JOHNA.SEAVERNS

^ - -^

^?

V -^

O^fc^ Z.^lSocc^

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

POINTS OF THE HORSE. A familiar treatise on Equine
Conformation. Second Edition, Profusedly illustrated by J. H. Oswald
Brown and by photographs. {Ready early in 1896.

The Times. — "A writer of established authority on all matters connected with the
horse."

VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE OWNERS.

A Popular Manual of Veterinary Surgery and Medicine. Illustrated.
Fifth Edition. [Ready Jamiary, 1896.

The Field. — " Of the many popular veterinary books which have come under our notice,
this is certainly one of the most scientific and reliable."

RIDING ON THE FLAT AND ACROSS COUNTRY.

A Guide to Practical Horsemanship. Illustrated. Third Edition.
los. 6d.
The Statidai-d. — " A master of his subject."

TRAINING AND HORSE MANAGEMENT IN
INDIA. Fifth Edition, ^s. 6d.

Saturday Review. — "A useful guide in regard to horses anywhere. Concise, practical,
and portable."

THE HORSEWOMAN. A Practical Guide to Side-Saddle
Riding. By Mrs. Hayes. Edited by Captain Hayes. Illustrated
by J. H. Oswald Brown, ioj. 6d.

Saturday Rerneiv. — " With a very strong recommendation of this book as far and a\\ay
the best guide to side-saddle riding that we have seen."

MODERN POLO. h. Practical Guide to the Science of
Polo ; Selection, Training, and Management of Polo Ponies ; Polo in
India; Hurlingham, Indian and American Polo Rules; Description
of Ponies in various parts of the world suitable for Polo, etc. Profusely
illustrated by photographs specially taken to illustrate the phases of
the Game. By E. D. Miller. Edited by \\. H. Hayes. \2s. 6d.

ILLUSTRATED HORSE BREAKING.

TROTTING OFF TO COVERT.

ILLUSTRATE

HORSE BREAKING

BY

M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S.,

LATE CAPTAIN ''THE BUFFS,"

AUTHOR OF "points OF THE HORSE," "VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE OWNERS,
" RIDING ON THE FLAT AND ACROSS COUNTRY," ETC.

Illustrated by
J. H. OSWALD BROWN,

AND BY PHOTOGRAPHS SPECIALLY TAKEN.

?tfOttb €bxtion (Bc-fcrittnt anb (Sreutiu (gulargcb).

LONDON:

HURST AND BLACKETT, LIMITED,

13, GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET.

To
/IftS 5)ear Mite,

WHO HAS BEEN MY BEST HELPER AND SOUNDEST

ADVISER WHEN I HAVE BEEN BREAKING HORSES

IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD.

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

Three years' horse-dealing in India, a horse-breaking
tour through South Africa, a study of high-school riding
in Paris and Berlin, and two seasons' hunting in Leicester-
shire taught me so many new things about horses, since
writing the first edition, that the present one is practically
a new book. Its letterpress is more than twice as much
as that of its predecessor ; the arrangement of the material
has been entirely changed ; and 75 new illustrations
(reproductions from photographs) have been added to
49 old ones. I have given greatly increased prominence
to mounted work for the breaking in of horses ; and have
added a description of the most modern developments of
school breaking, for further information on which subject
I would beg to refer my readers to the writings of Fillis
and Barroil.

While writing for practical men, I have kept in view the
fact that by working on the principles of equine psychology
and equine locomotion, we can make horse-breaking a
science as well as an art.

I have been obliged to say so much about w^ork in the
saddle that this second edition trenches to a large extent

xii PREFACE.

on what I had supposed to be t?ie special province of the
subject of my book, Riding on the Flat and Across Cotintry.
Riper experience shows me that breaking and riding should
be studied conjointly ; for we cannot break in a horse
properly to saddle unless we know how to ride him ; nor
can we ride him to the best advantage unless we know how
he has been broken in. Therefore, instead of writing these
two works separately, I ought to have brought out one book
of two volumes on their respective subjects. Although
it is too late now to make the alteration ; I shall bear this
fact in mind, when, at som.e future time, I shall have to
write a new edition of Riding on the Flat and Across
Cojintry ; and shall avoid a good deal of repetition by
being able to refer to Illustrated Horse-Breaking.

I may mention that Messrs. Champion and Wilton,
457, Oxford Street, W., keep patterns of the breaking
gear I use.

All the photographs in this book have been done either
by my wife or by myself

The sad and untimely death of Mr. J. H. Oswald Brown
has deprived me, when preparing this edition, of the in-
valuable help of a friend to whom I owe the greater part
of the success attained by the books which he illustrated
for me.

Melton Mowbray,
November^ 1^9 5-

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

I OFFER this work to the favourable consideration of the public, as an
attempt to describe a reasoned-out system of horse-breaking, which I
have found, by practical experience, to be easy of execution, rapid in
its effects, and requiring the possession of no exceptional strength,
activity, pluck, or horsemanship by the operator, who, to become
expert in it, will, as a rule, need only practice. It is in accordance
with our English and Irish ideas on the subject ; for it aims at teach-
ing the horse " manners," and giving him a snaffle-bridle mouth ; so
that he will "go up to the bridle," and "bend" himself in thorough
obedience to rein and leg.

As a personal explanation, I may mention that after having spent
many years racing and training in India, during which time I prac-
tised the ordinary methods of breaking, I returned to England, where
I learned the use of the standing martingale and long driving reins, as
applied specially to jumpers, from Mr. John Hubert Moore, who was
the cleverest "maker" of steeplechasers Ireland ever knew. He, I
may remark, obtained these methods, in his youth, from an old Irish
breaker, named Fallon, who was born more than a century ago. I
had also valuable instruction in " horse taming " from Professor
Sample. Having read an account of MjM. Raabe and Lunel's hippo-
lasso^ as a means of control for veterinary operations, I conceived,
with happy results, the idea of utilising this ingenious contrivance in

xiv PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

breaking, I also learned, about the same time, how to halter a loose
horse without running any danger of being kicked, or bitten.

Having thus acquired a fair amount of information, on what has
always been to me a favourite subject, I naturally wished to put it into
practice.

As I knew, judging from my former ignorance, how much men m
India stood in need of instruction in horse-breaking, I determined to
return to that country with the object of teaching this art ; so as
to acquire the experience I needed, and to " pay my expenses " at
the same time. I am glad to say that I was successful in both
respects. During a two years' tour, I held classes in all the principal
stations of the Empire — from Trichinopoly to Peshawur, and from
Ouetta to Mandalay — and, having met a very large number of vicious
animals and fine horsemen, I obtained experience, and greatly added
to my stock of knowledge, which I shall now try to utilise for the
benefit of my readers. As I proceeded through India, I felt the neces-
sity of rejecting some methods I had formerly prized, altering others,
and adopting new ones ; so that the course of instruction which I was
able to give to my more recent classes, was far more extensive, and of
better proved utility, than what I had to offer at the beginning of my
travels. The great want which I had at first felt, was a method by
which a person could secure and handle, with perfect safety, any horse,
no matter how vicious he might be. However, after many kicks, a
few bites, and several lucky escapes, I was able to perfect the required
method, which is so simple, that the only wonder is that I did not
think of it before. I may explain that the Australian horses met with
in India, where they form a considerable proportion of the animals
used for riding and driving, are far more dangerous and difficult to
handle and control, than British stock. Had I remained in England
all my life, I should not have acquired a quarter of the experience of
vicious horses 1 was afforded, during the time I lately spent in India.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION, xv

It goes almost without saying, that the more difficult the pupil is to
teach, the greater chance has the instructor of becoming expert in his
business. I need hardly say, that I shall always be very grateful to
any of my readers who may favour me with special information on
this, or kindred subjects.

I may mention, that, after returning from India, I held classes in
England, Gibraltar, Malta, Egypt, Ceylon, Singapore, and China.

I have much pleasure in giving, in the body of this work, the sources
from which I have taken various hints.

The chief claim I, here, make to originality, is, that in bringing
together the results of experience in different countries, I have endea-
voured to reduce the art of breaking horses to a more or less complete
system, many of the principles of which, I venture to think, I have
been the first to expound, and that I have made several improvements
in existing methods. The new things which I have introduced need
no special mention here.

My best thanks are due to ]\Ir. J. H, Oswald Brown, for the faithful
and painstaking manner in which he has illustrated the letter-press of
this book. The drawings speak for themselves.

Junior Army and Navy Club,

St. James's Street^ London, S.W.
October I, i88q.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
Mental Qualities of the Horse.

PAGE

Mind — Consciousness, ideas, memory, habit, and instinct — Intelligence

and reason- —Special instincts and senses — Vice . . - i -32

CHAPTER n.

Theory of Horse-Control.

Objects and scope of liorse-breaking — Requirements in the breaker — De-
sirability of early training — Gaining the horse's attention — Accustom-
ing a horse to his surroundings — Making a horse understand our
orders — Punishment and reward — Effect of the voice — Emulation and
imitation —Fatigue — Necessity for enacting implicit obedience from
the horse — Safety in breaking — Rapid methods of breaking — On the
possibility of overcoming any form of vice — Personal influence in
breaking — Advisability of possessing various methods of breaking —
Selection of breaking methods — Permanency in the effect of breaking
— Summary of the principle of making horses docile . , 33-63

CHAPTER III.

Theory of Mouthing.

"Mouth" and "aids" — Respective action of the aids — S uitability of the
horse to the application of the aids — Making a horse obey the aids —
Combined action of fore and hind legs, and distribution of weight on
them — Carriage and action of the head and neck of the horse when he
is in motion — ' ' Collecting " the horse — Requirements of a good
mouth — Combined action of the aids in forming the mouth — Respective
action of the snaffle and curb — Direction of the pull of the reins —
Turning, circling and lunging the horse — Reining back — The standing
martingale — Bearing rein>5, running reins, side reins, and nosebands —
"Tying horses up," "reining," dumb jockeys, and the pillars 64-103

b

xviii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.
Methods of Horse Control.

PAGE

The breaking enclosure — Gentling the horse — Holding and leading a com-
paratively quiet horse — Making a rope halter — Haltering a loose
horse — Teaching a loose horse to come up and to follow — Lifting up
a fore leg — Holding up a fore leg — Tying up a fore leg — Blindfolding
a horse — The halter-twitch — The rope-twitch — The noose-twitch —
The headstall-twitch — The bridle- twitch — The Indian war bridle —
The Comanche bridle — The Cavesson — The strait-jacket — Lifting
up a hind leg — Improvised hobble — The wooden gag — Making a horse
lie down and keeping him on the ground — Major Woods' method of
throwing horses — Throwing a horse with the strait-jacket — The head
and tail method — Rareyfying a horse — Sample's horse- taming
machine — South African method of breaking . . . 104-177

CHAPTER V.

Breaking on Foot.

Catching a horse and making him quiet to handle — Mouthing a horse with
the long reins on foot — Teaching a horse to turn on his forehand —
Teaching a horse to lead ....... 178-216

CHAPTER VL

Ordinary Mounted Breaking.

General remarks — Mounting a horse for the first time — Turning a horse
on the forehand at the halt when mounted — Reining back — The walk
— The trot — Turning a horse duriog movement — Teaching a horse to
carry his rider in a collected and well-balanced manner — The canter
— The halt — Whip and spurs — Time required for ordinary breaking to
saddle 217-253

CHAPTER VIL

Teaching Horses to Jump.

General instruction — Jumping faults — The hunter — The chaser — The
hurdle racer — The show jumper — Time required to teach a horse to
jump 254-273

CONTENTS. xix

CHAPTER VIII.

PAGE

Breaking to Harness 274-279

CHAPTER IX.

School Breaking.
General remarks on school breaking — The school horse — Collecting the
horse at the halt — Collecting the horse at the walk and trot — Teaching
the horse to strike off correctly into the canter — Changing the leg at
the canter — Figure of eight at the canter — Cantering falsely — Turn on
the fore-hand — Turn on the hind-quarters — The passage — The passage
with head to wall — The passage with tail to wall — Change of hand
by the passage — Counterchange of hand by the passage — Circling at
the passage — The halt — Change from one pace to another — Shoulder
in — Course of school instruction —Additional school movements —
Extension of a fore leg — The Spanish walk — The Spanish trot — Turn
on the fore-hand on three legs — The canter on three legs — Changes of
leg at the canter — A circus high-school act . . . 280-311

CHAPTER X.

' ■ Breaking for Special Work.

The race horse — The lady's horse — The cavalry horse — The polo pony —
The park hack — The fashionable harness horse — The shooting pony
— Mules and zebras . ....... 312-322

CHAPTER XI.

Faults of Mouth.

Boring — Pulling and running away — Throwing up the head and star-
gazing— Jibbing — Rearing — Shying — Running out to one side and
difficult to turn — "Keeping behind the bit," prancing, and
"breaking" when wanted to walk or trot — Teaching pacers (amblers)
to trot — Carrying the hind-quarters, in the canter or gallop, outside
the line of progression, and refusing to lead except with a particular
fore leg — " Putting too much weight on the fore-hand " when mounted
— Plunging forward when starting in harness — Pulling away from and
hanging against the pole when in double harness . . 323-344

XX CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XII.

Faults of Temper.

PAGE

Difficult to catch — Difficult to handle, bridle, saddle, mount, or dismount
from — Difficult to ball or drench — Unsteady with the whip, under
fire, when drawing swords, when touched with the heel, etc. — Difficult
to lead in*:o a doorway, horse-box, etc. — Difficult to shoe — Buck-
jumping — Biting and savaging — Kicking and striking out in front —
Pawing at night — Pawing back the litter — Rubbing the tail — Sleeping
standing — Difficult to harness and unharness — Getting the tail over
the rein and kicking when in harness — Lying down in harness —
Hanging back in the stall ...... 34S-364

CHAPTER Xlir.

Circus Tricks.

General remarks — ' ' Begging " — Bowing and shaking the head — Circling
steadily at liberty — Teaching a horse to follow — Handkerchief work
— Jumping over another horse, etc. — Kicking — Kissing — Kneel-
ing down — Laughing — Liberty work — Limping — Lying down —
Obeying without reins — Polka, dancing the — Pushing a man out of
the ring — Rearing and walking on the hind legs — See sawing on a
plank, etc. — Shaking hands — Waltzing .... 365-374

Tni^ex 375

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

F[G.

I.-

3-

4.

5-
6.

7-
8.

9-
10.
II.
12,

13.

14.

15.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.

21.

22.

23-—
24.

-Horse running out at a fence (A B) on account of

REFUSING to BRING HIS HIND-QUARTERS ROUND IN ANSWER
TO THE PULL OF THE REINS ; ALTHOUGH HE BENDS HIS
NECK TO IT .

-Horse going straight at his fence (A B), on account of
having answered the pull of the reins with his
hind-quarters as well as with his forehand
-Trotting
-Cantering .
-Walking at ease
-Collected walk .
-Reining-back
- DO. do.

-Maximum length for a standing martingale
-Front view of leather-covered, unjointed snaffle
-Leather-covered, unjointed snaffle, in horse's mouth
-Jumping with standing martingale .
-Holding horse .....

do. do

do. do

DO. DO. . . .

-First loop in making a rope-halter

-Rope-halter completed

-Rope-halter ready to put on .

-Rope-halter with knot to prevent it pinching

horse's jaws

-Rope-halter, put on pole to halter horse
-Haltering loose horse ....

DO. DO. ....

Rope-halter on horse ....

THE

Page

71

73
77
78

79

81

94
95
97
99
99

lOI

106
107
107
108
109
109
no

III
112

113
114

"5

xxu

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.
2;.—

26.-
27--

28.-

29.-
30--

3I--
32.-
ZZ'-
34.-
35.-
36.-
Z1--
38.-

39--
40.-

41.-
42.-

43--
44.-

45--
46.-

47.-
48.-
49.-
50.-
51.-
52.-
53.-
54.-
55--
56.-

57.-
58.-

59.-
60.-

LEG
SE

Pratt's method of putting halter on pole to halter

HORSE ......

-Noosing horse's fore leg .

--Pulling up horse's fore leg with rope

-Tying up horse's fore leg with rope

-Lifting up a fore leg

-Wrong way of holding up horse's fore leg

-Proper way to hold up unshod horse's fore

-Proper way to hold up fore leg of shod ho

-Rarey's leg-strap .....

-A stirrup-leather utilised for tying up a fore leg

-Tying up fore leg with stirrup-leather

-Suspending horse's fore leg to surcingle

-Halter-twitch .

-Halter-twitch applied

DO. DO.

-Noose which will not *' run "

-Pratt's twitch, first portion

-Pratt's twitch, completed

-Pratt's twitch on horse's head

-Noose-twitch

-Head-stall twitch on horse

-Bridle-twitch, front and near-side view

do do off-side view
-Indian war bridle

do. do.

-First part of Comanche bridle
■Comanche bridle, off side
Comanche bridle, near side
-Strait-jacket

■Horse with strait-jacket on
■Lifting up horse's hind leg

do. do,

do. do.

Holding up horse's hind leg

First step in lifting up hind leg without assistance
Second step in lpfting up hind leg .

Page

116
118
119
120
121
122
122

123

124

126

127
129
130

131

132

133
134
135
135
136

137
138

139
140
140
141
142
144

145
146

147
148
149

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

XXlll

Fig.

6i. — Third step in lifting up hind leg

62. — Hobble

63.— Holding up horse's hind leg .
64.— Gentling horse's hind leg
65, — Double sheet bend on horse's tail
66. — Pulling up horse's hind leg
67. — Hind leg pulled up with one rope on tail
68. — Method of fastening a rope to a short tail
69. — Rope attached to short tail .
70.— Hobble improvised with stirrup-leather and iron
71. — Wooden gag ....
72. — Horse ready to be made lie down
73. — Horse on ground
74. — Making horse lie down
75. — Horse on ground with head pulled round
76, — Holding horse down on ground
77. — Horse tied head and tail.
78. — Horse tied down on ground
79 — Side view of bearing-rein .
80. — Front view of bearing-rein
81. — Horse with bearing-rein .
82. — Front view of driving-pad
83.— Side view of driving-pad .
84. — Wooden driving-pad .
85. — Driving-pad, crupper, and rein

86. — Driving horse on foot with reins through stirrup
IRONS ....

87. — Rein under cantle of saddle

88. — Circling horse on foot to the right

89. — Circling horse on foot to the left

90. — Position from which to circle horse (to left, for

instance)

91. — Outward rein on driving-pad ....

92. — Turning horse with rein on driving-pad

93. — Removing head-stall without displacing bridle

94. — Driving horse with running reins through stirrui

irons

bearers on horse

reins through ST

Page

151
152

152
153
154
155
156

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164
167

171

i8r

184

185

IS6

187

188
189

190
190

191

192

194

195
197

205

207

XXIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.
95.

96.

97-
98.

99.—

100.

lOI.

102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.

108.
109. —
no.—

III.—

112.-

113-

114.

115.
116.
117.
118.
119.

120.

121.
122.
123.
124.

CHEST

Making horse, on foot, turn on his forehand to left
with whip .......

Crupper leading-rein

Knot in crupper leading-rein

Teaching horse to "come up" by tapping him on
with whip .......

Off rein passed through near ring of snaffle for
leading horse .....

Horse mounted for first time

Horse ready to be mounted for first time

Mounting horse for first time

BUCKJUMPING saddle .....
DO. do. .....

Rein and whip in each hand

■Rein and whip in hand ....

Teaching the horse to turn to the right on hi

forehand by the whip

Leg drawn back in turning horse .
■Cantering with near fore leading
Period of canter or gallop when weight of

and rider is borne by leading fore leg .
Leicestershire cut and laid hedge
Teaching horse to jump with long reins

do. do.

•Boots for protecting horse's legs when jumping

DO. do.

-Driving horse in harness on foot

-A JINGLE ......

-Passage to the right

do do.

-Cantering with near fore leading
-The Spanish walk ....
■The mountain zebra ....
-Pulling kicker's head round .
■Tail tied with tape to prevent horse rubbing it

HORSi

Page

209
212
213

216
219
221
222
226
227
228
230

231

233

243

247
258

259
261
264
265

275
277

29s
296
301

309
322

358
^60

ILLUSTRATED HORSE-BREAKING.

CHAPTER I.

MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

Mind — Consciousness, ideas, memory, habit, and instinct — Intelli-
gence and reason— Special instincts and senses — Vice.

Mind. — An animal is distinguished from a vegetable by,
among other things, the possession of a nervous system,
the development of which appears to regulate that of the
mental capacity of the individual. In the lowest grades of
animal life, the nervous matter, instead of having a definite
form, is diffused generally throughout the body, which, in
this case, is gifted only with the power of contracting on
being touched and of absorbing nourishment from its
surroundings. In the next few upward steps, we find the
nerves arranged in a system of conducting nerves and
nerve centres by which the animal can receive and com-
bine impressions from without, and can transmit to its
muscles the stimulus for the movements which are neces-
sary to its welfare. By the nerves on the surface of the
body becoming modified by use, the senses of sight,
hearing, taste, and smell were gradually established.

B

2 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

Advance in nervous development is brought about chiefly
by the principles that use strengthens a function ; that
offspring more or less resembles the parent or parents,
according as there has been, respectively, one or two
engaged in its reproduction ; and that those beings which
are best fitted to their surroundings, are the most likely
to survive in the struggle for existence. Thus, as w^e
ascend the scale of life, we find that the nervous system,
in becoming developed, endows the animal with many
faculties. Consciousness, memory, and instincts appear
early ; but the power of drawing conclusions latest of all.
As all these faculties, instinctive as well as intellectual, are,
as far as we can find out, manifestations of the nervous
system, it may not be unreasonable to regard what is called
mind and the nervous system as one and the same thing.
Degree of development seems to be the only difference
between the mind of man and that of brutes.

Consciousness, ideas, memory, habit, and instinct. —
Many of the actions of animals are performed in direct
response to stimuli applied to sensory nerves (those of
feeling, seeing, hearing, tasting, and smelling), as, for in-
stance, when we draw our hand back in the event of one
of our fingers being accidentally pricked, or when we
blink our eyes on some unexpected object suddenly
approaching them. These automatic movements may be
comparatively simple, such as the two 1 have just cited ;
or complex, as when the touch, smell, and no doubt sight,
of its dam's teat stimulate the newly-dropped foal to suck,
or when a sleeping man brushes off a fly which is irritating

CONS CIO US NESS.

the nerves of the skin of his face. As consciousness plays
no part in automatic actions, we may infer that if the
actions of any animal were wholly automatic, such animal
would be devoid of consciousness ; in fact, it would be an
unconscious automaton. We know from observation that
in all the higher animals, actions which at first were
automatic, become in many cases largely modified by
consciousness, by which impressions of past nervous stimuli
produce a more or less lasting impression on the brain
(or mind). I may point out that ideas are the effects
left on the mind by impressions. By being conscious, an
animal associates in its mind the idea of pleasure or pain
with past impressions ; and, consequently, in the future
seeks after impressions which it has learned by experience
to be pleasurable, and tries to avoid those which are
painful. For example, we may daily note that the young
of the higher animals, from experience, gradually increase
their ability to obtain and select their food, and to save
themselves from their enemies. We see in ourselves how
greatly experience in boxing and fencing perfects the
automatic movements which are necessary to guard us
from hurt by fist or sword-point. The necessary retention
of ideas (or nieuwry) appears to be due to a modification of
the brain substance by which an impression of an original
idea is produced by means of another idea that has been
associated with it. Professor Lloyd Morgan aptly com-
pares this modification of brain substance to that under-
gone by a used phonograph, the cylinder of which has
become indented in such a way by the voice, that it is
capable of reproducing similar wave-sounds at a subsequent

B 2

MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

time. Ideas, we must remember, are no more retained
in the mind than are sounds in the phonograph. Habits
are thus formed in the individual, and by the principle
of heredity are transmitted to the offspring as instincts.
We may define an instinct as a habit which has become
hereditary and automatic, and which can consequently
be exercised without teaching, imitation, or experience.
Or we might regard instinct, in its collective sense, as
hereditary memory. Granting, as we can scarcely help
doing, the truth of the principle of evolution, we must
admit the existence of mental progress by means of
consciousness and association of ideas among the lowest
forms of animal life, if we prove it, as we can amply do,
among the higher animals.

While giving full weight to the respective influences
of the principle of the survival of the fittest, and that
of selection, I think w^e must admit that instinct may
become greatly modified through generations by the in-
fluence of the association of ideas. Thus, there have been
frequent instances of the wild birds of recently-discovered
islands evincing extremely little fear of man on his first
appearance ; although they gradually acquired it as an
instinct under new influences later on. The Samoan
tooth-billed pigeon, which, before that island was brought
under the influence of Western civilisation, used to sleep
and breed on or close to the ground, has, by the presence
of its imported enemies, acquired the habit of taking
refuge in trees, in which it now possesses the instinct of
roosting and building its nest. The fear of man, which
we have made instinctive in many animals, may by disuse

HABIT. 5

be rendered so slight as not to merit the title of an instinct,
as we may see by the difference in tameness between the
young of our domestic animals and the offspring of their
respective wild representatives of common ancestry. The
influence of use and selection on instinct gives us, in the
dog, members of the same species with such widely differ-
ing instincts as those of the foxhound, greyhound, pointer,
collie, and retriever, for example. The progeny of wild
horses, taken up young and reared under civilised con-
ditions, are far more difficult to break in and render far
less willing^and less intelligent service than the offspring
of horses which have been bred for many generations in
close companionship with man. The semi-wild ponies of
the Himalayas (Spiti, for instance) being constantly ex-
posed when grazing to injury from falling snow, ice, stones,
&c,, and to the attacks of wild beasts, exhibit such extreme
watchfulness against danger, that, even in safe places,
they shy at the slightest provocation in a manner which
is highly unpleasant to the rider. This instinctive shying,
apart from fulness of *' beans," " shortness " of work, or
love of displaying power, is a faculty which has become
comparatively dormant among highly civilised horses.

As instincts are in the species, so are habits in the
individual. The power of a habit in diminishing or
strengthening the force of instinct is, as we have seen,
well marked. In fact, a large portion of the art of horse-
breaking consists in establishing in the animal habits
which are opposed to his instincts, especially that of self-
preservation. Thus we have the habit of obedience to
man, under the influence of which the well-trained charger

6 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

will have lost his instinctive timidity to such an extent that
he will go through flames, or gallop up to a tiger or
other terrifying wild beast, on receiving the signal to do
so from the hand and leg of his rider. With age, the
instincts of every-day life grow stronger in the horse which
is in a wild state. He becomes more and more watchful
and difficult of capture ; and his love of freedom and
impatience of control increase with his years. Hence, the
later his education is attempted, the harder will it be to
impart.

A habit, to be fully established, must have become auto-
matic, in which process memory (or the power of connecting
ideas) plays a large part. The 'bus horse which has learned
to associate the sound of the bell or of the conductor's foot
on the platform, with the idea of going on, will have
acquired the habit of starting forward the moment he hears
the well-remembered signal.

Memory, as I have indicated, co-exists with conscious-
ness, and is possessed by all animals which are capable of
learning by experience. The study of animal life leads us
to the conclusion, I venture to think, that animals are able
to associate in their minds only concrete ideas ; and that
the association of abstract ideas is confined to mankind.
Perhaps a more correct division of memory would be :
memory of facts, and memory of chains of reasoning. Even
fish possess good concrete memory. If we make a practice
of feeding fish which are kept in a pond, these animals of
low nervous development will quickly learn to connect the
impression which our appearance makes on them, with the
idea of food, and, on seeing us, will hasten to place them-

MEMORY.

selves in position to receive our gifts. In fact, the fish will
remember us ; and, furthermore, if we select a particular
hour of the day at which to feed them, they will apparently
bear it in mind. Although many men of great intellectual
capacity possess extraordinary good fact-memory ; we
find this faculty equally well developed among persons
of feeble mental grasp, and sometimes even among idiots.
Horses have extremely good fact-memories, and, as re-
marked by Dr. Le Bon, would win all the competitive
examinations if they were able to talk and write. On
the other hand, there are many men who have great
power of keeping in remembrance long and complicated
problems, but are singularly deficient in fact-memory.

The vividness with which an event is retained in the
memory of man or beast depends on the intensity of the
impression, on repetition, or on both. Without intensity,
repetition has but little effect in fixing an impression on the
mind. For example, lessons which we have conned over,
perhaps, hundreds of times during our school days, are
often completely forgotten long before our hair turns grey ;
and yet some painful accident in our early childhood
may remain permanently vivid in our remembrance. The
ordinary system of horse-breaking, by which repetition
{without intensity) is chiefly relied upon for the formation
of habits of discipline, is defective ; because the nature of
the obedience thus obtained, is too weak to oblige the
animal to yield himself absolutely to its influence. The old,
tedious methods of gradually inducing a horse to obey the
rein, take months to produce an effect which at any moment
is liable to be nullified by disturbing circumstances of no

8 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

great force. When, however, obedience to the rein is
taught (as I shall explain further on) in a manner which it
is impossible for the horse to resist, the intensity of the
impression produced will be superior to that of almost any
opposing agency. Here the action, which is the result of
the strongest motive, will, in almost all cases, be in accord-
ance with the teaching of the discipline which the horse had
previously found to be irrresistible. We must disabuse
our minds of the old fallacy (which has done much to retard
progress in the art of horse-breaking) that quick methods
are necessarily less permanent in their effects, than those
which demand a much longer time for their carrying out.
In saying this, I in no way wish to convey the idea that
repetition is useless. On the contrary, it will be needed
in almost all cases to confirm a habit, no matter how
strong the first impression may have been. Acting on
the principle of intensity of impression, with suitable
repetition, we shall obtain far better breaking results in
a tenth of the time required by those who depend chiefly
on repetition.

The power of memory is, like instinct, susceptible of
cultivation.

Connected with memory, there are three points to
which I would wish to direct the attention of my readers :
(i) With age, the power of making new associations of
ideas becomes diminished ; (2) fatigue, either mental or
physical, impairs this power ; and (3) the greater the
number of associations made with the same idea, the
weaker do each of them become. From this we learn,
that in teaching horses we should begin with them when

INTELLIGENCE.

they are young ; that we should not continue our instruc-
tion so long as to fatigue their mind ; and that we should
restrict, as far as possible, the associations which we bring
about in the mind of the horse to their own respective
results. Some men hit a horse with the whip, " job "
him in the mouth with the rein, or speak to him in exactly
the same way for whatever fault he may commit, and then
wonder why they fail to keep him in control.

Intelligence and reason. — Consciousness is the begin-
ning of intelligence, which culminates in reasoning power.
The intelligence of the horse appears to me to be limited
to the power of profiting by experience obtained by
association of ideas formed from pleasurable or painful
trial. When the association of ideas is more or less com-
plex, there is hesitation and apparent reflection. Self-
control being a necessary consequence of consciousness,
animals sometimes control the promptings of instinct by
association of ideas gained from experience. Thus
the civilised dog or cat, on observing forbidden food,
will often appear to be in a dilemma ; on the one
side being urged to obey its instinct of hunger ; on the
other, being restrained, probably, by the idea that punish-
ment will follow the commission of theft. In obeying
pure instinct, there would be no hesitation. The dog
that has sinned in secret will often betray himself by his
guilty look and abashed behaviour. We may assume that
he, just as a man might do, yielded to the temptation
of instinct, and afterwards associated in his mind the idea
of chastisement with that of his sin. We may note, to a

lo MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

certain — though far sHghter — extent, this feeling in a
friendly disposed horse, who inadvertently gives his groom
or master a " nip," and then starts back in trepidation at
what he has done. The experienced horseman will have
frequently remarked in the horse he is riding or driving,
hesitation to act according to his instincts, especially if
the animal be in doubt if his rider or driver will stand
'' nonsense." The horse's tentative efforts in this direction
seem to be controlled by a certain amount of reflection.
The apparently thoughtful manner in which some good-
tempered, intelligent horses will refrain, under great pro-
vocation, in cases of accident, from obeying their instinct
of self-preservation to the detriment of their rider or
driver, points to the fact of their being gifted with the
power of control. Most of us can call to mind instances
of high-couraged horses which, having fallen with their
rider in such a way, that if they had not remained
perfectly still while he was being extricated out of his
difficulty, he would in all probability have been killed. I
have known such animals, even during a run out hunting,
and without any special training, stop " dead " on their
rider falling off and getting hung up by the stirrup.
In fact, I have owned and known horses which, if they
got into any serious difficulty, out of which they could
not safely extricate themselves, would wait patiently
for their rider or driver to render them the necessary
assistance. Other horses which, on the contrary, appear
to be guided solely by instinct, will struggle and dash
themselves about with the utmost fury on finding them-
selves in any awkward " fix." In this respect, mules, I

INTELLIGENCE. 1 1

think, generally show more sense, as I shall point out on
page 1 8, than most horses.

A not very uncommon vice among horses is refusal to
go through a comparatively low doorway, on account of the
animal having knocked its head on some previous occasion,
against the top of such an entrance. Although the man in
charge may show the horse that by lowering its head
(which on such occasions it generally keeps raised as high
as possible), it can easily go under the supposed obstruc-
tion, it will display an obstinate disbelief in the efficacy
of any such expedient. Other horses, wise from experience,
though not from having reasoned out the problem, will
display great intelligence in crawling under bars employed
to keep them prisoners, and even in opening doors by
lifting up the latch.

As intelligence restrains the action of instinct, it follows
that when these two faculties exist in an animal, they will
as a rule be in an inverse proportion to each other. Thus,
the bee and the spider have more highly developed instinct,
though less intelligence than the dog ; and vice versa. The
same remark would hold good when comparing civilised
nations with Bushmen or Australian blacks ; and English
and Arab horses with bronchos and zebras.

Although the horse has generally great difficulty in
associating cause and effect, unless the connection be par-
ticularly easy of perception, and the interval of time between
the two be extremely short ; he may be fully alive to the
fact, in particular cases, that the one circumstance follows
the other. For example, we may every day see horses which
are accustomed to jump and prance about immediately

12 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

after making a stumble, and thus betray the fact that they
are old offenders in this respect. Their alarm is evidently
due to the remembrance that punishment follows the
making of a false step ; but they have not intelligence
enough to understand that the former was the penalty of
the latter ; for in no case which I have seen, does the
infliction of such chastisement render the horse less liable to
stumble. I have often remarked among racehorses which I
have been training, that plaiting the mane previous to a
race made some of the old ones so excited, that they
would refuse to eat after their mane had been arranged
in strands. They evidently connected the idea of racing
with this portion of their toilet. We shall see further on
how to induce the horse to make the required mental
connection, and even to teach him, for our own ends, how to
draw wrong conclusions as to cause and effect.

I have been unable to trace any indication of reasoning-
power in the horse, whose highest displays of intelligence
seem (to me, at least) to be the outcome of tentative or
accidental experience. He, like many human beings,
appears to lack the ability of acquiring new knowledge by
drawing conclusions from that which he already possesses.
If I am correct in this statement, association of ideas is,
therefore, the only means by which we are able to teach
him. Respecting the brain power of apes, Frank Buckland
says : " No monkey of any species, where the experiment
has been tried, would even put a stick or coal on to an'
expiring fire ; he would sit down and shiver by the fire till
it goes out. His mind is not sufficiently acute to see the
connection between cause and effect, so as to put coal oni

CAN ANIMALS REASON? 13

to keep the fire going." Cuvier, however, tells us of an
ourang-outang which, when at meals, if it was unable to fill
its spoon, would pass it on to the person next to it, in
order to get it filled. This clever ape, seeing, on one
occasion, that the glass which it had placed on the table
was on the point of toppling over, put out its hand and
prevented the glass from falling. I have noticed and
admired the intelligence with which dogs in charge of
children have sometimes prevented the little ones from
going too near the edge of a precipice, or the brink of deep
water. Newfoundland and other water dogs will often
recognise the fact of persons drowning, and will go to their
assistance ; although such animals might view with un-
concern an ordinary swimmer in the water. The Indian
elephant can be easily taught to pile up logs of timber with
almost mathematical precision. Probably one of the best
instances of what we might call reasoning power in animals
is furnished by the fact that the sight of a dog being tied
behind a moving carriage is an almost irresistible tempta-
tion to other dogs to attack him, no matter how inferior
they may be to him in strength and size. The assaulting
parties appear to understand that an animal thus pulled
along by the head, is at a very serious disadvantage in
defending himself against an attack from behind.

Most of us, no doubt, have observed the artifice grooms
adopt, of showing a sieve of corn to a horse which is
loose in a field, and which they wish to entice within
catching distance. Although we may laugh at the sim-
plicity of the horse in this instance, we must not therefore
conclude that he is altogether wanting in sense ; for we may

•14 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

often notice that if the groom presumes too far on the
creduHty of the animal, and leads him off to the stable
without allowing him to eat some of the oats, he will in
future see through the imposition, and refuse to be caught.
Here, the sight of the man forms in the mind of the horse
a stronger association with the disagreeable idea of capture
than with the pleasurable one of food. The groom can
generally, however, restore the desired association by
judicious concessions. To explain the action of the horse
in this case, we in no way require to suppose that he is
guided by reason.

In many hilly countries where the mountains are high,
the bridle paths narrow and the cliffs precipitous, the pack
animals (horses, ponies, mules, and donkeys) which are
accustomed to carry bulky loads that overhang a good deal
to right and left, acquire the habit of travelling on the
extreme edge of the outside of the roadway, so that they
may not knock their burden against a jutting-out rock or
other prominent obstacle. I may explain that such an
accident might cause them to lose their balance and fall
over the precipice. We might accept the adoption of this
prudent precaution as a proof of forethought, were it not
for the fact that all practisers of this habit will adhere to it
when no such precaution is necessary. I have ridden many
ponies of this kind on wild mountain paths, with a consider-
able amount of trepidation ; for do what I could to keep
them away from the dangerous edge of the cliff, they
would rigidly adhere to it, seemingly under the impression
that the load on their back (myself) projected at least three
feet on each side of them. Their prudence, therefore, is

CAN ANIMALS REASON f 15

the result of experience, and not of reason. Most of my
readers will no doubt recall many similar cases among the
horses of their acquaintance. I have never seen a loose
horse with a trap behind him refrain from trying to go
through a narrow gateway, because it was not wide enough
to admit the carriage.

While giving animals full credit for their manifestations
of intelligence, we should not forget that some of their
instinctive actions often simulate those due to reflection.
The extraordinary uniformity which animals of the same
species observe in performing actions that at first sight
appear to be prompted by reflection, would lead us to ascribe
them to blind instinct, rather than to thoughtful intelligence,
as for instance, the ruses of the hare when trying to baflle
her pursuers.

To illustrate the manner in which we may mistake the
results of experience for those of reasoning, Professor
Lloyd Morgan cites the following case : " Some years ago
I was with a friend watching a horse which was dragging a
heavy load, zigzagging up a steep hill. ' How well,' said
my companion, ' that horse appreciates the principle of the
inclined plane.' I begged him to explain exactly what he
meant by this expression, ' He sees,' said my friend, ' that
the less the slope, the less intense, if more prolonged, the
labour to raise the load through a given height.' I told
him that my own view was that the poor animal was quite
unable to perceive the relation between the slope and the
labour, and to think, ' the less the slope the less the labour.'
Now I have noticed that when I am breasting a steep
grassy mountain slope, I have a tendency to slew off to

i6 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

right or left, and thus to lighten my labour." We all, no
doubt, can easily call to mind many other instances of
mechanically advantageous results being obtained, even by
ourselves, automatically, and, consequently, without the
exercise of reasoning power.

Experience proves that the intelligence of the horse is
small as compared to that of the ape, monkey, dog, or
elephant ; although his memory is as good, if not better
than theirs. Our great difficulty in teaching the horse
arises from his dulness in associating cause and effect.

The chief difference between the mind of the horse and
that of man, is that instinct is far more highly developed,
and intelligence proportionately less developed, in him than
in us. His mind has, not very correctly, been compared
to that of a young child, whose instinct, however, is greatly
inferior to that of the horse, even if the child be in no way
superior to the horse in the matter of intelligence.

Special instincts and senses. — The term, instinct of
self-preservation, is used to express a large number of
instincts which serve to nourish the animal's body and
to protect it from danger, for which duty we have love of
freedom or irnpatieitce of control, fear of snrronndijtgs,
anger or resentment against inflicted or threatened injuiy,
hostility, revenge, 8ic. As a horse's chief defence against
foes, when in a wild state, is flight ; one of the easiest
signals to make him understand is that of threatening
him from behind, with a driving whip, for instance, in
order to induce him to go forward.

A horse shows his love of freedom by his tendency to

ANGER. 17

revert to a wild state. In this, he acts in marked contrast
to the ass, who seems to accept his lot of servitude with
resignation, probably on account of his having been longer
under the influence of domestication.

A horse may be easily excited to anger by the infliction
of pain, by threats, and by acting in a suspicious manner,
as a person might do even by running away from the
animal in real or assumed fear. A horse may display his
anger by active resentment or hostility, or by stubbornness,
which is of all faults the most difficult to overcome. His
memory of the successful indulgence of such feelings is
particularly long. I remember the case of a cavalry horse
which had incurred the dislike of the Colonel of the
regiment on account of jibbing and refusing to jump.
The commanding officer had on several occasions vainly
used the driving whip with the utmost severity in the
endeavour to make the animal clear the obstacles in the
riding-school. At last, the Colonel gave the delinquent up
as hopeless, and had him " cast." He was bought for a very
small sum by a friend of mine, who is a capable horseman,
and who in a short time converted him into a willing and
reliable harness horse. Five years passed by without
incident as far as the horse was concerned, until it happened
that my friend drove him in his dog-cart to the neighbouring
railway station to meet the Colonel, who got into the trap,
and, as they drove off", began to express his thanks for the
" lift." The moment the horse heard the well-remembered
and hated voice, he instantly stopped and refused to proceed.
My friend laughingly asked the Colonel to kindly dismount,
to go in front of the horse while continuing to talk, then to

C

i8 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

cease speaking, and, when the horse moved off again, to
get into the dog-cart without uttering a word. As soon as
the horse thought that the owner of the detested voice had
gone away, he started on his journey in obedience to the
signal of his driver, and carried the two gentlemen to their
destination in his usual orderly manner.

When the horse is under the influence of either fear or
anger, he will often act with total disregard to his own
safety. I knew a case of a pony mare who, on getting by
accident over her head a bag which prevented her from
seeing, started off in a mad gallop, and dashed out her brains
against the first lamp-post she encountered. Some jibbers
have been flogged and spurred in the most cruel manner,
without being induced to proceed in the required direction ;
and others, which have thrown themselves down in their
sulky fit, have had fires lighted under them without making
them get up. From anger as well as from fear, horses have
kicked so violently against hard objects, that they have not
alone inflicted severe wounds on their legs, but have even
broken them. A dog, unless he was mad, would do none
of these things ; because he has intelligence enough to
recognise the folly of needlessly hurting himself. I have
observed that if a kicking mule, when in harness, gets a
hind leg over a shaft or trace, he will, unlike what a horse
would usually do under similar conditions, keep quiet and
allow himself to be released as speedily as possible. This,
I think, is a valid argument in favour of the idea that mules
are, as a rule, more intelligent than horses.

Horses will sometimes treasure up the feeling of revenge
against those who have injured them, whether the offenders

IMITATION. 19

be men or animals of their own kind. I once owned a
particularly inoffensive charger who never did anything
wrong for the three years I had him, until one day he got
bitten by the horse of a friend of mine who had come out
for a ride with me. As I had both hands on the reins, and
as the two animals were side by side, my horse was not
able to return the assault for the time being. After the
lapse of about an hour, during which time I had forgotten
all about the " nip " received by my mount, something or
the other obliged me to take the lead, when, just as I was
drawing clear, my horse kicked the other animal most
viciously and hurt him severely. I continued to own this
horse for about two years after that ; but on no subsequent
occasion did he show the slightest tendency to use his heels
against either man or horse.

The instinct of gregarionsness in the horse, namely, that
which prompts him to herd with his fellows, causes him to
share the feelings of his companions, and is closely con-
nected with the instinct of imitation. He often copies his
mates in rearing and in other forms of "playing up," as
well as in the familiar stable vices of crib-biting, wind-
sucking, and weaving. We may often notice, when riding
in company, that if one horse, the leader as a rule, starts at
some object, which is frequently so trivial as to escape our
notice, that the others will follow suit with such quickness
that we might almost suppose that there w^as some kind of
electrical communication between them ; the fact, however,
being that their thoughts are chiefly devoted to watching
the movements of those in front of them.

As the horse is a gregarious animal, the breaker will be

C 2

20 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

able to engage his attention far better when he has him
alone — in a riding-school, for instance — than when other
horses are present. The teacher may utilise the imitative
instinct by giving a '* reluctant " one a lead over a fence, or
by placing an unruly pupil alongside a steady break-horse.
The habit of galloping about in herds has probably
developed the instinct of enudation, which in horses is
almost entirely confined to trying to outstrip each other in
trials of speed. A horse's affection towards his kind, irre-
spective of sexual relations, or perhaps more correctly, his
love of companionship with them, is a form of the instinct
of gregariousness, and is often strongly developed. When
parted from his equine friend (no matter what the respective
sexes may have been), he will frequently display his sorrow,
by dejection and refusal to eat. I have known a horse, in
such a plight, die apparently from grief. I have seen a
horse " chum " with a cow, which was the only other
quadruped in the field in which the two used to graze. In
obeying his instinct in this instance, he no doubt mistook
the ruminant for a kind of soliped. I have known dogs
and even goats become attached to horses ; but could
obtain no proof that the horse reciprocated the devotion —
at least, to judge by the sound test of the effect of separa-
tion on appetite. Cats sometimes select a horse as a
companion ; probably on account of the mice or rats which
come after the spilt grain, or because the horse's back forms
a warm couch for pussy. In such cases I have seen no
demonstration of love, beyond curiosity or good-natured
forbearance, for his feline companion on the part of the
horse. Mares without their young at foot, or when barren,

AFFECTION. 21

not unusually adopt orphan foals if they get the opportunity
of doing so. As a horse's affection, apart from sexual or
maternal motives, seems to be dependent on his instinct
of gregariousness, and as mankind can in no way become
objects of this instinct ; his fondness for us rarely exceeds
cupboard love, or mere tolerance. Unless he be influenced
by fear, he will take the proffered carrot or other dainty
as readily from the hand of a stranger as from that of his
master or mistress, separation from whom has never been
known to injuriously affect his appetite. I think we must
accept the fact that his affection towards man, however
highly it may be cultivated, is too slight to admit of its
being utilised in our service. I have observed that horses
in whom the instinct of gregariousness is strongly developed,
are frequently sulky, or at least have their hearts somewhat
" behind their work " when alone, evidently on account of
their thoughts being with their absent companion or com-
panions, instead of with the business at which they are en-
gaged. The horse exhibits little or no lovefoi' the admiration
of man, which in the dog is a valuable means of education.
We may often find a dog striving to win our approval by
bringing us a stone to throw away, and thus to give him an
opportunity of showing us his cleverness by retrieving it.

The sexual or reproductive instinct is often a great hin-
drance to the success of equine education. Some mares
are always more or less *' in season," or are liable to become
so if anything rubs against their hind quarters. When
afflicted with this form of nymphomania, they are, as a
rule, "jady," apt to kick, and otherwise unreliable. The
entire, from combativeness engendered by sexual rivalry,

22 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

sometimes shows a strong tendency to *' savage." The ex-
perience I have had among wild and unbroken horses leads
me to think that the vice of attacking with the teeth is
either sexual or acquired ; for geldings, which have been
emasculated young, and which have not been brought under
the influence of man, exhibit it to a very trifling extent ;
although, under provocation, they will freely lash out behind,
cow-kick, or strike out with their fore legs.

Sense of hearing. — The horse, agreeably to the anecdote
told on page 17, and as we might infer from observing the
almost constant play of his ears when he is in the open,
pays great attention to sounds, and is very quick to mark
differences of tone, although he has extremely little ability
to distinguish one word from another. As a rule, a loud,
harsh sound of the human voice frightens the horse ; but
a soft one calms him.

Sense of sight. — The horse is greatly affected by objects
which have to him a strange or suspicious appearance. It
is easy to understand that the survival of an instinct which
in former times helped to preserve him from his neigh-
bouring foes, makes him start with terror when he sees,
for instance, a bear skin in his path, or a trailing rope, the
serpentine motion of which might suggest the idea of a
snake. But I cannot fathom the motive for the fear with
which the approach of a camel invariably inspires him. He
will seldom take in good part the sight of a donkey (or
even of a pony) with a bulky load on its back. Water and
white and glittering objects are generally sources of alarm
to him. The expression of the human face appears to have
no efl'ect on the horse. " With respect to this subject I

SENSE OF SIGHT. 23

have made many experiments on young and old horses,
and can certify that if the man moves only his eyes and
the muscles of his face, without stirring his body or arms
the horse will remain perfectly unconcerned. I have a
hundred times tried the effect of anger in my look, of smiles
on my lips, without the slightest result. You may make
the most horrible grimaces at your horses, or you may
stick your tongue out at them, but none of them will show
the smallest sign of being influenced by such means "
{Fillis). The reason for the horse being insensible to the
expression of the human face, however exaggerated it may
be, although keenly observant of the slightest movement
of the hand, for instance, appears to me to be that the
special feature which the horse looks at, as an index to the
mind, is the ears, which in man are too small and too little
gifted with mobility to afford him any clue to our thoughts
They are, in the horse, his most expressive feature, and
consequently he draws conclusions principally, in this re-
spect, from the nature of their movements. I need hardly
say that, under ordinary circumstances, an animal's ideas
on facial expression are chiefly, if not wholly, derived from
his studies on that subject among individuals of his own
species. The mouth of the horse, as well as his ears, is
capable of expressing his feelings to some extent ; but it
differs so much from that of man in its position on the face,
in its power of laying bare the teeth, and in the mobility
and size of the upper lip, that our possession of a mouth is
a fact of which the horse is possibly unaware. In any case,
its expression is nearly, if not quite, meaningless to him.
With our organs of vision, the most threatening action is

24 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

that of knitting the eyebrows ; with those of the horse, that
of " showing the white of the eye." As we habitually do the
latter, but in a way different to that of the horse, and as
the horse is practically incapable of the former ; it is
reasonable to suppose that the play of our eyes would be
lost on him. The power of expression of a dog's features
resembles that of man to a certain extent. I have seen
dogs smile, wrinkling the skin on their noses when doing
so, in a manner not very unlike that by which some persons
show their pleasure at meeting an agreeable acquaintance.
We all know that a dog makes a special study of the
expression of his master's face.

Sense of feeling and smell. — Although the horse's sense
of smell is acute, I have not observed that he, like the dog,
uses it to recognise persons. I certainly think that, when a
horse brings his muzzle up to anything he may wish to
examine, he does so with the object of using it more as an
organ of touch, than to smell the object in question. As a
rule, a horse which is in a doubtful mood with respect to a
person who wishes to approach him, will, as every horseman
knows, feel considerably reassured if he be allowed to touch
with his muzzle the hand of the man, who, unless he sees
the danger signal of drawn back ears, should on no account
pull his hand abruptly away ; for the fact of his doing so
will usually be regarded by the horse as a menace. The
smell of a camel is extremely distasteful to the horse, who,
as a rule, does not at all object to that of the elephant,
which is quite as peculiar a looking animal as " the ship of
the Desert." The smell from a tannery inspires almost all
horses with fear.

UNIFORMITY OF CONDUCT. 25

Scratching his mane is the form of caress most appre-
ciated by the horse, especially if he be in a wild state, in
which case his crest will be more or less itchy from the
presence of scurf and insects.

As the actions of the horse are prompted far more by
instinct than by intelligence ; one of his chief characteristics
is tmiformity of condiict, which fact can be utilised with
advantage by the breaker. What a horse does once, we
-may generally count upon him performing a second time
under similar conditions. Hence, if his progress in educa-
tion be slow, it will, as a rule, be sure. The treachery
which is noticeable in many men and women, and even
in a few monkeys and dogs, is almost absent in the
horse. If we find that the horse which previously was
quiet to handle and ride, suddenly wants to take
one's life, or to ''play up" in some outrageous fashion,
we may be certain that his change of demeanour is
not due to the fact of his having thought out some
nefarious plan to gain his own ends by our discom-
fiture ; but that it is the outcome of provocation which
he has had just reason to resent on some previous
occasion. The few treacherous horses which I have met
were, I feel certain, rendered so by cruel or injudicious
treatment.

The feeling of submission to superior power is the chief
one by which we can obtain mastery over the horse, who,
when he finds himself defeated, will generally *^give in"
completely. Here, his small amount of intelligence will not
enable him to reflect that, although we have mastered him
on one point, he may be able to turn the tables on us under

26 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

different circumstances. The process of rendering a fero-
cious dog or savage tiger helpless for the time being, as
we might do to the horse by Rareyfying him, or by other
horse-taming methods, would not prevent either the dog or
the tiger from flying at us the moment he was free from
his trammels.

Cotwage or pluck in the horse. — A man, in the facing
of danger, may, by a purely intellectual effort, overcome
his instinct of self-preservation. Here we have the resultant
of two opposing forces. Thus, brave men have often,
even from motives of abstract right, faced certain death, the
terrors of which they have keenly felt the whole time.
Others have been equally self-sacrificing under the purely
instinctive influences of anger, jealousy, emulation, or love
of admiration. Although there are no words to exactly
express these two kinds of feelings, we may, for con-
venience sake, apply valour or bravery to the former ;
courage or pluck, to the latter. This, I need hardly ex-
plain, is an arbitrary use of words on my part ; yet the
distinction is worthy of consideration. The facing of danger
in the horse, as far as I have been able to observe, is
entirely the result of instinct, of habit, or of a combination
of the two ; and has consequently no intellectual
element. The term " courage," as used by horsemen,
signifies that feeling (whether simple or compound),
under the influence of which the horse will strain every
effort to obey the orders of his rider or driver. In,
its transmission, the effect of heredity is often well
marked. This most valuable quality can be easily lost by
mismanagement.

VICE. ^'7

Vice. — The term vice in the horse is used in such various
senses that I am unable to supply an exact definition of it.
Perhaps I might be permitted, for convenience sake, to say-
that, from a saddle and harness point of view, it includes
all unruly habits and tricks which militate against the
safety or comfort of the ordinary rider or driver. We
might therefore sub-divide it into deliberate vices, and those
arising from impatience of control or nervousness. I need
hardly say that, by deliberate vices, I mean those which
the horse practises for the gratification of his own
ends, in direct opposition to the well-understood and
legitimate orders of man ; and those which prompt him
to make unprovoked and hostile attacks on man or other
animals.

Stable vices I may define as those which produce in-
jurious or unpleasant effects either on the horse or on his
attendants, while he is in his stall or loose box, or while he
is entering or leaving his abode.

What we are pleased, from our point of view, to call vice
in the horse, is, as a rule, manifestations of his instinct of
self-preservation, and has nothing to say to innate turpi-
tude. In combating, therefore, so-called vice in the horse,
we should not resent (as too many of us are inclined to do)
his non-compliance with our wishes as a personal affront ;
for he owes no allegiance to us beyond that of the weaker
mind to the stronger.

