three other species are natives of the United States. One
ofthese, C. parviflorum, is readily known by its leafy stem, and
- yellow flowers, and another, C. arietinum, often called Ram’s
: Head, has a much smaller flower than the rest, with linear
z The most beautiful, and largest species, is C. spectabile.
“It is more than two feet in height, with large leaves, and a
_ white purple striped lip at least two inches long.

We ought to add, that the portrait in our plate was litho-
graphed from a drawing of a fine fresh specimen of the plant
‘itself, and is a very correct likeness.

‘The Natural Order to which these plants belong, contains

Vou. I.—13.

194 The Gentian.

i
some of the most singular and interesting species of the val .
table Kingdom. They are almost always remarkable for the
vivacity of their colors, the singularity of their organization, r
grotesque appearance of their tortuous roots and stems, or thy |
delicious perfume of their flowers. They are distributed in
abundance over the whole earth. In tropical countries thoy —
often constitute the chief beauty of the forest, many of them —
being epiphytes; and hanging from the branches of trees, 9,
springing from prostrate trunks, of dead timber, they adorn th
one with bright hues and rich odors, and render the other mor 7
beautiful in .death than in the full vigor of existence, Ty
detail the singular traits of these plants, and to explain thy
peculiarities of their structure, belongs to the notice of the
order, which will come in in its proper place. There ap
several other well known and very beautiful and curions
American genera, which we shall hereafter have occasion ty
merition, and figures of some species of which we shall offer,
The Ladies’ Slipper may be cultivated with ease, by taking
up with the roots a portion of the black earth in which it
grows, setting the plants out in a moist, shady situation, and
giving them plenty of water. They may be increased by
planting the seeds; and in order to have the seeds fertile, itis
a proper precaution, to take some of the pollen from the
‘anthers and apply it to the stigma.

GENTIANA—THE GENTIAN.

“Natural Order, Gentianacee; Linnean System, Pentandria, Monogynia. '

~ Generic. Distinctions :—Calyx, four or five cleft; corolla, campanulate,
tubular at base ; border, four or five cleft; stamens, four or five, included;
capsule, two-valved, one-celled, many seeded. va
3 ia.—Leaves, oval, lanceolate, three-nerved, acute; flowers, in
whorled heads, sessile ; corollas, ventricose, clavate, campanulate, closed
at top, ten-cleft, the inner segments plicate and fringed.— Plate 28.

G

Te name of this genus is derived from Gentius, a ki g of
Illyria, who is said to ‘have discovered its tonic prope
“The species are widely distributed over the temperate D8 6

The Gentian. 195

of Europe, Asia, and America. Their properties are tonic,
and many of them are intensely bitter. The flowers are often
yery handsome, and generally of a blue color. We have
_ several elegant North American species, of which the one here
engraved is perhaps the most showy. It is not uncommon by
the sides of streams, in meadows and moist ground, and pro-:
daces its flowers in September. The stem is about a foot in
height, with smooth, opposite, three or five nerved leaves.
The flowers are deep bright blue, in bunches on the top of the
stem, and are singular, from their never fully expanding.
They might indeed be easily taken for buds, and one not
acquainted with this peculiarity, would naturally wait for them
to open. By drawing apart the outer segments of the corolla,
the fine fringe of the inner segments will be seen. The color
of the flowers sometimes varies to purple or white in different
shades. Another very beautiful and delicate American spe-
cies, is the Fringed Gentian, G. crinita, which may be at once
known by its large light blue flowers, and the elegantly fringed
borders of the petals. There are numerous other species of
Gentian, growing in various parts of the Eastern continent,
some of which are in request as garden flowers, and others are
of use as affording medicinal substances. G. lutea, an Euro-
pean species with yellow flowers, is the one which produces the
_ pitter so much used in tonic medicines, under the name of gen-
tian, from its roots, which are thick and yellow. According
to Dr. Gray, any of our native species may be. substituted
for it.

G. Saponaria, as well as the others, may be cultivated in
almost any light, rich soil, and may be increased by sowing
the seeds, or by dividing the roots. It is said that the seeds
should be sowed as soon as they are ripe, as, if left for a few
_ months, they are not likely to germinate.

neem

196 Swallow-wort, or Silkweed. 7
ae ene a are a ee

ASCLEPIAS—SWALLOW-WORT, OR SILKWEEp,

Natural Order, Asclepiadacee; Linnean System, Pentandria, Digynia,
Generic Distinctions :—Calyx, small; petals, united at base, reflexed; oo.
rona, (nectary,) five-lobed, with five averted horns at the base of the
lobes ; antheridium, (connate mass of anthers,) five-angled, truncate,
opening by five longitudinal fissures; pollinia, (masses of pollen.) in five
distinct pairs ; follicles, two, ventricose ; seeds, comose.

A, tuberosa.—Hairy; branches, spreading at the summit; leaves, distant
alternate, oblong-lanceolate; umbels, numerous, sub-corymbose, termi.
nal.—Pl. 29, Fig? 1.

Asctepias is the Greek name of Esculapius, the god of
medicine and ‘physicians, and was applied to the plants of
this genus, in reference to their supposed sanitary virtues, py
some respects, these plants are very curious. All of them are
filled with a milky juice, which, when the stem is broken,
‘flows most copiously, and abounds in the substance called
caoutchouc, or Indian Rubber. The most common American
species, A. syriaca, is well known from its juice, which is re.
puted to cure warts, and is usually called Milkweed. There
are about ten or twelve native northern species, several of
which are very ornamental. Of these, the one which forms
the subject of our plate is the most showy, neat, and beautiful,
It is commonly called Butterfly-weed, from the circumstance
of its flowers being great favorites with the Butterflies, and
_ often covered with those elegant insects. The construction of —
its flowers is very singular, and the description of them in the
following notice of the plant, by Dr. Bigelow, will guide the
student in his examination of other species, the flowers of all
having the same peculiarities.

The root of this plant is large, fleshy, branching, and often —
fusiform. It is only in comparison with the other species, that
it can be called tuberous. The stems are numerous, growing —
in bunches from the root. They are erect, ascending, or pro
cumbent, round, hairy, green or red. Leaves scattered, the
lower ones pedunculated, the upper ones sessile. They are
narrow, oblong, hairy, obtuse at base, waved on the edge, and —
in the old plants sometimes revolute. The stem usually divides
at the top into from two to four branches, which give of —

& Swallow-wort, or Silkweed. 197
= crowded umbels from their upper side. The involucrum con-
; gets of numerous short subulate leaflets. Flowers numerous,
Bemect, of 8 beautifully bright orange color. Calyx much
smaller than the corolla, five-parted, the segments subulate,
geflexed, and concealed by the corolla. Corolla five-parted,
~ yeflexed, the segments oblong.’ The: nectary, or stamineal
~ gown, (corona,) is formed of five ereet cucullate leaves or
cups, with an oblique mouth, having a small, incurved, acute
horn, proceeding from the base of the cavity of each, and
meeting in the centre of the flower. The mass of stamens,
% fantheridium,) is a tough, horny, somewhat pyramidal sub-
stance, separable into five anthers. Each of these is bor-
~ dered by membranous, reflected edges, contiguous to those of ‘
the next, and terminated'*by a membranous, reflected summit.
- nternally they have two cells. The pollen forms ten distinct,
yellowish, transparent bodies, of a flat and spatulate form,
ending in curved filaments, which unite them by pairs to a
minute dark tubercle at top. Each pair is suspended in the
ells of two adjoining anthers, so that if a needle be inserted
- between the membranous edges of two anthers, and forced out
"at top, it carries with it a pair of the pollen masses. _ Pistils
two, completely concealed within the mass of anthers. Germs
ovate, with erect styles. The fruit, as in other species, is an
erect, lanceolate, ventricose follicle, on a sigmoid peduncle. In
this it is green, with a reddish tinge, and downy. Seeds ovate,
_ flat, margined, connected to the receptacle by long silken hairs.
_ Flowers in August.

_ Another very handsome species is A. incarnata, which is
sather taller than the Butterfly-weed, with large leaves, and
deep purple or rose-colored flowers. Another remarkable
species is A. verticillata. The stem is very slender and deli-
cate, the flowers small and greenish white, and the leaves in
% whorls of five or six. This plant is reputed in some parts of
_ the south and west to be a cure for the bite of the rattlesnake,
_ and it is said that the Indians will sometimes, by the use of it,
"prevent any injury from that venomous reptile, which for a
little whiskey they will allow to bite them. Whether in such
cases the fangs of the snake had not, by a well-known opera-
tion, been previously drawn out, our authority does not state.’

ee.

Mpclepuad hes Fe LOR’ [Better flg-meed | Pied.
sailed la (Wintergreen) Fig. 2.

Achermanz $s Lith WE

198 The Wintergreen.

ellie

— <a Re
——S

—

CHIMAPHILA—THE WINTERGREEN,

Natural Order, Ericacee ; Linnean System, Decandria, Monogynia. shih
rie Distinctions :—Calyx, five-parted; petals, five; stamens, ten, erect:
anthers, fixed by the middle ; style, very short and thick ; capsule, file
celled, opening from the summit.

C. umbellata.—Leaves, in fours or sixes, lanceolate, cuneate, toothed ; flow.
ers, corymbose ; style, immersed in the ovary.—Pl. 29. Fig. 2.

Chimaphila is compounded of two Greek words, signifying
winter, and to love, a kind of translation of the common name,
Wintergreen. This, and the genus Pyrola, in which it Was
once included, are composed of low, small plants, some of them
half shrubby, and bearing very pretty and neat flowers. They
are all called Wintergreen, though the spicy aromatic shoots,
and. scarlet berries sold in the New England markets under that
name, and used for flavoring beer, are produced by another
plant of very similar habit, Gaultheria procumbens. The spe-
cies figured in Pl. 29, is one of the most common and handsome,
The root is creeping, and woody, sending up angular stems,—
The leaves grow in whorls or clusters of from four to six. They
are evergreen, coriaceous, on short petioles, wedge-shaped,
serrate, smooth and shining. The flowers are in a small
corymb, on nodding peduncles, which are furnished with linear
bracts. The calyx has five roundish teeth or segments, much
shorter than the corolla. The petals are five, roundish, con
cave, spreading, cream colored, with a tinge of purple at the
base. The stamens. are ten, each with a two-celled anther,
each cell opening by a tubularorifice. The ovary is roundish,
depressed, furrowed, with a funnel-shaped cavity at top. The
style is straight, inversely conical, inserted in the cavity of the
germ, and concealed by the stigma, which is large, peltate,
convex, and moist. The capsules are erect, five-valved, five-
celled, and the seeds chaffy, very minute and. numerous. It
inhabits dry woods, flowering in June and July, and some-
times is foundin great abundance.

Another beautiful species, very striking in its appearance, is
the Spotted Wintergreen, C. maculata. Its leaves are curiously

| Noles
Py NG,

F “4) ay @

LA

The Sage. 199:

- Griegated with white lines along the mid-rib and nerves,
~ Both these species, as well as the Pyrolas, are cultivated and
4 bgbly prized in England, and doubtless we should see them
] in American collections, if they were not natives of our
E own soil They may be cultivated with ease in shady situa-

a

- fions in gravelly ground, and require frequent waterings,

SALVIA—THE SAGE.

Natural Order, Labiate ; Linnean System, Diandria, Monogynia. Generic
_ Pistinctions :—Calyx, tubular, striate, two-lipped, the upper lip entire or
three-toothed, lower lip bifid; corolla, ringent; the upper lip straight, or
faleate, lower lip spreading, three-cleft, emarginate ; stamens, two; con-
pectile, transversely articulated to the filament, supporting at each end a
cell of the dimidiate anther; achenia, four.

§, fulgens.—Leaves, cordate ovate, crenate, woolly below. Flowers, verti-
cillate; bracts, ovate, long, acuminate ; calyx, trifid; helmet of the corolla,
‘hairy —Pl. 30.

§atvra is from the Latin salvere, to save, in allusion to the
- salutary properties of the genus. The species are very nume-
~ sous, and widely distributed over the world. They are all
_ herbs or somewhat shrubby, plants, with leaves generally wrin-
_ {led or rough, an aromatic smell, and flowers in spikes. They.
~ are all easily cultivated, and some of them are in great favor
asornamental garden flowers. 8. officinalis, in such common
- use as a culinary plant, in various operations of cookery, isa
native of the South of Europe. It was.once in great repute as.
_asudorific and antiseptic medicine, and sage tea is still an
_ approved prescription in many womanish ailments. Several. _
_ other species are in use for various purposes, and all agree in

_ possessing tonic and aromatic qualities. Only seven or eight.
species are natives of North America, of which a single one,

S. lyrata, with blue flowers, inhabits the Northern States. ‘
___&. fulgens, is undoubtedly the most splendid species, and its,

superb scarlet flowers make it very ornamental. It is a native.
of Mexico, and has for some. years. been introduced. into our.
northern gardens. The stem is about. four feet. in. height,

— 200 A Visit to Chatsworth.

ee
shrubby at the base, dividing into numerous branches, thick,
covered with whitish hairs. The leaves are wrinkled, ang
hairy on both sides, the hairs on the lower side being so dens.
as to make it appear white. It only needs to be planted in the
open border in a very rich soil, and it will flower abundant}
all summer. In frosty weather it should be protected, and may
be propagated by cuttings, planted out in the spring.

Another very beautiful Mexican species, is S. patens, with
very large flowers, of a most intense and brilliant blue

A VISIT TO CHATSWORTH.

Tue celebrated seat of the Duke of Devonshire, at Chats.
worth, with its conservatories and gardens, the most extensive
and best managed probably in the world, have been for years
a source of great curiosity and interest to all travellers who
have a taste for the cultivation of plants. The grounds ar
under the management of Mr. Paxton, the editor of the splendid
work, ‘“* Paxton’s Magazine of Botany.” The following descrip
tion of Chatsworth, by a correspondent of “ The Magazine
of Gardening,” will be new and interesting to many American
readers :— :

I went to Chatsworth on business, with a letter of introduc-
tion to Mr. Paxton. On inquiring for his residence, I was
directed to pass through the kitchen garden, which, I found to
my astonishment, contained eight acres of ground. At the
extremity of this gigantic potarium I found the house, a large
and very handsome one, with two beautiful conservatories
attached to it, filled with exquisite specimens of the rarest
plants. Mr. Paxton was unfortunately gone to London, but
we were shown into a drawing room exceedingly well and
tastefully furnished, with a grand piano, pictures, &c.; and
what interested us most, some dozen of silver cups, presented
by various horticultural societies to Mr. Paxton. Mrs. Paxton,
« very unaffected, nice woman, soon made her appearance;
she expressed her regret that Mr. P. was from home, but she

A. Visit to Chatsworth. 201

d we would amuse ourselves by seeing Chatsworth, and
gent one of the gardeners with us to show us every thing.
where I shall begin with my description of the most complete,
most extensive, and best cultivated garden I ever saw, whether
in exotic plants, stove and hot-house fruits, kitchen stuff, hardy
fruits, OF herbaceous flowers, r hardly know. You must
accompany me, attended by an intelligent gardener, into the
two conservatories, attached as wings to Mr. Paxton’s house,
which were filled, on one side with stove plants, all gigantic
but flourishing, and such as are in season in full flower, the
arasitical plants falling from the roof in clusters of flowers ;
on the other side, conservatory plants, among the most con-
gpicuous of which were some Ericas (Heaths) standing two or
three feet high, and five or six feet in circumference, so covered
with flowers as to leave hardly a space through which you
could discern the leaves and branches. We next went to the
succession fruit houses, consisting of eight ranges of hot houses,
three in each range, and each range measuring two hundred

hope

and forty feet long. In the first six houses were Pine-apples

in every staté, from young plants to ripe fruit. In the next
six houses were Grapes, each house in succession to the prece-
ding one, and with the most superb crop of grapes you can
conceive. Then came Peach-houses, filled with fruit; then
Melon-houses, and last of all, Fig-houses, with full crops of figs
just ripening. These houses, though very interesting, Ihave
hurried you through to accompany me to the mushroom houses,
or rather cellars ; I dare not say what was the length of these,
but I should think at least one thousand feet. We next walked
through a part of the kitchen-garden, consisting of half an acre
of asparagus beds, quarter of an acre of onions, the same of
carrots, and the same of rhubarb, the finest I ever saw, and
every other vegetable in the same proportion. ‘ Why,” said
one of us to the gardener, ‘you can never consume these
vegetables ?” The reply was, “ When the Duke is here, we
make a pretty considerable hole in them, when you recollect
we have one hundred mouths in the servants’ hall, besides

from fifty to sixty at his Grace’s table, and the stewards’
table, housekeepers’ table, &c., to supply in addition.” The

orchard also consists of eight acres, and contains the finest

-

202. A. Visit to. Chatsworth.

$$

sorts of apples, pears, plums, damsons, and other fruits as
I will not take you there, but walk across the park to the Ornas
mental garden ; first taking a peep into the orchideous house,
which contains, I believe, specimens of every Orchidaceoys
plant known in England. The house is not ornamental, bein
built so as to suit the plants, but it covers an immense Space
of ground, and finer specimens, many in full blossom, I neye,
saw. Now we cross the magnificent park, which I might gy
a sheet by. describing, as it is the most beautiful of parks by
nature, and.is improved by.art to its highest perfection. me
only stop one. moment to look at the mansion—or I] ought
rather to say small town, for it is. the largest house I ever sayy,
(Buckingham palace would be lost in it) and of the pureg,
Grecian architecture. Though splendid in the extreme, po
part of it is gaudy or tinsel-looking, but every thing is noble
and.princely. The ornamental garden is a-quarter of a mile
distant from the house, forming one of the vistas from the
windows, the beds of flowers cut out of the finest velvet car.
peting of turf you ever saw ; each flower having its own pecy
liar bed, the formality of it broken by standard rose. trees,
climbers, running up real antique pillars, baskets of Howers, or
broken ruins covered with the tribe of rock plants; the garden
backed by a fine wood, in front of which is the green house,
filled with Camellias, five and six, and even ten feet in height;
Geraniums, Botany Bay trees, (for I cannot call them shrubs),
Mimosas, Ericas, Palms, Musas; in fact, a mixture of the pro-
ductions of all countries. An iron staircase leads from below
to. a gallery, so that after admiring the plants, you may
go above and see their tops reaching ten or fifteen feet high.
Nothing can be finer than the condition of these plants. From
this we descended to the Italian garden, which is: close under
the windows of the house; stopping on, our way to admire the
different, vistas over lakes of water, which as if by magic throw
up. fountains on different sides, the jet of one of which reaches
sixty feet high in a single column, Arrived at the Italian gar-
den, we might fancy ourselves really in Italy. It is a level
plot of two.or three acres, with marble divisions for the
flowers, some in form of immense. baskets, others in that of.
vases, others in. that of immense sea-shells ; in fact, every:

A. Visit to Chatsworth. 203

— ay of form, all filled with plants in flower. The plants
peing in pots, are taken away when out of flower, and replaced
py.others, $0 that. under the windows of the house they make
P rpetual flower garden. The formality of this arrange-
ment is broken by large plots of roses, and the whole garden
s formed in terraces, in the Italian style, each fenced with a
gone balustrade.

We must now walk on, or our time will not permit us to see

the waterfall, which terminates one of the vistas. The
machinery of this is so good,.and the deception so well man-
aged; that you see a broad sheet of water, apparently falling
500 or 600 yards, perpendicular, when it falls. over only a suc-
cession of broad steps, from the top of a hill about 200 feet high,
being supplied with water from a resevoir of sixteen acres on
the top. The water is amply sufficient, and falls with great
force, occupying about three minutes in reaching the bottom,
and there disappearing as if by magic, being conveyed under

ound. Now we arrive at what will be, when. finished, the
wonder of wonders, the new conservatory, situated in a se-
cluded spot, surrounded by magnificent oaks, which, sheltering
it from the winds, do not shade it from the sun. I cannot de-
gribe it. The centre is finished, and consists of one oblong,
oval dome, 60 feet high, 360 feet long, and 140 wide; with
two wings, each 100 feet long, entered through an arch of
rock-work, as if going into a cave, but the entrance large
enough for a carriage to drive in, and a carriage road goes ac+
tually through the whole. The plants are all to be planted in
the soil, without pots, and some idea of its size may be formed,
when I tell you that the pipes for heating it would form a line
six miles long. I never saw anything so magnificent; when
we drove into the park, the sun was shining on it, and we
took it for a sheet of water, surrounded by hanging woods.
Our time has been so taken up with this immense conservatory,
that we shall only be able to'see the water garden on our road
tothe house. This garden consists of Weeping willows and
other trees, collected together in a clump, at a little secluded
spot, which, on a sudden, throw jets of water from the point
of every leaf, thus forming an artificial shower of rain; but,
although very pretty, and certainly very ingenious, the trees

204 On the Culture of Roses.

oa
being all artificial, still; after the princely grandeur we have
been admiring, it seems small and insignificant.

Our space would not suffice, and the subjects are not suite
to a floral work, to describe the splendor and magnificence
the interior of the mansion at Chatsworth, (a full account of
which would indeed fill a large volume,) and we must be eon,
tented with alluding to a single room, in which is produced q
most enchanting effect when lighted up at night. This js
large gallery, lighted from above, fitted with large specimens
of oranges, lemons, Camellias, Rhododendrons, Bananas, and
a great variety of other plants, in large tubs and boxes, placed
on the floor, so as to leave plenty of space to walk about, anq
forming a complete promenade garden in the house.

ON THE CULTURE OF ROSES.

Roses may be planted either in autumn or spring; bat
many persons prefer the latter. The advocates of spring.
planting say that it is almost impossible to take up roses with.
out injuring their roots; and if planted with broken roots in
autumn, when the plantis in a languid state, the wounded part
is more likely to rot than to heal ; whereas, in spring, when
the sap is in motion, the vigorous state of the plant enables it
to heal the wound immediately. However, though opinions
may differ on this subject, there can be no doubt but that
spring is the season for planting all the China, and other deli-
_ Cate roses, and that the first week in April, or as soon as the
frost is out of the ground, is the suitable time.

The first point is to select a suitable situation, fully open to
the sun and air; as, though some few kinds of roses may be
planted as under-growth under the drip of trees, the greater
part must have abundance of sun and air. The situation of
the rosery having been chosen, care should be taken that the
ground be well drained ; and where the expense is not ob-
jected to, a bed may be excavated, two feet deep, and a layer
of brickbats, stones and rubbish, six inches deep, laid at the

On the Culture of Roses. 205

See eee SaaS eee aia aaa i ae
hottom- The bed should then be filled up with a compost of
neatly equal parts of turfy loam, or loam from old pasture

d, and vegetable mould, or very rotten manure, mixed with
- bout the eighth part of the whole of sand. When climbing
roses are planted for forming pyramids or pillars, a pit about
eighteen inches in diameter, or rather more, should be pre-

ared.in this manner for each rose ; and a similar plan should
he adopted in every situation where any particular rose is
wanted to grow with great luxuriance.

The bed or pit having been prepared, and raised a littl
above the general level of the garden, to allow for the new
ground settling, the roses should be taken up, and their roots
having been carefully examined, and all the bruised parts cut
of, they should be planted about two feet apart, if of the del-
icate growing kinds; or three feet apart, if of those kinds
which are very strong and robust. Roses should always be
planted carefully, with their roots well spread out; and they
should be kept out of the ground as short a time’ as possible.
They should be frequently watered,for some time after plant-
ing, and a little fresh stable manure should be laid on the sur-
face of the ground, over the roots. :

The hybrid China roses are the best for forming pyramids
and pillars, as they make shoots generally from six to ten feet
long every season, and their branches are flexible, as well as
vigorous. Their foliage is also very luxuriant, and healthy,
and their flowers very beautiful, and of clear and delicate
colors. They require a very rich soil, and when pruned,
their shoots should never be shortened ; but those that have
become old should be cut of close to the main stem, and abun-
dance of young wood left, as shoots two years old always pro-
duce the best flowers.

The season for budding roses extends from July to Septem-
ber; and as it is an operation admirably suited to ladies, from
its requiring skill rather than strength, we shall here give
some directions for performing it. The first thing necessary,
is to procure a proper knife; that is, one with the haft made
thin at the end, for the purpose of raising the bark after the
incision is made. The knives usually sold for budding are
sharply pointed, but if one can be procured with a round

206 On the Culture of Roses.

point, it will be found easier to manage. Some bast mat
must then be pulled into ribbons or strands, and laid in

to be ready. A stock must then be selected, and this ma:
either an old tree-rose, or a wild brier transplanted from the
hedges the preceding year, or a wild rose raised in the garden
from seed, and two or three years old, or a sucker spru
from the roots of some garden rose. When the stock ge
lected, a small part of the stem’must be chosen, and al] the
side shoots, above and beneath it, except those forming the heag
of the stock, must be cleared away. An incision should then
be made in the bark, about half ‘an inch long, horizontally
and from the centre of this a perpendicular cut one or ti,
inches long must be made, downwards. The great ay ‘,
doing this is to cut entirely through the bark, without woundin
the wood ; and it is for this reason that a blunt pointed knife ‘
better than one with a sharp point, as with the latter it jg y
difficult to avoid wounding the wood. The bud must then hy
‘prepared, by cutting it out of a shoot of the current year’s
‘growth. This is done by-inserting the knife about half an ine
above the bud, and then cutting downwards, so as to take out
the bud with the wood of about half the thickness of the shoot
This piece of wood must then be separated from the bark,
without injuring the bud ; and this is the most difficult part of
the whole operation, as if it be done. carelessly, the eye of the
bud will be probably pulled away with the wood, and the bul
will be rendered useless. The separated bark must therefore
be carefully examined on the inner side; and if no hole is found
where the bud is, it is in a proper state. The bark of the
stock must then be carefully raised with the _haft of the knif,
on each side of the perpendicular incision, and the bud, being
first reduced to the proper size, must be slipped carefully in,
~The bark of the horizontal incision is then raised to admit the
‘upper part of the bud, andthe operation is finished, except
‘tying the stem several times round with the strands of bast
matting, in order to keep the bud in its proper place. =
| In about a month, if the bud be found to look full and fresn,
‘it has become united to the stock, and the bandage may be
loosened to allow it room to swell ; and when the operation has
‘been performed in July, the head of the stock is generally

The Natural System of Botany. 207

ae eA TE re aa ee eB yea.
ken off about a week afterwards, in order to throw all the
arength into the bud. If, however, the operation be deferred
until August or September, the head of the stock is generally
jeft on till spring. All the shoots below the bud should be rab-
ped or pinched off as soon’as they appear.
Magazine of Gardening.

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER SEVEN.

Order—Viotacex. The Violet Tribe.

Arrer Crucifere, in the natural arrangement, come several
orders, which comprise but few genera, and those of no great
interest. Passing by these, we come to a small, but interesting
order, Which contains some well known and favorite plants.
This is the order Violacex, the Violet Tribe. To study its
stracture, take the common garden Violet, or Heartsease,
Viola tricolor, which is easily obtained, and the parts of which
are larger and more readily examined than those of most other
species. The leaf is narrow, oblong, and undivided. At its
base are a pair of large, sessile stipules, deeply cut, and these.
give the leaf the appearance of. being lobed. The sepals of
the calyx are five, of unequal size, and prolonged at the base.
The petals are also five, unequal, and two of them stand
“upright, so as to appear above the others, and a third has a
horn or spur.at its base. The stamens are also five, without
“flaments. Two of them have long projections which are hid-
den in the horn of the petal, and they are all terminated by a
‘membranous expansion. The ovary is superior and one-celled,
with three parietal placente, covered with young seeds. “There
is but one style, in one side of which is an aperture leading to
the stigma. The reason of this peculiarity has not been_
explained. ‘The calyx is persistent, and the fruit towhich'it _—
‘adheres, after the other parts of the flower are gone, opens into

208 The Natural System of Botany.

ee
three valves. The essential characters of Violaces are, then
a persistent calyx, irregular flower, anthers with a membranoy,
crest, and a three-valved fruit, with a parietal placenta in the
middle of each valve.

The order is not a large one, but contains several usefy] and
ornamental species, some of which are among the most com.
mon favorites of the garden. The roots of nearly all the order
| possess emetic properties, and the Ipecac, so generally used jn
medicine, is produced by a South American species. For the
genus Viola, the reader is referred to the last number of this
work, where he will find more particular mention made of ie
species.

Order—DrosEracesz. The Sun-dew Tribe.

This is a small order, containing some very curious plants,
They are all small and delicate, and are distributed in we
places over a great portion of the world. T'wo or three species
of Drosera, from which genus the order takes its name, are
found in the Northern States. A description of the most com.
mon species, Drosera rotundifolia, will show what singular
characters belong to these plants. This Sun-dew may le
found in bogs, on those roundish tufts which are surrounded by
water, and on the muddy shores of ponds and rivers. Itisa
little plant, not more than four or five inches high. The leaves
are nearly round, on long hairy stalks, lying flat on the ground,
At first they are rolled up, but when spread out and fill
grown, they form a concave disk, covered with long, red,
shining hairs, on the point of each of which is a drop of clear,
clammy fluid, which appears like dew glistening in the sun,
That it is not real dew is readily ascertained ; since it is most
conspicuous at mid-day, when the dew is entirely dried up.
These hairs, when placed under the microscope, are found to
consist of a great number of parallel cells, and to be most
_ beautifully variegated with pink, green, and yellow. Each
hair is tipped with a most brilliant red point, from which
exudes the fluid, which is acrid to the taste. The hairs, when
an insect alights on them, curve inwards so as to retain it
The flowers are very small. white, arranged on one side of the

The Natural System of Botany. 209

scape, and when young are coiled inwards. ‘The ‘sepals are
gye in number, as are also the petals and stamens. In their
organs of fructification these plants are nearly allied to the
Yjolets, but they have been placed in different positions. in the
patural arrangement. We have followed. the best American
guthorities in assigning them a place next to Violaceew. Dr.
Lindley: considers it probable that their true affinity is with the
gide Saddle Flowers, Sarraceniacee. ee ee :

There is another very remarkable plant of this order, which
isa native of the Southern States, and is sometimes seen in
northern collections. This is Venus’ ‘Fly Trap, Dionza
muscipula. The following description of it, taken from Mr. -
Curtis's Plants of North Carolina, will interest: those who have
never seen it in its native soil :

«The leaf, which is the only remarkable part, springs from
the root, spreading upon the ground, at a little elevation above
it, It is composed of a petiole, or stem with broad margins, ©
like the leaf of the Orange tree, two to four inches long, which,
at the end, suddenly expands into a thick and somewhat rigid
leaf, the two sides of which are semi-circular, about two-thirds
of an inch across, and fringed around their edges with some-
what rigid: ciliz, or long hairs, like eye-lashes. The leaf,
indeed, may be very aptly compared’ to two upper eye-lids,
joined at their bases. Each portion of the leaf is a little con- _
cave on the inner side, where-are placed three delicate, hair-
ike organs, in such an order that'an insect can hardly traverse

it without interfering with one of them, when the two sides
suddenly collapse and enclose their prey, with a force surpass-_
ing the insect’s efforts to escape. The fringe or hairs of the
opposite sides interlace, like the fingers of the two hands
clasped together. The sensitiveness resides only in these hair-
like processes on the inside, as the leaf may be touched or
pressed in any other part, without sensible effect. The little
prisoner is not crushed and suddenly destroyed, as is some--
times supposed, for I have often liberated captive flies and
_ spiders, which sped away as fast as fear or joy could’hasten
them. At other times I have found them enveloped in & fluid
of mucilaginous consistence, which seemed to act as a solvent,
the insect being more. or less — by it: This cireum-

210 The Natural System of Botany.

——----
stance has suggested the possibility of the insects being made
subservient to the nourishment of the plant, through an g
ratus of absorbent vessels in the leaves. It is not to be j
posed, however, that such food is necessary to the existence ¢
the plant, though, like compost, it may increase its growth and
vigor. But however obscure and uncertain may be the final
purpose of such a singular organization, if it were a problem
to construct a plant with reference to entrapping insects, I cap,
not conceive of a form, and organization better adapted 4,
secure that end, than are found in the Dionea muscipula,.y
therefore deem it no credulous inference, that its leaves ap
constructed for that, specific object, whether insects subsepy,
the purpose of nourishment to the plant or not.”

Order—Cistacem. The Rock-Rose Tribe.

This is a small order, containing some ornamental planis
cultivated in gardens under the name of Rock Rose. Several
of the species are very handsome, and all are very singularly

constructed. Their flowers are very frail, blossoming pring.
pally at night, and perishing under the heat of the sun. The
_leaves of some possess a very fragrant odor. . From one spe
ies, the Gum Cistus, Cistus ladaniferus, a very popular garden
shrub, and from one or two others, is extracted the gum called
_ Jadanum, the fragrance of which has caused it to be used in
fumigating preparations. Most of the genus Cistus belong to
the Southern parts of Europe and the: Mediterranean islands
The American genera are of little note, either for ornament
use. . The construction of the seed vessel, and of the embryo,
is very curious, and forms one of the distinguishing peculiar:
ties of the order. . We shall offer a detailed description of it in
another place. | ae » we
Order—Canyvoruynnaces. The Pink Tribe.

_ Between the last mentioned order‘and this, there are two
or three orders which possess no general interest, and contain

no. plants worthy of. particular notice. ‘The Pink ‘Tribe, o
Chickweed Tribe, as it is often called, includes some. plants

The Natural System of Botany. on

of great beauty, though most of its members are of little inter-
ast Some very common weeds, such as Sandwort, Chick-
weed, and Carpetweed, belong here.’ The Pink, in all its
peautiful varieties, is the genus which’ gives the order its name,
and contains almost the only species remarkable in point of use
or beauty. To examine the structure of the flower, any Pink
may be chosen, so it is not a double one. The joints of the
steft, at the points where the leaves are set on, are very much
swoln, and this is one of the marks of the order. The calyx
has five sepals separated only at the points. The petals are
fve, each having a stalk and a blade.- The stalks or claws,
are much narrower than the blade, and stand side by side“in the
calyx, the blade spreading over, and being fringed or lacerated
at the outer border. The stamens are ten, rising from beneath
a superior ovary, which has one cell and many seeds. The
styles are two, and the stigmas are fringed. The capsule
opens with four valves, The characters by which the Pink
Tribe may be- distinguished, are :—Stems, swollen at the
joints ; leaves, opposite and undivided; stamens, few and
hypogynous; ovary, with many styles, one cell, and a cen-—
tral receptacle. Beit gaia : Fakectabe te
The order is divided -into two sections, one of which has the
sepals all distinct, and the other has them united ina tube. In
the tubular division, besides the Pink, are contained the Catch-
fly, the Cockle, (Agrostemma,) the Ragged Robin, and afew
others. .In the other division are the numerous species of
Chickweed (Stellaria) and Sandwort (Arenaria).

Order—Lixacen. The Flax Tribe.

This order contains only a few plants, but these are very
commonly distributed, and afford a product of the greatest im-
portance. In some points the Flax Tribe bear a resemblance
tothe last order mentioned, and indeed were formerly included
in it, but the difference.is so plain and in so many-important
characters, that the separation is entirely proper. The stems
of the Flax are not swollen at the joints, nor are the leaves
generally opposite. The five sepals are arranged, three.in an
inner, and. two in an outer series: The stamens, petals, and

“ee

212 The Natural System of Botany. :

sepals, are always equal in number. ‘The ovary contains ten

cells, and the seed vessel operis into ten valves. By these gig
ferences the Flax Tribe: may sci be distinguished im the
Pink Tribe.

*« Scarcely any plant i is less affected than the common Plax,
(Linum usitatissimum), by differences of soil and climate,
The same species, with all its characteristics unaltered, flour.
ishes in the cold as well as in the temperate regions of Europe,
in North and South America, in Africa and in Asia. Thete
are few plants. which are made subservient to so great.a varie
of uses, It is from the woody fibre of its stem that all the
thread is obtained, which has been. from very early ages em
ployed in the manufacture of linen fabrics, and it is now ugeq
for that purpose to a greater extent than ever, in spite of the
degree i in which it has been superseded by cotton. Fromni- ‘the
seeds is obtained, by pressure, linseed oil; and the dry cake
which is left is used for feeding cattle.» The seed coats Algo
contain much mucilage, so that-an infusion of the seeds, known
as:linseed tea, is often of great utility as a soothing remedy,
Further, the seeds, when ground into meal, form a most excel-
lent material for. poultices ; ; and: great quantities are used for
this purpose, especially in hospitals. The greatest supplies of
Flax consumed in manufactures are furnished by Russia and:
Prussia. The annual imports into Great Britain are said to
be from forty thousand to seventy-five thousand tons of flax,
and néarly two millions of bushels of linseed. ‘The best Irish
linen, however, is made from flax cultivated in that counitry.
In some parts of the United States it is also raised to a con-
siderable extent; but: the. greater value of the corn crops has
taken away the inducement to its general cultivation. The
appearance of the common flax is so familiar as to make a
description unnecessary, ‘and our limits forbid an attempt to
Hoven the “Gpetations og noe to prepare it for use.

Order Cunasince.n. The Geranium Tribe

This i is an’ interesting order; on account of the great aie
of species: which are favorite cultivated: plants. Nearly all the —
ee are, ee called Geraniums,’ though the exotics

The Natural System of Botany. 218

hich are so. much prized for their fragrance and beauty,
pelong to the genus Pelargonium. Several species of the'real
Geranitm are natives of North America, and one, G. macula-
‘am, usually called. Cranesbill, is a common inhabitant of ‘the
woods and fields of the Northern States. This plant, like
other Geraniums, has leaves lacinated, or cut in three or five

, on petioles which are much swollen at the base-where
they join the stem. This is a character of the whole ordé?,
The flowers are in an umbel, or rather would be in an umbél
jfmore than two grew from the: same point. The sepals are
five, and the petals five, purple, and strongly veined: The
stamens are ten, disposed in two’ rows, of which the outer ig
shortest. In the cultivated Geraniums, or Pelargoniums, there
isless regularity.. The stamens are generally less than ten in
number, and the two upper petals of the corolla are larger than
the three lower, and stand apart so as to make the flower
appear as if it had a pair of lips. ~ The pistil of the Geranium
consists of five carpels clustered together round a prolongation
of the disk, and each cell contains a single seed.» The styles
adhere together:so as to form a singlecolumn, divided at: the
top into five stigmas. The ripe fruit much resembles the head
and long bill of the Crane, whence are applied both the ¢om-
mon name Cranesbill, and the name of the genus, which is
made of a Greek word signifying a crane. “This singular
appearance is owing to a very simple circumstance. In: most
plants the styles shrink up or fall off at the same time that the
flower fades, and by the time the fruit is ripe, entirely disap-
pear. But in the Geranium, the styles continue to grow and
harden as fast as the fruit itself; and when the latter is ripe,
the styles project from the ovaries in the form of a beak. At
the same time the seeds are shut up in the ¢ayities of the
ovary, so that one would wonder how they are to get out. If
you would wish to catch the Geranium in the act of sowing its
seed, gather a, little branch of the ripe fruit in a fine summer’s
morning, before the dew is off, and place it in the sun. By
degrees the fruits will dry, and if you watch them, you will be
surprised by some of them, on a sudden, emitting a snapping
sound, and you may see first one and then another of the ova-
ries quickly curving upwards towards the top of the style,

214 The Natural System of Botany.

Lene eee a eee ee aE
opening, at the same time, by their face, so as to let the geaq
drop out. This is caused by the styles contracting from dy.
ness, and shortening; they stick so close together at the points
that they cannot separate there, and so they actually pull 4s
the ovary by the roots, and then roll up upon themselves ag
though frightened at what they had done.” Be:
‘The Geraniaceze are extensively diffused over the globe,
The chief residence of the cultivated Pelargoniums is at the
Cape of Good Hope. By cultivation, and hybridizing, map
new varieties have been raised. The effect of hybridizing
to produce in a single individual the characters of two others,
Thus, if the pollen of a plant with blue flowers is placed upon
the stigma of one with red flowers, the seed will produce
plant with purple flowers ; or,if a sort with large, coarse flow.
ers, be intermixed with one which has small, neat flowers, the
result will be a large and neat flower.. The Pelargoniums
intermix very readily, and this is the reason of the numeroys
varieties, and. improved kinds. This intermixture, however,
it must be remembered, will only be effectual among varieties
of the same species, or among species which are very nearly
related to each other. “oi |
The plants of this order possess an astringent principle,
which, in our common spotted Geranium, is so powerful as to
make its roots. valuable medicinal article. They also haye
an’ aromatic, resinous principle, which causes the dry stem
of one species to emit when burning a most agreeable odor.

eee

,

Nomenclature. - 215

: r : ; | e ’

NOMENCLATURE..

We have desired to offer our readers an article. on the impor-
tant subject of nomenclature, and had partly prepared one;
put we find the requisite information so concisely and properly
gimmed up by Dr. Gray, that we are pleased to adopt his
remarks in preference of our own. |

The names of the Natural Orders, which are always plural,
gometimes express a characteristic feature of the group;. as for
instance, Leguminose, or the Leguminous plants, such as the
Pea, Bean, &c., whose fruit is a legume ; Umbellifere, or Um-
pelliferous plants, so named from having the flowers in an
gmbel; Composite, an order having what were termed com- .

und flowers by the earlier botanists; Labiate, so called from
the labiate or two-lipped corolla which nearly all the species
exhibit ; Crucifere, which have their four petals disposed in the
form of a cross. But more frequently, and indeed as a gene-
ral rule, the name is formed from that of some leading or well
known genus, which is prolonged into the adjective termination
ace. ‘Thus, the plants of the order which comprises the Mal-
low, (Malva), are called Malvacee; that is, Plante Malvaceae,
or in English, Malvaceous plants; those of which the Rose;
(Rosa) is the well known representative,are Rosacea, or Rosa-
ceous plants. “ This termination in acee being reserved for
orders, should not be applied to sub-orders, or tribes; which
asually bear the name of their principal or best known genus
in an adjective form, without such prolongation. Thus the
genus Rosa gives name to a particular tribe, Rosee, of -the
order Rosacee@; the genus Malva to the tribe Malvee of the
order Malvacee. on: |

The number of genera in an order is quite as indefinite as’
that of the orders in a class, or other great division. While
some orders are constituted of a single genus, as Equisetacez,:
Grossulaceze, &c., (just as many genera contain but a single
known species,) others comprise a large number ; nearly nine
hundred being embraced in the last general enumeration of-the:
Composite. The names of genera are Latin substantives, in

~

216 Nomenclature.

the singular number, and mostly of Greek or Latin derivation
Those which were known to the ancients generally Preserye
their classical appellations; as Fagus, Prunus, Myrtus, Vj,
&c.; and even the barbarous or vulgar names of plants are
often adopted, when susceptible of a Latin termination, and
not too uncouth; for example, Thea and Coffea, for the Tea
and Coffee plants, Bambusa for the Bamboo,. Yucca, Negundo
é&c. But more commonly, generic names are formed to ¢,
press some botanical character, habit, or obvious peculiarity of
the plants they designate ; such as Arenaria, from arena, sand
for a plant which grows in sandy places; Dentaria, from dens,
a tooth, for a plant with toothed roots; Lunaria, from luna, the
moon; for one with crescent-shaped pods ; Sanguinaria, from
sanguis, blood, for the Blood-root; Crassula, from crassus, thick,
for some plants with remarkably thick leaves. These ay
instances of Latin derivatives ; butrecourse is more commonly
had to the Greek language, especially for generic names com.
posed of two words; such as Menispermum, or Moon-seed ;
Exthospermum, for a plant with stony seeds ; Melanthium, mean.
ing black flower, for a genus whose flowers turn of -a black or
dusky color ; Epidendron, upon a tree, for Orchideous plants
which grow upon trees ; Liriodendron, lily, or tulip, tree, for a

_tree which bears lily-shaped flowers. Genera are also dedi-

cated to distinguished persons, a practice commenced by the
ancients; as in the case of Paonia, the Peony, which bears
the name of Peon; who is said to have employed the plant in
medicine; and Euphorbia, Artemisia and Asclepias, are also
examples of the kind. Modern names of this kind are given in
commemoration of botanists, or of persons who have contr
buted to the advancement of natural history. Magnolia, Big-
noma, Lobelia, and Lonicera, dedicated to Magnol, Bignon,
Lobel, and Lonicer, are early instances of the practice ; Lin-
nza, Tournefortia, Jussizea, Gronovia, &c., bear the names
of more celebrated botanists; and at the present day, almost
every devotee or patron of the science is thus commemorated,

The names of species, as a general rule, are adjectives,
written after those.of the genera, and established on similar
principles ; as Magnolia grandiflora, the Large-flowered Mag-

nolia; M. macrophylla, the Large-leaved Magnolia ; Bignonia

Nomenclature. Ke 217
(9 TE RENE AE tile taste RY OE
adicans, the Rooting Bignonia. The generic and specific
names, taken together, constitute the proper scientific appella-
tion of the plant. Specific names sometimes distinguish the
country which a plant inhabits, as Viola Canadensis, the
Ganadian Violet ; or the situation where it naturally grows, as
7, palustris, which grows in swamps; V. arvensis, in fields;
ot they express some obvious character of the species, as
V. rostrata, where the corolla has a remarkably long spur;
7. tricolor, which has tri-colored flowers; V. rotundifolia, with
rounded leaves ; V. lanceolata, with lanceolate leaves; V. pri-
nulofolia, where the‘leaves are compared. to those of the Prim-
ose; V- asarifolia, where they are likened to those of Asarum ;
V. pubescens, which is hairy throughout, &c. Frequently the
species bears the name of its discoverer or describer, when it
takes the genitive form, as Viola Muhlenbergir, Muhlenberg’s
Violet, V. Nuttallii, Nuttall’s Violet. When such commemo-
ative names are merely given in compliment to a botanist,
unconnected with the discovery or history of the plant, the
adjective form is preferred; as Carex Torreyana, C. Hooker-
‘gna, &c.; but this rule is not universally followed. Specific
names are sometimes substantive ;-as Ranunculus Flammula,
Hypericum Sarothra, Linaria Cymbalaria ; in which case they
do not necessarily accord with the genus in gender.. These,
aswell as all specific names derived from the names of persons
oreountries, should always be written with a capital initial
letter. a dle ti , :

218 Flowerless Plants.

a een
FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

_Avruover the Cellular or Cryptogamous plants do. no
come directly within the scope of this work, yet they form top
large and important a class to be entirely unnoticed. — Soine of
them, though unadorned with the bright hues and delicate
proportions which have made a love for flowers so universal,
are yet both interesting and useful, and some of the phe.
nomena connected with their organization are very curious,
We propose to devote an occasional brief article to thei,
history. .The Mosses, perhaps the most abundant and Widely
diffused of the Cryptogamia, are found in all parts of the
world in-which the atmosphere is moist, but they are much
more numerous in temperate climates, than between the tropics,
In newly found countries, they are among the. first vegetables
which clothe the soil; and they are the last to disappear whey
the atmosphere ceases to be capable of nourishing vegetation,
The first green crust upon the cinders with which the surface
of Ascension Island was covered, consisted. of minute mosgeg,
This tribe forms more. than a fourth of the whole Vegetation
of Melville Island, one.of the most northerly spots in which
any plants have been observed ; and the black and lifeless goj]
of New South Shetland, one of the islands nearest the South
Pole, is covered with specks of mosses, struggling for exis
tence. Besides their power of resisting extremes of tempera.
ture, Mosses exhibit a remarkable tenacity of life, when their
growth is checked by the absence of moisture ; so that their
life may often be restored, even after being dried for years,
Hence, they offer abundant sources of interest to the observer
of Nature, at a season when vegetation of other kinds is almost
entirely checked. For it is most curious to observe how gay
these little mosses are, on every wall during the winter months,
and in the early spring, seeming like the only things which
enjoy the clouds and storms of the season. They choose the
most exposed situations, spread out their leaves, and push up
their delicate urns amid rain, frost and snow ; and yet there is
nothing in their simple and tender structure from which we

The Cactus. 919

could infer their capability of resisting influences so generally
destructive to vegetation. But it 1s with the plant as it is
with the animal. The more simple and lowly the being, the
ater is usually its tenacity of life under circumstances
which depress the vital powers of higher kinds, while the in-
fluences which they require are often too powerful for it. Thus,
Wosses and Lichens, over stimulated by heat and dryness,
wither in summer ; but vegetate freely at a season when there
is no other vegetation, and when their humble fabrics cannot
be overshadowed by a ranker growth. -Mosses were fanci-
fully termed by Linnzus, serv2, servants, or workmen ; for they
gem to labor to produce vegetation in newly-found countries,
where soil can scarcely yet be said to exist. This is not,
however, their only use. They fill up and consolidate bogs,
and form rich vegetable mould for the growth of larger plants, -
which they also protect from cold during the winter. - They
likewise clothe the sides of lofty hills and mountain ranges,
and powerfully attract and condense the watery, vapors float-
ing in the atmosphere, and thus become the living fountains
of many streams. They are sometimes so completely dried
up by drought, that they escape notice, and then when moist-
ened by rain, they appear to have suddenly clothed a barren
heath, or overspread a dry wall with verdure. ae

THE CACTUS. —

Aut the species of the Cactus tribe are destitute of true
leaves, except when they are first beginning to grow. Just at
that time they do indeed produce little succulent bodies, which
we know to be rudiments of leaves; but such parts drop off
soon after they are born, and the only representatives they
leave behind are the stiff, hooked spines, with which so many
species are covered, ‘The parts which are mistaken for leaves
in the Indian fig, or some of the more common species of
Cereus, are only the flattened joints of the stem. saan

It would be difficult to find any race of plants, where a

220 ‘The Cactus.