There is 2. pscjido form of nervousness which is a common
vice among horses that are well fed, underworked, and are
ridden or driven by timorous people. I may point to the
far greater tendency these so-called nervous horses have

28 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

to shy and " play up " when leaving their stable, than when
returning to it after a long journey.

The distinction between nervousness and deliberate vice
may be easily made, if we observe how a horse acts after
we have proved to him that he need have no fear of us.
For instance, if we fix up a horse, say, in a " strait-jacket "
{see page 143), so that he cannot kick, and continue to
" gentle " him over with one hand until he has ample reason
to believe that we have no intention of hurting him ; we
might justly term him vicious if he kicked out at us, with-
out our again touching him, the moment the restraint was
removed. I may mention that fear of the near approach
of man will often induce a purely nervous animal to kick
out, if a person, and especially a stranger, ventures to
come within reach. Although horses frequently kick from
nervousness, they rarely bite from that cause alone. I
think I might venture to define the more or less vicious
form of nervousness as the exhibition by the horse of
unfounded fear of surroundings which, however startling
their effect on him might be in the first instance, he has
proved by ample experience will not hurt him.

The more experience I acquire in the breaking of horses,
the more convinced I become that the so-called '' nervous-
ness " of animals which have been handled some time, and
which have always been treated with kindness, is largely
made up of impatience of control, and, in many cases, of
active hostility. I make bold to assert that many crafty,
dangerous brutes pose before their owners as ill-used
victims of a too highly-strung nervous system. Take, for
instance, an old saddle-horse, like many I have met, that

NERVOUSNESS. 29

snorts with apparent terror at anyone who approaches him,
and is ready, on the sHghtest chance of reaching his mark,
to strike out in front, or lash out behind, if saddHng or
mounting him be attempted. His nervous emotion the
first time he was taken in hand, or the first time he per-
formed his unpleasant tricks, may have been thoroughly
genuine ; but its exhibition enabled him more or less
successfully to resist control. This act of insubordination
having revealed to him the knowledge of his own power,
which is a pleasurable sensation to every animal, was
naturally repeated on every available occasion, until the
vicious habit became confirmed ; although its necessity
may have been disproved to him scores of times by the fact
that the saddling or mounting had been accomplished
without the infliction of any pain or irritation to him,
however great the trouble may have been to the groom or
rider. As in horses, so do we find among dogs, that
nervousness often degenerates into ferocity. The young
dog who barks violently from nervousness, on seeing that
the noise he makes causes persons in his vicinity to run
away, is tempted to follow them, and, having discovered his
own power, is apt to exercise it, with the usual result that
he becomes bad-tempered and vicious.

I am inclined to think that nervous horses are not as
" game " as their more placid fellows, and am thoroughly
convinced that the majority of so-called nervous horses
are sulky, treacherous brutes. Although there are ex-
ceptions to this rule, it would be most unwise to ignore
the fact that the repetition of any trick which tends to
render an animal difficult of control, whatever way it may

30 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

have been contracted, has an increasingly bad effect on him
the longer it is continued.

Sulkiness or obstinacy in the horse, which we may regard
as the antithesis to " courage " {see page 26), is of various
forms, is produced by many different causes, and is often
complex in its nature. It may be entirely due to natural
impatience of control, as I have frequently seen in freshly-
caught animals, which, when haltered for the first time, on
finding that they could not escape, have thrown themselves
down on the ground and refused to move. In such cases,
as indicated on page 8, it increases with age. It may be
acquired, as we may find any day on the racecourse among
animals which have been rendered " faint-hearted " by
" punishment." Many of these poor things show by the
tumultuous beating of their hearts that fear — from the
mental association of their surroundings with the idea of
pain — and also, most probably, the feeling of injustice, are
the causes of their not " trying." A tendency to " faint-
heartedness " is often inherited ; stubbornness may be the
result of a habit which, for instance, a timid rider or driver
has allowed the horse to acquire by giving it too much of
its own way. In jibbers, we may see many degrees of this
particularly bad habit, which, other things being equal, is
difficult to overcome in proportion to the severity and
frequency of the successful contests which the horse has
had with his would-be master. Here, the employment of
ineffectual punishment or of unavailing force serves only to
increase the horse's knowledge of his own power, which we
should always strive to withhold from him. If horses could
reason better than they do, the vice of jibbing would un-

A GGRESSIVENESS. 3 1

doubtedly be more common among them than it is at
present. Laziness is often akin to obstinacy, as we may
find in some horses which, without actually jibbing, are
always ready to slacken their speed, even if they do not
stop entirely, the moment the rider or driver ceases to
stimulate them ; although the task required of them may
be well within their compass. On the other hand,
some of the " gamest " horses require a great deal of
" rousing up " in order to make them exert themselves
to the utmost. I may define jibbing as refusal to
move or to go in a required direction by a horse which
understands the order given, and which is well able to
execute it if he wishes. Long-continued privation in
youth renders a horse more or less spiritless and inclined
to be sulky.

Aggressiveness. — By this term I wish to express the vice
some horses have of attacking men or other animals without
sufficient provocation. Horses are said to " savage " when
they use their teeth as weapons of aggression. Entires are
specially prone to this mode of assault, and, if they succeed
in overthrowing their opponent, to increase their advantage
by kneeling on him. Mares delight most in kicking. My
experience — gained chiefly in South Africa — of absolutely
unhandled horses is, that when caught for the first time,
they will strike out freely in front, lash out behind, or cow-
kick, but that they will very rarely attempt to bite. The
acquisition of that fatal knowledge of his own power to
injure or terrify his enemy, especially if resentment for
the infliction of pain be added to it, is without doubt the.
chief cause of aggressiveness. A hereditary tendency to

32 MENTAL QUALITIES OF THE HORSE.

aggressiveness is often well marked. Teasing a horse is
usually effective in developing that undesirable quality.

Treachery, as I have stated on page 25, is a rare vice
in the horse. It is fortunate for horse-owners that it is
seldom met with ; for of all equine failings, it is the most
dangerous and the most difficult to cure. The treacherous
horse, after having gained one's confidence by a more or
less prolonged course of docility, may in a moment, without
any warning and apparently without the slightest provoca-
tion, buck one off its back, kick the trap to pieces, bolt
madly away in saddle or harness, savage one, or kick one.
And yet, the instant it has effected its deliberately planned
purpose, it may assume an air of innocence, and act as if it
were the impersonification of virtue. I cannot help giving
treacherous horses credit for the possession of a com-
paratively large amount of intelligence.

33

CHAPTER 11.

THEORY OF HORSE - CONTROL.

Objects and scope of horse-breaking — Requirements in the breaker —
—Desirability of early training — Gaining the horse's attention —
Accustoming a horse to his surroundings — Making a horse under-
stand our orders — Punishment and reward — Effect of the voice —
Emulation and imitation — Fatigue — Necessity for exacting im-
plicit obedience from the horse — Safety in breaking — Rapid
methods of breaking — On the possibility of overcoming any form
of vice — Personal influence in breaking — Advisability of possessing
various methods of breaking — Selection of breaking methods —
Permanency in the effects of breaking — Summary of the principles
of making horses docile.

In this chapter I shall limit myself chiefly to the theory
of making horses quiet and obedient, without special refer-
ence to the formation of " mouth " and paces, which I shall
consider in Chapter III.

Objects and scope of horse-breaking. — The objects of
horse-breaking are : (i) to make the animal quiet, both in
and out of the stable ; (2) to teach him to obey the orders
of his rider or driver with promptness and precision ; and
(3) to establish in him the habit of applying his powers to
the best advantage.

The scope of breaking is wider than might generally be

D

34 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.'

thought ; for it includes not alone the education of the
untutored animal, but also the correction of faults which, ■
while seriously detracting from the horse's value, are usually
looked upon as unavoidable dispensations that have to be
borne with becoming resignation ; as, for instance, prancing,
chucking up the head, star-gazing, boring, refusing to jump
particular kinds offences, refusing to jump in "cold blood,"
showing excitement in harness when the whip is cracked,
shying off the ball at polo, disinclination to stand steady
when being mounted, etc. I need hardly say that the
knowledge (which I shall endeavour to supply to my
readers) of the way to give a horse a good " mouth," and
to render him steady and reliable, is of infinitely more
value to everyone, except a showman, than instruction
(which I shall also try to afford) in methods for taming
man-eaters and other exceptionally dangerous animals.
The art of mere "horse-taming" is of little practical use;
for the need of its application is of but rare occurrence,
•especially in countries where horses have been brought up
under civilised conditions. Even the celebrated Rarey,
after subduing three or four " savages," when in England,
had to content himself with exhibiting them about the
■country as reformed characters, for lack of new subjects on
which to show his skill. When wishing to form a class for
practical instruction in horse-breaking, during my various
tours, I have frequently met with the objection that there
were no vicious horses in that particular place. But as
I always replied that I needed animals with only common
faults of mouth and temper ; I have never been at a loss, on
such occasions, for subjects to demonstrate the fact that

REQUIREMENTS IN THE BREAKER. 35

there are but few horses entirely free from some riding
or driving fault which more or less impairs their value,
and which, as a rule, can be readily corrected. Besides the
formation of " mouth " and " manners " in the unhandled
horse, as well as in the " spoiled " one ; breaking compre-
hends the special education of the horse in many different
capacities.

Requirements in the breaker. — To break-in a horse
properly, one requires to have knowledge, patience, readi-
ness of resource, sympathy, skill, coolness, and pluck.
Horse-breaking, I may state, is partly an art and partly a
science. In its former relation, dexterity to carry out its
mechanical details is necessary. In the latter, acquaint-
ance with the laws which respectively govern the working
of the animal's mind and body is needed. All such indis-
pensable knowledge will, however, be in vain, unless the
breaker has patience to apply it in an exact manner, and
without allowing himself to be influenced in any way by
feelings of impatience, anger, or resentment. Horses vary
mentally as much as they do physically. Some are quick
and docile ; others, stupid and stubborn. If their lack of
comprehension or wilful disobedience causes their teacher
to lose his temper, the exhibition of his annoyance will
assuredly frighten out of the timid ones whatever sense
may have been in their heads, and will provoke the sullen
ones to resistance, if not to retaliation. To be successful,
he should adopt the maxim of patience, patience, and still
more patience Not alone are horses of infinite variety as
regards their dispositions ; but the causes of their failings or

D 2

36 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

vices differ so much that the breaker must be essentially a
man of ready resource, and not a mere follower of routine.
Again, he must have sympathy with weakness, and must
be quick to appreciate and reward progress in learning and
compliance with his wishes. Skill can be obtained, and
" the magic touch " developed, only by long practice. The
handling of bad horses in breaking, certainly demands a
large amount of coolness and pluck, both of which can also
be improved by practice. '

Desirability of early training. — As those instincts of
the horse which are opposed to obedience to man, increase in
strength with age ; it is a great advantage to begin the educa-
tion of a horse as early as possible. Horses which from their
birth have roamed about in freedom for several years, have
their instinct of independence so strongly developed, that it
is proportionately difficult to make them learn that it is their
duty to obey, and not to dictate. I have met many such
cases among South African and under- bred Australian
horses which had been " taken up " late in life. Although
it is easy to make these old pupils lose their fear of man, it
is often impossible to induce them to render willing service:
in other words, if not actually sulky, their hearts, so to
speak, are generally behind, instead of in front of, their
work. Not alone do these rebellious instincts grow stronger
with years, but their possessors become less capable of
being influenced by new impressions.

Gaining the horse's attention. — Whether the pupil
be a child or a horse, the first step which the teacher will

RIDING-SCHOOLS, 37

have to take in imparting instruction is to make him
attend to his lesson. As the horse is a gregarious and
roving animal, whose instinct of self-preservation prompts
him, when in the open, to keep a sharp look out against the
attacks of his enemies ; the breaker will be able to keep him
far more attentive and obedient in some convenient en-
closure, such as a riding-school, which contains no other
horses and men, and which is free from disturbing external
influences, than in the open. When the habit of obedience
has been confirmed (but not till then), the animal should
be gradually accustomed to work outside, and in company.
As horses in the army, owing to their large number, are
broken in " rides " of several at a time, a certain proportion
of them contract the vice of refusing to leave the ranks or
to act independently, which, I need hardly say, is a form 01
jibbing. The same detestable vice is often met with in the
hunting field, from the fact of timid or incompetent riders
seeking for a lead. I may here say that the instinct of
imitation in the horse is far more of a hindrance than of an
aid to the breaker who aspires to teach a horse to impli-
citly obey his rider or driver. Even the most inexperienced
will require no argument to understand that a horse which
will not take his own line, or will not, for instance, jump in
" cold blood," is not half broken.

To many persons who regard horse-breaking as a purely
empirical art, the mention of a riding-school as a place of
instruction for a young hunter, race-horse, or chaser, is like
the showing of a red rag to the proverbial bull. We must,
of course, bear in mind, that mere personal opinions have
no part in the science of horse-breaking. The prejudice

38 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

against riding-school work has no doubt arisen from the
fact that, as a rule, the manege ]\2iS been used for the train-
ing of horses only for military, school, or circus purposes ;
and has not been hitherto utilised to any great extent for
preparing them for the field or road. I can say from
experience, that anyone who has used a suitable enclosure
for the preparatory teaching of, for instance, 'cross-country
horses and hacks, and has had subsequently to do the work
without a school of this kind, will keenly appreciate the
great advantage the use of a manege gives him in gain-
ing the attention of his pupils, and in rendering them
obedient.

I may here allude to the fact that over-stimulation of the
nerves, whether in a mental or physical respect, tends to
insensibility. Thus, the too frequently excited muscle ceases
to contract ; and the overwrought brain, to think. The
miller remains unconscious of the din of the machinery
around him ; and the horse, of the admonitions of the rider
or driver who keeps constantly speaking to him. Continued
pressure of the bit on the bars of the horse's mouth is far
less effective in restraining the animal, than pressure which
is judiciously intermitted. The stimulus of whip, spurs,
or mouthpiece, if repeated in a monotonous manner, is at
last more or less disregarded.

Accustoming a horse to his surroundings. — To
render the horse capable of instruction, it is not sufficient
to arrest his attention ; but we must also gain his confidence
by proving to him that he need not fear injury from any-
thing we do to him, or from the surroundings in which we

SECURING ATTENTION. 39

place him. To render him steady under future provocation,
it is well to make him bear with equanimity all possible
kinds of terrifying sights and sounds and to oblige him to
endure being touched all over without flinching. The higher
we try him in these respects — it being of course understood
that the causes of alarm do not entail pain — the quieter
will he be if anything startling happens to him during
actual work. The mere accustoming a horse to unfamiliar
sights, sounds and feelings, is not a reliable method for
making him steady ; because, if permitted to do so, he will
often, particularly when he is fresh, assume a frightened
demeanour which may be pure affectation on his part, but
which may be fraught with danger to his rider or driver.
On the contrary, he should be taught to devote his entire
attention to carying out the orders of his master, and not
to attempt to take the initiative, unless he receives the
signal that he can act for himself for the time being.

Making a horse understand our orders. — We know
from experience that the horse, to be well broken in, must
not alone be quiet ; but must also thoroughly understand
the meaning of the various orders we give him. Al-
though his intelligence is not developed highly enough to
enable us to teach him our spoken language ; we may by
the establishment of certain signals render him capable of
knowing our wishes, in the carrying out of which, their clear
comprehension is naturally the first step. Our conventional
language or signals should, I need hardly say, be those
which he can best understand. Hence, in this endeavour
we should work on his most highly developed mental faculty,

40 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

namely, his memory, in the exercise of which, association
of ideas is the most effective stimulus. It is evident that
we should give these signals in as clear and uniform a
manner as possible, and that their effect should not be com-
plicated by that of other influences, such as fear, anger,
excitement, or desire to go to a companion. We shall see
further on that almost the entire education of the horse
depends upon association of ideas. I may give the follow-
ing instance of the working of this principle : — A friend of
mine had a horse which became so increasingly difficult to
mount, that at last he was unable to get on him by ordinary
means, on account of the animal "breaking away" the
moment he attempted to put his foot into the stirrup.
Living near a river, he hit on the expedient of placing the
horse with his off side " broadside on," and close to, a steep
part of the bank, and then made a feint of mounting on the
near side. As usual, when the man's foot touched the iron,
the horse swung round, and, on this occasion only, fell
down twenty feet into the water. The mental effect of this
lesson, which was harmless from a physical point of view,
was to make the animal perfectly steady to mount, so long
as he stood on the bank of the river and in a position
similar to that from which he had had his tumble ; but he
was just as difficult as ever to mount anywhere else. It is
evident than any such method to be perfect should be
of universal, and not of local, application. No doubt this
unruly horse would, by many, be deemed a nervous creature
and a worthy recipient of a large amount of kindness and
petting. I may state that probably the most effective
means of applying the principle of association of ideas to

UNDERSTANDING OUR SIGNALS. 41

the breaking of vicious horses, is one by which the animal
arrives at the right conclusion from wrong premises, as with
the rope-twitch (see page 346), when making a horse
steady to mount. Evidently mistaking the cause of the pain
inflicted on him, he connects the idea of punishment with the
word " steady," and not with the application of the rope.
Were he able to argue rightly on this subject, he would re-
main quiet only when the twitch was on, and would entirely
disregard the verbal admonition, for which he entertains
marked respect.

If a horse does not understand our signals, and we
continue to force them on him, he will, as a rule, become
impatient, violent or stubborn. In the horse world, we hear
every day the remark that a horse knows when he has a
timid rider on his back. My opinion, after long and careful
investigation, is that the animal draws no conclusion what-
soever as to the state of mind of the man in the saddle ; but
that any unaccustomed " defence " which he may make in
such a case is due to his becoming confused by the ill-
regulated signals which the rider gives him. Although the
unhappy man may be entirely unaware that he is transmit-
ting these signals ; it is impossible for him to avoid doing
so, if he makes the slightest movement with hand, leg, or
body. Every such movement is made by the accomplished
horseman with, I need hardly say, the purpose of giving a
definite and easily understood signal to his mount.

A horse's respect for signals which he understands, is
well proved by the fact that many horses which are
habitually " difficult " with ordinary riders, will obey with
steadiness and precision the behests of a capable horseman.

42 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

I have known horses which, after they left their breaker,
became almost unrideable by the majority of people from
having been " spoiled " by bad management ; and yet
whenever their breaker happened to ride them again, they
appeared almost instantly to forget their lately-acquired
tricks, and comported themselves as sedately as they had
previously done with him.

Punishment and reward are the two great means by
which we can establish, for purposes of education, the
required association of ideas in the mind of the horse,
whose affection for us and whose love of our admiration
are, as I have already said, too slight to be profitably
utilised. Punishment is far more effective than reward,
which, I regretfully feel compelled to say, might be
altogether laid aside without any appreciable interfer-
ence with the progress of a horse's instruction. I make
this statement from practical experience, and not from
sentimental considerations, with which I have at present
no concern. In deference to long-established stable
usage, I here employ the expression " punishment " for
the infliction of pain, independently of its object. Thus,
a race-horse is often said to run gamely under punish-
ment, which in that case means the application of whip,
or spurs, or of both, as a stimulus to increased exer-
tion. We should bear in mind that humanity, as well
as self-interest, enacts that the breaker is justified in
inflicting suffering on the horse only as a means of
education, but not as a penalty for wrong-doing, which
is a question of morality that does not concern him. In

PUNISHMENT. 43

breaking, the sole benefit to be derived from the infliction,
or from the fear, of pain, is to induce the animal to mentally
associate with it the particular idea which the breaker
wishes to convey, either as a stimulus or as a warning.
The horse, following his instinct of seeking safety from
danger by flight, tries, as a rule, to escape from threatened
or inflicted pain. Thus, the horse goes forward when we
raise the driving whip behind him, or touch him on the
quarters with it. If we threaten him with the whip in front,
he will usually recoil from it. I think we may take for
granted that if the horse yielded to instinct, uninfluenced
by previous training, he would, on being struck on the front
part of the body, be more inclined to go back than to go
forward. By association of ideas, however, we can teach
him to increase his pace almost as well by hitting him on
the shoulder as on the hind quarters. The latter method
is, I need hardly say, much to be preferred to the former,
on account of its being more in harmony with the animal's
instinct. If an irritating fly happens to pitch on the horse's
side behind the girths, he will instinctively try to dislodge
it by whisking it off with his tail, or, failing that, by kicking
at it. As we wish him to employ neither of these means on
being touched with the spur, we should teach him to regard
its application as an indication of our wishes, and not as a
cause of irritation. Pain as a warning may be illustrated
by the use of the wooden gag (see page 352), to make the
biter connect in his mind the idea of pain with the practice
of his pet vice, which he will forsake as soon as the sug-
gested thought becomes habitual to him.

The chief practical reasons against the employment of

44 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

punishment in the breaking of horses are : that it is very
liable to fail in its object ; and that it is calculated to break
the spirit of high-couraged animals, and to increase the
sulkiness of stubborn ones. When the horse is under the
influence of anger, to which he can be readily provoked
by punishment, he will be incapable of instruction, and
may exhibit dangerous resentment, or determined passive
resistance, with utter disregard of painful or even fatal
consequences to himself. A victory obtained by him when
in this state of feeling will naturally produce a powerful
effect on his excited mind, and will consequently aggravate
any tendency to resistance far more than the exhibition of
timidity or weakness on the part of the rider or driver. Of
course I do not mean to say that a vigorous " shaking up,"
and a sharp cut or two with a stick (for preference) or whip,
is not sometimes advisable with a " reluctant " horse, or to
stop the " calfish " tricks of a youngster ; but even in this
we should carefully remember the danger we run in being
unsuccessful in our attempted enforcement of discipline.
The history of the turf furnishes us with an appalling
number of instances of race-horses which have had their
tempers permanently spoiled, by jockeys or stable-lads
punishing them severely for some act of disobedience which
the thrashing and spurring was unable to prevent. Person-
ally, I make it a rule never to hit a horse, so as to hurt him,
when breaking. Mares are far more liable than entires or
geldings to be spoiled by punishment. If the breaker be
obliged to employ coercive measures, he should apply them
in such a manner (as I shall explain later on) that the horse
will not connect him with the inflicted pain.

PUNISHMENT. 45

In making a horse quiet, or in regulating his movements,
we should naturally avoid, as far as possible, the use of any
kind of pain which, while accomplishing its special purpose,
produces in other respects a bad effect on the horse. The
ordinary twitch furnishes us with a good illustration ; for
although it may make the horse stand steady while it is
being employed ; its application, whether on upper lip or
ear, will almost certainly render him subsequently more or
less difficult to handle near the former seat of pain. The
same objection may be urged against the use of the
cavasson (see page 142) for inflicting blows on the horse's
nose, with a like object. The practice of jerking the reins
so as to hurt the *' bars " of the animal's mouth, with the
intention of punishing him for unsteadiness, is still more
reprehensible ; for as long as the reins are associated in his
retentive mind with the idea of pain, so long will he receive
with suspicion, fear, or resentment, all orders conveyed to
him through the reins, and consequently his usefulness will
be more or less impaired for any service that demands
pluck and ''cleverness." These remarks apply to the
employment of the spurs, and to the whip in all its forms.
In fact, the use of all such " aids " or indications, as we
shall see more fully in the following chapters, should be
reserved, as far as practicable, for its legitimate work of
telling the horse what his master wishes him to do. If we
accept the axiom that one of our chief duties as breakers
is to establish a clearly understood code of signals between
ourselves and the horse, we should not increase the
difficulty which all horses have in comprehending these
signals, by rendering their meaning ambiguous to him, as

46 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

we would do, were we sometimes to use them as definite
orders ; at other times, as the means of inflicting punish-
m.ent for faults which the horse may or may not know he
has committed.

The fact that the horse, like a child, has a keen sense of
injustice, fully accounts for the readiness with which his
temper may be spoiled by punishment unconnected in his
mind with the committal of a fault. Nothing can be more
opposed to reason than to reward a horse for doing wrong,
and to punish him for obedience, as we may frequently
see done by the driver of a jibber, who pats the animal on
the neck and speaks encouragingly to him when he stops,
and flogs and rates him as soon as he starts.

In the judicious use of the voice as a punishment by
threatening, or as a reward by the expression of approval,
there need be no fear of ambiguity ; for the horse is in no
way likely to mistake a harsh tone for a caress, or a soft
one for a rebuke. As I have previously pointed out, the
horse's power of drawing conclusions is so small, that, as a
rule, he is unable to associate in his mind one event with
another, unless their connection is well marked and
extremely close as regards duration of time. We all know
that pain inflicted in the ordinary way with whip or spur,
for, say, biting, or unsteadiness when being mounted, is far
more likely to aggravate the particular fault than to cure
it. But if the correction be carried out as explained
respectively on pages 129 and 352, the horse as a rule will
readily associate the idea of punishment with that of
wrong-doing, on account of the sensation of pain instantly
following the committal of the offence. I need hardly

EFFECT OF THE VOICE. 47

say that the infliction of punishment for aggressiveness,
such as " savaging," may be beneficial, provided always
that it is awarded only during the attack, and is not
continued after the horse has ceased the assault.

Reward may be conveyed by the voice, by patting and
caressing the animal with the hand, by giving him some
favourite dainty, such as a carrot or lump of sugar, and by
the cessation of discipline. This last mentioned means of
gaining the good-will of the horse is particularly effective,
and may be utilised with great advantage in the manage-
ment of the reins, and in many other cases in which we
wish to inform him that he has done to our satisfaction
the task we have set him.

Effect of the voice. — The horse's keen perception of
sound makes the human voice a powerful means, by associa-
tion of ideas, of controlling and guiding him. As he
readily recognises change of tone (see page 22), but not of
words ; we should reserve a particular tone for each of our
different orders, the number of which should, in this respect,
be kept as small as possible, so that ambiguity may be
avoided. Also, it is of course well to have only one unvarying
word or expression for each order. M. James Fillis says : —
'' To teach a horse * at liberty ' [in a school or circus] to
advance at the walk, trot, or canter, one says * walk ' in a
comparatively low tone ; ' trot' while slightly raising the
voice ; and ' canter ! in a loud, commanding tone. If you
utter the word ' canter ' softly, the horse will remain at the
walk ; if loudly, he will immediately strike off into the
canter." I have seen very dangerous animals approached

48 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

and handled with impunity, merely by " shouting at "
them, and terrified ones rendered tranquil by a few gentle
words. To obtain the full effect of the voice, we should,
while employing it, utilise the principle of association of
ideas. As cases in point, I may mention teaching horses
to halt (see page 195), and to stand steady (see page 346).
As suggested on page 38, we should avoid wearying the
attention of the animal by needlessly speaking to him. In
fact, we should reserve the use of our voice for occasions
on which it is needed to produce a definite effect.

Emulation and imitation. — In breaking, emulation may
often be useful by, for instance, infusing " life " into a lazy
pupil by "company." We find the benefit of imitation
when a frisky youngster, on being put into double-harness,
copies the staid demeanour of a well-broken companion.
In giving a " reluctant " horse a lead over a fence, both
these influences come into play.

The effect of imitation is particularly well seen in young
horses, who love to copy the actions of their companions.
When riding in company, I have frequently noticed the
newly-broken colt or filly imitate the tricks or peculiarities
of those near her. For instance, if a companion has the
habit of throwing up his head, or boring it down, she will
probably try to follow suit ; though she will be more than
usually circumspect in her demeanour when restricted to
the society of a steady old horse. I recognise this prin-
ciple so fully that I make a point of not having young
horses which I am breaking-in, ridden in the company of
unsteady ones.

FATIGUE. 49

Fatigue may be used as a valuable adjunct to other
means of control, but should seldom be employed alone ;
for its effects usually are as transitory as the sensation
itself. Thus, if we, while riding or driving a bolter, allow
him, in order to cure him of his vice, to run himself to a
stand-still, we shall in all probability find the animal quite
as ready, if not more so, to run away the next time he is
" fresh." In such a case, the fact of the horse having been
allowed to do the very thing he wanted to accomplish, in
defiance of the wishes of his would-be master, can produce
no good effect in forming in him the habit of obedience.
Fatigue may often appear to be the sole cause of the quiet-
ness evinced by an animal under treatment of some of the
breaking methods I shall describe ; but this on examina-
tion will be found to be incorrect. Even the fatigue caused
in, say, rendering an unruly horse quiet to shoe behind, by
keeping him on the ground and " gentling " him (see page
164), is out of all proportion small compared to the amount
of control obtained. One of the best examples of the fact
that it is the feeling of powerlessness to rebel, and not the
sensation of fatigue, which compels obedience by these
methods, is furnished by the experiment of making a
violent horse, like an Australian buckjumper, quiet to
mount by tying him head and tail (see page 351) ; the
effect produced being striking ; the feeling of helplessness,
evident ; and the amount of fatigue, small.

At the same time, we must not forget that the effect
of exercise is very useful in making a horse which is full
of spirits and " beans," attend to the work we give him
to do.

E

50 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Necessity for exacting implicit obedience from the
horse. — As the horse takes Httle, if any, deHght in obeying
the orders of man, who is his physical inferior, it is not
sufficient for him to clearly understand them ; but he must
be made, if possible, to believe from the commencement of
his instruction that he cannot resist them. I need hardly
say that the convenience and safety of the rider or driver
may often require that the horse, in yielding himself
absolutely to the guidance of man, shall perform actions
which are opposed to the promptings of his instincts,
particularly that of self-preservation. The system of trying
to induce a horse to obey merely by humouring and petting
him is altogether wrong from a practical point of view ; for
the horse being a selfish animal as far as we are concerned,
can, under such circumstances, be made compliant to our
wishes only when they tally with his own.

While fully admiring the kindness of heart of those
enthusiasts who regard a horse as a friend to be won by
affection, I must say that the better plan for making him
a useful member of society is to treat him as a servant who
has to be taught his work, and from whom implicit
obedience has to be demanded. Until he does his work
honestly and well, the less petting he gets the better ; for
he is apt to become headstrong and fractious by a small
amount of indulgence in his own way. I entirely deprecate
punishing a stubborn horse with whip or spur, which he can
resist ; but I insist on the necessity — after proving to him
that he has nothing to fear, and after teaching him to
understand the meaning of our signals — of impressing on
him the fact that he must obey. I shall endeavour, in due

NECESSITY OF OBEDIENCE. 51

course, to explain how such obedience can be peremptorily
enforced.

If we have a dispute as to discipline with a horse, we
should not part company with him before making him
yield, lest he may carry away the mischievous impression
that he has got the best of the battle. The breaker need
not attempt to do too much at any one lesson; but what he
undertakes he should succeed in performing before quitting
his pupil. For instance, with a horse that will not allow his
hind legs to be touched, the breaker may reasonably content
himself with making him quiet to handle about those parts,
without insisting on his standing submissively to be shod
'' behind," which is an operation that might be attempted
on the following day. Also, we should make use of our
knowledge of the limited scope of the horse's reasoning
powers, to change the subject of contention if we fear that
there is any chance of our being worsted in a pitched battle
with the animal, so that the victory, even if it does not
affect the original cause of dispute, should always remain
on our side. As an illustration, I may mention the advis-
ability of forcibly making a determined runaway lie down
until he thoroughly " gives in," in order to make him yield
the more readily to the indications of the reins.

As the teacher requires cheerful as well as implicit
obedience to his commands, he should be careful to
judiciously regulate their character and frequency, and to
reward the pupil for complying with them.

In enforcing obedience, we should never employ a
general effect when a particular one would answer our
purpose, lest we might spoil the animal's pluck and " light-

E 2

52 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

heartedness." Thus, instead of Rareyfying a high-couraged
horse which had on previous occasions been made difficult
to mount by a bad rider prodding him in the side with his
toe when trying to get into the saddle ; it would be better to
attain our object by means of the rope-twitch (see page 129),
or by the head and tail method (see page 169), so as to prove
to him that he need not in future fear being touched by the
toe when being mounted. In fact, we should regard the
application of irksome means of control as a necessary evil
to be employed as little as practicable. The method of
reducing a horse to discipline by getting on his back and
sticking on until he gallops or bucks himself to a standstill
is not scientific ; for no matter how plucky and adhesive the
rider may be, the terrified or vicious horse may unseat him
by running into some obstacle, falling down, or throwing
himself back when rearing, in which case he will probably
acquire the evil knowledge of his own strength, and will
consequently be much worse than he was before. Even if
the man gets the mastery ; the effect, to become permanent,
has to be repeated several times, and, in many instances, is
disregarded after a rest of a few days in the stable, or with
a different rider. This rough style of breaking is, of course,
good only as far as it goes, and has no claim to teach the
manners which make the horse, as well as they do the man.

Safety in breaking. — It is manifest that the methods
adopted in breaking should not alone be free from physical
danger to the horse ; but should also be in no way calcu-
lated to spoil him. Judging by the large proportion o
pullers, borers, refusers, and one-sided mouthed animals

SAFETY IN BREAKING. 53

there are to well-broken horses, we might not unreasonably
conclude that more horses are marred than " made " in
breaking.

In order to fulfil the necessary condition of safety for
himself, the breaker should be able by the system under
which he works — to quote the words of that clever horse-
tamer, "Professor" Sample — "to make the animal rideable
and driveable before he is either ridden or driven."
The breaker who employs the ordinary English method is
not alone exposed to danger when mounting, or even when
driving his pupils for the first few times, but also in the
preliminary handling. The advice, which is freely tendered
on such occasions, to go boldly up to the horse and show
him that you are not afraid of him, should be treated by
its recipient as a piece of " cheap swagger," or the outcome
of mere ignorance ; for even granting that such a proceed-
ing would effectively soothe a terrified animal, or cow a
treacherously disposed one — suppositions which are alto-
gether absurd — such counsel would in no way supply the
necessary foolhardiness for such an undertaking. My
advice, to either amateur or professional, is never to give a
horse a chance of doing wrong. Hence, in order to be
consistent, I shall endeavour to describe in the following
pages how any horse, no matter how wild or vicious he may
be, can be brought under complete control with, practically,
no risk to the breaker.

Rapid methods of breaking. — We are greatly indebted
to American horse-tamers, from Rarey down to Sample, for
having furnished us with labour-saving methods of breaking.

54 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

If we examine the working of these methods, we shall note
that they are founded on intensity of impression in the
association of ideas (see page 7) ; on the principle of
showing a horse his powerlessness to resist our orders ;
or on a combination of the two. The ordinary English,
French, and German systems are based on repetition for
the formation of a habit ; but without special intensity of
effect. Consequently, the desired result takes a long time
(say, from six months to two years) to be obtained, and is
liable under trifling provocation to be lost. The "horse-
tamers " and their followers make three blunders : in
claiming that their respective systems are infallible ; in
asserting that the effects are permanent; and in failing to
recognise the great importance of a " good mouth " and
obedience to the " aids." While fully admitting that
no system of education is infallible, and that the best
broken horse is capable of being spoiled at any moment
by an incompetent attendant, rider, or driver, I must
say that, with extremely few exceptions, any unhandled
or spoiled horse, no matter how wild, vicious, or old he
may be, can be made, by quick methods, quiet to ride
and ready to obey the ordinary indications of the reins in
from two to four hours. Such a horse, to become a reliable
"conveyance," would probably require about twelve more
lessons — two a day — of an hour's duration each. He ought
by that time to have acquired a fairly good mouth, steady
paces, and " cleverness " to jump any ordinary fence.
Army remounts which have never had even a halter on
them, might on an emergency be made fit for the riding-
school in a couple of days. I need not dwell on the value

RAPID METHODS OF BREAKING. 55

of such expedition in military exigencies, and in all cases
where time is an object. " Spoiled " horses which have
learned to know their own power, would naturally take
longer to break than entirely unhandled animals ; although
a limit of a week need not usually be exceeded even with
them. The possibility of reclaimed horses going back to
their old tricks should be provided against by judicious
repetition of the necessary discipline, which would rarely
be needed after the first three or four days, if the animal
be mouthed and suppled in the manner I shall hereafter
describe. Without using any forcible methods, which, as a
rule, would not be required with a valuable horse, the
breaker ought not to need more than a week to make any
ordinary horse fit for all the usual requirements of saddle
or harness, as far as quietness and obedience go. His
higher education, especially in the formation of his paces,
and, if a 'cross-country horse, in teaching him to collect
and extend himself properly when jumping, would probably
occupy the breaker's time for another month or two.

To those who might advance the argument that because
the ordinary course of breaking takes more than ten times
as long as the methods I advocate, it must therefore be
more permanent in its influence ; I would beg to submit that
such a contention would hold good only on the untenable
supposition that the efl"ects of the respective processes were
equal in force. I see no possible benefit, except the
questionable one of giving the animal an exaggerated
opinion of his own powers of resistance, in taking a month
to accomplish what may be done quite as efficiently in an
hour ; as, for instance, making a fractious horse steady to

56 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

mount, or quiet to shoe behind, or a sulky refuser to jump
'' kindly," We must surely admit that the intensity of an
effect, and not the time occupied in its production, is the
measure of its permanency.

On the possibility of overcoming any form of vice. —

Our problem here is to establish a new habit that will have
a stronger influence on the vicious animal's mind than the
old habit which had impaired his usefulness. If the " pain
in the temper " is due to the horse failing to understand
our wishes, we may easily eradicate the fault by utilising
the principle of association of ideas. When, however, the
dispute is one as to supremacy, our last and great resource
is to impress on his mind the erroneous conviction that he
cannot resist our orders. If, however, he finds out by
experience that he need not obey our orders unless he
chooses, our labour will be in vain ; supposing that he
makes up his mind, which he is fully capable of doing, not
to " give in." Herein lies the whole question of success
or failure, in making vicious horses docile. The fact of
our gaining our point, by the application of whip or spurs,
with some sulky horses, only proves that these particular
animals had not the necessary amount of resolution to
resist the coercion applied to them. There are, however,
many other horses upon which the only effect of such
punishment would be to still further increase the rebellious
state of their minds. Man-eaters, like the historic Cruiser,
the taming of whom made Rarey famous, being actuated
almost entirely by instinctive hostility, yield far more
readily to man's authority than the sulky animal who,

TREACHERY AND STUBBORNNESS. 57

having found out a method by which he can thwart the
wishes of his would-be master, craftily adheres to it, and
thereby lays claim to the possession of a large amount of
intelligence. From this we may see that the assertion made
by many "horse-tamers," that they can cure any form of
equine vice, is absurd.

Of all kinds of vice, treachery and stubbornness are the
most difficult to eradicate ; for the horse who sets his will
in deliberate opposition to ours, questions the validity
of our erroneous assumption of physical supremacy, the
acceptance of which is our strongest means of horse control.
Or we might say that such an animal fights us with the
weapons — those of intelligence — by which, alone, we can bring
into subjection our physical superiors. Vices due to nervous-
ness or impatience of control can be readily overcome, and,
as a rule, " refusing " and jibbing in saddle. A jibber in
draught, however, is apt to find out that, although the
breaker may be all-powerful in the absence of the cart, the
advantage is all the other way as soon as the horse gets
between the shafts. Besides, it is impossible in many cases
to apply, on the spot, breaking methods to animals which
have played up in harness. For instance, if a trapper be
accustomed to jib as soon as he comes to a stiff incline, to
back into the ditch or fence, and then to proceed to kick
the vehicle to pieces ; all the breaker can do is to take him
out, and try to indirectly counteract the fault in some con-
venient place. He may apparently succeed ; but the old
association of ideas may influence the mind of the pupil
more strongly than the new one, in the event of anything
going wrong ; as, for instance, an accidental halt the first

58 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

time the horse is driven up a hill through a crowded
thoroughfare. In such a case, if the animal " shows fight,"
he will gain the victory almost to a certainty, and the
attempted association of ideas will become proportionately
weakened. For vices unconnected with harness, the breaker
can, on the contrary, generally find some suitable place in
which to work his will on the disobedient one, under
advantageous conditions. I say this with every reasonable
reserve ; for we may sometimes meet with cases of saddle
vices, such as running away on a racecourse when galloped,
or when close to hounds that are in full cry, to which it is
difficult to directly apply efficient breaking remedies.

Vices caused by undue sexual excitement, defects of
vision, pain in the legs or feet which might make a horse
refuse to jump, and other infirmities and diseases, do not
come within the scope of the breaker. Castration is, in
both sexes, an admirable means for rendering quiet those
animals which are vicious from sexual causes. Although I
have had many hundreds of horses with various forms of
" pain in the temper " pass through my hands, I have met
with very few which, so far as I could judge, were incapable
of being made serviceable on account of mental aberration,
which, in the horse, usually takes the form of extreme and
causeless excitability. I have known only one or two
healthy horses which were so listless and stupid that they
might be regarded as idiots.

As the breaker has to work on the material at hand, and
as he has no power to change the nervous organisation of
the animal, however firmly he may establish the habit of
implicit obedience ; it is impossible for him to make a

PERSONAL INFLUENCE. 59

naturally sulky horse work with the gaiety of heart and
pluck which an honest one will display. This is particularly
true out hunting with " faint-hearted " horses, which, no
matter how carefully they may have been broken, and how
well they are ridden, are often apt to refuse if they get
interfered with, or to hang back in a crowd, when we want
them to go boldly forward and give a lead over some
awkward fence.

Personal influence in breaking. — I do not believe in the
possession of any special power over horses, with which some
people are supposed to be gifted, apart from skill, know-
ledge, pluck, and physical advantages. The great objection
to the practice of personal influence as a breaking agent is,
that although the animal may be perfectly obedient to the
man who has had the exclusive handling of him, he may be
refractory with other people, and may even jealously resent
interference from anyone else. I have frequently been
struck w^ith this fact when breaking savage horses who
would not, if they could help it, allow anyone except their
groom to meddle with them ; and have always found that they
were more vicious to approach when their stable attend-
ant was near them, than when he was absent. We may
often see the same feeling evinced by dogs which would fly
at any stranger who dared to touch them, as long as
they were with their master ; although they might be fairly
amiable if he were not present. However much we may
admire in the abstract this fidelity to one, it is apt, in the
horse, to detract from the animal's usefulness under civilised
conditions ; especially if the owner be not regarded as the

6o THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

confidential friend in question. When the groom is the
object of this exclusive form of affection, it is generally
advantageous to have him changed for a new man.

Advisability of possessing various methods of break-
ing.— As horses differ greatly in temper and intelligence,
and as the removal of the cause is the best plan for the
treatment of either disease or vice ; the breaker, to be
successful in the instruction of young horses, or in the refor-
mation of " spoiled " ones, should be provided with various
methods for enforcing his commands. Hence, we may
rest assured that the horse-tamer who advertises his own
particular '* system " as a certain cure for all forms of dis-
obedience or vice, is as arrant a quack as the man who tries
to foist on the public a pill for the removal of every kind of
disease. In the following pages I shall describe various
breaking methods, from which my readers can select those
which they deem most suitable for particular cases.

Selection of breaking methods. — The most useful
methods of breaking are those which we can readily and
frequently apply, so as to establish the desired habit.
Hence, the "indications" conveyed by the reins, voice, and
whip, and also by the leg, in saddle, should be specially
relied upon in forming the horse's " manners " and paces.
In other words, the horse's " mouth " (using the expression
in its most comprehensive meaning) should be the founda-
tion of all good breaking. I need hardly say that a horse
which has been trained to obey the " aids " (see page 64)
with precision, can be relied upon to remain steady and

PERMANENCY IN BREAKING. 6i

obedient under very trying circumstances. As it is imprac-
ticable to be constantly repeating taming methods, such as
Rareyfying, or tying a horse head and tail and making him
go round (see page 169), and as they afford us no assistance in
the guidance of the horse or in the formation of his paces ;
we must disregard them as means for the maintenance of a
permanent state of discipline, however useful they may be
for enforcing authority in the first instance. The " aids,"
on the contrary, are ever present, whether riding or driving,
to keep the horse mindful of his duty.

Permanency in the effects of breaking. — The role of
the breaker is to establish in the horse certain habits, which,
being for the most part opposed to his instincts, can be
easily subverted by accustoming him to practices opposed
to them, or even by allowing his instincts to resume their
former and natural sway over him. We must remember
that, however firmly held in check by training instincts may
be, their influence on the mind remains constant ; and that
the influence of discipline may become gradually effaced by
the opposing action of these instincts, unless repeated from
time to time. Consequently, in order that the effects of
breaking may be permanent, the state of discipline induced
by them should be rigidly preserved.

However well a horse may have been broken of a bad
habit, he will be far more likely to acquire it again under
injudicious management than he would have been had he
been originally free from it ; for no course of discipline,
although it may keep him under perfect control, can efface
out of his mind the memory of the practice of a former

62 THEORY OF HORSE-CONTROL.

habit. Hence, a teacher of breaking will be wise to confine
himself to showing "how it is done," and not risk his
reputation in making the impossible attempt of " curing " a
vicious horse for other people. Besides, it is only " human
nature " for the owner, rider, or driver of a wayward horse
which has reverted from a state of discipline to his former
evil courses, to blame the breaker and not himself.

The correct method, as I have already explained, in estab-
lishing the habit of obedience, is first to make the horse obey,
and then to repeat the process as may be needed. Although,
in a few exceptional cases, one victory over a horse may pro-
duce a permanently good effect on his mind, as far as mere
obedience or docility is concerned ; the effect, however
strongly it may have been enforced, will, in the vast
majority of instances, soon wear ofT unless it be repeated.
I have often, and I think unjustly, incurred blame after I
had practically demonstrated to the members of a class I
was teaching, the feasibility of making a confirmed jibber,
obstinate refuser, or violent buckjumper, quiet and obedient
in one lesson ; because such an animal had afterwards
become just as bad as before, on account of his owner not
taking the trouble, as advised by me, of repeating the
lesson I had given. I may point out that the reason why
men usually fail to subdue " difficult " horses, is because
they do not know how to take the first step, namely, that
of enforcing obedience. If they be supplied with this all-
important information, their task will be one of increasing-
facility after each repetition, and, if persevered in, will be
rapidly completed. But to be successful, it must be re-
peated until the desired habit is established.

SUMMARY. ^ 63

Summary of the principles of making horses docile
may be stated as follows : —

1. To obtain control over the animal.

2. To prove to him that he has nothing to fear from us,
or from the surroundings in which we place him ; in other
words, to give him confidence and to cure him of nervousness.

3. To teach him to understand the meaning of the
signals by which we desire to convey our orders to him.

4. To make him obey our orders with promptness,
precision, and willingness.

5. To instruct him how to use his powers to the best
advantage.

6. To convert by repetition those acts of obedience and
" cleverness," thus taught, into confirmed habits, so that
he may become a permanently useful servant.

64

CHAPTER III.

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

" Mouth " and "aids " — Respective actions of the aids — Suitabihty of
the horse to the appHcation of the aids — Making a horse obey the
aids — Combined action of fore and hind legs, and distribution of
weight on them — Carriage and action of the head and neck of the
horse when he is in motion — " Collecting " the horse — Require-
ments of a good mouth — Combined action of the aids in forming
the mouth — Respective actions of the snaffle and curb — Direction
of the pull of the reins — Turning, circling, and lunging the horse —
Reining back — The standing martingale — Bearing reins, running
reins, side reins, and nosebands — " Tying horses up," " reining,"
dumb jockeys, and the pillars.

" Mouth " and " aids."- — A horse may be said to have
a good mouth when he obeys the aids with promptness and
correctness. In riding, the aids — if I may be allowed to
adopt the definition — are the signals afforded by the reins,
whip, legs (and spurs), voice, and changes of position
of the rider's weight. In driving, they are confined to the
reins, whip, and voice. I am of course aware that the
term " aids " is applied, in the manege, only to the action
of the reins and legs for guiding and regulating the move-
ments of the horse. As the other forces which I have

THE AIDS. 65

mentioned, act in the same direction, and are valuable
adjuncts to the reins and legs ; I venture to include
them in a definition which is as suitable to them, as it is
to those whose recognition has obtained the sanction of
custom.

As the riding-school term, ''aids," is not generally under-
stood by horsemen in this country ; I regret that I am forced
to employ it (modified as I have explained) from the
absence of any popular synonym. The stable expressions,
" mouth " and '' mouthing," are misleading ; for they wrongly
imply that the horse is to be controlled exclusively by his
mouth, that is to say, by only one end of his body, instead
of by both ends, as he ought to be, and as we shall see
further on. In deference to custom I shall, however, use
these expressions in the following pages ; but with the
understanding that '' mouth " signifies capability of answer-
ing the aids ; and '* mouthing," instruction in their
application.

Respective actions of the aids. — The reins can be used
to bend the head and neck ; to restrain the forward action
of the horse by exerting pressure on the mouth in a
direction opposite to that in which he is proceeding or in
which he is placed ; to turn the head and neck to the
right or to the left ; to lower them ; to raise them ; or
to combine, when practicable, two or even three of these
actions, as is done when the head is drawn to one side and
lowered by the action of one rein, and when the movements
of the horse are checked at the same time by the pressure
of both reins.

F

66 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

The whip or stick may be used either as a local or as a
general stimulant to movement. The local effect may be
converted, by association of ideas, into a general one. Thus,
although the purely instinctive result of a cut of the whip
on the hind-quarter or on the shoulder might respectively
be a kick or a bite at the supposed aggressor ; it will be
taken by many saddle and harness horses as a signal to go
on, independently of the position of the seat of pain. The
same remark applies to the application of the legs, feet, or
spw's, the effect of which may be the same, whether they prick
the stifles, score the sides, or rip the shoulders. Here we have
a manifest loss of useful power, in that, with either the whip
or feet, we can obtain with the properly broken-in horse at
least seven valuable indications (or signals) instead of only
one. Thus, the application of the drawn-back foot, or of the
whip when used in a similar manner, will, for instance, check
the tendency of the hind-quarters from swinging round
when a turn is being made to the opposite side (two
indications, one for each side). When the rider's foot is
advanced and the shoulder is touched by the front and
inner edge of the boot, an indication similar to the one
behind is given in front (two indications). The applica-
tion of both drawn-back feet will cause the horse to bring
his hind legs under him — that is to the front (one indica-
tion). A similar use, in front, of both feet advanced will
make him extend his fore legs to the front (one indication).
The application of both heels or spurs at a point midway
between the respective spheres of action of the fore and hind
limbs may be fairly accepted as a stimulant to both (one
indication). As I shall later on attempt to investigate the

THE AIDS, 67

intelligent application of the aids, with illustrations, I shall
abstain for the present from further discussing this subject,
which I have here introduced, principally, with the object
of impressing on my readers that it is not enough for them
to know when they should touch their horse with whip or
foot ; but that they should also know zvhere they should
apply such aids.

The voice is a general stimulant. The rider s weight, by
its change of position, is naturally a local indication.

Suitability of the horse to the application of the
aids. — The five following facts are the principal ones which
render the horse amenable to control by the aids :

1. His instinct of self-preservation prompts him to fly
from the infliction of pain.

2. The " bars " of the lower jaw (that portion of the gums
which is devoid of teeth, and which is between the molars
and the tushes, or the place which the tushes usually
occupy) being sensitive and smooth, readily lend themselves
to the application of restraining pressure.

3. The lateral muscles of the neck are so weak that the
ordinary rider or driver can easily pull the horse's head
round to whichever side he likes.

4. When the horse carries his head in the best manner
for facilitating his movements (see page ^6), the mouth-
piece, whether of snafifle or curb, will be in a good position
for the rider or driver to control the animal by the reins.
The breaker will therefore be under no necessity of trying,
for bitting purposes, to make the horse carry his head and
neck in any other way than a perfectly natural one.

F 2

68 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

5. When the saddle horse is in motion, the balance of his
body is readily disturbed by changes in the position of the
rider's weight. Hence, such changes, when appropriately
made, are readily accepted by the horse as signals for
altering the nature or direction of his movements.

Making a horse obey the aids. — In teaching a horse
to obey the aids, we should act on the principle advocated
on page 50, of making our equine servant accord ready
obedience to our commands, after he has learned to
understand our wishes when they are expressed by the
proper signals. The breaker will do well to bear in
mind the maxim, that a horse should never get the chance
of pulling successfully against the reins, or unsuccessfully
against the collar. As a man on foot has as thorough
command over a horse, as the horse has over his rider
(supposing that both know how to exercise their respective
powers) ; the breaker should naturally commence his
lessons on foot, and should, as a rule, refrain from
giving the horse the advantage of having him in the
saddle until the habit of obedience to the aids (or to
their breaking substitutes, such as the pressure of the
long rein on the quarter, for that of the rider's outward
leg) be fully confirmed. In all this, we act on the principle
of association of ideas in the mind of the horse to guard
ourselves from the evil consequences which might ensue
from the exercise of the animal's instinctive impatience
of control.

With some horses, and especially with those which have
learned to know their own power, the process of inculcating

INTENSITY OF IMPRESSION. 69

the habit of obedience to the aids by their mere application,
may be ineffective, or may be too tedious for practical
requirements on account of the impression produced being
lacking in intensity (see page 7). In such a case, I
would advocate the advisability of exacting obedience, in
the first instance, by some ready method, for instance,
making the horse lie down (see page 161), or keeping him
on the ground (see page 165), so as to impress him with
the idea of our supreme power, and to banish from his
mind any thought of resisting our will, even on a point
concerning which he would always prove victorious, had
he sufficient intelligence to see through our artifice. Our
power over the horse when we are on his back, being
necessarily limited in extent, may, with all our teaching,
fail us at times. I in no way wish to say that competent
riding or driving cannot in time accomplish the object in
view, in the case of ordinary horses, without the work on
foot ; but it will take very much longer to do so, and will
require far more skill in the operator. According to my
experience, the work on foot, which I shall describe later on,
can produce on difficult horses good effects which, without
its assistance, are unattainable by any rider or driver,
however excellent his " hands," and however great his
pluck may be.

Combined action of fore and hind legs^ and dis-
tribution of weight on them. — I need hardly say that the
locomotive machinery of the horse should be viewed as a
whole in its working, and not as made up of independent
portions ; and that, in all forms of useful movement, there

70 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

should be perfect harmony between the respective action of
both fore and hind limbs, and even of each separate limb.
In the ordinary course of turning the saddle horse, for
instance, it is therefore illogical to act only on the mouth ;
for by doing so, the tendency will be to cause the hind legs
to revolve round the pivot formed by the fore ones, which
bear the greater proportion of weight, instead of the revolu-
tion being made by both pairs of legs on a pivot somewhere
between them. Riders who attempt to guide the horse
entirely by the reins treat him as if he had only one end,
namely the forehand. An admirable illustration of the
evil results of this incapable method is afforded by the
trick many horses have acquired, when they refuse or run
out, of yielding only the head and neck to the pull of the
reins, and not, as they ought to do, bringing their hind-
quarters round at the same time. It is manifest that the
control of the head and neck which the rider has in Fig. i,
is of no use to him in putting the horse straight to the fence,
so long as the animal retains command over the action of
his hind legs. The horse which has been taught to answer
the pull of the rein with both ends of his body will, on the
contrary, in the event of shying off or refusing to the left,
turn his hind-quarters round to the left at the same time as
his head is pulled to the right by his rider, and will thus
place the direction of his body at right angles to the
obstacle, as in Fig. 2.

As the conformation of the horse meets his grazing
requirements as well as his locomotive ones ; we find, as a
rule, that for saddle purposes he is too heavy in front.
The goat, being a browsing animal, appears to be much

TURNING A HORSE.

71

Fig. I,— Horse running out at a fence (A B), on account of refusing to bring his
hind-quarters round in answer to the pull of the reins ; although he
bends his neck to it.

']2 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT.

lighter in front than the horse, if we may judge by a com-
parison between their respective powers of rearing. I am
incHned to think that the custom of feeding horses from a
manger which is raised off the ground, tends to make a horse
light in front. A prevalent idea among experienced men is
that a young horse " fines down " about the withers and
shoulders after he has been taken up from grass and has
been stabled and worked under ordinary conditions. This
" fining down " would, I think, chiefly consist in increased
obliquity of the shoulder blade. I may remark that the
conformation of boys and girls is usually susceptible of
considerable change for the better by a course of judicious
gymnastics and " setting up " drill.

However much or little the proportion of weight borne by
the fore legs, as compared to that carried by the hind limbs,
is in excess of that which would be most suitable for mere
purposes of locomotion ; experiment proves that the pro-
portion of weight in front is considerably increased by the
fact of a man being placed on the horse's back. Hence, in
any case, the breaker should try to teach the horse which
is intended for saddle work, to carry himself in such a
way that, when mounted, the weight of horse and rider
will be so distributed that the weight on the forehand, as
compared with that on the hind legs, will be less in
proportion to that borne under similar circumstances by the
untaught horse when at liberty. Unfortunately it is
impossible to give exact rules as to obtaining the most
advantageous distribution of weight, which must be left to
the judgment of the breaker, and which will evidently be
different to that naturally adopted by the animal I may

TUENING A HORSE.

73

7,

%

Fig. 2. — Horse going straight at his fence (A B), on account of having
answered the pull of the reins with his hind-quarters as well as with
his forehand.

74 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

point out that the expressions, " making a horse bring his
hind-quarters under him," and " hghtening his forehand,"
mean the act of increasing the weight on the hind Hmbs, by
taking it off the fore ones. It follows from the fact that
the presence of a rider alters the proportion of weight in the
manner mentioned ; that the heavier the intended rider, the
more should the weight be brought back. The well " set
up " soldier gives us an admirable illustration of the great
influence which training has on gait.

We know from experience that muscles which are
practised at one particular kind of work, gradually acquire
the ability to perform it in the easiest possible manner.
Thus, a man who has to carry heavy burdens on his back,
will in time unconsciously acquire the action most suitable
to his task. It might therefore be argued that any attempt
to teach a horse to carry himself in the manner described, is
useful merely for saving time, and that the horse would,
after a while, automatically rectify matters. Even if this
were true, which it might not be in the large majority of
cases, we must remember that horses which are allowed
to go *' heavy in front," especially at fast paces, are particu-
larly liable to become unsound from injuries to their fore
legs, which injuries greatly exceed in number all the other
accidents that incapacitate saddle horses, and especially race-
horses, from " standing " work. I may remark that in this
country little or no attempt is made, except in the Army,
to form the paces of riding horses. Despite the influence
of careful selection in breeding, we cannot ignore the fact
that the legs of the average horse are but ill adapted to
bear, under ordinary conditions of work, the strain of a

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 7-5

greater weight than that of his own body. The old adages
that any horse is able to wear out four sets of limbs, and
that a horse is as old as his legs, are unhappily too true.
Therefore it behoves the careful horseman, by judicious
breaking, to diminish as far as possible the chances of his
animals becoming unsound.

As the preponderance of weight on the forehand increases
as the speed; the liability of injury to the fore legs, as
compared to that of the hind ones, will vary in the same
proportion. Bringing too much of the weight back,
especially when jumping (see page 263), is apt to throw an
injurious amount of strain on the hind legs.

In rearing, there is extreme preponderance of weight
on the hind legs; in kicking with both hind feet, on the
fore ones. The rider can lighten the forehand : (i) by
leaning back in the saddle ; (2) by raising the horse's head ;
(3) by moderating the speed; and (4) by applying the
drawn-back heels or spurs, so as to make the horse bring
his hind legs well under him, and at the same time check-
ing with the reins any increase of speed. I may remark that
when increased action of the fore legs is prevented from
being utilised in a forward direction, it is expended in a
more or less vertical one, as we may see in the case of
fashionable harness horses which are broken on the "hit
'em and hold 'em " principle. As the instability of the
centre of gravity increases proportionately to the speed
(see Points of the Horse) ; the slower the pace, other
things being equal, the lighter will be the forehand ; and
vice versa.

The rider can increase the weight on the forehand : (i) by

^6 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

leaning forward in the saddle ; (2) by lowering the horse's
head ; (3) by increasing the speed ; and (4) by applying the
feet to the horse's shoulders.

As the effects of '* work " show far more frequently in the
fore legs than in the hind ones of our hunters, racehorses,
chasers, troopers, and hacks ; we may, I think, infer that
our horses are as a rule too heavy in front. If the correct
proportion of weight between the two sets of limbs was
maintained more accurately, these horses would undoubtedly
last longer. Consequently, the adoption of improved
methods of breaking would effect a large saying of money
to individuals, and also to the State.

The harness horse, I may observe, has to put on his fore-
hand an extra amount of weight proportionate to the load
he has to draw.

Carriage and action of the head and neck of the
horse when he is in motion. — When the horse takes a
stride to the front, the fore limb is drawn forward and
upward by certain muscles of the neck, the action of which
is regulated by the depression or elevation of the head. If
the head be unduly raised, the forward reach of the fore
legs will be curtailed by this high attitude, and the speed
will consequently suffer. If, on the contrary, the head be
brought down too low, the animal, if at the gallop or canter,
instead of " going level," will have a more or less pitching
motion, from too much weight being thrown on his fore-
hand ; and will lose time in his stride by excessive bending
of the knees, which is necessary in that case to enable his
feet to clear the ground.

CARRIAGE OF HEAD.

11

Owing to the variety in the conformation of different
horses, and in the work they are called upon to do, it is
impossible to lay down any fixed rule as to the angle at
which the head and neck should be carried ; a fact that
is of little moment, for experience will enable us to

* <f'<l«e» V

Fi!

-Trottinsf-

form a sufficiently near approximation for all practical
purposes.

The neck muscles which draw the fore limb forward, will
act to the best advantage when the neck is held straight ;
for in that position the muscles are stretched out as much

78

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

as possible, and, consequently, when they contract, they
have their utmost forward pull.

The chief muscle which draws the fore limb to the front,
is attached to the head in such a manner that it acts best

: Fig. 4. — Cantering. . _ .v...-

during movement, when the head is carried more or less at
right angles to the neck. We may also assume that, as a
rule, the head and neck are best placed for ail ordinary re-
quirements of paces faster than the walk, when the condition

WALKING AT EASE.

79

just stated is observed, and when the head is carried at an
angle of about 45° to the ground (see Figs. 3 and 4). When
the horse walks at ease (see Fig. 5), the head will be
lowered, and carried more perpendicularly. For mere
purposes of control by the bridle, the most generally.

Fig. 5. — Walking at ease.

advantageous position is when the line of the face makes an
angle of about 90°, or a little less, with the ground (see Fig.
6) ; because, in that case, the pull of the reins is more or less
at right angles to the bars of the lower jaw against which
the mouthpiece of the bridle presses, and the forward reach

8o THEORY OF MOUTHING.

of the fore legs is somewhat checked by the legs being bent.
Neither for control nor for movement, is it well for the
head to be flexed to a greater extent than this. The
more the chin is drawn in beyond this limit, the more will
the pull of the reins be transferred (from the bars of the
lower jaw) to the poll of the animal's head ; the more oblique
will become the direction of the pressure of the mouthpiece
on the bars ; and the more will the horse be obliged to lower
his head, thereby unduly increasing the weight on the fore-
hand. Thus, by bringing his chin into his chest, the horse
(i) more or less deprives his rider of control over him ;
(2) disturbs the proper distribution of weight between his
fore and hind legs ; and (3) hampers the movements of
his fore limbs.

Collecting the horse. — By the somewhat ill-defined
term, ''collecting the horse," I wish to express the act by
which the animal is made to bend his neck and bring his
hind legs under him ; so that his spinal column will be more
or less regularly arched, and his muscles will continue to
contract and relax at short and regular intervals. He will
then " play " with the bit by yielding his neck as well as
his jaw, and will advance his hind feet more under his body
than he usually does. When fully collected, he will be in
the best possible state of general readiness to perform any
legitimate form of work, such as going forward, reining back,
turning, circling, or leaping. In fact, he will be " bent " before
and behind, like a spring, with his forces collected together
and ready to be applied in any legitimate manner which his
rider may demand. As, by collecting the horse, we deprive

COLLECTING THE HORSE.

him of taking the initiative ; we find that the practice of
frequently collecting him is the best possible means for
curing him of hardness of mouth and stiffness of neck. A
horse can be collected at any pace ; but, if I may venture to

-

1

,*?M^^ i < ^THII^^

^BS^-^m

)

ir

y^^i^*..*

'"T.^ .-~m*

1-^

^

<«#

:.-■ ^

Fig. 6. — Collected walk.

say so, he should not be collected at the halt ; for then there
will be no harmony of action between the muscles of the
head and neck, and those of the hind-quarters ; the former
being in a state of alternate contraction and relaxation ; the

G

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

latter, motionless. In collecting the saddle horse, the reins
bend the neck and check the advance of the fore limbs,
while the pressure of the rider's legs, spurs, or whip makes
the horse bring his hind legs under him. As I have already
said, the line of the face, when the horse is fully collected,
will be at right angles to the ground, or a little less ; but
the chin should not be drawn in more than this. We may
accept the fact that teaching the horse to collect himself is
the foundation of all good mouthing, whether for the for-
mation of the mouth of a young animal, or for the cor-
rection of a puller or a borer.

It is manifest that, in checking a horse's speed, we should
more or less collect him ; the collection being proportionate
to the alteration in the speed ; for the faster the pace, other
things being equal, the greater the weight on the forehand.
Whether we make the horse adopt a slower gait, or bring
him to a halt more or less abruptly, it is necessary that we
should collect him so that he may be ready to apply his
powers to the best advantage, either for stopping himself,
or for moving on again in the same or in a new direction.
If the preponderance of weight be on the forehand, the hind
limbs will be more or less thrown out of action, and vice versa.
Hence, when checking the speed of a horse, and especially
when bringing him to a halt, the rider should close his legs
and should lower his hands when taking a pull on the reins,
so that the horse may bring his hind legs well under him,
and at the same time bend his neck.

The popular expression " in hand " may be used for
'' collected." We must be careful to understand that a
horse may be " light in hand " without being in any way

A GOOD MOUTH. 83

"collected," as, for instance, a star-gazer which will not go up
to his bridle. When a horse is galloping through heavy
ground, the fact of his fore feet sinking more deeply into the
soil than the hind ones, will make him unduly heavy in
front. We should here try to more or less collect him. If,
at the same time, we were coming up to a high fence, to
safely negotiate which, the animal would require to have
his neck straight, so as to have full freedom of action with
his fore legs ; he should, at least for the last few strides, be
light in hand, instead of being collected. The expression,
"getting a horse's hind legs well under him," appears to be
used indiscriminately for collecting a horse, and for making
him light in hand. The distinction I have indicated is,
however, worthy of attention.

It is evident that when breaking the horse, we should
teach him to collect himself according to the indications we
give him, and to an extent which may be out of all propor-
tion to the requirements under which he is receiving his
lesson, although similar to those of actual work.

Requirements of a good mouth. — A horse may be said
to have a good mouth when he obeys the aids with prompt-
ness, accuracy, and precision, and when he carries himself
in the manner most suitable to the work he has got to do.
The combined weight of the body of the saddle horse and
of his rider must, therefore, be properly distributed between
the fore and hind legs. If the animal leans strongly on the
mouthpiece of the bridle, he will be "heavy in front." If,
on the contrary, he refuses to " go up to his bridle " (remains
" behind his bridle "), he will have an undue proportion of

G 2

84 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

weight on his hind legs. In order that the rider or driver
may keep in touch with the horse, it is necessary that the
animal shall allow him to maintain a certain amount of
" feeling " on the reins, and of pressure by the legs, so that
he may remain in communication with both ends of the
horse. For ordinary requirements, and especially for 'cross
country work, the amount of feeling on the reins which the
animal should bear with equanimity, might naturally be
somewhat in excess of that which would be needed for
mere purposes of communication between horse and rider.
It is evident that the worse the rider, the broader should be
this margin, which, I need hardly say, is an evil, though a
necessary one with men of light seats and heavy hands.
It must, however, in no case exceed the controlling power
of the rider or driver. The habit of refusing to go up to the
bridle not alone cuts off the communication which we should
constantly maintain by means of the reins between ourselves
and the horse ; but is extremely liable to degenerate into
the dangerous combined vice of rearing and jibbing.

A horse with a good mouth, as I have already indicated,
will be capable of being readily collected ; that is, while
having his hind legs well under him, by the action of
the rider's heels or spurs, he will freely bend to the rein
with his head or neck. He will then keep the muscles
which close his jaws, more or less relaxed ; but without
losing touch with the reins, and will often show, at slow
paces, this obedience to the rein by the familiar play of the
lower jaw and champing of the bit. The relaxation of the
jaw is useless, as we know from practical experience, un-
less the horse also yields with the muscles of his neck.

ACTION OF THE AIDS. 85

As the manner in which a horse moves under the
guidance of his rider or driver, is the true test of the state
of his " mouth" ; it is evident that to have a good mouth, the
horse should carry himself in well-balanced style, that is,
with the weight distributed in due proportion between his
fore and hind legs ; with the line of his face, at an angle of
about 45° to the ground, unless we wish to " collect " him,
or unless he is at a walk (see page 79) ; and with the
direction of his neck favourably placed for the movements
of the fore legs. For the same reason, we may infer that
all mouthing instruction, or, at least, by far the greater part
of it, should be given when the horse is in movement. If we
seek to impart it while the animal is stationary, we shall, in
doing so, have constantly to strive against the tendency of
the horse to keep one part of his body fixed, while we are
" suppling " the other end. The horse, as I have already
said, should be taught to move as a whole, and not in parts.

Combined action of the aids in forming the mouth. —
From an examination of equestrian pictures, we may learn
that '* the knights of old," and in fact all European military
horsemen up to the commencement of the present century,
rode in such a position that they could use their legs as an
aid only by means of the ends of their sharp and long
spurs. Hence they controlled their horses almost entirely
by the bridle. The result of this method of equitation, as
we may see from the extremely severe nature of the bits
they used to employ, was to make their horses heavy in
hand. Even when the animal arched his neck in obedience
to the bit, he would naturally seek to relieve his mouth by

86 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

abstaining as much as possible from bringing his hind legs
under his body. I may remark that the horse makes the
same ''defence" when he is "tied up" by side reins (see
page 102). Baucher (see page 282), who was the great
reformer in school breaking and riding, insisted on the
principle of bcancoiip dc javibcs et pen de main. By this
he meant that the pressure of the legs (with a touch of
the spurs when necessary) should be used in order to
bring the horse's hind legs under him, and consequently to
relieve the forehand of weight. In this way he obtained
le rassemblcr (collection of the horse), which he justly
regarded as an indispensable means of breaking. I may
mention that the maintenance of the horse's head in a
vertical position, which is a condition of Baucher's 7'as-
senihlcr, is a refinement of no practical utility. As I have
already remarked, the large number of our saddle horses
which are '* heavy in front," is the best proof that the
majority of Englishmen who get up on horses, ''ride the
bridle," and neglect the use of the legs as an "aid." At
the same time, I must say that every fine horseman in our
midst is quite as alive as Baucher was, to the importance
of riding more by the legs than by the hands. The
breaker should constantly bear in mind the necessity of
teaching his saddle pupils to obey the indications of both
legs and reins, so that they may be able to be collected
when required.

Respective actions of the snaffle and curb. — The

indications of the curb are complex and indirect, and
prompt the horse either to fight against them, or to unduly

. SNAFFLE AND CURB. 87

lower his head and to bring his chin into his chest, in either
of which cases his movements are interfered with by the
position assumed by the head and neck. The action of the
snaffle, especially when it is unjointed (see page 184), is
more direct, and its indications are consequently freer from
ambiguity. The breaking in of a horse with a curb is apt
to spoil him for subsequent work in a snaffle, the use of
which can in no way hinder him from being taught that of
the curb. Hence the snaffle should be the only bit employed
by the breaker for all ordinary requirements, until his pupil
is perfect in it. After that, he may teach the animal to go in
a curb. When riding under the usual conditions of field or
road, the snaffle should act on the "bars" and not on the
*' corners " of the mouth ; for the former are more sensitive
to pressure than the latter, and by acting on the bars we
prompt the horse to bend his neck (to save his mouth), and
consequently to }4eld to the rein. If, however, the pressure
falls on the corners of the mouth, the animal will as a rule
keep his head and neck stretched out and raised, so as to
prevent the bars being touched, in a manner which will
more or less deprive the rider or driver of control, and
which will hamper the movements of the horse. I may
point out that the only practical advantage which the curb
has over the snaffle, is that of severity. As high school
and circus riders require their horses to execute various
lofty airs de manege^ they use the snaffle to act on the
corners of the mouth, when they wish to make the animal
carry his head in an unnaturally high position, so that he
may be able to raise his fore legs with exaggerated freedom,
as in the Spanish trot or Spanish walk (see page 307).

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

For further information on snaffles and curbs, I may refer
my readers to Riding on the Flat and Across Cotmtry,

Direction of the pull of the reins. — The movements
of the neck are made on the column of bones {vertebrcB) of
the neck, and on the suspensory ligament of the neck, which
is a strong elastic ligament that extends from the withers to
the top of the head. The centre of motion of the neck will
therefore be about four or five inches below the top of the
withers ; its position varying somewhat according to the
nature of the movement. In order that the restraining
action of the reins should interfere as little as possible with
the carriage of the neck, the direction of the reins should
naturally pass through the centre of motion in question.
If the reins pass above that point, the tendency of their pull
will be to raise the head, and consequently to lighten the
forehand ; if below it, to lower the head and increase the
weight in front. For simplicity sake, I am here assuming
that a snaffle is used. As the point of application of the
mouthpiece (the bars of the mouth) is not in the line of the
balancing pole (the neck), my remarks, here, on the action
of the reins are made only in general terms ; although they
are sufficiently exact to bear out the truth of the well-
recognised rule that the hands, when riding, should be held
a little below the withers.

Turning, circling, and lunging the horse. — In order
to maintain the proper distribution of weight between the
fore and hind limbs, the horse, as I have pointed out on
page 70, should turn more or less on his centre, without

LUNGING THE HORSE. 89

making a pivot of, and consequently throwing an undue
proportion of weight on, either his forehand or his hind-
quarters. Although it appears to me impossible to work
out the problem mathematically, I venture to state that
both theory and practice confirm the supposition that in
turning, or in circling, which is merely a form of turning, the
track of the hind feet should be the same, or as nearly as
possible the same, as that of the fore ones. If the curves be
concentric, instead of coincident, the pair of limbs which
describe the inner curve (or smaller circle) will naturally
bear an undue proportion of weight. We have a practical
proof of this in the fact that almost all the strains to tendon
and ligament which arise from the ordinary method of
lunging with one rein, occur in the fore legs. In this form
of circling, the turn being made by acting on the head of
the horse by means of the cavasson and leading rein ; the
head is pulled in towards the centre of the circle and the
hind-quarters are allowed to fly out, with the result that the
fore feet describe a smaller circle than the hind feet, and
consequently have an undue amount of weight thrown on
them.

The fact of a horse turning his head round to one side
causes the position of his centre of gravity to be shifted
towards that side, the fore and hind leg of which wdll con-
sequently bear more weight than their respective fellows
under all ordinary conditions. We see this illustrated w4ien
the horse is tied head and tail {vide Fig. "jj), in which case
it is far more difficult for him to lift up either of the legs
of the side to which his head is turned, than either of the
corresponding limbs of the other side. In turning or

90 THEORY OF MOUTHING,

circling, this power of altering the position of the centre of
gravity is very useful to the horse for preserving his stability
by neutralising the effect of the centrifugal force generated
by the more or less circular motion. In this way, the head
and neck act as the balancing pole of the body. The applica-
tion of this principle is illustrated by curved portions of
railway lines, in which the outer rail is made higher than
the inner one, so as to tilt the centre of gravity of the train
inwards, as well as to offer a more effectual resistance to
the tendency the carriage might have of being carried off
the line. The track of circuses and even of running
grounds are banked up in a similar manner. The circus
rider, when standing on a pad or on the horse's back as the
animal canters round the track of the arena, leans inwards,
proportionately to the speed, with the object in question,
and so does his horse, as we may see if we observe the
animal closely. We may therefore conclude, apart from the
obvious reason that the horse should look where he is
going, that his head and neck should be in the direction in
which he is moving, whether he is turning, circling, or
travelling in a straight line. In fact, the animal, from the
muzzle to the end of the tail, should be bent more or less
into the form of the curve upon which he is travelling.
Although his body from the withers to the root of the tail
is capable of but little flexion, the head and the neck have a
large amount of lateral " play." The degree to which the
horse should bend himself will of course be proportionate
to the sharpness of the turn.

From the remarks just made, we may see the necessity,
in the turn, of the hind-quarters following the movements

LUXGING THE HORSE. 91

of the head and neck. > Being impressed with the correctness
of this principle, I would venture to condemn those
" suppling " lessons by which the horse is taught to bring
his head round to one side or the other, while his hind-
quarters remain fixed. The horse, as I have said before,
should learn to obey the side pull of the rein with his hind-
quarters, as well as with his head and neck.

In most continental maneges, an attempt is made, when
lunging a horse, to counteract the tendency the hind-
quarters have of flying outwards, by tightening the out-
ward side-rein more than the inward one, or by using only
the outward side-rein, so as to turn the head outwards.
Although the hind feet can be made by this arrange-
ment to describe the same circle as the fore ones ; the
head and neck, being bent outwards, are carried wrongly.
In the method of circling the horse with the long reins
(see Fig. 89), the two necessary conditions are fulfilled ;
for the head and neck are bent inward by the inward rein,
and the hind quarters are prevented from flying outwards
by the outward rein. The same principle is adopted b}^ the
capable rider who preserves the bend of the head and neck
with the inward rein, and keeps the hind-quarters in position
by means of the pressure of the outward leg, which is drawn
back as may be required. One pre-eminent advantage
which circling the horse with the long reins has over any
method of lunging with leading rein and cavasson, is that
by it we can not alone exercise the horse ; but can also
" mouth " him at the same time. Besides, by it we can
regulate and control the animal's movements in a manner
unattainable in an}^ other wa}\ By this style of riding and

92 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

by the use of the long reins on foot, the proper distribution
of weight can be maintained when turning or circling the
horse. I may here explain that when turning or circling a
horse to the right (in the direction in which the hands of a
watch move), the right rein or right leg is the inward rein
or inward leg, and the left rein or left leg, the outward rein
or outward leg ; and vice versa.

Apart from the turn on the centre, which I have just
described and which preserves as far as possible the natural
distribution of weight between the fore and hind legs, the
turn may be made on the forehand or on the haunches,
either as a suppling exercise, or as a movement necessary
on certain occasions to which I shall refer later on.

Reining-back. — Combined ability to comprehend and
willingness to obey the application of the appropriate aids
for reining-back, are useful in all horses, both as an end and
as a means. Even on the race-course, it is well for a jockey
to be able at times to rein his horse back at the start,
instead of having to turn round, go back, and come up
again, in doing which he might easily lose a good position.
Also, among a crowd of horses in the hunting field, when
waiting for one's turn to go through a gate or at the only
practicable part of a fence, a like command over a horse is
to be appreciated. Reining-back is, however, even still
more valuable as a means of teaching the horse to obey the
aids. I may explain that there are two forms of the rein
back : one, in which the preponderance of weight is placed
on the hind legs ; the other, in which it is put on the fore-
hand. We see the former when the carter tries to make

REINING-BACK. 93

his draught animal push back a heavy load by raising
the animal's head and by forcing him to throw all his
weight into the breeching. In the latter, which is alone
applicable to saddle work, the horse increases the proportion
of weight on his forehand by lowering his head, and con-
sequently gives freedom and lightness to his hind legs in
the backward movement. If it be right for a horse to be
light in front when going forward, it is surely correct for
him to be light behind when reining-back. Experience
tells us that the best way for a horse to rein-back is in
diagonal two time (that of the trot), namely, near fore and
off hind ; and off fore and near hind. The most effective
method of obtaining this movement is to bend the head
and neck away from the side of the least advanced hind leg,
so as to fix the other hind leg, for the moment, by placing
the preponderance of weight on it. On both reins being
then felt, and the hind quarter of the side opposite to that
to which the head is turned, being prevented by some
suitable aid from swinging round, the horse will readily lift
and draw back the hind leg which bears the least weight,
and will follow it by the opposite fore leg. To obtain the
next step, the head is turned to the opposite side, and the
reversed aids applied. Thus, if we wish to commence the
rein-back with the off hind — supposing that both hind legs
are equally advanced — we turn the head to the left by a
stronger feeling on the near rein, and having applied some
appropriate aid (such as the leg or whip, if riding ; or rein,
if using the long reins) to the off flank or quarter in order
to keep the hind-quarters straight, we " feel " both reins, so
as to make the horse step back with his off hind and near

94

THEORY OF MOUTHING.

fore. To obtain the step to the rear with the near hind and
off fore, we apply the opposite aids. In Fig. 7, the horse
is beginning to take the left diagonal step (near fore and
off hind), and is completing it in Fig. 8. For further

'■f!^.::-i'-.-;/-^y,C/,"/:,

Fig. 7.' — Reining-back.

information on the rein-back, I beg to refer my reader
to Points of the Horse, in which I have discussed this
pace at some length. The subject of reining-back is

REINING-BACK.

95

dealt with very ably in Barroil's admirable book, UArt
Eqnestre.

By practising the horse at the rein-back we teach him
to obey the pressure of the reins with his head and neck^

..___.^i

Fig. 8. — Reining-back.

and with his hind-quarters at the same time ; in fact, to
obey it with both ends of his body, and not with the front
end only. This work has also a strong moral effect on
the animal in teaching him discipline. It is, as we might

96 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

naturally infer, specially applicable to the breaking in of a
horse which bears too much weight on the reins. We may
take for granted that until a horse has learned to rein-
back with facility and precision, he cannot be considered
to have a good mouth.

The standing martingale. — The use of this martingale,
from a breaking point of view, is to teach the horse, if he
be inclined to throw up his head as a " defence " against
the action of the bit on the bars of the mouth, to abstain
from doing so. The principle by which we gain our end in
this respect is by making the animal associate in his mind
the idea of pain with the act of throwing up his head. We
can put this principle into practice by attaching the stand-
ing martingale to the rings of the snaffle, at such a length
that it will prevent the horse from shifting the mouthpiece
off the bars and on to the corners of the mouth. When he
finds that every time he " chucks " up his head, he gives the
bars of his mouth a severe shock, he will soon cease doing
so, even, as a rule, without a martingale. The use of
this gear should not, however, be dispensed with before
it has produced a more or less permanent effect on the
animal's mind. When that has taken place, he will often
be apparently unable to distinguish whether the martingale
be absent or present. In any case, I feel certain from
long and careful observation that the intelligence of the
horse is not sufficiently developed to enable him to under-
stand that the presence of the martingale is the cause of
the inflicted pain. If he were able to connect cause and
effect to such an extent as this, it would be impossible for

THE STANDING MARTINGALE.

97

us to subordinate his will to ours as completely as we are
able to do. By the employment of this martingale the
horse will readily learn the important lesson of bending his

v^.

.^-^^

Fig- 9' — jNIaximum length for a standing martingale.

head and neck to save his mouth. Finding that it is im-
possible for him to successfully pull against the standing

H

98 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

martingale by holding his head high, he will be all the
more inclined to " bend " to the rein, even when there is no
martingale on. When we wish to ^wq full freedom to the
head for all legitimate purposes, short of its being carried
so high as to act as a " defence," we may lengthen out this
martingale to such an extent that it will only just prevent
the horse from being able to shift the mouthpiece of the
snaffle off the bars and on to the corners of the mouth (see
Fig. 9). If we want to get more power over him, we
may shorten it within this limit as may be required. The
correct principle of punishment and reward in the education
of the horse is admirably illustrated by the use of the
standing martingale ; for, with it, pain continues as long as
the defence ; but ceases the moment the animal yields.
This useful experience is not afforded by the application of
the running martingale ; for with it no saving of the mouth
is obtained by any yielding of the head and neck to the
rein. When the running martingale is on, whatever relief
is procured must be the result of the action of the rider's
hands, which, however good they may be, cannot give the
reward (and consequently cannot aid in the desired associa-
tion of ideas) with the quickness and precision of the auto-
matically acting standing martingale, the exact length of
which is rigidly fixed. Its use undoubtedly diminishes the
difficulties of breaking by at least one half

If the standing martingale be connected with the nose-
band, as is often done, it will fail to act in the manner
described, owing to the fact that the pressure thus exerted
on the nose causes little or no pain ; unless, indeed, it be
arranged in the way described on page 329. When, how-

UN JOINTED SNAFFLE. 99

ever, the too long continued use of a standing martingale
attached to the snaffle causes the corners of the mouth to
become sore, as may happen with horses which carry their

Fig. 10. — Front view of leather-covered, unjointed snaffle.

heads too high, and which are kept on the turn a good
deal — like polo ponies, for instance — we may fix this martin-
gale to the noseband instead of to the mouthpiece. While

Fig. II. — Leather-covered, unjointed snaffle, in horse's mouth.

breaking in the horse, it is always well to employ leather
guards, either as a portion of the leather mouthpiece (see

H 2

loo THEORY OF MOUTHING.

Figs. 10 and ii), or like those used by London cabmen,
so as to prevent the corners of the mouth from being
hurt.

I give Fig. 12 to show that a moderately tight standing
martingale will not interfere with the movements of a horse
even when jumping. The horse which I was riding on that
occasion was a bad star-gazer and very hard puller. Having
had a couple of lessons with the standing martingale, he
learned to bend his head to the rein, as we may see by the
fact of the martingale being loose.

As . I have made the foregoing observations entirely
from a breaking point of view, I need hardly say that
we should teach our pupil to carry himself so well, that
on leaving our hands he would not require a martingale of
any kind.

Bearing reins, running reins, side reins, and nose-
iDands. — With a horse which keeps his head too low down,
a bearing rein which makes him hold his head up to
the required height, without interfering with his mouth
(see page 185), is often of great help with the long reins.
When using them and when driving a horse in harness, I
have found no benefit from running reins or side reins,
especially when the pull they exert on the bars of the
mouth is, as is usually the case, below the centre of motion
of the neck (see page %%). The benefit of a noseband is
to prevent a horse " giving " to the pull of the reins only
with the lower jaw ; instead of also yielding with the joints
of the neck and with the joint which connects the head
with the neck.

BEARING REINS.

lOl

" Tying horses up/' " reining/' dumb jockeys, and
the pillars. — Horses are frequently '' mouthed " (" reined "
or " tied up ") by having their heads more or less drawn in
by reins which are attached to a dumb jockey or roller, and

Fig. 12, — Jumping with standing martingale.

by being kept thus confined for a certain period of time in
the stable, or while they are being led about at exercise.
I consider this system objectionable ; because only the head
and neck are acted upon, and no provision is made, as there

I02 THEORY OF MOUTHING.

ought to be, for bending the other end of the body (see
page 70). Horses which are tied up in this manner will
seek to relieve the muscles of the head and neck by
abstaining as much as possible from bringing the hind
legs under the body. There is also to be considered the
error of bending the horse's head and neck at the halt
(see page 81). Consequently, the result — as we may, for
instance, see with fashionable carriage horses, which of
all animals get the most of this kind of mouthing — is exces-
sive bending of the head and neck, and dragging of the
hind legs. This absence of collection '' behind " might be
somewhat remedied during the stationary process of tying-
up, if the breaker would stand behind the horse and would
keep the animal's hind-quarters under him by means of the
whip, according to the principle of the " pillars," which are
two upright posts, between which the horse is placed, and
to which he is attached by pillar reins. The pillars
have fallen almost entirely into disuse, on account of their
tendency to make the horse too light in front, thereby
causing him to be disinclined to go up to his bridle, and
to be ready to rear on slight provocation. One great
objection to the use of dumb jockeys, the pillars, and all
similar contrivances, is that, even supposing they had a
good effect, it would be impossible for the breaker to
tell its amount without trying the horse in saddle or
harness. Consequently, with any of them he would be
working more or less in the dark. With the " long reins,"
on the contrary, he is in constant touch with the horse's
mouth, and can learn at any moment the extent of the
progress his pupil is making, so that he is safeguarded

DUMB JOCKEYS. 103

against the blunder of doing too much. Again, none of
these contrivances are of any use for correcting the
extremely common fault of one side of the mouth being
harder or softer than the other ; the reason being that their
bending is applied only in a straight line, namely, from
front to rear. So inadequate are they to the purpose of
giving a horse a good mouth, as compared to the "long
reins," that I mention them only to warn my readers
against their employment.

I may remark that elastic reins are sometimes used with
a dumb jockey. They are wrong in principle and useless in
practice ; for they do not allow the complete freedom from
pressure which the horse should experience as a reward for
obedience when he bends his neck and yields to the reins ;
unless, indeed, they are so loose as to fail to perform their
intended work.

I04

CHAPTER IV.

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

The breaking enclosure — Gentling the horse — Holding and leading a
comparatively quiet horse — Making a rope halter — Haltering a
loose horse — Teaching a loose horse to come up and to follow —
Lifting up a fore leg — Holding up a fore leg — Tying up a fore leg
— Blindfolding a horse — The halter-twitch — The rope-twitch — The
noose-twitch — The headstall-twitch — The bridle-twitch — The
Indian war bridle — The Comanche bridle — The cavesson — The
strait-jacket — Lifting up a hind leg — Improvised hobble — The
wooden gag — Making a horse lie down and keeping him on the
ground — Major Woods's method of throwing horses — Throwing a
horse with the strait-jacket — The head and tail method — Rarey-
fying a horse — Sample's horse-taming machine — South African
method of breaking.

I PROPOSE in this chapter to describe a number of methods
and appliances which the breaker will find useful in making
the horse docile. In it I shall say nothing about the
subject of mouthing, which I shall reserve for subsequent
chapters.

The breaking enclosure. — For breaking in horses it
is a great advantage to have an enclosure of about 20 yards
square, with walls around it at least 7 feet high, and if
possible roofed in, so that the breaker may be independent
of the weather. I find that for convenience and control it

GENTLING THE HORSE. 105

should not exceed 25 yards square, except for breaking to
harness, when it might be a Httle larger (see page 274).
The minimum size for only saddle work may be put at
12 yards each side. A square arena is to be preferred to
a circular one, or to a rectangular one which has two of its
sides longer than the other two. The ground inside should
be soft ; so that the legs and feet of animals worked in it
may not get jarred, and that horses which are made to lie
down on it may not run any chance of hurting themselves.

I may here impress on my readers the danger there is
to the breaker of having anyone standing right behind him
when he is handling vicious horses ; for, in such a case, if
the animal makes an offensive movement, the breaker will
probably knock up against the other man, and will thus fail
to get out of harm's way.

Gentling the horse. — The term " gentling the horse "
signifies the act of handling him in a soothing, though firm
manner, while he is under such restraint that he will be
unable to resist our friendly advances. For instance, after
having made the horse lie down (see page 161), and while
preventing him from getting up, we may gentle him by
running our hands over him, patting him, and massaging
his muscles, especially those which he keeps in a contracted
condition. While standing at his back (when he is on the
ground), so as to be out of danger, we may bend forward
and gentle his legs, and draw them towards us with our
hands or by a hobble and rope, with the object of forcing
him to readily bend the joints of his limbs. I may point
out that when a horse "fights" us, he will more or less

io6

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

stiffen his muscles (keep them in a state of contraction)
against any movement demanded from him by us. Hence,
the more we induce him to relax them, the nearer shall we
be to our object of making him " give in." Gentling is
therefore a valuable means for making horses docile, and
for giving them confidence.

Holding and leading a comparatively quiet horse. —

The best way to hold a fairly docile horse while standing

Fig. 13. — Holding horse,

at his near side, is to draw the snaffle reins over his head,
hold them at the centre in the full of the left hand, and
catch both reins near the rings of the snaffle with the right
hand, having the little finger between them (see Figs. 1 3

HOLDING THE HORSE

107

Fig. 14. — Holding horse.

Fig. 15- — Holding horse.

io8

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

and 14). While holding the reins in this way, we shall
have good command over the horse when leading him. If
we wish to hold him for examination or for gear to be put
on him, we may place ourselves in front of him, catch the
off rein with the left hand and the near rein with the right
hand, close to the rings of the snaffle ; and hold the horse's

Fig. 16. — Holding horse.

head up (see Fig. 15). If a somewhat difficult horse has
to be handled behind, say, about his near hind leg, we may,
while standing alongside his near shoulder and while
holding both reins in the left hand, press our right fist hard
against the base of the neck, over the course of the neck

ROPE HALTER,

109

vertebrcB (see Fig. 16). The fact of keeping the head and
neck bent in this way, will prevent the animal, if so inclined,
from turning round and kicking anyone who may approach
his near hind quarter. The reversed precautions will be
observed when working on the off side. If a double bridle
be on the horse, the snaffle reins only should be used.

Making a rope halter. — The simplest way to do this
is to take a rope about half an inch in diameter, and about

Fig, 17. — First loop in making
a rope halter.

Fig. iS. — Rope halter completed.

no

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

9 yards long ; make it double for about 3 ft. 6 in., and put
a knot on the doubled part, so as to form a large loop
(see Fig. 17), in which make a small loop (see Fig. 18),
for the leading rein to pass through. The second knot
should divide the large loop, so that the head-piece may
be about twice as long as the nose-band. The halter will

Fig. 19. — Rope halter, ready to put on.

now be ready to be put on (see Fig. 19). The nose-band
may be made sufficiently long, and the loop through which
the loose end passes, tight enough, to prevent the nose-
band and leading rein (the free end of the rope) forming
a running noose, which might hurt the horse. Or, if

HALTERING HORSE.

I II

required, a knot may be made with that part of the rope
which serves as a leading rein, at the ring through which it
passes ; so that the nose-band of the halter may not squeeze
the horse's jaws together (see Fig. 20).

The rope employed should be
soft, and not too thick ; so as to
allow the knots to be made with
facility.

The reader will observe that
this halter which I have devised
is only an improvised adapta-
tion, which need not take half a
minute to make, of the ordinary
halter. I have no doubt that
others, prompted by necessity,
like myself, have hit on this
rough-and-ready method ; al-
though I have never seen any-
one else make a halter in quite
the same manner as I have
described.

Fig 20. — Rope, halter Avitli
knot, to prevent it pinching the
horse's jaws.

Haltering a loose horse. — Let us suppose that the
animal is in some suitable enclosure, such as a yard, loose
box, or small paddock ; for it is almost needless to say, that
if he were at liberty in the open, and averse from being
captured, no man unaided could possibly catch himc The
first thing to do is to make the rope halter — as already
described — if an ordinary halter be not at hand, and then
to get the horse to stand quietly in some convenient

112 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

corner. We may make him move, or stop, as may be re-
quired, by gently working a long pole held in the hands
across the body, alternately, behind and in front of him ;
and, having got him into the proper position, we may
induce him to stand steady, as I have found by experience,
by touching him on the neck, and then rubbing it with the
end of the pole. I have hardly ever known this plan to fail
in its object. Horses, almost always, like having their crest

Fig. 21. — Rope halter, put on pole to halter horse.

■scratched. As soon as the animal will stand still, while his
neck is being " gentled " with the stick, the halter may be
put on the end of the pole by three turns (see Fig. 21),
and the free end of the rope may be twisted once or
twice round the pole to prevent it hanging down too low.
The operator will now take the pole, with the halter rigged
on to it, and will endeavour to bring the crown-piece of the
halter behind the ears, without frightening the animal.

HALTERING HORSE.

113

while holding the end of the pole a little above its head
(see Fig. 22). He can repeat the precautions I have
described for making the horse stand still, as he may think
necessary. As soon as the crown-piece of the halter comes
behind the ears, he should swing the pole smartly down
in front of the animal's nose, and then under the lower jaw ;

Fisf. 22. — HalterinG: loose horse.

thus bringing the halter into its proper place (see Fig. 23).
Nothing now remains except to withdraw the pole, on
doing which, the operation will be complete (see Fig. 24).
Care should be taken not to bring the pole under the lower
jaw before the nose-band is in front of the ears ; for, if it

I

114

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

remains behind them when the end of the stick is broughl
down, the horse will be lassoed, not haltered. The pre-
cautions necessary to be taken in haltering the horse will
depend on the amount of his vice, or timidity. A horse

Fig. 23. — Haltering loose horse.

can be thus caught best when he is standing in the corner
of a wall which is too high for him to look over. In a
circular enclosure, the animal will be able, by turning
round, to defeat the intentions of his would-be captor

HALTERING HORSE.

115

much 'more easily than he could do in a rectangular one.
In a roped-in arena, the horse can get his head away from
the halter easier than he could do when close to a wall. There
is no fear of a horse, however vicious he may be, attacking
the operator, if the man keeps the pole across the animal's
face, ready, if need be, to give him a tap or two on the
muzzle. The larger the enclosure, the less inclined will a

Fig. 24. — Rope halter on horse.

horse be to " savage " anyone approaching him. In extreme
cases, a blow on the forehead might be necessary. I may
mention that the brain is covered at the forehead by only
a thin plate of bone. Mr. O. S. Pratt, the American
" horse-tamer," gives in his book a method for haltering a
loose horse by putting the crown-piece of the halter on the

I 2

ii6

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

end of a pole (see Fig. 25). In applying this, the horse is
very apt to shy away from the halter, which has to be put
on from the front. I have found from experience that
the manner of haltering which I have described, and

Pig. 25. — Pratt's method of putting halter on pole to halter horse.

which was shewn to me by Mr. G. A. Banham, F.R.C.V.S.,
is much better than Pratt's plan.

Teaching a loose horse to come up and to follow. —
If a horse is difficult to catch when loose, we may make
him come up to us, by putting him in a suitable enclosure,
and then cutting him with the hinging zvhip — which may

TAKING UP FORE LEG. 117

resemble the long whip used in circuses for regulating the
movements of horses, or that employed by carters — below
the hocks w^henever he presents his hind-quarters to us.
Having got him into a corner, we should prevent him from
escaping out of it, by showing him the point of the whip.
As soon as he understands that he exposes himself to
punishment by turning round, he will abstain from doing
so, and can be readily induced to stand still by the point of
the whip preventing him from getting away ; and, by the
fear of punishment, from turning round. By a few dex-
terous flourishes of the whip we shall have no difficulty in
making him come up to us, so as to avoid punishment.
He should then, I need hardly say, be rewarded by having
his crest scratched by the end of the whip, and, if he will
take it, by being presented with a carrot or other dainty.
By working in this manner, while we continue to walk
backwards, we can easily teach him to follow us. After
a time, by merely raising the whip, he will run up to us, so
as to avoid being hit with it. The foregoing method is
the one which is practised in circuses.

Lifting up a fore leg. — Having haltered the horse, we
may, in order to gain further control over him, take up a
fore leg in one of the following ways : —

I. If we are afraid that the horse on our approaching
him will " strike out " or kick, we may, as Colonel Rawlins,
R.H.A., showed me, form a noose about two feet and a half
in diameter, with a rope ; and having laid it on the ground,
give the free end to an assistant to hold. We may then
make the horse move about until he places one fore foot

ii8

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

within the noose (see Fig. 26), when the assistant should
pull the rope, and thus lasso the pastern. Or a rope with a
loop at one end of it may be worked round the near
fore leg (supposing we are standing on the near side)
by means of a stick, and brought back to the hand ; the
other end of the rope may be passed through the loop, and
the pastern noosed. The end of the rope may now be
thrown over the animal's back to the other side, and the

Fig. 26. — Noosing horse's fore leg.

leg pulled up (see Fig. 27) and secured by passing the rope
round the base of the neck (see Fig. 28) ; or the leg may
be pulled back by the rope, and lifted up by another
assistant. If the horse " shows fight," it may be necessary
to blindfold him at this stage of the proceedings. The
long pole may also be called into requisition to "gentle"
the horse, and thus render him comparatively quiet.
The operator can always quickly accomplish his object, in

NOOSIXG FORE LEG.

119

the manner described, if he will only exercise a little
patience.

I may mention that this method of noosing the leg is
similar in principle to that employed in securing the limbs
of wild elephants, in India, when they have been driven
into a stockade.

Fig. 27. — Pulling up horse's fore leg with rope.

2. The best way for lifting up a fore leg with the hand
is, as I have found out, to grasp, say, the near fore at the
back of the leg and just above the knee, with the left hand ;
pinch it with the fingers to stimulate the flexor muscles of
the knee to contract ; turn the elbow in, and press it against
the upper part of the fore arm, so as to throw the weight
from the near on to the off fore, and thus to render the

I20 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

picking-up of the near fore a very easy matter (see Fig. 29).
If required, an upward pull is given with the left arm, and
the foot is caught with the right hand as the horse lifts it
up. I may add that the muscles against which the man's
elbow presses, assist in raising the foot from the ground.
By this plan the breaker can stand at the side of the leg

Fig. 28. — Tying up horse's fore leg with rope.

which has to be raised, and a little away from it, thus keeping
out of danger as much as possible. If he tries to lift up
the fore leg of a bad cow-kicker by catching hold of the
pastern, he will run a great risk of getting hit on the
head or body, on account of having to stoop down while
standing close to, and a little behind, the fore leg.

PICKING UP FORE LEG.

121

3. The usual way carters lift up the fore leg of a heavy
draught animal is by catching the hair of the fetlock, and
then drawing up the leg. The slight irritation caused by

Fig. 29. — Lifting up a fore leg.

the pull at the roots of the hair will make the horse
readily bend the knee.

122

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Holding up a fore leg. — If the fore leg be held up by
the hand passing under the fetlock or pastern (see Fig. 30),
as is frequently done, the horse, by bearing a portion of his
weight on the man's hand, can easily kick with either hind
leg. The foot of the unshod horse should, on the contrary,

Fig. 30. — Wrong way of holding up
horse's fore leg.

Fig. 31. — Proper way to hold up
unshod horse's fore leg.

be held by the spread-out fingers grasping the front part of
the hoof (see Fig. 31). The shod foot may be held up
by the front part of the hoof, under which the fingers
pass, while the thumb presses down on the sole (see Fig. 32).
In either of these cases, the animal will avoid placing

HOLDING UP FORE LEG.

123

weight on the man's hand ; for by doing so, the joints of
the foot would become bent in a painful manner.

Fig. 32. — Proper way to hold up fore leg of shod horse.

124

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Tying up a fore leg. — Having *' picked up " the foot,
we may secure it in either of the two following ways : —

I. By Rarey's leg-strap, which is about 3 ft. long, and is
furnished at one end with a buckle, below which a leather
"keeper" is placed on both sides (see Fig. 33). To apply

it, the free end is passed round
the pastern, from the outside,
through the keeper at the back
of the buckle, thus forming a
loop. Another turn is taken
round the fore arm, and a second
loop is made by passing the end
through the buckle. The strap
can now be tightened up as may
be required, and the end run
through the second keeper. Figs.
34 and 35 show how this can
be done equally well with a stir-
rup leather, with which two or
three turns have been taken round
the pastern, so as to bring the
punched holes sufficiently near
the buckle. The objections to
the employment of this method
of tying up the leg, whether with
a Rarey's strap or with a stirrup leather, are : {a) That
it is apt to irritate the animal by the compression
needed to keep the strap in its place ; {b) That, when
the leg is thus fixed, the horse, in the event of his
" coming down," is liable to hurt his knee ; " capped knee "

I^'ig- 33' — Rarey's leg-strap.

LEG STRAP.

12!

being the usual result of the injury, on account of the extensor
tendon of the knee being at that moment tightly stretched
over the part : I have had this accident occur on several
occasions, when making horses lie down, even when they
had knee-caps on, and when the ground was soft ; (c) The
heel of the shoe, if the
horse be shod, is apt to
bruise and cut the elbow ;
(d) The compression ex-
ercised by the strap on
the fore arm numbs the
leg, and tends to make
the animal fall awk-
wardly, if he is made to
lie down ; (e) Unless the
strap is kept very tight,
it is apt to slip down
the fore arm, and thus
exercise an injurious
strain on the fetlock
joint.

2. By far the best way
for tying up a fore leg
is the one described by
Mr. Saunders in ' Our
Horses,' by which the
leg is simply suspended, at any length required, from the
surcingle. Mr. Saunders advises the use of a small loop to
connect the surcingle and strap together (see Fig. 36), with
the object, I presume, of keeping the limb in a plane

Fig. 34. — A stirrup leather utilised for
tying up a fore leg.

126

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

parallel to the general direction of the horse's body. This
is certainly an advantage when making a horse lie down ;
although I have found, for ordinary purposes of control,
that the employment of the small loop may be dispensed

rig. 35. — Tying up fore leg with stirrup-leather.

with, and the leg-strap passed through the surcingle or
girth. This method of suspending the leg is very
useful when gentling the fore limb, and when shoeing a
" difficult " animal ; as the foot can be retained at any

SUSPENDING FORE LEG.

127

convenient height from the ground without irritating
the horse, and, consequently, without inciting him to
" fight."

I have learned, on more than one occasion, by painful
experience, that it is possible for a horse to effectually cow-
kick with the hind leg of the side on which a fore leg is
tied-up.

A stirrup leather, with two or three holes punched at con-
venient distances, will, as I have said on page 124, make

79

Fig. 36. — Suspending horse's fore leg to surcingle.

a capital leg-strap (see Fig. 34). It has the advantage of
having, at the back of the buckle, no leather keeper, which
is always liable to give way, by reason of the strain exerted
on it.

For suspending a fore leg, we need punch no extra holes
in the stirrup leather, if we take, as already described, a few
turns with it round the pastern, before passing its end

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

through the lower part of the buckle. An ordinary stirrup
leather would, therefore, require a few seconds longer to
apply, than if more holes had been punched, which it is
prudent to do, in order to save time, if we have got to
tie up the leg of a difficult or dangerous horse.

Blindfolding a horse. — After the animal has been
secured in the manner described, or after he has been
simply haltered, a further step in the process of rendering
him helpless may be taken by throwing a rug or other
convenient cloth over his head, and then applying the rope-
twitch (see page 132). If he be dangerous to approach,
the rug may be placed on the end of a long pole, and then
brought over his head, or a blindfolding halter may be put
on, now, or in the first instance. This appliance is, I
believe, of French origin. It consists of an ordinary head-
stall, with a cloth filling up the space between the cheek-
pieces, brow-band, and nose-band, so as to cover the
horse's eyes.

Bhndfolding is an efficient means of control with the
majority of horses ; although it excites some to offer more
vigorous resistance than they would otherwise do. I have
never found a horse which would, when blindfolded, attempt
to kick or strike out on the chance of hitting his man,
unless he was touched about the limbs or body ; nor bite,
whether touched or not, under similar circumstances. I
therefore think that the breaker runs no risk whatsoever in
going up to the animal's head when it has thus been tem-
porarily deprived of sight, no matter how vicious the horse
may be.

HAL TER- TWITCH.

129

The halter-twitch. — With an ordinary halter, or with
the improvised halter which I have shown in Fig. 19, the
breaker may apply a modification of the rope-twitch (see
page 132), by making a half hitch
with the free part of the rope of
the halter, passing the loop over
the ears (see Fig. 37), bringing
the lower part of the loop under
the animal's upper lip, and then
pulling it tight (see Figs. 38 and
39). He may jerk the rope
(leading rein) three or four
times, accompanying the action
on each occasion with the word
" steady ! " I may mention that
the part of the rope which passes
under the upper lip should be
kept slack, except when the jerk
is given, and that any other suit-
able word may be substituted
for that of " steady ! " No horse,
when thus secured, will attempt
any aggressive movement towards
the man who holds the leading
rein. The rope may be jerked
and the word " steady ! " used
as may be required. The pain
inflicted by the application of
this twitch is a necessary evil which may well be dis-
regarded ; for its amount is trifling in comparison with

K

Ficr.

61'

-Halter-twitch.

I30

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

the extent of control obtained by its means. If em-
ployed carefully, no mark need be left on the mucous
membrane. The proper use of this twitch is thoroughly
rational ; for it keeps the horse quiet by its deterrent

Fig. 38. — Halter-twitch applied.

effect, and not by retaining him in a continued state
of suffering, as is done by the ordinary twitch. The word
" steady ! " or any convenient substitute for it, should

HALTER- TWITCH.

13'

never be omitted ; for after the animal has learned, as he
will do in a minute or two, to connect it with the idea
of pain, the twitch may be removed, and the word alone
used, in order to keep him in subjection. In this experiment,
it is evident that the horse fears the word, and not the
twitch ; for, no matter how often the rope is put on, he will
not resent its application more than he did on the first
occasion. The oftener, on the contrary, the ordinary twitch
is employed, the shyer will the animal become of having his

Fig' 39. — Halter-twitch applied.

muzzle touched. The chief advantages of the halter-twitch,
or of the rope-twitch (which is the more effective appliance
of the two), over the ordinary twitch are : that it can be
easier procured and applied ; it does not inflict so much
pain, which, with it, is momentary, and not continuous, as
with the other ; it is not so liable to slip off ; it can be
retained in position for any reasonable length of time, to
be used as required ; it has a good effect on the horse's

K 2

132

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

temper, and not a bad one, like the ordinary twitch ; by its
application we can dispense with its use in favour of a
simple word of command ; and it does not make the horse
shy of having his muzzle or mouth touched. The fact of
numbers of horses being rendered difficult to bridle by the
employment of the ordinary twitch will naturally occur
to the reader. The general substitution of the rope-twitch
(see following paragraph) for the ordinary one is highly
desirable. I may point out that if, when the ordinary
twitch has been twisted up tightly, its stick be struck or
jerked, on the animal moving, it will doubtless have a
deterrent effect, as well as that produced by the needless
infliction of continued pain.

Fig. 40. — Noose which will
not "run."

The rope -twitch. — Every-
thing I have said in the pre-
ceding paragraph in favour of
the halter-twitch, applies still
more strongly to the rope-twitch,
described in Mr. O. S. Pratt's
book, ' The Horse's Friend,'
which was published at Buffalo
in 1876. Mr. C. G. Frasier, who
was Pratt's assistant for some
years in America, tells me that
this twitch was not invented by
Pratt, long before whose time it
was in use. He thinks that it
was probably the idea of the
" horse-tamer," Fancliion, who

ROPE-TWITCH.

133

practised his art many years ago in the States. Pratt calls
it " the double-hitch Bonaparte bridle." It is made as
follows : take a rope and make a simple knot with it at one
end, at a distance of about eighteen inches from which
make another knot loosely, and pass the first knot through
the second, so as to form a loop which will not draw tightly

Fig. 41. — Pratt's twitch, first portion.