ETP ROR PRA
more obvious connexion exists between the manner jn whi
they are constructed, and the situations it is their destin to
live in. The greater number grow in hot, dry, rocky pla
where they are exposed for many months in the year tg the
fiercest beams of a tropical sun, without a possibility of ob.
taining from the parched and hardened’ soil, more thay the
most scanty supply of necessary food. Under such cite,
stances, plants of an ordinary structure would perish, but
Cactuses have a special power of resisting heat and droup}
and, like the Camel, they carry with them a supply of wate,
for many, not days, but months. It usually happens that ong
a year, during several weeks at least, the air that surround;
them is saturated with moisture, and the soil they live jn j
drenched by ceaseless rains. At this time they grow fast,
all the little cavities in their tissue, of which there are coup,
less millions, are filled with liquid nourishment, and they ma
be literally said to gorge themselves with food. Then, whey
the rains cease, and the air dries up, and the Spirit of the
desert reassumes his withering dominion over their cli
Cactuses are in the most robust health, and their cells a
abundantly filled with provision against scarcity. But thes
supplies would be quickly consumed by plants only protected
by a thin epidermis, and having their surface pierced by
millions of breathing pores, all actively exhaling the evapo,
able matter that lies. beneath them, and an early death woul
be the inevitable result. Such, indeed, is the lot of all the gay
companions of the Cactus, which surround it during the sea.
_ son of feasting and prosperity, and to which Nature has given
no special means of enduring the hardships to which their lot
exposes them; a few days or weeks suffice to sweep their
forms from the face of creation ; their leaves rapidly consume
the stores deposited in the stems; their stems turn in vain to
the roots for a renewed supply, for after but a little while, the
arid earth has nothing to part with, and then the leaves wither
and fall off, the stems shrink up and crack with the dry heat,
and the roots themselves, in many cases, follow the same fate,
With Cactuses this is different; they have so tough and thick
a hide, that what liquid substances they contain, can only pass
through ‘it in minute quantities ; the breathing pores of their

Embryology. 221

are comparatively few, and so small as to act with

eme slowness, when the air is dry ; so that in proportion to

ihe aridity of the air, and the heat to which such plants are

d, is their reluctance to part with the food they contain.

Giger and redigest it with extreme slowness, and may be

ily said to live upon themselves during all those months

hen they cannot feed upon the soil or the atmosphere.

: Ladies’. Botany.

_ EMBRYOLOGY.

Tas peculiar construction of the embryo of the Cistacee is
iluded to on page 210. The following notice, by Dr. Lindley,
of this peculiarity, and incidentally of the method in which it
is supposed that the impregnation of seeds is effected, will
‘how the minute care and patience which have been.devoted _
this obscure subject. tht:
The ovule of the Cistacez has a perforation or foramen at
its point ; all ovules have such a perforation, but not all in the
same place. In most ovules it is next the base; in a few only
does it exist at the point, as in the plants before you. The
we of the foramen is not a little curious. You are aware that
yhen the ovule is first formed, it is no more than a mass’ of

lp, in which little or no organization can be detected inter-
nally; but, in process of time, a small, cloudy speck forms. in
this pulpy interior, and keeps growing larger and larger, till at
hst it becomes an embryo. It has been observed that the -
eck always first becomes visible next the foramen ; and.
there is great reason to believe that in reality the speck is in- .
toduced into the ovule through the foramen. Further, it is»
supposed that it is in the anther that this speck is first formed;
that it originates in the inside of a grain of pollen; that when |
te pollen falls upon the stigma, the former puts forth an éx-
wssively fine tube, much finer than the most delicate hair ; that
the tube passes down the style, and. continues to lengthen till it
aches the foramen; that the contents of the grain of pollen

222 Embryology.

—__—————
are discharged into the tube, and then, by some hidden
mysterious agency, carried down the tube; and that, final}
they are thus conveyed into the ovule through the foramen, Pi
form the speck. .

For all the evidence, and the many curious facts, connee
with this part of Botany, I must refer you to modern Tatrodye,
tions to this ‘subject; in this place, you must be satisfied With
my assurance that this extraordinary statement is sup
not only by observations of my own, but by the concurtey
testimony of all thé most cautious and skilful microscopic
observers who have engaged in the inquiry.

What I have already stated to you is extraordinary enough
and much cause as you have already found at every step t
admire the wonderful care and skill with which all the actions
of vegetable life are conducted, yet I think you must here fin
a fresh and unexpected source of admiration. You see that iy
the formation of the seed of even what we may deem the moy
worthless weed, there is the same unerring Providence, ag jy
the preservation of the race of man. Only think for a momen,
upon the long journey that the little speck, the tiny rudimen,
of a seed, has to take before it can arrive at the only place in
which it is possible that its destiny can be fulfilled, or that}
should be developed into a new being. - Born in the pollen
grain, it is originally enclosed in a double-guarded prison; i
own little spherical vault, and the more extensive walls of the
anther. The anther must open before the pollen can escape;
and it must open too at a particular time, at the very moment
when the stigma has secreted a clammy dew which will hol
fast the pollen if it falls upon it. Then the pollen must fall m
the stigma; to fall elsewhere is useless. This accomplished,
the microscopic rudiment of the seed has to commence a long
winding journey through all the intricacies of the style, and the
ovary; till its guardian tube conducts it to the ovule, al
deposits it in safety.- And all this is so provided for that w
find every adjustment exactly that which is best suited to the
object. in view ; invisible springs in the anther, acted upon ly
- the very same cause as that which renders the stigma clammy,

~ combine their million little forces to pull open the sides of tha
case; to enable their forces to act with certainty, the sides

Watering. 293
a a i a ae ee en
fhe anther are weakened in a particular line, which in every
anther of the same species is constantly the same. It is sup-
‘nosed that the clamminess of the stigma is not merely to stick
the pollen-grain fast, but also to cause the formation of the pol-
Jeri-tube ; to enable the latter to reach the ovule, notwithstand-
ng its excessive delicacy, the whole texture of the stigma and
le is loosened, so as to offer as little resistance as possible to
the passage of the pollen-tube. In the Rock-Rose Tribe we
have a still farther example of the facility with which obstacles
to communication between the pollen-tube and the opening in
the ovule are overcome.

If we suppose a grain of pollen to fall on the stigma of a Cis-
tus, its tube may be easily understood to reach the place where
the ovules grow ; but when there, it is cut off from the foramen
by the whole length of the stalk and sides of the ovule, for the
foramen is at the other end of the latter. In order to overcome
this difficulty, we are told by M. Adolphe Brongniart, that the
pollen-tube does not follow the placenta till it reaches the ovule,
but quits the style at the top of the cavity of each cell, and
thence lengthens in the open space inside the ovary, in the
form of the finest imaginable cobweb, till it reaches the foramen
in the end of the ovules.

WATERING.

BY MR. ELEY,

_ Injadicious watering does mote injury to plants in rooms and
conservatories than most persons imagine, as plants suffer from
‘too much water, as well as too little. | Many persons think
that they want water every day, and the more they give the
better. Others, being very cautious, will scarcely give them
sufficient to sustain life. When plants have had too much —
water, the leaves turn dark and flabby, and when too ‘little,
they turn yellow, and finally drop off. The best plan isnot'to
water them till the soil in the pots appears dry, or their leaves
droop: then give them sufficient water to wet the soil thorough-

224 Watering.

_ly down to the bottom of the pot, and do not give then al = a
more until they become dry again. Pour the water on t
top of the pot, and let it soak down to the roots, but do not let
it stand in the pans under the pots, for it causes the roots tp |
decay, and injures them very much. Of course, this does not
apply in the case of aquatic plants, and such as require a more
plentiful supply in the time of flowering. The water for this )
purpose should not be taken fresh from the pump or cistern io
the winter season, but should stand in the room some time, op
be a little warmed to take off the chill. When the weather is
warm and dry, as it usually is at times in the spring and gym,

mer, and the plants in full flower, they will require watering —
freely every day, especially such as are in small pots, and the

_ pots full of roots. Those in larger pots, with more room fo

their roots, will not require it so often. The best time to Water

plants in summer, is in the evening, as they will have the night |
to refresh themselves in ; and in the winter season in the mor —
ing, that the pots may be warmed in the sun, and they will not
be subject to be chilled; although in rooms heated by furnaces,
where a regular heat is kept, it will make but little difference; 1
they may be watered when most convenient. As some plants —
evaporate their moisture much faster than others, they will re.

quire watering more frequently, which will be indicated by the r
drooping of their leaves. In cloudy or rainy weather they —
will not need so much water; unless they are in the house, or
the soil is dry. Plants accustomed to the house should not be —
set out in heavy rains in winter, or early in spring, as the rain —
is cold, and if they become saturated, it gives them a chill from
which they are:some time in recovering; but in a warm rain —

in summer they may be set out for an hour or two, and then —

taken in again, which will greatly refresh them, and persons .

having only the house to keep them in, will find them much —

, benefited in summer, by setting them out in the evening, to re

ceive dew, and taking them into the house again in the mom-
ing. Plants in warm rooms at all times require to be kepta
little moist, though they need most water when growing and —
flowering. —

The Sweet Pea. 225

___—s LATHYRUS—THE SWEET Pa.

¥ Order, Leguminose; Linnean System, Diadelphia, Decandria.
:* Generic Distinctions :—Calyx, campanulate, the two upper segments
g shorter; style, flat, dilated above; corolla, papilionaceous ; stamens, dia-

-— delphous. ;
hh iflorus.—Hairy ; stems, four-angled, winged; leaves, with one pair
: uf ovate, obtuse leaflets; stipules, small, lanceolate ; peduncles, two,
g three-flowered, longer than the leaves; teeth of the calyx, acute, longer
than the tube; legumes, long, linear, tuberculous.— PI. 31. Fig. 1.

8 Latuyrus is the ancient Greek name of the Sweet Pea, or
me other leguminous plant. The genus is well known from
- the beautiful annual sweet peas which it includes, and which
gre so common in gardens. The species figured here, is a
perennial, and is a very handsome climber, its flowers being
98 large and brilliant as the largest sweet pea, but destitute
oof fragrance. It is a native of the South of Europe, where it
-gows in great abundance among hedges and bushes. It is
_giid to be particularly abundant in Sicily and on Mount Etna.
Ttis somewhat cultivated in this country, where it will grow,
‘like the common sweet pea, in any common garden soil. - Its
soot is creeping, and when it has once taken possession of the
‘ail, itis difficult to eradicate it. It is easily propagated by |
dividing the roots, or by planting the seeds.

_ There is an European species, L. sativus, which has been
“wsed in making bread, and the history of which is so singular
as to be worthy of notice. The seeds being ground and
‘nixed with wheat flour in half the quantity, produce a very
» good bread, which appears to be harmless. But bread made
with this flour only, has brought on a most surprising rigidity
of the limbs in those who have used it for a length of time,
g insomuch that the extérior muscles could not by any means be
reduced, or have their natural action restored. These symp-
toms usually appeared on a sudden, without any previous
pain; but sometimes they were preceded by a weakness and
greeable sensation about the knees. Swine fattened
h this meal lost the use of their limbs, but grew very fat
lying on the ground. A horse, fed some months on the dried -
Vou. 1—15. . |

9

226 The Ground Nut.

herb, was said to have his limbs perfectly rigid. Pigeons be
especially young ones, lost the power of walking by feeding a .
the seed. The effects of this plant were so dreadful, that thea
use of it was prohibited by the Duke of Wirtemberg, ang tk 4
edict was enforced by two of his successors. y

Other species of Lathyrus are well known ornamental plants
L. odoratus, the Sweet Pea, in particular. Another species :
produces tubers, which are highly esteemed as food in Holland, _

APIOS—THE GROUND NUT.

Natural. Order, Leguminose; Linnean System, Diadelphia, Decandria,
Generic Distinctions:—Calyx, campanulate, with four almost obsolete —
teeth, the lower one acute and elongated; keel, falcate, bent back uponthe —
vexillum ; ovary, sheathed at the base. ys

A. tuberosa.—Roots, tuberous: leaves, unequally pinnate ; flowers, in axj-
lary racemes.— PI. 31. Fig. 2. ay.

Aptos is taken from a word signifying a pear, in ‘allusion to
the shape of the tuberous roots. This is the only species of the —
genus. Itis a very pretty little climbing vine, putting forth ity _
handsome racemes of flowers among the hedges and woods, in
July and August. The leaves have seven or five ovate lance
olate leaflets, and the flowers are of a beautiful purple. It
grows in all the Northern States. The roots produce tubers, —
which are sweet, and very. nutritious, resembling those of ‘the
Jerusalem Artichoke. It is not improbable that they would 4
form a good substitute for the potato, if the crop of that plant S)
should ever fail here. Indeed at present in Germany, the —
Apios is cultivated to considerable extent for the sake of its _
tubers, which are sold in the markets. Be Sak

i Seffersoruit 2 Upetey lla: ( The Mfesen)
SIS Old eae be Goreng a

™ 3 Z llaytonid OE ( aa a 7

an

.

The Spring Beauty. 227

JEFFERSONIA—THE JEFFERSONIA.

‘wetnral Order, Berberidacee; Linnean System, Octandria, Monogynia.
Generic Distinctions :—Calyx, of four sepals; petals, eight ; stamens,
__,jht, surrounding the ovary; capsules, opening by the whole cireumfer-
¥ ence of the apex.

. ylla.—Leaves, cleft into two lobes; peduncles, one-flowered ; petals,
hite; anthers, yellow ; calyx, deciduous, colored.—Pl. 32. Fig. 1.

‘ Tus pretty little plant is the only one of its genus, and was
“gamed by Dr. Barton after President Jefferson. The flower
FG large, regular, and grows at the top of a peduncle about half
‘afoot high. ‘The petioles are long, and have each a leaf so
deeply cut as to make it appear like a pair of leaves placed
‘tase to base. The structure of the capsule is curious; it
“opens like a box, the upper part forming a regular persistent
jd. The Jeffersonia grows in the Northern and Western
parts of the United States, and in’some places has considera-
‘ple reputation as a remédy for rheumatism and similar disorders,
“whence it is often called Rheumatism Root:

CLAYTONIA—THE SPRING BEAUTY,

YX tural Order, Portulacee ; Linnean System, Pentandria, Monogynia.
Generic Distinctions :—Sepals, two; petals, five, obcordate, clawed ;
- jtamens, five, inserted on the claws of the petals; stigma, three-cleft;
capsule, three-valved ; two to five seeded. .

_¢. Virginica.—Leaves, narrow, linear, obsoletely three-nerved ; petals, emar-
-_ inate; racemes, solitary, nodding ; pedicels, slender.—Pl. 32. Fig. 2.

; C. Caroliniana,—Root, tuberous; radical, leaves spatulate, cauline ones
- oblong ; sepals, very blunt.—PI. 32. Fig. 3.

Tus genus was named in honor of Dr. John Clayton, a
irginian botanist. ‘The two species in our plate are not un-
common in the Northern States, flowering among the rocky hills
yearly in spring, They are both very elegant and deli-
cate plants. They have tuberous roots, situated’ very deep in

228 The Evening Primrose.

the ground, so that the length of stem below the surface ig
great as that above. The tuber of C. Virginica, jg aboueld
large as a hazel nut; the stem is five or six inches high, wil
a pair of opposite linear leaves. The flowers are about gi We
or ten in number, on very slender pedicels, rose-colored
white, with purple veins. The tuber of C. Caroliniang ga
brown, and somewhat flattened. The root-leaves, if any, are
spatulate. The stem-leaves are two, opposite, about half wa
up the stem, ovate, obtuse, and tapering into the petiole, The
flowers are rather darker in color than those of the other g
cies, and are beautifully veined with purple lines, These
pretty plants are among the earliest spring flowers, They
have been introduced into England, where they are often onli.
vated, and much admired. A peat soil is said to be proper for
planting them in, and they may be increased from the seed,
or by dividing the root.

CG&NOTHERA—THE EVENING PRIMROSE,

Natural Order, Onagracee; Linnean System, Octandria, Monogynin,
Generic Distinctions :—Calyx, four-cleft, tubular; segments, reflexed;
petals, four; capsule, four-celled, four-valved, inferior; seeds, naked,

G. macrocarpa.—Stem, simple, prostrate, downy; leaves, lanceolate, quite
entire, with the margins and nerves downy; petals, broad, obcordate; —
stamens, arched, shorter than the corolla; lobes of stigma, blunt, cylindris
cal; capsule, large, sessile, oblong, four-winged.——Plate 33.

Tue roots of a species of this genus were formerly used as
an incentive to drinking wine, as olives are eaten at the present
time. From this circumstance is derived the generic name,
which is compounded of two Greek words signifying wine, and
to hunt. Many of the species are in common cultivation under
the name of Evening Primroses. They all close their flowers
during the heat of the day, and open them again in the even-
ing, or when it is cloudy. This phenomenon is best observed
in a common species, a native of the United States, CE. bien-
nis. The mode in which the flowers expand is curious. The

PL Re

ta mracrccayed. (Lage, fralled Coming LL eS J

3 ctienetiler hea fe Chlowateaved balelfly J

ms

vy? ia

ar eae

Siti at x, OLS

a

me,

“

x
Pg ae

ial

The Catchfly. 229

Eis are held together at top by the hooks at the end of the
.: , the segments of which first separate, and discover the
_jprolla, 2 long time before it acquires sufficient expansive force
“jpunhook the calyx at the top. When it has expanded suffi-
‘ciently, the calyx suddenly bursts open with a perceptible
und, and the corolla expands almost instantaneously to a
certain point, then stops, and after a little time spreads out to
"its full extent.

Most of the species, are natives of North America, and they
“gre about thirty in number. The one in our plate is perhaps
“the largest and most showy. The flowers are very large, and
“the tube of the calyx is sometimes more than four inches long.
‘The stems trail near the ground, the flowers lying on the large
Jeaves. It grows in several of the Western States, on the
hanks of the Mississippi River.

SILENE—THE CATCHFLY.

x

‘Natural Order, Caryophyllacee; Linnean System, Decandria, Trigynia.

Generic Distinctions :—Calyx tubular, five-toothed, without scales at the
base; petals, five, bifid, unguiculate, often crowned with scales at the
_ mouth; stamens, ten; styles, three; capsules, three-celled, many séeded,

-§. Pensylvanica. Viscidly pubescent, radical leaves, spatulate; cauline
ones, laneolate; petals, obtuse, somewhat emarginate, subcrenate.— Plate

«es Fig. 1.

q §. regia. Clammy, pubescent; leaves, ovate, lanceolate; flowers, large,

panicled; calyx, downy, long, tubular; petals, undivided, crowned with

_ bicuspidate appendages ; stamens, very long.—Plate 34. Fig. 2.

§. chlorefolia. Very smooth, and glaucous; stems, branched; leaves,

_ élliptical, pointed, upper ones cordate; flowers, in a terminal panicle,
large; calyx, long, downy ; petals, two-lobed.—Plate 34. Fig. 3.

_ Tue ancient poets represented the god Silenus as being con-
stantly drunk and covered with slaver. The plants of this
genus have generally upon them a viscid, frothy secretion, and
9 are named from the aforesaid jolly god. This moist secre-
tion is also said to attract flies, whence the common name,
Catchfly. The species are numerous, and about fifteen are

va
*

230 The Catchfly.

natives of North America. They are readily recognised }
their resemblance to the Pinks, from which they may be ti
once distinguished by the absence of scales at the base of ‘
calyx. Several species are not uncommon in gardens, and +f \
of easy culture. S. Pensylvanica grows in most of the northern
and middle states, where it is usually called Wild Pink, it
rather a pretty plant, being of low stature, with numeroyg
stems, and frequently a great profusion of flowers. The calyy
is long, and very hairy and glutinous. ‘Phe petals are Wedge.
shaped, the edges generally slightly crenated. It is found jy
dry sandy soils, and flowers in June.

S. regia, or Royal Catchfly, is altogether the most beaut.
ful and showy of all the species. In some of the Westem
States it often grows in great profusion, sometimes to the
height of three or four feet, producing its splendid scare
flowers in abundance. When cultivated, it will grow in any
common garden soil, and thrives best in a mixture of peat and
loam. ‘The stems are hollow and jointed, and the leaves pale
green. !

8. chloreefolia is a neat, low plant, with large pure white
flowers, and pinkish calyxes. It grows compactly, and its
leaves are broad and of a good color, having but little of the
clammy secretion of the others. Itis a native of the West.

The Natural System of Botany. 231

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER EIGHT.’

—__—_—

Order—Matuvacex. The Mallow Tribe.

Ture is a low, branching plant, with roundish leaves, and
“gurplish flowers, growing commonly about houses, in cultiva-
ee eround, and producing those elegant little cheeses, of which
every school-boy is so fond. © This is one of the Mallow Tribe,
and belongs to the genus Malva. To ascertain the characters
of the important tribe of plants to which it ‘belongs, let the
reader get a specimen of this plant. The leaves are obscurely
Gveslobed, on long, hairy stalks, at the base of which is a pair
of small stipules. ‘The sepals are five, and are’placed in a
‘uniform whorl, and below them are three bracts. The: petals
are also five, and are curiously twisted together i in the bud.
The stamens are united into a tube, at the top of which, on
‘short filaments, are a great number of kidney-shaped anthers.
The pistil is composed of several united carpels, each of which
has its own style, and the styles are grown together at the bot-
‘tom, like the stamens, but separate at the top. The fruit, or
cheese, is divided into numerous cells, each of which contains
an ovule. When ripe, the carpels become dry, and are easily
separated. All these characters are common to the order, ex-
cept the number of petals and ae which varies in some of
the species.

All the Mallows yield a transparent, mucilaginous fluid,
which has been thought to relieve ‘some pectoral complaints.
The unripe fruit of one species, called Ochro, or Gobbo, is in
great estimation in the West Indies, for thickening soup. Others
have a coloring principle, and the petals of one species stain
black whatever touches them. The Hollyhock, so universally
cultivated, and all the species of Hibiscus, so esteemed” for
their showy and beautiful flowers, belong to this order; and
fibres of the stems of some species are used for making cord-

|

232 The Natural System of Botany.

age. ‘ But it is the hairy clothing of the seeds of different
plants belonging to a genus that botanists call Gossypium
which is of such pre-eminent importance as to claim for the
Mallow tribe a rank in the vegetable kingdom second only to
corn. That hairy substance is Cotton, which, for no conceiva.
ble purpose except to yield man the means of clothing himgele
is formed in prodigious abundance upon the back of the seeds
of the Cotton plants, whence it is torn by machinery, and af.
terwards cleaned and spun into thread.” The fibres of
Cotton are packed round the seeds, to which they adhere with
such firmness as to make their separation very difficult. The _
invention of the Cotton-gin overcomes this difficulty in the
most rapid and effectual manner. The usual color of Cotton
is white, but there is a Chinese species which produces a yel-
low fibre, and it is from this that the stuff called Nankeen j,
manufactured. To give an idea of the quantity and value of
cotton as an article of commerce, it may be stated that jn
the year 1838 there were imported into the British Islands up-
wards of five hundred millions of pounds, and of this wags
manufactured and exported in the form of woven stuffs, near)
seven hundred million yards, and of twist and yarn about one
hundred and fifteen million pounds.. The value of these, to.
gether with that of other cotton fabrics exported in that year,
was over twenty-four mill\.:.s sterling, or about one hundred
and twenty million of dollars. '

Order—Bomsacen. The Silk-cotton Tribe

The plants of this order differ little from the Mallows, ex-
cept in habit and size.. Their calyx is not exactly valvate,
and the tube formed by the stamens has five divisions. Like
‘Malvacez their juice is mucilaginous, and their properties are
wholesome. The order is remarkable as containing some of
the largest trees in the world. The Baobab trees of Senegal
have long been the wonder of travellers., Their trunks are _
sofnetimes sixty, and even ninety or a hundred feet. in girth.
Their height is,.however, not in proportion to their thickness,
_ being generally but little more than their diameter,and spread-

The Natural System of Botany. 233°

into huge, horizontal branches. In the interior of Africa,
the natives cut off the heads, and hollow out the trunks, which
serve them for tanks to hold water. :

A far taller and more elegant free is the Ceiba-tree (Bombazx
Ceiba) of the West Indies. _ This is one of the most magnifi-
cent of vegetable creations, sometimes rising to the height of
q hundred and fifty feet. . A description of the Ceiba-tree, as
it appears’ in its native country, byan. esteemed friend and
correspondent, will be found on another page. This, as well as_
other species of Bombax, bears a kind. of silky cotton, which

js used for stuffing cushions and beds; but it cannot be spun
into threads, like the true cotton. :

Order—Bromacez. The Cacao Tribe.

This order is also nearly allied to the Mallows, from which
it differs in some of the species having no petals, the sta-
mens of some being: often abortive, and the number of earpels
being less. The most interesting plant of the order is the
Theobroma Cacao, which produces the material used fer ma-
king chocolate.’ This. tree is a native of Mexico and South
America, and. usually grows to. the height of from twenty. to
thirty feet ; its leaves are large, oblong and pointed; the
lowers are small, reddish, and without fragrance. The fruit
is yellow or red, of an oval shape, about three inches long,
covered with rounded protuberances, and marked by ten fur-
rows, The seeds ace imbedded in a whitish pulp, with a
- gweet, and not unpleasant taste. This pulp is removed from

the seeds, after-which they are dried in the sun, and then
wasted, by which their hard husks are detached. The interior
kernel is beaten intoa paste; dried, and formed into rolls for
exportation or use. In Mexico, chocolate is the common bev-.
erage, being, indeed, an article of: prime necessity. Its use is
ako universal in the West India Islands, and immense quanti-
ties are consumed in Spain and France. | In the United States,
the prepared cocoa, made of the shells of the cocoa-nut, is
generally preferred to chocolate, as being easier of digestion,
and not so oily... é ei ee

234 The Natural System of Botany.
—_——$

Order —TiILIACER. | The Linden Tribe.

This order is also nearly related to Malvacee, as is shown b
its characters: The calyx has four or five sepals, and the ¢9.
rolla as many petals. The stamens are numerous, and are
not united into a tube. ‘The pistil is made up of about ten
united carpels, with an equal number of stigmas. The an.
thers are two-celled, opening lengthwise. They differ from
Malvaceee by the separation of their stamens, and by their two.
celled anthers, and resemble that order in their general pro-
‘ perties, and the quantity of mucilage which they contain.

Most of -the plants belonging to this order are herbaceous oy
shrubby, and inhabit the tropics, but some species are large
trees, and are found in temperate countries. Of these, the
common Lime-tree, Bass-wood, or Linden-tree, (Tilia Ameri-
cana,). is a well-known ‘species, béing native in most of the
Middle and Northern States. It is a fine tree, gtowing to a
large size, and its wood is much used in cabinet work. The
inflorescence is singular; the flowers forming a cluster upon
an oblique foot-stalk, proceeding from the centre of a long,
narrow bract, or floral leaf. There are several European spe-
cies of Tilia, the wood of which is in great use ‘for ‘carving,
Many of the most splendid works in this department of art,
such as the choir of Trinity College tp at Cambridge, are
saci of Lime-tree wood.

" Order—Camerizace x. Pi had Camellia Tribe,

“This is an important and i interesting group of : esi whether
considered in reference to the great beauty of the flowers of
some species, or the universal use of the product of others.
The elegant Camellia Japonica is cultivated and admired: in
every collection, and Tea is drank at every table. The char-
acters of the order’can be observed in any garden species of
Camellia. The calyx i is composed of from five to seven se-
pals, unequal in size, and somewhat overlapping each other.
The petals are from five to nine, also occasionally imbricated,
and sometimes sncaddors at the base.‘ The stamens are many

-The Natural System of Botany. 235

——

in number; and generally united at the base into several bun-
dies) ‘The ovary is formed of: from three to six carpels, more
or Jess united, with separate styles ; each cell originally’ con-
taining several ovules.. In the ripe capsule, there are only

three cells, each having but one seed, the other ovules:not hav-
-ing been developed. This seed is large, with fleshy cotyledons,

which contain a large quantity of oil, and are destitute of al-

bumen. aie OR :
The species: are celebrated for the. beauty of their foliage,

and the fine colors of their flowers, which vary through every

shade of red‘and white. To some remarks upon the culture .
of these plants, and upon the manufacture of tea, we shall de-

_yote a separate article.

‘Order —AvRaNTIACE &. The Orange Tribe.

This order, which contains the Orange, Lemon, Lime, Cit-
yon; and Shaddock, is one of much interest. Its ‘structure*is
very peculiar, and it possesses several characters which ‘are

“singular. ‘To man it is of great value, on account of the great

quantities of wholesome; agreeable, and. refreshing fruit with
which it supplies him. These fruits are remarkable as being .
saore easily preserved and brought to colder regions, than al-
yaost any other tropical productions; and in conséquence, some
of them are so-cheap and plentiful in northern countries,.as to
place the enjoyment of them: within the reach of all. To give
an idea of the immense quantity.of these fruits which are sent
from their native countries, we may state, that of oranges alone,
ithas been calculated that about two hundred and seventy-
two millions are annually brought ‘to England. So great a
supply could not be sustained unless*the Orange-tree was very
prolific. A single tree has been-known to produce twenty
‘thousand oranges fit for exportation, exclusive of the damaged.

% fruit, and waste. It is partly due, also, to the construction of
“the fruit. The rind being thick~and spongy, resists changes

of temperature, and the immense number of minute receptacles
filled with oil, in its surface, prevent the evaporation of the

“watery fluid within, and by their actidity, the attacks of in-

‘sects from without: - Hence,'oranges will keep for a long time,

“¥ they are well ventilated, and free from moistures >>

236 The Natural System of Botany.

On examining the leaves of an Orange or Lemon tree, th
will be found covered with minute yellowish or semi-transparent
dots, These are filled with an oil of peculiarly pungent taste,
and very fragrant smell, which is especially perceived whe
the leaves are crushed by the fingers. These little cavities
exist not only in the leaves and fruit, but in the leafy parts of
the flower, which owes to them most of its fragrance. It wij]
also be observed that the leaves are. jointed, or articulated at
the junction of the blade with the petiole, and that the latter jg
‘expanded into a sort of supplementary leaf, by the develope.
ment of a narrow blade from each side. In some species, the
leaves are pinnate ; and it sometimes happens that the leaflet
of one side only is developed, or that even both are: absent, go
that the petiole, then much enlarged, has to perform the fune-
~ tions of a true leaf.. The calyx is cup-shaped, having three or
five sepals, which fall off early. ‘The number of petals is the
same as that of the sepals, and in the orange their color js
white, dotted with'green.. The stamens are equal in number
to the petals, or twice that number ; their filaments are flat-
tened, sometimes united at the base, and sometimes free. The
ovary is nearly globular, and composed of several adherent
carpels. The style is thick, and the stigma slightly divided,
Each cell of the ovary has a double row of ovules, a large
proportion of which perish. during the ripening of the fruit,
-and iin the orange and its nearest allies, the cavity of the seed-
vessel becomes filled up with a pulp consisting of separate
vesicles, each containing a portion of the sweet-acid fluid. ‘The
. aggregation of these vesicles cannot be distinetly seen in the
usual state of the orange, but in an -over-ripe specimen, they
are very easily. separable. mtd
-. The various species of the Orange Tribe are ‘nearly ¢ all na-

tives of the East Indies and China, whence they have been »
introduced into other countries within or near the tropics.
They nearly all contain sugar, citric acid, an aromatic essen-
tial oil, and a bitter principle, having tonic properties, combined
in various, proportions in different fruits. Thus, in the common
Orange the sugar prevails, and the acid, when the fruit is ripe,
is subordinate. In the Lemon, the acid:is always predominant
in we pulp, and the oil is-more abundant i in fhe rind, In the

The Natural System of Botany. BE -

~ Giaddock and, Seville Orange, the bitter principle manifeaie it
“gif. The fruit of the Orange and its allied species requires
two years to come to maturity, and as the flowers are produced
all through the summer, a healthy tree exhibits, during a@ con-
siderable portion of the year, every stage of production, from
the flower-bud to the ripe fruit. Most of -the Oranges and
Lemons intended for export, are collected before they are fully
ripe, since otherwise they would be more likely to spoil... They
are generally gathered in the autumn, while they would require
until the.spring following to ripen fully on the tree. It is also
remarkable that the Orange trees from which the fruit: is-
plucked while green, bear plentifully every year, while those
on which the. fruit is suffered to ripen, afford abundant crops
only in alternate years. The -best Oranges are those which
come from St. Michael, where the tree was introduced by the
Portuguese, as it was by the Spaniards into America. Into
Spain and Portugal it was brought by the Moors, and is exten-
sively cultivated in both countries. Near Cordova are Orange
trees supposed to be six or seven hundred years old, and» in
Andalusia are extensive orchards which have formed the reve-
nue of the monks forages. of: tis

Order—Viracen. The Vine Tribe.

This order is chiefly important as containing the common
Grape Vine. Nearly all the plants belonging to it are climbers, |
and support themselves by tendrils. ..« Here let me pause to

“tell you what a tendril is ; by its name you would suppose it
some especial kind of organ formed expressly for the purpose
of helping the Vine to raise itself among the forests, and to as-
cend from the shady thickets where it is bor to the free light
and air that are necessary to its existence. Not.at all; this_is
not the plan of Nature. Plants are furnished. with certain
general parts, such as leaves, flowers, &c., and when any par-
ticular and unusual office sis to be performed, some one of —
these parts is specially altered, in order to meet the emergency.
Thus, in one instance, the stem is enabled to rise among other
bushes, by the ‘soft.and. yielding stalks of the leaves being
changed into stiff, inflexible-hooks ; in the Sweet Pea, the same

238 The Natural System of Botany.

office is performed by the-principal leaf-stalk, which lengthens,
branches, and twists itself round bushes and the branches of
smaller shrubs. ' In some plants, indeed, this office is actually
performed by the tips of the petals. In the Vine, the arrange.
ment is different from all those just mentioned, and equally sim.
ple; a considerable number of supernumerary panicles are
prepared, on which no flowers are formed, but, in their room,

a power of twisting round other bodies is communicated to the
branches ; and these form what we call tendrils.”

The flowers of the Vine grow on short stalks which diverge
from others, and these branch ‘from: the central: stem} in this
manner, when the fruit is ripe, a cluster is formed, differing
considerably from that in which the fruit-stalks at once proceed
from the stem, as in the Currant. The former arrangementis
a panicle, the latter a raceme. ‘The calyx is very small, and
undivided-into sepals.. Within it are seen in the bud, five
petals which are held together at the point, though separate at
the base.. The stamens are five, opposite to the petals, and
alternately with the stamens are five small glands. The ovary
is two-celled, and'the stigma sessile. The fruit is, as every
body knows, a succulent berry, with several hard seeds inthe —
pulp. An additional character of the Vine, is the tendency of
the branches to swelling near the points from which the leaves
_ proceed; this is véry strongly developed: i in the young plant.
Most of the tribe differ so little in these peculiarities from the:
Grape; as tobe at once recognised. The chief differences are
in the size of their flowers and fruit, and the taste of the latter.
In our native Fox Grape, for instance, the fruit is utterly unfit.
to’eat, having a very ec Pong taste; and other species re-
semble it in this respect... Inthe common Virginian Creeper,
(Ampelopsis,) the leaves are divided into five distinct segments,
and every one has remarked the fine crimson on to which
they change in the autumn. |

The. cultivation of the Vine may be traced: 10 a very 9 ii
antiquity. - Its growth, and the preparation of wine from the
fruit, were probably understood before the deluge, since we
read that immediately after that catastrophe, Noah planted a
_ vineyard, and became intoxicated by drinking the wine. It
appears that the culture of the grape was —" in Egypt,

The Natural System of Botany, — 239

from the earliest period. It spread, with the progress of civili-
“gation, from its habitation in Asia, to Greece, Sicily and Italy,
‘god thence to Portugal, Spain and France. “The culture of the
yine as an article of husbandry, extends. over a zone extend-
ing from about the twenty-first to the fiftieth degree of North
Jatitude, and consequently about two thousand miles in breadth,
reaching in length from the western shores of Portugal to the -
north of India. The best wines are made at about the centre *
of the zone; those of the north being harsh-and austere, while
the juice.of the grapes of the south too. soon passes into: the
acetous fermentation, so that they are better. adapted for being
dried as raisins. .. Hence, in Spain and Greece, the vineyards
of the higher grounds produce the best wines 3 while those
upon the low, hot shores, have always to be dried: On the
‘other hand, in Madeira and the neighboring islands, in- which
the near proximity of the sea on every side tends to prevent -
intense heat, some of the most highly prized wines .are pro-
duced; although they are much nearer -the-southern border of
the zone.” ‘* A vineyard, associated as it is with all our ideas
of beauty and plenty, is, in general, a disappointing object. In
France, the vines are trained upon poles, seldom more than
three or four feet in height. In Spain, poles for supporting the
vines are not used, but cuttings are planted, which are not pér-
mitted to grow very high, but gradually form ‘thick and stout
stocks. In Switzerland and in the German : Provinces, the
vineyards are as formal as those of France.’ But in Italy is
the true vine of poetry, surrounding the stone cottage with. its
girdle, flinging its pliant. and luxuriant branches over the rustic
verandah, and twining its long garland from-tree to tree. It
was the luxuriance: and beauty of:her-vines and olives that
tempted the rude people of the North to pour down upon her
fertile fields. In Greece, too, as well as in Italy, the shoots of
the vines are either trained upon trees, or supported, so as to
display all.their luxuriance, upon.a series of -props.. This was
the custom of the ancient vine-growers, and their descendants
have. preserved it.in all its picturesque originality. The vine-
dressers of Persia train their vines to’run up a wall, and curl
overthe top. But the most luxurious cultivation of the vine in

7,

hot-countries, is where it. covers the trellis work which sur-

_ Vegetable Physiology. ; 249
a a and ani ae a ac A A I Eat
‘rounds a well, inviting the owner and his family to gather: be.
neath its eee ‘ The fruitful bough bye ‘a well’ is of the high
est antiquity.”

The vine lasts to a 1 considerable age, and spreads to a les
extent, or, when supported, rises to a great height. Although
it bears plentifully when only three or four years old, it is ag.
certained that vineyards improve in quality till the age of fifty
years. In France and Italy there are vineyards still existing,
and-in full bearing, which were in the same condition at leas
-three centuries ago. In England there are many vines mo .
than 100 years old. The celebrated vine at Hampton Court,
covers.a surface of 22 feet by 72; and seldom bears less hat
2000 clusters each season, every cluster weighing at least a

pound. |

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

NUMBER SIXs

THE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES.

oe ae nutvitions.- fluid, shen up by:1 the roots, and diffused
sshegagh the stem, requires exposure to the air, in order to.make
it fit for maintaining the life of the plant. Another requisite
_ €ondition. for the same purpose, is the influence of light’ upon
_ the sap. To effect these objects, the green surface of the plant
must “necessarily be extended, so as to expose to both air and
light a greater portion of the sap than can be done by the sur.
face of the stem: The leaf, then, may be said to consist essen-
tially of an extension of the skin or cuticle into an expanded
surface; supported. by. a frame-work of ribs or veins prolonged
- from the woody tissue of the stem or branch, and, like the
stem, is composed of cellular tissue, which. forms the paren-
chyma, or soft portion between the veins, and of ‘woody fibre,
which. forms the veins themselves. This woody portion. has
ae same office i in the leaves as i in the Hams giving firmness, to

:
)

Vegetable Physiology. 241
je softer part, and’ distributing the sap throughout the whole.
The parenchyma is composed, as can be seen in many leavés
ith the naked eye, of separate cells, which when magnified,
gre found to contain each a globule of the chlorophyll, which

ives them their green color. These cells are arranged differ-
aaily in different parts of the leaf, being usually more closely
acked together near the upper surface than the lower, where
there are more interspaces between them.’ The cuticle or

‘ter skin of the leaf is furnished with stomata, heretofore

described, by which watery:vapor can pass out, and air can

enter. These breathing pores communicate with the cells, so

4s to allow the passage of air through the whole interior of the
leaf. When the plant is too full of sap, they open in a peculiar
manner, s0 as to allow the escape of the superabundant moist-
yre, and when it becomes dry, they close so as to retain a suffi-
cient amount to sustain life. These pores are principally
fund on the. lower surface of ‘the leaf, since they are too deli-
cate to endure the full influence of the sun. :

The object of this arrangement, says Dr. Gray, will appear
evident, when we consider that the spaces between the cells,
filed with air, communicate’ freely with each other throughout
the leaf, and also with the external air, by means of the
somata, and when we consider-the powerful action of the sun
to promote evaporation, especially in. dry air, and that the thin
walls of the cells, like all vegetable membrane, allow of the
fee escape of the contained moisture by transudation. The
light and air necessarily being freely admitted into the texture
of the leaf, the sap it contains would ‘be liable to escape by
evaporation faster than it can be supplied from the stem and
mots; and the leaf consequently shrivel and perish just as it .
does when plucked from the stem. A safeguard against
excessive evaporation is to some extent afforded by the more
compact arrangement of the upper stratum, which is exposed to
the direct action of the sun, as well as by the form and vertical
position of these cells, which present the least possible surface
tothe sun’s rays. This provision is the. more complete in the
case of plants indigenous to hot, arid regions, where the soil is
frequently so. parched for long periods as to afford only the

santiest supply of moisture to the roots.

es
ra

242 Vegetable Phystology.

The following figures will illustrate the difference jp this
respect between the leaf of the Lily, where the UPPer stratijn
contains but a single layer of barely oblong cells, and that of
the Oleander, a native of dry and sun-burnt places in the Rag
the upper stratum of which consists of two layers of very lon
vertical cells as closely compacted as possible. $

Fig. 13.