(see Fig. 40). Make a halter by taking a turn of the rope
through the fixed loop (see Fig. 41). Place this halter over
the horse's head, and the loop in his mouth. Make a half
hitch with the free part of the rope, pass it over the horse's
head and under his upper lip, and draw it moderately tight
(see Figs. 42 and 43). By making the fixed loop long, one
can obtain more power than with the halter-twitch.

134 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

If there be much difficulty in applying the rope-twitch,
the best plan, as I have found, is to try the effect of the
noose-twitch (see following paragraph). Or the horse may

Fig. 42. — Pratt's twitch completed.

be tied head and tail (see page 169), and it can then
be put on without trouble ; the animal being, of course,
released immediately after this is done.

NOOSE-TWITCH.

135

Fig. 43. — Pratt's twitch on horse's head.

Fig. 44. — Noose- twitch.

136

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

The noose-twitch (see page 180) is applied by means of
a rope, at one end of which a loop that will not run (see
Fig. 40) is made. The other end of the rope is thrown
over the upper part of the horse's neck and passed through
the loop ; a stick with a crooked handle being utilised if
necessary. While keeping the fixed loop high up on the
animal's cheek, the noose is manipulated so as to come

Fig. 45. — Headstali-twitch on horse.

under the upper lip, when it should be drawn tightly (see
Fig. 44). It may be used in the same manner as the
rope-twitch or the halter-twitch.

The headstall-twitch. — Fig. 45 will explain this ready
and effective method of applying the twitch. The rope is

BRIDLE- TWITCH.

137

passed through the upper ring of the cheek-piece of the
head-stall, and is tied on to the lower ring. The turn over
the ears and under the upper lip is then taken, with the

Fig. 46. — Bridle-twitcli, front and near-side view.

portion of rope which, after being drawn out, is included
between the two rings.

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

The bridle-twitch. — This is a useful and ready means
for making the horse stand quietly after he has been bridled,
and is appHed by passing one of the snaffle-reins under the

%

Fig. 47. — Bridle-twitch, ofif-side view.

upper lip, and drawing it tightly to the opposite side (see
Figs. 46 and 47). I was shown this twitch by Mr. Esa,
of the firm of Shaikh Ibrahim & Co., Poona, India.

INDIAN WAR BRIDLE. 139

The Indian war bridle is a kind of twitch which
appears to have been invented by the North American
Indians many years ago. To apply it, make a loop
which will not run (see Fig. 40) at the end of a rope ;
place this loop in the horse's mouth ; pass the other end
of the rope over the animal's neck from the ofif side (sup-
posing that the operator is on the near side) and through

/I

1 1

■ / 1

/ /

^ % '

[M^-^- 0 #
'*'*^^ ■#
i -^^ ^

%^f!0^M

.#

■ • i

i

1

1

[

Fig. 48. — Indian war bridle.

the loop ; tighten the rope, so as to make the horse draw
his ihead in ; and fix it by a running knot. It will then
form a very severe means of restriction (see Figs. 48 and
49), by reason of the painful pressure which the rope will
exert on the bars of the mouth. It can be loosened in
a moment by pulling on the free end of the rope. I have
given up the use of the Indian war bridle ; because its

I40

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

effect, like that of the ordinary twitch (see pages 130 to
132), is due to the continued infliction of pain.

Fig, 49. — Indian war bridle.

Fig. 50. — First part of Comanche bridle.

COMANCHE BRIDLE.

141

The Comanche bridle is the name given in America
to a kind of gag which is made as follows : Tie one end
of a rope round the horse's neck, close to his head, in such
a manner that the noose thus formed will not " run " (see
Pass the other end through the horse's

Figs. 40 and 50).

Fig. 51. — Comanche bridle, off side.

mouth from the off side, and through the loop on the neai
side (see Figs. 51 and 52). By pulling the horse by the
free end of the rope to one side and then to the other, we
can quickly teach him to lead or follow. The principle upon
which it acts appears to be that the animal obtains relief
from painful pressure by the rope on the corners of his

142

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

mouth the moment he approaches the man who is pulling
at the end of the rope, and consequently accepts the pull
(or word accompanying it) as a signal to follow.

Fig. 52. — Comanche bridle, near side.

The Cavesson, which consists of a strong leather head-
stall with a heavy leather-covered noseband, is largely used
in Continental riding-schools as a means for making horses
steady to handle, mount, lead, &c. Its effect is produced
by the breaker jerking the leading rein which is attached

S TRAIT-JA CKE T. 1 43

to it, so as to inflict blows of varying intensity on the nose
as a punishment for disobedience. As its application tends
to render the animal difficult to handle about the face, and
as its results, with the single exception of teaching a circus
horse to circle (see page 2)^7)^ can be better obtained with
the rope-twitch ; I would not advise its employment in
the breaking in of horses, except in the one case just
mentioned.

The strait-jacket. — For English readers, I venture to
apply this term to the hippo lasso of MM. Raabe and Lunel.
It consists of a breeching and breast-band, supported by
straps passing over the back, and connected by traces,
which proceed from the breeching, through Ds, with rollers
on them, at the end of the breast-band, back again through
similar Ds on the breeching, and then forward, to become
finally attached to buckles on the sides of the breast-band
(see Fig. 53). A strap and buckle, laid along the top of
the back, connect the two back-straps together. A piece
of felt may be used with the supporting strap of the breast-
band, as a guard to prevent the strap hurting the back.
The breeching should be lined with felt ; the back-straps
should be made of strong stirrup leather, and the traces
should be particularly strong close to the breeching. The
breeching and breast-band should be provided, at their
respective centres, with a D, to which ropes may be attached
in order to keep the animal steady before and behind.

This gear may be applied in the following way : If the
horse is quiet, the breast-band and breeching may be
put on separately, with the back-straps supporting them,
and may be connected together by the strap on the top of

144

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

the back, and by the traces on each side. The breast-band
should rest high up against the fore arms, and the breeching
behind and a httle below the level of the stifles (see Fig. 54).
If the animal be dangerous to handle only behind, the
breast-band may be put on and the breeching attached to
it in the manner just described ; but without putting it over
the quarters. A rope can now be fixed to the D in the

Fig- 53- — Strait-jacket

centre of the breeching, which, by the aid of the rope, can
be pulled over the croup into its proper position by an
assistant from behind. Before doing this, the traces should
be let out, to be pulled tightly the moment the breeching
slips over the tail. In this and other cases of difficulty,
ropes may be attached to the ends of the traces, so that
the assistants who hold them need run no risk of getting
kicked.

S TRA IT- J A CKE T.

145

When the horse strikes out as well as kicks, the different
parts of the strait-jacket may be connected together, with
the exception of, say, the near trace, the end of which may
be held by an assistant while another helper holds a rope
attached to a D which is on the near side of the breast-
band. The loop formed by the breast-band and its back-
strap is now passed over the horse's neck, the end of the
near trace passed through the near side D of the breast-

Fig. 54. — Horse with strait-jacket on.

band, and the remaining fixings accomplished. If the
animal be not very violent, the gear may be connected
together, the loop made by the breast-band and [its back-
strap passed over the head and neck, and the breeching
pulled over the croup by a rope.

If the precaution of putting on the rope-twitch be taken,
no difficulty need be experienced in subsequently applying
the strait-jacket.

L

146

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Lifting up a hind leg. — The usual " confidential "
method for lifting up a horse's hind leg, the near one for
instance, is, while standing by the side of the near quarter,
to run the left hand down the limb, take hold of the canon
with the fingers pointing to the rear (see Fig. 55), and
pick the leg up. Or we may run the right hand
down the leg, place the flat of the hand on the back

Fig. 55. — Lifting up horse's hind leg.

tendons (see Fig. 56), and lift up the leg by drawing
it forward. If we have any doubt as to the steadiness
of the animal, we may, while standing clear of the
forward action of the hind leg in the event of the horse
cow-kicking, and while pressing the left fore arm against
the quarter, so as to avoid the chance of being struck, run

LIFTING UP HIND LEG.

147

our left hand down the leg and catch the tendo Achillis
(the hamstring), our grip on which will more or less prevent
the animal from bending his hock and " lashing out "
behind, if he is so inclined. We may then catch the pastern,
back-handed, with the right hand (see Fig. 57) ; lift the leg ;
and place it resting on our left thigh (see Fig. 58). If we

Fig. 56. — Lifting up horse's hind leg.

have an assistant, we may get him to hold up the near fore
leg, as well as to hold the horse. As soon as we get our
left hand on the hamstring, and our right hand on the
pastern, we should tell him to let go the near fore, and we
can then try to lift up the hind leg as before described.

L 2

148

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

If we have no one to hold up the near fore, we may " pick
it up " with the left hand ; grasp the toe of the hoof with the
right hand, while facing to the horse's rear (see Fig. 59) ; take
a step forward with the right foot ; catch the hamstring with
the left hand (see Fig. 60) ; let go the near fore ; at the
same moment, seize the pastern, back-handed, with the right

Fig. 57. — Lifting up horse's hind leg.

hand (see Fig. 57) ; and place the horse's leg on the left thigh
(see Figs. 61 and 58). This method, which I believe I have
been the first to devise, ensures almost complete immunity
from danger. As long as we have hold of the fore hoof with
the hand, we can get foi-ward out of danger if the horse tries
to kick. The grasp of the left hand deprives the hind leg of

HOLDING UP HIND LEG.

149

the greater part of its action, and the hind pastern is caught
so quickly after, even if not before, the near fore reaches the
ground, that the animal has not time to make an offensive
movement. By catching the pastern in the way described,
we aid in preventing the animal from cow-kicking, to do
which, he must bend his hock ; for the muscle which flexes
the foot, extends the hock. Were we to catch the canon

Fig. 58. — Holding up horse's hind leg.

bone instead of the pastern, we should, besides losing this
advantage, have less ability to act on the lever formed by
the bones below the hock, by reason of our shifting the
point of application of the " power " closer to the fulcrum (the
head of the tibia). The irritation caused by the grasp of
the hand on the hamstring — which is composed of two

ISO

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Fig. 59-— First step in lifting up a hind leg without assistance.

LIFTING UP HIND LEG.

151

Fig. 60,— Second step in lifting up hind leg.

Fig. 61.— Third step in lifting up hind leg.

152

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

tendons — stimulates their muscles to contract, and thus to
keep the hock extended. In this operation, we should
follow the principles, already laid down, of removing the

Fig. 62.- -Hobble.

cause of any pain or irritation inflicted by us on the horse,
the moment he yields to our wishes. I need hardly say,
that if the horse overpowers the grip of our hands on his

Fig. 63. — Holding up horse's hind leg.

hind leg and kicks out behind, he can do us no harm ; for
we are then in front of his hind leg. If he will not submit.

GENTLING HIND LEG.

153

we may apply the rope-twitch (see page 132) ; and by its
aid and a little " gentling," proceed as before described.
Instead of lifting up the hind leg with the hand, we may,
while the fore leg of that side is tied up, place on the hind
pastern a hobble with a D attached to it (see Fig. 62), and
after the fore leg has been let down, lift up the hind leg
with a rope or stirrup leather (see Fig. 6'i^).

Fig. 64. — Gentling horse's hind leg.

If the horse be too bad a kicker to allow a hind leg to be
lifted up by the comparatively gentle means just detailed ;
we may, while the horse is being held by an assistant, tie
up one fore leg ; put on the pastern of the hind leg of the
same side — say, the near hind — a hobble ; fix a rope to its
D ; and give the rope to a second assistant. We may then
gentle the leg, while the assistant keeps it off the ground

154

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

(see Fig. 64), or lets it down, according as we see fit. When
held in this way, the animal is powerless to hurt us or the
assistant who is behind him. If the horse is very trouble-

Fig. 65. — Double sheet bend on horse's tail.

some, we may get the assistant who is at his head to correct
him with the rope-twitch, until he '' gives in" and allows his
leg to be lifted up. Or we may give the leg-rope to the

PULLING UP HIND LEG.

155

assistant and manipulate the rope-twitch ourselves. If we
have not got a hobble, we may fix one end of the rope
round the hind pastern by a noose which will not run (see
Fig. 40), in which case it is well, by the application of a
bandage, or piece of cloth, to protect the pastern from
getting chafed. Or we may employ the following method,
which was shown to me by General Gatacre : — Having
taken a strong cord about 20 ft. long, we may tie with it —

Fig. 66. — Pulling up horse's hind leg.

to the end of the tail— a '' double sheet bend " (see Fig. 65)
in the middle of the cord, and pass one end through the D
to the near side, the other end through it to the off side, and
give the respective ends to an assistant on each side to hold
(see Fig. 66), If the fore leg has been tied up, it should now
be let down. The assistants should stand at right angles to
the horse, and can lift the leg by pulling equally on their
respective cords. In this manner, the leg will be brought

156

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

straight up under the body, so as not to throw the animal
off his balance. The fact of thus keeping the joints of the
leg flexed will obviate any chance of his straining himself
while struggling, which he might do by the old method of
using only one cord (see Fig. 6j), which would necessitate

i'7^

Fig. 67. — Hind leg pulled up with one rope on tail.

the leg being pulled back, and would consequently disturb
the animal's equilibrium. By the other and better plan,
the foot may be lifted up and put down again without causing
him any inconvenience. It is a most valuable means for
" gentling " the hind limb ; for its action is irresistible, and

FIXING ROPE TO SHORT TAIL.

157

it causes no irritation. If the horse's tail is too short to
make a knot in its hair, we may pass a loop made in the

Fig. 68. — Method of fastening a rope to a short tail.

middle of a doubled cord over the dock, and further secure
it by a half hitch (see Figs. 6Z and 69).

158 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

sp

Fig. 69.— Rope attached to short tail.

IMPROVISED HOBBLE.

159

It sometimes happens that a horse which is difficult to
handle behind, will, when
we try to lift up one of
his hind legs in any of the
ways I have mentioned,
bear all his weight on
that limb, or even throw
himself down. In such
cases, and when he has
been very violent, I have
succeeded in making him
" give in," by keeping
him on the ground with
his head pulled round
(see page 164), until the
desired effect had been
produced.

Improvised hobble.
— I have devised the
following substitute for
a hobble by which to
lift up a hind leg : Place
a stirrup iron, foot part
pointing to the rear, at
the back of the hind
pastern, take a few
turns with the stirrup- Fig. 70.— Hobble improvised with stirrup-
1,1 J i.1, i. leather and iron.

leather round the past-
ern and iron, and buckle up (see Fig. 70).

i6o

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL,

The wooden gag. — This is useful for preventing the
animal from biting, and also for breaking him of this
objectionable habit. It may be made out of a block of
hard wood, five inches long and two inches square, with
the corners planed off, so as to form an octagon in section
(see Fig. 71). It may have a semicircular groove (which
is not shown in this illustration), about a third of an inch
broad, running down the centre of each face of the

n

Fig. 71. — Wooden gag.

octagonal, in order to make it more " punishing." A hole
is bored down the centre for a chain which is attached to
the head-stall. I use leather guards on each side to prevent
the animal from getting the gag out of his mouth. This is a
modification of Rarey's wooden mouthing bit, which was a
round block of wood.

General Peat suggested to me the advisability of having
the gag made with sharp edges, and not round ; so as to

MAKING HORSE LIE DOWN.

i6i

teach the horse, by the pain inflicted on his gums, not to
bite.

Making a horse lie down and keeping him on the
ground. — For making a horse He down, the following
method, which ''Professor " Sample informs me was invented
by the American " horse-tamer " Hamilton, is the best I
have seen, and may be described as follows : Place on the

Fig. 72. — Horse ready to be made lie down.

horse a surcingle which has two or three iron rings on its
pad, and attach a crupper to the rearmost ring. Put on
the horse's head a strong head-stall, and fix to its near
(for instance) side D an iron ring. Tie a strong cord
or rope by one end to the front (if there be two rings)

l62

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

or middle (if there be three) ring on the pad ; pass the
other end through the ring on the side of the head-stall,
and back through the front ring of the pad. Put knee-caps
on, and suspend to the surcingle the fore leg of the side
away from which the head will be turned (see Fig, 72).
The buckle of the leg strap should be on the inside, so that
when the horse lies on his off side there may be no difficulty

in undoing the
found that it is
for an assistant
animal over on
the wrong way.
the cord, draw
cord across the

Fig- 73- — Horse on ground.

strap in order to let him get up. I have
a good plan to tie a rope to the horse's tail
to hold, so that he may be able to pull the
to the proper side if he appears likely to fall
Then, all being ready, take the free end of
the head round to the near side, with the

base of the neck, and keep up the tension

MAKING HORSE LIE DOWN.

163

until the horse rolls over to the off side (see Fig. 73), either
by "giving in " or by being forced to do so. We may find
it convenient in some cases, instead of having the rope
across the animal's chest, to bring it over the back as in
Fig. 74. As a rule, the operator will find it best to stand
on the off side and a little to the front of the horse's
shoulders. Xo attempt should be made to throw the
animal forciblv down ; for the effect we should aim at

Fig. 74. — Making horse lie down.

is that to be produced by his " giving in " to power
which he finds irresistible. Hence the more he " fights "
and pits the strength of his muscles against the action of
our mechanical appliances, the better will be the result cf
our victor}-. If the horse appears likely to fall on his near
side, the assistant who holds the tail rope should pull him
over on to his off side ; for, if he were to fall on the near

M 2

1 64

METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

side, he would be in the awkward position of having his
neck doubled under him. Although this position looks dan-
gerous to the horse which gets into it ; I have never seen,
in many scores of cases, any injury result from it. The
horse may now be kept, say ten minutes, on the ground
with his head pulled round to his side (see Fig. 75), and
*' gentled." When " gentling " the horse on the ground,
the breaker should remain at his back (as I have already
mentioned), so as to keep out of reach of his heels.

Fig- 75- — Horse on ground with head pulled round.

Having carefully attached a rope-noose to the off hind
pastern, the breaker may pull that hind limb towards himself
and gentle it.

The " gentling " is performed by passing the hand over
the various parts of the body, gently rubbing, kneading
or bending them as may be required to make the horse
relax his muscles, when the touch of the hand causes
him to. contract them from fright or from resentment. The
object of the gentling is to show the horse that he need fear
nothing from the touch of man, and that he must submit to

MAKING HORSE LIE DOWN. 165

it. To carry out the latter part of this condition we may,
if the horse shows fight while we are gentling him, pull his
head sharply round to his side by the cord (see Fig. 75)
so as to punish him ; and when he gives in, we may, as a
reward, relax the tension.

I need hardly say that it is quite immaterial to which
side the horse's head is drawn, provided that in either case
the opposite leg be tied up.

If the animal goes down without a struggle, and sulks on
the ground, he should be forced to "show fight" by keeping
him in the constrained position depicted in Fig. 75, until he
has got rid, by inefi'ectual struggling, of most of his
" temper." When a horse begins to groan, and to con-
siderably moderate the violence of his struggles, we may
feel confident that " the sulk " has been taken out of him
more or less, and that he is fit to be allowed to get on to his
feet again. If an error happens to be made with respect to
the amount of the efi"ect produced, it should be on the side
of leniency rather than on that of severity ; for the opera-
tion can be always repeated and more time given on the
next occasion, without running any risk of unduly cowing
the animal. Whatever punishment we employ should
never be pushed beyond the point necessary to gain our
required object, which, in this case, is the attainment of
authority over the horse.

My own practice with animals that are simply impatient
of control, is to produce the desired effect by making them
lie down several times ; and, with stubborn ones, by keeping
them down with their heads pulled round. The latter
method might alone be employed, if the ground be hard or

i66 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

slippery, or if the back tendons or suspensory ligaments of
the horse's fore legs appear unfit to bear severe tension.
In such cases both the strait-jacket and throwing gear
might be put on the horse, which might be made to lie down
with the former and have his head pulled round by the
latter; after doing which the strait-jacket could be taken off,
so as to give the animal entire liberty to kick as much as
he pleases. We might use body clothing on the horse to
save the point of his hip which is on the ground, from
getting chafed.

I wish to impress on my readers the great value, for
overcoming stubbornness, of the foregoing method of
keeping a horse on the ground.

The throwing gear is exactly similar in its action to that
described in Pratt's book, although differing from it in its
construction. Pratt used to employ a rope which was
looped round the neck and passed through the mouth, for
pulling round the head. He also had a single rope to form
both surcingle and crupper. The chief objection to Pratt's
method, as far as I can see, was that the ropes passing
through the mouth and under the tail were apt to hurt
those parts.

The employment of the tail-rope (see Fig. 74) is an
improvement which I have devised, and which I have
found very useful ; although it is by no means indispen-
sable, especially if the operator be expert. As the
surcingle has to be girthed up tightly, I like to use a
felt saddle-cloth or numdah under it, to prevent it slipping
forward, in which case it might squeeze the withers, or the
crupper might rub the root of the tail.

HOLDING HORSE ON GROUND.

167

In order to make a horse " give in " to the required
degree, after he submits to lie down readily with one leg
tied up, I like to continue the process with both fore legs
free until he goes down without any trouble.

The attempt to obtain control over the horse, as a rule,
had best be completed in one lesson, which can be repeated
as may be required.

Out of the many hundreds of horses which I have made
lie down, I have had only one accident from this cause.

%'»^--

Fig. 76. — Holding horse down on ground.

The exception was a China pony which went down very
gently on soft and sandy ground. When I tried to make
him get up, I found that he had broken his back.

We may utilise the knowledge that a horse cannot get
up off the ground when his head is pulled round, in keeping
him down — for instance, when he has fallen in harness — by
holding his head in an upward and backward direction,
while keeping his neck bent by aid of the pressure of the

i68 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

knee (see Fig. "j^). We should employ this plan only when
the animal attempts to get up ; for the position which it
entails, is very irksome to him.

Major Woods' method of throwing horses. — I have
seen Major Woods, late of the R.M.L.L, throw several
horses very cleverly without any special gear, in the
following manner, which I believe he invented : Having
placed himself on the left side of the horse, which was
provided with a head-stall and leading rein, he took up the
animal's near fore foot and held it in his left hand, while
he drew the horse's head round to the right side by the
leading rein, which he kept in his right hand. By forcibly
keeping the animal in this constrained position, he obliged
him to come down on the near knee, and finally to roll
over on the ground. Major Woods claims that throwing
the horse in this manner convinces the animal of the
ascendency of man more than if special tackle were used.
It goes without saying that to apply this method success-
fully on violent horses, a man must be, like Major Woods, an
athlete, and gifted with presence of mind and pluck. Even
if we doubt the superiority of its moral effect on a horse, as
compared to the plan on the same principle, but with the
aid of special gear ; we must acknowledge that to carry it
out on a really difficult horse, is a very clever feat.

Throwing a horse with the strait-jacket. — To do this,
one assistant should stand at his head, another should
hold a rope attached to his tail, so that he may not throw
himself forward on to his head, while an assistant at each

HEAD AND TAIL METHOD. 169

of the traces should pull them tight, and then bring him
down. As soon as he is on the ground, he should be
gentled and handled all over for a few minutes. The
process may be repeated or prolonged as may be required.
If, say, the off trace be tightened up and buckled, the aid
of the assistant, who would otherwise have held this trace,
may be dispensed with. This method of throwing the
horse is the gentlest in its action of any I have seen. If
the appliances and help be at hand, and time be no object,
I would recommend that it should be always used as a
preliminary to that of making a horse lie down by pulling
his head round (see page 161), so as to take some of the
" fight " out of him, and to prevent him, as much as possible,
from " knocking himself about."

The head and tail method. — The earliest mention of
this method which I can find, is in Mr. R. Jennings's ' Horse
Training Made Easy,' published in 1866. In this book it is
referred to as if at that time it was a well-known plan for
subduing horses. Whoever was its inventor, Sample merits
the credit of having introduced it into Australasia and
England. I am inclined to think that he utilised it in a
more competent manner than did any of his predecessors.
The principle of its application, as expounded by Sample, is
to place the horse in such a position that the only move-
ment of which he will be capable, while in it, will be a more
or less circular one ; and then to induce the animal by every
possible means, short of striking or otherwise hurting him,
to go round and round, so that he will at last find that this
involuntary form of waltzing is more irksome to him than

I70 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

having to bear unaccustomed, though innocuous, sights,
sounds, and touches. The feehng of having, under strong
provocation, to submit to irresistible control, often helps
in this case to form the habit of obedience. The carrying
out of this method, which had best be practised in a suitable
enclosure or in the corner of a field, is as follows : — Having
put a headstall on the horse, tie one end of a rope or
cord by a double sheet bend (see Fig. 65) to his tail,
draw the head about a third of the way round, and
tie the free end of the rope to the head-stall, so that
the head may be kept in this position. I may explain
that the longer the tail, the thicker may be the rope ;
and that the rope or cord should be so fixed to the
headstall that it can be readily loosened or tightened. I
have found that it is a great improvement to attach a short
rope or strap (a stirrup leather will do) to the side of the
headstall away from which the horse's head is turned (see
Fig. yj), so that the operator may catch it and thus stop the
revolving horse. To begin with, the length of the cord which
connects the head and tail should be so regulated, that it
will be just sufficient to make the animal turn round without
being able to go forward. In order to obtain increased
control, the cord should be gradually tightened from time
to time, according as the pupil becomes accustomed to the
movement ; but on no account to such an extent as would
cause him to be in danger of falling down ; for our object
here is to avoid giving him just reason for alarm. Besides,
a fall, when the animal is in this position, is not without
danger to neck or back.

When the horse has been fixed up in this manner, we

HEAD AND TAIL METHOD.

171

may begin operations by gently cracking a whip while
standing a few yards away from him, and may continue to
do so, if he expresses impatience or alarm by going round
and round, until he pays no attention to the noise made by
the whip, although we may crack it all over him. We
should gradually shorten the cord which connects his
head to his tail, and, at the same time, should continue
to approach nearer to him, and to increase the noise of the

Fig. 77. — Horse tied head and tail.

cracking of the whip. Out of hundreds of '^ nervous "
horses which have passed though my hands, I have never
seen a single one which, by this head and tail plan, would
not, within an hour at the outside, allow ^^ the whip to be
cracked all over him without evincing the slightest fear,
even when the connecting cord had been removed from the
headstall and tail. While using the whip in the manner
described, we should carefully refrain from hitting the

172 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

animal with it. After the pupil has lost all fear of the whip,
we may proceed in a similar manner to make him bear
without flinching being touched with a long pole of con-
venient thickness and weight. We should begin by placing
the pole on the least sensitive part of his body (his "crest,"
on which the mane grows), and should work up by degrees
to the more ticklish ones, such as under the belly, down the
legs, in front, behind, and between them. In this way, we
should go over the whole of the animal's body with the pole.
When he submits to be touched all over, we may try the
effect of noise on him, as, for instance, that produced by
beating an empty paraffin oil tin, and we may finally
endeavour to frighten him by flourishing in front of, and all
over him, a white banner or other cloth fixed to the end of
the pole. In doing all this, our object should be to make
him go round as much as possible, by startling him, though
without hurting him in the slightest ; for the more trying
will have been his experience, the less likely will he sub-
sequently be, to become startled at anything unusual
happening. When he has thoroughly given in, the cord
may be taken off his head and tail.

The foregoing method of rendering horses quiet, or of
impressing on their minds the idea that they cannot resist
the power of man, is applicable only to excitable horses
which, under the various kinds of provocation I have
described, will go round and round until all the ''nonsense"
has been taken out of them for the time being. It is
not suitable to sulky horses, whose defence against punish-
ment would be to jib. It is useful for curing biters and
kickers of their respective vices ; supposing that these

HEAD AND TAIL METHOD. 173

animals are not also afflicted with stubbornness, in which
case a course of making them lie down (see page 161)
and keeping them on the ground (see page 165), would
be more appropriate. While using the head and tail
method, I have never had a horse hurt himself, even
when he has fallen on the side to which his head is
turned, as will sometimes happen.

After having given the head and tail plan a trial of
several years in hundreds of cases in various parts of the
world ; I now rarely employ it, except as a means for
saving labour. Its chief weak point is that it teaches
nothing except quietness, which can, as a rule, be better
obtained by the use, for instance, of the long reins and
rope-twitch. We can also inculcate by the former,
obedience to the " aids " ; and, by latter, obedience to the
voice, which can also be taught to a considerable extent
by the long reins. If the horse is quiet enough to carry
a man on his back, riding him round and turning him in
small circles will certainly improve his manners more than
letting him, with his head tied to his tail, go round and
round until he sees fit to stand still ; to say nothing of the
instruction he gets at the same time in control by hand
and leg. I have known several instances of aggressively
vicious horses, which had apparently *' given in " during
a head and tail lesson, become in a few hours far worse
in their temper, seemingly from resentment at having
been rendered temporarily helpless, and from knowledge
that, with their freedom, they had regained their power
of inflicting injury on those whom they, rightly or wrongly,
regarded as ther tormentors.

174 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

Rareyfying a horse. — The method by which Rarey
used to tame vicious horses was to tie up one fore
leg (as in Fig. 35), and then pull up the other by
means of a strap attached to the pastern and passing
through the surcingle, which had previously been put on.
The operator stands on the side of the tied-up leg, and
draws the horse's head by the rein to the opposite side
as soon as the horse comes down on his knees. Having
got into that position, the animal is supposed to struggle to
get up, until at last, confessing the superior power of the
man, he " gives in " and rolls over on his side. He is
then "gentled" (see page 164), and, finally, on the straps
being removed, he is allowed to get up and to commence
life as a supposed reformed character. As the operator
has to stand close to the animal while it plunges and
fights for its liberty, this process of taming has been adopted
by very few. Its non-success as a breaking method was
further increased by the fact that it was ef^cacious only
with those vicious horses which would '* fight to the bitter
end." These animals, I can assure my readers, form only a
small proportion of the horses whose vices make them fit
subjects for taming. I have met with many horses which
were very dangerous to approach, but which were so sulky
that the mere act of tying-up a fore leg was sufficient to
make them lie down without their attempting the semblance
of a " fight." Others would similarly adopt the recumbent
position if they obtained the additional incentive of having
their head drawn round to the side of the fore leg which
alone supported the weight of the forehand. To make any
such method perfect, it is necessary to provide it with

RAREYFYING HORSES. 175

means, as described on page 165, for forcing the horse to
"fight," when, from sulkiness, he refuses to do so. His
refusal to fight, in such cases, is a " defence " which we have
got to combat.

Mr. Norton Smith adopted, from " Professor " Gleeson I
beheve, a modification of Rarey's system, by attaching a
long strap or cord to each fore pastern, passing these lines
through the surcingle (or through rings on the surcingle),
and then carrying them back behind the horse, so that the
operator, while keeping out of harm's way, could pull up
one or both fore legs of the animal, as he deemed fit.
When I saw Mr. Smith performing, he made the horse lie
down by pulling both legs off the ground at the same time.
I need hardly say that, although such a method might do
for a show, and especially with a horse that had been
taught to '^ go down " in this way ; it is unworthy of
serious consideration from a breaking point of view,
on account of the danger there is, by it, of the animal
injuring himself by coming down violently on his knees
or on his head. I may observe that a breaker cannot be
expected to be provided with ground softer than an or-
dinary grass field.

Sample tells me that Denton Offett taught Rarey the
system which now goes by Rarey's name. I see from a
leading article in the Evening Standard oi lO'Cci. June, 1893,
that *' This horse-taming business is very, very old.
Mortals who have been privileged to view the glorious
collection of Greco-Scythic art in St. Petersburg will see it
there in practice — exactly the same twenty-five hundred
years ago, as that with which Mr. Rarey made such a pro-

176 METHODS OF HORSE-CONTROL.

digious sensation in the days when most of us were young.
There, on a silver vase in relief, is a Scythian warrior
lassoing a horse ; there he is strapping its fore leg up ;
there, again, he has it on its knees ; and finally, in the
last group, it stands, saddled, bridled, ' tamed.' Probably
there is not one of these latest methods which could not be
traced in ancient times. And still somehow we go on
breaking horses in in the accustomed way, and vice is as
common as ever."

Sample's horse-taming machine. — As a development
of the head and tail system — of which he was a great
admirer — Sample brought out and patented in 1891 a
machine by which he proposed to tame horses. It con-
sisted of a box, which was supposed to hold the horse, and
which he rotated either by hand or steam at a speed
sufficient to render the enclosed animal so giddy, that
on being taken out, it would be perfectly quiet to
handle for the time being, no matter how wild it had
previously been. The exhibition of this machine in Lon-
don was a failure ; partly because its inventor did not
provide himself with a supply of wild horses, with which to
demonstrate its power. I feel certain that it would be a
valuable means for saving labour in rendering quiet freshly-
caught horses which have been brought up under uncivi-
lized conditions.

- South African method of breaking. — The usual way
adopted by the Boers of the Cape Colony, Transvaal,
Orange Free State, and Natal for breaking in their horses.

SOUTH AFRICAN BREAKING. 177

is to put a strong head-stall on the young one and another
on a steady break-horse, which has a saddle on him, and,
having placed the two animals side by side, to tie them
securely together by their head-stalls. Fixed in this way,
the pupil is unable to run away, rear or buck. The breaker
mounts the old horse, whose '' company " gives the young
one confidence, and in a short time makes his pupil
accompany him wherever he likes. After a few days,
another man mounts and rides the young horse, which,
during these lessons, continues to be attached to the
other animal, and thus soon makes his mount quiet
to ride. This method is safe and expeditious ; but has
the drawback of being liable to make the pupil dis-
inclined to act independently of his fellows. I need
hardly say that it affords no instruction in mouthing or
in the formation of the different paces. The success
which I had during my South African tour showed that
those Boers whom I had the pleasure of meeting, liked
the system of breaking which I taught them better than
their own.

N

178

CHAPTER V.

BREAKING ON FOOT.

Catching a horse and making him quiet to handle — Mouthing a
horse with the long reins on foot — Teaching a horse to turn on
his forehand — Teaching a horse to lead.

In this chapter I shall describe the breaking of the horse
preliminary to his being either ridden or driven, whatever
may be the purpose for which he is intended. I assume
that he has not been handled, and that he is in sufficiently
good condition to stand the fatigue of breaking. I shall
provide, as far as I can, for difficult cases, which, I need
hardly point out, often occur even in England ; to say
nothing of countries in which colts and fillies are brought
up under wild conditions. Those of my readers who are
fortunate enough to have only quiet horses to break in, can
skip the description of precautions and methods which
others less favourably placed will find useful, if not indis-
pensable for the attainment of success.

It will be observed that by the system I adopt, the
manners of the horse are, as far as possible, made con-
currently with his ''mouth." In fact, a few days' driving
with the long reins (see page 183) would make the wildest
or most vicious horse (supposing that the vice did not

CATCHING A HORSE. 179

proceed from disease, as in the case of a mare suffering
from nymphomania) quiet to handle, as well as obedient
to the bridle.

Catching a horse and making him quiet to
handle. — If the horse is in the open, and is difficult to
approach and handle, the first thing we have got to do is to
drive him into some suitable enclosure, such as a straw
yard, empty barn, or loose box. We may then make a
rope halter (see page 109) and put it on with a long stick
(see page iii). I have used this plan successfully in Eng-
land with colts driven into a farm-yard to be docked or
castrated ; in South African kraals, with wild horses which
had never before been approached by man ; in India, with
broken-loose man-eaters whose attendants dared not go
near them ; and under many other circumstances of more
or less difficulty, if not danger. Lassoing a horse in order to
catch him, is not a good plan ; because it is liable to injure
him by causing him to fail violently on the ground, and
does not give the operator the command of his head, which
is obtained by the other method. If the horse is wild, and the
enclosure is small enough to keep him within easy reach, I
like to make him stand still in a corner, by means of the
lunging whip (see page 116), and then gentle him about the
legs (in front and behind), head, neck, back and belly by
passing the end of the whip or long stick over these parts.
If he makes any attempt to turn round, to kick or to get
away, I flick him with the whip below the hocks until he
turns his head towards me and stands still. I then make
him come up to me, and I put the halter on him. At this

N 2

i8o BREAKING ON FOOT.

stage of the proceedings, we may for safety sake noose a
fore leg (see page 117), say, the near, and give the rope to
an assistant to hold, while we take charge of the halter
rope. In most cases we can now go up to the horse, and
apply the rope-twitch by means of the rope halter which
is already on the horse's head (see Fig. 39). If this can-
not be done without risk, we may, by means of a stick or
pole, pass a blanket or similar article over the horse's
head, so as to blindfold him. We may then put on the
twitch over the cloth, and after we have adjusted it, we
may remove the cloth from underneath it. With the
twitch on, the man who holds it, is safe from being
bitten by the horse, or from being struck by a fore leg.
If the attempt to blindfold the animal makes him, as
it sometimes will do, outrageously violent, and if he also
furiously resists any approach being made to his head ;
we may obtain control by applying the noose-twitch (see
Fig. 44). The great difficulty I had experienced in going
up to some of the wild horses I had to break in South
Africa, prompted me to invent this twitch. In getting it
or the rope-twitch on the horse, we may expedite matters
and save ourselves from being bitten, by putting a stick
into the horse's mouth. He will seldom offer resistance
to this being done. In fact he will generally like to
get the stick between his teeth. Its presence in his
mouth will greatly help to distract his attention from
his breaker, and will consequently make him less trouble-
some than he might otherwise be to handle. Although
the noose-twitch is not so effective as Pratt's rope-twitch
(see page 132), the fact remains that its power is ample

HORSE ON GROUND.

for control in this case. With either the noose-twitch or
rope-twitch appHed, and with a rope attached to a fore
pastern, we may consider that the most vicious horse
in the world is entirely at our disposal. At this period
or even before it, I have known horses throw themselves
down from combined rage and obstinacy at finding that
they were mastered. If the horse adopts this defence,
tying his head to his tail and keeping him in that position

Fig. 78. — Horse tied down on ground.

(see Fig. J^) until he has '* given in," will, I have found, be
the readiest and most effective means of taking the '' non-
sense " out of him. If he does not try to defeat us in the
manner just mentioned, we may proceed to tie up one
fore leg, and put on the long-reins driving gear (see
page 183) ; and may circle, turn, and rein him back,
for about half an hour. Or we may employ the head

1 82 BREAKING ON FOOT.

and tail plan (see page 169). When the horse has
been thus fixed up, we can easily tell the state of his
temper ; for if he be nervous or excitable, he will go round
and round at the slightest provocation. If, on the contrary,
he be sulky, he will '' take as little as he can out of him-
self" ; but when released will be as bad, or nearly as bad,
as before. The more he " fights," the more good will the
lesson do him, and the sooner will he give in. Our object,
therefore, should be to make him " fight " ; not by punish-
ment, but according to principles I have already discussed.
For sulky horses, and for them alone, would I advocate the
taming means of making them lie down and keeping them
on the ground with their heads pulled round. No matter
how violent or how aggressively vicious a horse may
be, he can be made, for the time being, perfectly quiet
to handle in a couple of hours, or, if need be, in one
hour, by the methods I have just mentioned. A few
repetitions — say, half a dozen at the outside — will even in
the worst cases confirm the habit of obedience ; always
supposing that the animal remains in the hands of fairly
capable people. It is almost needless to point out that by
injudicious management, even placid-tempered horses may
be made difficult to handle ; to say nothing of temporarily
reformed characters, out of the minds of which the good
effects of a previous victory of discipline over vicious habits
are rapidly fading.

After the horse has been gentled all over and rendered
as quiet as practicable by the foregoing measures, any
unsteadiness, nervousness, or renewal of resistance may
be readily conquered by the use of the rope-twitch (see

MOUTHING BY LONG REINS. 183

page 132), which is particularly useful for making horses
stand absolutely steady by word of command.

Horses brought up under ordinary civilised conditions
will not, as a rule, require any of the strong means of
subjection already described. Having haltered one of
them, noosed a fore leg, and applied the halter-twitch
(see page 129), we can generally put on the gear de-
scribed in the following section, and make him quiet by
mouthing him on foot with the long reins, so that he
may acquire both " mouth " and " manners " at the same
time. To make him " stand " being girthed up, we may
have to tie up a fore leg (see page 124) ; or may hold him
with one hand on the rein or on the twitch, and the other
hand pressed hard against the lower part of his neck so as
to bring his head round, and at the same time to prevent
him striking us with the fore leg of that side. While held
in this manner (see Fig. 16), it will be difficult for him to
kick the man who is girthing-up either the driving-pad or
the saddle.

Mouthing a horse with the long reins on foot. —
Taking a fairly quiet, though unbroken horse, or a wild
one which has been reduced to obedience according to the
directions given in the preceding paragraphs, we may
proceed to mouth him with the long reins in the following
manner.

The gear which I use for driving horses on foot, consists
of a snaffle bridle ; a standing martingale ; long reins ; a
driving-pad, which may, or may not, have a crupper
attached to it for preventing it from shifting forward ; and

1 84

BREAKING ON FOOT.

a bearing-rein, if the animal is inclined to carry his head
too low down.

The snaffle which I prefer to all others, for riding as
well as breaking, is a flat, slightly curved, unjointed one,
covered with leather, and having a strap to buckle behind
the lower jaw (see Figs. lo and ii). My objections to the
ordinary snaffle are : (i) it pinches the sides of the lower

Fig. 79. — Side view of bearing-rein.

jaw, by reason of the joint in its centre ; and (2) by being
round, its pressure is confined to a very small surface of the
gum, the extent of which surface is at least quadrupled by
the employment of a flat snaffle not less than an inch broad.
I need hardly say that the greater the surface over which
the pressure is distributed, the less liable will such pressure

BEARING-REIN.

185

be to irritate the horse, or to render insensitive the part
upon which it is appHed. The snaffle I use has a
flat, steel core, to give it the required stiffness. The
addition, at the back of the lower jaw, of a strap which
is a continuation, on both sides, of the leather that
covers the mouthpiece, prevents the bit from being liable

Ficr. 80. — Front view of bearinii-rein.

to be drawn through the mouth, and enables the driver
(whether on foot or in a trap) or rider to pull the
horse's head round by acting on the lower jaw. The
bearing-rein (see Figs. 79, 80 and 81) has a nose-band
which comes under the lower jaw, in the chin-groove, below
the mouthpiece of the snaffle, and is connected to the

1 86

BREAKING ON FOOT.

bearing-rein by a strap running down the centre of the
face. The bearing-rein can be fixed to the driving-pad or
saddle. This form of bearing-rein keeps the head up by
acting on the chin-groove, the bony surface of which is
smooth and rounded. As it in no way interferes with the
mouth, it is much superior to the ordinary kind, which
raises the head by pressing on the corners of the mouth.

Fig. 8i. — Horse with bearing-rein.

As a substitute for a bearing-rein, we may employ an
ordinary pair of riding reins put over the driving-pad.

The standing martingale is attached to the rings of the
snaffle and to the girth of the driving-pad, and is lengthened
out as much as is compatible with its preventing the animal
from getting the snaffle off the bars of the lower jaw, and
on to the corners of the mouth (see page 96, and Fig. 9).

DRIVING-PAD.

187

I like the reins to be about twenty-two feet long, and made
of one and a half inch " circular " (or " pipe ") webbing. I
have them buckled on the rings of the snaffle, and separate
from each other ; so that, if the horse tries to bolt away
when being driven on foot, he can be pulled round and
held fast, by letting go one rein and holding the other
tight. With an ordinary snaffle, we may employ leather
guards similar to
those used by Lon-
don cabmen, in order
to give increased
effect to the side pull
of the rein, and to
prevent the corners
of the mouth from
becoming chafed.
Each guard is made
of a circular piece of
stiff cowhide, about
four and a half inches
in diameter, and
having, from the cen-
tre to the circum-
ference, an opening,

which can be laced up. Or it may consist of two pieces of
leather sewn together, and will then be a fixture.

The driving-pad, which is an invention of mine, consists
of an iron plate to which a piece of rod-iron of suitable size
and shape is securely riveted (see Figs. Z2 and 83). The
plate is about twenty-six inches long, one-eighth of an

Fis. 82.— Front view of driving-pad.

1 88

BREAKING ON FOOT,

inch thick, five inches broad at its widest part, and is
made to fit the back. The rod is about two-thirds of an
inch in diameter, and is curved in a special manner, so as
to prevent the " outward " rein from going over the withers,
and also to keep it, when required, on about a level with
the withers. Above, and on each side of the top of the
arch of the iron plate, is attached an iron ring, through
which to pass the outward rein, in the event of the

breaker wishing to obviate
any possibility of this rein
slipping over the pad, as
might happen in the case of
a particularly wild horse that
was driven on foot for the
first time. If this precaution
be adopted, the breaker,
when he desires to change
the direction of the circle on
which he is driving the horse,
will have to take the rein
out of the ring in which it is,
and place the other rein in
the other ring. Thus, when
circling to the right, the left rein will pass through the
left ring, and vice versa. In no case will the inner rein
be passed through either of the rings ; for unless it is
kept well away from the pad, the operator will be
unable to obtain full control over the horse. I may
mention that the ends of the iron plate fit into the
pockets of a suitably stuffed panel, and the girth-straps, on

Fig. 83.
Side view of driving-pad.

LONG REIN GEAR.

189

each side, are riveted to the iron plate. Before I invented
this pad, I used to employ crosstrees (see Fig. 84) ; on each
side of which was placed a leather strap for the rein to
run over. The iron pad is less cumbersome than the
crosstrees, serves its purpose better, and is practically in-
destructible. I generally dispense with a crupper, unless
the horse has thick low withers, and is particularly wild.
As will be seen in Fig. 85, I used to have rein-bearers

Fig. 84. — Wooden driving-pad.

(about three and a half feet long, and made to lengthen
or shorten as might be required), hanging from the crupper.
They are useful for preventing the reins getting entangled
in the horse's legs. The fact of my having discarded them
as an article of breaking gear, is no doubt due more to
laziness on my part, than to the possession of such skill
that would make me independent of their aid.

If circular webbing cannot be obtained for the reins,
ordinary driving reins or ropes of suitable length will do.

190

BREAKING ON FOOT.

Fig. 85. — Driving-pad, crupper, and rein-bearers on horse.

Fig. 86. — Driving horse on foot with reins through stirrup-irons.

DRIVING ON FOOT.

191

A standing martingale can be improvised from a running
martingale, or with a piece of cord.

When a driving-pad or an efficient substitute for it
cannot be obtained, we may use instead of it an ordinary
saddle, the stirrups of which, with their leathers well

Fig. 87. — Rein under cantle of saddle.

lengthened out, will serve as rein-bearers (see Fig. %6).
Although the cantle of the saddle (see Fig. Zj) may at
times succeed in preventing the outward rein from going
over the back ; the breaker cannot — as he is able to do
with my pad — when using a saddle for a substitute, circle
the horse, as is often necessary, with the outward rein on a
level with the withers.

192

BREAKING ON FOOT.

At first, our object in driving the horse with the long reins
should be to get him to circle round us in well balanced
style. Hence, he should be bent from muzzle to tail' in
the direction he is going ; the inward rein leading him
off, and preserving the inward bend of his head and
neck, while the outward rein passes round his hind-
quarters (see Figs. 88 and 89) and thus makes the

Fig. 88. — Circling horse on foot to the right.

track of his hind feet the same as that of his fore ones,
instead of — as would usually occur if this support were
removed from the untrained horse — its forming a con-
centric circle outside that described by the fore feet.
To obtain this effect, we should stand to the side, and a
little to the rear, of our pupil (see Fig. 90), and should
regulate the comparative tension of the reins so as to make

CIRCLING HORSE ON FOOT.

193

the fore feet and the hind feet describe the same circle.
We shall find that the lighter the horse is in front (as in
the case of a star-gazer), the more must the pull on the
inward rein exceed that on the outward rein ; and vice versa.
Any tendency to star-gaze or to keep the head too low
should be corrected, respectively, by the standing martin-
gale or bearing-rein. If the animal be excitable, it is well

Fig. 89. — Circling horse on foot to the left.

to commence with the outward rein on the pad, as in
Fig. 91. Then by turning him, bringing the reins down,
touching him on the quarters with them, and reining him
back, we may gradually make him bear their contact
without his becoming nervous or fretful. Twenty minutes
will be ample to enable us to effect this, even with the worst
horse ; provided that the animal is not a mare " in season."

O

194

BREAKING ON FOOT.

We may start the horse by " showing " the lunging whip,
and we may at the same time " click " to him ; so that by
continuing the clicking and by diminishing the threatening
with the whip, we may soon teach him to move off on

Fig. 90. — Position from which to circle horse (to left, for instance).

hearing the sound of the click alone, or we may teach him
to do so by raising our right hand. Having got him to
circle quietly for a few times, say, to the left, we may turn
him to the right-about with the right rein, which, in this

CIRCLING HORSE ON FOOT. 195

case, will pull his head round to the right, and his hind-
quarters round to the left ; making him, in fact, turn on
his centre. He should then be circled to the right and
turned to the left-about on the same principle. Every now
and then we may halt him by feeling both reins, and when
doing so, may accustom him to the word "whoa ! " or any

Fig. 91. — Outward rein on driving-pad.

other convenient substitute, so as to teach him in a very
few lessons to stop the moment he hears this signal without
needing any hint from the reins. I may remark that by
acting on similar principles, we may teach the horse, when
riding or driving him, to halt in this way. While driving
the animal on foot, we should adjust the length of the
standing martingale or bearing-rein as may be required.

O 2

19^ BREAKING ON FOOT.

The more he is inclined to "play up," the shorter, as a
rule, should this martingale be, so as to afford increased
control. Its use will be needed at first in the large majority
of cases, and is of great service in preventing the rein from
getting over the back, as well as in giving the breaker com-
mand over refractory subjects. In only a few instances, the
employment of a bearing-rein, for keeping the head up, will
be found necessary ; and much more often with " spoiled "
horses than with young ones. The severity of either of
these forms of restraint should be lessened according as the
horse learns to obey the rein, and may be dispensed with
when their use is no longer required. Before turning the
horse, say, to the left, I change the reins into my right hand
with the right rein crossed under the left rein. I then
take a long step to the front with the left foot, slide my
left hand forward on the left rein, and, having got the
proper length, pull the left rein (see Fig. 92), while
letting the right one slip through the right hand, until the
horse is made to turn to the left. As soon as he is in the
new direction, I pass the right rein into my left hand
and crossed under the left rein. We should continue the
turns until the horse answers the rein as readily with his
hind-quarters as with his head ; that is, until he learns to
turn on his centre.

In turning the horse at the walk or trot, it is necessary,
in order that the movement may be executed with precision,
that the head of the horse should be turned towards the
new direction by the rein, at the moment, or immediately
before, the fore foot of the opposite side comes down on
the around, so that, when turning, he may not cross his

TURNING THE HORSE.

19;

fore legs. When making the turn, we should be careful to
prevent, by means of the outward rein, the hind-quarters
from swinging so far round, that the hind feet will be
carried outside the track of the fore feet. Preparatory to
turning the horse at the trot and canter, we should check
the speed, as may be required, by feeling the reins, so that
he may come round collectedly.

Fig. 92. — Turning horse with rein on driving-pad.

After the horse has learned to do the circles and turns in
eood form with the outward rein round his quarter, he
should be made to execute them with it on the driving-pad
(see Fig. 92) ; so as to accustom him to its action in the
position it would occupy in saddle or harness. The breaker
should, as before, place himself to the side and a little
behind his pupil (see Fig. 90). If he refuses to turn his hind-

198 BREAKING ON FOOT.

quarters round, when the rein is on the pad, a light touch
or two with the whip below the hocks, so as to prevent him
fixing his hind legs on the ground as a " defence," will
soon teach him to come round quickly. If he be found to
be " harder " on one side of the mouth than on the other,
he should be turned more sharply to the former than to the
latter, until he turns equally well to both sides. I advise
hitting the horse, when using the lunging whip, below the
hocks ; for he is less liable to show the marks of the lash
on that part of his legs, than above the hocks, where the
bones are covered with muscle. Besides, I am inclined to
think that a cut below the hocks is more likely to prompt a
horse to go on, and is less apt to make him kick, than
one above them.

I may point out that the circling with the long reins on
foot, should be performed on the same principle as that
adopted by a capable rider, the pressure of whose drawn-
back outward foot is replaced by that of the outward rein.
I may remark, in passing, that practice in driving on foot is
an admirable means for improving one's " hands ; " whether
for riding or driving.

In the first lesson — which should not exceed twenty
minutes in length, so as not to make the animal's mouth
tender — the horse should have learned to move off at the
walk on being *' shown " the whip or '* clicked " to ; to
readily turn to the right, left, right-about or left-about,
on receiving the proper indication of the rein ; and to halt.
This will be enough under ordinary circumstances ; although
on an emergency this modest limit of instruction may be
greatly exceeded.

LONG-REIN DRIVING. 199

If the horse be inchned at any time to make too large
a circle, we can cause him to describe a smaller one by
drawing on the inward rein and slackening off the outward
one, the proper amount of feeling on which we should
gradually restore according as we gain control over the
animal. Sometimes the horse, to avoid the action of the
reins, decreases on his own accord the size of the circle
on which we are driving him. To nullify this defence, we
should feel the outward rein the stronger of the two and
should drive the horse away from us, so as to get more be-
hind him than previously, and should then gradually lead
him off by the inward rein into the desired circle. If
he shows " fight," which he will very seldom do with the
long reins, we may have to rein him back (see next page),
turn him from one side to the other, or threaten him with
the lunging whip.

The whole of the long-rein work should, as far as possible,
be done on the circle ; for that is, as far as I can see, the
only way by which the driver on foot can preserve a light
feeling on the reins. If he drives the horse straight on in
front of him, he can hardly escape, for the greater part of
the time, from keeping too heavy a pull on the animal's
mouth. The objectionable practice of driving youngsters
on foot for miles along a road, as may be seen in full
operation at Newmarket and other training resorts, is a
fruitful cause of the dead mouths and habit of boring
possessed by the majority of race horses. The animal,
to relieve the bars of his mouth from the constant and
painful pressure of the mouthpiece, naturally gets his chin
into his chest, in order to transfer a portion of the pull of

200 BREAKING ON FOOT.

the reins to the crown of his head. Instead of acting in
this fashion, the breaker, if he wants to give his pupil a
walk on foot, might, after having mouthed and exercised
him in the manner I have described, take him out with
the crupper leading-rein (see page 211), the use of which
contrivance would obviate any risk of spoiling his mouth.