“In Figure 18 a represents a magnified section through the
thickness of a leaf of the White Lily, showing the parenchyma
and the epidermis of both surfaces; the lower pierced with
‘stomata, c shows the appearance of two of the cells of the
upper stratum of parenchyma, detached and more magnified,
showing the contained grains of chlorophylle. /, a magnified
view of the hundredth part of a square inch of the epidermis of
the lower surface, with the stomata, or breathing pores, it bears,
These are unusually large in the Lily, so as to be visible bya

: very moderate magnifying power, and are proportionally few
in number. One them is shown more magnified, at e in the

closed. state; and open at b. d is a magnified perpendicular

_ section through the thickness of the epidermis and upper stratum
of parenchyma in the leaf of the Oleander, showing the epider-

is composed of three layers of thick-sided cells, and the

upper parenchyma of very.compact vertical cells.» ~ 2

_- Vegetable Physiology. . ——

Amore effectual provision for restraining the perspiration of
"eaves within due limits, is found in the epidermis or skin, that
savests the leaf, as it does the whole surface of the. vegetable,
and. which is so readily detached from the succulent leaves of
such plants as the. Stone-crop and the:Live-for-ever of the gar-
dens» The epidermis is composed of small.cells belonging to
"ihe outermost layer of cellular tissue, with the pretty thick-
jded walls very strongly coherent; so as to form a firm mem-
bane. Its cells usually contain no chlorophylle. \. In ordinary
herbs that allow of copious evaporation, this membrane is made.
ypof a single layer of cells; as in the Lily and the Balsam.
tis composed of two layers in cases where one might prove
insufficient ; and in the Oleander, besides the provision already
described, the epidermis consists of three.layers of very thick-
jded cells.* All these means of preventing evaporation might
be injurious to the plant, by entirely checking the necessary.
. evacuations ; but Nature has provided against such a mis-
chance by the stomata already mentioned. . fF
Most leaves which grow in the usual position,.are constructed
similarly to those just described. There are, however, many
kaves which grow upright, exposing each side-equally to the:
ight. In these both sides are generally alike, and their colors
are the same. Each surface is equally furnished with inter-_
cdlular surfaces and stomata.’ This is found to be the case in
the common Iris. In: other- instances, the former plan is com-
pletely reversed, the stomata are only found on the upper sur-
fice,and the upper -parenchyma‘is ‘much looser in texture than
thelower. In plants whose leaves float on the surface of the
water, this is usually the case. In the White Water Lily, for
example, the leaf is. thick, and spongy, and contains large
reservoirs of air which give it buoyancy; but these are all. just.
beneath the upper surface, while in the lower surface which
lies on the water, and theréfore performs none of its -usual
finctions, the cells are closely packed as in the upper surface

* These remarks, together with the figure, are extracted from Dr. Grey's “« Botan-
ial Text Book,” a work of which too much cannot be said in commendation, and
the principal inconvenience attending the posséssion of which is the overwhelming _
temptation to appropriate its contents; == MASTS. |

244. Vegetable Physiology.

EOD ls ee AP i ee
of other leaves. How singular that in the ‘wonderful adapta.
tion of these different structures to the different circumstances
and positions in which the plants.are to grow, anyone should
fail to perceive the foresight, wisdom, and. skill of a Diving
Being. Many other instances of this adaptation of structure

to circumstances might be given. It will be sufficient to refer
to.the organization of the Cactus, as described on page 919
which will also explain how those plants are enabled to endure
for a long time the confined air of hot houses, in which ordinary
plants will wither and perish. _ Yat CAPM

THE FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES.

In the leaves, as already. stated, that process goes on, which
converts the crude moisture absorbed by the roots into nutyj-
tious sap,. which. supplies. the necessary materials: for the
growth and production of new parts, and also for those pro-
ducts which plants offer: for articles of diet, use, or medicine,
This is called the process of elaboration, and in it several dis.
tinct changes take place. The first is the concentration of
the fluid by the loss of a considerable portion of its moisture
by a perspiration like that of animals, the leaves giving off,
‘under certain circumstances, a quantity of watery vapor,
That such a vapor is really exhaled may easily be tested by
placing a large wide-mouthed glass vessel, with its mouth
downwards, -over a growing plant, or the surface of a meadow,
in @ warm summer day. Its interior will be rendered dim by
the accumulation of the vapor, which will soon collect into
drops, and run down the inner surface. It has been calculated
- that an acre of grass land transpires in this way no less than
six thousand four hundred quarts-of water in. twenty-four
hours. Experiments have been made to show that this tran-
spiration takes place through the stomata. A very simple
method of showing that this is the case, may be made by hold-
ing a piece of glass near the under surface of the leaf of a
vigorous vine, when it will soon be found to. be covered with
moisture, while no effect will be perceived if it is held near
the upper surface. When the stomata exist on both surfaces
in equal numbers, they seem to transpire alike, and if on nei-
ther surface, no effect is seen. Again, if a plant, actively

Vegetable Physiology. 245

Sa ee oe Ce eee ere Core eee
transpiring under the influence of sun-light, be carried into a
room, the transpiration is at once, and: almost entirely

checked, and if the stomata are examined, they are found to be

closed. This transpiration, or exhalation, is regarded as a
ind of evaporation from the interior of the plant, and appears
to be controlled by the stomata, which by admitting or. ex-

dading the air, permit or check it, according to the influence.

of light upon themselves. This .is one way in which light
jnfluences the growing plant. If light be excluded, exhalation
is prevented, and the fluid which is transpired must pass off
by the slower process of evaporation, and absorption soon
ceases, since the tissues can contain no. more moisture. ‘The
share- which the leaves have in. promoting and maintaining the
absorption of fluid’ by the roots; can thus be understood. The
exhalation which takes place in the leaves occasions a new
demand for fluid from below; as- the combustion of oil in the
wick of a lamp ‘gradually exhausts the supply. . If the: flame
be extinguished, the absorption ceases; and if the leaf no
longer exhales, the root ceases to absorb. This connexion is
shown by an experiment, which “also goes far. to explain the
cause of the rising of the sap in spting, after it has remained
sationary during the winter. Ifa vine be growing on the out-

side of a hot-house, and a. single shoot be trained within, in.

mid-winter, the warmth to which ‘the latter is exposed, will
cause its buds to swell and unfold ; ‘while those on the outside
are inactive. A demand for ‘fluid will thus be occasioned
along this particular branch, and this will be supplied by that
existing in the vessels: below. When ‘these are emptied they
will be again Supplied from the parts below them ; and thus

the motion will be propagated to that division of the’ roots,

_ whose fibres are connected with those of the vegetating branch,
which will absorb fluid for its support, while all the others are
completely at rest. In the spring of the year, when the cheer-

~

ful rays of the sun call the whole of the -buds into activity, the ©

whole of the ‘roots are similarly affected ; and that the sap.
begins. to move in the upper branches, before it commences |

- ascending - in the trunk, has been. shown by experiment,
notches having been cut at: intervals, by which. the oir irc wy its
Ew could be anenainet in each part.

4

246 Vegetable Physiology.

—_—.————

a ee

Various experiments have.been made at different times 4
ascertain the quantity of fluid thus exhaled by plants, and 4
results of some of them are very interesting. There is no great
difficulty in ascertaining the amount upon a small scale 5 for if
a plant be supplied with a known weight of water, anq the

weight it has gained during a certain time be deducted from

this,—allowance being. also made for the evaporation from the
surface of the water in which its roots are immersed, the quan.
tity of which may be easily estimated,—the difference must be
the proportion exhaled. This differs much in different plants

‘according to the rapidity of their growth. It has been ascer-
tained that the young leaves and shoots of the Wild Comej
exhale twice ,their owa weight of water daily, A common
sized cabbage was. ascertained by Hales, (one of the best
experimenters upon this interesting subject) to exhale from

fifteen to twenty-five ounces daily, according to the light and
warmth to which it was exposed. -This is more in proportion

to the surface, than is given of by the skin of man in the same
time. _ The transpiration of a Sun-flower in full growth,

during fifteen ‘days and nights, was carefully observed by
Hales. This plant was three and a half feet in height, three
pounds in weight, and the surface of its leaves was estimated
at five thousand six hondred and sixteen square inches, or
about two and a half times that of the human body. The
average transpiration during the whole period. was found to be

twenty ounces per day; but in one warm dry day it was as
much as thirty ounces. During a dry warm night, it lost three

ounces—probably by simple evaporation ;, when the dew-was
sensible, though small, it neither lost nor gained; and by
heavy dew, it gained two or three ounces. When this amount

‘is. compared with that perspired by man, it may be shown

that, if their susfaces were equal, the man would perspire fifty,
andthe plant fifteen; but that, for equal weights, the plant

exhales seventeen, while the man perspires one. Experiments
_ upon single leaves, when not too long separated from the plant

so as to lose their vitality, yield fully as-striking results. Thus
a leaf of the Sun-flower, weighing thirty-one and a half grains,

absorbed in four. hours, by its petiole immersed in water,

__ twenty-five grains of that fluid; the leaf had. increased in

Vegetable physiology: 247

i ——
weight only four and a half grains; so that twenty and a half
ins had disappeared by exhalation.

Experiments of this last kind may be very easily performed by
any one who has command of a pair of scales adapted to weigh
small substances ; and it 1s well that the student should avail |
himself of such opportcniies of learning how to “ put Nature
to the question” in matters of this simple character, in order to
ultivate habits of accuracy and caution, which are useful in
“every condition of life. Let him take several leaves of different
Jants,—such, for example, as. the Vine, Oak, Elm, Beech,
Lime, Apple, Pear,—weigh them separately,.and estimate as
‘pearly as he can the comparative surface presented by each.
ie should then place their foot-stalks in glasses or bottles of
equal size, into which has been poured a certain weight, of
water, carefully ascertained to be the same in each. ~All
these should be placed in similar circumstances for a certain
time, and a corresponding glass should be kept, without a leaf,
inorder to estimate the amount lost by evaporation from the
surface of the water. By ascertaining how much had been
absorbed by each leaf, and the weight. each had gained, he
would thus be easily enabled to calculate the quantity it must
have exhaled ; and then by comparing this with the extent of
‘the surfaces of the different leaves, he would estimate the pro-
portional rapidity of the process in the various species ‘he had
chosen. Care should be taken to select, in the first instance,
trees in equal stages of growth, and leaves of a similar degree
of freshness and development.* _

Whenever the vapor given off from the skins of ahigiale: for
any cause exceeds the amount which the atmosphere can take

, it collects into drops, and forms sensible perspiration.
_ In like manner, when the sun first rises, some plants exhale so
fapidly, that the lower temperature of the air causes the fluid
- to accumulate in. drops at the points of the leaves. This is
often mistaken for dew, but that it is really condensed perspira~
tion may be readily. understood, by observing that it occurs not
only on plants which are in the open air, but also on those under
shelter, and to which ae dew ‘could not possibly have had access.

. ve

. adit of Natural Science. sare = ase

248 Tea.

TEA.

NorwiTHsTANDING the many different kinds of Tea exported
from China, there is good reason to believe that they are al
the produce of one species ; and that the differences of quality
are the result of variations in the character of the plant, which
are induced hy differences of soil, climate, &c., in the exten.
sive tract over which it is grown, and in the age of the trees,
the time of gathering the leaves, and the mode of Preparing
them. The tea districts of China extend from about the 274)

to the 33d degree of North latitude ; but the plant may be
- cultivated in regions more distant from the equator, if the
- climate be mild and equable. It seems to succeed best on
_ the sides of mountains, in dry rocky places, where there is byt
little accumulation of vegetable mould. The plants are raised
from seeds sown where they are to remain. Three or more
are dropped into a hole four or five inches deep, and come up
without further trouble, requiring little culture except that of
removing the weeds, until the plants are three years old. The
first crop of leaves is then gathered, at three periods during
the year,—about the middle of April, in June, and in August.
After the shrubs have attained the age of six or seven years,
‘their produce becomes so inferior that they are removed to
make way for others. The gathering is performed with care
and selection, the leaves being plucked off one by one. Those
which are earliest gathered are of the most delicate color and
flavor; leaves of the second ‘gathering are full grown, and of

less valuable qualities than the first ; while those of the last gath-
ering are still coarser and of still less value. The first form
what is called:imperial tea; but as to the other names by
which tea is known in other countries, the Chinese :themselves
know nothing ; and the compounds and names are supposed
to be made and given by the merchants at Canton—who, from
the great number of varieties brought to them, have ample op-
portunity of doing so. Formerly, it was thought that green
tea was gathered exclusively from one species, but that is now
considered untrue ; though it is certain that there is what is

, ae ae 249

en sae A GM GERE. HLS a ERE
called the green tea district, and the black tea district, and
that the varieties grown in the one district differ from those of
the other.

“The tea leaves being gathered, a are cured in’ iotmed which -
contain from five to ten or twenty small farnaces, each having
at the top a large flat iron pan. There is also, a long, low
table covered with mats, on which the leaves are laid, and
yolled by workmen who sit around it. The iron pan being
“heated to a certain degree, by a little fire made. in the furnace
ynderneath, a few pounds of the fresh gathered leaves are
placed upon it; being fresh and juicy, they crack when they
touch the pan, and itis the business of the operator to shift
them as quickly as possible with his bare hands until they be-
come too hot to be touched. At this instant, he takes off the
leaves With a. kind of fan-shaped shovel, and pours them on
the mats, before the rollers, who, taking. small quantities at a
time) roll them in their hands, while others fan them so that
they may cool the sooner, and return their curl. the longer.
This process is repeated several. times, before. the tea is -

ked; so that the moisture may be more thoroughly dissipated
and the cure more completely preserved. On-every repetition
“the pan’is less heated, and the operation performed more
slowly and carefully: The tea is then separated into the dif
ferent kinds, and deposited in the store for domestic use, or
exportation. As more select sorts of tea, the blossoms and
buds are used, and the strongest kind,.which is. called yutien,

and is only used on occasions of ceremony, scarcely colors the
water, and consists of buds and halt expanded leaves.

Tea was first imported into Europe by the Dutch East
India Company, in the early part of the seventeenth century, |
but it does not appear to have found its way to. England until
about the year 1660. The first historical notice of it is in an
Act of Parliament of that year, in which it was enumerated
as one of the beverages sold in coffee houses, on which a duty
was to be laid. ‘That it was not then a common drink is evi-
- dent from an entry in the private Journal of Mr. Pepys, Sec-
retary to the Admiralty, who says, Sept. 25, 1661, “I sent for
acup of tea, (a China drink,) of which I had never drunk
before.” In41664, the British East India Company sent two.

250 Culture of the Camellia.

Cn nnn nen ine i SE TT i te
pounds of tea as a present to the King. In 1667 they ‘ional
their first order to import tea; directed to their agent at Ban.
tam, to the effect that he should send home 100 pounds of the
best tea he could get. Since then, the consumption has gone.
on regularly increasing, and since the abolition of the monopoly
of the East India Company, and the consequent reduction 0
prices, the amount imported into England has increased, gp
that in some years it has reached fifty million pounds.

~ JULY AND AUGUST FLOWERS.

\ Onze of the handsomest native plants which flower in the
present month, is Tephrosia Virginica, sometimes called by the
odd name of Cat-gut, probably from the roots, which are long,
stringy, and yellow. It is a Leguminous plant; it grows
about two feet high, with pinnate leaves, having ten or twelve
pairs of small, regular leaflets. The flowers are in a short,
thick, round, terminal raceme, and are very beautiful. The
upper petal, or banner, is yellowish white, the wings‘are a fine
red, and the keel white. It grows in bunches, in dry, sandy
- soils, near the edges of woods. This plant is worthy of .culti-

vation, and would make a splendid ornament of the border.

Another very elegant Leguminous plant now in flower, is the
-one of which a figure is given in the present number. - This

is the Ground-nut, Apiostuberosa. Ittwines its slender stems
‘over bushes, and with its dark-purple flowers, and smooth pin-

nate leaves, it is worthy of observation. Another pretty little
vine is Glycine, or Amphicarpea, monoica.. This is more del-
i¢ate than the other. It has ternate leaves, and pale, purple
flowers. Many species of Lespedeza, and Desmodium, are now —
in»flower, among which may be mentioned the singular D. un-
iflorum. The flower-stalk of this is connected with the leaf
stalk, bya long stem which runs under ground, so that the two —
are frequently at the distance of a foot or more from each other.
It would be a matter of surprise to one unacquainted with this
peculiarity, on pulling up what appears to be a leafless stalk of
flowers, to find that he:is also gathering what appears a sepa-

July and August Flowers. 3 261

; rate plant, with ternate leaves. . The flowers are pretty, ina
Jong; terminal panicle, of a purple color. D. Canadense is also
"a handsome plant, and is very apt to make the acquaintance
of the rambler, by means of its pods, which ‘are jointed, like
those of all the species, and adhere to his clothes. July and
August are, indeed, the especial season for the Leguminose ;
and various genera, as Lathyrus,. Vicia, Baptisia, Astragalus,
Cassia, Crotalaria, embellish the woods and fields at this time.
- Now the ponds, where that.splendid plant grows, are white
with the fragrant flowers of the White Pond Lily, Nymphaea
‘odorata, so appositely named after the water-fairies. Ah!
in what profusion it lines the shores of a certain blue lake
- which we wot of ; and how insufficient has been even the ex-
citement, so well understood. by the angler, of hooking, play-
ing, and capturing those noble pike with which. its depths
abound, to withdraw our admiration from the glossy leaves,
and glorious flowers of this queen of the waters; and what a
picture did our fine five or six-pounders make, decorated; (we
confess the profanation,) with those white petals, so ‘contrasted
with their swelling, dark green sides! In this lake, the vulgar.
parvenu, relative of the Nymphza, Nuphar advena by. name,
does not grow; though its yellow flowers may ofien, in less”
deep and pure waters, be fotind at this season.
The curious little Drosera, Sundew, is now in flower, ee
we have observed the unfailing’ drops at the tips of its glandu-
Jar hairs, during all this dry and hot weather. The Hypericums
and the Lysimachias; are now among the most common plants
in flower, and one of the latter, L.- -quadrifolia, is remarkable
for the perfect symmetry of its whorls of leaves and blossoms.
Now the Umbellifere are beginning to flower, and some of
them are already in full bloom. . Very few of these are inter-
esting to the lover of floral beauty, their flowers being small,
and of no brilliant colors, and their properties being often of
the most dangerous nature. Every body ought to know the
villainous Hemlock; Cicuta maculata, so as. to avoid it as one
would a murderer. , It may easily be recognised by its tall,
“smooth, hollow, spotted stem, somewhat suggestive of a sleek,
venomous snake, and its large umbels of white flowers. The. ,
mbels have no‘general involucre, and the partial umbels have

’

252 July and August Flowers.

aN yg to

each an involucre of acute, short and narrow leaves, The
umbels, too, are not crowded together, but spread apart. |p
wet places now flowers that handsome shrub, Cephalanthys a
cidentalis, the Button Bush, with its globular heads of white
flowers, bristling with the long projecting styles ; and in dryer
spots, among underbrush, the sweet-scented Spirea aly

which ought to be cultivated. Now, too, the numerous Com.
positee are flowering, and some of them continue in flower till
the end of the autumn. Perhaps the handsomest native
plants of this order are the species of Liatris, especially [,
\ squarrosa. The stem of this is tall, bristly, and covered with
linear, stiff, nerved leaves, and terminated with sometimes
more than twenty heads of the most brilliant purple flowers,
Why this fine plant, and another species scarcely less elegant,
L. scariosa, have not been long ago introduced into the Ameri.
ean flower garden, is only to be accounted for by that prefer.
ence for everything foreign, which often displays itself in such
ridiculous contrast with our republican institutions arid profes.
sions. There is certainly no foreign species of Chrysanthe.
mum, of Cineraria, or even of Aster, which can make so fine
an appearance, as would a border of the neglected Liatrig,
Various species of Eupatorium are in flower, and the best
known of these is E. perfoliatum, so commonly used in the for-
mation of a tonic decoction, by old ladies, under the name of

Thoroughwort. Perhaps the tallest herbaceous plant in this
part of the country, is another species, E. purpureum, or
Trumpet-weed, which sometimes grows to the height of eight
or nine feet, The Solidagos, and the Asters seem to take pre-
cedence of all other plants in the months of August and Sep.
tember. There is scarcely a spot to be found without some
_ species of one or the other genus; from the dusty roadside,
and even the busy street, to the most retired and cool brook-.
side, and the thickest depths of the forest. We need not de-
scribe any of these, the yellow racemes of Solidago, and the
various Colored corymbs of Aster being familiar to every one.
The species of the latter, found in the Northern States, are
‘reckoned at more than thirty, and of the former at‘ at least
twenty-five. A very handsome genus of Composite is Rud-
beckia. R. lacinata is the most common species, and ‘its high

July and August Flowers. 253

aaeceemccmmmae re eee :

gem, with large yeltow flowers, whose conical disk, and °
drooping tays will at once identify them, forms a very conspic-
gous object. The Sunflowers, Helianthus, of which there are
five or six species, also are now in their glory; and H. divari-
cats, especially, is very showy. This makes a very fine

Jant by cultivation. Senecio aureus, Hieracium venosum, Na-
jalus albus, or Prenanthes alba, Mikania scandens, are all Com-

it, worthy of examination.’ Several of the genera Pyrola
and Chimaphila are in flower, and if anemblem of neatness is
needed, you have itin P. rotundifolia. Both these Ericaceae.
indeed, are among’our prettiest low plants. Their species are
called by a variety of names, such as Prince’s Pine, Winter-
n, Shinleaf, &c. — Now is the time to look for those singular

parasites—or supposed parasites,— Orobanche, and Epiphegus,
called Broom-rape, and Beech-drops. Many of the Labiate
and Scrophulariacee are blooming. These, though there are
- many handsome flowers among them, we must pass over for
the present without much notice, merely giving the names of
same of the more remarkable. Of the Figwort tribe, the Mul-—
lein, Verbascum. thapsus, is in every field, and its neater relative,
V,blattaria, is much, more pretty and rare. Linaria vulgaris,
ot Toad-flax, is frequent, sometimes in large patches by the.
wadside, and its queerly formed yellow flowers are worth
looking at. - Chelone glabra, or Snake-head ; Mimulus ringens
and alatus, called Monkey-flower ; Leptandra virginica, or-
Culver’s (not our publisher; whose prescriptions are of a more:
satisfactory nature to us) Physic, a very handsome white flow-
ered plant, by the way; several species of Gerardia, a good
looking genus, are all the Scrophu—(the word is too long)—we
have time to mention. Of the Labiate, are blossoming the
mints, Spearmint, Peppermint, Horsemint; the very common
Tycopus, called Water hoarhound ; the Mountain mint, a pretty
plant, with very variable flowers ; Pycnanthemum ; Collinsonia's
Hedeoma, or Pennyroyal; Scutellaria, two or three species ;
Prunella, Leonurus, Teucrium, and several other genera. The
Fringed Gentian, Gentiana crinita, is one of our prettiest flowers.
The bright bluish purple corolla, so finely fringed at the mar-
gin, will attract the special attention of the observer. It lives
in cool, wet places, by the sides of brooks and ponds.

254 - July and August Flowers.
(so ita a alae de i I RRR RR, ames ier at is,

' There are numerous other noticeable* plants, which flower
in July and August, but we must conclude with Some Of the
Orchidacese. Among them a very curious one is the Dra
claw, or Coral-root, Corallorhiza odontorhiza. It has jo]
but the stem is about a foot high, with several brown Sheaths,
The flowers are greenish, in a long spike, the lip being white

with purple spots. The root is a collection of small, fleshy
tubes, branched and articulated like coral. Another splendid
plant is Orchis grandiflora. This is the finest of the genus, It
bears a spike of large purple flowers, sometimes more than six
inches long, and we have made it by cultivation nearly twice
that length. It will flower readily in the garden, if taken up
with a considerable quantity of its native soil, and set jn ‘
shady situation. Several other species of Orchis are in flower,
A very pretty and delicate one is. O. ciliaris, with fringed
flowers, of a bright orange color, This is not so common ag
most other species, and is found in swamps. All the species,
indeed, are among our most curious and interesting plants, We
have also found lately the beautiful Arethusa, worthy of its po.
etical name. It is slender and delicate; the stem with a few
loose sheaths, bearing upon the summit a single large, nodding,
fragrant flower, of the most splendid purple imaginable. Po.
' gonia verticillata is a curious plant. Near the top of the stem
is. a single whorl of four of five leaves, and just above it a sine
gle flower, with most peculiar sepals, very narrow, twisted,
brown, and two or three inches long. Calopogon pulchellum js
_ perhaps the most perfectly beautiful plant of the whole tribe,
It has a tuberous root, a very slender scape, of a foot or
eighteen inches high, sheathed with a single long lily-like leaf
and bearing about five or six large purple flowers, which, for
beauty of color, and. delicacy of construction, are unequalled,
Goodyera, withits curious radical leaves, conspicuously veined _
with: white ; Spiranthes, two or three species, with frail stems,
and spirally twisted spikes ; and the superb Cypripedium spec-
tabile, with its white, purple-striped lip, and large plaited
leaves, are all remarkable plants, and well worthy the atten-
tion of the curious, Why have we not a good Monograph
of the American Orchidacer? —_- gt RS Se

gon’s.
eaves,

ea Vegetation—The Ceiba Tree. 255

——$—_—$——$_—
—_——

_

_-

TROPICAL VEGETATION—THE CEIBA TREE.
BY H. H. B.

‘A native of the North travelling in Cuba, will find his admi-
ration excited by a continual succession of strange and luxu-
tiant tropical productions. ‘Most attractive, from its novelty,
is the Palm, which in its beautiful varieties is thickly scattered
over the island. ‘The royal palin (Elais ?) is perhaps the most

mmetrical, though inferior in height to the wild Palms* of the
Vuelta-abajo, which ‘often raise their straight and slender
stems more than a hundred feet above the savannahs. In the
mountains may be seen the massy trunks and rich foliage of
the mahogany ; and the dark cedar, so agreeably suggestive
of “approved brands” and their fragrant contents. On the
seashore the Mangrove stretches far into the waves, and
pioneers the way for new accessions to the soil. The Bam-
boo, with its graceful and feathery arches, seems almost like
the forest that might fringe Fairy-land. It forms, when strip-

of its leaves, a sort of monstrous fishing-rod, almost large
enough to “bob for whales,’ and worthy to have been used
by that ancient Fisherman, of whose accoutrements it is said—

“You would have sworn, had you looked on them,
He had fished in the flood. with Ham and Shem.”

In some places the joints, which will hold a full gallon of
water, are used as buckets.

One of the most singular vegetable curiosities is a plant
called, I think, the Majabue. When it first rises out of the
ground, it is a slender vine, twining round some forest tree.
_ By degrees it increases in size, the stems and tendrils inter-
lace, and cross each other in numberless windings, forming a
kind of net-work around the body of the tree, until finally the
whole becomes united i into one firm shell, and encloses its prey
inaliving grave. It now forms a large and beautiful tree,
with roots, trunk and Si having for its core the paar of its
dead victim.

* Areca Oleracea.

256 Tropical Vegetation—The Ceiba Tree.

_panion on the South side of the island, we found one which

a

Far above all the rest, towers the gigantic Ceiba-tree,* This
monarch of the forest, in its perfection, sends up a lofty column
to the height of ninety or even a hundred feet, and then
spreads forth horizontally in immense branches, each a huge
tree. At its base large spurs or buttresses stretch forth, which
serve to keep upright its enormous weight, and enable it to
resist the storms, so violent in this region. The contrast be.
tween the light clay color of the trunk and the dark green of
the leaves produces a fine effect. Its diameter above the
spurs is from six to eight feet, and sometimes more, somewhat
decreasing upwards towards the branches. Riding with a com.

had fallen from decay and the application of fire to its roots,
As it lay extended on a level surface, and we rode on either
side, we could just see each other’s hats over the trunk. The
wood of the Ceiba-tree is very light, and of not much uge
except for making canoes. A single trunk, hollowed out for
this purpose, will carry twenty hogsheads of sugar. The seed

vessels produce a kind of cotton, which is not, however, fit for -

spinning, but 4 used by the poorer classes for stuffing cushions
and pillows. It is considered as an ill omen to cut one of these
fine trees from an estate, and as boding no good to the pro-
prietor.

Many of them were prostrated by the furious “ temporal,”
or hurricane which desolated the island in the autumn of
1844, While walking in the dismantled woods, and survey-
ing the wrecks scattered on all sides by a storm of whose
violence a north-man can form no conception, the sublime pas-

_ sage in Faust was most forcibly recalled :

“Hark! what a crashing through the forest! * * *

- Hark; 'to the splintering of the pillars of the evergreen palaces!,

the crackling and snapping of the boughs, the mighty groaning
of the trunks, the creaking and yawning of the roots !—All come
crashing down, one over the other, in fearfully confused fall;
and the winds hiss and howl through the wreck-covered
cliffs !” |

—_—

* Bombax Ceiba.

‘The Peony. ; 257

PHONIA—THE PEONY.,

«meal Order, Ranunculacee ; Linnean System, Polyandria, Di-Pentagynia.
“Generic Distinctions :—Calyx of five unequal permanent sepals; petals,
" from five to ten, roundish; stamens, numerous; disc, fleshy, encireling
"the ovaries; carpels, from two to. five, with thick bilamellate stigmas;
" geeds, numerous, somewhat globose and shining.

__-p, Russi.—Carpels, generally two; pilose, recurved; segments of the
~~ Jeaves elliptic, entire, somewhat pubescent beneath.—Plate 35.

‘sah
att

his is a very ornamental genus, and varieties of several
“gpecies are among the most commonly cultivated plants.
- The name, Pzonia, is derived from Pon, a Greek physician,
"who is said first to have used the plant in curing Pluto of a
~ wound inflicted by Hercules. The Peonies are both shrubby
and herbaceous. ‘The former kind are varieties of the Tree
Peony; P. Moutan, a native of China. Of “the latter, there
‘are several species and numerous varieties, ich are great
- favorites, from the easiness of their culture, their. hardiness,
and their showy flowers. Their roots are composed of several
tubers, somewhat like carrots—and, by sepa these, their
__ propagation is easily effected. The roots of one species,
_ . edulis, are eaten by the Siberians, who boil them in their
soup. ‘The most common Peony of the gardens is P. officinalis,
_ which has been in cultivation in England for three hundred
years. Its varieties are very numerous, having single, double,
and semi-double flowers, of various shades, from white to
crimson, and they are all easily propagated. It is a native of
several parts of Europe.

_ The species engraved, is one of the rarer sorts. Itisa
native of Sicily, and has been cultivated since about 1820.
Its flower is single, and of a bright crimson. The flowers are
solitary, but there are usually several stems, arising from the
‘game root. The leaves are.usually whitish undemeath. _ It is
increased, like other species, by parting the roots, and by the
seeds, and grows best in an open situation ina rich loamy
- Vou. I.—17.

&

4E. 35.

“fa Y a, p
Lpeonin ¢

258 The Hellebore.

Soe eee a a ET
mr

HELLEBORUS—THE HELLEBORE.

Natural Order, Ranunculacee; Linnean System, Polyandria, Polygynia,
Generic Distinctions :—Sepals, five, persistent, roundish, obtuse, Ja i
usually green; petals, from eight to ten, tubular, nectariferous ; stigmas,
orbicular ; capsules, coriaceous. ’

H. niger.—Radical leaves, pedate, quite smooth; scape, leafless, bearing
one or two flowers and bracts.—Plate 36, Fig. 1.

H. lividus. —Stem, many-flowered, leafy; leaves, ternate, smooth, glaucong
beneath; segments. ovate-lanceolate.—Plate 36, Fig 2.

The species of Hellebore are perennial plants, with a lea.
thery texture, and a very disagreeable smell; generally ever.
green, and flowering very early in spring. They have a
creeping under-ground stem, the fibrous roots proceeding from
which are the parts used in medicine. They are all poisonous;
though in small doses one or two species are administered as
cathartics. The name, Helleborus, alludes to their dangerous
qualities, and’signifies “ deadly food.”

H. niger is very commonly cultivated in England, where
it is called the Christmas Rose. ‘Every one,” says Mrs,
Loudon, “ knows that first harbinger of spring, the Christmas
Rose, though but few people are aware how very well it looks
as a window plant. In the open air, the delicate texture of its
flowers is often injured by the frost or melting snow, which so
often covers the ground at the dreary season when it appears;
but when kept in a sheltered place, such as a room or a green-
house, it becomes a very ornamental plant. The calyx of the
Christmas Rose, consists of five large, white sepals, which
are delicately tinged with pink. The petals are small and
tubular, but notgornamental, as they are of a dingy green.
They are, however, little seen, as they are nearly hidden by
the numerous stamens which surround the eight or ten carpels
that grow erect and close together in the centre of the flower.
The involucre consists of two large bracts, which shade the
flower in the bud, so as to resemble a green calyx. The
leaves are very deeply cut, and the segments are disposed in
a palmate manner, so as to look like separate leaflets. The

ee

Z Held ores neg: (Black ‘ Hither J
z Hele totus sevidies L Sovidl Hildebote:) | se
3 Droltiw Euatoftetes (Cutcpean Glee flower) ee.

+ here

f

a Set! Aes ‘
a >» ‘ ra a oe Py OR ge

The Globe-Flower. 259

_gpecies takes its name from the black bark of its underground
‘gem. It isa native of the Apennines, whence it was intro-
“guced into England before 1596. It will grow in any soil or
“situation ; but it prefers a dry soil, and a situation open to the
qn. It is propagated by dividing the underground stem in
; ‘summer, after the leaves have decayed.”

_ The Livid Hellebore is a native of Corsica, and is sometimes
- qltivated. Its leaves are evergreen, in three leaflets, serrated
cn the margin, and those of the stem have sometimes a dilated
jeaflike petiole. It is more difficult to propagate than the
other species, since it has not the creeping underground stem,
and the seeds do not ripen well.

i.

e TROLLIUS—THE GLOBE-FLOWER.

Natural Order, Ranunculacez ; Linnean System, Polyandria Polygynia.

Generic Distinctions :—Calyx of five, ten, or fifteen petal-like sepals;

: _ petals, from five to twenty, small, linear, tubular at base; stamens and
ovaries, numerous; capsules, sessile, columnar ; many seeded.

4 7. Europeus.—-Sépals, fifteen, converging ® as fo fof’ globe, concealiag
_ the petals; petals equal in length to the stamens.—Plate 36, Fig. 3.

_ From the old German word trol, or trothen, signifying round,
js derived the Latin name which is applied to this genus, on
account of the globular shape of the flowers. This shape is
most remarkable in the European globe-flower—some of the
- other species differing in this respect. They all agree, how-
ever, in having their sepals much larger and more ornamental _
than the petals, which appear rather like abortive stamens.
The leaves, like those of most plants of the same order, are
“deeply cut, and their petioles are dilated, and sheathe the stem,
which is hollow, and yields an acrid juice. _T. Europeus is.
-anative of Great Britain and other parts of Europe, and has
Jong been a favorite in gardens. The flower stem is erect and
branched, each branch terminating in a single flower. The
flowers are at first small, but they gradually become larger,
though Without opening; the sepals, which are numerous, pre-

260 The Wood-Sorrel.

serving their globe-like form till they fall off, which they do
long before the seed is ripe. The petals, which are entire}
hidden by the converging sepals, are about the same len
‘as the stamens; and indeed they look more like abortive fila,
ments a little flattened, than petals. The stamens and carpels
are very numerous. The leaves appear palmate, so deep}
are they cleft into five distinct lobes. This plant never ims
proves by cultivation; and those species which have been
propagated from others kept in gardens fora great many years,
produce flowers exactly similar to those which are found wild
in the meadows. In gardens, the globe-flower will gTow in
any soil or situation, but it prefers one that is somewhat moist
and shady. It is readily propagated, either by seeds or by
division of the root.

The only American species of Trollius is T. Americanus,
It is a native of all the Northern States, in swamps and loy
grounds. The leaves are five lobed; the sepals, unlike thy
European species, spread widely apart, so as to show thy
petals, which are very short and broad, and of a fine yellow
color. Several stems, each bearing a flower, spring from thy
same root. It flowers in May and June, and is easily cult.
vated. A variéty-of this(species, discovered by Drummond, ©
near the Rocky Mountains, has white flowers.

OXALIS—THE WOOD-SORREL.

Natural Order, Oxalidacew; Linnean System, Decandria, Pentagynia.
Generic Distinctions :—Sepals, five, distinct, or united at base; stamens,
monadelphous at base; stigmas, pencil-formed, rarely capitate or bifid;
capsule, oblong or cylindrical.

O. Bowiei.—Stemless ; leaflets, three, roundish, cordate, emarginate ; pe-
duncles, about the length of the leaves, umbelliferous.— Plate 37.

This genus comprises a great number of species, which
“are found in widely separate regions of the world. From the
Cape of Good Hope are. brought many of the most beautiful
“kinds, while both Great Britain and our own country furnish

The Wood-Sorrel. 261

ee
dl others They have long been cultivated, and are great favo-
es for their delicacy and beauty. In a late English work,
i whole number of species, exclusive of florists’ varieties,
is peckonee at- seventy-one. They bear so strong a family
eness, that it is not easy to confound them with any other
snus. ‘They are pretty little plants, some shrubby and some.
sbaceous. ‘The root is usually tuberous, the bulbs, consisting
‘fleshy scales, sometimes closely imbricate, sometimes loose.
nd diverging. In a few, the subterraneous stem, and the,
yminating fibre of the bulb, produce little dog-toothed bulbs,
;such abundance as to fill the pot to the very bottom. Some-
‘Yimes the bulb strikes downwards a radical fibre, from the,
Pile of which grows a new bulb, which produces a new plant,
while the former perishes. Some of the species have a proper
- stem, and others a scape, at the top of which are the flowers,
jn an umbel. The leaves are. usually petioled, and mostly
“temate, in a few species binate and digitate. Almost all of
- them have an acid taste, on account of which they take their
‘generic name, which means sour, or sharp. This taste is
om ving to the presence of oxalic acid, which is usually made
from O. Acetosella. The expressed juice of this plant affords
‘thisacid in the form of a crystalline acid salt. It is used for
taking iron and ink stains out of linen, for scouring brass, and
- for various other purposes. For taking out spots in linen, the
‘stained part is dipped in water, sprinkled with a little of the
powdefed salt, then rubbed on a pewter plate, after which the ~
"spot is washed in warm water.
_ Many of the species ripen seeds, from which, or from offsets,
‘they are readily propagated, and grown in a light soil, the
best being a mixture of sand, peat, andloam. ‘They are best
kept in pots which will hold a great many roots. The earth
3 a be so light and sandy, as never to become hard, but
yays soft enough not to resist the point of the finger when
a pressed upon it. When the flowering time is passed, the pots
should be put aside, where they require neither care nor
water. In the beginning of August, they should be placed.
inthe open air, and moderately watered. About the middle
A September, after the leaves have appeared, they should
pereced: ina wes sunny, airy greenhouse, when they will

y f e TG 4% y, a , y, .
is Lrieles é Biss ( Sserred z pated }

262 The Saxifrage.

Se
flower well. Some of the species can be planted out in the
opén air, early in spring, when they will begin to flowe
May, and continue through the semmer.

The species in our plate is named from the gentleman who.
introduced it into England, from the Cape of Good Hope, ang
is considered the handsomest of all the species. The flowers
are large, of a fine rose color, and produced in such abun.
dance as to have a most brilliant effect in the garden. When
placed in the open ground, says a cultivator, the plants flower
in September and October ; but by potting them, and’ keeping
them quite dry, so as to allow them about a fortnight’s rest jn
midsummer, or later, and then placing them in a stove, tg
start them, as the gardeners call it, they may be made to flower
freely, and at any season required, according to the time when
they are given their period of rest.

A very pretty American species, is O. violacea, which ought
to be cultivated. The scape is very slender, about a foot
high, bearing an umbel of large, elegant, violet-colored flowers,
It grows in woods, and flowers in May. Three or four other
species are natives of the Northern States.

r in

SAXIFRAGA—THE SAXIFRAGE. .

Natural Order, Saxifragacee ; Linnean System, Decandria, Digfnia. Ge-
neric Distinctions :—Calyx of four or five sepals, more or less united;
petals, five, entire; capsule, two-beaked, two-celled, opening between
the diverging beaks; seeds, many.

S. ligulata.—Leaves, obovate, subcordate, denticulated ; quite glabrous on
both surfaces, but ciliated on the margin; panicle, dichotomous; petals,
broad, orbicular.—Plate 38, Fig. 1.

S. stellaris—Leaves, wedge-form, serrate, pilose at the margin; stem, sim-
ple, naked; petals, acute; capsule, superior.— Plate 38, Fig. 2.

This is also a very extensive genus, comprising many spe-
cies, which are generally inhabitants of northern regions, all
over the world. Some of the species are easily cultivated,
and, although naturally mountaineers, are not incapable of
breathing the more impure air of towns and valleys. They

The Savifrage. 263

ee ee
“gre mostly perennial plants, with thick roots, large fleshy
“Jeaves, and showy flowers, generally disposed in panicles.
“the name Saxifraga, signifies ‘ break stone,’ in reference to a
supposed medicinal effect of the plants, or according to one
ther doubtful authority, “ from their insinuating themselves

of

into the crevices of rocks, and breaking them.” The parts of
‘fructification are extremely variable, the calyx being some-
‘times superior, and sometimes inferior, the stamens being in-
- gerted into the calyx in some instances, and beneath the ova-
‘rum in others. This has been the cause of dividing the genus
EHio several others, though the new genera are not usually
adopted.
_ The Nepaul Saxifrage is one of the finest of the cultivat-
ed species. The flowers are large, bell-shaped, and nearly
"white. The leaves are large, leathery, dotted all over with small
punctures, and fringed at the margin with a border of fine
short hairs. ‘The root is horizontal and woody. It should be
grown in very rich garden soil, and protected from the cold, in
April and May, when it flowers. S. Stellaris is a pretty little
; plant, a native of the north of Europe, and America.
_ There are many other American species, some of which are
among the earliest flowers which blossom in our Northern
- Spring. One of these, S. Virginiensis, opens its white petals
in April, among the stones of every dry, rocky hill. It is a
small plant, with obovate, pubescent radical leaves, and a stem
of six inches high, bearing a panicle of numerous small flow-
es. The whole number of North American species is above
forty, many of which are native in Canada, Labrador, and
the far North. The genus contains in all, above one hundred
and fifty species. .

5

264 Culture of the Camellia.

CULTURE OF THE CAMELLIA.

BY MR. ELEY.

Camettta Japontoa, in the groves‘and gardens of Japan
is a lofty tree, much admired for its fine form, rich clothing of
shining deep green foliage, and elegant red or white flower,
single or double. It'is equally admired in China as in J apan,
and much cultivated'in both countries. It is of frequent oc.
currence in Chinese paintings, with Hibiscus and Chrysanthe.
num, two of their great favorites. There are several varieties
of ©. Japonica in China, most of which have been imported,
and their number increased from seedlings raised in this
country. Yet its management is not generally understood, ex.
cept by cultivators, and persons having large green-houses,
Many persons are deterred from having them in their rooms
and small conservatories, as they consider them difficult to
manage. The chief complaint is that they drop their buds
before flowering. This may be in a great measure prevented
by attending to the following directions.

The chief points are to protect the plant from the sun in
summer, to prevent the roots from matting around the sides of
the pot, and not to give them too much water when they are
not growing. When the plants are placed in the conservatory
in the autumn, they should be shaded’ from the sun at noon-
day in September and October, and also in’ the spring, in April
and May. If exposed to the full sum, the leaves are apt to
turn yellow, and the plants get sickly. When placed out of
the house in summer, they should be put in a shady situation,
where, if they have any sun, it should be but little, and that
early in the morning. When Camellias are flowering, and
during their growth, they should be watered pretty freely, but
not kept saturated, nor should they be suffered to become very
dry before water is given them. In summer they should be
kept moist, and be watered over their leaves in the evening,
which is very beneficial to them; and during winter it is best
to keep them rather dry.

Culture of the Camellia. 265

As regards the temperature, if it is desired to bring them into
fower at the natural time in the spring, they should be kept as
cool as possible during winter, for as the heat comes on more

dually, there is less danger of the buds dropping off, which
ig caused by too sudden a change of temperature. It is as-
onishing to observe how very easily: the flower buds, when
nearly ready to expand, are acted upon by either heat or cold.
The variation of only a few degrees will considerably effect
them, so that attention is necessary at this time. Keep them
as regular as possible in temperature and moisture, in order to
ensure their bloom. Previous to taking Camellias from the

en-houses into a warm room, water them freely on the
leaves (if the flowers are not expanded;) and they will come
into flower much, better than if taken in without watering.

The Camellia is well adapted to flower during the winter
months, when but few plants cheer us with their expanded
blossoms. ‘They should be placed in the conservatory early
in the fall, before the weather is very cold, and by keeping the
temperature as regular as possible, between 50 and 60 degrees
of heat, (about 50 to 55, by night, and. 55, to 60, by day,)
keeping them regularly moist, and. giving them air in mild
weather, they will come into flower early, and provided they
are good sized plants and well budded, they will flower a
great part of the winter. It may be well to remark that
Camellias are very full of buds, and will naturally drop some
of them of their own accord, when they have more than the
sp can supply, and therefore amateurs should not feel disap-
pointed if they lose some of them. As soon as they have done
fowering, which will be according as they flower early or
late, from February to April, before the new shoots commence
growing, they should be re-potted in fresh soil, and kept in the
same heat as before, or the heat may be raised from 55 to 60
degrees by night, and 60 to 65 by day. Syringe over their.
aves early in the morning, keep the soil in the pots moist,
shade them from the hot sun, giving them as much air as the
weather will admit of, which will cause them to grow regularly,
and they usually complete their growth in about a fortnight.
When the young shoots have done growing, which can be

easily perceived by the terminal bud at the point of the shoot,

266 Culture of the Camellia.

will cause the flower buds to form with more facility ang in
greater numbers. But it should be observed, that such ins
crease of heat should be applied immediately on the Plants
perfecting their growth, and before the wood becomes hard,
or it will not have the desired effect; for such plants as form
their flower buds in the conservatory, previous to Placing
them out for summer, can be brought to flower much earlier in
the winter, or by the end of November, and any that have not
formed their buds in the spring, will form them in summer,
and come on in succession.

The soil for Camellias should be a mixture of loam and
peat, with some decayed manure and sand, so that it will he
of a sufficient texture not to dry too rapidly, nor bake too hard
in the pots; for when potted in too hard a soil, or peat alone,
an impenetrable ball is formed, impervious to water, which
runs down the sides of the pots without watering the roots, and
in consequence the plants will be impoverished, the leayes
drop off, although apparently green and healthy, and the
death of the plant soon follows. The best soil is, one-third of
good peat, one-third of loam, nearly one-third of decayed
manure, and the remainder fine sand. In shifting them, let
the pots be proportioned to the size of the plant, and the quantity
of roots. They may not always require a larger pot, but let
them be taken out of the pots, a little of the soil removed from
the sides, top and bottom of the ball, and the ball loosened a
little, but no roots should be taken away, unless they are dead,
The pots should always be well drained with broken potsherds
of gravel, then place a little soil over the drainage, and return
the plant and fill up the pot with the compost, pressing it
down the sides with the finger or a piece of flat stick, leaving
a little space between the soil and rim of the pot, to allow of
watering. When Camellias are inclined to grow too strag-
gling and tall, they should be pruned, the side shoots cut
back, and the leader or top shoot shortened so as to reduce
them to regular shape, which should be done as soon as they
have done flowering. When they have completely set their
flower buds, or by the beginning or middle of June, they will
be sufficiently hardy to place out for summer ; precaution is

Culture of the Camellia. 267

eee a eee eS ee
necessary tO prevent worms from getting an entrance into the
t by placing a piece of board under it, but if any do find their
way, they should be taken out, or the pots watered with lime
water once a week, for two or three weeks, which will cause
them to come out, but be careful not to give them too much
ime water, as it may injure their roots. As long as the weather
continues favorable, that is, without .frost or excessive rains,
they need not be taken in till the latter end of September or the
beginning of October. Previous to taking them into the house,
may be necessary to take off a little of the old soil from the
surface of the pot, but not deep enough to injure their roots,
and topdress them with a little fresh compost, which will be
yery beneficial to them; syringe them over their leaves and
wash the pots clean, and keep them in a cool situation, till they
are required to flower. When placed out for summer, they
should be put in as cool and shady a situation as possible, for
ff much exposed to the sun they will turn yellow and get
sickly. The pots may be plunged about half their depth in
the ground, provided the soil is dryish sandy loam ; if it isa
wet cold soil, it is a good plan to take a box and bore a few
holes in the bottom to let water out, and set it on the ground,
and place in the pots and fill in the interior with sand, as it
will protect the roots from being injured by drouth, and they
will not want watering so frequently.
Camellias to be cultivated or flowered in rooms, should be
of good size, and strong healthy plants, for small plants are
not suitable, as they are more liable to be affected by the
heat of the room than larger ones, and the pots being so small
they dry much faster, and are apt to lose their buds. When
they are brought in from the garden in fall, and it is desired
to have them flower as early in the winter as possible, they
may be placed in the room they are to flower in, and if the
windows are much exposed to the sun’s rays they should be
shaded a little; and they will come into flower: according to
the state of the plants, and the forwardness of the buds. If it
is only wished to have them flower in the spring, they may be
placed in a cool room where they will not freeze, and they
will bear a darker room than most other plants, and can be

brought into the parlor when they are wanted, and with the

268 : Propagation by Layers and Grafts.
——_———_—_--——
same attention they will soon come into flower. As in Tooms
there is not the same convenience for potting or shifting them, se
in a conservatory, they may be kept in such rooms till the Season
arrives for placing them out in summer, when they cay Ns
fresh potted if they require it, and they will perfect their flower
buds by autumn. |

Camellias are increased by grafting them on stocks of the
single red variety, the cuttings of which may be taken off the
parent plant at any season after the wood of the Previous
growth is ripe, and planted in pots of white sand, which Should
be well drained; and two or three leaves left on each Cutting,
Place them in a shady part of the green-house, for five or six
weeks, and then plunge them up to their rims in a hot-bed, ang
when rooted, they should be separated. into small pots, kept
shaded when first potted, then nursed along till of fit size t
graft.

PROPAGATION BY LAYERS AND GRAFTS,

In order to propagate any particular variety of fruit op ,
flower, the cultivator reserves some of the leafy buds of the
tree or plant, and places these in circumstances favorable to
their growth. In many instances, the leaves or leaf-buds haye
the power of forming roots for themselves ; and this is especially
the case when the neighboring part contains a temporary sup.
ply of nourishment for them, such as the tuber of the potato
imparts to the eyes, or buds, which it contains. Thus, if the
young branches of a vine be cut into as many pieces as there
are leaf-buds, and these be properly laid in a favorable soil, and
stimulated to growth by heat and moisture, they will soon put
out roots and become perfect plants; being at first supported
by the nutritious matter contained in the wood to which they ad-
here, and afterwards by the products of its decay. It is in
this way that sugar-cane is propagated ; the plants that spring
from these cuttings being more vigorous, and coming earlier
to maturity, than those raised from seed. This method is often

‘Propagation by Layers and Grafts. 269
employed by the gardener; who sometimes varies it, by not
detaching the bud from the parent -stock, but by bending a
pranch into the earth, and letting it be partly supported by the
juices of its parent, until it has put forth roots for itself. This
js termed propagating by layers.

_ But there are many cases in which it is desirable not to trust
to the power which ‘the bud may possess of forming roots’ for
~ tself; and advantage is then taken ‘of the tendency which the

wing parts of plants have to adhere and become united to
each other. Such adhesions not unfrequently take place from
natural causes. Thus, if two branches, either of the same or
of different trees, be lying across each other, in such a position
as to rub against one another when moved by the wind, the
bark will be worn off from each, and a fluid will exude from
the wounds, which will be in time converted into solid tissue.
This is capable of conveying sap from one branch to the other ;
for'a tree which has been thus united (for the sake of experi-
ment) to two others, and has been thus cut off from all com-
munication with the soil, has continued to live, without any
other supply than that which it has derived through these trees.
This natural adhesion of vegetable tissue is well seen in the
ivy; the branches of which often interlace ‘and graft together
in various places, until the whole forms a rude net-work, en-
closing the trunk of the tree on which it has climbed.

Now the gardener imitates this process, when he wishes to
supply the separated buds of a tree or plant which he is de-
sirous of propagating rapidly, with nourishment ready to be
elaborated by its leaves. He chooses a stock, or stem deprived
of its own buds, and cuts off its top in a sloping direction, so
as to expose a large surface of wood and bark. He cuts the
lower end of the “young branch, or gtaft,'in a similar manner,
and then fixes them together, taking especial care that the bark
and wood ‘of the one’should meet and join with the bark and
‘wood of the other. “If the operation succeeds, the ‘stock and
the graft become’so completely united together, as to form in
‘time but one tree, in which all’mark of the original separation
has disappeared. The stock draws up from the soil the fluid
which the leaves of the graft require ; these obtain carbon
from the air, and elaborate the crude sap into proper juice, a

270 Propagation by Layers and Grafts.

ee ee ee
portion of which is supplied by the graft to the stock for the gx.
tension of its own tissues, just as if the stem really belonged to;

To effect this object, it is generally necessary to choogo ;
the stock, a plant either of the same species as the graft,
one very closely allied to it; and the less the relationship, the
more care and precaution must be taken to secure a Union, b
bringing the newest layers of bark and wood into contact, },
is customary to select for the stock some less valuable form of
the same species. Thus the cultivated varieties of Pears and
Apples are often grafted upon the Wild Pear and Crab, Q,
a. species nearly allied, will sometimes answer nearly ag wo}
and from being readily procured, is commonly employed,—
Thus, Peaches and Apricots are grafted on the common Plym,
The operation does not always succeed between two specieg
of different genera ; and it fails entirely, if an attempt is mada
to unite individuals of different families. Thus, for example,
Pears answer well upon Pears, nearly as well upon Quinceg,
less freely upon Apples or Thorns, and not at all upon Plums
or Cherries, which are of a different family. The Lilac yj
take upon the Ash, notwithstanding their great apparent differ.
ence, because they are of the same natural family ; but the
Olive, which also belongs to the same family, cannot be profit
ably grafted upon the Ash, since the vegetation of these is too
different to allow them to live long together.

The cause which thus restrains the gardener in the choice
of his stock, is not merely the difference in the properties of
the fluids of the two kinds, but also the difference in the gene.
ral character of their growth. It is essential that the stock and
graft should be naturally in sap at the same time ; and thisis
more likely to be the case in nearly allied species than in
others. However, in very succulent plants, such as the Cacti,
of which the fleshy stems are always full of fluid, grafts of very
different species succeed very well together ; and this excep-
tion helps to prove the rule. It is necessary, also, that the rate
of growth of the two should be nearly the same ; for, if the
graft be of more rapid growth than the stock, and more be
sent down to the latter than it can convert into tissue, a swel-
ling will be formed above the line of union, like that which
takes place when a cord is bound round a stem ; and this wil

Propagation by Layers and Grafts. 271

_
increase SO, as in time to cause the death of both parts, by al-
together obstructing the passage of fluid. .

Not only does the process of grafting enable the gardener to
multiply with greater rapidity, and to preserve with more cer-
tainty, any valuable kind of flower or fruit, but by the judicious
selection of a stock, a favorable influence may be produced up-
onthem. ‘Thus the more delicate kinds of vines produce larger
and finer grapes when worked upon coarser and more robust
kinds ; and the Double Yellow Rose, which seldom opens its
fowers, and will not grow at all in many situations, blossoms
abundantly, and grows freely, when grafted on the common
China Rose. Some statements, however, which impute to the
sock a much greater influence, are without any foundation in
ith. Thus, it has been asserted that Roses become black
when grafted on Black Currants; and Oranges crimson, if
grown upon the Pomegranate : but this is altogether erroneous,
as these species will not unite at all.

Errors in regard to the success of the process have arisen
frou an occurrence that sometimes takes place,—the formation,
by the graft, of independent roots, which supply it partly or
wholly with nourishment, with little or no assistance from the
sock. In this way has been explained the fact, that the Olive
has been made to grow upon the Fig-tree, (as recorded by
Columella, one of the earliest writers upon Agriculture ;) for
10 proper union can take place between them, on account of
the wide difference of their character. Mention is made by
Pliny, of a tree in the garden of Lucullus, which was so
grafted, as to bear pears, apples, figs, plums, olives, almonds,
grapes, &c.; and at the present time, the gardeners of Italy,
wll plants of Jasmines, Roses, Honeysuckles, &c., all grow-
ing together from a stock of Orange, or Myrtle, or Pomegran-
ate, on which they say they are grafted. But this is a mere
cheat. The fact is, that the stock has its centre bored out, so
as to be made into a hollow cylinder, through which the stems
of Jasmines, and other flexible plants, are easily made to pass,
heir roots intermingling with those‘of the stock. After grow-
ing for a time, the increase in the diameter of the stems thus en-
closed forces them together, and they assume all the appearances
of being united. Such plants are, of course, very short lived.

272 The Natural System of Botany.

es ee ee

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY,

NUMBER NINE*

——

Order—AcERACER. The Maple Tribe.

Tuts order contains some of the finest forest trees of northern
countries. Several species of Maple are among the most com,
mon and useful. Of these the wood is extensively used jn the
manufacture of furniture, and for other useful purposes, ang
the sap of the sugar maple affords a well known and ye
pleasant saccharine substance. The characters of the onde
are easily ascertained. The-leaves are opposite, and withoyt
stipules; the flowers are small, regular, sometimes perfect, and
often dicecious or polygamous. The calyx has five sepals, and
the corolla, when present, the same number of petals, The
fruit is always a Samara, or ovary expanding into wings,
‘The shape and appearance of this is well observed in the com.
mon white or red maple.

Order—Hirrocastanem. The Horse-Chestnut Tribe,

The species belonging to this order are ornamental trees,
‘The common Horse-Chestnut, so generally admired for the
richness of its foliage, the beauty of its flowers, and the cle.
gance of its whole aspect, is a native of the north of Asia,
The characteristics of the order are readily observed in this
fine tree. The leaves are digitate, without stipules ; the flow.
ers are showy, in a large panicle; the calyx has five united
sepals; the corolla is irregular, with five petals ; the stamens
are from. six to eight, usually seven, unequal in length; the
fruit is roundish, with a leathery envelope, enclosing one ortwo
large, smooth, roundish seeds, which contain much bitter,
starchy matter.

Order—Cetastraces. The Staff-Tree Tribe.

These are shrubs or small trees, and are possessed of a bit-
ter or acid principle, which, however, does not appear to be

The Natural System of Botany. 278

———

ofany use. One of the most peculiar of the American species,
isthe Bladder Nut, Staphylea trifolia. This is a shrub, of six
oreight feet high; the flowers are white, in a drooping raceme;
the capsules are remarkable, being large, and inflated, and the
geds are very hard. The Spindle-tree, Enonymus, and the
Staff-tree, Celastrus scandens, a climbing shrub whose scarlet
aril, or seed envelope, is so conspicuous through the winter, are
other not uncommon members of this order. They all have -
four or five sepals, united at the base, and the same number
of alternate petals, and perigynous stamens. The ovary is
superior; composed of several adherent carpels, and immersed
ina large fleshy cisk. The fruit is either a capsule or a berry.

Ruamnacesz. The Buck-Thorn Tribe.

This order in some respects much resembles the last, but is
readily distinguished by the position of the stamens, which al-
ternate with the sepals, instead of with the petals. The calyx
also is valvate, instead of imbricate. The ovary is partly en-
yeloped in the disk, the fruit is a capsule, berry, or drupe, and
the seeds have no aril. ‘The species of this order are distrib-
uted over nearly all the temperate and warm regions of the
earth. ‘They are generally shrubs or small trees, and many
of them possess spines, like the common Buck-thorn. The
inner bark and fruit of most of the order are purgative, and
some are also emetic and astringent. A well known medicine,
(at present however fallen into disuse,) Syrup of Buck-thorn,
is made from the fruit of one species, which also affords a val-
uable coloring matter. The fruit of an Asian species, Zizyphus
Jujuba, affords a gummy matter, which is a favorite dessert in
Italy and Spain, and under the name of Jujube paste is much
used in this country, as a remedy for coughs. The leaves of
Ceanothus Americana, (the genus is peculiar to this country,)
were used as tea during a certain period of the war of the
Revolution, whence the shrub is commonly called Jersey Tea.

Order—Lecuminosz. The Pea Tribe.

This is a very extensive and important order. It comprises
some of the most interesting, and useful of all plants. Some

274 The Natural System of Botany.

ro
Leguminose furnish man with. great quantities of eXcellent
food, such as the Pea and the Bean, and others. are equall
valuable for cattle, as the various kinds of Clover and Lucery
Others afford some of the most important dyes, such as Indigo,
and Log-wood, and others again the finest woods, Brazil-wooq.
Rose-wood, and Locust-wood. The medicinal products of
some species are in the most common use, as Senna, Cassia,
and Acacia. Others still are attractive on account of their
great beauty, such as the Laburnums, and Robinias; anq
‘others are very interesting on account of their physiological
peculiarities, as the Sensitive plant, the Gleditschias, and some
of the Acacias.

The most important point in which all Leguminose agree
is in the structure of their fruit, which is a pod or Legume,
This is a carpel which grows long and flat, and separates
when ripe into two valves. The pod ofa pea is a ready illys.
tration. Leguminose are divided into two sub-orders, Papy,.
onacE& and Mimosex. The first of these divisions is distip.
guished by the singular arrangement of the petals, which haye
been thought to resemble a butterfly at rest. The flower of
the pea is an example, and is constructed as follows. The
calyx has five small nearly equal sepals united into a short
tube. The corolla consists of five petals, one of which is much
larger than the rest, and is wrapped over them before the
flower expands. This is called the verillum. In front of this
are two smaller petals, called wings, or ale. These are folded
over a curved or boat-shaped part, which is placed in front of
all the rest. It is formed of two petals, adherent at the lower
edge, and is called the keel or carina. The stamens are ten
in the pea diadelphous, but in some others monadelphous, or
distinct.

In the Mimosez the flowers are more nearly regular, the
stamens are definite in number, (from four or five to twenty,) |
or else very numerous, and are inserted separately on the re-
ceptacle. In this division are contained the Senna, Mimoaa,
and Acacia. Many of them have a very elegant appearance
their clusters of flowers being very numerous and often splen
didly colored. Besides the structure of the fruit, all Legumi
nos agree in that of the seed, the whole interior of which is

The Natural System of Botany. 275

TP ame mam IR IE acre a a RRR
occupied by the fleshy cotyledons, without any separate albu-
men} 2 character which is invariable, and which shows the
order to be a natural one. These plants are very generally —
difused over the whole world, Papilionacee being found in
almost all countries from the tropics to high northern latitudes,
and Mimosex flourishing principally near the equator. The
number of known species amounts nearly to four thousand.

« A full account of the useful plants and products of this
large order,” says Dr. Gray, “ would require a separate vol-
yme. Many, such.as Clover, Lucerne, &c., are extensively
cultivated for fodder; Peas and Beans for pulse. The roots
of the Liquorice, (Glycirrhiza glabra of Southern Europe,)
abound in a sweet mucilaginous juice, from which the pectoral
extract of this name is prepared. The sweet pulp of the pods
of Ceratonia Siliqua (Carob-tree of the South of Europe, &c.,)
of the Honey-Locust (Gleditschia,) &c. is likewise eaten. The
laxative pulp of Cathartocarpus Fistula, and of the Tamarind,
ig well known. A peculiar volatile principle (called coumarin)
gives its fragrance to the well known Tonka-bean, and the
Melilotus, or Sweet Clover; the flowers and seeds of which
are employed to give the peculiar odor to Gruyere or Scheip-
ziger cheese.

Astringents and tonics are also yielded by this order: such
as the African Pterocarpus erinaceus, the hardened red juice.
of which is Gum Kino; that of P. Draco, of Carthagena, &c.,
is Dragon’s Blood. The bark of most Acacias and Mimosas
contains a very large quantity of tannin, and is likely to prove

‘of great importance in tanning. The valuable astringent
called Catechu is obtained by boiling and evaporating the heart-
wood of the Indian Acacia Catechu. Leguminose yield the
most important coloring matters; such as the Brazil-wood,
the Log-wood of Campeachy, (the peculiar coloring matter of
which is called Hamatin ;) and the Red Sandal-wood of Cey-
lon. Most important of all is’ Indigo, which is prepared from —
the fermented juice of the Indigofera tinctoria, a native of In-
dia, and also from I. cerulea, and other species of the genus.
To the same order we are indebted for valuable resins and
balsams ; such as the Mexican Copal, Balsam of Copaiva, of
the West Indies, the bittér and fragrant Balsam of Peru, and

276 The Natural System of Botany.

a
the sweet, fragrant, and stimulant Balsam of Tolu. This sls
order also furnishes the most useful gums ; of which We need
only mention Gum Tragacanth, derived from Astragalus Verus
of Persia, &c.; and Gum Arabic, the produce of numeroyg
African species of Acacia. The best is said to be obtained
from A. vera, which extends from Senegal to Egypt ; while
Gum Senegal is yielded by Acacia Verek, and some other spe-
cies of the river Gambia. The Senna of commerce Consists
of the leaves of several species of Cassia, of Egypt and Aras
bia. More acrid, or even poisonous qualities, are often met
with in the order. The roots of Baptisia tinctoria, (calleq
wild Indigo, because it is said to yield a little of that substance,)
of the Broom, and of the Dyers’ weed, (Genista tinctoria, used
for dying yellow,) possess such qualities ; while the seeds of
Laburnum, &c., are even narcotico-acrid poisons. The
branches and leaves of Tephrosia, and the bark of the root of
Piscidia Erythrina, (Jamaica Dog-wood, which is also found
in Southern Florida,) are commonly used in the West Indies
for stupifying fish. Cow-itch is the stinging hairs of the pods
of Mucuna (or Stizolobium) pruriens, of the West, and y,
prurita of the East Indies. Among the numerous valuable tim.
ber-trees, our own Locust, (Robinia Pseudacacia,) must be
mentioned ; and also the Rose-wood of commerce, the produce
of a Brazilian species of Mimosa. Few orders furnish so many
plants cultivated for ornament.”

Order—Rosacez. The Rose Tribe.

_. Whether considered in reference to the beauty and univer-
sal culture of some of its members, the usefulness of the medi-
cinal properties of many, or the excellence of the fruit of others,
this order is one of the most important of all. The species
are very numerous, and are generally natives of the temperate
regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

The structure of the flower is nearly the same in all the or-
der, but from differences in the fructification, it has been divid-
ed into several families, or sub-orders. Taking the flower of
the Strawberry for examination, we find that the calyx con-
sists of five sepals, on the outside of which are five bracts

The Natural System of Botany. 277
The corolla has five equal petals; the stamens are very nu-
merous; and instead of arising from the receptacle beneath the
carpels, are inserted on the calyx. The pistil consists of a
cluster of separate carpels, each having a style, and contain-
ing a single seed. The transformation of such a flower to the
fruit of the Strawberry, appears singular. When the corolla
has fallen off, the receptacle on which the carpels are situated,
swells gradually, and separates the carpels from each other, '
bearing them on its outside, and becoming at length the soft,
juicy fruit. In the Raspberry, the structure of the fruit is dif
ferent. ‘The receptacle does not enlarge, but remains as the
white convex core of the fruit; and the fruit itself consists of
the carpels, in which the seeds are imbedded, and which be-
come pulpy and succulent. Now on examining a Rose, the
structure of the flower will be found to be similar to that of the
Strawberry ; but the fruit, or Hip, as it is called, is formed of
the tube of the calyx, in the interior of which are the carpels.
The Apple, Pear, and their allied fruits, are constructed some-
what differently. In these the ovaries, and the tube of the
calyx completely coalesce, and form one body, which becomes
the fruit. ‘The principal part of the flesh of the Apple consists
of the tube of the calyx or the prolonged receptacle; but in
its interior are found the five carpels, whose walls have become
thin and horny. In the Almond, the Plum, the Peach, and
such fruits, there is only a single carpel developed ; and this
in time becomes the fruit, which is termed a drupe, and con-
sists of a fleshy outside, surrounding a hard: shell, which con-
tains the cotyledons.

The first sub-order, then, following what appears the most
natural division, is AMy@pALE#, which have a single ovary,
and single seed, a deciduous calyx, and bear a drupe. To
this division belong some of the most delicious and esteemed
fruits,as the Peach, the Cherry, the Apricot, the Plum, the
Nectarine, the Almond; &c. All these agree in the peculiar
properties which they derive from the presence of Prussic
Acid, (which when of full strength is one of the most violent
of known poisons,) in some of their parts. Generally the quan-
tity is not sufficient to produce any deleterious effect, unless it
is artificially concentrated, though the leaves of a species of

278 The Natural History of Botany.

ce
Cerasus which grows in the Southern States, are said some-
times to destroy cattle which eat them. But such prepara.
tions as Laurel-Water, which is distilled from the leaves of .
European species of the same genus, and is used for flavoring
some dishes and liquors, are eminently dangerous. Almonds
are the product of an Eastern species of Amygdalus, and the
two varieties differ greatly in the quantity of the acid Which
they contain ; the oil of Sweet Almonds being harmless, while
that of Bitter Almonds is most deadly.

The second sub-order is Pome, which contains those jm.
portant fruits, the Apple, the Pear, the Quince, the Medlar, &e.
These need no further allusion. The characters which are
peculiar to this division are: ovaries two to five, cohering with
each other, and with the thickened or fleshy calyx tube. Fryit
a pome.

The third sub-order is Rosacex proper, in which the ova-
ries are several, distinct, rarely solitary ; and the fruit becomes
either follicles, or achenia. To this belong the Roses, the
Blackberries, the Strawberry, the Raspberry, the Cinque-
foil, &c.

Order—Myrracex. The Myrtle Tribe.

This order is chiefly remarkable for the aromatic and pun-
gent oil, and the astringent principle which make some of its
species so valuable as spices. It is well distinguished by these
qualities, as well as the structure of its leaves. These, like
those of the Orange tribe, are dotted with little receptacles,
which contain the aromatic oil, and if bruised, they emit a fra-
grant odor. In the Myrtle, asin most of the order, the calyx
has five adherent sepals, andthe corolla five small petals. The
stamens are inserted on the tube of the calyx, and they are
sometimes united into bundles. The ovary is three-celled, and
the fruit is a berry. . |

Cloves are the dried flower-buds of the Caryophyllus aro-
maticus, a small tree which is native in many of the Islands
of the Indian Ocean, whence it has been introduced into some
parts of Asia, and the West Indies. Eugenia Pimenta pro-
duces Pimento or Alspice. The pleasant fruits called the

Vegetable Physiology. 279

EE RIB a TRETE e F Oe pp ge
Rose Apple, and the Guava, are the succulent berries of shrubs
of this order, as is also the Pomegranate. Cajeput oil is made
fom the leaves of an Indian species. It is considered a good
external application for the cure of Rheumatism, and was once
thought a specific for Cholera. Few Myrtacee are found in
other than warm climates. South America produces a great
number of species, and many are natives of New Holland and
the South Sea Islands.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

NUMBER SEVEN

ABSORPTION OF FLUID BY LEAVES.

Besiwzs being the special organs of exhalation, the leaves of
plants are capable of supplying in some degree the functions
of the roots, when these are in any way prevented from per-
forming their appropriate office. The fact that leaves as well
as roots are capable of absorption is easily shown. Every one
knows that when plants have suffered from lack of water, or
are faded from excess of light and heat, they will rapidly re-
vive, if their leaves are moistened, though no fluid has been
supplied to the roots. From numerous experiments, it appears
certain that the leaves of trees and shrubs absorb most when
their lower side is placed in contact with the water, while those
of herbaceous plants abstract most by their upper surface, or
equally by both. Thus, leaves of the White Mulberry, placed
with their upper side in water, faded on the fifth day; while
those which absorbed by their lower surface remained fresh
nearly six months. This effect was, however, no doubt due
in part to the greater degree of obstruction to the loss of fluid
by transpiration in the second case than the first, the stomata
being principally situated on the lower surface. But in exper-
iments on other plants in which they are similarly disposed,
the contrary result has been observed. Thus, leaves of the

280 Vegetable Physiology.

the end of three weeks, while others whose upper surface Was
in contact with the water, lived for two months. Lastly, the
leaves of the Sunflower; Kidney-bean, Cabbage, and man
other plants, were observed to remain fresh for the same length
of time, by whichever of their surfaces they received their sup.
ply of fluid.
The absorbing power of leaves has been shown by othe,
satisfactory experiments. Some plants of Mercurialis (Mer.
cury) were placed in water, some of them being immerseq b
their roots, and others touching it by a part of their leaves
alone, a small shoot of each being left out, for the purpose of
comparison with the rest. After five or six weeks, the shoots
of the plants which were nourished by the leaves, differed little
in vigor from those which had been supplied by the roots,
Experiments upon single leaves, which have already Partially
faded, are still more striking. Some leaves of Potamogeton
natans (Pond-weed) after being wiped dry, were Weighed ;
and after remaining out of the water for two hours, they were
found to have lost from three and a half to five and a half
grains each. They were then put in water, and after the lapse
of two hours more, were again wiped dry and weighed. [It
was found that they had severally gained from three to fiye
grains each; and this increase, which was also ‘evident from
the restoration of their natural freshness and plumpness, could
only have taken place by absorption through the cuticle, as the
cut ends of their footstalks were defended by soft cement,
Many similar experiments might be mentioned, but these are
sufficient to show that leaves whose tissue has been deprived
of fluid, have the power of replacing it by absorption from
water, or from a moist atmosphere. This absorption appears
to take place chiefly through the membrane of the cuticle, but
more particularly by the downy hairs, which seem to act like
so many root-fibres. They are chiefly developed in plants
_which grow in situations much exposed to the light, and toa
dry atmosphere, whilst the same species in damp, shady situa.
tions, will not form them. It has been noticed that they lif
up their points and separate from one another at the approach
of the evening dew, which collects in minute drops around

Durability of the Ferns. 281

——
them; and that they fall down again, as soon as the heat of
the sun begins to be perceived. In comparing the increase in
weight when exposed to dew, in plants thickly furnished with
hairs, and possessing few or no stomata, with that manifested
by plants having a smooth surface and no stomata, it is seen
that the former is much the greatest ; and that it also surpasses
in about the same proportion the weight gained by immersing
the footstalk in water. Thus two heads of common Hore-
hound, the original weight of which was fifteen grains each,
were placed, one with its stalk in water, and the other in a
place exposed to dew, for a night; the first was found to have
gained two grains, and the second five grains. Both were ex-
posed to dew during the next night, and on the following
morning they each weighed twenty-three grains, each having
gained eight grains, of which the first had acquired six in that
night. A withered stem of Alpine Chickweed, weighing five
grains, gained six grains by exposure to dew for two nights.

é - DURABILITY OF THE FERNS.

The great preponderance of the ferns, and of the higher or-
ders of the Cryptogamic plants, in the Flora of the ancient
world, having excited, in a peculiar degree, the attention of
uaturalists, and it being conceived that the total absence of cer-
tain kinds of plants, and the constant presence of others, with
other points of the like nature and interest, might be accounted
for by a difference in the capability of one plant to resist the
action of water beyond another, Dr. Lindley resolved to try
the result by actual experiment.

He therefore, on the 21st of March, 1833, filled a large iron
tank with water, and immersed in it 177 specimens of various
plants belonging to the more remarkable natural orders, taking
care, in particular, to include representatives of all those
which are constantly present in the fossil state, or as univer-
sally absent. The vessel was placed in the open air, left un-
covered, and was untouched, with the exception of filling up

‘4

282 Durability of the Ferns.

se
the water as it evaporated, till the 22d of April, 1835, that ig
for rather more than two years. At the end of that time, wha
remained was examined, and the following highly curious 4.
sults were obtained.

In the first place it was found that the dicotyledonous plants
had in general wholly disappeared ; whence it was informe
that they could not remain for two years in water without be.
ing wholly decomposed. On the contrary, the principal part
of those found in an undecayed state, were the Conifers and
Cycadez, which are the very individuals found best preseryeq
in the fossil state.

Secondly, it seemed that monocotyledonous plants suryiyeg
to a considerable degree; whence it was concluded, that they
are more capable of resisting the action of water, (the palms
in particular,) than the exogenous tribes, which agrees with
their fossil relics ; but the grasses and sedges had perished;
whence it was concluded that although none of these may be
found as fossils, still we have no right to infer that the earth, in
the primeval state, was not clothed with the grasses, since
there is reason to believe, that had this been the cage, they
might have entirely disappeared.

Thirdly, the fungi and mosses, and all the lower forms of
vegetation, were not to be found, and even the equisetums,
though of considerable size, left no traces behind

Fourthly, the ferns appeared to have the greatest power of
all the plants tried, to resist the decomposing effects of water,
especially if immersed in the green state, for not one of them
had disappeared during the experiment ; there being no decay,
except that the spots of fructification had disappeared ; a te.
sult often, if not constantly, met with in the fossil state.

From these experiments, Dr. Lindley assumes, as a general
result, that the numerical proportion of different families of
plants found in the fossil state, throws no light whatever upon
the ancient climate of the earth ; but that the species and nun-
bers found, depend entirely upon the power which particular
families may possess, by virtue of the organization of their cuti-
cles, or otherwise, of resisting the action of the water in which
they floated previously to their being fixed in the strata in
which they are now found.

Reviving Plants. 83
SSE ae a. Re i

REVIVING PLANTS.

The following extract, describing a mode of reviving faded
or dying plants, is taken from the Journal of Science for 1828.
Experiments made by ourselves, have proved that this plan
may be relied upon as effecting the object desired. We have
found also, that a simple mixture of alcohol and water, will

roduce a similar effect, though in a less degree.

« This is called a proved method’ of reviving plants, when

. their leaves and buds are faded, and their bark and roots hard
and nearly dry. The directions are to dissolve camphor to
saturation in alcohol, adding the former until it remains solid at
the bottom ; a sufficient quantity of rain or river water is then
tohave the alcoholic solution added to it, in the proportion of
four drops to one ounce of water. As the camphor comes in
contact with the water, it will form a thin solid film, which is
to be well beaten up with the water. For a short time the
camphor will float in the water in small flocculi, but will ulti-
mately combine with the fluid, and disappear. Plants which
have been removed from the earth, and have suffered by a
journey, or otherwise, should be plunged into this camphorated
water, so that they may be entirely covered. In about two, or
at most three hours, the contracted leaves will expand again,
the young faded and drooping shoots will erect themselves, and
the dried bark will become smooth and full. That being
effected, the plant is to be placed in good earth, copiously
watered with rain or river water, and protected from the too
powerful action of the sun, until the roots have taken good hold -
of the ground. When large plants, as trees, are to be revived,
their roots are to be plunged into the camphorated water for
three hours, the trunk, and even the head of the tree, being
frequently wetted with the same water, so as to retain them in
a properly moistened state. But it is always best, if possible, to
immerse the whole plant. Shoots, sprigs, slips, and roots, are to
be treated in the same manner. If plants thus treated are not
restored in four hours, their death may be considered as cer-
tain, for they cannot be recalled to life by any artificial means.

284 Philosophy of Blunching.

No plant should therefore be left more than four hours in th
camphorated water, because the exciting action of the camphor
when it is continued for a longer period, may do injury instead
of good. It is not necessary to say that the final Prosperity of
the plants, thus reanimated by the camphor-water, Must de.
pend upon their particular properties, the state of thei; Toots
and the care bestowed upon them. The camphor Produces
no other effect than to restore to life plants nearly dead; after
that, all proceeds according to the ordinary laws, and their
ultimate state must be left to art and nature.”

PHILOSOPHY OF BLANCHING.

Common Celery is a native of the meadows of many parts
of England, where it forms a rank, weedy, strong-smelling
herb, which is unfit for human food ; how different it ig jn gate
dens every body knows. It is thought that its ceasing to be
noxious when cultivated, is owing to the greater Part of its
stems and. leaves being blanched. No doubt you must be
curious to know why blanching a plant should destroy its yp.
wholesomeness. In my last letter, I told you that the business
of leaves is to expose to light and air the sap they suck out of
the stem. The consequence of light and air acting upon the
surface of leaves, is the forming in their substance, which js
originally of the same yellowish white that you see in seeds,
green color, which is more or less deep in proportion to the de-
_gree in which the light is powerful; thus a plant which stands
exposed to the sun all day long, has its leaves of a darker
green than another which grows among other trees, or neara
building which throws it into the shade for a part of the day;
and the latter again is darker green than a plant which grows
at the north side of a high wall, or in an enclosed court which
the sun’s rays never enter. In like manner, if you cause a
plant, or any ‘part of a plant, to grow in total darkness, it will
be entirely destitute of greenness; or in other words, the sub-
stance of the plant will remain of its original yellowish white,

.

Philosophy of Blanc?ing. 285

because no green matter can be formed but by the action of
jight; and if'a part already green is kept for a long time in
darkness, it will become yellowish-white, in consequence of
ll its green being destroyed by the peculiar action of the
atmosphere upon plants in darkness. This is the explanation
of blanching. But mere loss of color is not the only conse-
quence of plants being kept in the dark; poisons, when it is the
nature of plants to yield poisons, are also formed in leaves by
theaction of light; the absence of this wonderful agent will
therefore prevent the formation, as well as the formation of

een color; and hence blanching renders poisonous plants
harmless. Thus, in the Celery, but a small portion only of the
leaves is exposed to light ; the whole of the stem and of the
lower part of the leaves is buried in the earth; the small quan-
tity of noxious matter that might be formed by the few leaves
which are allowed to bask in the sun, has to pass down the
buried stalks of the leaves before it can reach the stem, where
it would be laid up; but you know the leaf-stalk of the Celery
is very long, and any thing which has to filter from the upper
part of such a leaf to its bottom, has to take a long journey, in
the course of which it is constantly under the destroying influ-
ence of darkness; so that before it can reach the stem, it will
all have perished. A similar effect is produced by the Italians
upon Fennel, which, although not a poisonous plant, has too
powerful a taste to be a pleasant food, except as an ingredient
for flavoring sauces. The Italians, in their warm climate,
cause Fennel to grow rapidly in darkness, and thus obtain
it in a state very like Celery in appearance; the darkness
destroys the principal part of the flavor, no more of the Fennel
taste being left than is sufficient to give the blanched stems a
pleasant aromatic quality.— Lindley.

286 Hybrid Flowers.
—

HYBRID FLOWERS.

Ir has been discovered, that if two plants are very near rela.
tions, the pollen of one will act upon the stigma of the other
just as well as if the pollen was produced by the anthers of
the plant to which the stigma belongs; but when the Seeds go
obtained are sown, the plants. which they produce are not
exactly like either of those from the intermixture of which the
sprang, but bear a strong resemblance to both. For instance,
if the pollen of a plant with blue flowers, be placed Upon the
stigma of one with red flowers, the result will be a plant with
purpfe flowers; or if a plant with a very vigorous growth is
thus intermixed with another of a very dwarf habit, the plants
which spring from seeds thus procured, will be neither ye
dwarf nor very tall. Flowers produced in this way are called
hybrids. This intermixture will only take place between plants
closely related to each other. As a general rule, two different spe-
cies will not hybridize, but there seems, in many cases, to be no
limit to the power of intermixing different varieties of the same
species. To produce a hybrid, the anthers of the plant which js tp
afford the seed, must be cut off as soon as possible after the
flower expands. and before they have burst to discharge their
pollen. The anthers of the other plant must then be watched,
and as soon as they burst, the pollen must be collected with the
point of .a camel’s hair pencil, and preserved in a paper til
wanted. As soon as the stigmas of the seed-plant are observed
to.become moist, the pollen must be applied to them by means
of the pencil. A very little will be sufficient. The stigmas
usually become moist a few days after the flower has expanded;

and the pollen should be applied to them in the morning, asthe -

moisture often dries with thé heat of the sun, and when the
stigma is dry, it cannot suck up the pollen. The pollen will
keep a long time; in some cases two or three years. The
plant that is to bear the seed should be planted in good soil, and
frequently watered; and a bit of thread should be tied round
the stalk, below the flower, to indicate which seed has been
hybridized. The seed should be sown in pots as soon as itis

A Dream of Wild Flowers. 287

ee ales
ripe ; and if the plant is at all tender, the pots should be kept
under cover during winter. For those who wish to try the

riment for curiosity, perhaps the most convenient subjects
would be any two varieties of Pelargonium, or Geranium, as
they are usually called, or of any species of Phlox.

A DREAM OF WILD FLOWERS.

I dreamed, that, as I wandered by the way,
Bare winter suddenly was changed to spring ;
And gentle odors led my steps astray,
Mixed with a sound of waters murmuring
Along a shelving bank of turf, which lay
Under a copse, and hardly dared to fling
Its green arms round the bosom of the stream;
But kissed it, and then fled, as thou mightest in a dream.

There grew pied wind-flowers and violets,
Daisies, those pearled Arcturi of the earth,
The constellated flower that never sets ;
‘Faint oxlips; tender blue-bells, at whose birth
The sod scarce heaved; and that tall flower that wets
Its mother’s face with heaven-collected tears,
When the low wind, its playmate’s voice, it hears.

And in the warm hedge grew lush eglantine,
Green cowbine, and the moonlight colored may,
And cherry blossoms, and white cups, whose wine
Was the bright dew yet drained not by the day ;
And wild roses, and ivy serpentine,
With its dark leaves and buds, wandering astray,
And flowers, azure, black, and streaked with gold ;
Fairer than any wakened eyes behold.

And nearer to the river’s trembling edge,

There grew broad flag-flowers, purple prankt with white, *
And starry river buds among the sedge,

And floating water lilies, broad and bright,

238

A Dream of Wild Flowers.

Which lit the oak that overhung the hedge,

With moonlight beams of their own watery light;
And bulrushes and reeds of such deep green,

As soothed the dazzled eye with sober sheen.

“Methought that of these visionary flowers,
I made a nosegay, bound in such a way,

That the same hues which in their natural bowers
Were mingled or opposed, the like array

Kept these imprisoned children of the Hours
Within my hand,—and then, elate and gay,

I hastened to the spot whence I had come,
That I might there present it'—Oh!' to whom ?

Shelley,

LOBELIA—THE LOBELIA.

7 Natural Order, Lobeliacee; Linnean System, Pentandria, Monogynia.
Generic Distinctions :—Tube of the calyx adhering to the ovary ; limb free,
% “five-cleft; corolla irregular, tubular, cleft on the upper side, thickened or
_ yentricose at the base; limb, five-parted, bilabiate; the upper lip in two
yarrow segments; the lower lip in three roundish segments ; anthers
united above into a curved tube; stigma two-lobed ; capsule opening at
the apex; seeds small.

aa fulgens.—Simple, erect, somewhat pubescent. Leaves elongately lan-

‘ceolate, attenuated, nearly entire. Raceme many-flowered. Style and
‘stamens longer than the corolla.—PI. 39, =

“Tus genus was named in honor of M. Lobel, a distin-
mished botanist. He was born at Lisle, in 1538, wrote seve-
jal valuable works, particularly one entitled Icones Plantarum,
‘became physician and botanist to James I., and died in Lon-
“don, in 1616. The irregular bilabiate flowers are not easily

‘especially L. fulgens, L. splendens, and L. cardinalis. The
‘two former species greatly resemble each other. ‘The princi-

mistaken for those of any other genus. Several of the Lobe-
Jias are very highly prized, and much cultivated by florists,

ter ia Bee PZ
$07. > ER ee -

Pe ee payee ee

pal points of difference are, that L. fulgens is covered with a a
fine down, and its flowers are of a lighter and more brilliant 2
scarlet than those of the other. Both -species are natives of os
Mexico, and were introduced more than. thirty years agointo
England, where they are much cultivated. They both require es
‘agreat abundance of water, and may be planted to advantage e
‘bythe side ofa pond where their roots can have access to eo
plenty of moisture. L. cardinalis, called in New England, Be:
Hyebright, is one of our most elegant and showy native plants. ae
tis not uncommon in wet soils, near brooks and ponds, and ey
‘puts forth from July to the middle of September its superb . ies
flowers, of a hue so intense as almost to dazzle the eye. ir ae
favorable circumstances, the raceme of this plant will become Ae
yearly two feet long, and produce nearly a hundred flowers. Se
lis a shame that the Cardinal-flower, so much esteemed and
0 carefully cultivated in England, is not oftener seen in Amer Opes
can gardens. It costs the cultivator nothing, and the plant g
— Vou. L—19, . atts ae
‘ ae

&
_

f
aa
¢

: CL? 2 ey me
2 : i, fi Fee fe The Reticlyert Lobeltz.)
< ‘ Ye e F t

5 : 290 The Sheep Seabious.

will amply repay the slight care and attention which $ mi
‘requires.
_ There are several other handsome species, worthy of cul
ture. A»common American species, L. inflata, isin great tes
among a:certain class of quacks, as an emetic, and an ungski,
fal usé of it has more than once caused the death of the Patient,
According to Dr. Gray, less than a tea-spoonful of the seeds op
powdered leaves. would destroy life in a few hours, The |
Juice of all the species, indeed, possesses an acid, narcotic, ,
poisonous principle, i in greater or less intensity. There are :
nearly. fifty species of Lobelia, the greater part of which am _
natives of America, while some inhabit the Cape of Goods
dy, oe Japan, and the South of Europe. In New Eagle
er ore are seven or eight species, and five more in the Southam

JASIONE—THE SHEEP SCABIOUS,

‘Natural Order, Campanulacee ; Linnean System, Pentandria, Monogyaig,
-Generie Characters :—F lowers in heads; common involucre ten-leaved; 3
five-cleft ; corolla deeply five- -parted ; segments linear — ;
ers cohering at base ; stigma bifid ; capsule two-celled.

od .— Stems erect, simple.. Leaves rather hairy; radical ones obo.
men cauline ones oblong linear, flat. Peduneles naked —Pl. 40. Nel

:

aa, among 5, Composite, and it sigue bears a strong:
nil y to that order, in its headed flowers and united — ;
‘he seeds, however, are numerous, while the Composite have :
y one in each seed vessel, and the bracts are distinct j insten 3
| g grown together. The name of the genus was 2
he: " ; to some unknown plant. ie:

|The perennial species is a native 4, ober South of Europe,
is sometimes cultivated. It is a very showy plant, 1
flowers of ee bloe ‘It. is. grown: in: the one ses
_ flowers lantly all summer. ,
; i. srites . Ale y Se! oi

“Mig ; . a

yo . fal

ist

a

VC astervee fcCeCIDet, (Perennial Sheep Scubioius.
cA ‘ -
hoe Md EY ae es Geom ae [(Corstan Bell-Flower

The Persian Bell-Flower. RA

MICHAUXIA—THE PERSIAN BELL-FLOWER.