During the second lesson, which may be given on the
afternoon of the day on which the first one was imparted,
we may repeat the previous instruction, and then teach the
animal to rein back. This is done by bending his head,
say, to the left by the left rein, while preventing his hind-
quarters, by the pressure of the right rein, from turning
round. When we obtain this bend, which will naturally
put more weight on the legs of the near side than on those
of the off side, we should feel both reins, so as to make
him take a step to the rear. He will of course do this,
other things being equal, more readily with the more
advanced hind leg, than with its fellow, supposing that
he is not standing "level." Hence his head in the first
instance should be turned to the side of the least
advanced hind leg. When we obtain this step, we should
turn the horse's head to — say, in this case — the right by
the right rein in order to obtain the next step ; and so on.
While working in this way we should try to get the near
fore to move simultaneously with the off hind, and the off
fore with the near hind, so that the pace of the rein-back
will be a diagonal one of two time (namely, a trot : see
Points of the Horse, and not a walk) ; for the horse is
found to rein-back in an easier and more collected manner
at the former than at the latter pace. If he is inclined to

TEACHING THE REIN-BACK. 201

get his head up, it is best to stand directly behind him.
If he lowers it as a defence, we may rein him back with
one rein on the driving-pad (see Fig. 91), or, what is
probably the better plan, we may use a bearing-rein to
keep his head in proper position. Although we should in
no way make the work unduly irksome to the horse, we
should not be contented unless we get him, in this second
lesson, to rein-back in well-balanced style, twenty or five-
and-twenty yards, three or four times. Such a demand
will, I feel certain, be considered outrageously severe by
those who are unacquainted with the possibilities of the
long-rein system ; but it is, as I have proved many
hundreds of times, a thoroughly legitimate one. If the
horse, as a defence against the rein-back, fixes his hind-
quarters, we may render them mobile by cracking the whip
or by touching him lightly below the hocks with the lash.
We may also take some of the weight off the hind-quarters
by shortening the standing martingale. If we cannot
effect our purpose by these means, we may place an
assistant in front of the horse to threaten him on one side
of his hind-quarters and then on the other, while we are
occupied with the long reins. Or he may, while standing
in front of the horse, take hold of the reins, one in each
hand, close to the rings of the snafBe, and aid our efforts
in regulating the height of the horse's head and in pressing
him back. The presence of the assistant in front of the
animal will naturally tend to make him rein-back easier.
Although I have never found it absolutely necessary, we
might at this stage teach the horse the turn on the fore-
hand (see page 208), so as to give mobility to the hind legs.

202 BREAKING ON FOOT.

In solving the question of adjustment of" weight in the
rein-back, we should fully utilise our power of placing the
horse's head in whatever position we like (whether by
lowered rein, rein on pad, standing martingale, bearing-
rein, or by the help of an assistant), and that of
mobilising the hind-quarters by means of the whip. In
executing the rein-back, the horse should be light behind
and should lift up his hind feet well, so that his movement
to the rear may be executed with safety and freedom.
Consequently his head, which is the weight at the end of
the balancing pole of his body, should be kept consider-
ably lower (see Fig. 7) than if the movement was to the
front. We should here particularly avoid the run-back,
in which the horse is liable to fall down on account of the
preponderance of the weight being on the hind-quarters.
In this case the centre of gravity of the horse's body is
brought to an undue extent to the rear, and the ability of
the hind legs to form new bases of support is diminished
in proportion to the weight imposed on them.

After we have obtained the correct rein-back, we should
practise the horse — with the outward rein round his quarter
or on the pad, as may be required — at walking in a col-
lected manner, using the whip as a stimulant, the outward
rein as a substitute for the drawn back outward leg of the
rider, and both reins as a restraint and as a guide. The
outward rein, if shaken against his hind-quarters, may serve
as a slight though useful incitement for making the horse
collect himself. Reining him back from time to time, as
may be required, will often be found serviceable in this
" setting-up drill."

LONG-REIN DRIVING. 203

When the horse is able, say, after two or three lessons,
to go through in a competent manner at a walk the long-
rein work which I have described, he may be made to do it
at a trot and canter. At both these paces, the size of the
circle should be gradually diminished in order to teach the
horse to collect himself.

Although the horse will, after a time, learn to strike off
from the walk or trot into the canter with the leg appro-
priate to the circle on which he is being worked ; it is well
to teach him to do so on receiving a suitable signal, which
can be utilised when riding the horse in a straight direction.
Thus, when circling the horse to the right, for instance, at
the walk or trot, with the outward rein round the quarters,
I would, in order to give the horse the signal to strike off
into the canter with the off fore leg leading, feel the left
rein the stronger of the two, so as to turn the horse's head
a little outside and his hind-quarters a little inside the
circle, and then make him strike off correctly by feeling
the right rein, and by '' showing " him the whip, or clicking
to him. The lead with the near fore, while going on the
left circle, would naturally be obtained in the reversed
manner.

A dozen lessons, two a day, will under ordinary circum-
stances be ample for teaching the horse the work with the
long reins up to this point. The discipline gone through
during that time, combined with the '* gentling " action of
the reins on the hind-quarters, will in the large majority of
cases have taken all, or nearly all, of the nervousness,
impatience of control, or aggressiveness out of vicious, wild
or otherwise " difficult " animals.

204 BREAKING ON FOOT.

By circling, turning, and reining back a horse with the
long reins, we can readily form a good idea of his manners,
mouth, and temper.

When putting on the long-rein driving gear, we should
be careful to put on, first of all, the bridle and long reins ;
then the driving pad with one girth tightly buckled up ;
the standing martingale through which the second girth
passes ; the bearing-rein, if required ; and finally the
crupper. When removing these articles, the reversed
order of procedure should be observed. These precautions
are necessary in order that excitable or vicious horses
may not be prompted to kick or " play up," after the girths
of the driving-pad have been undone, but before the con-
nection of the pad with the martingale and crupper has been
severed. While on the subject of adjusting gear, I may
mention that if we want to put a bridle on a horse which
has a headstall on, and which we cannot depend upon
standing still with the headstall off; we can place the
bridle over the headstall, and then take off the headstall
without shifting the bridle in any way, by undoing the
buckle of the headstall and by taking off the browband
and the strap which goes through the buckle. If we then
draw the noseband forward (see Fig. 93), we can easily
detach the headstall by passing the noseband into the
mouth, over the snaffle, and finally out of the mouth.
On more than one occasion, I have had difficult horses
break away from me at that critical moment, between the
removal of the headstall and the putting on of the bridle,
which has to be passed through, unless the foregoing
precaution be adopted.

REMOVING HEADSTALL.

20:

American " horse-tamers " use the long reins without a
standing martingale or driving-pad, and pass them through
rings on a specially constructed surcingle, or through the
shaft rings of an ordinary single harness pad, or through
the irons of a riding saddle. Men who try to mouth horses
in this manner are apt to frequently fail in teaching their

I^^^g- 93- — Removing headstall without displacing bridle.

pupils to bend their necks to the rein, and at the same time
to go up to the bridle ; for the majority of animals thus
treated would resist the action of the mouthpiece by chuck-
ing up the head in the attempt to get the mouthpiece off
the bars and on to the corners of the mouth. Besides, the
horse omits to learn the valuable lesson which the use of

2o6 BREAKING ON FOOT.

the standing martingale inculcates, namely, that of bending
his head and neck to save his mouth. When both reins
pass through rings on the surcingle, or through the shaft
rings of a harness pad, the driver on foot is prevented, by
the fact of the inward rein going back to the surcingle
instead of coming straight from the ring of the snaffle to
his hand, from standing in the centre of the circle on which
he drives the horse, and is consequently obliged to more
or less follow the animal, and by doing so (see page 199)
is apt to bear unduly on the reins, and make the horse's
mouth " dead." The absence of a driving-pad deprives
the breaker of the great advantage of being able to raise or
lower the outward rein at will. In breaking for harness,
and especially for fast trotting on level ground, the neces-
sity for teaching horses to bend the neck, to get the hind-
quarters under them, to moderate the speed in response to
a pull on the reins, is not nearly so imperative as in edu-
cating the hunter, chaser, and charger, which should always
have a " spare leg " for any emergency. The method of
long-rein mouthing is as applicable to "spoiled" horses as
it is to entirely unhandled animals. To my thinking, one
great beauty in it — apart from its immense advantage of
never giving the pupil the chance of getting the upper
hand, which he might easily do if the breaker were in the
saddle — is that the breaker can at any moment tell how
his pupil is progressing by the feeling of the reins, and can
accordingly, with well-grounded confidence, use his own
judgment in regulating the amount or the nature of the
instruction. The man who, on the contrary, tries to mouth
a horse by "tying him up " by means of side reins, dumb

LONG-REIN DRIVING.

207

jockeys, or pillar reins, must necessarily work, as I have
already said, more or less in the dark and by rule of
thumb ; for he cannot gauge the progress which his pupil
is making, except by trying the animal in saddle or harness.
Besides, he commits the two grave faults of working only
one end of the body (see page 70), and of endeavouring to
" supple " the head and neck of a stationary animal (see

Fig. 94. — Driving horse with running reins through stirrup-irons.

page 81). With the long reins we avoid both these errors,
and remain in constant touch with our pupil.

Colonel Wardrop showed me a method he practises of
driving horses over jumps with long ropes which pass
through the stirrup-irons and rings of the snaffle, and are
fixed on tightly to the girths and stirrup-irons on their
respective sides (see Fig. 94). This excellent authority on

2o8 BREAKING ON FOOT.

the art of training horses to safely " negotiate " the difficult
country met with in Ireland, tells me that he has found
this method of great use for teaching horses to collect
themselves when coming up to the big banks and ditches
which are to be seen in the counties of Kildare, Tipperary
and Cork. After the horse has been thoroughly taught the
long-rein work according to the system I have described,
Colonel Wardrop's plan might be useful for giving him
a few practical lessons over the obstacles in question.

All I know respecting the antiquity of long-rein driving
on foot is that Fallon, an Irish breaker who was an old
man at the time, taught, more than sixty years ago, this
method of mouthing to Mr. John Hubert Moore, the
famous trainer of steeplechase horses.

Teaching a horse to turn on his forehand. — Having
taught the horse by means of the long reins to understand
and obey the aids for turning on his centre, we may
proceed to make him equally proficient in those for the
turn on the forehand, which is a particularly useful means
for teaching him to go up to his bridle, by transferring
weight from his hind-quarters to his forehand, and for
giving increased mobility to the hind-quarters — of the
rearer for instance. The turn on the forehand is the
normal way in which a horse changes his direction when at
liberty in an open space.

The turn on the forehand is made on the off fore as a
pivot (moving or fixed), when the hind-quarters move
from right to left (in the direction taken by the hands of
a watch). This I shall call the turn on the Jorehand to the

TURN ON THE FOREHAND.

209

right ; and the movement of the hind-quarters from left
to right, with the near fore as a pivot, the turn on tJie
forehand to the left. Respecting the " school " acceptation
of these terms, see page 293.

To teach the horse on foot the turn on the forehand to
the left, we may, while facing him and standing close to his

Fig. 95. — Making horse, on foot, turn on his forehand to left with whip.

near shoulder, take hold of the near rein of the snaffle,
not far from the mouthpiece, in the left hand, and the off
rein, passed over the lower part of the neck, in the right
hand, which also grasps a cutting whip or cane (see
Fig. 95)- Our object here, as I have already indicated,

p

2IO BREAKING ON FOOT.

is to cause the horse to circle his hind-quarters from left
to right (in a direction opposite to that in which the
hands of a watch move) round the near fore foot, which
at first should describe a small circle (that is, it should be
a moving pivot) ; but may, when the animal's education
is more advanced, perform the more difficult task of
turning round on its own axis without quitting the ground.
At first the horse's head should be turned to the left, so
as to render the near fore leg more or less stationary, by
increasing the amount of weight on it ; but later on, it
should be kept in the same line as the body, or it may be
even slightly turned to the right ; for if it be held in either
of these directions, the balance of the animal's body will
be better preserved, than if his head were turned to
the left. By lightly touching the near quarter with the
whip we should endeavour to make the horse move his
hind legs to the right. To prompt him to describe, as
he ought to do, a circle round his near fore with his off
fore, we may, as often as may be required, touch with
the whip the back part of the fore arm of the off fore.
We should strive to obtain precise movements without any
approach to hurry, and by justly meted-out punishment
and reward should make our wishes clearly intelligible to
our pupil. After a few lessons, the horse may be made to
turn on his forehand while holding the head and neck
straight, in which position, as I have just said, his equi-
librium will be better preserved than if the head were
turned to the left. The left rein will, if required, prevent
the horse from reining back, and will also keep his head
at the desired height. The off rein will stop him from

TEACHING HORSE TO LEAD. 211

going round too quickly ; and both reins will aid in
checking any forward advance on his part.

/;/ teacJiing tJie turn on the foreJiand to the right, we
should place ourselves near the off shoulder of the horse,
and should use the reins and whip in the reversed manner
to which we did for obtaining the turn on the forehand
to the left. As the action of the whip in this case is
preparatory to that of the drawn-back foot of the rider ;
we should gradually advance its point of contact with the
skin until we gain our object by touching the horse with
the whip on that portion of his side which the heel or
spur would reach.

Teaching the horse to turn on the forehand in obedience
to the proper aids, is, I think, essential to the education
of all saddle horses ; for it is the best preparatory means
for making them readily obey the leg.

Teaching a horse to lead. — After giving the horse
his lessons with the long reins, and making him turn on his
forehand, there will be little or no difficulty in getting him
to lead, which he may be taught to do by using the
crupper leading-rein (see Fig. 96) and the words " Come
here ! " or any convenient substitute, when pulling the rope,
so as to make the horse connect in his mind the idea
of having to come up to us with the verbal command.
The crupper leading-rein can be readily made by taking
a long rope, doubling it, making a loop in the middle by
knotting it, and passing the loop under the horse's tail, and
the ends of the rope through the halter, or rings of the
snaffle. To prevent it slipping over the tail when it

P 2

212

BREAKING ON FOOT,

gets slack, we may put a knot in it, in front of the
rings of the snaffle, or of that part of the headstall
(see Fig. 97) through which it has been passed. Or
we may employ the Comanche bridle (see page 141),
which I think is the best means for teaching a difficult
horse to lead. I have also found the use of the rope
halter (see Fig. 24) very effective ; for the pain which the
pressure of the rope round his jaws will cause him when
he hangs back, will be instantly relieved the moment

Fig. 96. — A crupper leading-rein.

he goes forward. For making a horse merely come
up to one, I like Baucher's method, which is as follows :
Hold the reins in the left hand, as in Fig. 98, or the
crupper leading-rein, and continue to lightly touch the
horse on the breast with the end of a cutting whip or
switch, until he " comes up," when he should be imme-
diately rewarded by the cessation of the punishment,
by being patted on the neck, and by being spoken to

CRUPPER LEADING-REIN.

213

in a caressing manner. As a rule, the horse will at first
try to avoid the blows by running back, or by swerv-
ing to one side or to the other ; but failing to escape
from the inflicted pain, he will almost invariably go
forward. This desired effect is obtained usually in not
longer than ten minutes. Three or four lessons will

Fig- 97. — Knot in crupper leading-rein.

generally be sufificient to make the horse come up to one
the moment the whip is pointed towards his breast. I need
hardly say that learning to obey this signal, and that of
standing still as a statue on hearing the word " steady,"
are two very desirable accomplishments in the horse.

214 BREAKING ON FOOT.

We are all aware that the tendency of a horse when
being led by an ordinary leading-rein or by the bridle reins
is to "hang" on them, and if jerked by them, to resist the
pull given. The use of the crupper leading-rein, on the con-
trary, prompts the animal to move collectedly on account
of the pressure of the rope under his tail stimulating
him to bring his hind-quarters under him. I do not know
who invented this form of leading-rein, which was em-
ployed by Fanchion, Magner, Pratt, Rockwell, and other
American " horse-tamers." It is also an admirable means
of making — and consequently teaching — a horse to follow a
cart or trap behind which he is tied. When pulled by the
head the natural tendency of a horse, as I have just said, is
to resist ; but when drawn forward by a rope or other similar
material passed under his tail, he is strongly prompted to go
on. If a horse which is attached by his head to a carriage
in motion happens to make a stumble, the rein or leading
rope on becoming tight will have the effect of increasing
the weight on the forehand, with the probable result of
pulling the animal down on to his knees. If, on the
contrary, the horse be attached to the back of the vehicle
by the crupper leading-rein, the pressure of the rope will
fall on the hindquarters without any interference with
the head.

When a man on foot leads a horse, he should, supposing
that he is on the near side of the animal, bring the reins
over the horse's head, hold both reins at a convenient
distance from the mouthpiece in his right hand with the
little finger between them, and should have his left hand
between the reins at their centre (see Figs. 13 and 14).

TEACHING HORSE TO LEAD.

215

When the reins are held In this manner by the right hand,
the right rein can be tightened by the action of the little
finger on it ; and a far firmer hold can be obtained, es-
pecially if the little finger be turned towards the body by
the rotation of the wrist (see Fig. 14), than if the reins were
separated by the first finger, as directed in Cavalry Drill.

Fig. 98.— Teaching horse to "come up" by tapping him on chest

with whip.

Horses should be taught to lead on the off as well as on
the near side. As it is customary to lead a horse only
on the near side, and as the man who leads him along a
road should in all cases keep himself between his horse

2l6

BREAKING ON FOOT.

and any passers-by, so as to be able to prevent the
animal swinging his hindquarters round into danger ; led
horses are supposed to keep to the right side of the road.
With a horse which leads equally well on both sides, the
better plan, when leading him along a road, would be
for the man to remain on the off side of the animal, and
keep him on the left side of the road.

For leading young horses, a circular mouthpiece is
sometimes employed. With it the pressure on the bars
is evenly distributed on both sides of the mouth. Or
we may use a leading-rein with a pair of spring hooks
at one end.

When a mounted man leads a horse which has on a
snaffle or double bridle, and which he wants to lead on
his off side by the snaffle, he should pass the off snaffle
rein through the near side ring of the snaffle (see Fig. 99)

P'ig. 99. — Off rein passed through near ring of snaffle for leading horse.

217

CHAPTER VI.

ORDINARY MOUNTED BREAKING.

General remarks' — Mounting a horse for the first time — Turning a
horse on the forehand at the halt when mounted — Reining back —
The walk — The trot — Turning a horse during movement —
Teaching a horse to carry his rider in a collected and well-
balanced manner — The canter — The halt — Whip and spurs — Time
required for ordinary breaking to saddle.

General remarks. — The work described in the pre-'
ceding chapter is applicable to all kinds of horses. In the
present one, the whole of the course laid down is suitable
to hunters, hacks, chasers, and race-horses. I need hardly
say that the amount of collection practised should be pro-
portionate to the purpose for which the animal is intended ;
the maximum, with respect to the horses just mentioned,
being observed with the hack ; the minimum, with the
race-horse. The lady's hack and hunter, besides the work
herein detailed, should have a certain amount of special
training, to which I shall allude further on. The trooper
and high school horse, before being taught any of the airs
de manege^ may get all the instruction given in this chapter
with the exception of the changes of leg at a canter in the
figure of eight, to which subject I shall more particularly

2i8 MOUNTED BREAKING,

allude in Chapter IX. I shall reserve the consideration of
the breaking of harness horses for Chapter VI 1 1.

Mounting a horse for the first time. — Having put
the horse through the preceding course of discipline, we
may test his readiness to bear a rider by — after having
saddled him — placing across the saddle a half-filled sack
of corn or earth, while using the rope-twitch to correct
him in the event of his evincing any resistance or alarm,
pretended or real. Having attached the sack firmly to the
saddle, we may keep circling, turning, and reining back the
horse with the long reins (see page 192), until he becomes
quite steady. We may now remove the sack and apply
the rope-twitch without shifting the bridle. While the
breaker holds the rope-twitch in one hand and the long
reins in the other, an assistant may prepare to mount ; any
unsteadiness being corrected by the rope-twitch. Although
I have never known of a case of a horse, however violent
he may have been, breaking away when held only by the
rope-twitch ; still the long reins will be useful as a further
precaution in the event of the animal trying to get away.
With this object, it is well to pass the right long rein
through the left ring of the mouthpiece of the snaffle, as
in Fig. 99. The assistant should quietly mount and dis-
mount several times, the horse being rewarded or punished
according to his conduct. When he has become accustomed
to these operations, the man should mount, and the breaker
having given the rope-twitch to another assistant, should
arrange the long reins so that he may be ready to drive
the horse on foot. He should take a short and firm hold

MOUNTING HORSE FOR FIRST TIME.

219

of the reins, so as to get good command over the animal,
and should order the rope-twitch to be removed. The
mounted assistant, to steady himself, may catch hold of
the neck strap of the standing martingale (see Fig. 100),
which in all such cases should form a part of the breaking

Fig:. 100. — Horse mounted for first time.

gear. The breaker may now proceed to circle and turn
the horse. If the animal attempts to '^ play up," he
should be reined back, turned sharply from side to side,
and held well in. As soon as the pupil takes the presence
of a man on his back as a matter of course, while he is

220 MOUNTED BREAKING.

being circled and turned at a trot, as well as at a walk, the
mounted assistant may be given a pair of ordinary reins to
hold and to guide the horse, while the breaker manipulates
the long reins, which may be removed after a few minutes,
and the entire guidance of the animal confided to the rider.
By degrees the rider should accustom the horse to the feel
of his drawn-back and unarmed heels, and may stimulate
the animal to go on by " clicking " to him. He should be
careful while circling, turning, reining back, walking and
trotting the horse, to use the reins in as nearly as possible
the same way as the breaker did on foot.

Tn the foregoing description of mounting the horse
for the first time, I have mentioned some precautions
which, like the use of the heavy sack and rope-twitch,
would be necessary only in exceptional cases. If we err,
we should certainly do so on the side of prudence ; for one
of the worst possible lessons which the horse can learn is
that of finding out that he can throw his rider.

In cases of difficulty, or when great expedition is
demanded, we may adopt the following method, which
I believe I have been the first to think out and put into
practice. Having made the horse go round and round
according to the head and tail method (see page 169), and
having by it taken any remaining " nonsense " out of him,
put over the headstall — which I take for granted has a
short strap or rope attached to its off-side D, see page 170
— a snaffle bridle, and knot the reins on the animal's neck,
so that they will not hang down. Place the saddle on the
horse's back, pass the outer girth or the surcingle over the
cord which connects the head with the tail, and girth up.

MOUNTING HORSE FOR FIRST TIME.

221

The requisite extent to which the head should be turned
round by the action of the cord, will be attained when the
animal is tied up just short of what would cause him to fall
down, if he were allowed to go round on his own account.
Having taken in the left hand the leading rein which is
fixed to the off D of the headstall, we should walk the
horse round and round several times, and should test his
amenability to discipline by stopping him with the leading

Fig. loi. — Plorse ready to be mounted for first time.

rein (see Fig. loi), and then pulling him round again. If
he resists us, we may feel convinced that he is not under
proper control, in which case we should, before proceeding
further, render him thoroughly docile according to direc-
tions already given. We should satisfy ourselves (see
page 348) that the horse will not resent his sides being
touched with the heels of the rider later on. When we
think that the animal is fully under control, we should get

222

MOUNTED BREAKING.

an assistant, while standing on, say, the near side, to catch
hold of the mane about half way up the crest with his left
hand, the stirrup-iron with his right hand, and go through
the various stages of mounting, beginning with putting his
left foot in the stirrup (see Fig. 102), catching the pommel
or cantle of the saddle, as he sees fit, with the right hand,
and hopping round on the right foot, while we keep the
horse revolving by means of the leading rein. I may

Fie. 102. — Mounting horse for first time.

explain that the Australian rough-riders, who are mar-
vellously expert at getting up on difficult horses, place the
right hand on the pommel of the saddle, and not on the
cantle, as is usually the practice in England and Ireland,
and consequently put the left hand high up on the neck,
and thereby keep their hands well separated, so as to
preserve their balance when mounting. When the horse

MOUNTING HORSE FOR FIRST TIME. 223

has shown his perfect tolerance of the assistant keeping
his foot in the stirrup and the hands respectively on the
saddle and mane, while he hops round on one foot, the
assistant may raise himself up, so as to stand by means
of the left foot in the left stirrup, and his weight to a
certain extent on his hands. The next step will be
to bring his right leg over, and take up the right stirrup
with his right foot. While all this is being done, the
breaker, who has hold of the leading rein, should keep the
horse circling round, so that the animal may not get the
chance of resisting. I may point out that when fixed up
in this manner, the horse's " defence," if rebelliously
inclined, will be to throw himself down to the off side,
either forwards, sideways, or backwards. Such an accident
should not happen once in five hundred times, if the pre-
liminary work has been properly carried out, and if the '
horse has been rightly fixed up. The assistant, however,
should be ready to jump off to the near side in case such
an untoward event takes place. If the horse happens to
come down in the manner described, the cord connecting
his head and tail should be loosened out, the animal made
to get up, and the gear re-adjusted, or further discipline
employed, as circumstances may demand, before recom-
mencing the mounting lesson. A very efficient method of
reducing to obedience horses which deliberately throw
themselves down when secured in the way in question, is
to keep them on the ground, tied head and tail (see
page 181), until they have given up all idea of resistance.

When the horse has got accustomed to the presence and
weight of a man in the saddle, the rider may touch him

224 MOUNTED BREAKING.

with his heels, lightly at first, and gradually with more
pressure, but without hurting him, so as to teach him to
bear the contact without resentment or fear. We may then
slacken off the cord a little, make the horse go round and
round again, and so on, until it will be safe to let him
altogether loose. Before doing this, we should, as before,
test his quietness by stopping him with the leading rein,
and then pulling him round again. When we have loosened
out the cord to about half its full extent, we may give the
leading rein to the rider, to hold in his right hand, so that
he can stop the horse from turning round, if necessary. By
holding the near side of the headstall in the left hand and
by lightly touching the animal on the near quarter with the
whip, we can make him go round, as may be needed.
After the cord has been removed, the long reins may be
put on, and the breaking proceeded with as described on
page 219 et seq. Three-quarters of an hour will be ample, in
the large majority of cases, for completing the process of
mounting. A second lesson of the same kind, which will
take far less time than the first one, may be given on the
same day. As a rule, no further discipline in mounting
will be required, beyond the occasional use of the rope-
twitch to correct unsteadiness.

In all my experience with scores of horses which
had for years successfully resisted every effort to mount
them, I have never failed to accomplish this object within
an hour by the method just described ; nor has any horse,
after I have removed the cord, shown the slightest return
to unruliness during the subsequent portion of the lesson.
The use of the rope-twitch is specially valuable for render-

MOUNTING HORSE FOR FIRST TIME. 225

ing a horse steady to mount. The head and tail plan, by
producing a powerful moral effect, makes the horse not
alone easy to mount, but also quiet to ride. We should
not forget to confirm, by repetition, the habit of obedience.

The practice of all the " horse-tamers " whom I have
seen, or heard of, using the head and tail method, is, when
they suppose the animal to be sufficiently quiet from the
effects of this process, to get an assistant to vault on to the
horse's back from the side opposite to that to which the
head is pulled round by the cord that connects it with the
tail. If the cord be unconfined by girth or surcingle, the
rider, whether he has or has not a saddle under him, will
be placed in the uncomfortable dilemma of being obliged
to ride without any grip by having one leg pulled outwards
by the cord, or of having the leg imprisoned between the
cord and the animal's side. In either case the man will be
in a most dangerous position on an animal which is revolving
round and round with but little control over its own move-
ments. Without the headstall being furnished with a strap
or rope, which is also an improvement of mine, the breaker
will require to be unusually active and skilful, when the
animal is revolving rapidly round, to run in and catch the
horse by the headstall, so as to stop or diminish the rotatory
movement. When the leading rein is on the headstall, the
breaker can with perfect safety catch it while the horse is
spinning round ; for it will at that time swing clear of the
fore legs and in a convenient position to be laid hold of

In the foregoing paragraphs of this chapter, I have
described methods of mounting on the assumption that the
breaker has had one or two assistants. If he be single-

226

MOUNTED BREAKING.

handed, he may, in the case of a violent or otherwise
difficult horse, make him quiet by a pretty stiff turn at the
head and tail (see page 169), lying down, or tying-on-the-
ground plan (see page 165), and mount before the good
effect of the discipline has passed off. In this way an
expert breaker could within an hour and a half make any
horse quiet to mount for the time being ; only a few repeti-
tions being usually needed to make the effect permanent.

Fig. 103 — Buckjumping saddle.

With ordinary horses, the resources of the breaker need
not exceed those to be obtained from the long reins and
rope-twitch. The precaution of using a saddle in which
one can obtain a firm grip, should not be neglected.

Having mentioned the subject of a saddle for breaking
purposes, I may state that I have designed one out of
which it is almost impossible to fall. It is provided on each
side with " leaping heads," which give a grip with both

BUCKJUMPING SADDLE.

127

legs similar to that afforded to the left leg in a side saddle.
The seat in it is far more secure than in any Australian
buckjumping saddle I have ever ridden in. With it, I ride
with the stirrups rather long, so that I might have no
difficulty in getting out of the saddle in the event of the
horse falling with me. In Figs. 103 and 104, I have taken

Fig. 104. — Buckjumping saddle.

off the leather covering of the leaping heads (or horns),
so as to show their action more clearly.

After the horse has been mounted, the rider, in order to
confirm the habit of obedience, may walk and trot the
animal on the circle round which he had been previously

Q 2

228

MOUNTED BREAKING.

worked, using only the reins and clicking with his tongue
as aids. If the horse be sluggish, the breaker or man on
foot may stimulate him to go on by '* showing " the lunging
whip, or by lightly touching him with it below the hocks.

Fig. 105. — A rein and whip in each hand.

If the breaker be single-handed and has to ride the horse,
he may take a rein and cutting whip or cane in each hand
(see Fig. 105), and in the event of his mount being lazy, he
may make him go on by lightly touching him with the points

TURNING HORSE ON FOREHAND. 229

of both whips on the sides or hind legs. At this stage of
the breaking, I think it is well to defer all further instruc-
tion in the aids, until the turn on the forehand has been
taught ; for it is the quickest and most precise means by
which to teach the horse the. indications given by the rider's
legs, which instruction should now be our chief object, so
that our pupil may answer the leg as readily as he has
already learned to do the rein. If we continue to ride him
without special instruction in leg work, we can hardly
fail to get him into the vile habit of depending almost
entirely on the reins for guidance. I may here point out
that precision in turning can be obtained only by acting on
both ends of his body, namely, on his hind-quarters, as
well as on his mouth.

Turning a horse on the forehand at the halt when
mounted. — Having, on foot, taught the horse to make this
turn, we shall have little difficulty in doing so when mounted ;
and may commence by taking a rein and whip in each hand
(see Figs. 105 and 106). If we wish to make the turn on the
forehand to the right (see page 208), we should depress the
right hand and keep it well away from the shoulder, so as
to give the indication of pulling the head round as clearly
as possible. As the flexibility of the neck increases ac-
cording to its distance from the withers ; the left hand,
which holds the left rein, should be carried somewhat to
the right and raised, so as to aid in preserving the bend
of the neck. We should lean a little forward in the
saddle in order to lighten the hind-quarters, and a little to
the right so as to help in fixing the off-fore. We should

230

MOUNTED BREAKING.

begin, as on foot, by lightly touching the off quarter with
the whip (see Fig. 107) to make the horse circle his hind
legs from right to left round his off fore foot, and should

Fig. 106. — Rein and whip in hand.

gradually advance the point of contact of the whip with the
skin until it will reach the spot that would be pressed upon
by the drawn- back heel of the right foot. As soon as the

23 r

TURNING HORSE ON FOREHAND.

horse obeys the touch of the whip on the quarter, we should,
while using the whip, gently apply the drawn-back right
foot to the side, and continue to do so, until the whip is
brought up by degrees to the foot ; supposing of course

Fig. 107. — Teaching the horse to turn to the right on his forehand

by the whip.

that the horse yields perfectly to the touch of the whip
when in that position. Then, by gradually increasing the
effect of the heel, and diminishing that of the whip, we

232 MOUNTED BREAKING.

may after a time dispense altogether with the latter in
favour of the former. The remarks previously made as to
precision without hurry, and the way in which punishment
and reward should be respectively meted out, apply equally
well here. If the movement of the hind legs be made in
a precipitated manner, it may be checked by the application
on the near hind-quarter, of the whip which is held in the
left hand, or by the heel, and by ''feeling" the left rein
and easing off the right rein. If the horse attempts to go
forward, he should be checked by both reins. If he tries
to rein back, he may be kept up to his bridle by the appli-
cation of both whips or of both heels. The turn on the
forehand to the left is taught in the same manner, but with
reversed aids. A turn through an angle of 90°, first to one
side and then to the other, will be sufficient at first. Ability
to turn on the forehand through a complete circle, while
keeping the appropriate fore foot fixed on the ground, will
demand a high degree of training.

A quarter of an hour, with frequent intervals of rest, will
be long enough for a lesson of this kind.

The position of the leg, in, for instance, turning the horse
on his forehand to the right, is shown in Fig. 108.

Reining back. — To obtain the rein-back from the
mounted horse, we should work on the principle which
guided us in teaching him on foot (see page 200) to execute
this movement at our bidding. To get the right diagonal
step (off fore and near hind), supposing that both fore feet
are equally advanced, we should feel the right rein so as to
turn the horse's head to the right ; should apply the

REINING BACK.

233

drawn-back left foot to the horse's side to prevent his
hind-quarters from swinging round to the left and to keep
more weight on the off hind than on the near hind ; should

Fi^. loS — Leo; drawn back in turnins: horse.

lean a little forward in the saddle and should lower our
hands so as to lighten the hind-quarters ; and having
produced these effects, we should take a pull at the

234 MOUNTED BREAKING.

right rein while keeping the left hand steady, so as to
obtain the desired step to the rear. For the left diagonal
(near fore and off hind) step, we should use the reversed
aids. During the rein-back, the driver should draw his
right foot back and apply it the moment the right fore
foot comes down ; for at that moment, the right hind being
more advanced under the horse's body than the left hind
leg, it is the proper one with which the horse should take a
step to the rear. When the rider applies his drawn-back
right foot in this manner, he may touch the left shoulder of
the horse with his left foot, so as to give the animal the
signal to raise and draw back the left fore leg at the same
time as he raises and draws back the right hind leg. The
reversed aids are to be applied to obtain the other step.
We should here, for applying the foot, take our time from
the respective supports of the fore feet ; because they are
easier felt than those of the hind feet. If at the com-
mencement of the rein-back from the halt, one fore foot
of the horse be more advanced than the other, we should
turn the animal's head towards it, apply the drawn-
back leg of the opposite side, and proceed as before
directed. If he fails to obey the aids, he should get a
repetition of his previous instruction on foot in them.

The walk. — The horse uses his head and neck as a
balancing pole in no pace so much as in the normal walk,
in which, forward progression is obtained as much as
possible by displacement of weight with a minimum of
propulsion. The horse accordingly brings his head down
so as to increase the instability of his equilibrium, and

WALKING. 235

sways it from side to side at each step, which is taken
with extremely Httle fatigue to the limbs, and which
covers a comparatively long distance of ground. If, how-
ever, the rider by maintaining a tight hold of the reins,
keeps the horse's head up and prevents it from exercising
its natural function of a balancing pole, the horse will
step short and will be inclined to break into a trot, at
which pace the head is normally held in a raised and nearly
immovable position. Owing to a wrong system of breaking
and riding, the majority of our horses are bad walkers. I
must here make a distinction between the normal walk and
the collected walk, which artificial pace I shall describe
later on, as a preliminary exercise to the trot.

We should, as we may see from the foregoing observa-
tions, teach the mounted horse to walk with the reins loose
enough not to interfere in any way with the movements
of his head and neck, and should lean the upper part of
the body slightly back so as to readjust the distribution of
weight between the fore and hind legs.

The trot. — In the trot, as I have just said, the horse
should carry his head in a raised and nearly immovable
position, to attain which we should regulate the height of
our hands, and should keep a steady feeling on the reins.

Turning a horse during movement. — Having taught
the horse to turn on his centre by means of the long reins,
on his forehand by the whip and reins on foot, and by
the aids when mounted, we may teach him to turn at the
walk and trot.

236 MOUNTED BREAKING.

The body of a quadruped being supported at two ends
by limbs ; it follows that, when a horse turns of his own
accord, the point round which the revolution takes place
will approach the heavier end according to the difference
of weight on the two ends. As the weight on a horse's
forehand, which at the halt is only slightly more than that
on the hind-quarters, increases as the speed ; so will the
tendency to turn on the forehand, when a turn is being
made, similarly increase. If the weight were equally dis-
tributed between both ends of the horse, his balance during
a turn would be preserved in the best possible manner, and
the track of the hind feet would follow that of the fore feet.
In proportion, however, as the weight on the forehand
exceeds that on the hind-quarters (or in proportion to the
speed); the greater will be the liability of the animal to fall
or to have his balance unduly disturbed, when turning, by
his hinder end describing a larger arc than the fore part of
his body ; or, in other words, by the track of the hind feet
going outside that of the fore feet. To correct this tendency,
we should, when about to turn the horse during movement,
slacken speed, lean back in the saddle, hold the horse's
head up (so as to bring the weight back), apply the out-
ward (the left if the turn is being made to the right, and
vice versa) drawn-back leg to the animal's side, and lean
the weight of the body inwards (to the side to which the
horse is being turned), so as to oppose the centrifugal force.
In order to turn the animal's head and neck in the most
effective manner, we should carry the right (if the turn is
being made to the right, and vice versa) hand away from
the side of the horse, as well as backwards, and raising the

ACTION OF DRAWN-BACK LEG. 237

left hand a little higher than the right (so as to bring the
left rein against the more flexible part of the neck), should
carry it across the body, so as to obtain the desired pressure
against the neck. We find from experience that a horse
will turn best, other things being equal, when the reins are
manipulated in the manner I have pointed out, and when
their tension is the same on both sides of the mouthpiece,
which, under this condition, will have no tendency to be
pulled through the mouth, as might occur if one rein were
tight and the other slack.

In referring here to the application of the drawn-back
outward leg when turning the horse, I take for granted
that the turn is made under ordinary conditions. If, how-
ever, the animal refuses to bring round his hind-quarters —
as he does when he '* runs out " at a fence, while we are
doing our best to " straighten " him — we ought, instead of
using the outward (the left, if the turn be to the right)
leg, to apply the drawn-back inward leg, or the whip.
It is evident that the more the leg is drawn back (see
Fig. 108), the more effective will its application be in
bringing round the hind-quarters, or in checking their move-
ment in the direction of the applied leg. In Cavalry Drill,
which is the text-book of our military riding-schools, the
application of the leg is referred to as '' a stronger pressure
of the inward [or outward] leg ; " the utility of drawing
back the foot being apparently ignored. I may point out
that while sitting " square " in the saddle, which is impera-
tive in military equitation, it is impossible to exercise, to
any appreciable extent, a stronger pressure against the
horse's side with one leg than with the other, owing to the

238 MOUNTED BREAKING.

fact that the rider can obtain no fixed point on the side
opposite to that on which he may wish to apply pressure.
Any slight difference between the lateral pressure of one
leg and that of its fellow can be gained only by means of
the friction between the rider's seat and the saddle. Even
if such " stronger pressure " were practicable, it would fail
to be effective, unless perhaps it was far superior to any
muscular effort of which the human leg is capable ; for its
centre of application would be little, if anything, behind the
centre of gravity of the weight to be moved. Granting
that the mechanical effect even of the drawn-back leg, as in
Fig. 1 08, is not great ; we must remember that the horse,
by the method I have indicated, has been taught to accept
it as a signal for moving his hind-quarters away from it, or
for checking their advance towards it. I need hardly say
that the presence of a spur on the drawn-back foot will in-
crease its effect both as regards intensity of impression and
by bringing the point of application still further back. At
the same time, the more we eliminate the element of pain
from the signals which we habitually employ with the horse,
the less likely shall we be to render him unsteady, and con-
sequently unsafe, to ride or drive.

It is reasonable to say that in turning the horse at the
walk or trot, we should feel the inward rein as the out-
ward fore leg comes down. At the trot, the pace would
have to be very slow and collected to allow this to be
done with precision.

Teaching a horse to carry his rider in a collected
and well-balanced manner. — While the breaker is in

COLLECTING THE HORSE. 239

the saddle he should constantly keep in mind the maxim
that one should ride more by the legs than by the hands,
so as to teach the horse to go collectedly (see page 81)
when required. This collection can be obtained by using
the drawn-back heels as a stimulus to the respective hind
legs, so that the hind feet may be brought further under
the animal's body at each step than they would be were
the heels not applied to the horse's sides. Their effect,
combined with that of the hands in preventing any increase
of speed, will naturally be to lighten the forehand. The
manner in which the legs should be applied so as to
produce the best effect, is described on page ()6. As the
extension of the neck will be proportionate to the forward
reach of the fore legs, and, consequently, other things being
equal, to the speed ; the position of the hands should
remain fixed while the animal's speed remains uniform.
Thus, the horse, on finding that he cannot extend his head
and neck beyond the limits allowed him by his rider, w^U,
in response to the application of the heels, bend his head
and neck as well as his loins, and will become " collected."
As the hands have to regulate the movement, the im-
pulsion must be excited by the legs, whip, or voice,
before the reins are " felt." Hence, in no case should
these stimulating aids and the regulating and controlling
one of the hands be used simultaneously. A worse mis-
take, in that it renders the meaning of the rider still more
ambiguous to the horse, is to feel the reins and then to
apply the heels, the only interpretation of which proceed-
ing possible to the horse would be that the rider wished
him to halt and rear up. It must be patent to every

240 MOUNTED BREAKING.

instructed observer that the vast majority of persons who
bestride horses in England and Ireland, to say nothing of
other countries, " ride the bridle,'' and altogether neglect
the use of the legs as an "aid." Consequently their horses
are heavy in front, become prematurely unsound in their
fore legs, and are wanting in handiness. The breaker,
when mounted, should be careful to alternate his lessons
of ''collection" with well-regulated periods of relaxation,
so that nervous as well as muscular fatigue may be avoided.
I have dwelt in particular upon lightening the forehand
and on collecting the horse ; as horses are generally more
wanting in these respects, than in being too light in front.
If, however, the horse does not go up to his bridle, we may
try to correct the faulty distribution of weight by the use
of the standing martingale for lowering the head ; and by
employing a general stimulus, such as that of the voice or
" company," instead of that of the drawn-back feet, we
may hope in a short time to effect our purpose. We
should also give frequent lessons in the turn on the fore-
hand (see page 229). For further remarks on teaching a
horse to go up to his bridle, or to abstain from boring on it,
see Chapter XL

The breaker when riding his pupil should be careful to
make him go in the required direction without deviating
from it to one side or to the other. A lively horse, when
newly broken in, is liable to shy away from and start at
all kinds of objects which he may meet in the field or on
the road. To teach him that such behaviour will not be
permitted, the breaker when in the saddle, and while
walking, trotting or cantering along, should take rather a

THE CANTER. 241

short hold of the reins, so that if he makes any attempt to
*'play up," the breaker may bring him in an instant under
control by closing his legs (flat of the foot or heel as may
be required) firmly against his sides, and holding his
head tight by the reins. If the shy be made, say, to the
right, the animal while looking at the cause of alarm will
endeavour to swing his hind-quarters round to the right ;
consequently the breaker should turn the horse's head and
neck round to the right by the right rein aided by the
pressure of the left rein on the neck, and the hind-quarters
to the left by the drawn-back right foot, or by the whip or
cane held (as well as the right rein) in the right hand and
applied to the right side of the horse's hind-quarters. The
extent of the turn on the centre or on the forehand will
naturally be regulated by the amount required to bring the
horse's head, neck, and body into their original direction.

The canter (see Points of the Horsi) is a pace of
three time in which the sequence of the steps are: (i)
near (or off J hind ; (2) near (or off) fore and off (or near)
hind ; and (3) off (or near) fore. As the horse, will
naturally lead with the inward fore leg when cantering on
a circle, he is said to be going to the left when leading with
the near fore (see Fig. 109), and to the right when leading
with the off fore. He is said to be " false " if, when circling
to the right, he leads with the left fore leg, and vice-versa.
The term " disunited " is applied to the canter when the
two legs of the second period of the stride belong to the
same side, and not to different ones ; as for instance : (i)
near hind ; (2) off fore and off hind ; (3) near fore. If

R

242 MOUNTED BREAKING.

this faulty sequence were adopted when going to the right,
the horse would be false and disunited. The reverse of
this would, of course, apply to the left circle. When riding
a horse at a canter or gallop, we can easily find out with
which leg he is leading, from the fact that the leading
shoulder is more advanced than the non-leading one, and
that our knee which is on the side of the leading leg is
carried more to the front than the knee of the opposite side.
Before beginning work at the canter, I think it well to
repeat the long rein practice on foot for teaching the horse
to strike off from the walk or trot into the canter with the
proper leg leading (see page 203). When he does this
readily, we may mount him and take him at the canter to
the right and also to the left on the same circle which we
used with the long reins. The drawn-back outward leg,
aided if necessary by the spur, will replace the outward
long rein for preventing the hind-quarters from being
carried outwards when circling or turning. As the presence
of a rider in the saddle increases the proportion of weight
borne by the fore legs, we should lean our body a little
back. To preserve the bend of the head and neck in the
direction in which the animal is going, we should depress
the inward hand and carry it a little inwards ; the outward
hand (see page 229) being somewhat raised, and also carried
a little inwards. As an indication, and as a necessary
adjustment, we should lean our body a little inwards. An
additional indication may be supplied by the touch, on the
shoulder, of the inward foot, which may be kept in an
advanced position for this purpose. We may teach the
horse to lead off, from the walk or trot, into the canter withi

THE CANTER.

243

whichever leg we wish, by acting according to the principles^
by which we obtained this object with the long reins. If, for.
instance, we are walking or trotting the horse on the right
circle, and wish him consequently to strike off with the

Fi

g. 109.— Cantering with near fore leading.

off fore, we should turn him a little to the left, so as to
bring his right shoulder in front of his left one ; lean our
body a little to the right ; strongly apply the drawn-back
left leg ; and bring the horse back again into the tracJc of

R 2

244 MO U.N TED BREAKING.

the circle by turning him to the right with the reins, while
at the same time raising the hands a little and leaning the
body slightly to the rear so as to lighten the forehand. The
reversed aids would be used on the left circle for making
the horse lead off with the near fore. As the animal
improves in his acquaintance with these signals, we may
diminish the amount of the preliminary outward turn, so
that we may obtain the desired lead without altering the
direction of his body. We may then gradually increase the
size of the circle until we can make the horse lead off with
whichever leg we like while he is walking or trotting in a
straight line.

When he has learned the foregoing lesson thoroughly, we
may take him back to the old circle, and ride him at a walk
and then at a trot in a figure of 8, so that he will describe
two small circles inside the old circle. We should be
careful to change the aids on entering the new circle,
which would be at their point of contact, so that the horse
may not canter falsely during any portion of the figure
of 8. Under ordinary circumstances, the imperfectly-
broken horse would not change until he had gone falsely for
about a quarter of the new circle. This want of precision
may be disregarded, except in the '' school " horse ; for to
obviate it, the animal would have to be taught to go in such
a collected manner, that in acquiring this style his freedom
of action might be injuriously affected. Having made the
horse fairly proficient at changing the leading leg in the
figure of 8, we should try similar turns away from the circle
upon which we have been working, so as to prevent him
from becoming routiiiL By keeping him attentive to

CHANGING LEG AT GALLOP. 245

the change of aids as a signal for a change of lead, we
shall soon teach him to change, on feeling the change of
aids, when he is cantering on a straight line. Here, again,
we need not exact absolute precision as regards the moment
at which the change is made. To meet the requirements
of ignorant riders, of '* bad " ground over which the horse
should be allowed to exercise his natural watchfulness
against danger, of high speed, and of other disarranging
circumstances which are to be met with, especially when
going over a " country," I think it well for the horse to be
taught to make, when necessary, the required change of lead
on his own accord, in the event of his rider failing to give him
the signal by a change of aids to do so. I need hardly point
out to the experienced horseman that the habit of readily
changing the leg at the canter or gallop when a turn is
being made to the side opposite to that of the leading fore
leg, is valuable in hunters, racehorses, chasers, hacks,
troopers, and every other kind of animal, except the high
school horse, which is supposed never to take the initiative
in any movement. As his work is confined to the manege,
we need not consider him here.

I may point out that one of the clearest signals which
we can give to the horse to make him change his leg at the
canter, is shifting the weight of our body from the side of
the leading fore leg, to that of the non-leading one ; for
by doing so, we disturb the balance of the horse's
body so much, that to regain it, he will be obliged to
change his leg.

In circling, as well as in turning, the track of the hind
feet should be the same as that of the fore feet, and the

246 MOUNTED BREAKING.

animal's head, neck, and body should as nearly as possible
follow the direction in which the circle or turn is being
rnade.

Some people think that a horse, when cantering, should
lead only with the off fore, and that breakers should train
their equine pupils to invariably do so. A slight study of
this pace (see Points of the Horse) will show us that when
circling or turning to the left at the canter or gallop,
the horse to preserve his balance will have to incline his
body inwards, with a corresponding displacement, in that
direction, of the centre of gravity. As the weight of
the horse and rider has to be borne at one period of
each stride by the leading fore leg (see Fig. no) ; it
follows that the inward fore leg (in this case the near
fore), which is more nearly under the centre of gravity
than the off fore, is the proper one with which to lead.
Besides, by leading with the off fore while circling or
turning to the left, the horse will be obliged to more
or less cross his fore legs, and will consequently move in
an awkward and mechanically disadvantageous manner ;
to say nothing of the chance of an accident by the near
fore striking the off fore, if the turn be made sharply. As
the leading fore leg at either the canter or gallop has to do
far more work than the non-leading fore leg, the judicious
horseman will have his saddle animals broken to lead indif-
ferently with either fore leg, so that one of the two may
not become prematurely worn out.

To meet the exigencies of practical work in the field
and the requirements of different kinds of riders, I think
it is well to provide, as far as possible, against mistakes

THE CANTER.

247

being made by the horse on receiving imperfect signals.
For instance, the horse which has been trained according
to the precepts of the ''high school," will simply turn his
head round to the side on which he feels the pull of the
rein. Agreeably to the principles of breaking for every-

Fig. no. — Period of canter or gallop when weight of horse and rider is
borne by leading fore leg.

day use, which I am trying to explain in this chapter, I
maintain that the fact of the horse answering the lateral
feeling of the rein only with his head and neck serves no
useful purpose ; but that the habit of his obeying it with
his hind-quarters as well as with his. head and neck is most

248 MOUNTED BREAKING.

valuable. I may here go back to the remarks made on
page 70, and point out that if we wish to " straighten " a
horse on his shying to one side or " running out at a
fence," our object will be to make him turn on his centre,
and not merely to turn his head round without altering
the direction of his body. Even supposing that it was
always possible to apply the drawn-back leg at the right
time so as to make the horse bring his hind-quarters round,
it would surely be an advantage for the horse to do so of
his own accord, on feeling the pull of the rein ; for the
indication thus given by the leg, which can be applied to
the side, but not to the hind-quarters, is naturally feeble.
Besides, under discomposing circumstances, the rider may
not be able to bring his leg back, or may be ignorant. In
any case, he will have sufficient firmness of seat, knowledge,
or presence of mind to pull the rein of the side to which he
wishes his mount to turn. If, by chance, the rider of a
horse which has been broken according to the system I am
describing, wants to make the animal turn his head to one
side without altering the direction of his body, all he
will have to do will be to apply the drawn-back foot of the
side opposite to which the bend of the head and neck is
being made, so as to arrest the revolution of the hind-
quarters.

As the shoulder of the leading fore leg, in the canter or
gallop, is more advanced than that of the non-leading fore
leg ; the natural tendency of the horse, when going at
either pace, will be to carry his hind legs more or less side-
ways. Thus, if the off fore is leading, the tracks made by
the hind feet will be somewhat to the right of those made

THE HALT. 249

by the respective fore feet. An excess of this tendency,
which decreases according as the speed increases, and which
is usually displayed only when one particular fore leg leads,
should be guarded against during the breaking in of the
horse ; for it detracts from the beauty of his action in the
paces in question, and interferes with his handiness and
speed. I may point out that the more a horse, at the canter
or gallop, carries his head to the side opposite to that of the
leading fore leg, the more will he be inclined to bring his
hind-quarters round to the other side. Hence, to obviate
this objectionable tendency, we should bend the animal's
head slightly to the side of the leading fore leg. The best
means for correcting this fault, if for instance it is apparent
when he leads with the near fore, is frequent practice at
turning on the forehand (see page 229) to the left, and
passaging (see page 295) to the right ; and vice versa.

I may repeat that, when mounted, we should handle the
reins as nearly as possible in the same manner as we did
the long reins, while circling the horse on foot.

The halt. — If we examine the anatomy of the horse, we
shall find that the fore legs, being connected to the body
by muscles, are far better able to bear the shock of weight
suddenly imposed on them than the hind limbs, which are
attached to the body by ligaments. We see that the fore
pastern is more oblique than the hind, and that the bones
from elbow to fetlock are practically straight when bearing
the weight of the body, while the analogous column of
bones of the hind extremity, from stifle to fetlock, are more
or less bent at the hock under similar conditions. In normal

250 MOUNTED BREAKING.

jumping, the weight of horse and rider is received by both
of the fore legs before either of the hind Hmbs come to the
ground. The attempt of the rider to interfere with this
natural sequence by means of a severe bit will often be
followed by sprain of one or both of the hind legs. Horses
which are moving at liberty in the open, will, if they
happen to halt suddenly, purposely receive the weight
principally on their forehand ; a fact which they will
notify by lowering their heads at the moment of stopping.
At this instant, the hind legs will be brought under the
body to receive their smaller share of the burden. The
faster the pace from which a sudden halt is made, the more
will the head be brought down. As the weight of the
rider adds to the natural preponderance of weight on the
forehand, it follows that, to obtain the just distribution of
work between the forehand and hind-quarters, in the case
of the mounted horse coming to a sudden halt, the animal
must put more weight on his hind legs than he would
normally do ; the rider must carry his weight back ; or
both horse and man must contribute to the re-adjustment.
According to these principles, it appears that in coming to
the halt from a fast pace, the rider should grip tightly with
his knees to prevent his seat being shifted forward in the
saddle; should apply his drawn-back feet to make the
animal bring his hind legs under him ; should carry the
upper part of his body back, so as to prevent the forehand
from being unduly charged with weight ; should lower his
hands ; and should take a steady pull of the reins.
Accepting this as a typical case, we may vary the applica-
tion of the aids according to circumstances.^ Precautions

. WHIP AND SPURS. 251

as to infirmity behind or in front should naturally be taken.
Although the most sudden halt possible from a high rate of
speed may at times be absolutely required, I need hardly
say that the more gradual the halt, the less liable will it
be to injure the horse. Believing that the horse knows
more than his rider about the manner in which the weight
on his legs should be adjusted, I am a strong advocate of
teaching the horse to stop by a signal (for instance, the
voice) unconnected with the aids, which may or may not
be rightly applied. With a horse thus instructed, the
capable rider would content himself with giving the signal,
and with looking after the adjustment of his own weight
(by sitting tight in the saddle and leaning back), over
which the animal could, of course, exercise no control.

Whip and spurs. — These articles of riding gear may
be used as aids or as stimulants. Their function as aids is
to make the horse remove from their contact that portion
of his body which is touched or threatened by them, or to
check its approach, if it happens to come in their direction.
Thus, in the turn on the forehand, we cause the hind-
quarters to revolve in the desired direction by the pressure
of the drawn-back heel ; and in the turn on the hind-
quarters (see page 293), we check that movement by the
same means, in which case the pressure has to be patiently
borne — not avoided. When we use whip, spurs, or un-
armed heels as a general stimulant, we should manifestly
apply them, as nearly as possible, at a point midway
between the respective actions of the fore and hind legs ;
that is, close behind the girth.