Natural Order, Campanulacee ; Linnean System, Octandria, Monogynia.
Generic Character :—Calyx eight or ten cleft, with appendages covering
the recesses ; corolla eight or ten parted, rotate; stamens eight or ten;
filaments very broad, membranous, approximate at the base; anthers ¢us-
pidate ; style hairy; stigmas eight, filiform; ovary eight-celled ; seeds
numerous; capsule eight or ten valved, opening at the base.

2 M.campanuloides. Stem pilose; leaves lanceolate, irregularly lobed ; pete
oles marginate ; appendages of the calyx shorter than the lobes.—Pl. 40.
Fig. 9.

_ nis genus was named in honor of Andrew Michaux, the
- distinguished botanist, who discovered its only two species.
Both species are biennial plants, and natives of Asia. The
- flowers are very singular. Those of M. campanuloides, when
jnthe bud, much resemble a Campanula, but when they are
fully open, the eight petals curl back, and expose. the broad
flaments growing together at their bases. The stamens are
_ eight, with yellow anthers § ; the limb of the calyx has eight di-
yisions, and there are eight stigmas. The flowers are white,
with a tinge of pink; the stems are reddish, the leaves are
- large, oh irregularly lobed, with a very conspicuous midrib,
. and the root is fusiform. The plant grows about six feet high,
_ and bears a profusion of its curious and showy flowers in July
and August. It was discovered near Aleppo and on Mount
Lebanon, and was introduced into England in 1787. Itis
3 found to be quite hardy, except that its seeds do not ripen
well. The seeds should be sown in the autumn, and the

young plants suffered to remain in the seed-bed till May,when = «
ee should be removed to where they are to flower. aa
; “ ”
be 2

aie *!

os 292 The Arctotis.

ss ARCTOTIS—THE ARCTOTIS.

Natural Order, Composite; Linnean System, Syngenesia, Necessarig,
Generic Character: Flowers radiate; receptacle honey-combed, bristly ,
‘seeds doubly furrowed on the back; pappus chaffy; involucre imbricate:
seales rough at the margin.

A. tricolor. Stemless ; leaves lyrate, spreading, upper surface slightly hairy,
lower tomentose; scales of the involucre linear, sometimes club-shaped,
Sg downy, mucronate.— Pl. 41. .

ee Tux plants which compose this genus are all natives of the
a Cape of Good Hope. There are more than twenty species,
several of which are in much estimation for their beauty,

_ Nearly all the species, indeed, are remarkable for the size and
beauty of their flowers, which are often tinged with a reddish
‘orange color, which forms a fine contrast with green. The
following directions apply to the cultivation of all the species;
In situations where it is not convenient to protect the plant

af during the winter, cuttings should be. made in the summer,
which will strike root easily if planted i in a border of light
earth, and which may be potted in autumn, in order that they
‘may be protected i in a frame during the winter, till they can
be planted out in spring ; or the cuttings may be struck at once —
en in pots early i in autumn, and protected in winter for planting
out in spring. Plants of this genus do much better with this
Pk ‘treatment in the open ground than they do in green-houses, as
Be in the latter situation, old plants are very apt to become —
Rapa ‘mouldy, and the leaves to decay. In the open ground, on the —
contrary, the plants grow freely, and produce abundance of —
handsome leaves and flowers of good size and brilliant color
They should all be grown in dry light soil, and supplied with
abundance of water during the growing season.” a
The three-colored Arctotis is a dwarf species, and its flowers d
are among the largest and most beautiful of all. The upper :
_ side of the ray florets is white, and the lower dark purple, —
while the disk is of a shining deep brown. ‘The flower stems —
oo or about a foot high. ‘It is ve propagates! by nucleon ee

(EEE See colde .(Three-colored Arctotes x
, « . 7 . te

iat . ‘ 2 . a

The Arctotis. | 293

eee
Janted in a mixture of peat and loam, and flowers from Ma
— to July. :
The Botanical Register gives the following curious account
of the remarkable method in which the ray florets of these
flowers are fertilized :-—*On a bright, warm day, under the
shelter of a green-house, the stigmas of the various florets may
be perceived to emerge from within the tube of the concealed
anthers, carrying up the pollen parted with to them by these
organs, and which is seen to adhere in a thick coat of yellow +
powder, to afford it from this new position the means of an
“access necessary to the otherwise unprovided stigmas of the
_ surrounding ray, a task to which the proper organ is here evi-
_ dently incompetent. By and by the stigmas are seen to retreat
3 gradually within the cavity of the now empty anthers. When
secently emerged and charged with pollen, they bend and
_ incline themselves with a lively motion on’the slightest touch,
_ put always in the direction whence the impulse came; and, in
_ so doing, necessarily part with a portion of the pollen which
covers them. And as the honeyed liquid which attracts insects
tothe flower, is deposited in the ray which surrounds the
disk, the impulse will be the more certainly given by that )
means, from the side towards which it is requisite that the pol-
len should be carried. The style, by the extension and con-
traction of which the stigma is made to advance and withdraw,
- seems to consist of a substance resembling elastic gum (caout-
_chouc), and like that substance may be repeatedly drawn out
- fo a considerable extent, contracting to its former dimensions
_ when left to itself, with the same elastic force.” ?

s
:
|

4

The Primrose.

PRIMULA—THE PRIMROSE.

~~ Natural Order, Primulacee ; Linnean System, Pentandria, Monogynia,
Generic Character :—Corolla salver- shaped, with an open orifice; calyx
‘five-cleft, tubular’; stamens five, enclosed in the tube of the corolla ; stigma
globose; capsule ten-toothed at the apex.

¥e : P. Auricula—Leaves obovate, smooth, serrated; scape many-flowered,
om about as long as the leaves.—Pl. 42.

Tae genus Primula derives its name from Primus, the first—
, on ¢ account of the early flowering of many of the species. Per.
a haps there i is no genus which contains a greater number of well
known and much admired flowers. Some of these, under the
Se oe of Cowslip, Oxlip, Primrose, Polyanthus, and Auricula,
ee their numerous varieties, have formed the most common
2 ae of the garden for hundreds of years. No plants have
received in a greater measure the attention of florists, whose
‘ treatises have given minute instructions for the cultivation and
=" propagation of the different varieties. It is only, however, with
the species which is known to every body as the Auricula, that _
we have here to do.
an Auricula is a native of the Alps of Switzerland and the
ghboring mountainous countries, whence it was brought to —
and in 1596, and was originally called the French, or —
fountain Cowslip. In a very short time it became a favorite, —
and Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates twenty varieties, which he
3 considers the best, though, he says, “ many other varieties are —
to be found with those who are curious concervers of these —
delights of nature.” ‘The most common colors of the Auricula —
ee in its wild state, are yellow and red, sometimes purple, and ‘a
a 3 occasionally variegated or mealy. In cultivation the varieties —
are innumerable, and some are of exquisite beauty and fra- —
_ grance. The leaves in different varieties differ nearly as much 4
asthe flowers. Near most of the manufacturing towns of Eng-
land, and many in Scotland, the culture of this plant forms a
shay Srite amusement of the weavers and mechanics. Lanca- _
shire has long been famous for its Auriculas. It is no uncom- —
Sco thing there for a working man who earns three or four ‘a

/ f
J AnD
‘pp Lene as Ai elCtU The urccwa)

The Primrose, ©. 295

~ dollars a week, to give two guineas for a new variety of Auric-
gla, with a view of crossing it with some other, and raising
_ seedlings of new properties. Much has been written as to the

soil proper for cultivating the Auricula—and some! highly arti-

- ficial compounds of bullocks’ blood, sugar-bakers’ scum, night
_ soil, fullers’ earth, &c., have been recommended.* An expe-__

rienced American florist gives the following directions, which

can be put in practice without great trouble.

“To cultivate the Auriculas to advantage, they should be
protected from heavy rains, (which injure them, by washing

~ the powdery bloom off their leaves), and shaded from the sun

insummer. Where any number of them is grown, itis a good
plan to plunge the pots ina north border, and protect them by
a garden frame, raising up the back of the sash to admit air,
and watering them as they become dry. When the plants
have done flowering, which will be about the month of May,

_ they should be re-potted in a compost of loam, decayed ma-

nure, and sand, in doing which, pick off the dead leaves; and

if it is desired to increase them, divide them with the fingers,

and break off the old stump at the bottom, but do not cut ‘them

with a knife, as it injures them very much. When potted,

give them a little water, and place them in the frame for sum-
mer. In the fall, previous to taking them in for winter, take .a
little of the old soil from the top of the pot, and replace it with
fresh compost; and if they require a larger pot, shake them

out and put them intoa larger one with the same ball entire,

filling up the pot with fresh soil, and giving them a little water;
_ then place them in a cool, shady part of the house, and keep
_ them rather dry, till they begin to grow, and when in flower

_ they may be watered pretty freely.”

“| a

The names which florists have given to different yarieties
are innumerable, and entirely arbitrary, as are their rules for

judging of the heauty or meritsof avariety. All the Auriculas
are divided by them into three classes; those which have a.

green border and white centre ; those with a gray border and
_ white centre; and those of a single color. The variety repre-
_ sented in the plate is one of the finest of the first class.

se Loudon. Enc. Pl.

veo oe -
eo < wat
tet et a

296 The Natural System of Botany.
pala I Res aR ae ama cee eee ee

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

a

NUMBER TEN.

Order, ONaGRACEE—The Evening Primrose Tribe.

Turis Order contains many American plants, several of which
are esteemed for their beauty. A specimen of the common
Evening Primrose, Enothera biennis, which is found in every
sandy field, will present the student with the characters of the
order. The number four will be found to prevail in all parts
of the flower. The calyx has four sepals joined into a tube
which envelopes the ovary. The petals are four, and ftom
within them arise eight stamens, with long anthers slightly
attached by the middle to the filaments, The pollen is pecu-
liar, the masses being of a triangular shape, and heid together
by delicate threads. The ovary is four-sided, and four-celled,
and the style separates into four stigmas. Besides nothera,
this order contains the genus Epilobium, a species of which,
E. spicatum, called Willow-herb, is not uncommon in low
grounds, and is one of our most showy native plants. Its long
racemes of light purple flowers, and its tall, erect figure, make
it very conspicuous. Other northern genera are Gawra, Lud«
wigia, and Circea. The beautiful and much cultivated Fuch-
‘sia also belongs here. It is a native of Chili. This differs
from all other plants of the order, in bearing a berry, the fruit
of the rest being a dry capsule, and the seeds of Epilobium
being furnished with a tuft of down. In Circa, the petals,
sepals, stamens, and seeds are only two. No useful or medici-

nal properties are known to belong to these plants.

_The sub-order Hatoracz® contains a few insignificant

‘plants of no importance, such as Hippuris, Horse-tail, and

Myriophyllum, the Water Milfoil. In these the petals are often

Wanting, and the stamens sometimes reduced to two.

The Natural System of Botany. 297

et
Order, Cactrackm—The Cactus Tribe.

These well known plants are among the most magnificent
ornaments of the green-house. The splendor of their large
flowers, and the grotesque shapes of their fleshy stems, render
their appearance at once singular and beautiful. They are all
natives of the New World, being principally found in the coun-
tries between the tropics, though some species have become
naturalized in various parts of the eastern hemisphere. Nearly
all of them are destitute of leaves, the stem being very succu-
jent, and covered with an integument which is constructed
like the pulpy part of a leaf, and performs the same office.
The shape of the stems is singularly varied. “You will form
a general idea of this highly curious natural order,” says Lind-
ley, “ w hen you are told that the plants called Indian Figs
| (Opuntia), with their prickly, jointed, flattened stems, on which
the Cochineal insect feeds; Torch-thistles (various species of
Cereus), whose angular trunks rise erect and singly into the
air, like fantastic vegetable columns ; creeping Cereuses, with
their long pendant branches, which might be taken for the
‘ails of some animal, if it were not for the gay, rose-colored
flowers they push out from time to time; and all the strange
races of Melon-thistles, (Melocacti), Porcuwpine-thistles (Echino-
cacti) and Hedgehog-thistles (Mammillarias), whose names suf-
ficiently attest their extraordinary appearance,—I say, you
will form a clear general idea of this curious Cactus tribe,
when you have collected in your mind all the remarkable
plants that have now been named.” A member of this order
may be distinguished at a single glance ; there is no mistaking
the showy flower and the spiny stem. In the flower there is
no distinction between the calyx and corolla, the sepals of the
one, and the petals of the other being indefinite in number, and
agreeing in color. The stamens are many, with long filaments,
usually joined in a cylinder at the base. The style is single,
dividing at the top into several spreading stigmas. The fruit
is a pulpy berry, much resembling the Gooseberry in structure.
The seeds are numerous, and nearly exalbuminous.

_ One of the most splendid species is the night-blaoming

298 The Natural System of Botany.

yf
Cereus. The flower of this plant is nearly a foot in bready,
the outer leaflets being of a brown color, the inner yellow,
gradually fading into a pure white in the centre. They begin
to expand early in the evening, are in full bloom at midnight
and by daylight in the morning are quite decayed.

At page 219, is a notice of the peculiar structure of the Cac.
tus-stem, and of its remarkable power of resisting heat and
drought.

Order, GrossutacEz—The Gooseberry Tribe.

By many botanists this order is considered to be nearly allied

‘to the last. The structure of the fruit is similar, and the leayes
are often converted into spines. The species are small shrubs,
with alternate, lobed leaves. The most common and usefy]
are the several varieties of Gooseberry and Currant, in a flower
of either of which the characters of the order may be observed,
The calyx is small, five-parted, and frequently colored. The
petals are small, five in number, and the five stamens spring
from between them. The style is single, with two small Stig-
mas, and the ovary is imbedded in the calyx tube. It is one.
celled, and contains a considerable number of ovules, attached
to two parietal placenta. This structure is easily observed by
cutting a ripe gooseberry in two lengthwise.

All the plants of this order are natives of temperate regions,
Their fruit is generally of a pleasant acid flavor, and always
wholesome. Several species from Western America are culti-

‘vated for the beauty of their flowers, as the Crimson Goose.
berry (Ribes speciosum), and the Golden-flowered Currant
{R. aureum.) )

ei

Order, PassIFLORACER—The Passion Flower Tribe.

_ When the Spaniards discovered America, they found,
among other curious things, a flower, which they thought was
an allegorical representation of the sufferings of our Saviour.
In its anthers they saw his five wounds, in the three styles the
nails by which he was fixed to the cross, and in a column
which rises from the bottom of the flower the pillar to which
he was bound ; a number of little fleshy threads which spread

The Natural System of Botany. 299

ene nein RSI "oA <7 tee ne
from its cup, they compared to the crown of thorns. They called
it, in allusion to its mystical attributes, Flos Passionts, a Latin
name signifying Passion-flower.” The species which compose
the order, are twining plants, which support themselves by
tendrils, and bear a large, juicy fruit. The structure of the
flower is unique. The calyx has five sepals, usually green on
the outside, and colored inside. The petals are of the same
number, and always of the same color with the inside of the
sepals. Next within the petals “come several rings of beau-
tiful fleshy threads, which spread from the cup like rays, and
are splendidly mottled with azure, and crimson, and white. If
there be one part of a plant more beautiful than all others, it is
this ray (or crown of thorns, as the Spaniards called it) in the
Passion Flower ; the crimson blotches upon it do really look
like stains of blood.”” Botanists themselves are hardly agreed
upon the nature of these singular rays. Some consider them
tals, and some stamens, in an imperfect state. In the centre
of the flower, rises a column, having at its summit five stamens,
each with a two-lobed anther, swinging from the point of a flat
flament. The column itself consists of an outer sheath formed
by the adhesion of the filaments, and an interior solid cylinder,
on the top of which grows the ovary. This is egg-shaped, and
has a single cavity, with three parietal placentz, from which
spring the ovules. Its summit bears three swollen stigmas.
The fruit is a fleshy body, of the same shape with the ovary,
and very variable in size and color in differennt species. In
the common Passion-flower it is about as large as a hen’s egg,
and of an orange color; in others it is smaller, and quite
round; and in some tropical species, the Granadillas, it is as
large as a cocoa-nut, and of a greenish color. These are culti-
vated, and much esteemed for their refreshing pulp. The roots
of some of the order are poisonous, containing a principle
resembling Morphine ; and this sometimes is found in the
fruit and flower.
. Nearly all the plants of the order are natives of tropical
America, whence the cultivated species are brought. Two
species are native as far north as Pennsylvania, and. Virginia.

300 * The Natural System of Botany.
a

Order, CucurBitacEZ—The Gourd Tribe.

This order is a small one, but it contains many plants of
great use to man, such as the different varieties of Melon, Cy.
cumber, Pumpkin, Squash, &c. With the Passion-flowerg
this order is in near affinity. All its members have twining
stems, with tendrils ; their calyx is petaloid; their stamens are
united into a column ; the structure of the ovary is similar; the
fruit is succulent. In these points they approach very near the
last order, but in others they are essentially different. The
Cucumber, for example, has no petals ; its flowers are mone.
cious; the beautiful rays of the Passion-flower are entirely
wanting. In some others of the Gourd tribe the flowers are
diowcious. The stamens are five, as are the other parts of the
flower.

The whole tribe possesses a bitter, purgative principle,
which, though not much apparent in the fruits commonly eaten,
in several other species is powerful, and even deleterious. The
drug called Colocynth is obtained from a kind of Gourd which
grows in various parts of the East; and from the Squirting
Cucumber (Momordica Elaterium) a preparation has been
made, a few grains of which will destroy life. From some of
the Gourds are formed very useful vessels for various purposes,
The Calabashes of the East and West Indies, are often capable
of holding a large quantity of water, being sometimes six feet
in length, by nearly two feet in circumference. Some of the
fruits of which they are made contain so large a portion of the
bitter principle as to make great care necessary in eradicating —
it. The whole pulp is carefully scooped out, and the shell
filled with water, which is often changed, before it is safe to
use it, —

fo Order, Crassutacem—The House Leek Tribe.

The plants of this order are remarkable for their succulent
stems and leaves, and for their capability of existing in situa-
tions where few other plants can live. They are found in the
thinnest and scantiest soil, even on the roofs of old houses, and
the shingles of barren rocks. Several of the species of Semper-

The Natural System of Botany. 301

yivum, House-leek, and Sedum, Stone-crop, are familiar to
every one. ‘The parts of the flower are subject to remarkable
yariations. The sepals vary in number from three to twenty ;
the petals equal the sepals in number, and they sometimes
frm a monopetalous corolla. The stamens are either equal in
number to the petals, and alternate with them, or twice as
many. The number of carpels is the same as that of the
etals) Each contains several ovules, arranged in two lines.
The common House-leek, (Sempervivum tectarum) is a na-
tive of Britain, and is remarkable for often bearing ovules on
is anthers, instead of pollen. So tenacious of life are some of
these plants, that even when submitted to great pressure, and a
high temperature, for the purpose of drying them for the Her-
barium, they will continue to grow and send out long shoots.

Order, SAXIFRAGACEA— The Saxifrage Tribe.

Many of this order are alpine plants, inhabiting cold and
mountainous countries, while others are among the most com-
monly cultivated garden flowers. Of the former are the low
species of Saxifrage, which in New England expand their neat
white flowers among the rocks in early spring, and of the lat-
ter are the Hydrangea, with its many varieties, and the Phila-
delphus, Syringa, or Mock Orange. The sepals of these plants
are four or five, more or less adherent. Petals of an equal
number, inserted between the lobes of the calyx. Stamens
from five to ten. ‘The ovary consists of from two to five car-
pels, united at the base, and distinct above. The fruit is
generally one or two-celled, and many-seeded. The order is
divided by some botanists into four sub-orders, SaxIrraGEs® 3
EscaLLoniz; Hyprancem; PuitapELPHie.

Order, Umpetiirerm—The Umbelliferous Tribe.

This is an order of great extent and importance, and the
plants which belong to it are very readily distinguished by a
most obvious peculiarity. This consists in their manner of in-
forescence, Which may be observed in a specimen of any com-
mon species, such as Parsley, Fennel, or Parsnip. The flower-

802 The Natural System of Botany.

Se tee te. ere re merrily Col
stalk divides at the top into a number of rays, Proceeding like
the sticks of an umbrella from a common centre. Each of
these rays is again subdivided into others, on which the flowerg
are borne. The whole constitutes a compound umbel, and
this is characteristic of the order. The stems are almost alwayg
hollow, and the leaves much divided. The flowers are usual
small, and require a lens for the examination of their party,
The border of the minute calyx has five indentations, bein
composed of five adherent sepals, which also adhere to the
ovary. The five petals are inserted on the tube of the calyx,
and between them arise five stamens. The styles are two,
and the ovary is two-celled, and two-seeded. These charac.
ters aré nearly invariable, so that most of the order belong to
Pentandria, Digynia of the Linnzan arrangement. In the
ripe fruit the seeds adhere to the inside of the ovary, whose
two divisions separate and form two grains, which are usually
called seeds, though really consisting of the carpels enclosed jy
the tube of the calyx. Inthis envelope are secreted the essen.
tial oils which give their taste to the Caraway, Anise,
Fennel, &c.

Few tribes of plants are better known to us than this, on ac-
count of the numerous useful species which it contains. The
Carrot, Parsnip, Celery, Eryngo, Angelica, Lovage, Caraway,
Coriander, Dill, Anise, are much esteemed species, some of
which are extensively cultivated as food. It is not common
that an order so well marked as this, contains plants of such
opposite properties; but we have here, associated with those
already mentioned, the Hemlock, one of the most deadly of
plants, the Drop-wort, the Fool’s-Parsley, and others of a simi-
lar nature. The poisonous properties of these are owing to an
acrid and narcotic principle, which is found especially in the
roots. This principle, in the wild Celery, is removed by the
process of blanching; see page 284. Many Umbellifere of
warm climates; afford valuable medicinal gums, distinguished
by their powerful and fetid odor. Of these, Assafetida, and
Galbanum ‘aré most in use, und are considered excellent reme-
dies in hysteri¢ and’spasmodic complaints. ‘Tbe former is the
_ inspissated juice of the roots of a Persian species of Ferula.

- The number of species of Umbellifera: is estimated at nine

The Natural’ Systemof Botany. 308

ee i a nan
yundred, of which three-fourths are natives of the Northern
SJemisphere. |

Order, AratiacEm—The Aralia Tribe.

This is a small order, whose botanical, characters differs lit-
tle from those of the Umbelliferee. The principal points of dis-
tinction are in the ovary, whose carpels are more than two,
which do not separate when ripe, but become a berry, having
several one-seeded cells. The properties of the order are
tonic and aromatic. Several American plants in common use
belong here ; as the several species of Aralia, variously called
Wild Sarsaparilla, Spikenard, and Pettymorrel, which are in
demand for flavoring beer, and the Ginseng, which hag been in
some estimation as a medicine.

Order, CornackEm—The Cornus Tribe.

These are small trees or shrubs, inhabiting temperate coun-
tries. The flowers are in cymes, or in small heads, surrounded
with a white or colored involucre. The limb of the calyx is
small, and four or five-toothed, adhering to the ovary. The
petals and stamens are the same in number, and alternate with
each other. The fruit is a two-celled drupe. The only North
American genus is Cornus, the species of which, under the
name of Dogwood, are common in all our northern forests,
where in spring, they, form Very conspicuous objects, with their
large, white, showy involucres. They contain a peculiar prin-
ciple, called Carnine, which renders their bark bitter, tonic
and astringent. ‘That of Cornus Florida has been used success-
fully in place of Cinchona.

Order, LorantHacr x— The Misseltoe Tribe.

These plants chiefly deserve notice on account of their singu-
lat habits. They are nearly all parasitic, inserting their roots
into the ‘bark of trees; and drawing nourishment from their sap.
The calyx is undivided, the petals'and stamens are from four
toeight. The ovary is one’ celled, the style single, or wanting;
and the fruita berry. Sometimes ‘the flowers are imperfect;

304 Vegetable Physiology.

$$
being destitute of calyx or corolla, or both. The fruit usually
contains a viscid matter, which in some species ig made into
bird-lime.

The well known Mistletoe, (Viscum album,) once used in
the superstitious rites of the old Druids, and still hung Up at
Christmas in every country-house in England, is the most noted
plant of the order. Its roots insinuate their fibres into the wood
of various kinds of trees, and from them springs a pendant
evergreen bush, from two to five feet in diameter, covered in
winter with small white glutinous berries. Several species of
Loranthus are among the most beautiful of tropical flowers,
hanging in splendid scarlet clusters from the trees, which are
thus clothed with a beauty not their own.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

NUMBER EIGHT.

ERATION OF SAP.

_A chemical change of great importance is effected on the
sap when it is subjected by the leaves to the action of light,
It consists in the decomposition of the carbonic acid gas, which
is either brought to the leaves by the sap itself, or obtained
directly from the surrounding atmosphere. In either case its
oxygen is separated and disengaged in the form of gas; while
its carbon is retained, and composes an essential ingredient of
the altered sap, which, as it now possesses one of the princi-
pal elements of vegetable structures, may be considered as
having made a near approach to its complete assimilation.

Two glass jars were inverted over the same water-bath; the
one filled with carbonic acid gas, the other filled with water,
containing a sprig of mint; the jars communicating below by
_ means of the water-bath, on the surface of which some oil was
poured, so as to interceptall communication between the water

Vegetable Physiology. 305

and the atmosphere. The sprig of mint was exposed to the
light of the sun for twelve days consecutively: at the end of
each day the carbonic acid was seen to diminish in quantity,
the water rising in the jar to supply the place of what was lost;
and at the same time the plant exhaled a quantity of oxygen
exactly equal to that of the carbonic acid which had disap-
eared. A similar sprig of mint, placed in a jar of the same
size filled with distilled water, but without access to carbonic
acid, gave out no oxygen gas, and soon perished. When, in
another experiment, conducted by means of the same appara-
tus as was used in the first, oxygen gas was substituted in the
first jar instead of carbonic acid, no gas was disengaged in the
other jar, which contained a sprig of mint. It is evident, there-
fore, that the oxygen gas obtained from the mint in the first
experiment, was derived from the decomposition by the leaves
of the mint, of the carbonic acid which the plant had absorbed
from the water.

It is in the green substance of the leaves alone that this pro-
cess is conducted ; a process, which, from the strong analogy it
bears to a similar function in animals, may be considered as the
respiration of vegetables. It is a pracess which takes place only
in a living plant; for if a leaf be bruised so as to destroy its
organization, and consequently, its vitality, its substance is no
longer capable either of decomposing carbonic acid gas under
the influence of solar light, or of absorbing oxygen in the dark.
Neither the roots nor the flowers, nor any other parts of the
plant which have not this green substance at their surface, are
capable of decomposing carbonic acid gas. They produce,
indeed, an effect in some respects the opposite of this ; for they
have a tendency to absorb oxygen, and to convert it into car-
bonic acid, by uniting it with the carbon they themselves con-
tain. ‘This is also the case with the leaves themselves, when-
ever they are not under the influence of light. Thus, during
the whole of the night, the same leaves which had been ex-
haling oxygen all day, absorb a portion of that element. The
oxygen thus absorbed enters immediately into combination with
the carbonaceous matter in the plant, forming with it carbonic
acid: this carbonic acid is in part exhaled; but the greater
portion either remains attached to the substance of the leaf, or

306—Ct Vegetable Physiology.

i
combines with the fluids which constitute the sap. In the lat.
ter case, it is again ready to be presented to the leaf when day.
light returns, and a fresh decomposition is then effected. This
reversal at night of what was done during the day, may at
first sight appear to be at variance with the unity of plan
which we should expect to find preserved in the vegetable
economy ; but a more attentive examination of the process wil]
show that the whole is in perfect harmony, and that these con.
trary processes are both necessary, in order to produce the re.
sult intended.

Thus the great object to be attained by this vegetable gra.
tion is just the converse of that which is effected by the respj-
ration of animals. In the former it is that of adding carbon,
in an assimilated state, to the vegetable organization ; in the
latter it is that of discharging the superfluous quantity of car.
bon from the animal system. The absorption of oxygen, and
the partial disengagement of carbonic acid, which constitute

the nocturnal changes eflected by plants, must have a tendency
~ to lessen the capability of the atmosphere to support animal
life ; but this effect is much more than compensated by the
greater quantity of oxygen given out by the same plants during
the day. On the whole, therefore, the atmosphere is con-
tinually receiviig from the vegetable kingdom a large acces-
sion of oxygen, and is, at the same time, freen from an equal
portion of carbonic acid gas; both which effects tend to its
purification ‘and to its remaining adapted to the respiration of
animals. Nearly the whole of the carbon accumulated by
vegetables is so much taken from the atmosphere, which is the
primary source whence they derive that element. At the sea-
son of the year when vegetation is most active, the days are
longer than the nights; so that the diurnal process of purifica-
tion goes on for a greater number of hours than the nocturnal
process by which the air is vitiated. .

The oxygen given out by plants, and the carbonic acid re-
sulting from animal respiration, and ftom the various processes
of combustion, which are going on in every part of the world,
are quickly spread through the atmosphere, not only from the
tendency of all ‘gases to uniform aiffusion, but also from the

-

action of the winds, ‘which are continually agitating the whole

Movements of Plants. 307

inca cmcanacanacent cpg at ee atalino
mass, and promoting the thorough mixture of its differen: por-
tions, so as to render it perfectly homogeneous in every region
of the globe, and at every elevation above its surface.

Thus are the two great organized kingdoms of the creation
made to co-operate in the execution of the same design; each
ministering to the other, and preserving that due balance in the
constitution of the atmosphere, which adapts it to the welfare
and activity of every order of beings, and which would soon be
destroyed, were the operations of either of them to be sus-
pended. It is impossible to contemplate so special an adjust-
ment of opposite effects, without admiring this beautiful dis-
pensation of Providence, extending over so vast a scale of
being, and demonstrating the unity of plan on which the whole
system of organized creation has been devised.

MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.

Some of the most interesting among the vegetable move-
ments are concerned in the deposition of the seed. The Bal-
sam, (Impatiens) has a capsule formed of two valves, which,
when the seed is ripe, suddenly separate from one another and
curl inwards, scattering the seed to some distance. Now an
examination of the tissue of these valves shows that their outer
part consists of cells much larger than the inner, and that the
fluid contained in it is the most dense. By the laws of Endos-
mose, (page 121,) therefore, the fluids contained in the tissue
_ of the interior, will have a tendency to pass towards the out-
side, and will still more distend the cells of that part. This
distention of the outside layer will manifestly give the valves
a tendency to curl inwards; just as when two thin plates of
metal, which expand unequally by heat, are soldered together,
and, heat being applied, the compound plate bends towa
the side which expands least. ‘This tendency continues to in-
crease up to the time when the seed is ripe ; and it is then so
powerful as to cause the separation of the valves from each
other, and: to occasion the rolling inwards of each. Now it has

308 Movements of Plants.

nubian ei NRA TR ENS Deore

been found that if the valves be placed in a fluid more dense
than that which the valves contain, such as syrup or gums
water, the fluid will be drawn off from their ceils according to
the same law of Endosmose ; and the cells of the exterior wil]
be emptied soonest, on account of their being larger and fuller
than the others; so that the valves become straight, and even
curl outwards. But if they be placed in water, the Endos.
mose, still taking place towards the side on which the fluid jg
most dense—viz. the interior cells—will distend them sti}|
more, and cause the valves to curl inwards more powerfully
than at first.

Another instance of movement which may be explained ing
similar manner, is that of the seed-vessel of the Squirting Cu.
cumber, (Momordica Elaterium.) This, when ripe, very rea.
dily separates from its stalk ; and its pulpy contents are vio-
lently forced out from the aperture thus left. The pulpy mat.
ter surrounding the seeds occupies the centre of the fruit, and
by its own increase in amount, distends the cavity; when,
therefore, an aperture is formed in any way, the distention ig
relieved by the violent contraction of the elastic walls.

Such explanations, however, will by no means account for
all the evident movements of plants; and it is necessary to
suppose their living tissues endowed with a property by which
they are enabled to contract upon the application of a stimu-
lus, just as do the muscular fibres of animals. The vegetable
kingdom affords many examples of this kind of contractility,
Thus, if the leaves of the common Wild Lettuce be touched
when the plant is in flower, the part will be covered witha
milky juice, which is forced out through the stomata by the con-
traction of the cells or vessels beneath. Again in the flower of

_ the Barberry, if the base of the stamen be touched with the
point of a pin, the filament will bend over so as to strike its an-
ther against the style.- This movement is undoubtedly con-
nected with the process of fetilization; and it must be fre-
quently caused by the touch of insects. There is a curious
New Holland plant (Stylidium), sometimes cultivated in green-
houses, which has a tall column arising from the centre of its
flower, and consisting of the stamens and style united. This usu-
ally hangs down over one side of the flower, but if it be touched

Movements of Plants. 309

pa ccceememummm ne eo)
ever so lightly, it starts up with a jerk, and rapidly swings over
to the opposite side.

One of the most interesting and best known of all vegetable
movements, is that displayed by the Sensitive plant (Mimosa
pudica.) When spread out in sunshine, the leaflets present no
peculiarity of appearance ; but at night they fold together as in
sleep. If, when expanded, one of the leaflets be slightly
touched, it will close towards its fellow; the neighboring leaf-
lets will presently do the same ; the vein upon which these are
set will bend downwards, and meet the one on the opposite
side of the mid-rib; the mid-rib will itself bend down upon
the stem; and if the plant be in a very irritable state, the
other leaves are sometimes affected in a similar manner. The
explanation of this very curious phenomenon requires a know-
ledge of the structure of the parts concerned in it. It is evi-
dent that the movement must be in some way propagated from
the parts touched, to those where the change actually takes
place—that is, the points where the leaflets join the veins, the
veins come from the mid-rib, and the mid-rib from the stem.
At every one of these points there is a small swelling or intu-
mescence, formed of very spongy cellular tissue, and contain-
ing a great deal of fluid in its cells. If the under side.of the
intumescence at the foot of the leaf-stalk be touched, its vesi-
cles, being very irritable, contract and force out the fluid
which they contain, and this necessarily pulls down or depresses
the leaf-stalk and all that it carries. Tf, on the other hand, any
thing distend the cells on the upper side of the intumescence,
the leaf-stalk is pushed down, as it were, in a similar manner.
The intumescence at the origin of each vein, and at the base
of each leaflet, seems to possess the same properties in a de-
gree proportioned to its size, and they are all connected toge-
ther by the vessels and woody tubes of the mid-rib and veins.
Now, when the tissue of any of the leaflets is touched, it appears
to contract in the same manner as that of the Wild Lettuce ;
but instead of squeezing out its fluid upon the surface, it furces
it through the vessels into the upper side of the intumescences
at the base of itself and its fellow, and these leaflets are thus
caused to fold down and meet each other. The fluid forced
out from the under side of their intumescences is probably car-

310 Movements of Plants.

le Sy a am mmm cm eae rae ocean aa aan ee CRE ee on
ried to the upper side of those at a little distance, and thus the
neighboring leaflets are also depressed. The depression of the
veins upon the mid-rib, and of the mid-rib or foot-stalk itself
upon the stem, will follow in like manner ; the extent to which
the movement is propagated, being dependent on the amount
of fluid expelled from the lower side of the intumescence, jp
the parts where it has already taken place.

Various other stimulants besides the touch of a hard sub.
stance, will produce similar effects. Thus, if electric sparks
be communicated to the lower side of the intermescence, or the
rays of the sun be concentrated on it with a burning-glass, g
similar contraction of its vesicles, and depression of the leaf,
will follow. In all these cases, the leaves return after a time
to their usual condition. Several species of the Acacia tribe,
growing in warm climates, exhibit corresponding changes in a
less degree. The closure of the fly-trap of the Dionza, may
be probably explained on similar principles. The part here
irritated is the tissue at the base of the three thorns on each
side of the leaf, one of which must be touched in order to ex.
cite the movement.

THE FERN TRIBE.
FROM LINDLEY. .

Ferns are the most completely organized of Flowerless
plants, and approach nearer than any others to the Flowering
tribes. In the northern parts of the world, they are green,
leafy productions, which die down to the ground every year;
and they are seldom more than two or three feet high. But in
tropical countries many of them far surpass these pigmy dimen-
sions ; they acquire real trunks, resembling those of palms, and
often rise to the height of forty or fifty feet without a leaf,
Even a more considerable stature is spoken of by travellers.
At all times they are graceful objects, from the slender stems
on which they bear their leaves, which wave in the breeze like
plumes of feathers, and from the multitude of leaflets into which

The Fern Tribe. 811

SL LLL LL te
they are cut with the most exquisite regularity. But the Tree-

Ferns of the tropics are said to be most superb objects, com-
bining the grace and agreeable color of their European kindred,
with the majestic aspect of the Palms.

It is usual to call the leaves of Ferns by the name of frond,
as if their leaves were not analogous to those of other plants.
But I see no use in continuing this old fashioned word, which
was coined at a time when the leaf of a fern was thought to be
a sort of compound between a branch and a leaf. It is much
better, on every account, to call it by the name that the same
part bears in other plants.

_For the purpose of studying the organization of Ferns, I re-—
commend you to take a leaf of Hart’s-tongue, (Scolopendrium
officinarum,) a plant which is common on most damp and
shaded banks, and within old open wells, the mouths of which
are almost choked up by it.* Allthat you will find of the plant,
is a brown scaly rootstock, from which grow a number of
handsome lance-shaped leaves of a deep green color, placed
upon a shining ebony-black stalk. If the leaves are newly
formed, you will, by holding them up against the light, readily
see their veins, which are dissimilar to those of all other plants.
They neither resemble Monocotyledons, nor Dicotyledons ; are
neither netted nor parallel, but have simply a forked structure.
You will remark that although now and then, one vein may be
found running straight from the mid-rib nearly up to the mar-
gin, without dividing, yet that the principal part fork very soon
after the vein has left the mid-rib, and that sometimes one of
the branches forks again. This kind of vein is peculiar to
Ferns, and will enable you at all times to recognise them,
whether their reproductive parts are present or not.

After the leaf has been growing some little time, you may

* This plant, though a native of some parts of the northern States, and
known as caterpillar fern, may not be familiar to the American student.
In that case, one of the genus Asplenium, often called Spleen-wort or wathing
leaf, may be substituted for examination. The only important difference
between the structure of these ferns and the Hart’s- “tongue is, that in the for-
mer the sori lie across the veins of the leaf, while in the aatine they are
parallel, and often attached to them. =~

312 The Fern Tribe.

ey
remark a number of narrow pale bands appearing at pret

equal intervals upon some of the veins. and following their di-
rection. Presently afterwards the whole of the skin of the
leaf, where these bands are, separates from the green part be
low it: in course of time, something swells and raises up the
skin, till at last it bursts through it, separating the skin into
two equal parts, one edge of which remains adhering to the leaf,
At this period the cause of this swelling is discovered ; it cop.
sists in a multitude of brown seed-like grains that are crowded
together very closely, and form a brown ridge. Botanists cal]
the skin which separates from the leaf, the Indusiwm, the ridge
Sorus, and the seed-like grains Thece. In order to gain a dig.
tinct view of all these parts, you should cut through the leaf
across the sorus, just after the indusium has burst; and the
edges of the indusium will be distinctly visible, with the ridge-
like receptacle of the thece rising up between them.

The only means of propagating itself which the Heart’s-
tongue possesses, resides in the thecz. It has no calyx, corolla,
stamens, or pistil, and consequently neither fruit nor seed ;
nevertheless it can perpetuate its kind with the same certainty
as the most perfect plant. The theca is not a seed, nor is it a
body whose functions are of a nature similar to those of a seed,
You require a pretty good microscope to examine it correctly ;
but with such an instrument you will make it out to be a round-
ish compressed body, seated on a jointed stalk, which runs up
one side of the theca. Upon examining a good many of the
thecee, you will no doubt remark some of them burst open;
_and then you will find that they are hollow bodies, containing
a quantity of extremely minute oval grains, called Spores by
botanists. It is in the spores that the power of increase re-
sides ; every one of them will form a new plant, and. conse-
quently they are analogous to seeds; but as they do not result
from the action of pollen upon a stigma, they are not real seeds,
but only the representatives of those organs amongst Flowerless
plants. rad

How simple is all this; how different from everything we
have seen in other plants—and yet no doubt as perfectly
adapted to the multiplication of Ferns as any more complete
contrivance. How prodigious too is the power that these plants

The Fern Tribe. 313

possess of disseminating themselves. Hart’s-tongue, owing to
its small size, is one of those in which the power resides in only
a small degree ; and yet a little computation will show even its
means to be prodigious. Each of its sori consists of from three
thousand to six thousand thece; let us take four thousand and
five hundred as the average number. Then each leaf bears
about eighty sori; which makes three hundred and sixty thou-
sand thecee per leaf; the thecee themselves contain about fifty
spores each ; so that a single leaf of Hart’s-tongue may give
birth to no fewer than eighteen millions of young plants.

The form and situation of the sori is not, in other genera,
the same as in the Heart’s-tongue ; on the contrary, it is upon
differences in those respects that the genera have been estab-
lished. For example, in the Shield-ferns (Aspidium,) the sori
are round, and covered with a kidney-shaped indusium ; in
Polypody (Polypodium,) they are round, and have no indusium ;
and in the graceful Muiden-hair ferns (Adiantum) they are
gblong bodies arising from the edge of the leaf. The most
curious arrangement of their parts is in the Brake, (Pteris ;) no
matter at what time of the year you-examine the leaves of that
plant, you will probably discover no trace of sori, and yet it
would be difficult to find a brake-leaf.in autumn, which does
not abound with them. The truth is that in this plant they

occupy so singular a position, that one could almost be tempted
to believe them designedly hidden where none but the curious
botanist should find them. Look attentively at the under side
of the leaves; you will remark the margin to be turned in and
thickened, like the hem of a lady’s gown in which a cord is
run; there lurk the thecee you are in search of. With
the point of a knife lift up gently the edge of the leaf, and you
will at once discover a ridge of thece running all around it.
In this instance the margin of the leaf acts the part of the in-
dusium.

Another singular form of Ferns is that in which the whole of
the segments of a leaf are contracted and curled up round the
thecze, so as to lose entirely their natural appearance, and to
resemble a sort of inflorescence. A striking instance of this is
not uncommon in bogs, in form of a plant called the Osmund-
royal, or Flowering-fern, (Osmunda regalis ;) a minute species

$14 The Fern Tribe.

I acidic
found in woods, and called Adder’s-tongue, (Ophioglossumn)
because of its narrow inflorescence, is another example,
Such is the first and highest degree in the scale of organiza.
tion among flowerless plants. Possessing a system of vessels,
frequently attaining a considerable size, having leaves inte.
sected by veins, and having their surface provided with breath. _
ing pores; Ferns may be considered to differ from Flowering
plants in little except in the manner in which they are propa.
gated, and in the organs assigned them by nature for that

purpose.

GROWTH OF THE MISSEL TOE.

As the Misseltoe has been incidentally alluded to ina pre-
vious article, the reader may not be unwilling to know some
curious facts which have been ascertained in regard to the
, growth of that singular plant. They are extracted from a late
English work, of good authority.

There are some plants which have not the power of forming
true roots for themselves, and which obtain their supply of sap
from the stems of trees to which they attach themselves. Such
is the common Misseltoe. The seeds of this plant are deposited
by birds on the exterior of the stems and branches of trees; and
the root-fibres which they put out, insinuate themselves through
the crevices of the bark, and become incorporated with the
wood. Now the Misseltoe imbibes the ascending sap from the
wood of the tree or stock on which it grows} and this it con-
verts into a proper juice, adapted to nourish its own structure,
by means of its own leaves. The ascending sap of most trees
being nearly alike, the Misseltoe seems to grow with almost
equal facility on a great variety. It is remarkable, however,
that it is very rare on the Oak ; and it is perhaps this circum-
stance, which caused the plant, when found in connexion with
that tree, to be regarded by the ancient Druids in a religious
light. |

a is a very curious fact, that the law of growth of the root-
fibres of the Misseltoe, is different from that which governs

Growth of the Misseltoe. 315

ee
other roots. While thelatter grow downwards towards the cen-
tre of the earth, these grow toward the centre of the bough or
stem which they may be penetrating. This tendency was as-
certained by the experiments of the French physiologist, Dutro-
chet, who caused a seed of Misseltoe to germinate when hung
by thread near a large ball of metal; and he found that the
radicle always directed itself towards the centre of this ball,
near whatever part of the surface it might be placed. By this
curious adaptation, the Misseltoe, which, from the want of
power to form perfect roots, would otherwise be unable to
exist, is endowed with a compensating power ; it being as much
a, part of its natural habits to grow upon the stem and branches
of trees, as itis for other plants to send their roots into the
ound.