2 52 MOUNTED BREAKING.

When teaching the horse to obey the whip, either as an
aid or as a stimulant, we should be careful to use it in such
a way that he will not become unsteady in the event of
his rider carrying anything in his hand.

As the horse's natural impulse on being touched is to
remove the offending object by twitching his skin, brushing
it off by his tail or mane, kicking it, biting at it, rubbing
it against some hard substance, or other similar means,
none of which will assist us in breaking ; we have got to
teach him to interpret, agreeably to our conventional code,
and not according to his instinct, the signal we give
with whip, spur, or heel. As I have already said, on
page 45, the whip and spurs should never be used as a
punishment. To avoid making the horse regard the spurs
as a means for inflicting pain, we should gradually teach
him their use : at first, by the pressure of the flat of the
foot or heel, by that of the spur without a rowel or with
a blunted rowel, and finally by the ordinary spur. We
should thus make him so obedient to them, that when
riding him we may dispense with their use, the contact
of the heel being sufficient to remind him of indications
which they had impressed on his memory. Referring to
school riding (see Chapter IX.), Baucher justly said that
a horse which had been brought to properly bear the
application of the spurs is three parts broken.

Time required for ordinary breaking to saddle. —

Supposing, as I have already said, that the horse is in
sufficiently good condition to stand the fatigue and strain
of breaking, and that the breaker is competent, the time

COURSE OF BREAKING. 253

for making the animal quiet to ride and obedient to the
aids, under ordinary conditions, need not usually be pro-
longed, no matter how wild and '* green " he may be,
beyond the following course : —

One day, in which two lessons may be given, to make
the horse sufficiently quiet to be handled, and to be circled
with the long reins.

Six days' work (twelve lessons) on foot with the long
reins and whip (for teaching the turn on the forehand,
etc.), and teaching the horse to carry a rider quietly.

Fourteen days (twenty-eight lessons), for riding the horse
at home and outside under various conditions. One-third
of the morning lesson (say, half-an-hour) might be devoted
to teaching the horse the rein-back, circling, figure of 8,
changing the leading leg at the canter, etc., on the breaking
ground, before taking him out.

At the end of the three weeks which I have allowed for
breaking-in the ordinary horse (hunter, hack, racer, or
chaser) to saddle, he ought to be thoroughly steady and
have a good snaffle mouth.

My readers will observe that I have added to the usual
course of English and Irish breaking, reining-back, circling,
figure of 8, and changing the leg at the canter or gallop.
I would further advise, for all saddle horses, instruction in
the passage (see page 295). By refraining from including
it in this chapter, I desire to show that I am not altogether
unwilling to make concessions to prejudice.

I reserve the question of jumping for the next chapter.

254

CHAPTER VII.

TEACHING HORSES TO JUMP.

General instruction — Jumping faults — The hunter — The chaser — The
hurdle racer — The show-jumper — -Time required to teach a horse
to jump.

General instruction. — Although I strongly advocate the
practice of giving a horse his first saddle lessons in a small
enclosure, such as a riding-school, I think it advisable for
the hunter or chaser to obtain all his jumping instruction
in a field or other open place, work in which would be less
liable to get him into a " cramped " style of fencing than
in a manege. The tendency of horses to become routine,
to which I shall make further allusion on page 283, is often
well shown in jumping. Hence, I would advise, that practice
over a particular line of fences should be restricted, in the
case of an intended hunter, to teaching him the necessity of
clearing them, and that his subsequent schooling should, as
far as possible, be over strange obstacles. I have known
some animals become so " tricky " from being frequently
ridden over the same jumps, that they would not negotiate
a new one, however small, without a refusal or two. The
less plucky a horse is, the more inclined will he be to acquire
this very grave fault. I may point out that it is compara-

STYLE OF JUMPING. 255

tively easy to teach a horse an effective, though ''sticky" style
of timber jumping ; but it is difficult to get the generality of
young ones to learn the free and " flippant " method which
will enable them to go from one field into another without
any fear of their dropping their hind legs into a ditch on
the far side, or catching their feet against a guard rail, or
perchance in wire. To acquire this essentially Leicester-
shire style, to which I shall chiefly devote my attention, a
horse must learn to lift himself well off the ground and
spread himself out. I in no way wish to deny that a horse
can be taught to adapt his style to the nature of the fence ;
but such a degree of excellence is difficult to attain, and the
attempt to reach it may end by spoiling the animal for
both kinds of work. Lest any of my readers may mis-
understand my meaning in this connection, I may explain
that the one style of jumping to which I refer is that
practised in The Shires and on our steeplechase courses ;
the other, in Galway for getting over big stone walls, and
in Australia for clearing very high posts and rails. In the
former, the animal always covers a considerable width and
can also jump fairly high when required. In the latter, if
the horse jumps high, he will cover but little ground. At
horse-jumping competitions in England, such as those at
Islington, several very high timber jumpers will show
ability to clear water of good width ; but if asked to jump
a four-foot hedge, they would not, unless greatly stimulated,
leave much margin on the other side. In both styles, the
respective horses should, of course, learn to regulate their
pace and measure their distance, according to the nature of
the fence.

256 JUMPING.

I might suggest the following obstacles over which to
practise the beginner : —

1. A hurdle (commencing at 2\ feet, and ending at
3^ feet) bushed with gorse.

2. A hurdle similar to No. i, with in front of it a drain
2 feet broad at first, and gradually widened out to 4 feet.

3. A 2-^ foot hedge, with on the landing side a drain,
say, 3 feet broad, increased up to 10 feet.

4. A heavy log " served " with hay bands to prevent the
animal seriously injuring his legs. It may be gradually
raised up to 3 feet 9 inches. I like to place another log a
little in front of it, so as to show the horse where to take
off, and to prevent him from getting too close.

Before any jumping is attempted, the horse should be
made thoroughly obedient to the aids. Beginning with the
long reins, we may circle and turn him on foot, with the
outward rein round his quarters, at a smart trot or well-
collected canter. We may put up any suitable small fence,
say, a rounded, heavy log of wood served with hay bands,
or a hurdle, neither of which need be more than 2 feet high.
If our pupil is reluctant in facing the obstacle, we may work
him up to it with the reins, keeping him straight by the
pressure of the outward rein against his quarter, as he turns
from one side to the other, and stimulating him with the
voice and sound of the whip. If he persists in refusing, we
may put on the crupper leading- rein (see page 211), and
after running him about, and pulling him from side to side
by it a few times, in order to make him understand its use,
we may try to lead him over by it. Or, having handed it to
an assistant to go on in front, we may give him another

CURING REFUSERS. 2^7

trial with the long reins. In this, as in all other breaking
operations with the horse, we should exercise great patience,
and should renew our efforts again and again if we do not
at first succeed. If the animal *' shows fight," I would
advise that the whip should be put aside altogether ; for,
according to my experience, the moment its cut, or even
crack, fails to prompt him to go on, it will incite him to
offer increased resistance. Instead of its effect, we should
employ that of the long reins, in circling him, turning him
sharply and backing him, until he gives in, or until we are
forced to employ stronger means. Mr. John Hubert Moore,
the great Irish trainer of steeplechase horses, who taught
me this admirable method for curing refusing and other
forms of jibbing, considers that its efficacy is chiefly due
to the punishment inflicted on the animal's mouth and
hocks. It is possible that the animal which has been put
through this discipline may imagine that he has no power
to resist the command to go forward, after having been
forced to turn as the breaker wished. It is not, however,
the act of turning a jibber to the right and to the left
which will overcome his sulkiness, but its continued re-
petition ; especially if the turns be made sharply. Hence,
I am inclined to think that the punishment theory is
the right one. The horse seems, as with the rope-twitch
(see page 129), to fail to connect the idea of pain, in
this case, with the man who inflicts it, as he undoubtedly
does when whipped or spurred; and, probably on that
account, yields the more readily to its influence.

If the animal prove thoroughly stubborn, and time be of
consequence, he may be made to lie down, and held with

S

258

JUMPING.

his head pulled round (see page 165), until he appears to
"give in." The driving gear should be again put on, and
another trial given. This process may have to be repeated.
Such strong measures will hardly ever be necessary if we
commence with the fence low enough.

When putting the animal through the course of discipline

Fig, 1 1 1 . — Leicestershire cut and laid hedge.

which I have described for overcoming stubbornness by the
use of the long reins, I have found that the good effect has
been greatly increased by utilising the action of the outward
rein on the pad.

The fence may be gradually raised to a height of 3 feet,
which will be sufficient for the first lesson, and the horse

JUMPING WITH LONG REINS.

259

made to jump freely when circling to the right as well as
to the left. A second fence may be made on the other side
of the track, opposite to the first one. When the horse has
learned to jump with the outward rein low down, he should
be taught to do so with it resting on the pad ; as it will then
be, more or less, in the position it will occupy when held by
the rider. The horse should be taught to take the fence at

Fig. 112, — Teaching horse to jump with long reins.

the walk, trot, and canter. In getting him to jump width,
we may bring him up to it on a large circle, and straighten-
ing him as he approaches it at a fast canter, we may let go
the reins, which can be caught by an assistant on the other
side. The same remark would apply to particular kinds
of fences, such as Leicestershire " cut and laid " hedges
(see Fig. in), and Irish banks, which one might not be able

S 2

26o JUMPING.

to construct in one's breaking enclosure. If it were possible
to have a gap made in a fence of the kind about which I
am writing, one might be able to drive a horse over it on a
circle in the usual way without having to let go the reins.

By this method, horses, as a rule, will quickly learn
to jump (see Figs. 112 and 113), and not alone to
clear the obstacle, but also to negotiate it in the exact
style they are required to do when a man is on their
back. The more horses are practised in this manner, the
more will they appear to like jumping, and will very
rarely exhibit, as they are apt to do with a rider, any dislike
to the work, from numerous repetitions, backwards and
forwards, over the same fence.

The old plan of teaching a horse to jump by leading him
over fences with a cavesson and one or two leading-reins
should not be employed ; for its tendency, by throwing too
much weight on the forehand, will be to make him slow at
getting away from his fences. Besides this, horses are apt
to resist any forward pull on either cavesson or head-stall.
The action of the crupper leading-rein, on the contrary,
while leaving the head entirely free, is to make the horse
get his hind legs well under him. One great beauty, to
which I have already alluded, of the long-rein system is
that by it the horse's movements, as regards pace, speed,
and direction, are more under the control of the breaker
than by any other method.

A tendency to put too much weight on the forehand
when landing, may be corrected by the use of a bearing-
rein (see page 185), which will be very seldom required for
this purpose.

LUNGING HORSE OVER FENCES.

261

The system of turning horses loose into a circular
enclosure (see page 263), fenced in and provided with
obstacles, and then making them jump with a long driving
whip, is good as far as it goes ; but neither it, nor the plan
of lunging with a leading rein and cavesson, has any pre-
tensions to teaching obedience to the reins when jumping,
without which a safe and clever style is unattainable.

Fig. 113. — Teaching horse to jump with long reins.

It is well to make the fences stiff or unpleasant (by the
use of gorse, for instance) to hit, so as to teach the pupil
not to chance them. Two or three lessons of this sort will
be sufficient to make the generality of horses clever enough
to carry a rider in good style. The horse should then be
saddled, a man or boy put up, without giving him at first
any reins to hold, and the horse driven over the fences as

262 . JUMPING.

before. When the breaker finds that the animal jumps as
well with the man in the saddle as he did without him, he
may take off the long reins, put on the ordinary ones, and
hand them to the rider, who should then take the horse
over the fences as before ; the breaker using the crack of
the whip, as a stimulus, if required. The rider should not
be given spurs, unless he is a fine horseman, and unless the
horse requires them to make him more lively ; but not as a
means for overcoming any reluctance he may have to
jumping, which should be accomplished in the manner I
have laid down.

I need hardly say that a horse should not be jumped if
he is at all sore on his legs or feet.

One great advantage, among many others, of teaching a
horse to jump in the way I have detailed is that, by circling
and turning the animal in front of the fences, we can cure
him of all impetuosity caused by their proximity, and at
the same time make him willing to jump, with thorough
light-heartedness, the moment he receives the indication
from the rein to go straight and to clear the obstacle. We
can easily understand that such training is particularly
valuable for the hunter.

After the animal has learned all we can teach him in the
breaking field, he should be schooled over a *' natural "
country ; and after he has learned to take his own '* line "
and jump cleverly in " cold blood," he may be considered
qualified to go in "company."

The snaffle (an unjointed one for preference, see
page 184) should be the only bit used with the jumper
— whether hunter, chaser, or trooper — when riding him

THE SNAFFLE FOR JUMPING. 263

up to a jump ; for the shock which the curb is apt to
inflict on the lower jaw when landing, and which is
frequently difficult to obviate, tends to make the horse
afraid to face the bit ; the result being that the horse
becomes unduly liable to injure his hind legs. The fore
legs, I may explain, being connected to the body by
muscle, and the hind legs by bone ; it follows that the
former are much better adapted to receive the weight
of the horse and rider on landing, than the latter. I have
seen many cases in hunters of injury in the hind legs to
tendon, ligament, and joint, caused by the injudicious
use of a curb. If the horse be too impetuous with a
snaffle, he should be again taken in hand by the breaker
to be taught obedience to the aids. I may observe that,
if the art of breaking were better understood than it is,
we would meet with far fewer inquirers after special kinds
of bits, with which to hold their horses, than we do ; for
they would solve the difficulty by getting their animals
properly broken.

If we have the facilities for doing so, we might construct
a line of fences in the interval between two concentric
circles which have been enclosed so that the horse cannot
get out, except at the appointed exit. As a convenient
size, I might suggest that the outer circle should be
about 35 yards in diameter, and the inner circle 30 yards in
diameter. On this circular ride we might put, say, five
fences of different kinds, and, by means of the lunging
whip, we might drive our pupil at liberty over them, with
or without a lead. It is well to have these jumps made
particularly stiff, so that the horse will learn that he cannot

264

JUMPING.

chance them with impunity. Without going to the trouble
of constructing an enclosed line of fences in the manner
just described, we may practise horses at liberty over
obstacles placed round a riding-school or other suitable
enclosure.

The two most difficult things in teaching a horse to
jump, are to get him, when coming ujd to a fence, to
regulate his speed of his own accord, and to "take off"
at the proper distance from his fences, to do which he
will have to acquire the ability to put in a short stride.

GTs:

Fig. 114. — Boots for protecting horse's legs when jumping.

or lengthen his stride, as may be required. This comes
naturally to some horses, and in many cases is undoubtedly
an hereditary gift. The clever sort appear to have an
instinctive dislike to striking their legs against, or catching
them in, anything. Other horses, on the contrary, despite
careful instruction and severe blows and falls, seem in-
capable of remembering that they should not chance
their obstacles, especially when they become excited.

As horses are apt to hit themselves and over-reach
when jumping, especially when they are new at the work ;

BOOTS.

265

I like to protect their legs with boots or bandages. Figs.
114 and 115 show the kind of boots which I use. They
are made of strong leather, lined with thick woollen cloth.

Jumping faults.— That dangerous fault of chancing
fences may be corrected by driving the horse with the long
reins over fences which are too stiff to take liberties with ;

Ki^

Fig. 115.— Boots for protecting horse's legs when jumping.

but which are not too "big." Or we may practise him
at liberty over them in the manner described under the
preceding heading.

Jumping too sloivly. — Many horses commit this fault
without attempting in any way to refuse. It is generally
caused by the rider hanging on to the animal's head, or by

266 JUMPING.

instruction in jumping by means of the cavesson and
leading rein, by which method, the weight is unduly thrown
on the forehand, and consequently the horse, not having his
hind legs well under him when he lands over the fence, is
unable to get quickly away from it. Besides this, the horse
has to moderate his speed in accordance with that of the
man in front of him. By driving him with the long reins
on foot we may teach him to go collectedly at any pace
we like, and can quickly get him out of the habit of
dwelling at his fences. We should, of course, supple-
ment this with judicious schooling, especially in company,
and should be careful not to interfere with the animal's
mouth.

Putting too much weight on the forehand ivJien jumping.
— This may be corrected by using a bearing rein (see
page 185) when practising the horse over jumps with the
long reins, or at liberty (see page 263).

Ptitting too much iveight on the hind legs when landi^ig.
— As far as my experience goes, this fault is induced in
sound horses only by the use of a severe bit, or by the
severe use of an ordinary bit. It may be corrected by
mouthing lessons with the long reins, by the use of the
standing martingale, and by removal of the cause.

With respect to ref rising and running oitt at fences, see
page 339-

To break a horse of rusJiing at his fences, we should put
him through the course of instruction recommended for
puUing (see page 324), and should ^\wq him plenty of
practice over stiff fences with the long reins, so as to make
him regulate his pace without showing any impatience.

THE HUNTER. 267

The hunter. — Special attention should be paid to giving
the hunter a good mouth and making him temperate, so
that he may use his powers to the best advantage, and
avoid bringing either himself or his rider to grief. To
meet the various conditions in which he may be placed
out hunting, especially in a large field and in a difficult
country, he ought to be taught to take his fences fault-
lessly, either fast or slow as his rider wishes, and equally
well with or without a lead. He ought to be capable of
being quickly stopped or readily turned, even when going
at a jump, and to bear such a disappointment without his
courage being thereby affected. This valuable attention
to his rider's signals can be cultivated by practice with
the long reins on foot. Above all things it is necessary
to teach him that when he gets the signal to go at a
jump, he must face it boldly without a thought of pulling
up or refusing, no matter how formidable it may appear.
A horse broken and schooled in this manner will know, if he
be prevented at any time from jumping, that his rider
acted from reasonable cause, and not from timidity. I
may here point out that the ill effects which the presence
of a timid rider has on the temper of a horse is due, I feel
certain, not to the supposed discovery by the horse that
the man on his back is in a " funk " ; but to the animal
failing to understand the wishes of his rider. The horse
will trust himself to no one whose signals are not clearly
intelligible to him. Furthermore, the well-broken horse,
if kept facing a fence, while waiting, for instance, his turn
at the only practicable spot, will stand without impatience
until he receives the well-understood signal from hand and

268 JUMPING.

leg to go forward ; and, even with a short " run," will
get into his stride in a moment from the walk or halt,
so that he may acquire sufficient speed to clear, if neces-
sary, a ditch or guard rail on the other side. I need
hardly say that the man who schools a horse should
have sufficiently good hands to avoid hurting the animal's
mouth, especially when landing over a jump.

The gregarious instinct of the horse, which prompts him
to follow his leader instead of taking an independent
** line," should be combated by the breaker of the hunter ;
for unless a horse will go in the direction he is put, he will
be neither safe nor reliable. The horse which will jump
only when hounds are running, is just the kind of brute to
leave one " pounded " in front of some small fence in the
event of one becoming separated by chance from the field ;
to slay one by swerving off to take some seemingly easy,
but dangerous, spot ; or to kill one's neighbour by jumping
on or cannoning against him. We all know that if a horse
will leap in " cold blood," he will fence in hot blood ; but the
converse to this in no way holds good. Therefore, I say, teach
the horse which one wishes to make into a hunter, to jump
faultlessly by himself, and to take whatever line of country
his rider puts him to, before bringing him into the field.

For a country of stone walls, posts and rails, or double
banks, a hunter should be taught to check his speed and
collect himself far more than he would require to do in a
country of hedges and ditches, like Leicestershire for
instance.

The preliminary breaking of the hunter will take far less
time than experience in the hunting field, without plenty

THE CHASER. 269

of which he cannot be regarded as a safe conveyance over
a country. For this reason, hunters of seven or eight years
of age are valued in Leicestershire more highly than those
of four or five, other things being equal. Supposing that a
horse fresh to the game gets five weeks' cub-hunting, and
regular hunting from the first Monday in November, at
Kirby Gate, to the second Wednesday in April, with the
Belvoir ; he will, as a rule, require all that time, with a
competent man and an average of three or four days a fort-
night, to learn his business. We should initiate the young
one very gradually ; should leave him a good deal to his
own devices ; should keep him out a long time, say, to the
change of second horses, so as to prevent him from becom-
ing impetuous ; and, above all things, we should impress
upon him the necessity, when put at a fence, of getting to
the other side. In order not to disgust him with the work,
he should always be taken home before he is tired. In the
Shires, instruction in making him steady when opening
gates and when holding them open, is imperative.

The chaser. — All the remarks I have made in this
chapter respecting the jumper in general and the hunter in
particular apply to the steeplechase horse. Although his
final test will be racing over fences, we should not attempt
to take him fast at them until he can negotiate them
faultlessly at a steady canter ; for the slower the speed, the
easier will it be for him to collect himself and to accurately
measure his distance, which are two of the chief tasks for
him to learn ; the third being to make the necessary efi'ort
to clear the obstacle ; the fourth, to take his fences at

270 JUMPING.

nearly full speed ; and the fifth, to get quickly away into
his stride again after landing. The third is a question of
practice, for the solving of which the rider may at times
give a hint with leg, voice, or whip. As jumping too
" big " is a fault on the right side, and as experience will
generally correct it, I do not think any attempt should be
made to remedy such a tendency by the restraining influence
of the reins ; for the effect of such a proceeding would not
improbably be to make the horse slow at " getting away "
on landing. The power of jumping while going at a high
rate of speed is also a matter of practice, though, of course,
some horses acquire it far faster than others. The ability
to get quickly away from a fence will in no way be marred
by practice in jumping at a slow canter, so long as the
moderation in speed is due to the inclination of the horse,
and not to the fact that the rider has a tight hold of him
by the head. In steeplechasing, and to a lesser extent in
hunting, the horse's imitative faculty, if indulged, is liable
to cause him to make " mistakes " ; one of the most
common being that if he is galloping along with another
horse, but slightly behind him (say, half a length or so), his
instinct will prompt him, on nearing a fence, to "take off"
at the same moment as his leader does, with the frequent
result of a fall. " Running out " or swerving in imitation
of the leader may also be often observed. I would there-
fore advise that the intended chaser should be schooled by
himself until he has thoroughly acquired the habit of
taking his own line and measuring his own distance when
going at speed over a " made country " of orthodox size,
before sending him in company. During his first lessons

THE HURDLE RACER. 271

with one or more horses, he ought, according to the argu-
ment given, to take the position of leader ; and not until he
has been found to be fully capable of acting independently,
should the other horse or horses be brought alongside of
him, or taken in front. I need hardly point out that it is
far easier. to fix the attention of the horse on his work when
he is alone, than when he is under the distracting influences
of '' company."

The hurdle racer should be taught to take his fences
at racing speed with only just sufficient collection at the
three foot six or three foot nine obstacles to make him
clear them, even if he " chances " them a little. I may point
out that, no matter how clever a horse may be at " timber-
topping," it is impossible for him to clear a hurdle in his
stride ; for the period of suspension of the gallop (see
Points of the Horse) is far too brief to allow this to be
done. For his particular kind of work, he has, just as
much as the hunter or chaser, to be taught to jump, but
in a different style ; the chief requirements of which are
to leap quickly, to avoid jumping too high, and to get away
again with the least possible delay. The directions which
have been already given in this chapter, will point out how
the necessaiy instruction may be imparted.

The show-jumper. — The subject of show-jumping is
a difficult one to approach ; for the judging at one place is
often conducted under totally different principles to those
at another exhibition. Speaking generally, I think I may
say that the chief requirement of the show-jumper is to be

272 JUMPING.

able and willing to jump a great height without touching
the obstacle. As he is not required, like the hunter, to
jump high and wide at the same time, he is trained to go
up to his obstacles, with the exception of the water-jump,
at a very short and greatly collected canter, so that he
may take off as near the proper spot as possible, and raise
his forehand to the required height before projecting
himself upwards and forwards with his hind legs. The
angle of elevation of his centre of gravity would conse-
quently be greater and better adapted to his work than
that of the free-striding hunter or chaser. As I have
analysed, in Points of the Horse, the movements in
leaping, I need not go into the subject here. I may point
out that although attempts are made at Ball's Bridge
(Dublin) and elsewhere to make the jumping ring a mimic
hunting field ; the usual conditions of such contests agree
with what I have said. In the training of the show-
jumper, we should first of all teach him the short canter
by collecting him and making him circle and do the figure
of 8 at that pace on very small circles. For example, he
ought to be able to canter steadily round a circle of eighteen
feet in diameter, and to take a stride of not more than five
feet in length. My readers will, I trust, understand that I
am here writing about his training, and not about his
performance in the ring. In teaching him to jump I
would supplement the long rein work with a good deal of
practice '* at liberty," over stiff bars and gates placed on a
small circle, say, one of twenty yards in diameter, and
gradually raised until he could easily clear five and a half
feet without touching the timber. I would suggest the use

REPETITION IN JUMPING. 273

of a walled-in circle ; as in it the breaker could more easily
control the movements of the loose horse with the luneine
whip than if he were in a rectangular enclosure. The
whip should be employed to indicate to the animal what he
has got to do, or at most to stimulate him ; but in no way
to punish him. The horse intended for show-jumping
should have a good deal of practice at water ; for the judges
always attach much importance to the way in which the
competitors negotiate the '' brook."

Time required to teach a horse to jump. — An
ordinary horse in good condition and of suitable confor-
mation can be taught in one or two lessons of three-
quarters of an hour's duration, to carry his rider over, say, a
three foot six hurdle or hedge, or a six foot ditch, in fair
style. But the teaching a horse to measure his distance
and to shorten or lengthen his stride, as may be required, on
coming up to a fence, is much more difficult ; for horses
greatly vary in *' cleverness." Although a month will be
sufficient to make some apt pupils perfect ; other animals
seem incapable of learning to keep their feet out of harm's
way. Long experience has proved to me that if a horse
is sound on his feet and legs, we run no risk of spoiling
his temper by jumping him over ten or a dozen fences
every day, or that number of times over the same obstacle ;
provided always that we don't pull his mouth about, and
that we don't irritate him with whip or spur. A horse
requires frequent practice to learn to jump ; and, after he
has acquired that accomplishment, to keep his muscles in
jumping order.

T

274

CHAPTER VIII.

BREAKING TO HARNESS.

I "WOULD advise that light harness horses, before being
placed between the shafts, should be put through the
course of instruction laid down in Chapters V. and VI.,
with the exception of those parts which refer to cantering
and galloping. We might omit, in the case of the heavy
cart horse, the training described in Chapter VI. My
reason for advocating a certain amount of saddle-work
with light-harness horses is that it makes them more
handy and less inclined to jib, than they would be
without it.

The place which I prefer for breaking a horse to harness
is a circular enclosure of about thirty yards in diameter,
the ground of which is level and hard enough to allow the
wheels of the breaking-cart to run smoothly. I would use
an '' open " (one without blinkers) snaffle bridle.

Before putting him in, we may, if in doubt, test his
steadiness by the head and tail method (see page 169),
gentling him under the belly and about the hind legs with
a long pole, and cracking a whip all over him. Having
put on the harness, we may circle him for half an hour or

DRIVING IN HARNESS ON FOOT.

275

more with the long reins on foot (see page 183), and turn
and rein him back until he is thoroughly " supple." We
may then put him into some suitable, light, two-wheeled
trap, and take up our position on the near side on about a
line with the axle-tree and a little away from the cart,
with the off long rein passing under the rail of the splash-
board and the near one free (see Fig. 1 16). As a precaution
against possible mishap, we may put on a kicking strap,

Fifj. 116. — Driving horse in harness on foot.

and may place an assistant holding a separate rein attached
to the snaffle on each side of our pupil. We may now start
the horse off" as before to circle to the left. In the event of
being so pressed for time that we could not give the horse
a sufficiency of preliminary breaking, we might, if we had
the necessary gear, after circling him on foot with the long
reins, place a strait-jacket (see page 143) over the harness,
buckling it up just tight enough to prevent him kicking if
so inclined ; and after circling and turning him in it for a

T 2

276 BREAKING TO HARNESS.

short time, put him in the trap as before described. After
the horse has been circled to the left at the walk and trot
and has been found to go steadily, we should change the
reins to the off side and circle the horse at the walk and
trot to the right, in a manner similar to that which' we did
on the near side. We may now, with all proper precautions,
put an assistant on the driving seat, and circle the horse to
the right and left. After a short time, we may give the
assistant a pair of ordinary driving reins attached to the
snaffle, and passed through the rings of the harness pad. If
we have seen fit to employ assistants on foot and a strait-
jacket, we may dispense with their aid, and get one helper
on the box to gradually assume command, while we follow
the horse round without interfering with his mouth. As
soon as he appears to be reliable, we may take off the long
reins and confine the guidance of the animal to the man on
the box, or get on to it ourselves. Nothing further remains,
before taking the horse on the road, than to teach him to
start off, go steadily from the walk into the trot, or from
the trot into the walk, turn, rein-back, and pull-up. I think
this method of breaking a horse singly is much to be pre-
ferred to putting him first of all into double harness ; as it
teaches him to work indejDendently of a companion, and the
fact of not having another horse near him, secures his atten-
tion. Besides, being more under the control of the breaker, he
is less inclined to contract the vices of jibbing or of hanging
back from the collar, than if he were put in double harness.
The breaker, if expert, and with only one assistant, can
make any horse which has been well broken to saddle, and
whose temper has not been spoiled by injudicious attempts

A JINGLE.

277

to put him Into harness, steady enough to go out for
a quiet drive after giving him, say, a two-hours' lesson on
the principles I have just laid down. Having learned the
single horse method of breaking, my readers will be fully
competent to put a horse into double harness alongside a
steady break-horse. I need hardly say that there are many
horses which go well in double harness, but will not pull
by themselves ; although almost every animal which will go

Fig. 117. — A jingle.

singly will, as far as I have seen, go in double harness.
On this account, and from what I have already said, I
would advise that all horses which are intended for harness
should get their first lessons singly.

For " rough-and-ready " breaking, a " jingle " (see Fig.
117) is an American contrivance which may be useful. It
consists of a two-wheeled cart with such long shafts that
the horse, when harnessed, cannot, if inclined to kick, hit
any part of the body of the trap. Proving the impossibility

278 BREAKING TO HARNESS.

of striking the object aimed at, tends to quickly eradicate

his pet vice out of the kicker, who, on becoming convinced

of the futility of his attacks, will seldom, if ever, renew

them when he is put into an ordinary cart, the body of

which he might easily kick to pieces if he were aware of

his power of evil. This fact does not say much for the

intelligence of the horse. My readers will see that the rail

on the splash-board, over which the reins pass, is made

specially high, so that the horse may not get his hind legs

or tail over it. The jingle is balanced so that under

ordinary conditions no weight is put on the shafts ; but by

filling with stones, or any other suitable material, a box

which is placed for this purpose in front of the body of the

cart, weight may be put on the back of the horse as may

be required. I may remark that the placing of weight on

the back is the chief incitement to plunging, bucking, and

kicking which horses receive while being broken to harness.

If the animal has been previously broken to saddle, he will

of course not mind weight on his back. A third good

point about the jingle is that the door at the back of it is

so arranged that, in the event of any mishap or impending

danger, the driver can readily slip out behind, and leave

the horse and jingle to their fate !

An Irish outside car, owing to the facilities it offers for
eettine on and off it, is far more convenient and much less
dangerous for breaking-in horses to harness than a gig or
dog-cart.

When we take out on the road the recently " put-in "
horse, we should attempt to form his paces by getting him
to go in a thoroughly steady and well-balanced manner.

FORMING A HORSE'S' PACES. 279

We should pay special attention to preventing him from
trotting at a speed faster than that at which he can go with
ease and precision ; and should keep him collected by
holding the reins at a fixed length, and by making him
go up to his bit by the voice or whip. Before using either
of these stimulants, a slight extra pull of the reins should
be taken, so that the horse may increase the tension on the
traces gradually, and not with a jerk by suddenly springing
forward.

28o

CHAPTER IX.

SCHOOL BREAKING.

General remarks on school breaking— The school horse — Collecting
the horse at the halt — Collecting the horse at the walk and trot
— Teaching the horse to strike off correctly into the canter —
— Changing the leg at the canter — Figure of eight at the canter
— Cantering falsely — Turn on the forehand — Turn on the hind-
quarters— The passage — The passage with head to wall — The
passage with tail to wall — Change of hand by the passage —
Counterchange of hand by the passage — Circling at the passage —
The halt — Change from one pace to another— Shoulder in — Course
of school instruction — Additional school movements — Extension of
a fore leg — The Spanish walk — The Spanish trot — ^Turn on the
forehand on three legs — The canter on three legs — Changes of
leg at the canter — A circus high-school act.

General remarks on school breaking. — The necessity
for cavahy horses, whether acting in masses or singly,
being " collected " to an unusual extent, so as to make
them as handy as possible, initiated at an early period of
military history a special training for war horses, which,
while accomplishing irs own purpose, was obtained by
sacrificing to some extent their general usefulness. As in
early times the horseman was a mounted fighting man ;
the arts of breaking and riding were then cultivated from a
purely military point of view. By degrees the system of
breaking became elaborated from a means into an end, so

BAUCHER. 281

that we find many of its most eminent professors absolutely
ignorant of riding as a practical art. For instance, Baucher,
the great high priest of r equitation savajtte, was never known
to ride a horse outside of a manege or circus. As riding
became more common among civilians, the fact became
recognised that the long and arduous training of the
manege could not alone be dispensed with in the ordinary
riding horse ; but that it was not sufficient in itself to fit him
for rough and ready work outdoors, and especially in the
hunting field. Riding-school teaching has accordingly fallen
into disrepute — in France almost as much as in England.
Like in many other changes of opinion, the good points of
the old style were lost sight of by those who went to the
opposite extreme. While relegating to the circus such
wholly useless airs as the Spanish trot and walk, and
cantering on three legs, we must not ignore the fact that
school work, judiciously applied, is an admirable system of
equine dancing, deportment, drill, or gymnastics (whichever
way w^e look at it) for teaching the horse to carry himself
in a well-balanced manner, and to obey the aids promptly
and with precision. We may regard it under three heads :
(i) For forming the horse's mouth, paces, and manners;
(2) for show work, as in a circus ; and (3) for the require-
ments of military service. In the present chapter I shall
- treat of the first and second divisions, in which the cavalry
element is so far ignored that the rider holds a rein in each
hand. Both the " knights of old," who used exceedingly
long stirrups, and Eastern horsemen, who had extremely
short ones, being unable to apply their legs as an aid, rode
their horses chiefly by the bridle, and having consequently

282 SCHOOL BREAKING.

made them heavy in hand, were obhged to employ ex-
tremely severe bits to collect them. Baucher introduced
into school practice the admirable system of keeping the
horse light in hand by the use of the leg, or, if need be, of
the spur. Without wishing in any way to detract from the
credit due to Baucher in this matter, I may mention that the
system of riding a horse more by the legs than by the hands
appears to have been known in England and Ireland long
before the great Frenchman was born. Sam Chifney, who
was the Goorge Fordham of the latter end of the eighteenth
century, certainly knew it by the way in which he speaks
in Genius Gemiine of riding a horse in a race " as if you
had a silken rein as fine as a hair, and that you were afraid
of breaking it." Custance in Riding Recollections says :
" Fordham sat back in his saddle, and, as it were, drove his
horse from him." He also tells us that " Wells was a very
strong man on a horse, and used to lap his long legs round
them at a finish." This style of riding, I need hardly say,
has been traditional among jockeys who never heard either
of the " high school " or of Baucher. It was taught to
me in Ireland more than forty years ago when I was a boy,
as the old, orthodox method to follow.

One of the first maxims of the high school is that the
horse must yield up the initiative entirely to his rider ;
that is, he should do nothing of his own accord. Hence
the rider must remain constantly in close touch with him
by hand and leg. If the pressure of the unarmed heel be
not sufilicient, the spurs will have to be kept close to the
horse's sides ; if possible, brushing through the hair with-
out touching the skin, unless required. To enable this to

SCHOOL RIDING. 283

be done, the knees have to be kept a little away from the
flaps of the saddle, with the result that their strength of
grip is considerably diminished. As the maintenance of
this delicate touch is impossible under conditions of rough
work in the open, and as its strain on the attention and
muscles of the horse would be unduly severe, to say nothing
of the loss of grip ; this method of riding is applicable only
to the manege, the circus, the parade ground, and on special
occasions, such as those of single combat between cavalry-
men, when the maximum amount of control over the
horse is required. As I have before said, school work,
from a breaking point of view, is a means, but not an end.
That being the case, we should allow the horse to resume
his natural attitude or gait (permitting him to ''stand at
ease " or " march at ease ") after performing any of his
school tasks, none of which should be prolonged to such an
extent as to tire him. I shall consider, in Chapter X., the
relations of school, breaking to military riding.

In order that the school horse may be maintained
absolutely under the control of his rider, we should avoid
giving him set tasks of an unvaried nature ; we should not
commence, stop, or alter the work at particular places ; and
we should not allow him to act for himself, without receiving
a signal from his rider, so that he may not become roittine.
As a case in point, we should on no account, when teaching
a horse to strike off correctly in the canter, always begin
at one spot, whether on a circle or in a straight line ; for
if we do so, the animal will look out for his arrival at that
point, to start off of his own accord, and thus, by taking
the initiative, to deprive us of command over him. We

284 SCHOOL BREAKING,

here touch on a weak point of school breaking, namely,
that a horse whose instruction is confined to the manege,
becomes rotitine to the school, so that he will perform his
work properly only in it, and would require, in order to
fit him to act outside, a further (though, necessarily, a
much shorter) course of teaching, which would have the
effect of more or less impairing his cleverness indoors.
Hence, high-school horses are, as a rule, exercised only in
the manege. I have seen this tendency to become routine
to a certain place well shown by horses which I practised
at various school airs on a particular part of my paddock ;
for although they would do this work with precision and
brilliancy on the improvised manege, they would, until I
had accustomed them to the change, try to " play up " the
moment I took them off the well-remembered track.
Therefore, school breaking, however valuable it may be, can
be regarded only as preparatory to instruction in the open.
Our military riding-schools are twenty yards wide by
sixty yards long. For the school training of single horses,
the manege need not be larger than twelve yards by
twenty-four yards, or even a circle of twelve yards in
diameter will do. With single reins, one rein is held in
each hand. With a bit and bradoon, apart from the
ordinary application of the bridle, the snaffle is used to
keep the head sufficiently raised by acting on the corners
of the mouth, and the curb to depress it. The use of
the curb is not indispensable for obtaining the airs of
the high school ; but from its severity it is, as a rule, more
effective than that of the snaffle. The collection to be
obtained from the latter bit is in every way to be preferred

THE SCHOOL HORSE, 285

to that by the former, the indications of which are complex
and necessarily confusing. For instance, we have with it
pressures, respectively, on the bars of the mouth, on the
chin-groove (by means of the curb-chain), on the top of
the horse's head (through the headstall of the bridle), and
in some cases on the roof of the animal's mouth (through
the agency of a high port). I need hardly say that the
indications of the snaffle are simple and, as nearly as
possible, direct. If its effects are obtained slower than
those of the curb, they are far less liable to arouse the
opposition of the horse, who will generally resent punish-
ment that appears to him to be unmerited.

The school horse. — The chief physical points which are
required in the school horse are : light forehand, well-
placed-on head and neck, sloping shoulders, oblique past-'
erns, strong loins, and powerful hocks. The principal
mental ones are : lightheartedness, so as to give brilliancy
to his movements, and entire absence of any tendency to
be sulky. Well-bred horses are the best for this work.
A horse to shine in the manege should be broken exclu-
sively for that object, so that he may not acquire the habit
of taking the initiative. School work greatly tries a horse's
temper. Hence, while engaged in it, we should be con-
stantly on our guard not to unduly annoy our pupil. If
he " plays up," we should assert our authority ; but with a
minimum of force ; and, having gained our point, should
suitably reward the animal for his compliance, which, as a
rule, is best done by ending the lesson, and by giving him
some coveted dainty. The acquisition of serious " defences,'"

286 SCHOOL BREAKING.

such as rearing, prancing, and refusing to turn to one
particular side, is generally the result of the breaker
demanding too much, continuing his demands too long,
treating the animal harshly, and especially applying the
aids in a confusing manner.

M. James Fillis justly points out, in his Principes de
Dressage et d' Eqttitation, that geldings are more suitable
for high-school work than either mares or entires ; the
former being specially liable to jib and to become irritable
on being touched with the spur ; the latter, to rear, and to
become unduly heavy on the forehand.

Collecting the horse at the halt. — To teach a horse
to collect himself at the halt, we may, while holding the
reins and whip, as in Fig. 95, place ourselves to the left of
the near shoulder and make the horse extend himself by
tapping him with the whip behind the fore legs. To
prompt him to relieve himself out of this constrained posi-
tion, we may tap him with the whip on the croup, so as to
make him bring up his hind legs, which, on account of the
remembered relief, he will soon learn to do, on being
touched with the whip in this manner, without having pre-
viously brought his fore legs to the front. To be precise,
we should touch the near or off side of the croup to make
the horse bring up, respectively, the near or off hind
leg. If necessary, we can prevent him by the reins from
going forward, or from turning round. Having taught
him on foot to collect himself at the halt, we may mount
him, and by holding the reins in one hand and by touching
him on the croup with the whip held in the other hand, we

SCHOOL COLLECTION, 2^7

may make him bring his hind legs under him as before
described. Or we may hold in each hand a rein, and a
whip to be applied to the side. By using the drawn-back
heel, with or without spurs, at the same time as the whip,
by increasing the effect of the heel while diminishing
that of the whip, and by restraining with the reins any
forward movement, we shall soon teach the horse to collect
himself at the halt by means of the heel and rein. If one
hind leg be less advanced than the other, we should give the
horse the signal to bring it forward by touching him with
the drawn-back foot of the same side, and should place a
preponderance of weight on the stirrup of the opposite side.
When attempting to collect a horse, we should, as a rule,
raise his head, so as to bring the weight back.

Collecting the horse at the walk and trot. — Having
collected the horse at the halt, we may put him into the
walk by increasing the pressure of the drawn-back feet,
and slightly yielding the reins. We may obtain collection
at either the walk or trot by applying the drawn-back foot
at the same moment as the fore foot of that side comes
down, by placing more weight on the opposite stirrup, and
by feeling the opposite rein the stronger, while checking
the forward movement with both reins. By this manner
we arrive at the school-walk {pas (fecole). In it the horse
raises his knees higher and advances his feet less than in
the ordinary walk, between which and the short collected
trot it is intermediate. If, while proceeding at the school-
walk, we increase the action of the legs, and continue
the alteration of weight from side to side, without adding

SCHOOL BREAKING.

to the tension of the reins or only slightly yielding them,
the animal will break into the trot ; and from the trot into
the canter. My readers, on referring to Fig. 3, will see
that at the moment when a fore leg is placed on the ground
during the trot, the hind leg of that side is off the ground,
and being ready to be brought forward, is consequently the
proper one to be stimulated to obtain collection. The same
remarks apply to the walk, except that the hind leg, say, of
the off side, quits the ground at a time when the off
fore is bearing a full share of weight and the near fore is
being brought forward (see Fig. 6) ; and vice versa. The
quicker the hind legs are brought forward at the walk, the
nearer will that pace assume the character of the trot.

Having thus obtained a short, well-collected trot, we
should go on until we get it slow, lofty, in perfect time, and
with a slight pause when the knee is raised to its greatest
height. This form of cadenced trot is known in French as
le passage. By continuing the stimulating effect of the leg
and by increasing the restraining action of the hand, we
check the forward movement, and get the piaffer, which is
a high-actioned trot without gaining ground, or ie passage
S2ir place. For the passage and piaffer to be brilliant, there
should be a moment of suspension (all four feet off the
ground at the same time) between each step. In the
passage, there is necessarily more knee action tfian forward
reach. If when attempting the passage or piajfer, the
movements of the horse become hurried, he should be
halted, ''made much of," and collected afresh, so as to
give him confidence, without which it is impossible to make
him understand our wishes. Both the piaffer and passage

STRIKING OFF IN CANTER. 289

(which give brilliancy to the trot and walk) can be obtained
either by stimulating the horse from the walk to the trot
and holding him in, or by drawing him in from the
ordinary trot to the slower and more elevated paces. The
comparative action of the fore and hind legs can be in-
creased by respectively raising or lowering the hands, and
by bringing the weight of the body backward or forward ;
and vice versa. As the piajfer is useful only as a prepara-
tory exercise for the collected short canter, and for change
of leg, we should not check the horse if, when at the
piajfer, he breaks into this canter. I may point out
that although the piaffer is, in itself, of no practical
utility, the collected short canter is indispensable for
cavalry purposes, especially in single combat with sword
or lance.

I may mention that, although to obtain the desired effect
quickly, we may in our first few lessons bend the horse's
head to one side or the other when proceeding in a straight
direction, we should avoid doing so later on ; for elegance
of carriage is incompatible with any rocking movement of
the body.

Teaching a horse to strike ofif correctly into the
canter (see page 241). — We may begin from the trot, and
should in all cases first collect our horse. Just before
turning a corner of the school, when trotting for instance
to the right, we should touch the horse with the drawn-back
left heel at the moment when the near fore comes down ;
and, as described on page 243, apply the other aids for
obtaining the canter with the off fore leading. By starting

U

290 SCHOOL BREAKING.

the horse at a corner when he is oblique to the track upon
which he is about to travel, by turning him round, and by
leaning to the off side, the utmost freedom is given to the
near hind to be brought forward, so as to commence the
change of pace. I have pointed out on page 288 that when
a fore leg comes down in the trot, the hind leg of that side
is off the ground. Accepting the remarks made on page
288 with reference to the walk, we may apply the aids for
making a horse strike off into a canter from the walk, in
the same manner as we did for getting him to lead off from
the trot. If the horse tries to revert from the canter into
the trot, we should keep him up to the canter by applying
the outward drawn-back heel or spur. Having attained
our object when going to the right, we should seek it in
the same way to the left.

The utility of placing the horse obliquely to the direction
in which we wish him to canter, depends on the fact that
when a horse canters (or gallops), the leading shoulder is
somewhat in advance of the non-leading one. Hence, it is
easier for him, when placed obliquely to the track, to lead
off with the more advanced fore leg, than with the other
fore leg.

To teach the horse to sti'ike off into the canter from the
halt, say, with the off fore leading, we may place him in a
corner of the school obliquely to one of the long sides and
on the right rein ; we should, by touching him with the
drawn-back left heel, make him advance the off hind more
under him than the near one ; and having thus prepared
him, should make him strike off in the way described in the
two preceding paragraphs. When he has learned to do this.

CHANGING LEG. 291

we should give him similar instruction on the left rein.
When we have thus got him to strike off correctly with either
fore leg, we should gradually bring him to do so, when
placed in a straight line and away from the walls of the
manege. This aij^ requires a horse to be thoroughly
obedient to the aids, and demands a preparation as well as
a stimulus.

Although, to facilitate instruction, the horse may at first
be placed with his head turned away from the direction in
which he is to proceed, he should be taught later on to
strike off into the canter from the trot, walk, or halt, with
his head straight, or even slightly bent to the side of the
fore leg with which it is intended for him to lead off. He
will then have to rely almost entirely on the respective
signals given by the legs and by the displacement of the
weight of the rider's body.

Changing the leg at the canter. — Having taught the
horse, without changing his direction, to strike off steadily
and promptly into the canter with either fore leg, as may
be required, from the trot, walk, and halt, we may canter
him down the centre of the school, say, with the near fore
leading, and at the moment when he brings that leg down
on the ground, we should apply the drawn-back left leg,
feel the right rein, place the weight on the right stirrup, and
make the horse turn more or less sharply to the right, so as
to oblige him to change his leg. We should gradually work
him in this way, and with the off as well as the near fore
leading, so that he will make the change on receiving the
signal from the aids, without deviating from a straight line.

U 2

292 SCHOOL BREAKING.

By practising him at this and by keeping him well in hand,
we may finally get him to change his leg at each stride,
at every second stride, or at every third stride as may be
desired.

We select the moment the horse brings down the leading
fore leg (namely, the third period of the canter, see Fig.
120) as the one at which to give the signal for the change ;
because the hind leg of the same side as the leading
fore is about to quit the ground at that time, and conse-
quently, on being stimulated by the rider's foot, it can be
brought forward under the animal's body with the least
possible delay, so as to make the required change. It may
be objected that it is impossible to tell, when in the saddle,
the exact periods of the canter ; that school riders, long
before the horse's movements at the canter had been
investigated, were able from practice to give the signal for
the change ; and that, in attempting to do so, we must be
guided solely by the inspiration of the moment. Although
the necessary skill can be obtained only by practice ; one
certainly is greatly helped in one's endeavour by knowing
the principles upon which one should work.

Figure of eight at the canter. — We should teach the
horse the figure of 8 at the canter in the manner described
on page 244, except that we should make the horse change
his leg immediately on entering the new circle.

Cantering falsely. — Purposely making a horse canter
falsely is the best possible practice for teaching him to obey
the aids and for preventing him from becoming routing ; for

TURNING ON FOREHAND. 293

it forces him to subordinate his natural inclinations to
the aids. I may point out that up to this we have made
the aids conformable to the movements of the animal.
When he canters in this manner, say, with the near fore
leading when on the right circle, he should have his head
turned to the left, and the rider should place more weight
on the left stirrup than on the right one. Having taught
him to canter falsely on both circles, we may make him do
so on the figure of 8, in which the changes of the leading
leg will also be false.

Turn on the forehand. — After having obtained this
movement in the manner described on page 229, we should
try to do the complete circle on both turns, with the
respective pivot foot being fixed on the ground, and the
head slightly bent towards the side to which it is being
turned. I may mention that the movement which I have
called the turn on the forehand to the right is the pirotiette
renversee a gauche ; and the turn on the forehand to the
left, the pirouette renversee a droite.

Turn on the hind-quarters. — This movement should
be taught to the horse with a great deal of discretion ; for it
is apt to make him rear as a " defence." We may begin
on foot, by holding the reins and whip in the same way as
in the turn on the forehand (see page 209). We should, for
obtaining the turn, say, to the right, bend the head to the
right with the right rein, push the forehand round to the
right with the left rein, and check any rotatory movement
of the hind-quarters by the application of the whip (see

294 SCHOOL BREAKING.

Fig. 95), which may be used to press against the left thigh
or lightly tap it. The horse should be relieved and " made
much of" (patted on the neck) at each step gained. In the
turn on the hind-quarters to the right, the off hind will act
as the pivot, which at first should be a moving one ; that
is to say, instead of, in this case, the off hind remaining
fixed on the ground, it may describe a circle of, perhaps, a
couple of feet in diameter. The nearer approach there is
made to fixity of pivot, the more inclined will the horse be
to rear. If the fixed pivot be demanded, its accomplishment
should be delayed to a late period of the breaking ; for the
horse will then be less liable to " play up " than he would
have been when his education was less advanced. In the
turn on the hind-quarters to the right, when mounted, we
should draw back and apply the left foot, advance the right
foot, lean a little back and to the right side, raise the left
hand a little higher than the right hand, and turn the
horse's head and neck to the right. The opposite aids are
used for the turn to the left. One should be particularly
careful against putting young horses too much on their
haunches, so that we may not strain their hocks.

I may mention as an interesting point that if a horse
makes a sharp turn when at liberty in an open space, he
will do so on his forehand ; but when in a cramped position,
as in a narrow pathway with walls on each side, he will
probably turn on his hind-quarters ; for he can shorten the
horizontal space occupied by his body much easier by
raising his forehand than by raising his hind-quarters.
We all know that the ordinary horse can readily turn round
when standing on his hind legs ; but is unable to do so if

THE PASSAGE.

295

he tries to balance himself on his fore legs. On the other
hand, as the fore legs bear a larger proportion of weight
than the hind ones, it is easier for the horse to turn on the
former than on the latter, when his movements are not
cramped by want of space. The turn on the hind-quarters
through a complete circle is the pirottette ordinaire of the
high school.

The passage (to use the term employed in English
military riding-schools) is a side movement in which the
track made by the hind legs is apart from and parallel to
that of the fore ones. It can best be done when the horse
is collected at the walk, trot, or canter. If uncollected,

Fig. 118. — Passage to the right.

296

SCHOOL BREAKING.

especially at the walk, the animal may fail to raise his
outward feet high enough to clear his inward ones. The
horse is placed obliquely to the direction in which he is to
proceed ; his head is turned towards that direction, and his
outward feet (the near if he is going to the right, and vice
versa), both fore and hind, cross in front of their respective

Fig. 119. — Passage to the right.

fellows (see Figs. 118 and 119). Instead of two tracks (fore
and hind), the animal really works on four tracks, namely,
one for each foot.

The passage is not alone useful in itself for enabling a
side movement to be made, without the necessity for turning

THE PASSAGE. 1^7

the horse round ; but when executed at the canter, it is a
valuable practice for teaching the horse to lead off and
change his leg in a well-balanced manner at that pace.

The English term, passage, must not be confused with
the French one, which is written in the same way, and
which is a short and lofty trot (see page 288).

The passage with head to wall. — We may obtain the
passage by gradually converting the straight-forward
advance into a side movement by the aids. Thus, when
going round the school to the left at a walk, we may check,
to a certain extent, the forward movement by the reins, and
place the horse in an oblique direction to the track and
with his head to the wall by the action of the drawn-back
right leg. The horse's head and neck should be slightly
bent in the direction he is going. The pressure of our
right leg, which should be used only at the instant the
near fore comes down, gives the horse the signal to carry
his off hind in front of and across his near hind. As
he will naturally readjust his own balance by lifting up and
carrying his near hind to the left when the off hind has been
placed on the ground across it ; the pressure of our right
leg, to be effective, should be reserved as a signal for the
off hind, and consequently should not be continuous. We
should place our weight on the left stirrup, and should
apply the advanced left foot to the horse's shoulder to aid
in balancing the animal. If he retreats from the track, we
should bring him up to it by closing both legs, and should
make him strike off into the passage by feeling the left rein
and by applying the drawn-back right foot. When the

298 SCHOOL BREAKING.

movement has been executed for the required distance, we
should apply the drawn-back left leg, and should straighten
the horse. We may then try the right pass on the other
hand, and with the opposite aids. After the animal has
gained some proficiency, we should commence the passage,
if going to the left on the track, by turning the horse on
the forehand to the right through an angle of 45° ; if to the
right, the turn should be made to the left. It is necessary
that the horse be placed obliquely to the track ; for if he is
put at right angles to it, it will be impossible for him to
cross his outward legs in front of their inward fellows, and
at the same time move in a direction parallel to the track.
I may mention that, when passaging to the left, the right is
the outward side, and vice versa. In " making " the corners
of the riding-school, a quarter pirouette (turn on the
hind-quarters) to the left or right (according as the passage
is to the left or right) should be executed, so as to bring
the horse into the proper position for his new direction.

The passage may be done at the walk, trot, ''passage!'
or canter. When performed at the last-mentioned pace,
the outward and drawn-back leg should be applied only at
the moment when the non-leading (and outward) fore leg
comes down, which it does at the same instant as the
inward hind leg. For instance, when attempting the left
pass at the canter (with, naturally, the near fore leading), we
should apply the drawn-back right foot at the moment when
the off fore comes on the ground, so that the off hind,
which is in the air at that time, may be readily crossed in
front of the near hind. We should begin by placing the
horse at only a small angle to the track, and gradually

THE PASSAGE. 299

work him on until he can do the passage at an angle of
45^, or even less. We must remember always to keep more
weight on the inward stirrup than on the outward stirrup.