The fibres of the Misseltoe seem to incorporate themselves
completely with those of the stock; and so iutimate is the con-
nexion between them, that colored fluids will pass from the
stem into this natural graft, as it may be termed. It does not
appear, however, that any communication exists between the
parasite, and the bark beneath it, which is always found to be
in a dead state around its insertion. But if the part of the
branch at which it penetrates, be divided with a saw, it will
be seen that the two woods are so thoroughly united that the line
of separation between them can scarcely be traced. That the
Misseltoe is itself quite deficient in the power of absorbing
fluid, has been clearly proved by experience. If the stem of
this plant be cut off and immersed in water, it will absorb lit-
tle or none of the fluid ; whilst if a portion of the branch with
which it is connected be cut off with it, and immersed in the
same way, it will absorb nearly as much as if furnished with
leaves of its own.

316 Culture of the Dahlia.
eee

CULTURE OF THE DAHLIA.

Ocrozer is the month for taking up the tubers of the Dah.
lia. The following directions for their preservation, and for
the cultivation and propagation of the plant, are concise and
simple, and may be acceptable to the many admirers of thig
handsome flower.

The soil should be composed of equal parts of sand and
loam, enriched with part of an old hot-bed, some very rotten
cow-dung, or decayed leaves. Fresh stable-dung is unsuitable,
as it will produce strong stems and large leaves rather than
fine flowers. The ground should be well drained, as, though
Dahlias require plenty of moisture, they are soon killed if their
roots have access to stagnant water. Many cultivators puta
deep layer of stones and brick-bats at the bottom of the bed, go
as to prevent the possibility of water accumulating about the
roots. The tubers, having been kept in a dry and moderately
cool place during the winter, are generally planted in pots in
February or March, and plunged into a slight hot-bed, to start
them, as the florists term it. They are afterwards removed to
the open ground, when they have begun to grow. Or the
tubers may be planted at once in the open ground without
starting; the tall kinds in May or June, and the dwarf early
flowerers in April. The tubers should be planted in rows,
about two or three feet apart every way; or in quincunx,
_ about five feet apart in the row, and the rows three feet apart. _
_ The situation of the bed should be open and exposed to the sun;
and if the weather prove dry, the young plants should be fre-
quently and regularly watered. In planting, care should be
taken to arrange the tubers so that the colors may harmonize
agreeably. Thus the purples and crimsons, and the crimsons
and scarlets, may be separated. by yellow, white, or buff, and’
the salmon-colored and buff may be separated by white.
Dahlias will degenerate if grown more than one year in the
same bed without fresh soil or manure. When those which
have been started in pots are planted, all the earth in the pot
should be turned into the hole made to receive it, without

“Culture of the Dahlia. 317

SEI ent arrest on
preaking the ball; and the empty flower-pot should be turned
over the young plant, to prevent too much evaporation from the
Jeaves. As the plants grow, they should be carefully trained,
so as to admit the sun and air to the centre of the plant. This
is done by tying the stems to stakes fixed in the ground. Some-
times only a single stake is used, to which is tied the main
stem. In whatever way stakes may be used, they should be
driven a foot and a half or two feet into the ground before the
Dahlias are planted ; as if this be not done, there is danger of
wounding the tubers in driving the stakes into the ground.
The stems are tied rather loosely at first to the stakes with
bast matting, which is frequently taken off and replaced, as the
stems increase, till they have attained their full size. Some-
times, particularly with dwarf Dahlias, the stems are pegged
down to the beds, and this plan, when the soil is dry, produces
a brilliant effect. Where the object is to produce fine flowers,
either for exhibition or seeds, part of the buds, and the tips of
the shoots are occasionally removed. Where numerous small
but early flowers are wanted, the soil should be sandy or
gravelly, mixed with a very little loam. Many cultivators
shade their flowers, as both sun and rain will injure the deli-
cacy of the colors.

The plants will generally continue to produce flowers till
their leaves and stems become blackened by frost ; and as soon
as this is the case, they should be cut down nearly to the sur-
face of the ground; and the first dry weather that occurs, the
tubers should be taken up in the morning and left exposed to
the sun during the day. In the evening, they must be taken
to a dry airy place, where they will be safe from frost, and
kept there till they are dry enough to have all the soil removed
from them, which may be done with a soft brush. They must
be then buried in sand, saw-dust, or some similar material, and
deposited in a dry cellar, or garret, or some other place where
they can be kept dry; the great objects to be considered being
dryness, security from frost, and a moderately cool tempera-
ture, which should never rise above forty-five degrees, nor sink
below thirty-six degrees. Labels with the name of each Dah-
_ lia should be affixed to each fascicle of tubers when it is re-

318 The Death and Fall of Leaves.

ee
moved from the ground ; and these labels are generally of zing
attached by wire.

Dahlias are propagated either by dividing the fascicles of
tubers, by cuttings, or by seeds. By the first mode, the roots
are planted either in the ground, or in pots plunged in a hot.
bed, until they are started—that is, till they begin to grow ;
they are then taken up, and the tubers cut or, pulled asunder,
taking care that there is a bud or eye toeach. Those which
have no buds are termed blind tubers, and they may have
buds inserted from other plants, by either cleft or peg grafting,
The cuttings are either slipped off from started tubers with g
portion of the tuber attached, or made like cuttings of other
plants, by taking off part of a shoot in summer. In both cases,
they require what is called bottom heat, that is, plunging the
- pot into a hot-bed, to make them strike. Summer cuttings are
rarely made, unless it be of some new or choice sort, as the
stems are too succulent to sirike easily.. The seeds should be
‘sown on a slight hot-bed in February or March, or in a warm
border in the open garden. The seedlings must be transplanted
into beds, as soon as they have four or six leaves, or they will
be drawn up and become weak.

THE DEATH AND FALL OF LEAVES.

BY DR. GRAY.

Leaves usually exist but for a single year. Most ever-
greens are scarcely exceptions, as their old leaves commonly
fall, or at least become inactive, soon after those of the ensuing
season are developed. Yet in some cases (as in Firs, &c.) they
do survive for a series of years. On the other hand, it is sel-
dom that all the leaves of an herb endure through the whole
growing season; but the earlier foliage near the base of
the stem perishes and falls, while fresh leaves are still appear-
ing at the summit. In our deciduous trees and shrubs, how-

The Death and Fail of Leaves. 319

__—

ever, the leaves are all developed within a short period, and
they all perish nearly at the same time. They are not destroyed
by frost, as is commonly supposed; for they begin to languish
and often assume their autumnal tints (as happens with the Red
Maple especially), or even fall, some weeks anterior to the
earliest frosts; and when vernal vegetation is destroyed by
frost, the leaves blacken and wither, but do not fall off entire,
asin autumn. Some leaves fall, perhaps, before they have
entirely lost their vitality. Others die and decay on the stem
without falling, as in Palms and most Endogens ; or else the
dead leaves mostly hang on the branches through the winter;
as in the Beach and some kinds of Oak, and fall when the new
buds expand, the following spring. We must therefore distin-
guish between the death and the fall of the leaf.

The fall of the leaf is owing to the formation of an articula-
tion, or joint, between the base of the petiole and the stem on
which it rests. The leaf rapidly acquires its full growth,—in
a few weeks at farthest,—and since its base cannot long keep
pace with the continually increasing circumference of the stem,
especially as the leaf is more and more enfeebled as the sea-
son advances, a separation therefore takes place by the forma-
tion of a joint, which in our trees is well marked long before
frost occurs. When it falls, a well defined scar is left. But
in most Endogenous plants, where the leaves are scarcely, if at
all, articulated with the stem, which increases little in diame-
ter subsequently to its early growth, they are not thrown off,
but simply wither and decay; their dead bases or petioles
being often persistent for a long time.

‘But why do leaves die? Why, in all ordinary cases, do
they only last for a single year, ora single summer? The an-
swer to this question is to be found in the anatomical structure
of the leaf, and the nature and amount of the fluid which it
receives and exhales. The water which the roots absorb, dis-
solves, as it percolates the soil, a small portion of earthy mat-
ter. In limestone districts especially, it takes up a sensible
quantity of carbonate and sulphate of lime, and becomes
hard. It likewise dissolves a small proportion of silex, alumen,
magnesia, potassa, &c. A part of this mineral matter is depo-
sited in the woody tissue of the stem. But a large portion is

The Death and Fall of Leaves. 399
I a am Ea ae
carried into the leaves, where, as the water is exhaled or dis.
tilled perfectly pure, all this earthy matter must be left behing
to incrust the delicate cells of the parenchyma, much as the
vessels in which water is boiled for culinary purposes are jn
time incrusted with an earthy deposit. This earthy accumy.
lation gradually chokes the tissue of the leaf, obstructs the ex.
halation, and finally unfits it for the performance of its offices,
Hence the fresh leaves most actively fulfil their functions in
spring and early summer; but languish towards autumn, and
ere long inevitably perish. Hence, although the roots and
branches may be permanent, the necessity that the leaves
should be annually renewed.

The general correctness of this view may be tested by dj.
rect microscopical observation. That this deposit consists in
great part of earthy matter is shown by carefully burning
away the organic matter of an autumnal leaf over a lamp, and
examining the ashes by the microscope 5 which will be found
very perfectly to exhibit the form of the cells. The ashes

: which remain when a leaf or other vegetable substance is
Rt burned in the open air, represent the earthy material which it
: has accumulated. A vernal leaf leaves but the minutest quan-
: tity of ashes; an autumnal leaf yields a very large proportion,
s from ten to thirty times as much as the wood of the same spe-
“cies; although the leaves contain the deposit of a single season
only, while the heart-wood is loaded with the accumulations

of successive years.

‘ The Anemone, or Wind-Flower. 321

_ 4NEMONE—THE ANEMONE, OR WIND-FLOWER.

Natural Order, Ranunculacee ; Linnean System, Polyandria, Polygynia.

Generic Character :—Involucre of three leaves, more or less distant from

the flower; petals wanting ; calyx of from five to fifteen colored, petal-like
‘sepals ; caryopsides without feathery tails ; roots ar

_ 4, coronaria.—Leaves ternate, deeply cut, with aacieehil linear hes:
9 involucre sessile, deeply cut; sepals six, oval, rounded. —Pl. 43.

Most species of Anemone grow in éleviied situations, much
exposed to the wind, whence the generic name, from a Greek
word, signifying wind. The species are numerous; and
- among them are not only some of the most esteemed florist’s
flowers, but also some of the most common of our northern
wild fowers. The little Wood -Anemone, or Wind-flower, A.
nemorosa, is the earliest harbinger of spring, often opening its
_ delicate blossoms on the hill-side, before the snow has fairly
melted away. Several foreign species are much cultivated,
and produce very large and beautiful flowers. The plate
“represents one of the finest double-flowered varieties of the
Poppy-Anemone. This species is a native of the south of
Europe, and the Levant, and has been a favorite garden
_ flower in England and America for many years. It is valued
F for its hardy nature, and because it will flower at almost any
_ season, according to the time the roots are kept out of the
: ground, and when they are replanted. The prevailing
colors are red, white and blue. The roots are solid, tuberous
"masses, and the plant is propagated by their division.
_ The.tubers, says Mrs. Loudon, should be planted either in
October or February ; in the first case they will flower in_
April, and in the latter in June. According»to the usual.
_method of growing these flowers, a bed should be dug, eighteen
inches or two feet in depth, and at the bottom of this bed
should be laid a stratum, six or eight inches deep, of old cow-
dung ; 3; if two years old, so much the better. The bed should
then be filled in with fresh loam from a field, if it can be pro-
Berets and if not, with good sandy loam. The bed should be
raised about four inches above the level of the surrounding
Vou. I—21.

= oe ew.

/
ty

yA

4 MWPZCPPHOP CE

Bo ApS O rh
COTOH AH, (Dog aM bemeones)

322. The Anemone, or Wind-Flower.

garden, and drills about two inches deep should be drawn
from one end of the bed to the other. White sand should
then be sprinkled along the drills, and the tubers should be
planted three or four inches apart, according to their size, the
largest. kinds béing of course planted farthest apart. The
drills should then be. covered. level, and the beds raked quite
smooth and even. - When the plants begin to appear above
- eground, if the season be dry, they should be occasionally

» watered with rain water ; and then watering may be continued -

regularly, as the plants approach flowering. In England, little
or no protection is required for the roots during the Winter ;
but in our colder climate the roots will be destroyed by the
frost, unless they are well covered with tanner’s bark, or straw,
The roots may also be planted in spring, in April, May, and
June, in succession, when they will flower during the succes.
sive summer months. The Anemone may also be grown in
flower-pots. The roots should be planted in October, five or
six to a pot of nine inches in diameter. The. pots should be
placed in the green-house, and watered whenever the soil be-
comes dry, and the plants will flower in March. By planting
the roots in November, they will flower.a. month later, so that
some may be in blossom every month in the year.. |

After flowering, they should be kept quite dry, by covering -
the beds with mats, until the stem and leaves become withered,

The roots should then be taken up, the stem cut off, and when
the roots are quite dry they should be placed in paper bags,

and kept till it is time to plant them in the following season.

They may be planted every year for fifteen or twenty years in

succession ; but they flower best from the fifth to the twelfth

year.
Pe It is proper to mention here, that the old genus Anemone
‘has been divided, and that all those species whose carpels

have feathery tails, are arranged in the genus Pulsatilla.

a a a oa en ve

legis Ue ie = Cente)

The Colunibine. | 339)

AQUILEGIA—THE COLUMBINE.

"Natural Order, Ranunculacee; Linnean System}. Polyandria, Polygynia.
Generic Character :—Calyx of five, colored, petal-like, deciduous sepals ;
petals five, gaping above, two-lipped, outer lip large, flat, inner lip small;
each petal drawn out into'a hollow spur, which protrudes between the se-
pals : capsules five; erect, many-séeded, pointed with the styles.

A Mexicana.—Spurs straight. spreading, five times longer than the limb;
sepals lanceolate, twice as’ long as’ the limb of the petals; stamens’ very
long, exserted ; styles three, rarely five.—Pl. 44. Fig: 1. .

A. fragrans.—Stem leafy ; segments of the lower'leaves trifid; flowers nu:
merous, somewhat downy; sepals ovate-lanceolate, acute; spur of the
petals incurved, much shorter than the limb.— PJ..44, Fig. 2.

Peruaps no flower is more universally cultivated than the
common Columbine ; and yet few persons observe its singular
construction. ‘The sepals and. petals are of nearly the same:
color, and yet their forms are so different as to be readily dis-
_tinguishable. ‘The sepals are oval; generally pointed, and are
_ attached by a short stalk to the disk. The petals are alternate
with the sepals, and their formation is very curious. They
_ form a hollow horn, or spur, having an expanded lip, or mouth,
_ by one side of which they adhere to the disk, while the horns
_ pass upwards between.-the stalks of the sepals, and curve in- |
wards, so as nearly to meet at their extremities. When a
_ petal is pulled off, with a sepal. adhering to'it on each side, it
_ bears some resemblance, in’ shape, to a bird; and’ from’ this .
circumstance’ are’ taken both the’ common and the botanical
names of the genus; the first being derived from the Latin,
_columba, a dove; and the other from aguila, an eagle. Of the
_ humerous stamens of the Columbine, the inner ones are abor-
_tive, having no anthers, and. forming a kind-of niembranous
envelope to the carpels. The seed vessels, when ripe,

_at the top; to’discharge the’ seeds: The commion Colambine
_is'a native’ of most‘parts of Europe; and nearly all the species’
inhabit temperate'climates: The very handsome’ species, A.
Mexicana; however, as its specific name indicates; is found in

,
Aol

oe

324 The Rafnia.

——_—_—
Mexico and Guatemala, being farther south than any other
species yet discovered. It is readily known by the great
length of its spurs, which are nearly two inches long; and }
its numerous and projecting stamens. The styles are general]
only three, and the flowers are drooping. This species wag
introduced into England in 1840, and is there considered the
finest of the genus.

A. fragrans is another very fine Columbine, with large and
delightfully fragrant flowers. It is a native of the north of
India.

There are. several other handsome and curious species,
which are in cultivation ; but none of them are more worthy
of admiration than the delicate species, A. Canadensis, which
grows wild in nearly all the United States. It is generally
found in rocky places, on the sides of hills; and its beautifal
flowers, scarlet without, and yellow within, with their numer-
ous stamens, appearing as they do in early spring, form one of
the chief ornaments of a season when few other plants are jn
bloom. All the Columbines are easily cultivated, requiring
generally a light soil, and not too much water. They are
propagated by seed, or by division of the roots.

RAFNIA—THE RAFNIA.

Natural Order, Leguminose ; Linnezan System, Monadelphia, Decandria.
Generic Character :—Culyx five-lobed, lower lobe narrowest, setaceous,
and very acute; keel of the corolla obtuse ; vexillum, roundish ; legume
lanceolate, compressed, many-seeded ; leaves simple, entire, alternate,
the floral ones sometimes opposite ; flowers yellow ; stamens mona-
delphows. |

R. triflora.—Leaves ovate, sessile, glabrous; branches angular ; peduncles ~

lateral, one-flowered, but growing in threes.—Pl. 45.

Tue plants belonging to this genus have been separated
from Crotalaria by De Candolle, and formed by him into a.

new genus, named. in honor. of Professor Rafn, a German bot-
anist. _R. triflora is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and

The Dragon's Head. 325

a ar
was introduced into England in 1786. It requires, says Mrs.
Loudon, a slight degree of protection during the winter; but
if the seeds be sown on a hot-bed in February, and the plants
afterwards removed to single pots, they may be set in the open
air all summer, and if kept in a frame or green-house during
winter, they may be planted in the open ground in May,
when they will flower in July or August. The Rafnia is a
yery showy biennial.

DRACOCEPHALUM—THE DRAGON'S HEAD.

Natural Order, Labiate ; Linnean System, Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
Generic Character :—Calyx tubular, straight, with an equally five-toothed
mouth; tube of the corolla slender at base, generally exserted; throat
wide ; limb two-lipped ; upper lip concave, erect; lower spreading, three-
cleft; style bifid at top; achenia dry, smooth, naked.

D. Altaiense.— Flowers in whorls; bracts oblong ; segments of calyx equal;
radical leaves petiolate, cordate-oblong, obtusely dentate; stem-leaves
sessile, nearly round, deeply toothed, with large, bluntish teeth.— PJ. 46.

Tue generic name Dracocephalum means Dragon’s-head,
-and refers to the shape of the corolla. All the species are
perennial plants, with the flowers in whorls, and hairy, large,
leafy bracts. The species figured is a native of the Altaian
_ mountains, andghas been in cultivation for many years. Its
_ flowers are very beautiful and showy. It grows best in a
_ light, dry soil, where it can have plenty of sun and air; and
in such a situation it is raised with very little trouble.

The American plants which were formerly included in
_ Dracocephalum, have been arranged under the new genus,
Physostegia. One of these, the common Dragon’s-head, grows
wild as far north as.Pennsylvania, and is often seen in our gar-
dens. The flowers are numerous, pale purple, spotted inside.
One or two other species deserve cultivation, particularly
_ Physostegia speciosa, a native of the South, with pink flowers.
_ Perhaps the best known foreign species is D. Canariense,
_ from the Canary Islands, This is very commonly cultivated,
_ under the name of Balm of Gilead, for its powerful and agree-
_ able fragrance. = &

$26 The Natural System of Botany.

eR aan negro ag RT ee ee ee

THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER ELUYVEN.

ot

In the previous articles we have given an account of nearly
all the orders of polypetalous exogenous plants; that is, of
such exogenous plants as possess both calyx and corolla, with
distinct petals. These, it will be recollected, form the first
division of the sub-class Angiosperme. The second division
of the same sub-class consists of those exogenous plants which
have both calyx and corolla, but whose petals are united. Ip
this division there are thirty-five orders. It is impossible,
within our limits, to give more than a brief summary of them,
since we must, in our next and final article, conclude our ex-
planations of the Natural Orders for the present.

Division II. —Monorretatous Exogenous Puanrts.

Order—Carprirotiacez. The Honeysuckle Tribe.

To this order belong the Honeysuckles (Lonicera), the El-
der (Sambucus), Viburnum, Symphoricarpus, pr Snow-berry,
Nearly all are shrubs; some, like the common Honeysuckle,
being climbers. They have opposite leaves, without stipules;
a tubular or rotate corolla, either regular or irregular ; stamens
usually as many as the lobes of the corolla; fruit generally a
Noa seeds pendulous. They inhabit temperate regions,
and their properties are nauseous and bitter. The order is
sub-divided into Loniczerem and Samsuce#; the former
having:a tubular ‘corolla, and filiform style; and the latter a
rotate or urn-shaped corolla. |

_ Order-—Rupiscna, The Madder Tribe.

This is a very extensive order, mostly confined to tropical
countries. It includes many plants of the most opposite as-

*

The Natural’ System of Botany. 327

pects and qualities. The leaves are opposite, or in whorls,
and are furnished with stipules. The calyx is often partly
‘united to the ovary, and four or five-toothed. The stamens
are as many as the lobes of the corolla, and alternate with
them. The fruit is usually a berry, but sometimes a hard
capsule, ora drupe. The order is divided into the sub-orders
SreLuaT#, which are all herbs, with whorled leaves, as Ga-
jium, and Rubia, or Madder; ‘and Cincuone®, which are
trees, shrubs, and herbs, having opposite leaves, with ‘stipules.
Tothe latter division belong ‘some important plants.

Peruvian Bark, or Cinchona, and Ipecac, are furnished by
southern species, Coffee isthe horny seed of another ‘species,
Coffea Arabica. The Button Bush (Cephalanthus), Mitchella,
and Hedyotis, are the principal. northern genera. z

Order—VaLERIANACER. The Valerian Tribe.

A small order of herbs, having the flowers usually in cymes
or panicles; a two or four-toothed calyx; a tubular or funnel-
form corolla ; an ovary with two abortive cells, and one perfect
one. The principal productions of the order are Valerian,
furnished by Valeriana officinalis; and the Spikenard of the
ancients, which is the root of Nardostachys Jatamansi.

Order—Diesacexz. The Teasel Tribe.

The leaves of these have no stipules. .The flowers are in
dense heads, surrounded with an involucre. The corolla is
tubular, the calyx cup-shaped, or forming a pappus. Stamens
four; ovary one-celled. Teasels are the dried heads of Dip-
sacus Fullonum, Several species of Scabiosa are.often culti-
vated. None of the order are natives of America.

Order—Compositz. The Composite Tribe.

This is the largest and most natural of all the orders. It
comprises nearly one-tenth of all flowering plants. To give
anything like an idea of its species, their uses, products, and
peculiarities, would require a volume. The characters of the

$28 The Natural System of Botany.

order are so marked, that little more than a single glance ig
required to distinguish its members. The flowers are in heads,
forming what is usually called a composite flower. Take the
Dandelion or the Sun-flower for an example. The involucre
is formed of a set of bracts or scales; and each separate
flower has often a bract of its own. The calyx is a Pappus,
consisting of bristles or hairs. Thé corolla is superior, and
ligulate or tubular. The stamens are five, and the anthers are
united into a tube. The style is tworcleft ; the fruit an ache.
nium, one-seeded, crowned with the pappus. There are three
sub-orders in this immense family. TuBULIFLORA, contains
all those whose corollas are tubular, regular, and four or five.
lobed. ‘The flowers of these are arranged either in a discoid
head, without rays ; as in Lappa (the Burdock), Cnicus (the
Thistle), &c., in which the flowers are all tubular and perfect;
or in a disk with rays, the disk flowers being tubular and per-
fect, while those of the ray are ligulate and im perfect, that is,
lacking stamens, or both stamens and pistils, as in the Sun-
flower and Aster. The second sub-order is LaBIATIFLoR»,
in which the corolla of the disk flowers is bilabiate. These
are tropical species. The third sub-order is LicuLIFtorn :
in which the corolla, in both disk and ray flowers, is ligulate
(flat or strap-shaped), as in the Dandelion, the Lettuce, &c.

Order—Losetiacez. The Lobelia Tribe.

~ The plants of this order are readily known by their irregu-
larly five-lobed corollas, their coherent stamens, fringed stig-
mas, and capsular fruit. They are generally herbs, and their
' juice is acrid and narcotic. The species of Lobelia, one of
which is used medicinally, are the Northern representatives of
the Order. '

Order—CamPanvtacen. The Bell-Flower Tribe.

The ornamental Campanulas are much cultivated. None
of the order possess any useful qualities. The regular, cam-
panulate corolla, five distinct stamens, and hairy styles are
characteristics, igi; =

The Natural System of Botany. 329

Order—Ericacem. The Heath Tribe.

These are mostly shrubs. The flowers are boudy regular,
the stamens distinct, the anthers are two*celled, the styles and
stigmas united into one. The order is divided into four tribes
or sub-orders. Vacciniex, which. are shrubs with scattered,
often ever-green, leaves, with an adherent ovary and a berry,
or drupe-like fruit; Extctvex, shrubs, in which the ovary is
free from the calyx, and the fruit usually capsular; PyRroLez,
herbs, which have nearly distinct petals and capsular fruit ;
Monotropre#, which are parasitic herbs, having brown or
white scales instead of leaves. To the first division belong
the Whortleberry (Vaccinium), the Cranberry (Oxycoccus),
&c. To the second belong the true Heaths (Erica), and those
beautiful shrubs, Kalmia, Rhododendron, Andromeda, Clethra,
- &c. The third contains those neat, low plants of the genera
Pyrola and Gaultheria (Wintergreen) ; and the fourth, those
curious and odd looking parasites, Monotropa or Hypopithys
(Indian pipe, Bird’s nest, or Beech-drops.)

Order—AquirouracEz. The Holly Tribe.

These are shrubs or small trees, with coriaceous leaves and
axillary flowers, The fruit is a drupe, with from two to six
stones. The common Holly (Ilex) and the spinnin: or
Black Alder (Prinos) are examples. —

Order—ExsEenacex. The Ebony Tribe.

One species of Diospyros produces the. valuable wood called
Ebony, and another is the Persimmon of the Southern States.

a ae The Primrose Tribe.

_This is a small family of herbs, with a four or five toothed
calyx, a rotate, salver-shaped, or bell-form corolla, a single
style and stigma, capsular fruit and numerous seeds. Familiar
examples are the highly prized species of Primula and Cycla-

330 The Natural System of Botany.

a eeenctererrrereseeeeece a LC eR
men, the pretty little Anagallis (Pimpernel), and Lysimachig
(Loosestrife).

Our limits will not permit an extended notice of the succeed.
ing Orders. It will only be possible to give a list of them, with
their chief properties, and the names of sonie of their members,

Puantacunacem. The Rib-grass Tribe. Ex.: Plantago.
Properties : Slightly bitter, and ‘cooling.

Puumpacinacez. The Lead+wort Tribe. Ex.: Statice,
Armeria. Sea-side plants, Some are astringent, others atrid,

Lentrsunacez. The Bladder-wort Tribe: Contains but
two genera, Pinguicula and Utrieularias Of no importance,

Oropancuace.x: The Broom-rape Tribe. Parasitic plants,
Ex.: Orobanche, Epiphegus. (Broom-rape, Beech-drops.)
Astringent, and bitter.

Bicnonraceé#. The Trompet-flower Tribe. Mostly trees
or climbing plants, with large showy flowers. Ex.: Bigno-
nia (Trumpet-flower), Catalpa.

Pepauiaces. The Oil-seed Tribe. Viscid herbs. Ex.:
Martynia (Unicorn-plant).

AcantHaces. The Acanthus Tribe. Herbs or shrubby
plants, mostly tropical. Thunbergia, Acanthus.

ScroruuLariacea. The Figwort Tribe. A large order
of herbs or shrubby plants. Ex.: Scrophularia, Verbaseum
(Mallein), Chelone, Gerardia, Digitalis (Fox-glove). Generally
bitter, acrid and deleterious. Fox-glove is important as a
medicine, producing a remarkable effect on the action of the
heart.

Versenaces&. The Vervain Tribe. Ex.: Verbena, Tec-
tona (Teak-wood). Some bitter and aromatic: —

Lasiatz. The Labiate or Mint Tribe. A very large,
yery natural, and very important order: All plants of this
order possess an aromatic oil and a bitter principle. Ex.:
Mint, Rosemary, Sage, Lavender, Catnip, Pennyroyal, &c.

Boracinacez. The Borage Tribe. Ex.: Borago (Borage),
Cynoglossum (Hound’s-tongue), Echium (Viper’s Bugloss)-
Mucilaginous; demulcent, never poisonous.

-Hypropayitiacez. The Water-leaf Tribe. Ex.: Hydro-
phyllum, Nemophila. Of no known use.

Potemonracez. The Greek-Valerian Tribe, Ex.: Phlox, |

Lhe Natural System of Botany. 331

Polemonium. Mostly North American herbs. Cultivated as
ornamental plants.

Diapensiace&. The Diapensia Tribe. Ex: Diapensia,
Pyxidanthera.. Low, shrubby, evergreen trailing plants.

ConvotvuLacg&. The Morning-glory Tribe. An impor-
tant order of twining or trailing plants, mostly natives of hot
countries. Jalap is furnished by a Mexican Convolvulus.
The Sweet Potato is the tuber of C. Batatus. The Morning-
glory and the Bind-weed are other examples, Cuseuta, (Dod-
der) and Dichondra, also belong here,

Sonanaces&. The Potato Tribe, A large and very impor-
‘tant order. Ex.: Solanum, (Potato, Tomato, Egg-plant, &c.)
Capsicum (Red Pepper), Atropa (Nightshade), Belladonna,
Datura, Nicotiana (Tobacco), Hyoscyamus, &c. Properties
very discordant ; generally stimulant and narcotic, often vio-
lently poisonous. In the eatable species, the deleterious prin-
ciple is expelled by cooking or ripening in the sun.

GentTiansce&. The Gentian Tribe. A large Order of
herbs, some very ornamental. Ex.: Gentiana, Menyanthes
(Buck-bean), Sabbatia, Frasera. A tovic and intensely bitter
principle, called Gentianine, is found in all the order.

Apocynacez. The Dog’s-bane Tribe. Trees, shrubs, and
herbs. Ex.: Apocynum (Dog’s-bane), Vinca (Periwinkle),
Nerium (Oleander). The juice and seeds usually possess poi-
sonous properties. Nux vomica is the seed of a species of
Strychnos ; Caoutchoue or India-rubber is produced by some.

Ascuepiapace&. The Milk-weed Tribe, Ex.: Ascle-
pias (Milk-weed, Butterfly-weed). Properties similar to those
of the last, though not so active.

JasminacEz. The Jessamine Tribe. Ex.: Jasminum
(Jessamine). Asiatic shrubs, with showy and fragrant
flowers. |

Oxteacea#. Trees or shrubs, Ex.: Olea (The Olive),
_ Fraxinus (The Ash), Syringa (The Lilac). In the bark gene-
rally resides a bitter, astringent principle. . The sweet cathar-
tic, Manna, is the gum of a species of Fraxinus ; and Olive oil
_ is pressed from the fruit of Olea Europea.

332 The Natural System of Botany.
SE EE ET a a A NS same

Diwision III.—Avetatovs Exogenous Pranrs,

In this Division the corolla is wanting; the floral envelo
being simply a calyx. Sometimes both calyx and corolla are
wanting. .

AristoLocHt1acE®. The Snake-root Tribe. General]
herbs, but sometimes shrubby vines. Ex.: Aristolochia (Vir-
ginia Snake-root), Asarum (Wild Ginger). Used in medicine
as tonics, being stimulant, pungent and aromatic.

CuEenopopiacE&. The Goose-foot Tribe. Weeds or herbs
with fleshy leaves. Ex.: Beta (The Beet), Spinacia (Spinach),
Salicornia (Samphire). From some Soda is obtained,’ and
others are used as food.

_Amarantuacem. The Amaranth Tribe. Mostly Weeds ;
some of the Amaranths are cultivated for their showy flowers,
Ex.: Amaranthus, Celosia (Cock’s-comb).

Nycracinacesz. The Four-o’clock Tribe. Ex.: Mira-
bilis (Marvel of Peru, Four o’clock). Roots of some are purga-
tive. .

Potygonacem. The Buckwheat Tribe. Ex.: Polygonum
(Knot-grass), Rheum (Rhubarb), Rumex (Dock). The roots
are purgative. The leaves of some are agreeably acid, and
one species produces Buckwheat.

Puyrotaccacem. The only American member is Phyto-
lacea decandra (Poke, or Julap). The root is emetic, but lit-
tle'is known as to its properties.

Lavracez. The Cinnamon Tribe. Trees or shrubs.
Ex.: Laurus, Sassafras. All the species possess pungent,
stimulant and aromatic properties. Camphor is the gum of an
Asian species. Cinnamon, Cassia, and Sassafras are obtained
from. others.

Santatace®. The Sandal-wood Tribe. Ex.: Nyssa
(Pepperidge, Sour-gum, &c.), Santalum, which produces the
fragrant Sandal-wood. _

Tuymetaces. In this order the only North American
genus is Dirca (Leather-wood). The bark is acrid and very
tough. ; ;

Exzacinacez. Shepherdia Canadensis is sometimes cuitl-

The Natural System of Botany. 333

vated. The foliage is silvery, and covered with a kind of
scurf. ;
Untmacez. The Elm Tribe. A small order, of which Ul-
mus (The Elm) is the principal genus. The mucilaginous bark
of the Slippery Elm is the only medicinal product.

SaururacEz. Aquatic herbs. Ex.: Saururus (Lizard’s-
tail). No important properties.

CreRATOPHYLLACER. Consists of the single genus, Cerato-
phyllum, a floating plant sometimes called Hornwort.

CaLLitRicHaces. Also contains a single genus, common
to both Europe and America, Callitriche, a little aquatic herb.

PopostemMacez. Insignificant aquatics. Ex.: Podoste-
mum (Thread-foot.)

EupHorsiacez. The Spurge Tribe. A small order, but
containing some important plants. Their properties are gene-
rally acrid and poisonous, contained in their milky juice. The
root-stock of one species furnishes Tapioca ; the seeds of ano-
ther afford Castor-oil, and those of another Croton-oil. Box-
wood, the dye called Turnsole, and Caoutchouc are the Prto-
ducts of other species. Some of the order are violently poison-
ous, and their juice will immediately blister the skin.

Emretraces®. The Crow-berry Tribe. Small evergreen
shrubs. Ex.: Empetrum (The Crow-berry).

JuUeLANDACER. The Walnut Tribe. In this order are
found some of the most valuable timber trees, as Black Wal-
nut, and Hickory. Some of them also afford edible nuts.

Cupuuirerz. The Oak Tribe. Important trees. Ex.:
Quercus (The Oak), Castanea (The Chestnut), Corylus (The
Hazel), Carpinus (The Hornbeam). Ly bark is mostly astrin-

ent.
: Myricacez. The Gale Tribe. Aromatic shrubs. Ex.:
Myrica (Sweet Gale, Bayberry, Candle-berry or Wax Myrtle),
Comptonia (Sweet Fern). 7

‘Berutacez. The Birch Tribe. Trees and shrubs. Ex. :.
Betula (The Birch), Alnus (The Alder). 4

Saticacez. The Willow Tribe. Ex.: Salix (The Wil-
low), Populus (The Poplar).. The bark is astringent and -
tonic.

BALSAMIFLU&. Contains. the single genus Liquidambar,

834 The Natural System of Botany.

a
called Sweet Gum, from the aromatic balsam which is deriveg
from it.

~Puaranacez. This order contains only the genus Pj,.
tanus (Plane-tree, Button-ball or Sycamore), a very large ang
noble tree.

Urticacez, The Nettle Tribe. This is a large order of
trees, shrubs and herbs. It is divided into four sub-orders:

1. ArrocarrpEs. ‘Tropical plants. Ex.: Artocarpus (The
Bread-fruit).

2. Morem. Ex.: Morus (The Mulberry), Ficus (The Fig),

3. Urticem. Ex.: Urtica (The Nettle).

4, CanNaBINER. Ex.: Cannabis (The Hemp), Humulys
(The Hop.) -

The juice of nearly all the order is deleterious, while the
fruit is generally harmless. That terrible poison, the Bohon
Upas, is the inspissated juice of a species of Antiaris. Ficus
religiosa is the renowned Banyan tree; F. Indica produces
Gum lac; F. Carica affords the Fig. Bread-fruit is the pro-
duct of Artocarpus, and Mulberries of Morus nigra. Eve
one knows the uses of Hops and of Hemp, and the unpleasant
properties of the Nettle.

Class II.—GymnosPermMous Exogenous Prants.

The Gymnosperms are distinguished by their truly naked
seeds. The ovules are not enclosed in a pericarp, and are

~ fertilized without a pistil.

-

Conirerz. The Fir Tribe. Perhaps there is not a more
important order than this. It contains some of the noblest of
all trees, which furnish the timber and the resinous matters so
universally used. Differences in the structure of the flowers
and fruit have caused the following sub-divisions to be adopted :

1, Astetinez. Ex.: Pinus (The Pine), Abies (The Fir or
Spruce). . Br o%n

2. Cupressinrz. Ex.: Cupressus (The Cypress), Juni-
perus, (Juniper and Red Cedar). ,
8. Taxmvez. Ex.: Taxus (The Yew-tree.)

Cycapacex. These are singular tropical plants, with un-
branched, cylindrical trunks. Their fruit, Tike that of the

pines, is a strobilus or cone. Ex: Zamia, a species of which
is called Coontie in Florida, and from the thickened stems of
which is made a kind of Arrow root. From the trunk of Cy-
cas, is obtained a kind of Sago.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

NUMBER NINE.

DEVELOPEMENT OF LEAVES.

W3aeEn leaves. are first produced, they are small, delicate in
texture, pale in color, and packed closely together, forming
what is called a leaf-bud. Some of the outer ones are gene-
rally more firm in texture and darker in color, and fold over
each other so as to protect the more tender ones within. These
are often quite different from the other leaves in aspect, and
are usually called scales; but the distinction is not real, since’
on opening the bud, it will be seen that they pass gradually
into true leaves. The young leaves are beautifully folded
together, in such a manner as to occupy the least possible
space, and the mode. in. which this is done differs in different
families of plants. Any one may examine this, with the cer-
tainty of being greatly interested, by cutting through the leaf-
buds with a sharp, knife, when they are swelling, but before
they begin to expand.* The outer scales are sometimes
covered with a thick down, as a protection against cold, and
sometimes, as in, the Horse-chestnut, they are coated with a
gummy substance. In, most buds, the young leaves may be
easily observed to be, arranged around a,common centre or

* An excellent subject for this purpose is the leaf-bud of ‘the Tulip-Tree.
The buds are large, and the vernation very curious, being of the kind termed

836 Vegetable Physiology.

ss a ee ne ar NR Or ee aa BT DR Ti RRO oor gn nee pemeane pereamaa er nena
axis. As the branch grows, the insertions of the leaves, which
were at first close together, become separated by the lengthen.
ing of the branch; and they then usually assume something of
a spiral arrangement around it. This may be regarded as the
regular mode in which leaves are arranged. Starting from any

one leaf, we shall generally find the next leaf not exactly
above or below it, but alittle on one side of the perpendicular;

the next a little to one side of the last, and soon. The num-
ber of leaves taken to complete the spiral varies in differen;
plants. Sometimes it amounts to twenty or more. Sometimes
we find only two, in which case they are nearly on opposite
sides of the stem, but one is higher up than the other. Such
leaves are said to be alternate. The point of the stem at which
the leaf originates, is termed a node, and the space between
two nodes is an internode.

Now although it is considered the regular mode of growth
for a branch or stem to lengthen equally throughout, yet many
varieties in the arrangement of leaves are met with, occasioned
by the cessation of growth at particular points. Thus, if the
internode between any two alternate leaves is not developed,
they will be opposite to each other. Again, where each spiral
turn contains several leaves, if all the internodes between the
highest and the lowest be undeveloped, these leaves will arise
from the same point of the stem, still growjng, however, in
their proper directions; so that a complete circle of leaves, »
resembling that of the leafy parts of a regular flower, will be
produced. This is called a whorl or verticil. There are some
plants which exhibit the true spiral arrangement, as their regu-
lar mode of growth ; others in which the leaves are constantly
opposite ; and in some they are always verticillate.

But there are thany species which present differences in
arrangement in the same individual, according to the circum-
stances under which each part has been developed ; and by
such examples the connexion between the several modes of
growth is perceived. Thus, in the Rhododendron, the leaves
are sometinies opposite, and sometimes alternate. In the
Honeysuckle, they are naturally verticillate ; but the whorls are
broken up, and the: leaves carried toa pa from one ano-
ther, by anything which causes an increased developement of

Vegetable Physiology. 837

ee
the stem, just as when any leaf-bud (whose young leaves are

arranged in a series of whorls, one above or within another) is

elongated into a branch. On the other hand, in the Straw-
perry, the leaves, which are usually alternate, become oppo-
site, or whorled at intervals. It is to be remarked that, when
leaves are opposite, the several pairs are not in a line with one
another. above and below, but each pair is at right angles to
the next; so that, if the internode between two pairs were
undeveloped, a whorl of four leaves would be produced.
Again, when one whorl is developed near another, their leaves
do not issue from corresponding points in the stem, but are
arranged in such a manner that the leaves of one arise from
what seem to be the intervals of those of the other, so that the
whorls are alternate to each other. It is clearly shown that the
several parts of the flower are arranged exactly on the same
principles.

It is by the developement of leaf-buds into branches bearing
leaves, and capable of producing flowers and fruit, that the
tree or plant is increased in size. The leaf-bud: has also the
power of developing roots, if removed from the parent, and may
thus form a completely independent structure. It is by sepa-
rating the buds, and by placing these in circumstances favor-
able to their growth, that any particular variety of plant may
be propagated with more certainty than by seeds. As every

bud is thus capable of maintaining an independent existence,
it may be regarded as in some degree a distinct individual ;
and thus a tree would not be one being, but a collection of
many. This is in part true; still it must be considered, that
while they all remain upon one stem, they depend upon it for
nourishment, and are liable to be influenced by the same cir-
cumstances which affect it. Still. it is quite possible for some
buds to live while others die. Thus if arsenic be introduced
into any portion of the sap-wood, it will give such a poisonous
character to the fluid, that all the buds and branches above it
will be killed, while those below remain uninjured. It has
even occurred that a single bud at the summit of a stem has
preserved its life, while the vitality of all the others, and of the
stem, has been in some manner destroyed ; and that from this
pud have been sent down bundles of root-fibres between the

338 Vegetable Physiology.

da nee iphen pea TT arin
bark and wood of the dead stem. These fibres have reached
the ground, supplied nutriment to the expanding bud, which
has at length formed a perfect tree, enclosing the original dead

m.

Leaf-buds are always formed from the cellular portion of the
stem or branches, on which the function of extending the
growth of the individual seems especially imposed. They
may be distinctly traced in young branches to the pith; and
where this has dried up, they may be seen to arise from the
medullary rays. Sometimes they are stunted in their growth,
and instead of being developed into branches, they remain ag
thorns, or rather spines. That spines are really produced from
the leaf-buds may be easily ascertained by examining a grow-
ing shoot of the common Barberry, when their different states
of developement will be observed.

The influence of light in producing the green color of leaves,
is remarkably shown when the buds are unfolding. The
stronger the sunshine, the sooner will they assume their charac-
teristic hue; and on the other hand, in dark dull weather, they
will remain for days together almost of the same color as be-
fore they expanded. If during a continuance of rainy wea-
ther, the buds of a forest expand, their hue remains pale until
the sun appears, when within a few hours they assume their
full green color. One writer mentions a forest in this country,
on which the sun had not shone for twenty days. “ The
leaves during this period were expanded to their full size, but
were almost white. One forenoon the sun began to shine in
fall brightness; the color of the forest absolutely changed so
fast that we cogld perceive its progress. By the middle of the
afternoon, the whole of this extensive forest, many miles in
length, presented its-usual summer dress.” |

Mosses. 339

MOSSES.
ROM LINDLEY.

Sr1uu lower in the scale of creation than Ferns, are Mosses.
Up to the present moment, a microscope has rarely been neces-
sary in our studies; whenever I have recommended you to
employ it, the subject would usually have admitted of your dis-
pensing with its aid, if you pleased. But from henceforth it
must be. constantly in-your hand, and every observation must
be made with it. You will, however, find abundance of most
curious and interesting results, to indemnify you for the’ trouble
it will give you.

Mosses are among the smallest of plants with true leaves;
they are often so minute that the whole specimen, leaves,
stem, fruit and all, would escape the eye, if they did not grow
in patches ; and thgy never, in the largest kinds, exceed the
height of a few inches. Nevertheless, they are organized in a
manner far more complete than Ferns,.although they are desti-
tute of air vessels-and breathing pores. .Mosses are usually
the first plants that show. themselves on rocks, or walls, or bar-
ren places, where no other vegetation can establish itself ; pro-
vided the air is damp, they will flourish there, and in time, lay
the foundation of a bed of vegetable mould, in which the roots
of grasses, and other stronger plants, may find support, till they
in their turn have decayed and prepared the way for shrubs:
andtrees. This is-the usual order observed by nature in con-
verting the face of rocks into vegetable mould ; and thus you
see Mosses have to perform the office of pioneers to larger
plants, an office for which one would have thought their Lilli- .
putian size would hardly have qualified them.

Mosses are formed upon precisely the.same plan as flowering :
plants, as far as the arrangement.of their organs of vegetations
They have in all cases-a stem, or axis, however minute, round ,
which the leaves are disposed with the greatest symmetry;
they have the parts which answer to seeds, enclosed ina case jy
and this case is elevated on a stalk, which arises from among.

the leaves. But beyond this, analogy ceases: in all other

840 Mosses.

nem eee TRE ann GS |
points of structure, the Moss tribe is of a mest singular nature.
Mosses are said to be in fruit, when the stems are furnished
with brown hollow cases, seated on a long stalk. It is chiefly
of this fruit, or theca, or sporangium, and its modifications,
that we make use in distinguishing the genera. Let it there.
fore engage our attention first. No species can be more com.
mon than Wall Tortula (Tortula muralis), dark tufts of which
are found everywhere, upon the north side of walls, growing
out of the mortar. The theca of this plant wears a little cap,
not unlike that of the Norman peasant women, with its high
peak, and long lappets : this part is called a calyptra : when
young, it was rolled round the theca, so as completely to covey
it over, like an extinguisher; but when the stalk of the theca
lengthened, the calyptra was torn away from its support, and
carried up upon thé tip. After a certain time, the calyptra
drops off ; and at that time the theca is in the best state for ex.
amination. You will find it terminated by a conical lid, or
operculum, which is thrown off when the spores, or reproduc.
tive parts, are fit to be dispersed. When the lid has been thug
spontaneously thrown off, a new and peculiar set of parts
come in view—-you will find that the lid covered a kind of
tuft of twisted hairs, which at first look as if they stopped up
the mouth of the theca. But if you cut a theca perpendicu-
larly from the bottom to the top, you will learn from the sectional
view that you will obtain of the parts, that, in reality, the
hairs arise from within the rim of the theca, in a single row.
These hairs are named, in Botany, the teeth of the fringe, ot
peristome; the latter term designating the ring of hairs. The
nature of the fringe varies in different genera; sometimes it
consists of two rows of teeth, differing from each other in size
of number, or arrangement: somé have only four teeth, others
eight, or sixteen, or thirty-two, or sixty-four ; in all cases, their
number is some multiple of four; a curious circumstance, which
shows the great ‘siniplicity of design that is observed in the
construction of these minute objects. ‘Thé fringe is not, how- |
ever, always present: there is a small section of the Moss
Tribe, all the genera of which are destitute of this singular or-
gan. What office it may have to perform, we can only guess.
It seems to be coitus WH the dispersion of the spores ; and

Mosses. 841

often acts in the most beautiful hygrometrical manner. If you
take the theca of this Tortula, for example, when dry, and put
it in a damp place, or in water, its teeth will uncoil, and disen-
tangle themselves with a graceful and steady motion, which is
beautiful to look upon. vend

It is in the inside of the theca that the spores are confined.
They lie there in a thin bag, which is open at the upper end,
and which surrounds a central column, called the columella.
They are exceedingly minute, and. not unlike the spores
of Ferns. The study of the distinctions of Mosses, requires
great care and attention, and much skill in the use of the micro-
scope. It has sometimes occupied the undivided attention of
botanists, and cannot be prosecuted without much leisure and
patience.

When we quit Mosses and other plants of a similar nature,
we find ourselves among beings in which all traces of stem
and leaves have disappeared, and which consist of nothing
but thin horizontal expansions of vegetable matter, in which a
few harder, and differently formed kernels or. shields are im-
bedded. In some of these the color is yellow, brown, or
green ; the texture of the expansion leafy ; and the margin cut
up into many lobes—these are most nearly related to leafy and
more perfect plants. In others, the expansion is merely a thin
crust, which readily crumbles in pieces, the species having
scarcely vital energy enough to keep the cells of which they
are composed in a state of cohesion. Such plants as these are
called Lichens. They are found chiefly in the temperate or
colder regions of the earth. Some of them crawl upon the
surface of the earth, spreading their dingy, cold, and damp
bodies over whole plains in the desolate regions of the north;
others spring up on the branches of trees, and hang down from
them like gray and netted beards, giving the unfortunate plants
of which they take possession a hoary, wintry aspect, even in
summer: some overrun old walls, stones, and rocks, to which
they communicate those wild and agreeable tints, which ren-
der ancient ruins so pleasing to the eye ; and, finally, a fourth
description of Lichens establish themselves upon the bark of
living trees, occasionally burying themselves beneath the skin

342 Mosses.

5st a a alam mM IRI i i Oil aia ace i TT
through which their sHields alone peep forth in the strange
form of the letters of some eastern tongue. |

Plants of this tribe have no parts in the smallest degree
resembling flowers ; they have no certain mode of multiplying
themselves, except by the dispersion of little spores, which are
nothing but exceedingly minute cells, that are lodged in the
centre of the shields. These are very difficult to find; you
may, however, make them out, if you observe the follow;
directions. Take the full grown shield of any Lichen; with
a sharp knife divide it perpendicularly; then shave off the
thinnest possible slice of one of the faces, and drop it into
water ; place it on the glass stage of a microscope, and illumi-
nate it from below. You will thus be able to perceive that the
kernel consists of a crowd of minute compact fibres, planted
perpendicularly upon a bed of cellular substance ; and that in
the midst of the fibres there is a great number of little oblong
bags, filled with transparent cells; the bags are thecez, the
cells are spores ; and it is to the latter that the Lichen has to
trust for its perpetuation.

Notwithstanding their minuteness and uninyiting appearance,
several of them are of considerable importance to man and
animals. The Arctic Gyrophoras, called, by the Canadians,
Tripe de Roche, were the only food that the daring travellers,
Franklin, Richardson and Back, were for a long time able to,
procure, in the horrible countries they so fearlessly visited in
the cause of science ; Reindeer Moss (Cladonia rangiferina) is
the winter food of the reindeer of the Laplanders ; Iceland Moss
(Cetraria Islandica) furnishes a nutritious food for the invalid ;
‘and, finally, the production of Orchil, by Rocella tinctoria, is
an indication of the value of some species to the manufac-

turer, as dyes.

: YY) - : os aa ¥ ’
p a et entre
3 re) = ’ 7 ~ ,

oe

Paulownia Imperialis. 348

PAULOWNIA IMPERIALIS.

Tus fine tree, although so lately introduced into this country,
is fast becoming a favorite. Its heavy, rich foliage, and hand-
some flowers, make it a conspicuous object in shrubberies, and
it is found to be quite hardy. The following account of the
Paulownia is taken from a good English authority, and from
information afforded by an extensive nurseryman in New-York.

The Paulownia is a native of Japan, and grows, in that
country, to the height of thirty or forty feet, with a trunk two
or three feet in diameter. The branches are few, but strong ;
and they proceed from the trunk at right angles. The leaves
are very large and broad; and the flowers, which singly re-
semble those of the Fox-glove, are produced in large terminal
panicles, like those of the Horse-chestnut, or the Catalpa. At
a little distance, indeed, the Paulownia strongly resembles the
latter tree, except in the color of its flowers; but the seed-ves-
sels are very different; that of the Catalpa being a long,
horn-like pod; and that of the Paulownia an oval-shaped
nut. The Paulownia is in the Natural Order, Scrophularine,
and the Linnean Class and Order, Didynamia, Angiospermia.
According to our authority, the method of its introduction into
Europe, was the following. :

In 1834, M. Neumann, the chief gardener in the Jardin des
Plantes, at Paris, received some seeds, in a little China pot,
from Japan. He sowed them in a flower-pot, which he placed
in the hot-house ; but only one seed vegetated. This plant he
nourished with great care ; but it grew slowly, and appeared
sickly. As he observed that after it lost its leaves in Autumn,
the heat of the stove made it bud again immediately, he felt
convinced that the stove was too hot for it; and he removed it
to the green-house, which evidently suited it better, though
still it grew slowly. He now took some cuttings from his
plant, which struck readily; and he then ventured to remove
the parent plant into the open air. It immediately began to
grow vigorously; and though only six inches high when
planted in spring, it became three feet high before autumn,

344 Paulownia Imperialis.

Se
gtowing with a strong, erect stem, and forming a large, bushy
head. As soon as winter approached, it lost all its leaves at
once, like the Catalpa, without their becoming withered > but
it regained them early in the following spring, and grew so
rapidly, that in July, 1840, it was nearly twelve feet high, ]
was then growing vigorously, and had a profusion of fine
large leaves, which cast a refreshing shade. M.Neumann pro-
tected it for several winters with mats, but he afterwards
found it quite hardy; and in the winter of 1838-9, when the
thermometer was below zero, it did not lose even the tips of
its branches. Some of its leaves measured fifteen inches in
breadth, by eighteen in length. :

This plant is called Kiri by the Japanese, and Too, or
Haktoo, by the Chinese; and it was named Paulownia imperi-
alis by Dr. Sieboldt, in honor of the hereditary Princess of the
Netherlands, who was one of the daughters of the Emperor of
_ Russia. It will grow in any common garden soil that is toler-
ably dry, and somewhat loamy: but in moist, peaty soil, the
leaves turn yellow, and fall off. It strikes readily from cut-
tings, and it may also be propagated by division of the roots,

Our American authority states that “the Paulownia was
introduced into this country about five years ago. It is per-
fectly hardy in this latitude (that of New-York) ; the height to
which it will attain here, is, of course, not. known to me ; but
I presume it will be a similar tree, in that respect, to the Ca-
talpa, which it much resembles. It flowers at the end of May,
and beginning of June. The flowers are of a bluish lilac co-
lor, sweet scented, and in form and size like Fox-glove. My
tree was four years old, and was covered with flowers this
spring (1847) for the first time. Trees now sell for from fifty
cents to two dollars each, from four to twelve feet high.

Aylmer Bourke Lambert. 345

AYLMER BOURKE LAMBERT, F. R. S., &.

TuE gentleman whose name heads this article, is one of the
most munificent patrons of botanical science in England. He
has published a magnificent work on the Pines and Firs; and
he possesses probably the finest library of botanical works in
Europe. He has also a most splendid and extensive herbarium,
containing, among other rarities, the botanical specimens col-
lected by Ruis and Pavou for the Flora Peruviana; the dried
plants of Pursh, used for his North American Sylva; the dried
specimens of Pallas, and those of many other celebrated bot-
anists. Besides these collections, which possess a high degree
of historical interest, in addition to their intrinsic value, Mr.
Lambert’s herbarium is continually being increased by addi-
tions from every part of the world. He possesses a splendid
collection of the Banksias and Proteas, those extraordinary
plants of Australia, the novelty and beautiful appearance of
which procured for the coast where they were first seen, the
name of Botany Bay. From the tropical regions of the west-
ern hemisphere, Mr. Lambert has some extraordinary speci-
mens of Cactus, some of which are the only ones of the kind
in Europe. A volume would be required to describe all the
rarities of Mr. Lambert’s collections.

In the early days of the establishment of the Linnzan
Society, Sir Joseph Banks was in the habit of assembling
around him, on stated days, all the most celebrated persons
connected with botany and the other branches of natural his-
tory. All newly discovered plants, all important discoveries,
and in short, all that was interesting in these most interesting
sciences, was there discussed, before it was given to the pub-
lic ; and, as every one must have observed that new ideas are
frequently elicited by persons skilled in similar pursuits, which
would not have occurred to the closest student when alone,
there can be no doubt that these meetings were of the greatest
service in promulgating and elucidating the natural sciences.

What Sir Joseph Banks’s meetings were in his day, Mr.
Lambert’s are at the present time. Every Saturday during

346 Plants in Sleeping Rooms.

the London season, his reception rooms are crowded with per-
sons eminent for their learning and talents, not only English-
men, but foreigners. _It is impossible for any person to be
more kind and liberal than is Mr. Lambert, with all this
power to oblige. His books andshis herbarium are always
open to the use of all literary persons, and many important
works have owed their origin and progressto him. Without
the herbarium of Mr. Lambert,” says Loudon, in the preface to
his great Encyclopedia of Plants, ‘this work could not have
been completed.” ‘A large number of the excellent wood-cuts
with which that useful book is illustrated, were engraved from
specimens in Mr. Lambert’s collection. His librarian is, or
was, David Don, Esq., whose botanical publications are well
known.

PLANTS IN SLEEPING ROOMS.

Ir is not many months since a case was reported of the
death of a lady, supposed to be caused by her sleeping in a
close room which contained a number of plants. This was pro-
bably the true cause of the catastrophe, and its explanation on
chemical principles, is not difficult. It has been stated in one
of our articles on Vegetable Physiology, that carbonic acid gas,
a very deleterious substance, is absorbed from the atmosphere,
and decomposed by the leaves of plants, when under the in-
fluence of a strong light—oxygen being at the same time
evolved. Now the process of human respiration produces an
effect exactly the reverse. The lungs decompose the atmos-
pheric air, but retain its oxygen, which acts upon the blood,
_while the carbonic acid: is evolved. Thus plants in rooms are

rather beneficial than otherwise by day, since they then absorb
the carbonic acid produced by breathing the air, and leave the
oxygen. But in the darkness of night, the process is reversed.
Their leaves then give out carbonic acid gas, and retain oxygen.
A superabundance of the former gas always produces stupor,
head-ache, and a sense of suffocation in those who breathe it,

The Palms. 347

and in an unventilated room, where no fresh air can come in,
it is very likely to be productive of the most pernicious effects.
A sleeping room, therefore, where plants are kept, ought always
to be so arranged as to receive plenty of air from without,
unless, which is better still, the plants should not be allowed
to remain in it at night.

‘THE PALMS,

Tux Palms exceed most other plants in size, and surpass
them all in grandeur, and majesty of aspect. They naturally,
therefore, commanded the earliest attention of mankind ; and
the innumerable purposes to which their fruit, their leaves,
and their stems have been applied, as food, clothing and shel-
ter, have worthily retained for them that regard which their
beauty at first excited. They all bear a strong general re-
semblance to each other, and hence were early distinguished
by a peculiar name. They are mostly remarkable for the size
and strength of their stems, which usually shoot up to a great
height from the ground, tapering gracefully from the base to
the summit, and surmounted with a magnificent crown of gi-
gantic leaves. These towering stems, which, when growing
in sheltered situations, are often perfectly straight, sometimes
attain the height of two hundred feet, or even more. Other
species, however, have stems which trail along the ground,
sometimes to the length of five hundred feet. The Palms are
remarkable for the prodigious developement of their organs
of fructification. A single bunch of the staminiferous flowers
of the Date contains about twelve thousand; whilst another
species has been estimated to bear above two hundred thou-
sand in one cluster, and three times that number on each tree.
Although the flowers are frequently complete, each containing
both stamens and pistils, they are more frequently polygamous ;
that is, both complete and incomplete flowers are borne on the
same individual. They are crowded together in large clus-
ters, upon a stalk, which is termed a spadix, having an enor-

348 The Palms.

‘mous bract developed from its base, called a spathe, which
enwraps them all. The perianth consists of a calyx and
corolla, each in three pieces. The stamens are commonly six
in number ; sometimes, however, only three ; and occasionally
indefinite. The ovary is superior, generally divided into three
cells, of which each contains a seed. The styles and stigmas
of the three carpels are more or less adherent. In the ripe
fruit, however, it is commonly found that the seed of only one
cell has been developed, and that the other cells are therefore
obliterated. In the common Cocoa-nut we have an example
of this: the fruit when covered with the husk is evidently
three-lobed ; and when the husk is detached, the shell exhibits
three spots upon its rounded end, of which two are hard, while
the other is soft, and easily perforated. The fibrous busk is
the outer wall of the ovarium ; the shell is the inner wall, with
which the seed is in close contact. If the cocoa-nut be cut
through lengthwise, by a section passing through the middle
of the soft spot, it will be found that the small embryo is just
beneath it, lying in the midst of the firm, fleshy albumen ; and
we understand, therefore, that the two hard spots indicate the
positions of the two embryos which have not been developed.
In the Date-Palms, the staminiferous and pistilliferous flowers
grow on separate trees; and the fertilization of the latter is
dependent upon the conveyance of the pollen from the former,
which is usually accomplished by the agency of the wind, of
insects, &c. But if unseasonable weather, or any accident,
should prevent this, the Date crops entirely fail, or the fruit is
degenerate, and unfit for food. In order to prevent such an
occurrence, the Arabs, many tribes of whom rely almost en-
tirely on this tree for their supplies of food, have long been ac-
customed to gather the stamineous clusters, and to hang them
over the pistilline flowers ; and they even lay up stores of pol-
len from year to year. When they make inroads into districts
inhabited by hostile tribes, they cut down the stamen-bearing
Palms, as one of the most severe injuries they can inflict.
The stems of Palms are the best of all examples of Endo-
genous structure. — hey are frequently so dense externally, as
to bear the stroke of a sharp hatchet, without injury. This is
caused by the very close interweaving of the woody bundles

The 2, ‘alms. 349

Ne a pn oe ee. ee
that descend from the leaves, with those previously forming
the exterior. In most of the species with long, slender, trailing
stems, the outside is additionally hardened by a copious depo-
sition of silex, as in the grasses. This is especially the case
with the Rattan, which will readily strike fire with steel.

Palms are exclusively confined to the regions bordering’ on
the tropics in both hemispheres. — Their chief habitation is in
South America, where they mostly abound in the low and hu-
mid parts of the country, though some species rise upon the
sides of mountains, almost.to the limits of perpetual snow. In
general, each species is confined within very narrow bounds.
It is related by Humboldt, that in travelling through the cen-
tral part of South America, he found a new species at almost
every fifty miles. Although nearly two-thirds of the Palms
at present known are natives of South America, none have yet
been found in South Africa, where the distance from the
Equator is the same. Some species, however, appear to be -
very easily spread by the agency of man, or by natural
causes ; and this is especially the case in regard to those which
are most capable of being made useful to man. The Cocoa-
nut, for example, is found in almost all the islands of the Poly-
nesian Archipelago, even in those as yet untenanted by man.
This is easily accounted for, when it is considered that the
Cocoa-nut may float a long time in the sea, without any injury
to the seed, which is protected by the fibrous husk, and dense
shell: but when cast up by currents of the ocean on the low
shores of these islands, the husk gradually separates, under
the combined influences of the sun, air, and moisture, by
which the seed is then excited to germination.

It would be impossible here to enumerate all the uses to
which the various parts of these important trees, and their
products, are applied by the inhabitants of the countries where
they abound ; since these include almost every one for which
all other tribes of the Vegetable Kingdom are employed by
those who respectively possess them. Wine, oil, wax, flour,
sugar, salt, says the celebrated traveller, Humboldt, are. the
produce of this tribe ; whilst their fabric affords the materials
of the habitations, weapons, and clothing of many nations.
The exterior of the stems, of most species, affords a wood

350 Paims.

which is extremely valuable for its hardness, sometimes even
taking a very high polish. In some countries this is the only -
kind of timber the inhabitants possess ; and it therefore serves
all the purposes for which wood is required. Of the hardest
parts, weapons are usually manufactured, and these possess
such density as to be no unfit match for those of iron. Sections
of the stem, the soft interior being removed, are converted into
drums ; and the stems, split lengthwise, and channelled out,
are employed as conduits for water. The soft interior, in most
of the large-stemmed species, consists entirely of cellular tissue,
and usually contains a large quantity of starch, which renders
it very nutritious. This is obtained as food from many spe-
cies, but especially from the Sago Palm, in which it is particu-
larly abundant. The unexpanded buds of many species also
furnish a wholesome article of food. ‘Those of the Cabbage
Palm of the West Indies are very commonly boiled and eaten,
when they have a flavor very similar to that of the ordinary
Cabbage. This Palm is one of the stateliest and most elegant
of the whole tribe. The leaves of many species are used en-
tire to form thatch, ‘fences, and fuel ; the midribs furnish oars;
and the fibres of the leaves are spun into thread, of which
cords, ropes, and various woven fabrics are made. The ropes
manufactered from the fibres of the Cocoa-nut husk are equal
in strength to hemp; and for cables are said to be superior,
on account of their great elasticity. The sap of some Palms
is a very pleasant, sweet beverage; and by fermentation it
makes a sort of wine, or affords the material for distilling the
spirit called Arrack. The Date and the Cocoa Palms furnish
well-known and valuable fruits. Upon the Date subsist almost
entirely a great part of the inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and
Persia. A single tree will bear upwards of a hundred weight
of dates in a season, and sometimes more than twice that
amount. They come into bearing at from six to ten years of
age, and are fruitful for more thaw two hundred years. About
two hundred species of Palin are known; and it has been
estimated that the total: number of species may probably
amount es: oF Pt a to. be
discovered: Bet Meh

English Trees. 361

ENGLISH TREES.

The parks abound with trees of extraordinary age and size.
They are not like trees of our original forests, growing up to
a great height, and on account of the crowded state of the
neighborhood throwing out but few lateral branches ; but what
they want in height they gain in breadth; and if I may be
excused for a hard word, in umbrageousness. I measured one
in Lord Bagot’s celebrated park in Staffordshire, and, going
round the outside of the branches, keeping within droopings of
the circuit, was a hundred yards. The circumference of some
of the celebrated oaks in the park of the Duke of Portland,
which we measured together, when he did me the kindness to
accompany me through his grounds, seemed worthy of record.
The little Porter Oak measured twenty-seven feet in circum-
ference ; the Porter Oak is twenty-nine feet in circumference ;
the Seven Sisters, thirty-three feet in circumference. The
great Porter Oak was of very large diameter, fifty feet above
the ground ; and an opening in the trunk of Green Dale Oak,
was at one time large enough to admit the passage of a small
carriage through it: by advancing years the open space has
become somewhat contracted. These indeed are noble trees,
though it must be confessed that they were thrown quite into
the shade by the magnificent Buttonwood or Sycamore, of
whose trunk I saw a complete section exhibited at Derby,
measuring twenty-five feet in diameter, and seventy-five feet
in circumference. This was brought from the United States ;
and indeed might well be denominated the mammoth of the
forest.

In these ancient parks, oaks and beeches are the predomi-
nant trees, with occasional chestnuts and ashes. These trees
are looked on with great veneration ; in many cases they are
numbered ; in some a label is affixed to them, giving their age ;
sometimes a stone monument is erected, saying when or by
whom this forest or this clump was planted, and commonly
some family record is kept of them, as a part of the family

pee

352 English Trees.

history. I respect this trait in the character of the English,
and I sympathize with them in their veneration for old trees.
They are the growth often of centuries, and the monument of
years gone by.

I cannot quite enter into the enthusiasm of an excellent friend
who'used to say that the cutting down of an old tree ought to
be made a capital offence at law: yet I deem it most sacrile-
gious to destroy them, excepting where necessity demands it ;
and I would always advise that an old tree, standing in a con-
spicuous station, either for use or ornament, should be at least
once more wintered and summered, before the sentence of
death which may be passed upon it is carried into execution.

The trees in the park of the palace of Hampton Court, are
many of them the horse-chestnut and the lime, of great size,
and eminent beauty, several straight lines of them forming for
a long distance the approach to the palace. Ona clear, bright
day. at the season of their flowering, I passed through this
magnificent avenue, with inexpressible delight. I passed
through them again late in the autumn, when the frost had
marred their beauty, and the autumnal gales had stripped off
their leaves ; but they were still venerable in the simple ma-
Jesty of their gigantic and spreading forms. . I could not help
reflecting with grateful emotion on that beneficent power which
shall presently breathe upon the apparently lifeless statues,
and clothe them with the glittering foliage of spring, and the
rich and splendid glories of summer. So be it with those who
have gone far into the autumn, or stand shivering in the winter
of life—Coleman’s European Agriculture.

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‘The Dahlia. SS

DAHLIA—THE DAHLIA.

Natural Order, Composite ; Linnean System, Syngenesia, Superflua.. 2
Generic Characters : Involucre, double; exterior, many-leaved ; interior,
eight-parted ; receptacle, flat, chaffy; flowers of the disk, tubular, her-

maphrodite; those of the ray, ligulate, female or neuter ; achenium,
-maked. ”

J). crocata. Stem erect, fleshy,*hollow, branched in the upper part; lower
leaves bipinnate, or tripinnate ; leaflets ovate, acuminate, obtusely serrate;
achenia linear.—Pl. 47., ae

Few flowers are now better known, or more generally culti-
vated, than the Dahlia; but notwithstanding its present popu-
larity, its early history is not generally known. The first _
printed account of the Dahlia is said to be in Hernandez’s
History of Mexico, published in Madrid, in 16513 in which two
_ species are figured, under the name of Acocotlt.. Both of these pr
are single flowers, and one appears to be. D. crocata, and the
other D. variabilis or superflua. There was, however, an
_ Italian work on the Natural History of Mexico, published at

Rome about the same time, which had not only a single buta

double Dahlia figured in it. In both these works the plants —

are described as having tuberous roots, of a strong and bitter
taste; and Hernandez says that the Mexicans used these _
roots medicinally as a tonic. It is not a little singular, that @
_. plant so showy as the Dahlia, should have remained from this

_ time unnoticed for a period of more than one hundred and thirty
years. Yet such was the case; for the next mention of it is
made by M. Menonville, who was sent to Mexico by the
_ French Government, in 1787, to endeavor to steal the cochi-
| neal insect and plant from the Spaniards. This botanist only:
| saw some Dahlias growing in a garden near Guaxaca, and has
_ describes them as having large aster-like flowers, stems as tall
as aman, and leaves like those of the elder. In 1789, D. va=
_ riabilis was discovered in a wild state in Mexico by Baron”
- Humboldt, and sent by him to the Abbe Cavanilles, then Pro=
fessor of Botany at Madrid. The Marchioness of Bute was at
_ that time a great patroness of floriculture. in England, and —
Vor. L—23. See. eo: ar

.

> ie,
Lf, als 7d che Ctl | Nattron.-colatredDahtia)

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Shermans fath..

ft oe

86 ei | The Daklia.

being in correspondence with the Professors at the different
botanic gardens in Europe, Cavanilles sent her some of the
"seeds the same year that he received them. One of the seed-
lings raised by Cavanilles produced semi-double flowers in
October, 1790, and a figure of it was published i in the following
January, in Cayanilles’ Icones Plantarum, in which the genus
was named Dahlia, in honor of .Andrew Dahl, a Sweedish
- botanist; and the plant figured, which is the same as that now
called D. variabilis, was christened D. pinnata. Cavanilles
afterwards figured in the same work two other Dahlias, which
he called D. rosea, and D. coccinea. Tubers and seeds of
these three kinds were sent to Paris in 1802, under the idea
that the tubers. would be eatable; but they were found so bit-
ter and pungent, that they “disgusted both man and beast.”

- Inthe mean time, Lady Bute had raised, from the seeds sent
her by Cavanilles, some young plants, which she kept in pots
in a green-house ; but in the course of two or three years after-

wards, they all died without ripening seeds. In 1802, an
English nurseryman named Fraser, obtained in Paris some of
____the seeds of D. coccinea, sent from Madrid, but the flowers pro-
duced by his seedlings were bright orange instead of scarlet.
4 ‘Mr. Fraser’s. plants were kept in'a green-house, and died with-
_ _ .outripening seed. In 1804, M. Thonin published a paper on
BS? the Dahlia, in which he suggested propagating the: plant by
ey aie its fascicles of tuberous roots; keeping the roots in a
_ state-of rest during the winter, and allowing the plants to have
as pots fall of rich earth. In the spring of the same year,

‘ Holland sent to England, from Madrid, some seeds,

nich were sown.by Mr. Buonaiuti, librarian to Lord Holland,

on a hot-bed at Holland House, when some of the seedlings
flowered in the autumn of the same year. In 1807, Mr. Salis-

bury tried some Dahlias for the first time in the open ground

in his garden. About thistime, Professor Willdenow attempted ©

to change. the name of Dahlia into Georgina, in honor of a’

" Russian ist: named. Georgi, under pretence of a. similar

name to Dal ia having been previously given to another plant

_ by Thunberg.. _ Thunberg’s plant, however, was named in —

~ honor of an English botanist, Mr. Dale, and was called Dalea.
a TRAE. Count Leliewr us” to Pay some attention to the cul-

~ -

The Dalia. = Ye

‘

ture of the Dahlia in the neighborhood of Paris, and he intro-
duced into the garden at St. Cloud, from Malmaison, three
varieties, from which he raised numerous others. About the
same time, M. Otto, curator of the Botanic Garden at Berlin,
_ obtained numerous varieties by hybridization, some of Which
were very beautiful. When the continent was thrown open,
by the approach of the Allies to Paris, in 1814, the British ama-
teurs and florists who visited it, were astonished at the beauty
of the Dahlias in the French gardens; and since that period,
the cultivation of Dahlias has been common, and many varie-
ties have been raised, of great beauty of form and brilliancy of
color. ;
The Dahlia, in its native state,is one of the radiate-flowered
Composite, having eight ligulate florets in the ray, and nume-
rous tubular ones in the disk. The ray florets are vulgarly —
called the petals, and the flower becomes double when these
are greatly increased in number, and those of the disk disap-
pear. When this is not the case, the flower is considered im-
perfect. Sometimes the ray florets become tubular, when they
are said’ to be quilled. Each floret has a membranous, half
transparent bract, and when the florets are carefully picked
out so as to leave “all the bracts remaining, the Dahlia appears
changed into a kind of everlasting flower of considerable deli-
cacy and beauty. In judging of a Dahlia, the attention is
directed to its form, color and size. The form of a fine flower
should be as nearly round as possible, with the largest florets
at the edge, and decreasing gradually towards‘the centre,
where they are frequently raised into what is called a crown.
The outer florets should be broader and flatter than the inner
ones, which are always more or less tubular, preserving the
. character of disk florets, though of the’same color as those of —
the ray. When there is a crown, the ‘florets composing it —
should be placed close together, so as entirely to hide the disk;

as, if either green or yellow be seen in the centre of any Dah-
lia, it is disqualified from becoming a prize flower. The color

is of ho consequence, provided it be clear and bright ; 3; and the |
' size is also of little importance, unless the Dahlia —- ‘naturally ~
‘one with large-sized flowers.

‘The eee number of Dahlias now Ee oh in evn, have

a ‘The Dahlia.

wes been raised from D. variabilis, which varies so much from
_ seéd, that dark and light crimson, dark and light scarlet,
ce: Seliicn-colored, lilac, dark purple, and striped flowers, have
_ been raised from the seeds taken from a single head of flowers.
D. coccinea or frustranea only varies from scarlet; to orange
or yellow, and rarely produces double flowers. It is said
not to hybridize with D. variabilis. ‘Che most common colors
among Dahlias are purple and crimson in various shades. A
' pure scarlet was at first rare, but it is now tolerably frequent.
There are also many shades of yellow and orange, but a per-
ne Se fectly pure white, or bright light rose-color, is rarely met with.
No blue Dahlia has yet ee seen, and even the dark purples
have always a reddish tinge. The outer florets are sometimes
e so much recurved as to make the flowers look ball-shaped, and
Se these: are called Globe Dablias. Sometimes there is only a
‘ single row of broad flat ray florets, while the inner ones are
ie ~ erect and tubular; and these are called Anemone-flowered.
ee Within the last. few years; several new species have been -
. introduced, and it is probable that more will be discovered as
the Flora of Central America becomes better known.
__ The species of which a drawing is given, is easily distin-
-guished from the more common single-flowered species, by its
hollow stems, (which are very tall and strong, and only branch
"at the top), and its bipinnate leaves. he flowers are of a
‘most brilliant scarlet, with a yellow disk ; and there are
twelve or more florets in a single series in the ray. A sandy
ss soil suits it best, and it must be tied to a tall stake. At page
BI ni ee are given for the cultivation of the Dahlia. .

7 43 jp 7 j 4 ; . Ms y

re blz ANAL Cited. (Blrce lalananche) :
s {7 A o Z ie
712 thuacian Vhedir -t/ / jitlit ( Veraleleared t helanuthertt:d

. kekermanis Lith %

CATANANCHE—THE CATANANCHE.

Natural Order, Belhiien: ; Linnean System, Syagenesia, Aiqualis.. Genk >.
eric Character: Receptacle, cliaffy ; involucre, imbricated, wera ce ig
pus, bristly, each calyx having five bristles. a

C. cerulea. Scales of the involucre, inferior, ovate; flowers, be.—Plate a
48. Fig. 1. a
The derivation of the word Catananche appears to be very —

uncertain. It was employed by Dioscorides to designatea __

plant used by the women of Thessaly in philters and love po-
tions.» The genus at present contains only two species, one. es
with yellow, and the other with blue flowers. The latter spe

cies, C. cerulea, is a‘ native of the South of France, and hag 3

been in cultivation in England for many years. In its nadie Sy

country it grows among stones and rocks, on hills where it

would hardly seem able to obtain sufficient nourishment. hh. a g

cultivation a dry soil is best for it, as it is easily killed by wet.

Its showy blue flowers blossom from July to October. - The y

seeds should be sown in spring, and the plants removed in the — -

following autumn to the border where they are to flower. This oe
_ is said to be the best mode of culture; as, though the plants

raised from seeds sown in autumn, will flower sooner, they are 4

so much injured by passing the winter in a comparatively ae

ble state, as rarely to make good plants. | After the first. trans-_
planting, the plants should not be taken up, as they are always
injured by removal. Indeed, some florists consider it best to — 5

“sow the seeds in the place where they intend the plant to —s

remain. ‘It must be observed, that though the Catananche — as

should always be planted in a dry soil, and: should be kept ass ies
dry as possible during winter, it yet she a2 abundance Of
water when gbout.t to flower. en es! a ee

Tee a ee. ee fee ee ee
> 3 < ie
'

ta

» 858 | The Chinese Primrose.

CHETANTHERA—THE CHA TANTHERA.

Natural Order; Composite; Linnean System, Syngenesia, Superflua,
-~ Generic Characters: Involucre, imbricate ; receptacle, flat, smooth; flow-
rs of the ray, numerous, pistilliferous ; exterior lip, ligulate, tridentate ;
inner lip, slender, bidentate; disk flowers, hermaphrodite tubular, bila-

" “biate; lips nearly equal; pappus, hairy, persistent.
a C. serrata.—Leaves, linear, somewhat wedge-shaped; serrated at the apex ;
hae scales of the involucre, lanceolate, mucronate; pappus, somewhat bristly.
Be 3 —Plate 48, Fig. 2.
a _. The anthers of this genus appear like bristles; whence the
generic name, which signifies a bristly anther. .The flowers

are peculiar, each having two distinct, differently-shaped lips,

- in consequence of which, the genus is placed in that division
ac pee, ee ee eee es : *

ee of Composite éalled Labiatiflore. All the, species are natives
of Chili. C. serrata is a very pretty evergreen plant, growing

-_ 4n low tufis, with large bright yellow flowers. It is easily

OR es
cultivated in a sandy soil.
aia han P :

_ PRIMULA PRANITENS—THE CHINESE PRIMROSE.

pe ifie Character : Pubescént, umbel duplicate; éalyx, membranaceous,
"ovate, ventricose, many-cleft; capsule inflated ; segments of the corolla
ae tly. dentate Plate. ri ee
The generic characters of the genus Primula are given at
_ page 294, where the Auricula—another ‘species—is mentioned.
_ he Chinese Primrose has become a great favorite with flor-"

rid

poets
ae

ay ca Portuguese botanist had called another species by that name,

= glossy, ie shining, and it is certainly difficult ‘to understand
____why it should be applied to a plant covered nearly all over —

Ex ~ with down. For some time after its introduction, only two

varieties of this species were ee Cie ety have bei since
produced, some of which are double or semi-double.
‘The Chinese Primrose,” says Mr. Eley, “from its free

blooming habits, and pretty appearance in the winter months,

isa desieebis plant for a room window. It is usually raised — = ;

from seed, which should be sown ‘early in Spring, in a pot of
‘rich sandy soil, placed on a shelf near.a window, and the soil —
kept a little moist. When the plants are of sufficient size, they
should be potted in ‘separate pots, in any light rich soil, and

’ in summer may be plunged in the flower-beds in a shady place,
or they may be planted out in any moist ground, and they will ©
‘often flower throughout the season. They must be taken in
before frost, and potted, and kept in the shade till they have —

recovered. Those kept in pots should be shifted into larger 3

ones before autumn, and be kept ina cool room window till
they show their flower-buds; then placed in a warm room,
and watered freely, when they will soon come into bloom.”

. y ; Witwer a 8 ™
: . $ we + ee
. —_— ; Sy

‘ a

_VERBASCUM—THE PGiLein sae

Natural Order: Sérbplilatscdte: Linnean System : Pentandria, ‘tiered

‘nia. Generic Character: calyx, five parted. Corolla rotate, five-lobed, a

unequal. Stamens, five, all bearing anthers ; declinate, usually hesdta
_ Anthers, lunate. Capsule, globose, two-valved.

v. formosum. —Stem, branching ; leaves, woolly and white below, but green,

and naked above; usually cordate, acuminate. Spike, lax, tomentose.

The two lower stamens bent down, and widely apart.— Plate 50.

The name Verbascum is said to have originally been Bar- —
bascum, from barba, a beard, in allusion to the hairy filaments. — ;

. Allthe species are strong, vigorous plants, with broad, thick,
woolly leaves. The flowers, which are often very showy, are

disposed in’ long terminal racemes. The whole plant, except — >

the flowers, is generally covered with a kind of wool, oe
makes the leaves feel soft and thick, much like flannel, »

touch. ‘The common American Mullein, V. Thapsus, is well
known, growing in every stubble-field, and by every wood-
side, 5 here its —_ tall, prim-looking stalks, often remain the

y ae

| 360 The Natural System of Botany.

whole winter through. Our other species, V. blattaria, or Moth
a Mullein, is much prettier, and more graceful. The leaves are
more smooth, and the brown and yellow corolla contrasts very
handsomely with the purple hairy stamens. The Moth Mul-
a lein is well deserving of cultivation. . Several species are often

of

4 seen in gardens. The Purple Mullein, V. phoeniceum, is well
3 known. . It is a handsome plant, and continues in flower a
Se long time. V. formosum is,the most beautiful of the genus,
a from the large size and brilliant colors of the flowers. It grows
pe from two to four feet high, and is in flgwer in July and August,
____ Itcame from the Caucasian mountains. The Mulleins require
little care in cultivation, being raised from the sped in any
= Sgamen. garden soil, ; -

< —s SR ry erg ei mteinney

e ae ps oer

‘THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF BOTANY.

NUMBER TWELVE.

" i aatied
- Class I—Expocens, OR Monocoryizpoxous Puants.

Stem, having no Gopoites of wood, pith, wil bark. Leaves,
~ usually with simple, parallel veins, often sheathing at base,
and falling off without an articulation. Parts of the flower
generally i in threes. Embryo with one cotyledon; or, if with
— o they are alternate, and very unequal i in size,

: Se we a | Division Peston’ ss

< this division the flowers have a calyx or corolla, Fictions:
hese 2 are, wanting, the. ‘stamens and pistils have no

+ ¥

he Palm Tribe T hese: ape-mogily pate vwith
ak: aoe leaves,, small, perfect flowers,
t i Ta mcvecngyie of this

The Natural System of Botany. 361

Cocoa-nut Tree), Chameerops (The Palette), Phoenix (The |
Date Tree).

Aracex. The Arum Tribe. The flowers are ona spathe,
generally surrounded with a spadix, and destitute of calyx
and corolla. Ex.: Symplocarpus (Skunk-Cabbage), Arum
(Indian Turnip), Acorus (Sweet Flag). Some species acrid,
others pungent and aromatic. .
Lemnacesz. Ex.: Lemna (Duck-weed). Small Aontiiy
plants.

Typuacex. The Reed-mace Tribe. Ex.: Typha (Cat-
tail), Sparganium (Burr-reed). Herbs, growing in ditches
and: ponds. 3 ae
_ Natapaczrz. The Pond-weed Tribe. Ex.: Zostera (Eel-
grass), Potamogeton (Floating Pond-weed). Growing in wa-
ter, with obscure flowers and cellular leaves.

Auismacex. The Water-Plantain Tribe. Ex.: Sagittaria
(Arrow-head), Alisma cVarerploniety). Aquatic herbs, with -
regular flowers. ,

HypROcHARIDACE2. The Frog-bit Tribe. Ex.: Vallis-
neria (Tapé-grass), Udora (Ditch-moss). Small floating plants.

Orcumaces. The Orchis Tribe. A large order, embra-
. cing nearly 1500+ species. No order is more’ interesting or
curious, whether for the singular construction of the flowers,
or their fragrance and beauty, or for the remarkable shapes
of the roots and stems. Many of them are epiphytes, growing
upon the roots or trunks of decayed trees. Ex.: Orchis, Are-
thusg, Cypripedium (Lady’s Slipper), Pogonia, Spiranthes, | &e.

ZinziBERacER. The Ginger Tribe. Ex.: Zinziber (Gin-
ger), Amomum (Cardamon). Tropical aromatic herbs.

Cannacez. Ex: Canna (Indian Shot); Maranta (Arrow-
root).

Musacez. The Banana Tribe. © Noble tropical Plants,
whose fruit and huge leaves are of the greatest importance for :
food and shelter. Ex.: ‘Musa (The Plantain-tree.)

Bromeniacez. The Pine-apple Tribe. Chiefly tropical
American plants: The deélicious fruit of the Pine-apple is
_ formed by the “ consolidation of the imperfect flowers, bracts,
and receptacle, into a fleshy, succulent mass.” | ‘Ex: Ana
nassa (The Pine-apple), Tillandsia.

362 - The Natural System of Botany.

Amaryitwacez. Ex.: Amaryilis, Narcissus (Jonquil,
Daffodil), Galanthus (Snow-drop), Agave (Mexican Aloe).
Bulbous-rooted plants, with showy flowers; very ornamental,
and many'species much cultivated.

Intpacem. The Iris Tribe. These are perennial herbs,
having bulbous roots, or rhizomas, and showy flowers, with
spathaceous bracts. Ex.: Iris (Blue Flag, Fleur-de-lis, &c.),
Crocus (Saffron, &c.), Tigridia (Tiger Lily). The bulbs con-
tain starch, with some acrid and aromatic properties.

Dioscorraces. The Yam Tribe. A small order of twi-

ning plants, with dicecious flowers. Yams are the tubers of

- Dioscorea sativa, and form an meporaNt: article of food in

~ tropical countries.
Smiracez. The Smilax Tribe. This order consists of a

few herbs or shrubby plants, some of which are climbing.

: aes veins of the leaves are reticulated. Sarsaparilla is made
the toots of several species of Smilax.

Liuacez. The Lily Tribe. A large and widely-dispersed
order. They spring from bulbs or tubers; the flowers are
‘usually ornamental, finely colored, regular and perfect. Many
possess a bitter principle, and. the bulbs of some. yield a@ very
nutritious food. This extensive order is separated into several
sub-orders or tribes. In one are comprised such bulbous

plants as the Lily and the Tulip; ina second, the Tuberose

~-and Hemerocallis ; in a third, the Onion, Squill, and Hyacinth;

ina fourth, the Asphodel and Asparagus; and in a fifth, the
Convallaria (Solomon’s Seal), and Uvularia (Bellwort, &c.)

-Ponrepermacem. The Pickerel-Weed Tribe. These are

; aquatic plants, with sheathing leaves, and often spathaceous
nce. Ex.: Pontederia, (Pickerel-weed), Schollera, &c

* Weiiietaowa. The Colchicum Tribe.-. Herbs, with

a lbs, corms, or fascicles, and regular flowers. Qualities,

gene rally acrid and -poisonous. Ex.: Colchicum, Veratrum,

White Hellebore), Trillium, Medeola.

~ SUNCACER. The Rush Tribe. Herbs, generally grass-like,
Se a se amps ee ares _Ex.: Os aa

The Natural System of Botany. 368

gens by their herbaceous green sepals. Ex.: Tradescantia
(Spider-wort), Commelyna. | Oana:
Xyripacez. The Xyris Tribe. Resembling the rushes
m aspect. Flowers, capitate. Ex.: Xyris (Yellow-eyed grass.)
Ertocautonace&. The Pipe-wort Tribe. Aquatic herbs,
with cellular leaves, and heads of minute flowers. Ex.: Erio-

caulon (Pipe-wort.) F

Diwision I.—Guumacez.

Flowers, destitute of a true calyx and corolla, but enveloped
in scales or chaffy bracts. This division comprehends the
grasses and sedges. .

Cyreracez. The Sedge Tribe. This is a large order of
coarse, grass-like plants, with fibrous roots, stems without joints,
and solid. They are natives of nearly all countries, but in
general possess few useful properties. The ancient papyrus
was made of the pith of Cyperus Papyrus. Ex.: Scirpus —
(Club-rush, -&c.),- Carex,” Eriophorum. ~~ om

_Graminez. The Grass Tribe. One of the largest, most
common, and most ‘important orders. The stems are hollow,
and jointed; the leaves entire; parallel veined, sheathed at
base ; flowers in spikelets, racemes, or panicles. The grasses
undoubtedly contribute more sustenance for both men and
animals than all the rest of the vegetable kingdom. With a
single exception, no poisonous plant is known to be contained
in the order. The stems often contain sugar, and. the fruits
- are the common grains, as wheat, rye, oats, barley, &c.. Ex.:
Poa, Alopecurus, Festuca Panicum, Phleum; Agrostis, &c.
which are among the most common pasture grasses; Triti-
cum (Wheat), Zea (Maize), Avena (Oat), Hordeum (Barley),
Secale (Rye), &c., which afford the staple food of men; Sac-
charum (Sugar-cane), Sorghum (Broom-corn), &c.