The passage with tail to wall. — i\fter the horse has
learned to do the passage with his head towards the wall,
the presence of which has the natural effect of regulating
the movement to a considerable extent, we may teach him
the more difficult evolution of doing the passage with his
tail to the wall. Being, say, on the right rein, we may turn
the horse on his haunches to the right through an angle of
45"" (one eighth pirouette), and make him pass to the left
as before directed, with his hind feet on the track. Having
gone the required distance, we may halt him, turn him on
his haunches through an angle of 90^ (quarter pirouette),
and make him pass to the right. We may change the
passage with tail to wall to passage with head to wall,
or vice versa, by turning the horse on his centre.

I need hardly point out that a school horse should be
able to passage down the centre of the manege or in the
open, and without the assistance of any wall by which to
regulate his direction.

Change of hand by the passage. — We may change the
hand to which we are going by making the horse move
diagonally across the school at the passage. The direction
of the passage should be at an angle of 45^ to the side of
the school from which the departure was made ; the body
of the horse should be kept parallel to the sides of the
school, and the horse may resume his straightforward

300 SCHOOL BREAKING.

direction on regaining the track after his diagonal march.
In 'Cavalry Drill, 1891/ page ^6, this movement is
called the ' half-passage.' In the illustration (Plate V.)
facing that page, the horses which are doing this half-
passage are represented as moving in a direction of about
45° to the side of the school to which their bodies are
parallel. As they are shown on Plate IV. of the same
book, at the passage moving in a direction parallel to the
side of the school, but with their bodies placed at an angle
of about 45° to it, we may conclude that the "half-passage "
of the drill book is merely the passage executed diagonally
across the school. The change of hand by the passage is
useful on account of its leading up to the counterchange of
hand, which I shall now describe.

Counterchange of hand by the passage is executed in
the same manner as the preceding evolution, except that
when half the diagonal movement has been made, the aids
are reversed, and the horse is brought back to the side of the
school which he has just left, by a passage, the direction of
which will be at right angles to that of the first one. Prac-
tice of this air at the walk, trot, and finally at the canter,
is a valuable preliminary to instruction in change of leg
at the canter.

Circling at the passage. — This can be done either with
the head or with the tail turned towards the centre of the
circle, the diameter of which will usually be half the length
of either of the short sides of the school, say, ten yards.
This circle, when the head is turned towards the centre,.

THE HALT,

301

is in reality a turn on the forehand (a piroiiette renversee)
on a movable pivot ; when the tail is turned in that direc-
tion, it is a turn on the hind-quarters (a pirotiette) on a
movable pivot. Instruction in these circles is essential to
the education of the cavalry horse.

Fio-. 120. — Cantering with near fore leading.

The halt.— The remarks made on page 249, et seq., re-
specting the halt, apply equally well to arrest of move-
ment when made under school conditions. The moment
for the halt from the canter appears to me to be that

302 SCHOOL BREAKING.

at which the non-leading fore leg comes to the ground (see
Fig. 4) ; for then the shock, due to the sudden stoppage,
will be fully borne by both hind legs, and by one fore one.
I may remark that the weight-bearing function of the non-
leading fore leg will have practically ceased at the moment
when the leading fore leg is brought down (see Fig. 120).

Change from one pace to another. — To change from
the canter to the trot, we may, as the leading fore leg comes
down (see Fig. 120), apply strongly the drawn-back outward
foot ; feel both reins ; lean a little forward ; and put weight
on the stirrups. By the application of the drawn-back foot
we prompt the horse to bring the hind leg of that side
quickly to the front ; by feeling the reins we check the
advance of the leading fore leg so as to get the feet of
these two legs to come to the ground at the same moment ;
and by leaning forward we facilitate the advance of the
hind leg ; the result being that the canter becomes changed
into a trot. I may point out that the trot is a pace of two
time, in which the near fore comes on the ground at the
same moment as the off hind ; and the off fore, as the near
hind. In the canter, the non-leading fore leg and the
opposite hind leg move together ; consequently all that we
have to do to convert it into a trot is to check the action of
the leading fore leg and hasten that of the opposite hind,
so that they, also, will move together.

To change from the canter to the walk, we may, at the
moment the non-leading fore leg comes to the ground,
apply the aids in the same manner as for the halt (see
preceding page), and then instantly slacken the reins.

SHOULDER IN. 303

Shoulder in. — In the '' Bending Lesson " of Cavalry
Drill, there is taught a movement to one side, called
" shoulder in," which is similar to the passage, except that,
when doing it, the horse's head is turned away from the
direction in which he is going. It is practised, in our
military riding-schools, only with the tail to the wall ; and
the passage, only with the head to the wall. The impo-
sition of such a restriction on the passage is unreasonable ;
for it is a movement which is frequently required to be
performed by cavalry in the open, where there is no wall
to guide the direction of the horse. In the French school,
from which the English and Germans have derived their
notions of military equitation, the appiiyer (passage) epatile
en dedans (shoulder in) is synonymous with the passage
croupe ail, innr (croup to the wall), or, as I have called it,
passage tail to the wall. The English author, or authors,
of the " bending lesson " evidently thought that the term
epaule en dedans had reference to the way in which the
horse was "bent," and not to the fact that his shoulders,
and not his tail, were turned towards the inside of the
school. My readers will have seen that the passage " head
to wall " is preparatory to the more difficult movement of
the passage " tail to wall " {epatile en dedans). The fact
of the regulation '' shoulder in " being executed with the
head turned away from the direction in which the animal
is proceeding, condemns it as a movement to be employed
outside of a riding-school. If it be thought fit to retain it
as a means for teaching the use of the aids, it (like the
passage) should be practised head to wall as well as tail
to wall. Personally, I abominate it ; for it is the defence

304 SCHOOL BREAKING.

which the majority of refusers adopt when they " run out "
at an obstacle, and when their riders vainly try to pull
them straight.

Course of school instruction. — The foregoing details
of school training might be imparted more or less in the
following sequence, supposing, of course, that the horse has
gone through the preliminary work treated on in Chapters
V. and VI.

1. Collecting the horse at the halt, walk, and trot, with-
out going so far as to obtain the passage or piaffei\

2. Circling and figure of 8 at the collected walk and trot.

3. Turn on the forehand.

4. Turn on the haunches.

5. Passaging : change of hand and counter-change of
hand at the collected walk and trot.

6. Circling at the passage at the collected walk and trot.

7. Passage and piaffer.

8. Collected canter.

9. Starting in the canter from the trot, walk, and halt.

10. Circling at the canter.

11. Passage: change of hand and counter-change of
hand when cantering.

12. Figure of 8 at the canter.

13. Change of leg at the canter.

14. Cantering falsely.

15. Circling at the passage when cantering.

If the turn on the haunches provokes the horse to rear,
we may correct such a tendency by practice at the turn on
the forehand (see page 293).

EXTENSION OF FORE LEG, 305

Three months would be ample for teaching the horse
the course of instruction laid down in Chapters V. and VI.,
and in the present one.

Additional school movements. — As all the airs which
I have written about in the preceding pages of this
chapter are of use from a breaking point of view ; I have
thought nt to separate their description from that of the
following school exercises, which, though interesting to look
at, are of no practical value. As the work of learning them
is apt to make restive, from excessive collection, horses
which have not had a careful school training, I would
advise that they should not be attempted until the pupil
has mastered all the movements previously described in
this chapter, and is ready to go freely forward in
obedience to the pressure of the legs. Those of my
readers who wish to obtain further information about
these airs should consult Fillis's Principes de Dressage,
and Barroil's Art Eqiiestre, in which they will find them
lucidly and exhaustively described.

Extension of a fore leg. — Our object here is to make
the horse, when at the halt, extend either of his fore
legs, according as we wish, straight out to the front, and
hold it motionless, in a more or less horizontal position,
for a short time.

Having placed the horse on the track of the riding-
school with, say, his off side towards the wall, we may,
while standing on the ground and facing him, take hold
of the reins by the left hand under the chin, raise the

X

3o6 SCHOOL BREAKING.

animal's head up, and turn it towards the off side, so as
to relieve the near fore of weight, and begin to lightly
tap the front of the cannon bone (or fore-arm, as may
appear most efficacious) of the near fore, in order to
induce the horse to raise that leg and extend it to the
front. Having gained our object with one fore leg, we
should try to obtain it by reverse methods with the other,
so that the horse will extend either leg and keep it
stretched out to the front on being threatened with the
whip. As soon as he will readily accede to our demands
while standing close to the school wall, we should take
him to the middle of the school, in order to obtain like
results there. This will be a task of several days' duration,
and will demand a great deal of patience and tact. In it we
should "hasten slowly," and should be guided by the
principles which I have already laid down for equine
instruction. We may facilitate our work by having at
first an assistant to lift up and raise the operated-on leg
by means of a cord or strap attached to the pastern.
The use of this appliance should, of course, be gradually
discontinued, according as the horse learns to obey the
touch of the whip.

When the horse is perfect in the lesson which we have
been giving him on foot, we may mount him, and sub-
stitute by degrees the appropriate aids for the action of
the whip, with which we at first obtain the extension of
the off fore, for instance. We should collect the horse ;
raise his head, so as to place the muscles of the neck in
an advantageous direction for lifting up the limb ; turn
his head to the left and lean on the left stirrup to transfer

THE SPANISH WALK. 307

weight from the off fore to the near fore ; and apply
the left drawn-back heel, at first cautiously, so as not
to make him revolve round. I may point out that the
turning of the animal's head to the left is only a temporary
measure to hasten the extension of the off fore ; and that
in the perfect form of this air the head and neck will be
held straight, or slightly turned to the right, at which time
the pressure of the drawn-back left foot will be indis-
pensable for preserving the true balance of the animal's
body. The reversed aids are required for the extension
of the near fore.

The Spanish walk (see Fig. 121) is a walk in which each
fore leg is extended straight out to the front in a direction
as nearly as possible parallel to the ground, kept in that
position for a brief moment, and placed on the ground
without bending the knee, after the body has been brought
forward the requisite distance for the step.

Having made the horse perfect in the extension of a
fore leg to the front, we may commence instruction in
the Spanish walk on foot, by holding the reins in the
left hand, as before, close to the chin while facing the
horse. Having obtained extension of one fore leg in
the manner described, we should bring the animal for-
ward by the reins, assisted, if need be, by " clicking "
with the tongue, so that he will take a step forward.
While he is doing this we should, by the whip, prevent
him from bending the leg at the knee. After rewarding
him for his correct performance with one leg, we should
proceed to obtain a similar step with the other, and by

X 2

3o8 SCHOOL BREAKING.

diminishing the interval of time between the steps, we
shall at last arrive at the Spanish walk. While using
the whip we should face the horse and walk backwards,
and shall at each step turn his head to the side of the
leg which is at that moment on the ground. When
mounted we should apply the same aids as we did for the
extension of a fore leg, and having obtained it, should
make the animal go forward by the action of the legs,
and, if necessary, by " clicking," which we should dispense
with as soon as practicable. We must bear in mind that
at each step there should be a change of aids.

The Spanish trot. — The only difference between the
Spanish trot and the Spanish walk is that of pace. At
the Spanish trot there should, if possible, be a moment
of suspension (all four feet off the ground at the same
time) between each step, so as to give brilliance to the
air. The transition between the walk and the trot in
this case is made by increasing the effect of the drawn-
back left heel when the horse extends his off fore to the
front, and that of the right heel when he extends the
near fore. *' If, as almost always happens, the horse
moves one leg in a lazier fashion than the other, I work
only with it, which is the best way to act on the memory
of the horse, and to make him understand, by my touches of
the spur, that he moves this leg too indolently." (Fillis).
This great master of r equitation savante warns us to demand
from the horse, at first, only a few steps (not more than
four) of the Spanish trot, lest the animal may acquire the
habit of doing it in a listless and slovenly manner.

TURN ON FOREHAND ON THREE LEGS.

309

Turn on the forehand on three legs. — In this exercise
the horse turns his quarters from left to right while holding
his right fore leg raised off the ground and extended to
the front ; and vice versa. To begin, we make him turn
his hind-quarters, say, from left to right, with his near fore
as a centre, through about a quarter of a circle, using the

Fig, 121. — The Spanish walk.

aids as before directed (see page 229). We halt him by
applying the drawn-back right foot, make him extend his
off fore, and when he has brought it down, we make him^
continue the turn ; and so on until he will do the complete
turn with the off fore straight out and more or less parallel
to the ground. We obtain by the reversed aids the turn

3IO SCHOOL BREAKING.

of the hind-quarters from right to left with the near fore
en jambette (raised and extended).

The canter on three legs consists of a canter in which
the fore leg of the side to which the canter is made,
is kept off the ground and extended to the front. The
principle, as taught by M. Fillis, of obtaining this air, is
while cantering the horse very collectedly, say, to the right,
to halt him and make him do the jambette (more or less
horizontal extension of a fore leg) with his off fore. Start
him again on the same leg, and continue halting him and
obtaining the jambette^ until we get him to canter for a
stride or two without putting the off fore on the ground.
We should then caress him to show him that he did what
we asked him to do ; should begin again, and work with
him in the same way until he does the exercise perfectly.
By the reversed aids we may obtain the canter on three
legs with the near fore en jambette.

Changes of leg at the canter. — As circus airs, the
horse may be taught to change at each stride {att temps
or tac aiL tac) while advancing, and even without gaining
ground. The horse may then be vulgarly said to dance
the polka. In these movements, care has to be taken to
prevent him swinging his body from side to side.

Among other airs which I may mention are the trot to
the rear, passage to the rear, and canter to the rear.

A circus high-school act. — As a specimen of high-
school work , I give the following numero, which I saw

A HIGH-SCHOOL ACT. 311

M. James Fillis execute in Circus Renz on his famous
high-school horse Germinal.

1. Dei ex pistes arc trot (passage at the trot) ; trot allonge y
serpentine.

2. Galop (canter) ; deux pistes (at the passage), voltes
ordiftaires (circles on the hind-quarters) et renversees (on
the forehand) / galop sur trois jambes, a droite et a gauche.

3. Passage : piaffer ballote.

4. Galop : changements de pied a detix temps (change of
the leading leg at every second stride) en changeant de
main ; changements de pied a iLn temps ; alkcre moderee,
rale7itie sur place et au grand galop.

5. Galop a gauche, sur place et en arriere.

6. Galop a droite, stir place et en arriere sur trois jambes.

7. Trot espagnol ordi7iaire a tm temps.

8. Trot espag7iol notcveatc a deux temps stir chaque jambe.

9. Trot espagnol nouveau, alter natif a uit et deux temps.
The serpentine is a passage at the trot of four steps to

the left, four to the right, and so on ; or vice versd. In fact,
it is a successive counter-change of hand of four steps at a
time. In the piaffer ballote, a step forward and a step
backward is alternately taken with one fore leg and the
opposite hind leg. :

312

CHAPTER X.

BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

The race horse — The lady's horse — The cavalry horse — The polo
pony — The park hack — The fashionable harness horse — The
shooting pony — Mules and zebras.

For convenience sake, I have grouped the description of
the breaking of certain classes of horses in this chapter
without regard to similarity of method.

The race horse. — As race horses are generally *' tried "
as yearlings in November or December, their breaking
cannot usually be deferred beyond the age of eighteen
months. As their trial will probably not be beyond three
furlongs, and as it will be given merely to see if the
youngsters are worth persevering with and entering for
future events, the breaking need not be more than what
will be sufficient to make them handy to ride. In order to
imperil the soundness of their legs as little as possible by
having no weight on their backs, they should be broken
chiefly by means of the long reins, and by the whip, on
foot. Having been handled from the time they were
dropped, there will be but little difficulty in rendering them
quiet and obedient. Between their trial and the following

BREAKING THE RACE HORSE. 313

racing season, which commences at the latter end of March,
there will be plenty of time to teach the two-year-olds the
whole of the instruction contained in Chapters V. and VI.
I wish here to draw attention to what I have said on
page 245 respecting the desirability of having every animal
(except the school horse) taught to readily change, of his
own accord, the leading fore leg at the canter or gallop,
when a turn is made to the side opposite to it. As a case
in point, I may mention that the great difficulty experienced
by many race horses in coming round certain sharp turns
on particular racecourses, such as Tattenham Corner at
Epsom, or when galloping on a more or less circular track,
is generally due to the fact that these animals lead with the
wrong fore leg (gallop " falsely," see page 241) while making
the turn, instead of changing the leg when they come up
to it, or starting with the fore leg nearest to the inside of
the course, and continuing to lead with it. This tendency
makes some horses act well only on a right-handed track ;
others, only on a left-handed one. The muscular strain
entailed by having to gallop falsely militates against the
animal's chances of success far more than the momentary
diminution of speed which a change of leg would cause.
Besides, when galloping falsely, it is impossible for the
horse to make the turn sharply. I may mention that,
in order to change the leading leg at the gallop or fast
canter, it is necessary for the horse to slacken his speed
for a stride or two. The habit of a horse galloping or
cantering always with the same fore leg leading is extremely
liable to cause that leg to become prematurely worn
out ; because nearly twice as much work will, on that

314 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

account, be imposed on that limb as on its fellow.
On a comparatively straight course, or on a course the
turns of which lend themselves to the purpose, and especi-
ally over a long distance, it would be manifestly an
advantage for a race horse to do half of the journey with
one fore leg leading, and the other half with the other
fore leg leading, provided that he could gallop equally well
in both cases. The fact that very few race horses can do
this, proves the necessity for such instruction. I need
hardly say that, when a horse is about twice as tired on one
fore leg as he is on the other, he ought to be able to gallop
far better if he could ease the tired limb at the expense of
the fresh one. Horses which habitually lead with one par-
ticular fore leg at the gallop or canter, generally lose the
ability of extending* themselves properly when they happen
to change the lead to the other fore leg. The cause of this
incompetence is, I think, due to the fact that, in the canter
or gallop, the centre of gravity of the animal's body is
more or less shifted to one side — namely, to that of the
leading fore leg. Hence, the horse which has been accus-
tomed to travel with more weight on, say, the right side,
when the off fore is leading, will naturally try to bear his
weight on the right side when the near fore is leading,
and will consequently go in an ill-balanced manner.
Besides, when such horses happen to change to the un-
accustomed fore leg, they sometimes omit to change the
leading hind leg, and consequently go disunited. I do not
think I need say more on the advisability, when breaking
in race horses, of teaching them to gallop equally well on
either fore leg, and to change the leading leg when

THE JLADV'S HORSE. 3 1 5

necessary. If such an improvement in the breaking of
race horses was instituted, it would be also requisite to
give special tuition to the jockeys who were to ride them.
As the subject of riding, except as regards its connection
with breaking, is not within the province of this book,
I shall reserve this question for the next edition of Riding
071 the Flat and Across Country.

Ability to rein-back, and even to passage, will in many
cases be valuable at the start of a race. Considering that five
or six short and easy lessons would be generally sufficient
to teach these accomplishments, as far as they are needed
for the purpose in view ; ignorance can alone be the cause of
neglect to impart them. The remarks made in Chapter VI.
on collecting the horse apply equally well here.

The lady's horse. — Any horse which has been broken
in according to the principles I have laid down, will carry a
lady quietly ; although some animals will need circling with
the long reins, turning to the right on the forehand, and
work at the figure of 8, to teach them not to '•' edge away "
from the skirt to the right with the hind-quarters. The
following points will also need attention : — (i) As the
lady, from the peculiarities of her seat, is unable to keep her
hands sufficiently low, her horse should on no account carry
his head too high. (2) As a lady has not the advantage
of a leg on each side of her mount, her horse should "bend "
himself readily to the rein, and go collectedly without
requiring to be " pulled together." (3) He must be taught
to answer the touch of the whip behind the girth on the
off side in the same manner as he would do on feeling the

3i6 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

pressure of a man's right foot. (4) He should be made
as easy to turn to the right as to the left, which is the
lady's weak side. (5) He must not have the slightest
tendency to rear ; as that is a " defence" which is peculiarly
dangerous to a lady, and which she is comparatively
powerless to resist. (6) He must not pull hard ; for
an amount of " catching hold " of the bridle which
might be prized by many a feeble-kneed man, would be
reprehensible in the horse intended for the weaker-armed,
but stronger-seated lady. The desired carriage of the head
and neck may be obtained by the long reins, standing
martingale, reining back, circling, and figure of 8.

The lady's park hack may have to be taught to strike
off in the canter always with the off fore leading. It is
certainly an advantage for a lady's horse, whether hunter
or hack, to readily obey the signal to go off into the canter
with either fore leg leading, or to ''change" the leading leg
when required.

The tendency which all horses have at the canter and
gallop to carry their hind-quarters outside the track of
their respective fore legs, is as a rule increased in the lady's
horse by the fact that he leads far more often with the
off fore than with the near fore, and that the lady's legs and
skirt are on the near side. To correct this fault, he should
be practised at passaging (see page 295) to the left, and
at turning on his forehand (see page 229) to the right.

If it be desired to put a lady on a horse which has never
before carried a side-saddle, but which has been broken in
for a man in the ordinary rough-and-ready style, it is well
to accustom the animal to the habit by putting a side-

THE CAVALRY HORSE. 317

saddle on him, attaching a skirt or rug to it, and circling,
turning, and reining him back with the long reins until he
ceases to pay attention to the loose cloth on his left side.
We should also make him, by means of the rope twitch
(see page 129), stand perfectly steady while an assistant
wearing a skirt is mounted like a lady on the saddle.
I have never found that it required more than half-an-
hour's tuition to make a horse which was quiet for a man
to ride, equally quiet for a lady. It is well to know that a
horse which is mounted for the first time by a lady, is apt
to be frightened chiefly by the right leg and the portion of
the skirt that covers it, being brought over his shoulder
and lower part of his neck.

I may point out that for a secure seat, a lady requires
to ride with the stirrup leather so short (see The Horse-
woman) that she cannot use a spur with ease and precision.
Hence, if she wishes to practise high school riding (see
Chapter IX.), she will have to ride with as long a stirrup
leather as a man. The whip, which may have a spur
attachment on it, performs on the off side the duty of a
spur.

The cavalry horse. — As the work of the trooper has
often to be carried out under rough conditions which
demand the cleverness of the hunter more than the pre-
cision of the school horse, I would advise that, althouo-h
his education should comprise the course laid down in
Chapter IX., v/ith the exception of the " Additional School
Movements " (see page 305), he should also be taught to
turn on his centre by the pull of the rein without the

3i8 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

pressure of the leg, and to make the necessary changes at
the canter, of his own accord, without the signal from the
rider's heel (see page 248). Thanks to the admirable
memory of the horse, it is easy to teach him both systems.
He should also be taught to jump well, and for that reason
should be thoroughly broken to the snaffle before using the
curb. As the cavalry soldier in action will have his right
hand occupied with his sword or lance ; perfection in one-
handed riding should, above all things, be demanded from
his horse, which, being obliged at times to cross a "difficult"
country, will be all the better for knowing the direct in-
dications of the two-handed system of riding, as well as the
reversed ones of the one-handed style. In this there need
be no chance of confusing the horse, which is fully capable
of correctly answering direct and reversed indications, as we
may any day see in the case of young horses ridden in a
halter without a bit and with a single rope as a substitute
for the reins. In teaching a horse to obey the indications
of the reins held in one hand, we may begin by taking a
rein in each hand, and then proceed, while making the turns
and circles, to gradually diminish the lateral effect of the
inward rein on the mouth, and increase the effect of the
outward rein on the neck, until the latter can be used to
the almost entire exclusion of the former. I may point out
that we should endeavour to finally obtain the turn by
merely laying the outward rein on the neck ; for the more
we pull on it, the more will we draw the muzzle away from
the side to which the horse is being turned ; and, conse-
quently, the indication on his mouth will be contrary to
that on his neck.

THE POLO PONY, 319

Men who think, when riding with the reins in one hand,
and separated, according to the Cavalry Regulations, by
the Httle finger, that they can turn the horse merely by
shortening the inward rein, should try to do so when sitting
on the box-seat of a one-horse carriage, and holding the
reins in one hand. They will then find that, as the reins
are prevented by the terret-rings from being brought
against the neck, they will be unable to effect the turn in
the manner asserted. In turning the horse with the reins
in one hand, the hand has to be held higher than when both
hands are used ; for the effect of the outward rein on the
neck in turning increases according to the distance, from
the withers, of its point of contact. As the troop horse
may have to go over a country, he should go up to his
bridle more freely than the school horse. A state of
collection should be maintained with cavalry horses only
during the time it is necessary for the execution of some
particular manoeuvre and to keep their place in the ranks.

The polo pony, like the cavalry horse, should be ridden
always with one hand, except during his first lessons. He
may be put through the same course of instruction as the
trooper (see preceding section), except that he need not
be taught to jump, and his paces should be confined to the
walk, canter, and gallop. He should be practised at starting
off into full gallop and halting as quickly as possible. He
should be taught to carry his head high, and to avoid going
up to his bridle, so that he can be halted and turned in a
moment, when required. He ought to have a good deal of
work with the long reins and at passaging, so as to prevent

;20 BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

him from acquiring the habit of shying off the ball by
yielding his head and neck to the rein without altering the
direction of his body. He should, of course, be taught to
disregard the polo stick being flourished about him, which
we can do by using the rope twitch and the word " steady "
(see page 129), or the head and tail method (see page 169).
I may mention that the subject of breaking in and training
polo ponies is fully discussed in Mr. E. D. Miller's recent
work, Modern Polo, which I have edited.

The park hack. — A course of school training will greatly
add to the brilliancy of this animal, in whom we require
particularly springy and showy action without any of the
exaggerated knee action of the hackney. The body of the
park hack should be accurately placed in the line of pro-
gression, out of which he should not deviate during move-
ment. The showy walk (which should approach the French
passage) and the well-collected and brilliant canter are more
his paces than the trot.

The fashionable harness horse. — The " extravagantly "
high trot is the special pace of this animal. Although it
should be as lofty as possible, it must be free from " dish-
ing " (turning either or both of the fore feet outwards when
off the ground), or from any rocking movement of the body,
and the legs must have a certain amount of forward reach,
so as not to give the idea of the feet being lifted up and
placed down on the same spot. In this artificial gait the
action of the hind legs will have to be sacrificed to some
extent to that of the fore ones. His school work may be

MULES AND ZEBRAS, 321

limited to the walk and trot, at which we should collect
him sharply, and at the same time press him forward
with the legs, while holding the hands high. While riding
this horse at a trot the rider should not rise in his stirrups ;
for if he does so, he cannot fail to more or less disturb the
balance of the animal's body. The use of heavy shoes
will increase the knee action. In driving him, the principle
of collecting him with whip and hand and keeping up his
head should be observed.

The shooting pony. — Having thoroughly broken the
shooting pony according to the principles already discussed,
we may make him steady to the gun by the rope-twitch
and the word "steady" (see page 129). A turn at the
head and tail method (see page 169) might be used as a
preliminary to the education by the rope-twitch. It may
be well to teach the animal to lie down (see page 161).

Mules and Zebras.— These animals are so stiff in the
neck that there is great difficulty in giving them a good
mouth. Mules, as a rule, are timid animals which take
time to make up their minds to do anything unusual, and
are consequently apt to be misunderstood by men who
treat them as if they were high-couraged and impulsive
horses. Mules, I have found, possess more affection than
horses for those who are kind and sympathetic to them.
Many of them are fine natural jumpers, and show particular
care to avoid " chancing " their fences. I don't think that
mules are harder to make quiet than horses. Of all asses,
the mountain zebra (see Fig, 122) is the most difficult to

Y

322

BREAKING FOR SPECIAL WORK.

break ; as he is sulky, stupid, and has an almost immovable
neck. I have found the Burchell's zebra, which is more
nearly akin to the horse than any other ass, comparatively
easy to break.

Fi^. 122. — The mountain zebra.

323

CHAPTER XI.

FAULTS OF MOUTH.

Boring — Pulling and running away — Throwing up the head and star-
gazing— Jibbing — Rearing — Shying — Running out to one side and
difficult to turn — " Keeping behind the bit," prancing, and "break-
ing " when wanted to walk or trot — Teaching pacers (amblers) to trot
— Carrying the hind-quarters, in the canter or gallop, outside the
line of progression, and refusing to lead except with one particular
fore leg — " Putting too much weight on the forehand " when
mounted — Plunging forward when starting in harness— Pulling
away from and hanging against the pole when in double harness.

The classification of vices and faults adopted in this
and the following chapter is necessarily somewhat arbi-
trary, as their causes are more often complex than simple.
The arrangement adopted in both of these chapters has
been made solely for the sake of convenience. The fact
that all equine vices do not possess generally accepted
names has obliged me, in some cases, to sacrifice elegance
of expression to clearness of meaning.

Boring. — When the horse has got into the habit of
carrying his head too low, we may get it into the correct
position by circling and turning him with the long reins
on foot (see page 183), while keeping the outward refn
on the driving pad, or while using a bearing-rein (see

Y 2

324 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

page 185). We may then mount him, and by the action of
the legs and hands make him go collectedly (see page 238),
so that he will be obliged to hold his head at a proper
height. To aid him in this, we should keep our hands
higher than usual. Practice at the rein-back (seepage 232),
and at the turn on the haunches (see page 293), will probably
be of use. When the animal bores on one rein more than
the other, we may adopt the same procedure, except that
we should devote our attention chiefly to getting him to
turn to the side on which his mouth is " hard," until he will
do so as easily to it as to the other.

Pulling and running away. — I can draw no line of
distinction between these two vices, except one of degree ;
for animals which would be uncontrollable runaways with
some men, would be only hard, or even moderate, pullers
with other men. Besides, circumstances alter cases : for
instance, I have ridden horses which it would be impossible
for me to pull up in a race, chase, or sharp burst with
the hounds ; but which I could easily control when hacking,
even in company, or on parade. I shall, therefore, for con-
venience sake, consider running away as an extreme form
of pulling. Before beginning a discussion on this subject,
I must candidly state my disbelief in any system of pure
breaking by which a violent, masterful puller can be made
permanently quiet for an indifferent rider to keep in control
at fast paces under exciting circumstances. It is worthy
of note that a fine horseman not alone holds an unruly
animal in check ; but also teaches him habits of discipline
by the application of the " aids."

PULLING. 325

A large number of hunters and other saddle horses
unjustly acquire the reputation of being pullers ; because,
when under excitement, they like to start off in a gallop ;
but if they were " given their head " for, say, two or three
hundred yards, they would bend to the rein and settle down
under perfect control. The fact of checking them at first
upsets their temper and makes them fight If allowed to
''jump into their bridle " and go off gaily at first, they seem
to be so well satisfied at having gained their point, that
they do not resent being asked to go slower afterwards.
The same remarks apply to many harness horses. Patient
and capable riding and driving, as the case may be, are the
best remedies for such pseudo-pullers.

Horses which are hard pullers may be divided into two
classes, namely, those whose defence is to put weight on
the fore-hand, and those who try to assert their will
by placing it on the hind-quarters. The large majority
of runaways practise their pet vice from a spirit of pure
opposition to the wishes of their would-be master. Any
nervousness which they may exhibit is, in almost all cases,
only a cloak for their sin. Eagerness to return to the
stable, or excitability when approaching ground on which
the animal has been previously exercised, may be mistaken
by inexperienced persons for a desire to run away. The
least dangerous form of pulling is that which is caused
by the horse leaning unduly on his bit, to the action of
which he is abnormally insensitive. I have known a
horse which used to run away (if I may employ the
expression) at a walk. Harness-work, by inducing the
animal to increase the weight on his forehand, often gives

326 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

rise to the passive (if I may employ the word) form
of pulling in saddle. As long as this boring on the
rider's hands is unaccompanied by a feeling of disobe-
dience, the fault can be easily cured by teaching the horse
to understand the meaning of the " aids " (see Chapters
v., VI. and IX.). The form of pulling which is most
difficult to remedy is that in which the defence is made
by lightening the forehand. As a common example, I
may cite horses which, in their attempts to get away,
carry their heads as high as they can, prance and dance
about if the rider tries to make them walk, especially
when their heads are turned towards home, and rear on
slight provocation.

In all those forms of pulling in which '' temper " plays
a part, the animal should, above all things, be taught that
he must obey. Although instruction in the aids will have
a general good effect on the animal's mind in rendering
him docile, as well as attentive to our signals, our efforts
in gaining the mastery will be greatly facilitated by taking
the " nonsense " out of the rebel by, for instance, making
him lie down and keeping him on the ground (see page 165),
or by putting him through the head and tail system (see
page 169). We may repeat this discipline as often as may
be needed, and may employ it conjointly with instruction
in the '' aids." We should also utilise the good effect of
work. It is a significant fact that pullers which are put
to long-continued work, such as being kept out hunting
for, say, five or six hours, or for a still longer period in a
hansom cab or " growler," generally give up after a short
time their desire to run away, the futility of which is no

PULLING. 327

doubt impressed on their minds by the thought of the
weary hours which are before them. The good effect of
hunting in curing pulHng may be often seen by the fact that
although the animal was in the early part of the day greatly
excited by the hounds and field ; he gets so much sobered
down in the afternoon, that when his head is turned home-
ward, he walks or trots along in more lively fashion than he
had previously adopted a few minutes before, when going
from one cover to another. To produce a salutary effect
on a puller by hunting, we should take him out as often as
possible (at least, three times a week), and should keep him
out as long as we can without unduly fatiguing him.

A puller which puts too much weight on the forehand
should be taught to go in a collected manner (see page 238) ;
for when collected he will be unable to resist the control
of hand and leg. We should circle, turn and rein him
back by means of the long reins (see page 183) ; and
having got him obedient and "supple" to them, we may
put him through a large portion of the school work
described in Chapter IX., especially that which has refer-
ence to collection. Cantering the horse in circles of
gradually decreasing size will have a good effect in
breaking him of pulling, by teaching him to go collectedly.

A horse whose defence in pulling is to lighten the fore-
hand will carry his head high in the air. After taking
the " nonsense " out of him in the manner already
described, we should endeavour to correct the defective
carriage of the head by circling the animal with the long
reins while using a standing martingale on the rings of
the snaffle, and while keeping the outward rein round the

328 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

hind-quarters. Frequently turning him, especially at the
canter, will have a good effect in making him lower his
head and bend his neck. When circling such a horse with
the long reins, we should confine ourselves almost entirely
to the use of the inward rein, so as to place as much weight
as possible on the forehand. The size of the circle should
be gradually diminished. Such horses should not be
practised in the rein-back. A course of harness-work, so
as to accustom the animal to put an increased amount of
weight on his forehand, might be useful with a horse of
this kind.

The question of what is the best bit for holding a puller,
is a difficult one to answer. Personally, I am entirely in
favour of an unjointed leather-covered snaffle (seepage 184)
used with a standing martingale attached to its rings. In
a few instances, I find a curb (with a low port) useful ; but
only when it is placed low down in the mouth (just clear
of the tushes), so that the curb chain will have no tendency
to work up out of the chin-groove. I am no believer in
the saying, with reference to various kinds of bits, that
there is a key to every horse's mouth. Experience tells
me that the great cause of pulling lies in the brain, upon
which, rather than on the jaw, an impression has to be made
in order to correct the vice. Besides, we must remember
that in hunting and other forms of 'cross-country riding, it
is not enough to be able to control a horse's speed ; but we
must also use a bit which he will '' face."

Throwing up the head and star-gazing are difficult
habits to correct. By working the horse in the manner

STAR-GAZING. 329

described in the preceding paragraph, and by riding him
in a properly adjusted standing martingale (see page 96),
I have always succeeded in making the most inveterate
practiser of these tricks bend his neck to the rein as long
as I used this martingale, against which the animal invari-
ably ceased to bear after a time. But in some instances,
even after having been for months under the influence of
the standing martingale, I found that if I removed this
appliance, the animal, on quickly becoming aware of its
absence, would resume his old game of throwing up his
head on slight provocation. The object, as I have already
explained, of the standing martingale is to teach the horse
to abstain from carrying his head too high, by learning
that if he does so, he will save the bars of his mouth from
the painful pressure of the bit.

Mr. Kemp, A.V.D., tells me that horses may be
broken of this objectionable habit by using a noseband,
inside the front part of which three or four cowrie shells
(small marbles would have the same effect) are sewn ;
the noseband being kept in position by a standing mar-
tingale, which should be of such a length as to keep
the line of the face at an angle of about 45^ to the
ground. This plan is on the same principle as that of the
standing martingale attached to the rings of the snaffle ; for
in both, the object is to make the horse relinquish his
favourite trick on finding out that its practice inflicts on
him pain, from which he can save himself by bending his
neck to the rein.

The term " star-gazing " may be applied to the habit of
continually keeping, or trying to keep, the head raised to

330 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

an undue height. That of *' chucking up the head " seems
appropriate to the habit of throwing up the head only when
excited, or at intervals. Both require similar methods of
treatment.

Jibbing. — Although jibbing is far oftener a fault of
temper than of mouth, I prefer to discuss it in this chapter
than in the following one ; because it can, as a rule, be
best corrected by lessons in mouthing.

A jibber is a horse which, without just cause, refuses to
proceed in any required direction, although he may be
willing to go in some other direction. As a rule, a jibber
will turn to one side, but not to the other. Acting on the
fact that the horse is an animal possessed of but little
intelligence, we shall generally succeed in overcoming the
defence of the jibber in saddle, if we force him to circle
several times to the right and to the left with the long
reins on foot (see page 183), or in the turn on the forehand,
both on foot (see page 208) and when mounted (see page 229).
Failing to fix his hind-quarters, which we can easily move
round his forehand by means of the whip or cane, if not
by the leg ; he will usually go off in the desired direction.
The rebel should be turned to one side and then to the
other, and reined back pretty sharply, so as to convince
him that we are able to make him move even against his
will. Were he able to reason, he would not accept the
fact, which he appears to do, of our being able to make
him circle and turn to the right and to the left as a proof
that we are able (which we are not) to make him go
forward. After the discipline on foot with the long reins

JIBBING. 331

or whip, or with both, it is ahvays well, on mounting the
animal, to use the whip or stick on his hind-quarters to
obtain the turn on the forehand if needed. The applica-
tion of the whip with this object should be restricted to
light flicks (a little above the hock for preference), just
sufficient to act as a signal to the horse to move his hind
legs away from the whip or cane, which, in such cases,
should on no account be used as a punishment. For the
present purpose, I would disregard the spur in favour of the
whip ; for the former cannot be applied so far back as the
latter, and is much more liable to irritate the horse to
resistance. Instead of at once proceeding to ride the horse
after giving him a lesson with the long reins, we may put
an assistant in the saddle merely to accustom the horse (as
a further mark of our success) to the weight ; and continue
to drive the animal until he will move freely in any direction.
The mounted assistant may then take, the reins, and may
circle and turn the horse several times before taking him
for a regular ride. If the rider be capable, the horse will
seldom, if ever, perceive the change made in the manage-
ment of the reins. If he were intelligent enough to do so,
he would, knowing that he had his rider at his mercy,
refuse to accord him the obedience which he had been
compelled to yield to the driver on foot.

If the horse resolutely sulks, the breaker, to expedite
matters, may take the " nonsense " out of him by making
him lie down (see page 161), or by keeping him on the
ground with his head pulled round (see page 165), until he
apparently gives in. He may then get another trial at
circling and turning. If he still resists, he should be put

332 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

down again ; and so on for three, or even four, times.
The change of discipHne, from circhng and turning, to the
distressing one of being made to lie down, and of being
kept in a very irksome position on the ground, is most
efficacious for the jibber, who seems to quickly recognise
the fact that the restraint on the ground is a punishment
for his misbehaviour. Having failed, after putting forth
all his powers of opposition, to resist this painful form of
coercion, he will have but little energy left to stiffen his
neck against a demand which is attended by no incon-
venience, except that of "giving in." As soon as I find,
on taking the jibber first in hand, that he refuses to turn
round to one particular side when the rein is on my driving
pad (see Fig. 92), I try to pull him over on his side, which
will generally be an easy task, and I then tie his head to
his tail by means of a rope or cord connecting his tail to
the head-stall, which I have previously put on over the
bridle. When I have not been able to procure a head-stall,
as has often happened to me in foreign countries, I have
improvised a halter out of a piece of rope (see page 109),
put it on the horse's head while he was lying down, made a
knot (see Fig. 20) in the part of the rope which passes
under the chin, so as to prevent the rope acting as a
running noose round the jaws, and attached the end of the
rope to the tail at such a length as to pull the horse's head
round to his shoulder. I would then keep him in this un-
pleasant position (see Fig. j'^) until I thought he had given
in sufficiently, say, for twenty minutes, during which period
he would generally, from time to time, struggle desperately
to get up. His repeated failures to do so would naturally

JIBBING. 333

impress him with the idea of his powerlessness to resist
my wishes. I need hardly say that one should be very
careful not to carry this painful form of discipline to a
point which might be dangerous to the animal. I believe
I have been the first to employ the method of making
a horse lie down, in combination with driving on foot, as
a remedy for jibbing. By adopting the means I have
described, the breaker, if he be patient and expert, ought
to succeed in making any jibber obedient in saddle after a
lesson of a couple of hours' duration. Each succeeding
lesson would be of decreasing difficulty, until the habit of
obedience is established in a short time. I may again
point out that all such desired effects can be produced
much easier in a secluded enclosure than in the open.

It is not uncommon to meet with, especially in the
mounted branches of the Army, horses which will go
anywhere in company, but which will refuse to quit their
companions, or to act as single riding horses. This pecu-
liarity, the habit of trying to press the rider's leg up
against a wall, tree, or other convenient object, and all
other forms of jibbing, may be treated in the manner
just described.

Jibbing in harness is a far more difficult fault to over-
come than jibbing in saddle ; for the presence of the cart
greatly favours the " defence " of the horse. Before trying
to eradicate the vice, we should satisfy ourselves that it
is not caused by any ailment, such as sore shoulders,
which should be cured before we proceed further. As
our first object, when contesting the question of supremacy
with the horse, is to gain the best kind of victory we can

334 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

over our opponent, even if it has no direct bearing on the
point at issue ; we should put the horse (of course, without
the cart) through exactly the same course of discipline
as I have recommended for the jibber in saddle. We
may then harness him to a light, empty, two-wheeled
trap — inside a manege or other suitable enclosure, if pos-
sible— and working him on the track on which we had
previously handled him, try to circle him with the long
reins (see page 183), open snaffle bridle, and standing mar-
tingale, to the side to which he more readily bends.
Having accomplished this, we should endeavour to get
him, by taking a wide sweep, to turn to the other rein,
and, if we are successful, should circle him freely on it,
turning him and changing the direction of the circle so as
to produce the best result. If he remains obstinate, we
should take him out of the cart, and put him through the
previous discipline, as we may deem advisable. As soon
as we think he has given in, we may put him again
between the shafts, and give him another trial. In
attempting to start or turn the animal, we should on no
account use the whip, except to raise it as a signal for
the horse to go on, or possibly to crack it. Having
accustomed him, while using the long reins, to receive
the click of the tongue or the sight of the raised whip as
a signal to start, he will almost always obey it at this
period of the lesson. While the horse is on the circle, a
light feeling of the inward rein will also be an indication
for him to move on. When the horse circles and turns,
with the cart behind him, in perfect obedience to our
signals, we may gradually load it with any suitable objects,

REARING. 335

so as to accustom the horse to weight on his back. When
he takes all this in good part, we may, while keeping
him at a walk, get an assistant to quietly mount into the
trap, and give him the reins, as soon as the animal shows
that he does not mind the presence of a person behind him.
The horse may now be taken into the open, and circled
and turned by the driver a few times before being taken
on the road.

We should be careful not to employ any words or other
signals that might remind the animal of previous acts of
disobedience which, presumably, had been successful in
their object. When breaking a jibber, I like to use an
open bridle ; because I find that horses go '^ kinder " with-
out blinkers than with them. If it be imperative that
our pupil should be driven in an ordinary harness bridle,
we may accustom him to it after we have got him to go
steadily in an open one.

If a jibber appears afraid of the whip, it is well, in the
first instance, to prove to him, by giving him a turn at
the head and tail method (see page 169), that we are
not going to hurt him, when we crack it or flourish it
about in his vicinity.

The jibber in double harness may be cured of his vice in
the manner already described. If a pair jib, they should
be broken of their vice separately, before being tried
together.

Rearing is of two kinds : one, the less common, the
manifestation of impatience to go on by a horse which
is too •' light in front " ; the other, a form of jibbing.

336 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

Horses whose vice comes under the first heading are
naturally " free goers," and are willing to proceed in any
direction, though they resent being kept in the same spot.
As a rule, they exhibit this " defence " only under occasions
of excitement. They are extremely liable to be con-
verted into jibbers by bad management. Rearing jibbers,
as I may call those horses which practise the second
form of rearing, are often light-mouthed horses ; though
I have met many hard pullers among the number. When
a horse which is " heavy in hand " rears, we may conclude
that he commenced his tricks as a jibber, and finding,
probably by accident, that an attempt at rearing discom-
fited his would-be master, he cultivated the art of standing
on his hind legs from that time. I might mention a third
form of rearer who deliberately tries to crush his rider by
throwing himself backwards on him. He appears to be
vindictive as well as rebellious. There are, I think, ex-
tremely few rearers of this kind ; as in all my experience
of bad equine characters in various parts of the world, I
can remember only one rearer of this kind. I am inclined
to think that such animals are very seldom met with, and
that the majority of horses which have the reputation of
throwing themselves back on their riders would do so
only under provocation from the man or woman on their
back.

In breaking a rearer, if we find that his fault arises from
his being " behind the bridle," and probably from being at
the same time too impetuous, we may try to put him straight
by teaching him the turn on the forehand, both on foot
(see page 208) and mounted (see page 229), and by turning

REARING, 337

with the long reins. It is often beneficial, supposing, of
course that the ground is soft, to provoke the rearer to rear
when reining him back with the long reins, the outward
one being on the driving pad (see Fig. 91), and then try
to pull him over in order to practically demonstrate to him
the unpleasantness of such a reversal, so that he may
abstain for the future from placing himself in any such
position. As a further means of obtaining good behaviour,
I would take, with all rearers, this opportunity of having
them on the ground, to tie them head and tail and keep
them down, as I have described on page 332, until any
remaining " nonsense " which might have been lurking in
their minds had been removed. Since I adopted the
method, which I copied from the French ecuyers, of
teaching rearers the turn on the forehand {pirouette
renversee) with the whip, I have had as a rule very little
difficulty in making even the worst rearers stop their pranks
and go in any direction in which I wished to ride them,
after giving them a lesson of this kind for, say, a quarter
of an hour. After succeeding perfectly in this manner,
it would not be safe to trust such a horse to the guidance
of a rider who did not know how to manage him before
giving the pupil several (say, a dozen) similar lessons in
order to confirm the habit of obedience. To insure this
object, I would advise that a further effect should be made
on the mind of the animal by making him lie down (see
page 161), and, if necessary, by keeping him on the ground
with his head pulled round (see page 165). Although I
advise reining-back with the long reins on foot as a means
of reforming the rearer, I do not think that, in such cases,

Z

338 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

it should be practised when mounted ; for when the man
is in the saddle, he is too much at the mercy of the horse
to be justified in provoking the animal (as reining back
often does) to rear. All our trouble, tact, and judgment
will be of no use, unless the person who rides the
temporarily reformed character refrains from using the
" aids " in a manner which would be liable to prompt him
to recommence his old tricks. Among the best means for
attaining that undesirable object are : striking the horse on
the shoulder with the whip and holding the hands high.

The vices of rearing, jibbing, and bolting are sometimes
combined in the same animal.

Shying may be caused by " light-heartedness," desire on
the part of the horse to show off his power over his rider
or driver, fear, defective sight, or the natural timidity which
almost all young horses display towards unaccustomed
objects. As the commission of this offence is, as a rule,
rendered possible only by the fact of the animal not being
obedient to the '' aids," instruction in them will prove the
best general treatment. Leaving out those cases which
are due to defective sight, I would advise that the shyer
should have a few sharp lessons in circling, turning, and
reining back with the long reins, by which means his
" nonsense " and nervousness will not alone be taken out
of him ; but he will also be made amenable to the reins.
Besides this, we may teach him the turn on the fore-hand
on foot (see page 208), and when mounted (see page 229).
If the horse is very nervous or very unruly, we may give
him a course of head and tail work (see page 169). Unless

DIFFICULT TO TURN. 339

the shying is combined with jibbing or determined rearing,
the severe discipline of making a horse lie down and
keeping him on the ground (see page 165) will not be
required. For shying off the ball at polo, off the peg at
tent-pegging, and other forms of this vice, see following
paragraph.

Running out to one side, and difficult to turn. — Here,
as in shying (see preceding paragraph), our great means of
reformation will be work with the long reins, and practice
at the turn on the forehand. After having given our pupil
one or more effective lessons in the manage or on the
breaking ground, we may test his steadiness as follows.
Supposing that he runs out to the left when coming up to a
fence or on some particular part of a race-course, we should,
when mounted, take a rein in each hand and hold the
cutting-whip or ash plant in the right hand (see Fig. 106),
ready, the moment he attempts running out to the left, to
pull his head round to the right, and to bring at the same
moment his hind-quarters round to the left by the applica-
tion of the whip or stick, so as to place him again in the
direction from which he tried to deviate. As the turn can
be made far easier on the forehand than on the hind-
quarters (see page 293), it follows that the whip, or its
substitute, should be applied to the latter in preference to
the former. This is a point of breaking which is well worthy
of attention, especially as it is opposed to the practice
of the large majority of riding men. We must remember
that, when a horse makes good an attempt to bolt away
from the direction in which we wish to retain him, he

Z 2

340 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

does so on account of our inability to turn his hind-
quarters to that side. Therefore, with a horse which
refuses to the left on coming up to a fence, I hold the whip
(as well as the rein) in my right hand, and apply it to his
hind-quarter ; instead of, as is the usual custom, applying
the whip (whichever hand it may be held in) to the near
side of the horse's head, neck, or shoulder. I need hardly
say that with a horse which refuses to the right, the
reversed aids would be required. I have found this
method to be as successful in practice as it is sound
in theory. After having made the horse obedient to the
application of the whip, we should gradually substitute
that of the drawn-back heel ; so that, finally, we may be
able to keep him straight by the rein and leg alone. The
practice adopted by some hunting men and hunting ladies
of striking their horses down the right shoulder for refusing
(almost always to the left) and other faults, appears to be
admirably calculated to make them run out to the left on
slight provocation.

To break a horse of " whipping round " (turning sharply
round) at some sudden or pretended cause of alarm, we
should make him, according to methods already described,
obedient to the leg. Thus, suppose the animal on seeing
some (to him) terrifying object to, say, his right front, tries
to " whip round " to the left, we should pull his head to
the right, and try to bring his hind-quarters round to the
left by the pressure of the drawn-back right leg.

Keeping " behind the bit/' prancing^ and " breaking "
when wanted to walk or trot. — There are two kinds of

KEEPING BEHIND THE BRIDLE. 341

horses that will not " go up to their bridle " : the one, which
refrain from doing so on account of laziness ; the other,
on account of temper, or eagerness to go forward. The
former may be improved by the stimulus, judiciously
applied, of whip or spur, and of " company " ; the latter,
by teaching them to put an increased amount of weight
on their forehand, and by showing them that they must
obey. In an impetuous horse, we may correct the failing
by practising him in turning on the forehand, and by
the use of the standing martingale when working him
with the long reins, and also when riding him.. When
driving him with the long reins on foot, we should gradu-
ally decrease the size of the circle, and should bear almost
entirely on the inner rein, so as to make him put an
increased amount of weight on the forehand. I have
found that, as a rule, it is not advisable to give such
horses work at the rein-back. Keeping behind the bridle,
when practised by an impetuous horse, is almost always a
" defence " against the authority of the rider or driver, and
is then an extremely difficult vice to cure. The animal
affected with it will be liable to rear, " star-gaze," prance
about, and " break " when wanted to walk or trot. We
should use the various remedial means described in the
preceding lines of this paragraph, and when riding the
horse should avoid applying the legs to his sides ; for
doing so would have the effect of lightening his forehand.
I would strongly advise that the " nonsense " should be
taken out of him by one or more fairly severe lessons
in the head and tail system (see page 169), or, better
still, by making him lie down and holding him on the

342 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

ground with his head pulled round (see remarks on pulling,
page 326).

Horses which do not go up to their bridle sufficiently
when jumping are apt to injure their hind legs by putting
too much weight on them. Long rein work over fences
(see page 259) with a fairly short martingale, and riding
over obstacles with a large smooth snaffle and plenty of
" rein," will soon break the animal of this vice.

Teaching pacers (amblers) to trot. — We may modify
the gait in the desired direction by circling the pacer with
the long reins on foot in a ring sufficiently small to compel
him to trot instead of to amble. I may explain that as
the amble is a lateral gait (near fore and near hind, and
off fore and off hind), the horse which adopts it on a
circle will have to step shorter with the inside pair of legs
than with the outside, and will consequently be incon-
venienced by this mode of travelling, proportionately to
the smallness of the circle. As the steps of the trot, on the
contrary, are composed of one inside and one outside leg
(near fore and off hind, and off fore and near hind), the
size of the circle will not affect the regularity of this
diagonal gait. Having obtained a well-balanced trot to
both reins (right, as well as left) in a small circle, we may
gradually increase it, until it is from 15 yards to 20 yards
in diameter. We may then put the animal into a light
two-wheeled cart, and circle him on foot with the long
reins, until he trots as steadily with the cart behind him as
he did without it. We may now get into the cart, and trot
him on the circle to the right as well as to the left. We

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT. 343

may gradually enlarge the circle, do figures of eight, and
end by working the horse on a straight line.

Carrying the hind-quarters, in the canter or gallop,
outside the line of progression, and refusing to lead
except with one particular fore leg. — On page 249, I
have discussed appropriate means for correcting the
tendency which some horses have of keeping the body in a
position more or less oblique to the direction in which they
are going, when cantering or galloping. When a horse
persistently chooses to lead with one particular fore leg, at
these paces, we may neutralise this predilection, supposing
that the preference does not arise from unsoundness or
malformation, by practice at circling (with the long reins
and when mounted) to the opposite side. For instance, to
the right, if the near fore be the favoured one, in which
case we should also work him at turning on his forehand
to the left and at passaging to the right, until he is equally
handy with both fore legs. If the animal's habit be to lead
with the off fore, similar, though reversed, movements
should be executed. Making him canter "falsely" (see
page 292) with the less used fore leg will be of service in
"suppling him."

Putting too much weight on the forehand when
mounted. — We may correct this fault by practice at
reining back with the long reins, and when mounted, by
teaching the horse the turn on the hind-quarters (see
page 293), and by collecting him (see page 238). With
horses which put too much weight on the forehand when

344 FAULTS OF MOUTH.

landing over a jump, we may use a bearing rein (see
page 185), when practising them with the long reins at
leaping (see page 259).