. Frowerzzss, or Cryprocamous Puantsy

Plants chiefly composed of cellular tissue, destitute of 8) be
vessels, having no flowers, and instead of seeds, produci

spores. Spgeice Phe 2 é F ae ee ie = ‘ ;
The flowerless plants are divided into the following orders,

364 Vegetable Physiology.
ESE Re Re EA A TT
which are merely named here, as it is not within the scope of
this work to give any particular account of them.
Equiseraces%. The Scouring Rush Tribe. Ex. Equisetum,
_ Lycoropiacez. The Club Moss Tribe - Ex. Lycopodium,
Fuices. The Ferns. Ex. Polypodium, Aspidium, Pteris,
Adiantum.
Marstuzacez. The Pepperwort Tribe.
_ Mouser. The Mosses.
Heraticz. The Liverworts.
_Licnenes. The Lichens.
Fune1. The Mushrooms.
_ Cuaracez. The Chara Tribe.
- Atex. The Sea-weeds.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
. NUMBER TEN.

‘3 "REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS.

~The ae of. a flower essentially concerned in the reproduc-
tive process, are the stamens and pistil. Within the stamens
are produced a number of minute yellow bodies, usually of a
globular form, which together constitute the fine dust known
asthe pollen or farina. Each grain of pollen, when examined
with the microscope, is seen to consist of a cell exactly analo-
gous to the spore of a flowerless plant: It has two or more
coats, enclosing a fluid, in which a large number of extremely
ninute granules may be seen’with a good microscope. ‘These
ai probably the germs of new cells. They may be
| seen to fhove within the parent cell, or pollen grain, previously
to the time when its walls become too thick to allow the gran-
obsei ved through them; and when the contents of

grain are mixed with water, they are seen to be

ning : soa of srg motion. ‘The an-

Ks

see

Vegetable Physiology. 365

thers, or receptacles of pollen, which evidently correspond
with the capsules or spore-cases of the Cryptogamia, burst
when their contents are mature, and scatter the grains. They
have various ways of opening; sometimes they split along
their length, as in the Lily; sometimes transversely, as in the
Duckweed ; sometimes by little pores at their extremity, as in
the Potato; and sometimes by valves, as in the Barberry.
These different methods of opening are characteristic of differ-
ent tribes of plants.

The ovarium, or seed vessel, is the part in which are formed
the young seeds or ovules, and occupies the centre of the flower.
Sometimes this part consists of several evident divisions, and
in othér cases these are united together more or less closely.
If the ovarium be cut into previously to the opening of the
flower, it will usually be found to contain a great number of
the ovules. They are at this period quite soft ; and their inte-
rior is filled up with a kind of pulp, which is enclosed in two
or more envelopes. These envelopes or seed-coats do not en-
tirely cover the central part of the ovule, but leave a small
opening, which is called the foramen. This opening may be
easily detected in the perfect seed, (although it has then nearly
closed up,) by soaking itin water, and then pressing out the
fluid that has been absorbed, which will be seen to issue from
this little orifice. The foramen has a very important purpose
in the fertilization of the seed, which, at the period now des-
cribed, contains no trace of the germ of the new plant.

This germ appears to be conveyed into it from the pollen in
the following curious manner. The little pollen-grains, or
cells, when set free from the anthers, fall upon the stigma of
the pistil. In general the anthers are situated above the stig-
ma ; the stamens being longer than the pistil in erect or upright
flowers, and shorter in those which hang down ; but sometimes
a special provision is necessary for the conveyance of the pol-
len to the stigma, especially in moncecious and dicecious plants.
This operation is often accomplished by insects, which in going
from flower to flower in search of honey, cover their bodies
with pollen-dust, and rub it against the pistils of other flowers.
When the pollen falls on the stigma, it is retained by a glu-

«

366 ' Vegetable Physiology,

tinous secretion from the surface of the stigma. After a short
time the outer coat of the pollen-cell appears to burst at one
or two points, and to allow the inner coat to pass out through
it, in the form of a tube. This tube insinuates itself between
the cells of the stigma, and passes down between the long
and loosely arranged cells of the style. It gradually extends
until it reaches the ovarium itself, even when the style is se-
veral inches long. The pollen-grains are not always globular,
but are sometimes triangular, and emit a pollen-tube at each
corner. The tubes, when they arrive at the ovarium, direct
themselves towards its different chambers, and have been seen,
to enter the apertures in the several ovules, which are at that
time directed towards the part of the base of the style from
which the pollen-tubes project themselves. Sometimes a con-
siderable change in the position of the ovule is necessary, in
der that ihe foramen should be applied to the right-portion
e wall of the ovary ; but this change always takes place

. just as the pollen-tubes are passing down the style. The

granules which the pollen-grain originally contained, are seen
t6 pass down the tube, and by it some of them are conveyed
‘into each ovule. Whilst yet within the tube, they are seen to

develope themselves into new cells, and these cells are the ru-
diment of the future plant. | oe f
The germs are thus conveyed into a sort of receptacle,

where they are supplied with nourishment that has been pre-
«Sees SA we ee 7 - . i os cud

viously prepared and stored up for their use by the parent
structure ; and they are thus greatly assisted in their early de-
yelopement. The pulpy matter contained in the ovules, con-
-Sists of starch and sugar; and these nutritious substances are
absorbed by the cells of the embryo, which increase at their

expense. The first increase of these cells does not so much

d, however, to form those parts which are afterwards to be
leveloped into the stem, root, and leaves, as to produce those

porary structures, termed cotyledons or seed-leaves, which
to assist for a time in the dévelopement of the —
ure, and then to wither and decay. Hence,

pening of the seed, the cotyledon forms
embry® or young plant, ‘The starch

$ on

| Vegetable Physiology. 367

contained in the seed is sometimes absorded into the tissue of
the cotyledons, rendering them thick and fleshy, as in the Pea
and Bean. In this case the cotyledons, with the small germ
, to which they belong, form the entire contents of the seed. In
other instances, however, they are thin leafy organs, and oc
cupy, with the germ, but a small part of the seed. The re-
mainder then consists of a separate store, which is termed the
albumen. This is the case in all monocotyledonous seeds, and
in some dicotyledons, as the Ash and Horse-Chestnut. |
Between the cotyledons, (taking a bean as the subject of ex-
amination,) is the real germ; the upper extremity of which,
called the plumula, subsequently developes itself into the stem,’
and puts forth leaves ; whilst the lower part, or radiele, which’
is always directed towards the foramen, becomes the root.”
The plumula sometimes presents the appearance of the’
plant in miniature; its leaves and buds being quite discern-
ible, though on a very small scale. The. subsequent devel-'
opement of the germ into the perfect plant, is that which in
its early stage, is called germination. ‘When a séed like that’
of the bean begins to germinate, it first swells and bursts its’
seed-coats; the plumula then extends upwards, bringing the’
cotyledons just above the surface of the ground ; whilst the:
radicle penetrates downwards: ‘In some plants, however, the’
cotyledons remain underground, as in the Oak; and there are’
afew in which they appeat entirely absent. “The cotyledons
when exposed to the light, become green; and perform fora
time (though imperfectly) the functions.of leaves, at the same
time yielding to the young plant, the nourishment they con-°
tain: By the time this is exhausted, the true leaves and roots’
are sufficiently developed for the support of the structure ; and»
the: cotyledons, being then no longer required, decay away.
In the seeds of monocotyledons, the albumen is always sepa-
rate; and the embryo, which occupies but a small proportion
_of the whole mass, cannot always be readily distinguished in
the midst of it, until gérmination commences. The cotyle
at first completely sheaths the plumula, which Pape
pierces it, and unrols its first leaf. ne re
The —— amen for the Gerais Stig of the seed, are

fay

368 Vegetable Physiology.

warmth, moisture, and the presence of oxygen. The process
is also favored by darkness. The influence of each of these
agents will be readily understood. - No vital action can go on
without a certain amount of heat; and where this is not pro-
duced within the being, it must be derived from without. The
germination of a seed is therefore as much dependent upon
warmth, as the hatching of an egg, though the amount required

is not nearly as great. Moisture is also required, for the con-
"version into a fluid state, of the dry nutriment which has been

previously stored up in the seed; and no change can com-
mence until that is supplied. The presence of oxygen is ne-
cessary, because the, conversion of starch into sugar requires
that some of the carbon of the former should be set free. For
this purpose the carbon must. be combined with oxygen so as
to for. a carbonic acid. This process is favored by darkness,
because light has a tendency to produce the contrary effect—
the. fi ra ton, of the carbon... . {

__ It is interesting to observe how all these conditions are sup-
plied, in, the ordinary course of nature, by the soil in which
the-seed is dropped. If it be sown during the spring or sum-
mer, it speedily begins to germinate ; but if- in the autumn, it

- remains almost unchanged, until the winter has passed, and

_ the returning warmth of the earth and air arouses it into acti-

It is seldom that the soil is so completely destitute of
moisture, for any long time togethey as not to be able to excité
seeds ‘to germinate; but, their sprouting is well known to be
ored by damp weather ; and if seeds remain undeveloped
account of having been placed in the ground during a

<

: ? xe ~ - . : “
drought, they are very rapidly brought forward by a shower.
~~ ‘4 y _ . : * .* * .
s sou is favorable to germination, onaccount of the free
poco. _ “2s . 2% . 4
of air as well as moisture, which it affords to the
Binet eR rE Se ee Mah Oa
: ; oS By 5 rae ee ae an - ore
te ee : alae ad Oe .
2 Eta = ace aie Ms > vie
ae Zr Pan’ 5°)? £58 Fong?
a Spee. cc “Sitges
ee Reich 95 0 EK PR aes
“Sm j PES ptt as Five 4
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4 Bie OO Si. SE. ASO RAPA Set tid

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PPLCIMAIN: Handsome Vérbascum) ;

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\Mchermnan’s Lith.

s

JOHN C. LOUDON, ESQ.

The works of Mr. Loudon are so well known in this coun-
try—his name is so closely connected with the sciences of
horticulture and botany—and there is so much of interest and
profit in a knowledge of the man himself, and of his career,
that a short account of -his life may most properly fill a few of
our pages. We believe, too, that familiar as are his books
to the American public, not many are aware of the trying
circumstances under which they were written.

Mr. Loudon was born on the 8th of April, 1783, at Cambus-
lang, in Lanarkshire, Scotland. His father was a respectable
farmer, who died early, leaving to his widow the care of a
numerous family of children, of whom the subject of this sketch
was the eldest. Mr. Loudon was educated as a landscape
gardener, and i in 1803 went to England, with numerous letters
of i to some of the first landed ‘proprietors in the
kingdom. He afterwards took a large farm at Tew, in Ox-
fordshire, where he resided in 1809. “Whilst there, he printed
anonymously one of his earliest works, ‘A Treatise on the —
Culture of Wheat.” In the years 1818-14-15, he made the
tour of northern Europe, traversing Sweden, Russia, Poland,
and Austria; in 1819, he travelled through Italy; and in
1828, through France and Germany.

Mr. Loudon’s career as an author began in 1803, when he
was only twenty years old, and continued, with very little
interruption, during the space of forty years. His first works
were, “ Observations on laying out Public Squaregy’ published
in 1808, and on “Plantations,” in 1804; “A “Treatise on
Hot-houses,” in 1805, and on “Country Residences,” in 1806,
both quarto; ‘Hints on the Formation of Gardens,” in 1812,
and three works on Hot-houses, in 1817 and 1818. In 1822,
appeared the first edition of the “Encyclopedia of Garden-
ing,” a work remarkable for the immense mass of usefull mat-

ter which it contained, and for the then unusual circumstance -

of a great number of wood-cuts being mingled with the text.
This book obtained an extraordinary sale, and fully established

3 x
frracntlend (Chinese primrose)

Ackermaniviith

” 4 ee 2 ED oS oe

870 John C. Loudon, Esq.

eet oS Sad Sea AR AICI ro Demet bers, cane remmee ae ee
his fame as an author. Shortly afterwards was published
** Observations on laying out Farms.” In 1824, a second

edition of the “ Encyclopsedia of Gardening” was published,
with very great alterations and improvements; and the follow-
ing year appeared the first edition of the “ Encyclopzedia of
Agriculture.” In 1826, the “Gardener’s Magazine” was
commenced, being the first periodical ever devoted exclusively
to horticultural subjects. The “Magazine of Natural History,”
also the first of its kind, was begun in 1828. Mr. Loudon
was now occupied in the preparation of the “Encyclopedia
of Plants,” which was. published early in 1829, and was
speedily followed by the “ Hortus Britannicus.” In 1830,
a second, and nearly re-written edition of the « Encyclopedia
of Agriculture,” was published; and this was followed by
an entirely re-written edition of the “Encyclopedia of Gar-
' dening,” in 1831 ; and the “ Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm,
and Villa Architecture,” in 1882. This last work was one of
the most successful, because it was one of the most useful,
he ever wrote, and it is likely to continue a standard book
on the subjects of which it treats. Mr. Loudon now began
to prepare his great and ruinous work, the “Arboretum Bri-
tannicum,” the anxieties attendant on which were, undoubt-
edly, the primary cause of that decay of constitution which
terminated in his death. This work was not, however, com-
pleted till 1888} and, in the meantime, he began the “ Archi-
tectural Magazine,” the first periodical devoted exclusively to

Britannicum, which was published
| bers, going on at the same time; and to pro-
luce these at the proper times, he literally worked night and
ay- Immediately on the conclusion of the “ Arboretum Bri-

annicum,” he began the “ Suburban Gardener,” which was

John C. Loudon, Esq. a71

Trees and Shrubs.” In the same year, he completed his
“Suburban Horticulturist ;? and finally, in 1843, he published
his work on “Cemeteries,” the last separate work he ever
wrote. In this list, many minor productions of Mr. Loudon’s
pen have necessarily been omitted; but it may be mentioned,
that he contributed to the “Encyclopedia Britannica,” ani
Brande’s “Dictionary of Science,” and that he published
numerous supplements from time to time, to his various works.

No man, perhaps, has ever written so much, under such
adverse circumstances, as Mr. Loudon. Many years ago,
when he first came to England, he had a severe attack of
rheumatism ; and the following year, (1804,) his right arm was
broken near the shoulder, and it never properly united. Not-
withstanding this, he continued to write with his right hand
till 1825, when the same arm was broken again, and he was
then obliged to have it amputated; but not before a general
breaking up of the frame had commenced, and the thumb
and two of the g eects of the left hand had been tendered
useless. | e 3
till his & : e Rricty
Rey on a most costly and most laborious of his works,
the « Arboretum Britannicum.” He died at last, on Decem-
ber 14, 1848, of disease of the lungs, after suffering severely
about three months; and he retained all the energy and clear-
ness of his mind to the last.

Never, perhaps, did any man possess more energy and de-
termination than Mr. Loudon, Whatever he. began, he pur-
sued with enthusiasm, and carried out, notwithstanding obsta-
cles that would have discouraged any ordinary person. He
was a warm friend, and most kind and affectionate i in all”
relations of son, husband, father, and’ brother ; ; and he or
hesitated to sacrifice pecuniary considerations to what he < con- —
sidered his duty.

he supporting, himself ‘and his family Helles one of his _
friends) by arduous and indefatigable ‘application, it was t
something far beyond a mercenary motive that he looked f
the just and honorable reward of his labors. The acq ae ent
of money he > seemed to consider only valuable as 8 ne ess
means of support; and, had he been placed it in| ‘

appier and

:

-

See eer ee eee cc ae aesee Renn ammee RIS ARC h EELS I ASS aaa Teas ree inanaaa aed
more affluent circumstances, he would have been equally
ardent in his pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. He pos-
géssed, it is a consolation to know, in his own home, all the
‘comfort and happiness that can be rationally expected. His
great infirmities were vigilantly attended to, and affectionately
assisted. The pursuits of his family were congenial to his
own; whatever were subjects of interest to him, were also felt
‘and partaken by all. Whoever was his guest, was sure to be
gratified by the company of persons of superior intelligence
‘and information. Among his friends he numbered many
“whose names are highest in the number of those distinguished
for botanical knowledge; and these he considered not in the
light of rivals, contending for public favor against himself, but
rather as fellow-laborers in the great and general field of
Science, which equally required the exertions of all.

L and fortunate in possessing a wife
whose talents and virtues were as great as her affection for him
“was sincere. She is the authoress of several well-known and
‘valuable works on horticulture and gardening. Since her
_ husband’s death, she has received a most kaki

Bs neo from sagt Mista

E

‘ eat a 7 y
ee | PRESERVATION oF SEEDS.
Bere oe Bah end BY MRS. LOUDON, —

a prope pa wipers
ral of the Sweet Peas; and others which
in general, a brown color is character-

Preservation of Seeds. 873

general, the ois or mpibalee, should be'cut off, with a small
portion of the stalks attached, and the whole should be spread
out, each kind by itself, on papers, in an airy room, from
which rain, and the direct influence of the sun, are both ex-
cluded. When the seed vessels are thoroughly dried, they
may be put up in papers, without separating the seeds from
them, and kept in a dry place, rather airy than close, till
wanted for sowing. Seeds preserved in the seed-vessel, no

doubt, make packages clumsy in comparison with those of -
seeds from which every covering has been separated; but in -

this. clumsy state, they are found to keep better than when
cleaned. Nevertheless, when they are to be sown the follow-
ing year, or sent anywhere in a letter, it is better to take them
out of their covering, and render them as clean as possible,
by the use of sieves with holes large enough to- admit the
passage of dust, but not of the seeds. Such sieves on a small

scale every lady may make for herself, by turning up the

edges of a thin circular of pasteboard, and ee.
bottom ‘with ieee alge’ pinch is
determined to separate the seeds from the vessels, instead of
putting the whole up together, the vessels may be dried in
the sun—when many of the seeds will fall out by the expan-
sion of the vessels, and the remainder can be easily rubbed
out. For keeping seeds, a lady should have a small cabinet,
which she might make of pasteboard, with the draws lettered
properly, and the packets of seeds of each | genus placed in
their appropriate drawer... If so much trouble is considered
unnecessary, a large paper bag may be substituted.
_ The period during which seeds will retain their vegetative
powers differs in different familiés, genera, and even species.
Seeds of Ranunculacez and Crucifere, will; in general, pre-
serve their vitality for several years, in whatever manner they
may be kept, provided the situation be not such as will cause

them to germinate. On the other hand, seeds of Capsicum

will keep for several years, if retained in the berry, but will
seldom grow the second year after being removed “from it.
The rule may in general be safely adopted, that all seeds will
keep. three. years, and grow, ‘provided th é in

their unopened seed-vessel; that most wedi veoately rap

B74 Chinese Chrysanthemum.

eee and kept i in a dry place in close paper packets, will grow
second year; and that all seeds whatever, whether kept
in ele? seed-vessel or exposed in. open drawers, will grow the
first year after being gathered. Mignonette seed will keep
seven years; but that of Stocks and Wall Flowers will not
yemain good more than two years, unless kept in the pod.. The
seeds.of Sweet Peas and Lupines will with difficulty keep
two years; while those of Prince’s Feather, and of Poppies,
will.keep several years. Larkspur seed will seldom grow
after the second or third year.. Notwithstanding the length of
time for which some. seeds will keep, it is generally advisable
to.sow them. as soon after they are ripe as practicable, since
a nde alas mearinie. A much sooner than old ones.

Medio o> Wrawers £ eekly 3

— ta ‘CHINESE CHRYSANTHEMUM. i

“The varieties of Chrysanthemum are well known, but not _
ch appreciated as they should be. This is surprising,
Atis considered that they are not only easy.of cultivation,
ut ‘that they form a great addition to the beauties of the flower-
garden i in the latest months of autumn, when every thing else

id withered. The following account of the history.of
Ch ysanthemum, and directions for its oe ago

T ne first ‘known account. of iene Deautifal flowers is given :
theede, in 1678. * peepee popes
of a greenish ash-color, and grew in its —
=e places. A curious Latin: work ee
pres gees ns
: paage ge Pam Page a
ah t, ten of

Chinese. Chrysanthemum. 875

and that they place pots and jars in which it is growing, on
their tables, when they give entertainments. He adds, that
it is esteemed a mark of respect to present the finest flower
to the most honored guest; and, as the extent and value of
the compliment are estimated. by the size of the flower, he
tells us, that in order to produce these large flowers, the Chi-
nese gardeners are obliged to check the growth of the plant,
as, if it is left to itself, it becomes tall and rude, and produces
little else than leaves; but that when it is made dwarfish,
the flowers are abundant. He also tells us, that each branch
usually produces three blossoms, but that the Chinese pinch off
two of these in the bud, which occasions the remaining flower
to increase so much, that it is often broader than a man’s hand;
and that if the same plant be suffered to remain more than
two years in the ground, it degenerates: for which reason,
he continues, the Chinese raise new plants every year.

This history is curious on account of the details respecting
culture, which agree so well with the practices and experience
of modern days, as to.afford another proof of what has so. often
been observed, that. many of what we consider modern im-
| provements, are in fact the revival of ancient knowledge.

The Chrysanthemum is next mentioned by Thunberg,. in
his Flora Japonica ; and he not only describes it in its wild
state, but says that the extreme beauty of its flowers had caus-
ed it to be cultivated in gardens and houses throughout the

‘whole empire of Japan. The first of these plants introduced
into England, was brought from China in 1764, and from that

period until within fifteen years past, all the kinds grown in
British gardens were from the same country. —

The botanical name of the Chinese Chrysanthemum has —

been changed several times. The old botanists who first
“described it, called it Matricaria, ‘supposing it to be a kind of
- ‘wild ‘Chamomile. Linnzeus named it Chrysanthemum Indi-
cum; which was changed by Sabine to C. sinense. W illde-
“now "pnts it the name of Anthemis Artemisiefolia; and De
‘Candolle has removed it to the genus Pirethrum. - i th

The culture of the Chrysanthemum, even at the present

ed strongly resembles what Rumphius tells us of ‘the pi
m the api as it is found that it is ones to dogenerate, if not

376 Mr. Ward's Plant-Cases.

frequently renewed from cuttings, or transplanted. ‘Fhe soil
most suitable for them is a light rich loam, and decayed ma-
nure, in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the
latter. The cuttings should be made in spring, generally in
April, and they will flower the same year. They may be
either grown in pots through the summer, or planted in the
ground, and taken up and potted in September. When grown
in pots, they will require to be shifted two or three times during
their growth ; and by the end of August, they should be finally
shifted into the pots in which they are to flower. They require
at all times during their growth, a good supply of water; and
in the dry weather of summer, when the foliage droops, they
are much benefited by being sprinkled all over with water,
sometimes as often as three times a day in the hottest wea-
ther. In August, those in pots should be watered with soap-
suds or manure-water oncea week, and this should be con-

‘they come into flower, which will be in November.
If planted in the ground, they should have an open situation,
and be allowed sufficient room, so as not to interfere with each
other while growing, and be tied up to sticks as they advance.
In September they should be taken up, with balls of earth at
_ their roots, and placed. in proper sized - pots. They should
then be placed for a time in a shady situation; and removed
into the house before frost. When in flower, give them plenty
of water; and when they have done flowering, cut off the
‘stems to within a few inches of the root, and place them where
the frost will not injure them. An occasional metering. will
be nll she-care they — if the next season.

«4

ee Te Shas . i » ~'
Re saa a

ce MR. WARD'S PLANT-CASES. ¥
ve: Bs us and ingenious plan of growing plants in close
e jlass tubes, was invented some years ago by Mr. |

England. _ We are not aware that this plan has been

pe in operetta y extent in this $ country. ‘At is certainly
Pilea be ‘of great importance, especially as a means.
ng plants fre om one e countty to ae or from

Mr. Ward's Plant-Cases. 817

one place to another in the same country. Without explaining
the chemical principles on which the plan is founded, it will’
be enough to give the following ideas concerning it, and the
method in which it may be most easily practiced. We quote
from Newman's Ferns, and from The Gardener's Magazine.

“The plan depends,” says Mr. Newman, “ primarily and
fundamentally, on protecting the plants from too free commu-
nication with the outer air. This end is obtained by the use
of glass; the light so essential to vegetation being thus freely
admitted. The most ready way to try the experiment, is, to _
procure a glass. vessel—for instance, one of those jars used by
druggists and confectioners; introduce some soft sandstone or
some light soil, filling one-sixth of the jar with it, and taking _
care that the earth is very moist, yet allowing no water to settle
at the bottom of the jar; plant a fern in the earth, and then
cover the jar with its glass lid, first supplying a slip of wash- |
leather round the rim of the jar, which will pretty nearly cut ~
off the communication between the internal and external air.
No farther attention will be required. .The fern will live,
thrive, and probably seed, the seed also vegetating, and at last
the jar will become too small for its contents. No watering is
needed; the moisture in the earth will exhale, condense on ~
the glass, trickle down its sides, and return to the earth whence
it arose.

“There is no limit to the application of this principle. In-
stead of ajar, it is easy to construct, in the window-sill, a box
extending through its entire length, the bottom and sides being
lined with zinc, to prevent the moisture from damaging the
adjoining wood-work; then let the window be a double one,
leaving a space of six or twelve inches between the inner and |
outer glass. The ferns so planted in the box—which should
contain a depth of five br six inches of light sandy earth—will
soon fill up the space between the two windows, supplying the
most beautiful curtain or blind that could be invented. The
plants need not be ferns exclusively. Roses, Fuchsias, &e.
would also thrive; but it must be always borne in mind, that
plants requiring a humid atmosphere, should not be enclosed —
with those which prefer aridity, Of course, the upper sash
alone must be made moveable.”

é

.878 Mr. Ward's Plani-Cases.

i ee 5 SR cc rr a ee ROR ee eee ee
“It is a great advantage of this method,” says the Garden-
-er’s Magazine, “that it may be put in practice by others, as it
was first by Mr. Ward himself, simply by confining a single
-plant in a bottle, as well as by enclosing a greater number
in a more costly apparatus. It may therefore be practiced
to any extent, or adapted to any scale of expense. When
once fitted up, the apparatus, be it either small or large, requires
scarcely any further care or attendance. No fresh watering
or-airing is at any time required; nor is any inconvenience
experienced from dust or litter, which often render the ordinary
mode of keeping plants in well-furnished rooms objectionable
»and troublesome. Further, as the plants in this apparatus are
shut off from all communication with the external air, no appre-
-hension of their injuring the atmosphere, even of close rooms,
n be reasonably entertained. The only condition that claims
Observance; is‘an occasional exposure to light, perhaps for a
* ‘short period only, on days of sunshine, and for a longer one,
when the light is more feeble. |
») “ By means of this plan, the rarest and most delicate plants
_ whave been transported to and from the most distant countries,
_ with little or no trouble in regard to attendance, and scarcely
sany risk of suffering from the inclemency of the weather at’sea.
It has thereby conferred on the botanist and horticulturist
~ benefits which no researches of travellers, however successful,
‘Mor expenditure of money, however great, could have enabled
them otherwise to procure... Instead of simple descriptions or
_ qdried specimens, or fine pictures of foreign plants, they can
_ Mow fix:their eyes on living specimens retaining their fresh-
“ness and beauty, and possessing all their natural and charac-
____ teristic properties. Already have exchanges of plants between
distant countries. been carried on toa great extent; and the
public. conservatories, as well as those of private individuals,
een enriched with specimens of many rare plants, which
arcely have reached them by any other means.”

+ wes ; 4
: ‘ pele ie +5, ae
th aoe he t 2a a ws t= ~
at x : : 25 Pa im a « ‘ £)
“ _ > . . m2 er y <
* . . >

~

Love af Plants. 379

LOVE OF PLANTS.

The following is an extract from a celebrated work, (Ray’s
Flora,) published in 1665.. The truth and excellence of its
sentiments make this extract worth remembering.

‘Fair houses are more frequent than fine gardens; the first
effected by artificers only, the latter requiring more skill in
the owner—few gardens being found well furnished out of the
hands of an affectionate florist. The love of such a master
will keep each tender plant alive his care and skill have col-
lected ; for never was any art or excellence liked or loved by
the ignorant; it is pelt that begets affection, and affec-
tion increaseth knowlédge. — mt was the inventor, and ‘is
still the maintainer of every noble science. It is chiefly that
which hath made my flowers and treés to flourish, though
planted in a barren desert, and ‘hath brought me to the know-
ledge I now have in plants and planting; for indeed it is
impossible for any man to have any considerable collection
of noble plants to prosper, unless he love them; for neither
the goodness of the soil, nor the advantage of the situation,
will do it without the master’s affection: it is that which ani- -
mates and renders them strong and vigorous; without which -
they will languish and ae 2 through neglect, and soon cease

to do him service.

JT have seen many gardens of the new model, in the hands
of unskilful persons, with good walls, walks, and grass plots ;

but in the most essential adornment so deficient, that a green
- meadow is a more delightful object: there nature alone, with- —
out the aid of art, spreads her verdure carpets, spontaneously
embroidered with many pretty plants and pleasing flowers,
far more inviting than such an immured nothing, And as
noble fountains, grottoes, statues, &c. are excellent ornaments
and marks of magnificence, so all such dead works in gardens,
ill done, are little better than blocks in the way to interrupt

380 Love of Plants.

Se OO
sight, but not at all to satisfy the understa.ding. A choice
collection of living beauties—rare plants, flowers, and fruits—
is indeed the wealth, glory, and delight of a garden, and the
most absolute indication of the owner’s ingenuity, whose
skill and care is chiefly required in their choice, culture, - and

position.”

END OF VOL. I.

INDEX.

A Page.

Absorption of Fluid by Leaves......279
Canthace®..caccccncced eeeeece PE |
Acerace®...... erate ayes 0b week
ZEration of Sap... . 2... cave ence 304
Agrostemma..... © tone coca cee @ cece
pms ch ge # eWee senses seemed
mary DOE oe chs abeteedae eceeeece
Anemone wonesece ere eee coeces eres |

Annual Flowers..... pees cece ceeee. 103 | Cel;

An Unlucky Botanist 127
ST Ee eS ieee
April and May Flowers
Aquilegia
Bocryuscon..r- ee
Aquifoliacer......
TACEL.. cee eeeene eeeeee eowe reees
Arctotis.... eerste ce cece weccewoene 1
oe COS 2% Hee ewes ecoece
Aristolochiacer ooee ssa eoecose eres
Asclepiacew....... eevetecse Pe
Asclepias
PAMONOUD. canoe scadiaticcentean 99
Murantiacews.... .veice sevswedeanke

eee ere ceoeeee
eee ere eee wowet* eeestesseoe

teecee © were teoee

eeaweeeetes eves coceve i?

B

ie oc 2 ARP eevee cecesee Sevecadad

Balsamifiu
Bell-Flower ......

4 eweee coon 232
ov Oy Pewee eetodocose cevccce as
ra. we. eee eeeeee eens e eeeeee
Borage. See ee eee 2eeees OF 26 See 30
Bromace#.......-. erevecee sepowennatane
Browallia........... eee ce wecccce . 63
! Buck-thorn Tribe....... eee eecece -273

Cc

Cactacexw SOSSSCOSS SEOHSEB SCS ee seEEe 297
Cactus...... pecans onnececoscoccce nl

Cacao SO CCCe Dose Coes ce ceecee

Caprifoliacer-...... Seeaseee coeene
Caprifolium eeenae SONS eeaeeeene 5d

1) C
ae

362 | C

226 Ceiba

Cc 0 h Hacer... .. pa 210
Cc web eee
Camelliacee....... ome hen

anula. ee eee eeceseseases Be
Tuft ee er wt eereonartesecaecns ot
ejia..... Pere ee cena sees eeeees
Catananche.... eee ece tesecoscoeses
elastracem........... coves ccesankee
ier ode wos cose cone cabeue

ree

Seer ee eves Cee eee Bea secs

Chenopodiacee........ ssc+s+ asee .338
Chatsworth, Visit Dvostice wore cease

Chima: seemee cece errecsee
Chinese : i cowees +t euse Sece
inquefo

eeue ee wecerccccce ee ee eros
Cc eeeeese sennece sswe% seewetOl

Cla ee ka eeie eeece ceesee cece eer
Cc .

WBeccces cecces aSudeceseuenal
Crowfoot...... eeeeeet on ee oaee wens Le
Crucifere eeece ec eeee caene seesowesese lO
Culture of the Dahlia..............316
Cu nlifere...... ee eeee Ceoee teen oe

} Cu ture of Roses. ... econ ee eeee once 204

Cooripe miedentet See eee cone cence *..2193
ry IUD. .... eorece Coes eeee eee
Cosatiacne eevee GBC. ck esc 300
i D
‘Dahlia... O° et beee es cegeerouce ee
Se per Nee 1 pa ee cows sewaeee
e um SF ee ceed COGSSE SE
Death and Fall of Leaves.... coder 8
Developement of Leaves...c0s-s00+339
Dianthus

SOOS COeees © COS CEEE CEOSEO 60
<. «

326 Diapensiacete.... SOOSCSe CHEESE OC SCEE

Dipsacee seuaee covece esee ease asec

882 Index.

I-J Page.

ADCFIS.0-c0r eens SMTA. etaous OR

Dracocephalum...... -.----+- Page 325
Dragon’s-Head...-------+++++-++-- 325
Dream of Wild a
Droserace® ..-.«--- FD ne PE 208
Duck-Weed ....--.-----+-- aS want 189
Durability of Ferns.... er ccecee ones SOL:

E

*JARIMINACEB.. 6 SSS CSS ee oe a
ROR, Sais SS Ee eESs wo ne oe vad 297
ee Sor! RRO t ed ee 9 ie 131
Te > ney oe
fa ly and August Flowers.......... 250
Ebenace®.... wees Gee eeeecee Sores
Boh is cncdesocwetenten
Efibots of Plants on the Air.........191

Embryology -..- eeeecee coeese scuceat2h Lambert, A. Backs seen es C2eeee 00.345

tYACCH .. coe eecces ceoeeece uheuteo Ladies’ Slipper..:.... eeccce reece ce 193
i Trees. eewerocecsose on dhaseeOnl Larkspur eeee ce ewes eowmeecos owes 162
TEE DO ira ewig a i-awamienits spe 932
Layers, Propagation by.-.......... 268
Leaves, Absorption by.......--..-. 279
- “ Developement of...... .. 2.335
Leguminose....., 2. 020-0020 02 2 20278
Lentibulacee eeee wees een eee te caute te
Lichens ......-...- eee cove eevee eecee 94
Liliacew.

oo Oe ee ee mw ee ee me weececes --362

Limnanthes .. Se ee SO SE EEEe OH CORE Be 62

biuM. cece ee ee ee ll
ie ve w.. % saar RET ween as
Primrose...- eeeree weer eeee

ming Primrose Tribe........-. -296

a <7

= deewens weecese bees eecees oe 11 Linacee wees oe ee os oe ee seseoces 2-21]
owering, and its on sede 180 | Linden. Tribe... . 2-4. e0eee see 0s 234
Flowerless. Plants.........--.--+-- BiB fF Lobelia . 2+... <00s Kccssccodecsepe

Fossil Botany..... esees odie 21, 49, 122
a. G

IBeces eee oo ee vere weee eee oe 194

Lobeliacee. .. .. 2... 2. cecen ence coendee
Longevity of Trees... ...-+...-s00. 95
BOO +5 60 ts f SWades ween de ecBOe

adder Tribesence es ec ceese ee eases - «326
oliacew...... eer2e eeoee Ket bite
M cew® <* thas eeteecvecce oo ee ee ceeees 2al
mle Tribe. AP DA Ae SIO DOS AP OLAS QOS: i

e oe oe oe eee eee Oo ceeaee

ss che neared co cece econ ae of Peru..... Seowesececseoese

is Propagate chan nk *9 Mathiole

-U BB+ oe entree nese cocee ae Po, 53 |
OS nwwe woes ween eees Seee ‘oe
mM. wehecceeetooce oe Cece cece >
Etec ce os oe mane e es eres ee
Bice “ee aseeas + eeee cece ence

( Sed eetest ee eee eee C2eeee

tel) ere ee oo 2% eeecece seep eee teow secees ee

Menpernace mea iaeapeemierist | .

Michauxia......<...0< ccsces senses

Suid POD ices ened eawe coee oorees

J Nut... mace woce ce seccen

- 226
= ty of the ‘Mistletoe... cone 22-814
ARS gran . =

.. eee ? ss = in or

t Tribe... come sone eres 2+ 202-329

1: oe weceteceene cane o-

Mi wren egy hen AC a 4
Cans ce ewen cor wces cues

M , Growth Ofscsaxs< aM
quaeiaaiec See cccs seeeeestoaceses

307

eee of Plants.... eee eee eons

oocacsvasiecenss woe odeeu's coe
*

FRREUE Ss cs wwccudedanee
sate 9 of Botany—

= ee eeee 22eeee ee 11

a ootie eetenes se ee cecaseee 53

7 eee PA eseeeecaseeeren
Siok e2eee8 en 2eeene
Wisin ee RTP SLOP OAL,

7 on ain oh nap ase
sat ste aN

Index.

383

Natural S ie of Botany—
Nu er 6

seeeee ceoeees ceonaet “078

Nicotiana .........2< ple da ope be, Oe
Nolana...... eee eee teen ea eat ee ee eeee 66
Nomenclature... .ce.s0ssosescnccss tio
Nyctaginace®.... .-sscsassss-- ace

0

CEnothera.... eeeees Free Peete ay 0]
pee 5 he we pans yeceece oo soul
NELTACOD ~ccerneen races eeeeveeceanes
POTOSS OF SF Se Oot eans oe 3D
Orchidace®. 22. see s-seeee e002 202230]
Orobanchacew.... SJeeceserseeeeese 2.300
Oxalis.... SSSOSS SESR KH ceeaees? Siuese tue

P

Painted Ne eee eee eo er entioe «02-65, 96
‘Paper Re

Pa
P.

yrus . oe sv seee ete aeertae eet ecounees 7
P#onia...... adoerteceose eevee sowedbeor
Palme.... eee ee een Seeeeeeurawreee
Papaverace® .... ~-+--+-- cerwce see 173
Passifloracese ......0 ses eoe eee nes 290
Paulownia Imperialis
Pedaliacee . ereee oe eae ease wore «<8 <800
Pea Trthe .« ewees eevee ee eeteeesee 273
Peony eecaere eee eee weoee erenecoee eee
Persian Bell-Flower .....---- Jaewwceat |-
Petaloider...... . seeeee" cares ace ce
Pettrnia...... O88 CESS COS HEHHSO FERS
Philosophy of Blanching....... 000. 284

% Phytolaccacew eeeee een eeee ceusce «. 302
Pink ener ere Cee eee eeeee eeeee vasu0, 169
Pink Tribe... bed riaeetaaleree

eecewaee sere ee

Polemoniace® .......20+ ccccvecces
‘Bottling cane twocateces saueee

0 SC Gee CEOS BEe CEBESZ LE
Primal

Bw wcace CO OSES CHES OHSe SSS eee 4

Pe Coe eee SHERSO CHEBSE

Primulacee ..
Prolonged Vitality of Seeds..... ---
Propagatio

89
n by Layers and Grafts.. .268

343 | Sundew Tri

oR

Rafnia...... debs 6 Cte Tega eee Ps
Ranunculaces®...... 2.0. eee ee ose Lie
Rantiicudlussss 6 cesses ccdecevgunn dS
Reproduction.........+-....--- - --364
Reviving Plants......... Pioswh gout 283
Rhammacer........-.6- ia degcawouee 273
Rosacere Seeeec eee eee ee eeeenese isseeeeee
Rose C TOU Wes ewes sea va deve cone
Roses, Cc ture Oinisees weeercce eee
Rock-Rose Tribe.... et eee ees ee ee 2.
Raub;

IACERewswee eeeveetesea care woose

Ss
Pos ier wecane coes voce cease enocs LGD

ICACECR .ccces eeree page =" eenees coer

Salvia...... wesc ceoeces secee cone ee 199
Santalacesw ...... Pees Cane eeeeeenee
Saururacee. sea eens eeee weeoterecease

Saxifraga.....ce-ecenens coceee cones
Saxifragacez..... J vee s sGUUEE Van oF 301
Scrophulariace®e.....-- eeceeesseeee 330
Sea-weeds
Sheep-Scabious..---. © eees eves oe --290 |
CNCecee SESS CO CHS SHEHDESOEESO bderen’ >,

Silk-wee eee cot cerns s tenes cose e oe

26 | Silk-cotton ‘Trib@s.-.--.-secece sees
, 26 Sik sotton GEOG t eee ae

Sorrel SCOPE COT OES COP OETSESEEST ERED

Pa sok eal eecece eeecoces ones ne
ring eau Lees atts pte! hades abn be 72 =
fe ~tree Tribe

Stock......---. weee cece Cos wes osee

Devesas- eeewes severe

Sweet Pea... SSPE SOSH CAS GOSS eeee
. _ ‘ T

Tea ope secc coca cove ewenocess son cee is
Teasel Gnas Conve a bees ones Sane

Thunbergia.... ecee Cones 2888s tenee 68
Thymelacem...... eee @eeetoeoeea ier; ~ 9)
Tihacew...... Sees Cee eeese eeeeteeaee

Tobacco SOC See SSS S SH SH FTEBDASEEE SESE 134
Tradescantia... weeertseeeaetioe eeeoee 57
Trollius.... SSOSe Ce eee SOS CHS BH SHES

Trop eolum.... eace ee ereaeeee Pe nay bs |
Tropical Vegetation. ......... 2-2. -.205
Trumpet-Flower. steer eee eaee anes eanee 31

U-V

99 Ulmacer wows owe cocere: tence coca 2

Umbellifere...... Pees Sts cee se 28 eee
Urticacer...... eaenar ee cecere eoee
Valerianacee...: ee oc oneee Sere ;
ton of a Phgaiol oceeceawere
table iology—
Sencher 1 cau SF he 17

“

ar

eeeees eceoee onae eave

384 | Index.

Vegetable Physiology— Violet ce sewed caccs one cccsupeiecd?
Number 3...-. suscues bocecese GOLF VIDOl EBON cane ccccs ccdcwbien Ol

si 4 Peaeorteee* eeeeeerte ee 1
“ Beccccccese eorese o0--145 Ww
Se seeees eves eneeee ecee 0

“4 Tidak sess wes gs dpe Ward's Plant CaO oe ove @eeeccee .376
be 8 eecee ec eeeeee eeeees «304 Watering eee eee 2 OF C8 OOSE MOSS ees oe 293
& 9. oe cane cceece seeeeeda0 | Wild Flowers, a Dream of......... 287
“ 16... ee eeee ee teetaeeate 364 Wild Flowers in June eerteet ee eceeecen ee 185
Verbascum...... SEE Willow Herb... @eeeneen ee eae eee eecee 29
Verbenacem.. .... .. 2.22. +++ 222-300 | Wind Flower...........- Petre Vere 321
Vine Tribe.... eeee ee eetee ee ee ee 2.237 Window Gardening... ert eeeeeeoeeee .159
Violacer...... eeeeece 60008 <celneeeOt Woodbine... Seeeeese*t ee eeee eteerteeeee 55
MG eds wxcatsues eene EERE Say iy / Wood HONE] wceswececes eeeee ars |

Vegetable Physiology. 366

thers, or receptacles of pollen, which evidently correspond
with the capsules or spore-cases of the Cryptogamia, burst
when their contents are mature, and scatter the grains. They
have various ways of opening ; sometimes’ they split along
their length, as in the Lily; sometimes transversely, as in the
Duckweed ; sometimes by little pores at their extremity, asin
the Potato; and sometimes by valves, as in the Barberry.
These different methods of opening are characteristic of differ-
. ent tribes of plants.

The ovarium, or seed vessel, is the part in which are formed
the young seeds or ovules, and occupies the centre of. the flower.
Sometimes this part consists of several evident divisions, and
in other cases these are united together more or less closely.
If the ovarium be cut into previously to the opening of the
flower, it will usually be found to contain a great number of
the ovules.: They are at this period quite soft ; and their inte-
rior is filled up with a kind of pulp, which is enclosed in two
or more envelopes. ‘These envelopes or seed-coats do not en-
tirely cover the central part of the ovule, but leave a small

opening, which is called the foramen. This opening may be
~ easily detected in the perfect ‘seed, (although it has then nearly
closed up,) by soaking itin water, and then pressing out the
fluid that has been absorbed, which will be seen ote from
this little orifice! The foramen has.a very important purpose
in the fertilization of the seed, which, at the period now des-
cribed, contains no trace of the germ of the new plant.

_ This germ appears to be conveyed into it from the pollen in
the following curious manner. The little pollen-grains, or
cells, when set free from the anthers, fall upon thé stigma of
the‘ pistil. In general the anthers are situated above the stig-
ma ; the stamens being longer than the pistil in erect or upright
flowers, and. shorter in those which hang down ; but sometimes
a special provision is necessary for the conveyance: of the pol- _
len to the stigma, especially in moncecious and dicecious plants.
This operation is often accomplished by insects, which in
from flower to, flower in search of honey, cover their bodies
with pollen-dust, and rub it against the pistils of other flowers.
When the 2s sa on the stigma, it is Bi by a glu-