Plunging forward when starting in harness. — Having
put on an open snaffle bridle, give the horse a good lesson
with the long reins (see page 183), practising him at circling,
turning, reining back, starting and pulling up. Then put
him into a light two-wheeled trap and circle him on foot
(see Fig. 116) in the same manner as we did before we had
put him between the shafts. We may then gradually work
him in the way described on pages 275 and 276, until we can
start, drive, and pull him up without his showing any
impatience.

Pulling away from and hanging against the pole
when in double harness. — Having seen that the gear
is all right, we may proceed to drive him on foot, and
form his mouth and manners in the manner already
described in this chapter.

345

CHAPTER XII.

FAULTS OF TEMPER.

Difficult to catch — Difficult to handle, bridle, saddle, mount, or dis-
mount from — Difficult to ball or drench — Unsteady with the whip,
under fire, when drawing swords, when touched with the heel, etc .
— Difficult to lead into a doorway, horse-box, etc. — Difficult to
shoe — Buckjumping — Biting and savaging — Kicking and striking
out in front — Pawing at night — Pawing back the litter — Rubbing
the tail — Sleeping standing — Difficult to harness and unharness —
Getting the tail over the rein and kicking when in harness — Lying
down in harness — Hanging back in the stall.

Under this heading, I shall put all the faults due to
nervousness, impatience of control and aggressiveness,
which I have not noticed in the preceding chapter.

Difiacult to catch. — If a horse is difficult to catch
when loose in the open, or in an enclosure, such as a loose
box or yard, we may break him of the annoying trick by
teaching him to come up and follow us on our giving him
a signal to do so (see page 367). We should then reward
him with some dainty, such as a piece of carrot, for his
compliance — after having punished him for his dis-
obedience.

Difficult to handle, bridle, saddle, mount, or dis-

346 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

mount from. — We may take the '' rough edge " off a
horse's nervousness or impatience of control, by driving
him with the long reins, or by giving him a good turn at
the head and tail method, the effect of which may be com-
pleted by the use of the rope-twitch. By teaching obe-
dience to the word "steady! " (see page 129) we can, with
a degree of certainty unattainable by any other means,
make the horse stand like a statue, by mere word of com-
mand. The rope-twitch can be so readily and easily
applied, is so effective in its results, and is so free from evil
consequences, that its application is of the utmost value
in rendering horses docile. Having made the refractory
horse acquainted with the meaning of the word " steady ! "
we may take hold of the loose end of the rope-twitch and
direct an assistant to proceed to handle, saddle, mount, or
otherwise try the temper of the animal, whom we should
punish by jerking the rope and uttering the word "steady! "
the moment he makes the slightest refractory movement.
Each time the punishment is inflicted, the objected-to
action should be recommenced, and the punishment re-
peated until obedience is obtained, when a caress and
encouraging words should testify our approval. We should
continue this instruction until we have made the animal
thoroughly obedient. The noose-twitch (see page 136),
from the ease with which it can be applied and taken
off, is particularly useful for making horses steady for
mounting and dismounting. If time is pressing, or if
we are unable to accomplish our purpose by less severe
methods, we may make the horse lie down and keep him
on the ground (see page 165) until he "gives in."

UNSTEADINESS. 347

Difficult to ball or drench. — Aided by the rope-twitch
(see preceding paragraph), I have never had any trouble
in making refractory horses take a ball or drench.
Mr. D. C. Pallin, A.V.D., informs me that he has invariably
succeeded with horses which were deemed impossible to
drench, in making them drink, by mounting them, sitting
w^ell forward, drawing the head round to the off-side by
the headstall with the left hand, and then giving them the
draught out of a bottle with the right hand. This gentle-
man also advises to have a man on the back of a horse
which is difficult to ball, while the operator is giving the
bolus. I need hardly say that the aim of these expedients
is to make the horse take the drench or ball at the time,
and not to render him permanently docile in either of these
respects.

Unsteady with the whip, under fire, when drawing
swords, when touched with the heel, etc. — These
manifestations of nervousness or of impatience of control
may be corrected, either wholly or for the most part, by
putting the horse through a course of long-rein work on
foot, while subjecting him to the effects of the causes of his
impatience. Or we may use the head and tail method,
or teach the animal the word " steady ! " with the rope
twitch. For making a horse steady while the man on his back
draws a sword, especially from a steel scabbard, we should,
after having saddled the horse, attach the sword to the saddle
by the waist belt, so as to leave it and the sabretache (if
used) hanging down the near side of the horse. Then, while
using either the rope-twitch or the head and tail method,

348 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

we may, with the aid of a long stick, move the sword
from side to side, and withdraw it more or less out of the
scabbard, so as to make it rattle. For accustoming a
horse to stand the pressure of the heel, we may, in the
same manner, teach him first of all to bear being gently
poked in the side with a long stick, the end of which has
been covered by some soft substance. When we have got
the unmounted animal quiet in this respect, we may put an
assistant on his back, and complete his education with
the rope-twitch, while the rider flourishes, or cracks,
a whip about him, draws a sword, touches him with the
heel, etc.

The use of the rope-twitch will be found a ready means
for making a horse steady while his rider cracks a hunting
whip. I need hardly say that an animal which has to carrj^
a huntsman or whip, must bear this being done without
"playing up."

Difficult to lead into a doorway, horse-box, etc. — For
overcoming this fault we may employ the means detailed
on page 211. Sometimes the horse, as a defence in this
case, places himself more or less at right angles to the
direction in which we want him to go. We may then
get him straight by making him turn on the forehand (see
page 208) to the required extent. He will, as a rule, make
no further resistance, as soon as he is straight. If he
still resists, we may reduce him to order by circling,
turning, and reining him back with the long reins (see
page 200). In very exceptional cases it might be necessary
to take the " nonsense " out of him by making him lie

DIFFICULT TO SHOE. 349

down and keeping him on the ground with his head pulled
round (see page 165).

Difficult to shoe. — Horses are frequently made " difficult
to shoe," especially behind, by the practice some smiths
employ of pulling the leg away from the body, so as to
upset the animal's equilibrium. If the horse which is thus
treated, gets punished for making a natural attempt to
retain his balance, we need not be surprised, after a few
such repetitions, at finding him difficult, if not dangerous, to
shoe. The principles upon which we should act in correcting
this fault are : (i) to avoid, as much as possible, altering
the animal's equilibrium, while lifting a leg off the ground
and holding it up ; (2) to make the horse understand that
if he disobeys us we shall punish him, and that if he
complies with our wishes we shall reward him ; and (3), in
the event of his displaying determined resistance, to show
him that he must obey.

In these cases it is, as a rule, best to put on the rope-
twitch in the first instance. To avoid throwing a horse off
his balance when lifting up a hind leg, it is well to help the
horse to place more weight on the other side, by turning
his head towards it, and by gently shoving him over to it.
Thus, if we wish to have the off hind lifted up, we may
get the animal's head bent round to the near side by an
assistant holding the twitch or rein in his left hand, and
pressing his fist against the base of the neck on the near
side (see Fig. 16) ; while the man who lifts the off hind,
or another assistant, presses against that limb. If the foot
which is to be operated upon be a fore one, we may lift

350 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

it up (see page 117) and suspend it from the surcingle (see
page 125). If it be a hind one, it is well, first of all, to tie
up the fore leg of that side, and then put on the hind pastern
a hobble (see Fig. 62), or one improvised out of a stirrup-
iron and leather (see Fig. 70). We may then get command
•over the leg by pulling it back (see Fig. 64) ; and finally
raise it by a doubled cord attached to the tail or dock (see
Figs. 65, 66^ and 6^^^ If we have got a strait-jacket
and find it inconvenient to attach a rope or cord to the
animal's tail, we may deprive him of his power to kick
us, if we put on him the strait-jacket, which should
be loose enough for its presence not to interfere with the
horse preserving his balance ; and may then lift up the hind
leg by a rope or strap attached to the pastern, preferably
by means of a hobble. We should gentle the limb, whether
it be a fore or hind one, and should gradually accustom
the foot to the hammer ; correcting the horse with the
twitch, if obliged to do so. For further directions on this
subject, see page 146.

Buckjumping. — I have seen very many cases of this
vice among Australasian, South African, and South
American horses ; but none among European horses,
Arabs, Barbs, or East Indian horses. The means v/hich
I have found to be most efficacious in eradicating or in
preventing it are : giving the horse a good '' mouth ;" proving
to him that, despite all his efforts to do so, he will be
unable to buck while a man is on his neck ; and producing
on his mind a strong impression of our power over him. It is
evident that the worst possible lesson which a horse that is

B UCKJ UMPING. 35 1

inclined to buck can receive, is that of throwing his rider ;
and that the next worst one is that of bucking. We
may begin by giving the animal one or more sharp
lessons with the long reins (see page 183), circling,
turning, and reining him back, until he is thoroughly
" supple." We may make him lie down and keep him
on the ground with his head pulled round (see page 165),
until he apparently gives in. Having allowed him to
get up, we may tie his head to his tail, saddle him with
one girth over the cord (see page 221), make him revolve
round, and gentle him on the ribs with the end of a
stick (see page 348), until he stands its touch. The horse
may now be mounted in the manner described on
page 218. Or we may omit the head and tail work, and
have the horse saddled and mounted with the long reins on
him, as soon as he gets on to his feet after undergoing his
discipline on the ground. While holding the long reins
with a firm grip, we should pull the horse round from side
to side and rein him back, the moment the assistant gets
into the saddle, so that the animal may not be able to
buck ; and having obtained control over him, we should
circle and turn him at the walk, trot and canter, until he
goes quietly. The long reins may now be taken off, and
the ordinary reins given to the rider, who, previous to this,
should not touch the reins, although he may use the
breast-plate, neck strap of the standing martingale, or
other convenient object, as a help, in case of accident, for
retaining his balance. Or we may omit the discipline on
the ground, and trust to the effect of the long reins and
head and tail method. In mild cases, mouthing with the

152

FAULTS OF TEMPER.

long reins, and using them in the manner just described,
for controlling the horse when the assistant mounts him,
will be sufficient for an expert.

Biting and savaging. — Apply the wooden gag (see
page 1 60), and if necessary, tie up one fore leg, or put on
the strait-jacket. Then handle the horse, and give him
every opportunity to bite, so as to show him that he cannot
effect his purpose, and that, when he vainly attempts to
do so, he will hurt his mouth by the pressure of the gag on
his gums. On this account, its action is most salutary, and
differs entirely from a muzzle, which simply protects the
object of the animal's resentment, without either checking
the practice of the habit, or punishing him for indulging in
it. I need hardly say that, with the gag on, the horse is
unable to bring his teeth together. The fore leg may be
let down, or the strait-jacket taken off, as soon as the horse
is quiet to handle with the gag alone. This appliance may
be kept in the horse's mouth for an hour or longer, during
which time he should be handled with gentleness and
freedom ; particular care being taken not to irritate the
animal, whose confidence and affection we should now
endeavour to win. The worst biter ought to be rendered
safe to handle, when the gag is out of his mouth, by giving
him a week's course of three of these lessons daily, with
a subsequent lesson, now and then, if necessary. For
safety sake, the breaker should teach the horse the meaning
of the word " steady ! " (see page 129) with the rope-twitch.
Though many bad, treacherous biters have passed through
my hands, I have never met one which would attempt to

SAVAGING. 353

bite, immediately after the gag had been taken out of his
mouth, if he had been handled with it on for a quarter of
an hour, or even less. It might be advisable, with very
vicious horses, to make them lie down, to gentle them on
the ground, and, if necessary, to keep them with their
heads turned round (see page 165), until they had "given
in." It is also well to teach them the word "steady!"'
with the rope-twitchc

If the horse under treatment is inclined to '' savaee,"
that is, to rush at and worry the object of his dislike,
we may render him docile by putting him through the
discipline described in the preceding paragraph, and by
keeping the wooden gag (see page 160) in his mouth during
his lessons with the long reins, and also when riding or
driving him with an ordinary snaffle. Savaging in com-
pany, as at polo or with troops, can generally be cured in
a short time by this treatment. In bad cases, we may
employ the wooden gag instead of the snaffle for con-
trolling the horse with the reins. I need hardly say that
we can have no confidence in riding or driving a horse
which has been inclined to savage, until we have made him
obedient to the aids.

An expert breaker, when driving a vicious horse on foot
with the long reins, can, if the animal rushes at him, always
turn him round by pulling the outward rein. If he backs
and kicks, he should punish him by pulling him sharply
round, alternately, with each rein.

I may remark that, as the horse instinctively uses the
action of biting to remove or drive away irritating objects,
he will sometimes bite without any vicious intention, and

2 A

354 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

will often, in such a case, evince his concern, if not regret,
at finding that he has inadvertently hurt a human friend.

Kicking and striking out in front. — We may reduce
the kicker to obedience by making him lie down (see
page i6i), by keeping him on the ground with his head
pulled round (see page 165), or by the head and tail plan
(see page 169) until he '' gives in " ; and then by thoroughly
mouthing him on foot (especially at the rein-back) w^ith the
lone reins, so as to make him more attentive to the indica-
tions of the rein than to the practice of his favourite vice.
Teaching the horse the meaning of the word ** steady ! "
(see page 129) with the rope-twitch will also be of use. I
have found that long-rein work on foot is specially applicable
to kickers. It not alone teaches them to obey the aids,
but also accustoms them to be touched about their hind-
quarters. When the breaker is using the long reins, he
can always save himself from being kicked by pulling the
horse's head round with the inward rein.

It is advisable to teach a kicker to turn his hind-
quarters away from us (see page 179) when we approach
him, supposing of course that he is free to do so, as he
would be in a loose box for instance.

One of the most objectionable vices a hunter can have
is kicking at other horses or at hounds. The presence of
the orthodox danger signal, in the form of a red bow on the
animal's tail, is no excuse for bringing into a large field of
horses a brute which will resent being touched behind ; for
such accidental contact is often unavoidable when going
through gates, or when waiting in a lane or road outside a

KICKING. 355

covert which is being drawn. Making the horse attentive
to the aids, by putting him through a strict and long course
of instruction, both on foot and when mounted (see Chap-
ters v., VI., and IX.), is certainly the most effective means
of getting such a kicker under control ; for when he has
acquired the habit of not alone obeying the signals given by
hand and leg, but also of keeping his attention fixed on
looking out for them, as long as the rider is on his back, he
will have neither the inclination nor the time to commit
assaults on his neighbours, even under a fair amount of
provocation. To make doubly sure, the rider of the well
broken-in horse which was formerly a kicker in the hunting
field, should, in case of doubt, collect him with hands and
legs, and should lighten his forehand by raising the animal's
head. Here, a touch of the curb and a sharp word of
reproof will aid in maintaining discipline. I may point out
that, as a rule, immediately before a horse kicks with both
hind legs, he transfers a considerable portion of the weight
borne by them to his fore legs, and to do this the more
easily, he lowers his head. As far as I have seen, horses
which kick in the hunting field generally lash out with
only one hind leg, and often do so without the slightest
provocation or warning either to their rider or to the object
of their malice. Also, my experience is that kickers out
hunting strike their victims more frequently without being
touched, than by being stimulated to do so by contact. If
to this indictment we add the fact that when horses which
are strangers to each other, get turned out into a field
together, they are very apt to kick each other, even though
they be usually good tempered ; we cannot help coming

2 A 2

356 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

to the conclusion that kicking in the hunting field proceeds
far more often from deliberate vice than from mere tick-
lishness. When a rider gets kicked, he should console
himself by the thought that his broken or contused leg
was the result of faulty aim on the part of the aggressor.
To supplement the effect of hand and leg, it is well to teach
the kicker the meaning of the word " steady ! " (see page
129). With hand, leg and voice we shall have three effec-
tive means of control always at our disposal to remind the
kicker of his duty ; supposing that we commit the sin of
taking him into the hunting field.

Besides the discipline described in this chapter, we may,
with the kicker in harness, use the strait-jacket loosely
put on over the harness to prevent him from doing any
mischief, while giving him sufficient freedom to walk or
trot. I have found that making him lie down by means of
the strait-jacket a few times before putting him between
the shafts has always a very good effect. If he persists in
kicking, there is nothing that will render him so quiet as
keeping him on the ground with his head pulled round (see
page 165) until he gives in. Mr. Mitchell, A.V.D., who is
an excellent breaker, tells me that he has obtained
admirable results with bad kickers, by fixing, parallel to
their sides, two stout poles, each about 7 feet long, secured
in front of the chest and behind the quarters, so that the
animal xannot get free from them, and then letting him
kick unm he is tired. This method, and the employment
of a "jingle " (see page 275), by giving the horse nothing
to kick at, will have a good effect in teaching him the
uselessness of doing so. In most cases, I would use the

KICKING. 357

rope-twitch, to make him connect in his mind the idea of
punishment with the practice of his vice.

An excellent method of curing or preventing the practice
of kicking in harness is to attach, at each side, a rope or
rein to the crupper, say, four or five inches from the dock,
pass it through a pulley or ring on the shaft, at about
right angles with the point of attachment to the crupper ;
carry it forward, and fix it to the ring of the snaffle, at such
a length that if the horse tries to kick he will give his
lov/er jaw a violent blow. While acting as a kicking strap,
it will be the means of making the horse associate in his
mind the idea of pain with kicking in harness. We might
connect it to a gag bearing rein, which, besides punishing
the corners of the animal's mouth, would pull his head up,
and thus tend to check the elevation of his hindquarters
every time he attempted to kick.

The old expedient of tying a kicker's tail to the splinter
bar is often successful in breaking the animal of his vice.
In other cases, it serves only to aggravate the objectionable
habit. For this object, the tail may be secured by a double
sheet bend (see Fig. 65).

I believe it is impossible, even widi the most careful
instruction, to render safe in harness some bad-tempered,
treacherous horses which have had a successful trial or two
at kicking a trap when between the shafts. The memory
of such an experience appears to be particularly lasting in
the equine mind.

For striking out in front, we may tie up one fore leg
(seepage 124), put the strait-jacket on (see page 143), apply
the rope-twitch (see page 132), or tie the horse's head to his

358

FAULTS OF TEMPER.

tail (see page 169), and gentle both fore legs. The use of
the rope-twitch is generally the quickest method.

The vice of kicking in the stable at persons or horses
may be cured or kept in check by a few sharp lessons in
making a horse come up to us with the whip (see page 367) ;
for by such instruction we can teach the horse to turn his
quarters away from us, the moment we raise our hand in

Fig. 123. — Pulling kicker's head round.

a threatening manner. We may also teach him to obey
the word " steady ! " (see page 129) with the rope-twitch, and
while that is on his head, we may bring horses close up
behind him, and correct him sharply by jerking the rope.
We should on no account forget to use the word ''steady ! "
every time we jerk the rope. As a precaution, we may
make the horse " stand over " in his stall, by pulling his

KICKING. 359

head round with a cord attached to the side of the head-
stall, passed through a ring on the top of the roller, and
carried outside of the stall (see Fig. 123). Whenever we
pull this cord in order to make the horse turn his quarters
away from us, we should employ some appropriate verbal
order, such as " over ! "

Although I have had but little experience of breaking
horses of the vice of kicking at night in the stable, I might
suggest the use of the strait-jacket (see page 143), which
should be loose enough to allow the animal to lie down
and get up. I have seen it recommended, in such cases,
to hang some soft object, such as a large bag filled
with hay, behind the animal, so that, when he kicked, it
would give to the stroke, and would then swing back and
hit him, without hurting him ; the effect being that the
horse would get tired of kicking the inoffensive object,
and would accordingly drop the habit. If this method
be adopted, I would suggest that the animal should, before
being left for the night, be accustomed to the stuffed bag,
or whatever else is used, touching him. Tying up one
fore leg, or applying the rope-twitch, will keep him quiet
while this is being done. I take for granted that he has
been previously made thoroughly docile, with the excep-
tion of this particular vice. The strait-jacket, loosely put
on, would, I have no doubt, prevent the kicking. If it was
properly applied, and gradually let out, say, a hole or two
each night, it would, in all probability, break the horse of this
trick. Connecting together by a rope the near fore with
the near hind, and the off fore with the off hind, or connect-
ing together both hind legs, passing a rope from the coupling

360

FAULTS OF TEMPER.

rope, between the fore legs, round the base of the neck and
securing it, would effectively prevent kicking ; but such gear
would not be safe to be left on at night ; as the horse might
get " cast" in his stall by his legs becoming entangled in it.
The habit of abruptly kicking from time to time with one
hind leg, is a symptom of the presence of a particular kind
of mange insect {syvibiotcs) which infests the legs.

Fig. 124. — Tail tied with tapes to prevent horse rubbing it.

Pawing at night. — We may prevent the practice of this
vice by employing a spancel (coupling strap) to connect the
animal's fore legs together, so as to give him freedom to lie
down, but not to paw. The use of this strap would, no
doubt, in time cure the vice.

KEEPING STANDING. 361

Pawing back the litter. — I note that a correspondent,
replying to a query in the Field, as to some means of
stopping this practice, which causes the horse to sleep more
or less on the bare floor, states that connecting the fore
legs in the manner I have described in the preceding
paragraph, will accomplish the object in view, and, after
a few repetitions, will wean the animal from the habit.

Rubbing the tail. — Although this vice comes more
within the province of the veterinary surgeon than within
that of the breaker ; it may not be out of place if
I mention that a bandage wrapped round the dock, or
Mr. D. C. Pallin's plan of tying round the animal's tail two
separate pieces of tape (see Fig. 124), will almost always
make him stop the practice of this habit. If the rubbing
be due to disease, appropriate remedies should be em-,
ployed.

Sleeping standing. — There are many horses that will
never, voluntarily, lie down — a habit which seriously
detracts from their capacity for work. Such animals might
be taught to lie down (see page 161), and made to do so
in their stall. Having no experience in this matter, I offer
this advice merely as a possibly useful suggestion. In all
cases, a good, deep bed of straw will be a strong induce-
ment for a horse to lie down.

Difficult to harness and unharness. — We may circle
the horse on foot, with the long reins (see page 183), and
rein him back while he is in the shafts, so as to accustom

362 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

him to them. We may then tie up one fore leg, apply
the rope-twitch, and have the horse harnessed by drawing
up the cart, while he is kept standing still. After
repeating this once or twice, the leg may be let down,
and the harnessing performed as before. After the horse
has become quite steady, he may be backed into the
shafts. Or we may put the strait-jacket on over the
harness, make the horse lie down two or three times with
it, and having got him on to his feet again, draw the
traces of the strait-jacket so tight, that, if he attempts to
move, he will fall down. While keeping him standing
with the strait-jacket on, we may try to bring the shafts
over his back, letting him fall if he begins to struggle.
In the great majority of cases, the horse will quickly
learn to regard the fact of falling down as an irresistible
punishment for his unsteadiness ; and will accordingly
give in, and stand quietly. After he does so, we may
gradually slacken out the traces of the strait-jacket, until
we can remove this apparatus altogether. For safety
sake, in single harness, we should use a kicking-strap,
or a "jingle," if we can get one. If the animal be very
determined in his resistance, we may take the obstinacy
out of him by making him lie down, and keeping his
head turned round (see page 165).

If the animal is difficult to juiharness, we may use the
rope-twitch, which will be sufficient in almost all cases. To
prevent the horse springing forward, we may make him lie
down a ^q\y times by means of the strait-jacket, and we
may put it on him before taking him out of the shafts ; or
we may take the " nonsense " out of him by making him

GETTING TAIL OVER REIN. 363

lie down (see page 161), or by keeping him on the ground
with his head pulled round (see page 165).

Getting the tail over the rein and kicking when in
harness. — I regret to say that I know no means of per-
manently breaking a horse of the habit of whisking his
tail over the rein at times when it is within reach. We
may, however, by driving the animal on foot, and accustom-
ing him to bear the rein under the tail, or by using the
rope-twitch (see page 132), teach him not to kick when
he finds the rein in that position. I presume that the
horse might be taught, by the rope-twitch, not to whisk his
tail over the rein on feeling it touch his hind-quarters ;
although, not having practically tested this expedient, I
cannot speak positively as to its merits. I have rendered
several animals which were previously addicted to the habit
in question, quiet when the rein got under their tails, or
touched their quarters, by the means described ; or
by gentling those parts when the animal was tied
head and tail (see page 169). I have met some cases
in which the kicking was caused by pain, due to pressure
on melanotic tumours that were on the under surface of
the dock.

Lying down in harness. — We should make the animal
obey the indications of the reins, by driving him on foot
with the long reins ; at first by himself, and finally in a
trap. If he lies down, a sharp slap on his muzzle will
generally make him jump up. The most effective means
for curing this vice is making the horse lie down and hold-

364 FAULTS OF TEMPER.

ing him on the ground with his head pulled round (see
page 165) until he gives in.

Hanging back in the stall. — To prevent, if not to cure,
the vice of hanging back against the chain or rope which
connects the horse's head-stall to the manger, we may sub-
stitute for the head-stall a rope halter (see Fig. 19), which
will hurt the horse (see page 212) if he pulls against it, but
will relieve his jaws of painful pressure the moment he
comes forward ; or we may attach the horse to the
manger by the crupper leading rein (see page 212). I
need hardly say that in any case the rope should not
be so short as to prevent him from lying down in comfort.
I have been told that a good way to cure this trick is to
shorten the chain by tying together, with a piece of thin
twine, two of its links which are some distance apart, so
that when the animal pulls on the chain he will break
the twine, and will then cease to pull, because he will
then believe that he has broken the chain. For a horse
with this habit, a broad band may be placed across the
entrance to the stall, so as to allow him to rest against
it if he likes.

CHAPTER XIII.

CIRCUS TRICKS.

General remarks — " Begging " — Bowing and shaking the head-
Circling steadily at liberty — Teaching a horse to follow —
Handkerchief work — Jumping over another horse, etc. — Kicking
— Kissing — Kneehng down — Laughing — Liberty work — Limping
— Lying down — Obeying without reins — Polka, dancing the —
Pushing a man out of the ring — Rearing and walking on the hind
legs— See-sawing on a plank, etc. — Shaking hands — Waltzing.

General remarks. — Although circus tricks have little or
no connection with horsemanship ; many of them are in-
teresting from the fact of their showing how horses can be
trained on the principle of association of ideas, which is
employed by all successful breakers, however much they
may differ from each other as to details.

In teaching these tricks, it is well to accustom the animal
to some invariable and suitable signal, whether manual or
vocal, for each separate feat, and to reward his obedience
by a piece of carrot, lump of sugar, crust of bread, bite of
lucerne, bit of sugar-cane, caress, or other appropriate mark
of approval. Having taught the horse one signal, we may,
for show purposes, gradually substitute for it another signal
which will be less evident to the public. Thus, instead of
making a horse bow (see next page) by pointing our hand,

366 CIRCUS TRICKS.

whip or stick towards his chest, we may obtain the same
result by advancing a foot. The beauty of a performance
Hke that of Mr. Probasco with his " talking horse,"
Mahomet, is that the signals are so skilfully arranged and
given that they cannot be detected by the spectators. I
may mention that a " talking horse " is one which bows to
say " yes," shakes his head to signify " no," and paws the
ground to indicate numbers. In this way he can answer
questions in the affirmative or negative, count, do " sums,"
and, when his master has the aid of an accomplice, perform
"thought-reading" feats. For such work we require a
horse which has a natural aptitude for the business.

Begging. — The horse may be taught to " beg," that is to
stand with one fore leg bent and off the ground, by tapping
the leg with a whip or cane, or by pulling up the foot by
means of a strap or cord, while at the same time repeating
the word " beg." As soon as the horse's foot is off the
ground he should be rewarded with some dainty, the very
sight of which, after a short time, will make him " beg " ;
or he will do so if the whip be pointed towards the part.

Bowing and shaking the head. — These tricks are
taught by lightly pricking the horse on, respectively, the
breast or the crest, so as to make him bite at the offending
object, or try to remove it by shaking his head and neck.
He will thus soon learn to make his bow (to say " yes "),
or to shake his head (to say " no ") at the mere advance
of the hand in the direction of the indicated part. The pin
may be held in the hand or fixed to the end of a stick.

TEACHING HORSE TO FOLLOW. 367

Circling steadily at liberty. — After having taught the
horse to circle with the long reins, we may fix his head in
position by side reins so as to obtain adequate control, and
lead him round the ring with a leading rein attached to a
cavesson. When we want to make him halt, we should jerk
the leading rein so as to make the noseband of the cavesson
strike his nose, and should at the same moment biing the
point of the lunging whip in front of his face. By dimin-
ishing the painful action of the cavesson and by continuing
the threatening use of the whip in front of the animal, we
shall soon be able to make him halt, rein back or turn, by
the whip alone. Having previously taught him to go on
by raising the whip behind him, we may, while lunging him
with the leading rein and cavesson, make him go forward,
vary his pace, or halt, by merely altering the position of
the whip. After a few lessons we may dispense with the
cavesson and leading rein, and work him " at liberty."

Teaching a horse to follow. — Besides the whip method
(see page 116), we may teach the horse to follow us by the
use of the Comanche bridle (see page 141), by making him
turn round towards us, first at one side and then on the
other, always accompanying the pull of the cord with the
words " Come here ! " or some similar expression. Mr. C. G.
Frasier taught me this method.

Handkerchief work. — We may teach a horse to pick
up a handkerchief by, while standing at his side, pricking
him on the ribs with a pin or pinching him so as to make
him turn round and snap, and, consequently, to seize with

368 CIRCUS TRICKS.

his teeth a handkerchief which is held in a convenient
position for him to take it. When he catches hold of the
handkerchief, we should gently remove it and should sub-
stitute some appropriate dainty, such as the usual carrot,
for it. In this way the horse will soon learn to recognise
the fact that he gets a reward for taking hold of the hand-
kerchief, and can then be readily taught to pick it up or to
take it off one of his legs, to which it has been loosely tied.
Horses that are naturally ticklish and inclined to snap are
the quickest to learn this trick in this manner. Instead of
getting the horse to catch hold by irritating him, the same
object may be attained by tying up in the handkerchief a
piece of carrot or other bonne bonche, and inducing the
animal to lift up the handkerchief in his endeavour to get
at the contained delicacy.

When a horse has learned to catch hold of a handker-
chief, he may be taught to fire off a gun, placed on a stand
or on his back, by attaching a handkerchief to its trigger,
and by indicating with the whip or hand the object to be
seized and pulled.

Jumping over another horse, etc. — Let us suppose that
we want to make one horse stand perfectly still and unheld,
while another jumps over him. We might then adopt the
following procedure. Take an enclosed ring, like that of a
circus, and close to its side, and on one of its diameters,
■construct a trench about 3 feet deep and 2 feet 6 inches
wide, with a ramp leading down to it. Within this trench
place a clothes-horse or other convenient stand, with rugs
-over it, and teach the jumper to go round the circle by

KISSING. 369

means of the whip, and jump this obstacle. We may then
substitute for the dummy the real horse, which we can
teach, by means of the rope-twitch (see page 129), to stand
perfectly still. All that now remains is to gradually fill up
the trench while continuing the lessons. We may dis-
pense with or retain the side reins.

Kicking. — A horse can be taught to kick by touching
him on the croup with the whip, and patting him on the
neck when he kicks, which he will soon learn to do, if he be
that way inclined, on being merely " shown " the whip. I
may mention that the tricks by which the unrideable mule
of circuses gets rid of his would-be riders, are, generally,
rearing and kicking in quick succession ; followed, if
necessary, by lying down and rolling. He will do any or all
of these antics in obedience to signals given with the whip.

Kissing. — This is done by accustoming the horse to take
some coveted bit of food out of one's mouth. In teaching
a horse to do that part of the Dick Turpin " act," in which
Black Bess, while lying exhausted on the ground, turns
round and kisses her master before dying, the animal is
made to lift up her head by pricking her with a pin on the
shoulder.

Kneeling down. — See " Lying down."

Laughing. — This meaningless trick is accomplished in
the same way as a horse is taught to shake its head, by
pricking him with a pin ; except that the irritation is

2 B

370 CIRCl/S TRICKS.

applied to the muzzle. The horse thus learns, on the
signal being given, to turn up his upper lip, and show his
teeth.

Liberty work. — In a circus, horses are said to work "at
liberty " when they perform their "turns " loose in the ring
and without a rider. Side reins are generally employed in
order to obtain the desired control. I need hardly say that
the various feats look much more effective if side reins are
not put on. As a rule, the only indications which such
horses obey are those of the whip ; although the ring-master
will often make them appear to carry out his verbal
orders. For ordinary work at liberty we want to make
the horse go round the ring at the walk, trot, canter or
to halt at word of command (see page 367) ; to come up
to us (see page 367) ; to turn round ; to rear (see page 373) ;
to kick (see page 369) ; to kneel down (see page 371 ) ; to lie
down (see page 371) ; to pick up a handkerchief, or to
remove a handkerchief from any leg on which it has been
tied (see page 368) ; to limp on any required leg (see
next paragraph) ; to fire off a gun (see page ^^6^) ; and
other kindred acts, all of which are done in obedience to
the whip, or in memory of the carrot which on previous
occasions had been given as a reward.

Limping. — A horse can be taught to go lame on any
particular leg when at liberty by making him keep it off
the ground by tapping it with a whip, and continuing to
do so when he is in movement. After a time, the animal
will obey the signal of merely pointing the whip in the

LYING DOWN. 371

direction of the limb which the operator wishes the horse
to favour.

Lying down. — Make the horse he down in the manner
described on page 161. When he does so, without offering
any resistance, let down the strapped-up leg, and repeat
the lesson, until perfect obedience is obtained. We may
then take off the throwing gear, and make him lie down
hy drawing his head round to, say, the near side, with the
rein, while standing alongside the off shoulder. The horse
will now easily learn to lie down, on receiving a signal to
do so, as for instance by bringing his head round. It is
well to conduct these lessons on a soft piece of ground with
plenty of litter on it, so as to afford the animal an induce-
ment to lie down. Colonel Salkeld, of the 2nd Bengal
Cavalry, has suggested to me the advisability of giving this
instruction to army horses, when ordered, after parade, at
a time when they are more or less tired.

Having taught the horse to lie down in the foregoing
way, we shall have little difficulty in making him do so by
touching his fore legs with a whip. With this signal we
may teach him to kneel down on either fore leg, or on both
fore legs, and, while in the latter position, to ]3lace his face
on the ground. We may also teach him to sit up on his
haunches like a dog.

In circuses, horses are generally taught to lie down and
to kneel down by means of the whip. To do this we may
first of all teach the animal, as in *' begging" (see page l^^)y
to hold up either fore leg on its being touched with a whip,
then strap up one leg, and make him hold up the other,

2 B 2

372 CIRCUS TRICKS.

and thus come down on his knees. Or we may pull his
fore legs from under him {a la Norton Smith, see page I75)>
one after another, while giving him the signal with the
whip.

Obeying without reins. — Mr. Rockwell, the American
horse-tamer, instructed three horses so well, that he was
able to drive them together in a trap, and make them
moderate their speed, turn, stop, and go on, in perfect
obedience, by signals without reins. ''Professor" Sample
used to drive tandem with a leader that did his work
without either reins or traces ! The following would
be appropriate signals for performing Rockwell's feat : —
*' Clicking " with the tongue, for " ^o on ; *' steady," for
" moderate speed " ; holding up whip, or saying " whoa ! "
for " stop " ; holding whip to the left, for '* turn to the left " ;
holding whip to the right, for " turn to the right."
Sample's tandem leader did his " act " without instruction.

The right-about-turn and left-about-turn might be
indicated by bringing the whip round to the right rear,
or to the left rear, as the case might be. The signals
should be taught the horse by employing them, on all
occasions, when using the equivalent indications of the
rein, which, to be additionally impressive, should be given
sharper than usual.

It is comparatively easy to teach, when mounted, a suit-
able horse to obey without reins a number of indications,
the effect of which is good in proportion to the difficulty
experienced by the observer in seeing their application.
Here, alteration of the position of the rider's weight comes

WALKING ON HIND LEGS. 373

largely into play. The effect of the voice may be restricted
to obtaining the halt. The horse should be light-mouthed,
and of a generous and observant disposition. We may
commence in a riding-school or other suitable enclosure.

Polka, dancing the. — A circus horse at liberty is said to
dance the polka when he changes the leg at every stride
(see page 310) at the canter. This movement, which is
particularly difficult to teach, may be obtained by the use
of the long whip in getting the required changes of leg.

Pushing a man out of the ring. — The familiar circus
trick of a horse putting his forehead against the back of the
clown or ringmaster and pushing him out of the ring, can
be taught the animal by making him, by means of the
whip, follow us (see page 367), while our back is turned
towards him. We should then gradually make him come
up close to us, in which endeavour it is well to use a whip
in each hand, until we get him to rest his head against our
back. We must, of course, regulate the direction in which
to proceed ; for we cannot do more in this case than to
make the horse follow close behind us.

Rearing and walking on the hind legs. — In a circus a
horse is taught to rear by taking the snaffle reins over his
head and jerking them, so as to hurt his mouth, and by
touching him with the whip in front. I may remark in
passing that many animals are unintentionally taught to
rear, by precisely similar treatment, outside of circuses. In
a short time the circus horse will stand up on his hind legs

374 CIRCUS TRICKS.

and walk about in obedience to the mere flourishing of a
whip. When a horse is trained to walk on his hind legs
with a rider (generally, some misguided woman) on his
back, the jerking of the reins, rather than the action of the
whip, will have to be utilised. Such performances are as
much opposed to the principles of true horsemanship, as
they are stupid to look at.

See-sawing on a plank^ etc. — Employ the rope-twitch
(see page 129) and Comanche bridle (see page 141).

Shaking hands. — Teach, as in " begging," q.v., the animal
to advance his foot, by pulling it forward.

Waltzing. — Tie the horse head and tail (see page 169),
and make him go round by flourishing the whip. As the
animal obeys, gradually slacken out the cord, until it can
be removed. For teaching two horses to waltz together,
we may at first tie them together head to tail, and make
them go round with the whip.

INDEX

Additional school movements,

305
Admiration, love of, 21
Affection, 20
Aggressiveness, 31
" Aids," the, 54, 60, 64, ()-], 68, 85
Amblers to trot, teaching, 342
Anger, 17

Angle efface to ground, 77-79, 85
Ape, 12, 13, 16
Appuyer, 303
Arab horses, 1 1
Army horses, 37, 54, 333
Association of ideas, 3, 8, 40, 43, 46,

54
Attention, gaining horse's, 36
Australia, 255
Australian Blacks, 1 1

horses, 36, 350

rough riders, 222

Automatic actions, 2, 6

Back, breaking pony's, 167

Balancing pole of body, 90

Ball, difficult to, 347

Ball's Bridge, 272

Banham, Mr., 116

Banks, Irish, 259

Barroil, M., 95, 305

Bars of the mouth, 45, 67, 87

Baucher, 86, 212, 252, 281, 282

Bearing reins, 10 1, 185

Bearskni, 22

Beaucoup dejanibes, etc, 86

Begging, 366

Behind work, heart, 36

Belvoir, 269

Bit, keeping behind the, 340

Biting, 43, 172, 352

Black Bess, 369

Blindfolding horse, 1 28

Boers, the, 176, 177

Bolting, 339

Boots for jumping, 265

Boring, 199, 323

Bowing, 366

Breaker, danger of standing behind, 10

, requirements in the, 35

Breaking methods, selection of, 60

, variety in, 60

Breaking, ordinary, 54

, objects of, 33

, scope of, 33

" Breaking " when wanted to walk or

trot, 340
Bridle, Buonaparte, 133

, difficult to, 345

, keeping behind the, 83, 84

340

twitch, 138

Bronchos, II
Buckjumper, 49
Buckjumping, 350
Buckland, Frank, 12
Buonaparte bridle, 133
Bushmen, II
'Bus horse, 6

Cabmen, London, 100, 187
Camel, 22

Canter, 203, 241, 289
Cantering falsely, 241, 292

on three legs, 310

with off fore, 246

Cantle of saddle, rein under, 191
Capped knee, 124
Carriage of head and neck, 76
Carrot, 21, 47

376

INDEX.

Castration, 58

Cat, 9, 20

Catch, difficult to, 345

Catching loose horse, 11 1, 179

Cause and effect; 11, 96

Cavalry Drill, 215, 237, 300, 303,

319

Cavalry horse, 17, 217, 317

riding, 85

Cavesson, 45, 142, 261, 367
Chance of doing wrong, not giving, 53
" Chancing " fences, 230
Change of pace, 302

of leg in canter, 244, 291, 310

Charger, 19
Chaser, the, 269
Chifney, Saoi, 282
Children, 13, 16, 46, 72
China pony, 167
Chucking up the head, 328
Circling at liberty, 367

at the passage, 300

horse, 88

Circular enclosure with jumps, 263
Circus, 47, ^i, 90, 281, 310, 311, 371

— tricks, 365

Civilisation, effect of, \-

Cold blood, jumping in, 37, 268

Collecting horse, 81, 238, 286-289

Colonel, 17

Comanche bridle, 141, 212

Come up, making horse, 212

, teaching to, 116, 367

Companionship, horse's love of, 20
Conformation, 70
Consciousness, 3
Control, impatience of, 16
Corn, sieve of, 13
Counterchange of hand, 300
Courage, 26
Cow, 20

kicking, 120

Crib-biting, 19

'Cross country horses, 55

Crosstrees, 189

Cruiser, 56

Crupper leading rein, 211, 214

Curbs, 86, 263, 284

Custance, 282

Cut and laid hedge, 259

Cuvier, 13

Danger of standing behind breaker,

.105
Discipline, 51
Diseases, 58

Dismount from, difficult to, 345
Disunited in canter, 241
Dogs, 5, 9, 13, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25,

26, 59, 89
Donkeys, 14, 22
Doorway, refusal to enter, 1 1
Double sheet bend, 154, 155
Drench, difficult to, 347
Driving on foot, 192, 275

pad, 187

Dublin, 272
Dumb jockeys, loi

Early training, 36

Elastic reins, 103

Elephant, 13, 16

Emulation, 20, 48

Enclosure, breaking, 104.

Ends of body, answering rein with

both, 70
England, 240, 255, 281, 282
Entires, 21, 31, 44, 286
Epaule en dedans, 303
Esa, Mr., 138
Evenijig Standard ^t 175
Experience, 3

Face, angle of, 79

Faintheartedness, 30

Fallon, 208

Falsely, cantering and galloping,

241, 292, 313
Fanchion, 132, 214
Fatigue, 49
Feeling, sense of, 24
Fences, refusing, 266

, running out at, 266

, rushing at, 266

Field, the, 360

"Fight," forcing horse to, 165

Figure of eight, 244, 202

Fillis, 23, 47, 286, 305, 308, 310, 311

Fire, unsteady under, 347

Fly, 43

Follow, teaching to, 116, 141, 367

Foot, breaking on, 178

drawn back, 65

INDEX.

377

Foot, driving on, 192
Fordham, George, 282
Forehand, lightening, 74, 75

, too much weight on, 343

, turning on, 208, 229, 293, 336

Fore leg, extension of, 305

, holding up, 122

, lifting up, 117

, noosing, 117

, tying up, 118, 124, 125

Frasier, Mr., 132, 367
Freedom, love of, 16
"Funk," 267

Gag, wooden, 43, 160, 352
Gal way, 255
Gatacre, General, 155
"Game" horses, 31
Geldings, 22, 44, 286
Gentling horse, 105, 164

hind lees.

152

Germinal, 311

Gleeson, "Professor," 175

Goat, 20, 72

Grazing requirements, 70

Gregariousness, 19, 37

Groom, 13, 59, 60

Ground, keeping horse on, 165, 167

iSi
Guards, leather, 99
Gun, firing off, 368

PIabits, 4, 5, 61
Hack, park, 316, 320
Half hitch, 157

Halt, collecting at the, 81,85, 102,
286

, the, 82, 249, 301

by word, 195

Haltering loose horse, 1 1 1
Halter rope, 109

twitch, 129

Hamilton, 161
Handkerchief v/ork, 367
Handle, difficult to, 345
Hands, shaking, 374
Hanging against pole, 344

on headstall, 363

Harness, breaking to, 274, 320

, difficult to, 361

, falling in, 167

344

Harness, hanging against pole in, 344

horses, 75, 76, 102

, jibbing in, 333

, kicking in, 356

, lying down in, 363

, plunging when starting in,

344

, pulling away from pole in,

work making horse pull, 325
Head and neck, carriage of, 76

and tail method, 89, 134, 169,

220, 225, 341

pulled round on ground, 165

, shaking the, 366

• stall, hanging on the, 363

stall, removing, 204

stall twitch, 136

, throwing up the, 328

Hearing, sense of, 22

Heart behind work, 36

Heavy in front, 74, 83

Hedge, cut and laid, 259

Heel, accustoming horse to, 348

, unsteady when touched with,

347

High school, 87, 247, 280

school horse, 217

Hill, zigzagging up, 15

Hilly countries, 14

Himalayas, 5

Hind legs, gentling, 152

, lifting up, 146

, walking on, 373

when jumping, injury to, 75,

250, 263, 342

Hind-quarters away from us, teach-
ing to turn, 179, 354

sideways, carrying, 343

, turning on, 293

■ ■ under horse, bringing, 74

Hippo lasso, 143

Hobble, 153

, improvised, 159

Holding horse, 106

horse on ground, 167

up fore leg, 122

Horse-breaking, objects of, 33

, ordinary system of, 7

, scope of, 33

, 'bus, 6

378

INDEX.

Horse control, theory of, 33

control, methods ol, 104

-tamers, 54, 57, 60, 205, 214,

225

taming, 34

taming machine, 176

to aids, suitability of, 6

Horses, wild, 5
Humouring horses, 50
Hunters, 37, 217, 267, 325, 354
Hunting, 58, 59, 92, 326, 327, 328,

355
Hurdle-racer, the, 271

Ideas, 3

Imitation, 19, 37, 48

Indian war bridle, 139

Initiative, depriving horse of, 81, 282

Instinct, 4, 61

Intelligence, 9, 25, 32, 39

Intensity of impression, 7, 54

Ireland, 208, 240, 282

Irish outside car, 278

Islington, 255

Jambette, 310

Jealousy, 59

Jennings, Mr. R., 169

Jerking the reins, 45

Jibbing, 17, 18, 30, 37, 46, 57, 84,

330, 336
Jmgle, a, 277
Jumper, show, 271
Jumping, 58, 83, 100, 254

competitions, 255, 272

faults, 265

over another horse, 368

, strain on hind legs in, 75

Kemp, Mr., 329

Key to horse's mouth, 328

Kicking, 22, 75, 153, 172, 354, 362,

369
Kindness, 50
Kirby Gate, 269
Kissing, 369
Kneeling down, 369
Knights of old, 85, 281
Knot which will not run, 132
Knowledge of his own strength, 52, 55

Ladies' horses, 315

Lamp-post, 18

Language, horse understanding our,

39 .
Lassoing horse, 179
Laughing, 369
Laziness, 31
Lead, difficult to, 348

, teaching to, 141, 211

Leading horse, 106, 215, 260

off in canter, 243, 289

rein, crupper, 211, 214

with wrong leg, 343

Leather guards, 99

Le Bon, Dr., 7

Leg, changing, 203, 242, 244, 291

Leg strap, 124

Legs as an aid, 66, 237, 240

Leicestershire, 255, 268, 269

Liberty work, 370

Lie down, making horse, 161,341, 371

Lightening forehand, 74, 75

Light in hand, 82

Limping, 370

Litter, pawing back the, 360

Long reins, 91, 183, 256

Lunging horse, 91

Machine, horse-taming, 176

Magic touch, 36

Magner, 214

Mahomet, the talking horse, 366

Mane of racehorses, plaiting, 12

, scratching, 25

Mange provoking kicking, 359
Mares, 20, 31, 44, 193, 2S6
Martingale, running, 98

, standing, 96, 206

Memory, 3, 6

Mental qualities of the horse, I

Military exigencies, 55

riding, 74, 85

Miller, Mr. E. D., 320

, the, 38

Mind, I

Mitchell, Mr., 356
Monkey, 12, 16, 25
Moore, Mr. J. H., 208, 257
Morgan, Professor, 3, 15
Mount, difficult to, 345
Mountain paths, 14

INDEX.

;79

Mounted breaking. 217

Mounting, Australian method of, 222

horse for fii'st time, 218

Mouth, 54, 60, 64, 83

, hardness of, 81

Mouthing, theory of, 64
Mules, 14, 18, 321

Neck muscles, 77

5 stiffness of, 81

Nerves, i

, overstimulation of, 38

Nervousness, 27-29

— and vice, distinction between,

28
Nervous system, i
Newmarket, 199
"No!" 366
Noose twitch, 136, 180

which will not run, 132

Noosing fore leg, 118
Nose-bands, 98, loi
Nymphomania, 21, 179

Obedience, necessity of, 50, 62, 69,

326
Obstinacy, 30

Off fore, cantering with, 246
Offett, Denton, 175
Orders, making horse understand our,

39

Ourang-outang, 13
Outside car, 278,
Over-reaching, 264

Pacers to trot, teaching, 342

Pad, driving, 187

Pain (see also punishment), 43, 46

PalHn, Mr,, 347

Park hack, 316, 320

Fas d'ecole, 28 7

Passage, the, 295, 301, 315

Passage, le, 288

Pawing at night, 359

• back the litter, 360

Peat, General, 160
Permanency in breaking, 61
Personal influence, 59
Petting horse, 50
Phonograph, 3
Piafifer, 288, 311

Piaffer ballofe, 311
Pigeon, tooth-billed, 4
Pillars, the, loi, 207
Pirouette ordmaire, 295

• renversee, 293

Plaiting mane of racehorses, 12
Plank, see-sawing on, 374
Pluck, 26

, spoiling, 51

Plunging in harness, 344

Pomts (^ the Horse, 75, 94, 200, 241,

246, 271, 272
Pole, hanging against, 344

, pulling away from, 344

Polka, dancing the, 310, 373
Polo ponies, 99, 319, 339, 353
, Mr. E. D. Miller's book on

320
Ponies, hill, 5, 14
Pony mare, 18
Prancing, 340

Pratt, Mr., 115, 132, 166, 214
Probasco, Mr., 366
Pulling, 324
Punishment, 30, 42
Pushing man out of ring, 373

Quick breaking methods, 8, 53

Raabe and Lunel, 143

Racecourses, 30, 58, 92, 313, 339

Race-horses, 12, 42, 44, 74, 199, 312

Railway lines, 90

Ranks, refusing to leave, 37

Rapid methods of breaking, 8, 53

Rarey, 34, 53, 56, 124, 160, 174, I75

Rareyfying, 52, 61, 174

Rassembler, 86

Rawlins, Colonel, 117

Rearing, 75, 84, 335, 34i, 373

Reason, 9, 12

" Refusing," 70, 256, 339

Rein-bearers, 189

Rein, getting tail over, 362

"Reining," loi

back, 92, 200, 232, 315, 341

Reins, 65, 187

, bending to the, 84

, elastic, 103

, jerking the, 45

, long, 91, 183

38o

INDEX.

Reins, obeying without, 372

, pull of the, 88

Removing gear, 204

• headstall, 204

Renz, Circus, 311

Repetition, 7

Revenge, 16, 18

Reward, 42, 47

Rideable and driveable, 53

Rider, timid, 4 1

Riding school, 20, 37, 254, 284

the bridle, 240

Ring, pushing man out of, 373
River, 40

Rockwell, Mr,, 214, 372
Rope-halter, 109

, trailing, 22

twitch, 132, 180

Routine, 244, 254, 283, 284, 292
Rubbing the tail, 361
Running away, 51, 324
grounds, 90

out, 339

out at fences, 70, 339

reins, loi

Rushing at fences, 266

Saddle, buckjumping, 226

, difficult to, 345

Safety in breaking, 52

St. Petersburg, 175

Salkeld, Colonel, 371

Sample, " Professor," 53. 161, 169,

175, 176, 372
Saunders, Mr., 125
Savaging, 22, 31, 3^2
School breaking, 280

horse, 285, 299

• instruction, course of, 304

movements, additional, 305

walk, 287

See-sawing on plank, 374
Self-control, 9

preservation, 16

Serpentine, 311
Sexual instinct, 21, 58
Shaking hands, 374

the head, 366

Sheet bend, double, 155

Shires, the, 255

Shoe, difficult to, 51, 349

Shooting pony, 321

Shoulder-in, 303

Shoulders fining down, 72

Show-jumper, the, 271

Shying, 5, 240, 338

Side reins, loi, 206

Sieve of corn, 13

Sight, sense of, 22

Signals, horse understanding our, 39,

41, 45
Sleeping standing, 361
Smell, sense of, 24
Smith, Mr. Norton, 175
Snaffles, 86, 184, 262, 284, 328
Snake, 22
Soldier, 74
South Africa, 31, 36, 176, 179, 180,

350

Spanish trot, 87, 281, 308

walk, 87, 281, 307

Speed when jumping, regulating, 264

Spiti, 5

Splinter bar, tying tail to, 357

Spoiled horses, 55, 60

Sprain of hind legs, 75, 250

Spurs, 251

Stall, hanging back in, 364

Standard, Evejtini:^, 175

Standing behind breaker, danger in,

105

Stand still, making horse, 117

Star-gazing, 83, 100, 193, 328, 341

" Steady ! " 41, 129, 346

Stick, 66, 180

Stirrup leather for leg strap, 125

Stopping by word, 195

Strait-jacket, 143, 168

Strength, knowledge of his own, 52,

55
Stubbornness, 57, 166
Stumbling, 12

Submission to superior power, 25
Sulking, 30, 31, 36, 57, 165, 172, 182
Surroundings, 38
Sword, unsteady with, 347

Tail, bandaging, 360

• over rein, 363

rope, 162, 166

, rubbing the, 361

, short, 157

INDEX.

381

Tail to splinter-bar, tying, 357

with tape, tying, 360

" Taking off," when jumping, 264

Talking horse, 366

Tattenham Corner, 313

Temper, faults of, 345

Tent pegging, 339

Tiger, 6, 26

Time required for breaking, 252

Touch with horse, keeping in, 84

Treachery, 25, 32, 57

Trooper, 217, 317

Trot, the, 235, 288, 302

Trying yearlings, 312

Turn, difficult to, 339

hind-quarters away from us,

teaching horse to, 179, 354

on forehand, 208, 229, 293

on hind-quarters, 293

on three legs, 309

Turning at liberty, 294

horse, 70, 88, 196, 235, 238,

319
Turpm, Dick, 369
Twitch, bridle, 138

-, halter, 129

-, headstall, 136

-, noose, 136, 180

-, ordinary, 130, 131, 132, 140

, rope, 132, 180

Tying horses up," loi

Understanding our orders, horse,.

39
Unharness, difficult to, 362
Uniformity of conduct, 25
Unsteadiness, 347

Variety in breaking methods, 60

Vice, 27, 56

Voice, effect of, 46, 47, 67

Walk, the, 78, 234

Waltzing, 374

Wardrop, Colonel, 207

Weaving, 19

Weight, distribution of, 69, 72, 202>

236, 343

, riders, 64, 67, 68, 75, 245

Well?, 282

Whip, 66, 116, 198, 251

, unsteady with, 347, 348

Whipping round, 340
Whips, using two, 228
"Whoa!" 195
Woods, Major, 168

Yearlings, 312
"Yes," 366

Zebras, ii, 321
Zigzagging up hill, 15

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.